Natural hazards

This entry lists potential natural disasters. For countries where volcanic activity is common, a volcanism subfield highlights historically active volcanoes.

• Afghanistan

  damaging earthquakes occur in Hindu Kush mountains; flooding; droughts

• Albania

  destructive earthquakes; tsunamis occur along southwestern coast; floods; drought

• Algeria

  mountainous areas subject to severe earthquakes; mudslides and floods in rainy season; droughts

• American Samoa

  cyclones common from December to March

  volcanism: limited volcanic activity on the Ofu and Olosega Islands; neither has erupted since the 19th century

• Andorra

  avalanches

• Angola

  locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau

• Anguilla

  frequent hurricanes and other tropical storms (July to October)

• Antarctica

  katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak; large icebergs may calve from ice shelf

• Antigua and Barbuda

  hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October); periodic droughts

• Arctic Ocean

  ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada; permafrost in islands; virtually ice locked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May

• Argentina

  San Miguel de Tucuman and Mendoza areas in the Andes subject to earthquakes; pamperos are violent windstorms that can strike the pampas and northeast; heavy flooding in some areas

  volcanism: volcanic activity in the Andes Mountains along the Chilean border; Copahue (2,997 m) last erupted in 2000; other historically active volcanoes include Llullaillaco, Maipo, Planchon-Peteroa, San Jose, Tromen, Tupungatito, and Viedma

• Armenia

  occasionally severe earthquakes; droughts

• Aruba

  hurricanes; lies outside the Caribbean hurricane belt and is rarely threatened

• Ashmore and Cartier Islands

  surrounded by shoals and reefs that can pose maritime hazards

• Atlantic Ocean

  icebergs common in Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and the Madeira Islands; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May; persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September; hurricanes (May to December)

• Australia

  cyclones along the coast; severe droughts; forest fires

  volcanism: volcanic activity on Heard and McDonald Islands

• Austria

  landslides; avalanches; earthquakes

• Azerbaijan

  droughts

• Bahamas, The

  hurricanes and other tropical storms cause extensive flood and wind damage

• Bahrain

  periodic droughts; dust storms

• Bangladesh

  droughts; cyclones; much of the country routinely inundated during the summer monsoon season

• Barbados

  infrequent hurricanes; periodic landslides

• Belarus

  large tracts of marshy land

• Belgium

  flooding is a threat along rivers and in areas of reclaimed coastal land, protected from the sea by concrete dikes

• Belize

  frequent, devastating hurricanes (June to November) and coastal flooding (especially in south)

• Benin

  hot, dry, dusty harmattan wind may affect north from December to March

• Bermuda

  hurricanes (June to November)

• Bhutan

  violent storms from the Himalayas are the source of the country's Bhutanese name, which translates as Land of the Thunder Dragon; frequent landslides during the rainy season

• Bolivia

  flooding in the northeast (March to April)

  volcanism: volcanic activity in Andes Mountains on the border with Chile; historically active volcanoes in this region are Irruputuncu (5,163 m), which last erupted in 1995, and the Olca-Paruma volcanic complex (5,762 m to 5,167 m)

• Bosnia and Herzegovina

  destructive earthquakes

• Botswana

  periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility

• Bouvet Island

  occasional volcanism, rock slides; harsh climate, surrounded by pack ice in winter

• Brazil

  recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south

• British Indian Ocean Territory

  none; located outside routes of Indian Ocean cyclones

• British Virgin Islands

  hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October)

• Brunei

  typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are rare

• Bulgaria

  earthquakes; landslides

• Burkina Faso

  recurring droughts

• Burma

  destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts

• Burundi

  flooding; landslides; drought

• Cabo Verde

  prolonged droughts; seasonal harmattan wind produces obscuring dust; volcanically and seismically active

  volcanism: Fogo (2,829 m), which last erupted in 1995, is Cabo Verde's only active volcano

• Cambodia

  monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts

• Cameroon

  volcanic activity with periodic releases of poisonous gases from Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun volcanoes

  volcanism: Mt. Cameroon (4,095 m), which last erupted in 2000, is the most frequently active volcano in West Africa; lakes in Oku volcanic field have released fatal levels of gas on occasion, killing some 1,700 people in 1986

• Canada

  continuous permafrost in north is a serious obstacle to development; cyclonic storms form east of the Rocky Mountains, a result of the mixing of air masses from the Arctic, Pacific, and North American interior, and produce most of the country's rain and snow east of the mountains

  volcanism: the vast majority of volcanoes in Western Canada's Coast Mountains remain dormant

• Cayman Islands

  hurricanes (July to November)

• Central African Republic

  hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common

• Chad

  hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds occur in north; periodic droughts; locust plagues

• Chile

  severe earthquakes; active volcanism; tsunamis

  volcanism: significant volcanic activity due to more than three-dozen active volcanoes along the Andes Mountains; Lascar (5,592 m), which last erupted in 2007, is the most active volcano in the northern Chilean Andes; Llaima (3,125 m) in central Chile, which last erupted in 2009, is another of the country's most active; Chaiten's 2008 eruption forced major evacuations; other notable historically active volcanoes include Cerro Hudson, Calbuco, Copahue, Guallatiri, Llullaillaco, Nevados de Chillan, Puyehue, San Pedro, and Villarrica; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

• China

  frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts; land subsidence

  volcanism: China contains some historically active volcanoes including Changbaishan (also known as Baitoushan, Baegdu, or P'aektu-san), Hainan Dao, and Kunlun although most have been relatively inactive in recent centuries

• Christmas Island

  the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard

• Clipperton Island

  subject to tropical storms and hurricanes from May to October

• Cocos (Keeling) Islands

  cyclone season is October to April

• Colombia

  highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional earthquakes; periodic droughts

  volcanism: Galeras (4,276 m) is one of Colombia's most active volcanoes, having erupted in 2009 and 2010 causing major evacuations; it has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Nevado del Ruiz (5,321 m), 129 km (80 mi) west of Bogota, erupted in 1985 producing lahars (mudflows) that killed 23,000 people; the volcano last erupted in 1991; additionally, after 500 years of dormancy, Nevado del Huila reawakened in 2007 and has experienced frequent eruptions since then; other historically active volcanoes include Cumbal, Dona Juana, Nevado del Tolima, and Purace

• Comoros

  cyclones possible during rainy season (December to April); volcanic activity on Grand Comore

  volcanism: Karthala (2,361 m) on Grand Comore Island last erupted in 2007; a 2005 eruption forced thousands of people to be evacuated and produced a large ash cloud

• Congo, Democratic Republic of the

  periodic droughts in south; Congo River floods (seasonal); active volcanoes in the east along the Great Rift Valley

  volcanism: Nyiragongo (3,470 m), which erupted in 2002 and is experiencing ongoing activity, poses a major threat to the city of Goma, home to a quarter million people; the volcano produces unusually fast-moving lava, known to travel up to 100 km /hr; Nyiragongo has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; its neighbor, Nyamuragira, which erupted in 2010, is Africa's most active volcano; Visoke is the only other historically active volcano

• Congo, Republic of the

  seasonal flooding

• Cook Islands

  tropical cyclones (November to March)

• Coral Sea Islands

  occasional tropical cyclones

• Costa Rica

  occasional earthquakes, hurricanes along Atlantic coast; frequent flooding of lowlands at onset of rainy season and landslides; active volcanoes

  volcanism: Arenal (1,670 m), which erupted in 2010, is the most active volcano in Costa Rica; a 1968 eruption destroyed the town of Tabacon; Irazu (3,432 m), situated just east of San Jose, has the potential to spew ash over the capital city as it did between 1963 and 1965; other historically active volcanoes include Miravalles, Poas, Rincon de la Vieja, and Turrialba

• Cote d'Ivoire

  coast has heavy surf and no natural harbors; during the rainy season torrential flooding is possible

• Croatia

  destructive earthquakes

• Cuba

  the east coast is subject to hurricanes from August to November (in general, the country averages about one hurricane every other year); droughts are common

• Curacao

  Curacao is south of the Caribbean hurricane belt and is rarely threatened

• Cyprus

  moderate earthquake activity; droughts

• Czechia

  flooding

• Denmark

  flooding is a threat in some areas of the country (e.g., parts of Jutland, along the southern coast of the island of Lolland) that are protected from the sea by a system of dikes

• Djibouti

  earthquakes; droughts; occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean bring heavy rains and flash floods

  volcanism: experiences limited volcanic activity; Ardoukoba (298 m) last erupted in 1978; Manda-Inakir, located along the Ethiopian border, is also historically active

• Dominica

  flash floods are a constant threat; destructive hurricanes can be expected during the late summer months

  volcanism: Dominica was the last island to be formed in the Caribbean some 26 million years ago, it lies in the middle of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends from the island of Saba in the north to Grenada in the south; of the 16 volcanoes that make up this arc, five are located on Dominica, more than any other island in the Caribbean: Morne aux Diables (861 m), Morne Diablotins (1,430 m), Morne Trois Pitons (1,387 m), Watt Mountain (1,224 m), which last erupted in 1997, and Morne Plat Pays (940 m); the two best known volcanic features on Dominica, the Valley of Desolation and the Boiling Lake thermal areas, lie on the flanks of Watt Mountain and both are popular tourist destinations

• Dominican Republic

  lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding; periodic droughts

• Ecuador

  frequent earthquakes; landslides; volcanic activity; floods; periodic droughts

  volcanism: volcanic activity concentrated along the Andes Mountains; Sangay (5,230 m), which erupted in 2010, is mainland Ecuador's most active volcano; other historically active volcanoes in the Andes include Antisana, Cayambe, Chacana, Cotopaxi, Guagua Pichincha, Reventador, Sumaco, and Tungurahua; Fernandina (1,476 m), a shield volcano that last erupted in 2009, is the most active of the many Galapagos volcanoes; other historically active Galapagos volcanoes include Wolf, Sierra Negra, Cerro Azul, Pinta, Marchena, and Santiago

• Egypt

  periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes; flash floods; landslides; hot, driving windstorms called khamsin occur in spring; dust storms; sandstorms

• El Salvador

  known as the Land of Volcanoes; frequent and sometimes destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity; extremely susceptible to hurricanes

  volcanism: significant volcanic activity; San Salvador (1,893 m), which last erupted in 1917, has the potential to cause major harm to the country's capital, which lies just below the volcano's slopes; San Miguel (2,130 m), which last erupted in 2002, is one of the most active volcanoes in the country; other historically active volcanoes include Conchaguita, Ilopango, Izalco, and Santa Ana

• Equatorial Guinea

  violent windstorms; flash floods

  volcanism: Santa Isabel (3,007 m), which last erupted in 1923, is the country's only historically active volcano; Santa Isabel, along with two dormant volcanoes, form Bioko Island in the Gulf of Guinea

• Eritrea

  frequent droughts, rare earthquakes and volcanoes; locust swarms

  volcanism: Dubbi (1,625 m), which last erupted in 1861, was the country's only historically active volcano until Nabro (2,218 m) came to life on 12 June 2011

• Estonia

  sometimes flooding occurs in the spring

• Eswatini

  drought

• Ethiopia

  geologically active Great Rift Valley susceptible to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions; frequent droughts

  volcanism: volcanic activity in the Great Rift Valley; Erta Ale (613 m), which has caused frequent lava flows in recent years, is the country's most active volcano; Dabbahu became active in 2005, forcing evacuations; other historically active volcanoes include Alayta, Dalaffilla, Dallol, Dama Ali, Fentale, Kone, Manda Hararo, and Manda-Inakir

• European Union

  flooding along coasts; avalanches in mountainous area; earthquakes in the south; volcanic eruptions in Italy; periodic droughts in Spain; ice floes in the Baltic

• Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)

  strong winds persist throughout the year

• Faroe Islands

  strong winds and heavy rains can occur throughout the year

• Fiji

  cyclonic storms can occur from November to January

• Finland

  severe winters in the north

• France

  metropolitan France: flooding; avalanches; midwinter windstorms; drought; forest fires in south near the Mediterranean;

  overseas departments: hurricanes (cyclones); flooding;

  volcanism: Montagne Pelee (1,394 m) on the island of Martinique in the Caribbean is the most active volcano of the Lesser Antilles arc, it last erupted in 1932; a catastrophic eruption in May 1902 destroyed the city of St. Pierre, killing an estimated 30,000 people; La Soufriere (1,467 m) on the island of Guadeloupe in the Caribbean last erupted from July 1976 to March 1977; these volcanoes are part of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends from Saba in the north to Grenada in the south

• French Polynesia

  occasional cyclonic storms in January

• French Southern and Antarctic Lands

  Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul are inactive volcanoes; Iles Eparses subject to periodic cyclones; Bassas da India is a maritime hazard since it is under water for a period of three hours prior to and following the high tide and surrounded by reefs

  volcanism: Reunion Island - Piton de la Fournaise (2,632 m), which has erupted many times in recent years including 2010, 2015, and 2017, is one of the world's most active volcanoes; although rare, eruptions outside the volcano's caldera could threaten nearby cities

• Gabon

  none

• Gambia, The

  droughts

• Gaza Strip

  droughts

• Georgia

  earthquakes

• Germany

  flooding

• Ghana

  dry, dusty, northeastern harmattan winds from January to March; droughts

• Gibraltar

  occasional droughts; no streams or large bodies of water on the peninsula (all potable water comes from desalination)

• Greece

  severe earthquakes

  volcanism: Santorini (367 m) has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; although there have been very few eruptions in recent centuries, Methana and Nisyros in the Aegean are classified as historically active

• Greenland

  continuous permafrost over northern two-thirds of the island

• Grenada

  lies on edge of hurricane belt; hurricane season lasts from June to November

  volcanism: Mount Saint Catherine (840 m) lies on the island of Grenada; Kick 'em Jenny, an active submarine volcano (seamount) on the Caribbean Sea floor, lies about 8 km north of the island of Grenada; these two volcanoes are at the southern end of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends up to the Netherlands dependency of Saba in the north

• Guam

  frequent squalls during rainy season; relatively rare but potentially destructive typhoons (June to December)

• Guatemala

  numerous volcanoes in mountains, with occasional violent earthquakes; Caribbean coast extremely susceptible to hurricanes and other tropical storms

  volcanism: significant volcanic activity in the Sierra Madre range; Santa Maria (3,772 m) has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Pacaya (2,552 m), which erupted in May 2010 causing an ashfall on Guatemala City and prompting evacuations, is one of the country's most active volcanoes with frequent eruptions since 1965; other historically active volcanoes include Acatenango, Almolonga, Atitlan, Fuego, and Tacana; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

• Guernsey

  very large tidal variation and fast currents can make local waters dangerous

• Guinea

  hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season

• Guinea-Bissau

  hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season; brush fires

• Guyana

  flash flood threat during rainy seasons

• Haiti

  lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding and earthquakes; periodic droughts

• Heard Island and McDonald Islands

  Mawson Peak, an active volcano, is on Heard Island

• Holy See (Vatican City)

  occasional earthquakes

• Honduras

  frequent, but generally mild, earthquakes; extremely susceptible to damaging hurricanes and floods along the Caribbean coast

• Hong Kong

  occasional typhoons

• Iceland

  earthquakes and volcanic activity

  volcanism: Iceland, situated on top of a hotspot, experiences severe volcanic activity; Eyjafjallajokull (1,666 m) erupted in 2010, sending ash high into the atmosphere and seriously disrupting European air traffic; scientists continue to monitor nearby Katla (1,512 m), which has a high probability of eruption in the very near future, potentially disrupting air traffic; Grimsvoetn and Hekla are Iceland's most active volcanoes; other historically active volcanoes include Askja, Bardarbunga, Brennisteinsfjoll, Esjufjoll, Hengill, Krafla, Krisuvik, Kverkfjoll, Oraefajokull, Reykjanes, Torfajokull, and Vestmannaeyjar

• India

  droughts; flash floods, as well as widespread and destructive flooding from monsoonal rains; severe thunderstorms; earthquakes

  volcanism: Barren Island (354 m) in the Andaman Sea has been active in recent years

• Indian Ocean

  occasional icebergs pose navigational hazard in southern reaches

• Indonesia

  occasional floods; severe droughts; tsunamis; earthquakes; volcanoes; forest fires

  volcanism: Indonesia contains the most volcanoes of any country in the world - some 76 are historically active; significant volcanic activity occurs on Java, Sumatra, the Sunda Islands, Halmahera Island, Sulawesi Island, Sangihe Island, and in the Banda Sea; Merapi (2,968 m), Indonesia's most active volcano and in eruption since 2010, has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; on 22 December 2018, a large explosion and flank collapse destroyed most of the 338 m high island of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) and generated a deadly tsunami inundating portions of western Java and southern Sumatra leaving more than 400 dead; other notable historically active volcanoes include Agung, Awu, Karangetang, Krakatau (Krakatoa), Makian, Raung, Sinabung, and Tambora; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

• Iran

  periodic droughts, floods; dust storms, sandstorms; earthquakes

• Iraq

  dust storms; sandstorms; floods

• Ireland

  rare extreme weather events

• Isle of Man

  occasional high winds and rough seas

• Israel

  sandstorms may occur during spring and summer; droughts; periodic earthquakes

• Italy

  regional risks include landslides, mudflows, avalanches, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flooding; land subsidence in Venice

  volcanism: significant volcanic activity; Etna (3,330 m), which is in eruption as of 2010, is Europe's most active volcano; flank eruptions pose a threat to nearby Sicilian villages; Etna, along with the famous Vesuvius, which remains a threat to the millions of nearby residents in the Bay of Naples area, have both been deemed Decade Volcanoes by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to their explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Stromboli, on its namesake island, has also been continuously active with moderate volcanic activity; other historically active volcanoes include Campi Flegrei, Ischia, Larderello, Pantelleria, Vulcano, and Vulsini

• Jamaica

  hurricanes (especially July to November)

• Jan Mayen

  dominated by the volcano Beerenberg

  volcanism: Beerenberg (2,227 m) is Norway's only active volcano; volcanic activity resumed in 1970; the most recent eruption occurred in 1985

• Japan

  many dormant and some active volcanoes; about 1,500 seismic occurrences (mostly tremors but occasional severe earthquakes) every year; tsunamis; typhoons

  volcanism: both Unzen (1,500 m) and Sakura-jima (1,117 m), which lies near the densely populated city of Kagoshima, have been deemed Decade Volcanoes by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to their explosive history and close proximity to human populations; other notable historically active volcanoes include Asama, Honshu Island's most active volcano, Aso, Bandai, Fuji, Iwo-Jima, Kikai, Kirishima, Komaga-take, Oshima, Suwanosejima, Tokachi, Yake-dake, and Usu; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

• Jersey

  very large tidal variation can be hazardous to navigation

• Jordan

  droughts; periodic earthquakes; flash floods

• Kazakhstan

  earthquakes in the south; mudslides around Almaty

• Kenya

  recurring drought; flooding during rainy seasons

  volcanism: limited volcanic activity; the Barrier (1,032 m) last erupted in 1921; South Island is the only other historically active volcano

• Kiribati

  typhoons can occur any time, but usually November to March; occasional tornadoes; low level of some of the islands make them sensitive to changes in sea level

• Korea, North

  late spring droughts often followed by severe flooding; occasional typhoons during the early fall

  volcanism: Changbaishan (2,744 m) (also known as Baitoushan, Baegdu or P'aektu-san), on the Chinese border, is considered historically active

• Korea, South

  occasional typhoons bring high winds and floods; low-level seismic activity common in southwest

  volcanism: Halla (1,950 m) is considered historically active although it has not erupted in many centuries

• Kuwait

  sudden cloudbursts are common from October to April and bring heavy rain, which can damage roads and houses; sandstorms and dust storms occur throughout the year but are most common between March and August

• Kyrgyzstan

  major flooding during snow melt; prone to earthquakes

• Laos

  floods, droughts

• Latvia

  large percentage of agricultural fields can become waterlogged and require drainage

• Lebanon

  earthquakes; dust storms, sandstorms

• Lesotho

  periodic droughts

• Liberia

  dust-laden harmattan winds blow from the Sahara (December to March)

• Libya

  hot, dry, dust-laden ghibli is a southern wind lasting one to four days in spring and fall; dust storms, sandstorms

• Liechtenstein

  avalanches, landslides

• Lithuania

  occasional floods, droughts

• Luxembourg

  occasional flooding

• Macau

  typhoons

• Madagascar

  periodic cyclones; drought; and locust infestation

  volcanism: Madagascar's volcanoes have not erupted in historical times

• Malawi

  flooding; droughts; earthquakes

• Malaysia

  flooding; landslides; forest fires

• Maldives

  tsunamis; low elevation of islands makes them sensitive to sea level rise

• Mali

  hot, dust-laden harmattan haze common during dry seasons; recurring droughts; occasional Niger River flooding

• Malta

  occasional droughts

• Marshall Islands

  infrequent typhoons

• Mauritania

  hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco wind primarily in March and April; periodic droughts

• Mauritius

  cyclones (November to April); almost completely surrounded by reefs that may pose maritime hazards

• Mexico

  tsunamis along the Pacific coast, volcanoes and destructive earthquakes in the center and south, and hurricanes on the Pacific, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean coasts

  volcanism: volcanic activity in the central-southern part of the country; the volcanoes in Baja California are mostly dormant; Colima (3,850 m), which erupted in 2010, is Mexico's most active volcano and is responsible for causing periodic evacuations of nearby villagers; it has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Popocatepetl (5,426 m) poses a threat to Mexico City; other historically active volcanoes include Barcena, Ceboruco, El Chichon, Michoacan-Guanajuato, Pico de Orizaba, San Martin, Socorro, and Tacana; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

• Micronesia, Federated States of

  typhoons (June to December)

• Moldova

  landslides

• Monaco

  none

• Mongolia

  dust storms; grassland and forest fires; drought; "zud," which is harsh winter conditions

• Montenegro

  destructive earthquakes

• Montserrat

  volcanic eruptions; severe hurricanes (June to November)

  volcanism: Soufriere Hills volcano (915 m), has erupted continuously since 1995; a massive eruption in 1997 destroyed most of the capital, Plymouth, and resulted in approximately half of the island becoming uninhabitable; the island of Montserrat is part of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends from Saba in the north to Grenada in the south

• Morocco

  in the north, the mountains are geologically unstable and subject to earthquakes; periodic droughts; windstorms; flash floods; landslides; in the south, a hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco wind can occur during winter and spring; widespread harmattan haze exists 60% of time, often severely restricting visibility

• Mozambique

  severe droughts; devastating cyclones and floods in central and southern provinces

• Namibia

  prolonged periods of drought

• Nauru

  periodic droughts

• Navassa Island

  hurricanes

• Nepal

  severe thunderstorms; flooding; landslides; drought and famine depending on the timing, intensity, and duration of the summer monsoons

• Netherlands

  flooding

  volcanism: Mount Scenery (887 m), located on the island of Saba in the Caribbean, last erupted in 1640;; Round Hill (601 m), a dormant volcano also known as The Quill, is located on the island of St. Eustatius in the Caribbean;; these islands are at the northern end of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends south to Grenada

• New Caledonia

  cyclones, most frequent from November to March

  volcanism: Matthew and Hunter Islands are historically active

• New Zealand

  earthquakes are common, though usually not severe; volcanic activity

  volcanism: significant volcanism on North Island; Ruapehu (2,797 m), which last erupted in 2007, has a history of large eruptions in the past century; Taranaki has the potential to produce dangerous avalanches and lahars; other historically active volcanoes include Okataina, Raoul Island, Tongariro, and White Island; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

• Nicaragua

  destructive earthquakes; volcanoes; landslides; extremely susceptible to hurricanes

  volcanism: significant volcanic activity; Cerro Negro (728 m), which last erupted in 1999, is one of Nicaragua's most active volcanoes; its lava flows and ash have been known to cause significant damage to farmland and buildings; other historically active volcanoes include Concepcion, Cosiguina, Las Pilas, Masaya, Momotombo, San Cristobal, and Telica

• Niger

  recurring droughts

• Nigeria

  periodic droughts; flooding

• Niue

  tropical cyclones

• Norfolk Island

  tropical cyclones (especially May to July)

• North Macedonia

  high seismic risks

• Northern Mariana Islands

  active volcanoes on Pagan and Agrihan; typhoons (especially August to November)

• Norway

  rockslides, avalanches

  volcanism: Beerenberg (2,227 m) on Jan Mayen Island in the Norwegian Sea is the country's only active volcano

• Oman

  summer winds often raise large sandstorms and dust storms in interior; periodic droughts

• Pacific Ocean

  surrounded by a zone of violent volcanic and earthquake activity sometimes referred to as the "Pacific Ring of Fire"; up to 90% of the world's earthquakes and some 75% of the world's volcanoes occur within the Ring of Fire; 80% of tsunamis, caused by volcanic or seismic events, occur within the "Pacific Ring of Fire"; subject to tropical cyclones (typhoons) in southeast and east Asia from May to December (most frequent from July to October); tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico and strike Central America and Mexico from June to October (most common in August and September); cyclical El Nino/La Nina phenomenon occurs in the equatorial Pacific, influencing weather in the Western Hemisphere and the western Pacific; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme north from October to May; persistent fog in the northern Pacific can be a maritime hazard from June to December

• Pakistan

  frequent earthquakes, occasionally severe especially in north and west; flooding along the Indus after heavy rains (July and August)

• Palau

  typhoons (June to December)

• Panama

  occasional severe storms and forest fires in the Darien area

• Papua New Guinea

  active volcanism; the country is subject to frequent and sometimes severe earthquakes; mud slides; tsunamis

  volcanism: severe volcanic activity; Ulawun (2,334 m), one of Papua New Guinea's potentially most dangerous volcanoes, has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Rabaul (688 m) destroyed the city of Rabaul in 1937 and 1994; Lamington erupted in 1951 killing 3,000 people; Manam's 2004 eruption forced the island's abandonment; other historically active volcanoes include Bam, Bagana, Garbuna, Karkar, Langila, Lolobau, Long Island, Pago, St. Andrew Strait, Victory, and Waiowa; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

• Paracel Islands

  typhoons

• Paraguay

  local flooding in southeast (early September to June); poorly drained plains may become boggy (early October to June)

• Peru

  earthquakes, tsunamis, flooding, landslides, mild volcanic activity

  volcanism: volcanic activity in the Andes Mountains; Ubinas (5,672 m), which last erupted in 2009, is the country's most active volcano; other historically active volcanoes include El Misti, Huaynaputina, Sabancaya, and Yucamane; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

• Philippines

  astride typhoon belt, usually affected by 15 and struck by five to six cyclonic storms each year; landslides; active volcanoes; destructive earthquakes; tsunamis

  volcanism: significant volcanic activity; Taal (311 m), which has shown recent unrest and may erupt in the near future, has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Mayon (2,462 m), the country's most active volcano, erupted in 2009 forcing over 33,000 to be evacuated; other historically active volcanoes include Biliran, Babuyan Claro, Bulusan, Camiguin, Camiguin de Babuyanes, Didicas, Iraya, Jolo, Kanlaon, Makaturing, Musuan, Parker, Pinatubo, and Ragang; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

• Pitcairn Islands

  occasional tropical cyclones (especially November to March), but generally only heavy tropical storms; landslides

• Poland

  flooding

• Portugal

  Azores subject to severe earthquakes

  volcanism: limited volcanic activity in the Azores Islands; Fayal or Faial (1,043 m) last erupted in 1958; most volcanoes have not erupted in centuries; historically active volcanoes include Agua de Pau, Furnas, Pico, Picos Volcanic System, San Jorge, Sete Cidades, and Terceira

• Puerto Rico

  periodic droughts; hurricanes

• Qatar

  haze, dust storms, sandstorms common

• Romania

  earthquakes, most severe in south and southwest; geologic structure and climate promote landslides

• Russia

  permafrost over much of Siberia is a major impediment to development; volcanic activity in the Kuril Islands; volcanoes and earthquakes on the Kamchatka Peninsula; spring floods and summer/autumn forest fires throughout Siberia and parts of European Russia

  volcanism: significant volcanic activity on the Kamchatka Peninsula and Kuril Islands; the peninsula alone is home to some 29 historically active volcanoes, with dozens more in the Kuril Islands; Kliuchevskoi (4,835 m), which erupted in 2007 and 2010, is Kamchatka's most active volcano; Avachinsky and Koryaksky volcanoes, which pose a threat to the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, have been deemed Decade Volcanoes by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to their explosive history and close proximity to human populations; other notable historically active volcanoes include Bezymianny, Chikurachki, Ebeko, Gorely, Grozny, Karymsky, Ketoi, Kronotsky, Ksudach, Medvezhia, Mutnovsky, Sarychev Peak, Shiveluch, Tiatia, Tolbachik, and Zheltovsky; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

• Rwanda

  periodic droughts; the volcanic Virunga Mountains are in the northwest along the border with Democratic Republic of the Congo

  volcanism: Visoke (3,711 m), located on the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, is the country's only historically active volcano

• Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha

  active volcanism on Tristan da Cunha

  volcanism: the island volcanoes of Tristan da Cunha (2,060 m) and Nightingale Island (365 m) experience volcanic activity; Tristan da Cunha erupted in 1962 and Nightingale in 2004

• Saint Kitts and Nevis

  hurricanes (July to October)

  volcanism: Mount Liamuiga (1,156 m) on Saint Kitts, and Nevis Peak (985 m) on Nevis, are both volcanoes that are part of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles, which extends from Saba in the north to Grenada in the south

• Saint Lucia

  hurricanes

  volcanism: Mount Gimie (948 m), also known as Qualibou, is a caldera on the west of the island; the iconic twin pyramidal peaks of Gros Piton (771 m) and Petit Piton (743 m) are lava dome remnants associated with the Soufriere volcano; there have been no historical magmatic eruptions, but a minor steam eruption in 1766 spread a thin layer of ash over a wide area; Saint Lucia is part of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends from Saba in the north to Grenada in the south

• Saint Martin

  subject to hurricanes from July to November

• Saint Pierre and Miquelon

  persistent fog throughout the year can be a maritime hazard

• Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

  hurricanes; La Soufriere volcano on the island of Saint Vincent is a constant threat

  volcanism: La Soufriere (1,234 m) on the island of Saint Vincent last erupted in 1979; the island of Saint Vincent is part of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends from Saba in the north to Grenada in the south

• Samoa

  occasional cyclones; active volcanism

  volcanism: Savai'I Island (1,858 m), which last erupted in 1911, is historically active

• San Marino

  occasional earthquakes

• Sao Tome and Principe

  flooding

• Saudi Arabia

  frequent sand and dust storms

  volcanism: despite many volcanic formations, there has been little activity in the past few centuries; volcanoes include Harrat Rahat, Harrat Khaybar, Harrat Lunayyir, and Jabal Yar

• Senegal

  lowlands seasonally flooded; periodic droughts

• Serbia

  destructive earthquakes

• Seychelles

  lies outside the cyclone belt, so severe storms are rare; occasional short droughts

• Sierra Leone

  dry, sand-laden harmattan winds blow from the Sahara (December to February); sandstorms, dust storms

• Singapore

  flash floods

• Sint Maarten

  subject to hurricanes from July to November

• Slovakia

  flooding

• Slovenia

  flooding; earthquakes

• Solomon Islands

  tropical cyclones, but rarely destructive; geologically active region with frequent earthquakes, tremors, and volcanic activity; tsunamis

  volcanism: Tinakula (851 m) has frequent eruption activity, while an eruption of Savo (485 m) could affect the capital Honiara on nearby Guadalcanal

• Somalia

  recurring droughts; frequent dust storms over eastern plains in summer; floods during rainy season

• South Africa

  prolonged droughts

  volcanism: the volcano forming Marion Island in the Prince Edward Islands, which last erupted in 2004, is South Africa's only active volcano

• South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands

  the South Sandwich Islands have prevailing weather conditions that generally make them difficult to approach by ship; they are also subject to active volcanism

• Southern Ocean

  huge icebergs with drafts up to several hundred meters; smaller bergs and iceberg fragments; sea ice (generally 0.5 to 1 m thick) with sometimes dynamic short-term variations and with large annual and interannual variations; deep continental shelf floored by glacial deposits varying widely over short distances; high winds and large waves much of the year; ship icing, especially May-October; most of region is remote from sources of search and rescue

• Spain

  periodic droughts, occasional flooding

  volcanism: volcanic activity in the Canary Islands, located off Africa's northwest coast; Teide (3,715 m) has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; La Palma (2,426 m), which last erupted in 1971, is the most active of the Canary Islands volcanoes; Lanzarote is the only other historically active volcano

• Spratly Islands

  typhoons; numerous reefs and shoals pose a serious maritime hazard

• Sri Lanka

  occasional cyclones and tornadoes

• Sudan

  dust storms and periodic persistent droughts

• Suriname

  flooding

• Svalbard

  ice floes often block the entrance to Bellsund (a transit point for coal export) on the west coast and occasionally make parts of the northeastern coast inaccessible to maritime traffic

• Sweden

  ice floes in the surrounding waters, especially in the Gulf of Bothnia, can interfere with maritime traffic

• Switzerland

  avalanches, landslides; flash floods

• Syria

  dust storms, sandstorms

  volcanism: Syria's two historically active volcanoes, Es Safa and an unnamed volcano near the Turkish border have not erupted in centuries

• Taiwan

  earthquakes; typhoons

  volcanism: Kueishantao Island (401 m), east of Taiwan, is its only historically active volcano, although it has not erupted in centuries

• Tajikistan

  earthquakes; floods

• Tanzania

  flooding on the central plateau during the rainy season; drought

  volcanism: limited volcanic activity; Ol Doinyo Lengai (2,962 m) has emitted lava in recent years; other historically active volcanoes include Kieyo and Meru

• Thailand

  land subsidence in Bangkok area resulting from the depletion of the water table; droughts

• Timor-Leste

  floods and landslides are common; earthquakes; tsunamis; tropical cyclones

• Togo

  hot, dry harmattan wind can reduce visibility in north during winter; periodic droughts

• Tokelau

  lies in Pacific cyclone belt

• Tonga

  cyclones (October to April); earthquakes and volcanic activity on Fonuafo'ou

  volcanism: moderate volcanic activity; Fonualei (180 m) has shown frequent activity in recent years, while Niuafo'ou (260 m), which last erupted in 1985, has forced evacuations; other historically active volcanoes include Late and Tofua

• Trinidad and Tobago

  outside usual path of hurricanes and other tropical storms

• Tunisia

  flooding; earthquakes; droughts

• Turkey

  severe earthquakes, especially in northern Turkey, along an arc extending from the Sea of Marmara to Lake Van; landslides; flooding

  volcanism: limited volcanic activity; its three historically active volcanoes; Ararat, Nemrut Dagi, and Tendurek Dagi have not erupted since the 19th century or earlier

• Turkmenistan

  earthquakes; mudslides; droughts; dust storms; floods

• Turks and Caicos Islands

  frequent hurricanes

• Tuvalu

  severe tropical storms are usually rare, but in 1997 there were three cyclones; low levels of islands make them sensitive to changes in sea level

• Uganda

  droughts; floods; earthquakes; landslides; hailstorms

• Ukraine

  occasional floods; occasional droughts

• United Arab Emirates

  frequent sand and dust storms

• United Kingdom

  winter windstorms; floods

• United States

  tsunamis; volcanoes; earthquake activity around Pacific Basin; hurricanes along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts; tornadoes in the Midwest and Southeast; mud slides in California; forest fires in the west; flooding; permafrost in northern Alaska, a major impediment to development

  volcanism: volcanic activity in the Hawaiian Islands, Western Alaska, the Pacific Northwest, and in the Northern Mariana Islands; both Mauna Loa (4,170 m) in Hawaii and Mount Rainier (4,392 m) in Washington have been deemed Decade Volcanoes by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to their explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Pavlof (2,519 m) is the most active volcano in Alaska's Aleutian Arc and poses a significant threat to air travel since the area constitutes a major flight path between North America and East Asia; St. Helens (2,549 m), famous for the devastating 1980 eruption, remains active today; numerous other historically active volcanoes exist, mostly concentrated in the Aleutian arc and Hawaii; they include: in Alaska: Aniakchak, Augustine, Chiginagak, Fourpeaked, Iliamna, Katmai, Kupreanof, Martin, Novarupta, Redoubt, Spurr, Wrangell, Trident, Ugashik-Peulik, Ukinrek Maars, Veniaminof; in Hawaii: Haleakala, Kilauea, Loihi; in the Northern Mariana Islands: Anatahan; and in the Pacific Northwest: Mount Baker, Mount Hood; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

• United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges

  Baker, Howland, and Jarvis Islands: the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island poses a maritime hazard;

  Kingman Reef: wet or awash most of the time, maximum elevation of less than 2 m makes Kingman Reef a maritime hazard;

  Midway Islands, Johnston, and Palmyra Atolls: NA

• Uruguay

  seasonally high winds (the pampero is a chilly and occasional violent wind that blows north from the Argentine pampas), droughts, floods; because of the absence of mountains, which act as weather barriers, all locations are particularly vulnerable to rapid changes from weather fronts

• Uzbekistan

  earthquakes; floods; landslides or mudslides; avalanches; droughts

• Vanuatu

  tropical cyclones (January to April); volcanic eruption on Aoba (Ambae) island began on 27 November 2005, volcanism also causes minor earthquakes; tsunamis

  volcanism: significant volcanic activity with multiple eruptions in recent years; Yasur (361 m), one of the world's most active volcanoes, has experienced continuous activity in recent centuries; other historically active volcanoes include Aoba, Ambrym, Epi, Gaua, Kuwae, Lopevi, Suretamatai, and Traitor's Head

• Venezuela

  subject to floods, rockslides, mudslides; periodic droughts

• Vietnam

  occasional typhoons (May to January) with extensive flooding, especially in the Mekong River delta

• Virgin Islands

  several hurricanes in recent years; frequent and severe droughts and floods; occasional earthquakes

• Wake Island

  subject to occasional typhoons

• Wallis and Futuna

  cyclones; tsunamis

• West Bank

  droughts

• World

  large areas subject to severe weather (tropical cyclones); natural disasters (earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions)

  volcanism: volcanism is a fundamental driver and consequence of plate tectonics, the physical process reshaping the Earth's lithosphere; the world is home to more than 1,500 potentially active volcanoes, with over 500 of these having erupted in historical times; an estimated 500 million people live near these volcanoes; associated dangers include lava flows, lahars (mudflows), pyroclastic flows, ash clouds, ash fall, ballistic projectiles, gas emissions, landslides, earthquakes, and tsunamis; in the 1990s, the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, created a list of 16 Decade Volcanoes worthy of special study because of their great potential for destruction: Avachinsky-Koryaksky (Russia), Colima (Mexico), Etna (Italy), Galeras (Colombia), Mauna Loa (United States), Merapi (Indonesia), Nyiragongo (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Rainier (United States), Sakurajima (Japan), Santa Maria (Guatemala), Santorini (Greece), Taal (Philippines), Teide (Spain), Ulawun (Papua New Guinea), Unzen (Japan), Vesuvius (Italy); see second note under "Geography - note"

• Yemen

  sandstorms and dust storms in summer

  volcanism: limited volcanic activity; Jebel at Tair (Jabal al-Tair, Jebel Teir, Jabal al-Tayr, Jazirat at-Tair) (244 m), which forms an island in the Red Sea, erupted in 2007 after awakening from dormancy; other historically active volcanoes include Harra of Arhab, Harras of Dhamar, Harra es-Sawad, and Jebel Zubair, although many of these have not erupted in over a century

• Zambia

  periodic drought; tropical storms (November to April)

• Zimbabwe

  recurring droughts; floods and severe storms are rare