JPRS ID: 9048 USSR REPORT ENERGY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: JPRS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00850R000200070041-7
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• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 77
• Document Creation Date: November 1, 2016
• Sequence Number: 41
• Content Type: REPORTS

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,
JPRS L/9048
21 April 1980
_ USSR Re ort
p
ENERGY
(FOUO 4/80)
F~IS FOREIGN ~~OADCAST INFORMATION SERVICE _
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r~vx ur'1:'1C;lAL US~ UNLY
JPRS L/9048
21 April 1980
USSR REPORT
ENERGY
(FOUO 4/80)
CONTENTS -
- ELECTRIC POWER
Aspects of Hydrogen Power, Technology Growth -
(E.E. Shpil'rayn; TEPLOENERGETIKA, Ma,r 80).......... 1
Solar Power Stations Contemplated
(F. V. Sapozhnikov, et al.; TEPLOENERGETIKA, Mar 80) 19
Power Stations With MHD Generators
(A. Ye. Sheyndlin, et al.; TEPLOENERGETII{A, Mar 80). 30
R~liability Testing Procedures for Power Station Equi~xnent
( G.I. Glac~yshev, IZVFSTIYA AKADF~'III NAUK SSSR
ENERGETIKA I TRANSPORT, Jan-Feb 80) 41
Kislogub Tidal Power Station Described
( L. B. Bernshteyu, ENERGE'I'IC'HESKOYE STROITEL'STVO, ~
Jan 80) 51+
,
Methods of Testing Pawer Transformer Reliability -
(V.V. Sokolov , V.A. Lukashchuk, IZVESTIYA AKADEMII
NAUK SSSR IIvERGETIKA I TRANSPORT, Jan-Feb 80) .o.~ ~ 64
~
' a ' [III - USSR - 37 FOUO)
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II,ECf RIC POiIER
ASPECTS OF HYDROGEN POWER, TECHNOLOGY GROWTH -
Moscow TEPLOENERGETIKA in Russian No 3, Mar 80 pp 8-12
~Article by E. E. ~pil'rayn, doctor o~ technical sciences, S.
alyshenko, candidate of physical-mathematical sciences, High
Temperature Institute AN USSR ~
EText~ As natural liquid and gaseous fuels are becoming depleted
and more expensive, their place in the bal~.nce of primary sources of
energy will be taken by coal and nuclear fu~el, and in the balance of
raw material sources for indastry by hydrogen and artificial liquid
or gaseous hydrocarbons obtained from wate~ and coal or natural carbon-
~_.es by spending primary energy. Along with that hydrogen, and other -
artificial liquid and gaseous fuels obtained on its basis, will make
it possible to transmit energy from nuclear sources and coal to numer-
ous various types of users, :ncluding those who are opexating on
natural liquid and gaseous tuels and are not adapted to the direct use
of coal and nuclear fuel. A majority of procesaes analyzed r,nday and -
- systema for obtaining artificial liquid and gaseous fuels using
nuclear power and by reprocessing cnal include units for obtaining
hydrogen or hydrogen-containing ~ases in combination with a source of
primary enesgy which determined the name of this direction in power
development hydrogen power engineering.
Hydrogen and artificial fuels produced on its basis have many positive
properties as universal power carriers in power engineering, chemistry
- and other areas of the national economy. -
1. WaCer may be used as raw material for producing hydrogen, while
to obtain artificial hydrocarbona coal, carbon dioxide and natural
carbonates may be used, i.e., raw material reserves are practically
unlimited.
2. In burning hydrogen or aritifical fuels obtained on its basis, a
considerably smaller amount of harnnful substances is formed and con- -
siderably smaller expenditures are required to protect the envirornnent
than when burning natural liquid and gaseous fuels, especially those
- containing sulfur.
1
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3. The obtained fuels ar~ comparatively easy to transport, preserve
and store.
4. Hydrogen and artificial fuels having it as a basis (for example,
methanol) may be used in car and plane engines with comparatively amall
adjustments.
5. Hydrogen is used widely in modern chemistry, petrochemistry and, -
_ on a smaller scale, in metallurgy, metal processing, food and other
- sectors of industry and requirements for hydrogen are increasing
constantly. _
The problem of hydrogen power engineering pr.oper includes the following
aspects:
devlop new methods and improve existing ones for obtaining hydrogen anc~
artificial fuels on its basis from water and mineral raw materials
by electrolysis and combination cycles of decomposition of water,
- radiolysis, photolysis as well as methods related to coal reprocessing;
in this case, arrangements using var~~us power sources are considered;
transport, store and distribute hydrogen in the gaseous, liquid or
compound states in the form of hydrides;
_ the use of hydrogen and artificial fuels on irs basis in various areas
of the national econom : chemistry, petrochemistry, power, transport,
metallurgy, etc. ~1-3~ .
~ Each of these aspects includes problems of safety techniques, material
technology, measuring equipment, environmental protection and many
others. A great and relatively independent part of the problem are
- investigations and developments of new efficient intern?etal compounds
that absorb hydrogen reversibly and devices for their utilization in
various areas of technology.
The data cited below, that characterize the state of investigations
and developments of some of thE above-enumerated directions and
technical-economic process indicators, are based on indicators of
actual installations only for processes in use today. For future
methods, these evaluations are only estimates and depend greatly on
the allowances made in the calculations.
At present, hydrogen is produced basically from natural gas and petro- _
leum. In this case, the basic technological processes are catalytic
steam or s~team-oxygen conversion. These processes are we11 developed
and various modifications of them are already in use. The basic indi-
_ cators of these processes are indicated in the Table. In this Table, -
the cost of hydrogen produced is given on the basis of long-range costs
- of natural gas and coal in the European part of the USSR.
2
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The efficiency of these processes (ratio~of the lowest combustion heat~
- of the produced hydrogen to the power of the primary source spent on
its production) is today fram 60 to 75% deperding upon t. purity of
~ the hydroge~ produced. In producing hydrogen from natural gas, about
40'/, of the initial gas is used as fuel and about 60% directly for
producir.g hydrogen. The cost c~f the hydrogen produced in these processes
is determined basically by the cost of the raw material. Methods for
obtaining hydrogen from hydrocarbons at NPZ ~Petroleum Refining Plantj
are close to the basic reactions and methods or obtaining hydrogen
_ from natural gas, but hydrogen produced at the NPZ is more expensive.
As one of the first stages of using high temperature nuclear reactors
(VTYaR) in chemistry, a possibility is considered of utilizing the
high temperature heat of these reactors to compensate for the end~-
thermic effect of the conversion reaction which will lead to a saving
of 40% in the natural oas used for producing hydrogen ~2~ . Similar
- developments are being carried out in the FRG ~Federal Republic of
Germany~ for coal gasification. The processes for producing hydrogen
when reprocessing coal were developed in the first half of the ~
T~aentieth century. Later, the development of this work practically
stopped because natural gas and petroleum were cheap and only recently
has this work begun to develop intensively again in various countries
of the world. At present, tens of various processes and arrangements
_ are being developed in the world to reprocess coal to produce hydrogen
and hydrogen-containing gases, including the use of high temperature
gas reactors (VTGR). The technical-economic inveatigations of many
authors indicate that the cost of hydrogen obtained in reproceasing
- coal for various processes, at present business conditions, exceeds
_ the cost of hydrogen obtained from natural gas and is close to the
- cost of hydrogen produced at the NPZ (see Table). According to some
forecasts, petroleum and gas prices in the world market will grow more
rapidly than the price of coal and, therefore, it should be expected
= that in the future, the cost of hydrogen production in reprocessing
coal will be found to be less than when it is produced from petroleum .
ar_d natural gas. At present, in the USSR and abroad, new methods are .
being developed for producing hydrogen when reprocessing coal that
will cost 75 to 90 rubles/ton of conventional fuel.
Electrolysis is the most assimilated method for producing hydrogen from
water. At present, this method is used to obtain a relatively small
_ amount of hydrogen (about 1.5 x 109m3/year or 5.4 x 105 tons of conven- :
Cional fuel/year in the entire world), at places with cheap electric
power. Electro lysis hydrogen is used primarily when very pure hydrogen
is required and where, for a small volume of consumption, a system for ~
purifying conversion hydrogen becomes unprofitable. At present,
many laboratories and firms in the world are carr~ing out investigations
and developments to improve electrolyzers and making them less expensive ~
fo.r utilizing eiectrolysis in large-scale production of hydrogen using ~
power from an AES. Bipolar and unipolar alkaline electrolyzers are ~
being developed, as well as electrolyzers with solid polymer electolytes.
8
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The costs of producing electrolytic hydrogen in modern electrlyzers* is
- 140 to 180 rubles/ton o� conventional fuel and more depending on the
type of the elQCtrolyzer and the mode of its operation. For future
electrolyze?-s (including high temperatare ones) these co~ts will be
reduced to about 110-150 rubles/ton u.t. ~Con~?entional fuel] ~4-8~
(see Fig.
. _
Oy~~~li. ~
J00 -
2S0
200
~ ~ f
JSO ~
Z S
J00 ~
_ ( S) C,,, -
~ o'J ~ ,f ~ -
7 Ton~~~e~�vf
Estimated costs for the production of electrolytic hydrogen (data of
various authors).
1. bipolar design of 5. theoretical limit at
- electrolyzer capital coste equal zero =
2. unipolar design of 6. rublea/ton u.t.
electrolyzer 7. kopecks/(kw-hour) -
_ 3. uni~,nlar design 8� ~el
1990 technology
4. electrolyzers with
solid polymer
electrolysis
Since the conversion of the energy of the primxry power resources to
the energy of 1-~ydrogen includes, in this case, an intermediate stage
~ of electric power production, the full efficiency, i.e., the thermo- ~
dynamic ~fficiency of the process is about 20% for modern AES and -
electrolyzers, whfle for high temperature gas reactors and future -
electrolyzers, it will noC exceed 42 to 45%.
* Here and below the relationship of one dollar (1975) = 0.75 rubles
. is used when citing foreign data on capital and production costs ar.d
other economic indicators.
9
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- Numerous technical-economic investigations of producing hydrogen from
water by electrolysis usin~ electric power from various sources (AES, -
- GES, TYaES, etc.) and using future and modern electrolyzers, operating
~ ?n various modes, indicate that in the future, the estimated costs of
_ producing, hydrogen from �water by electrolysis will, apparently, not " -
= become lower than 100 rubles/ton u.t. ~4-9~ ,
- Additional res~erves, for reducing the cost of hydrogen may be byproducts
- of its production: oxygen and heavy water. In decomposing water per -
ton of u.t. of H2, using any :nethod of hydrogen production, a ton of
02 is ~btained from the water. In the case where the oxygen may be ~
sold where the hydrogen is produced, a reduction of five to ten rubles/
ton of u.t. may be expected; however, long distance transportation
of o~gen is, apparently, not profitable. In 1977, the cost of heavy
water in the United States was about 100 rubles!kg. In the combina-
- tion electrolytic-catalytic process, it is possible to obtain hydrogen =
and heavy water simultaneously, which reduces the cost of electrolytic
hydrogen by 3S to 40 rubles/ton u.t. when the heavy water can be sold
- for 100 rubles/kg ~10~ . Other arrangements for obtaining D2 as
~ a byproduct are possible that also peYtnit a combination with other
methods for obtaining hydrogen from water, for example, low temperature
. rectification of the obtained hydrogen with the consequent production
of D20o
Water may be decomposed by bypassing the electric power production
- stag~ thermochemically using the heat of the primary power source.
� From the thermodynamic standpoint, this method does not differ in -
principle from electrolysis and if all processes of converting heat
_ into electric power, electrolysis and thermochemical decomposition '
were fully reversible, both processes would be fully equivalent.
� Hopes for obtaining higher efficiency of thermochemical decomposition _
of water compared to electrolysis are based on two proposals: an -
efficient higher upper temperature of the thermochemical cycle may be
used than in modern electric power plant cycles; the de~ree of non-
' reversibility of actual processes in thermochemical cycles may be _
found to be lower than in the sec~uence of processes of obtaining
electrical ower and electrolysi~. Thermodynamic investigations indi- -
~ cate that ~11~ in principle, it is possible, in four-five reactions,
to provide acceptable outputs from a water decomposition reaction at
an upper temperature of the cycle of 1000 to 1200K, that is, possible
for installations with higher temperature nuclear reactors. In com-
bination processes that also use, along with thennochemical electro-
chemical reactions, it is possible to reduce the number of necessary _
reactions in a cycle to two-three. It is also possible to implement
the water decomposition process in combination cycles using photo-
chemical, thermochemical, raciiochemical, plasmochemical and other types
of reactions,
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In recent years, numeroua thermochemical ~nd combina~ion cycle~ were
pr.oposed for implementing water decomposition reactions at temperatures
- ~ossible for high ten~perature gas reactors. In most cases, intennediate
reagents in these cycles are aubatances that have a great affinitp
to hydrogen or oxygen: haloids (for example, chlorine, bromine, -
iodine), elements of grouF VI (primarily sulfur) and metals of group II
(magnesium, calcium, barium). Sometimes transitional elements are
used that have a variable valency and can form various oxides (for
example, iron). The theoretical thermodynamic efficiancy of these
cycles (ratio of the lowest combusLion heat of the obtained hydrogen
to the pximary energy spent for its production) which, according
to various authors, may reach 45 to 55%, i.e., exceeds that for the -
electrolysis process. However, in implementing these processes, it is
necessary to solve complex problems related to providing acceptable
kinetics of the reactions, separating the reaction products, heat and
mass exchange at various process stages, purifying the products,
material stability, etc. Experimental investigations made so far .
indicate that the practical implementation of these cycles is a very
difficult preblem and their efficiency, apparently, will be about 40%
at beat ~12~ . In tnis case, the total weight of the reagents parti-
cipating in the thermochemical cycle in the gaseous, liquid and solid
states and in the form of solutions is very great according to
data ~13~ , it averages about 800 tons per ton of H2 and is not less
than 300 tons per ton of H2. For example, for an installation with a
productivity of 270,000 tons of H2 per year for 40%, a minimum
of 85 million tons of reagents per year participate in the chemical
reactions of the cycle and minimal capital investments in the installa-
" tion without taking into account the cost of the power source are about -
1..25 billion rubres, which is more than double the capital investments
in electrolyzers of the same productivity. For combination th~rmo-
electrochemical cycles, the unit weight of the reagents is reduced
with the increase in the share of electric'power in the power balance
of the cycle. For example, i~ 50% of the energy is spent in the form ~
of electrical energy for electrolysis, then the minimal unit weight
' of the reagents is about 80 tons per ton of HZ and the general level -
of capital investments is lowered, getting closer to capital invest-
_ ments in electrolysis production of the same productivity.
The Table shows the most.authentic technical-economic characteriatics
of hydrogen production methods according to data of various authors.
For long-range hydrogen production methods, these estimates are of `
a preliminary nature hecause they were obtained on the basis of
laboratory investigations of the process and preliminary estimates
of capital investments in high temperature nuclear reactors and the
installations themselves are based on existing practices in power
_ engineering and chemistry.
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Technical-economic investigations of various thermochemical and hybrid
water decomposition cycles indicate that thermochemical and thermo-
electrochemical hybrid processes using electrolysis can hardly become
_ more economical than electrolysis, especially of the high temperature
_ cycle with a solid oxide electrolyte. At the same time, hybrid cycles,
- using along with thermochemical more intensive than electrolysis, for
example, plasmochemical E14~ , apparently, implemented with lower
capital investments and may be found to be competitiv~ with electrolysis.
At present, however, there are no reliable technical-economic estimates
~ of the characteristics of these cycles because the work on these cycles
is only beginning to develop and it will be necessary to solve complex
- scientific-technical problems in their practical implecnentation. It -
should be expected that at the first stages of the development of hydro-
gen power engineering, the most efficient methods of large-scale
production of co~ercial hydrogen will be electrolysis and the use of
coal. In this case, the costs of gaseous hydrogen produced, according
to optimistic estimates, will be, apparently, not lower than 100
rubles!ton u.t. The production of liquid hydrogen involves additional
power expenditures for liquefaction and orthoparaconversion of hydro-
gen and additional capital investments in a liquefaction plant. The _
theoreticg~. expenditures of electric power for liquefaction are 10.67
Mjoules/kg H2; with the present state of the art, however, they amount
to about 45 to 50 Mjoules/kg H2 for a large-scale liquefying plant.
Estimated costs for liquefying hydrogen for a plant with a productivity
of 1000 tons u.te/day of liquid H2 are 9~ to 110 rubles/ton u.t. -
without taking into account the costs of storage and servicing; with . _
an increase in the productivity of the liquefying plant, the liqueflca- ~
tion cost will decrease logarithmically. Thus, according to optimistic
- estimates, the cost of liquid hydrogen produced from water will be not -
less than 200 rubles/ton u.t. at the plant tap for a medium productivi~y
plant.
Processes of storing, transporting and distributing gaseous hydrogen
are very similar to those for natural gas. It is most economical to
store large quantities of hydrogen in underground storage facilities:
worked-out petroleum and gas fields, water-filled porous structures, ~
- salt-dome and other natural and artificial caverns. Experience is
available on such storage of large amounts of natural gas and hqdrogen
under pressures of up to 10 MPa. Hydrogen storage under such condi- -
tions per ton u.t. is two to four times more expensive than for natural
gas 15~ . Experimental investigations have shown the technical
feasi ility of using existing systems of the main transport and dis- -
_ tribution of natural gas with some modernization for transporting and
distributing hydrogen. If this modernization is not done, the system
will transmit 10 to 15% less energy in hydrogen than in natural gas.
The cost of transporting and distributing hydrogen over pipelines
under pressure of 7 MPa is 1.5 to 2 times higher than of natural gas.
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In optimizing the systems for Che transport and distribution of
hydrogen, the diameter of the pige must be 15 to ?0% greater than
for natural gas. To transport liquid hydrogen, as well as other -
liquid fuel, large distances (up to 1000-1500km) it is most feasible
to use water transport (in tankers) and RR transport (in tanks), while
_ for distances leas than I00 to 150km by motor vehicles. Lossea
of hydrogen in the beet available facilities, as a rule, do not exceed
0.5% per day and the transportation costs do i~ot increaee the cost of
liquid hydrogen aignificantly. For example, the casts of ~ranaporting
- liquid hydrogen a distance of 500km, taking into account losses, are ~
_ 8.8, 17.6 and 35.2 rubles/ton u.t. for river, RR and motor vehicle
transport respectively ~15, 7] . Long distance pipeline transport of
liquid hydrogen is uneconomical due to the high cost of heat insula- ~
tion of the pipeline that exceeds 100 rubles/m for vacuum-shield
insulation. Storing large quantities of liquid hydrogen in cryogenic
tanka with losses less than 0.3% per day is technically feasible at
_ present. Very promising is the uae of hydrides of intextnetallic _
compound of the LaN~.S and FeTi types for storing relatively amall
amounts of hydrogen. Such st~rage systems for transport inatallations
are being intensively developed at present in the USSR and abroad and
the first prototypes were created for motor vehicle transport. The
cost of alloys for storing hydrogen is now 3.5 to 10 rubles/kg for
lots of 500kg. Under normal condifiions, such alloys absorb up to
2-3% of hydrogen by weight. Recently, alloys that absorb up 6-7% HZ
were obtained.
- At present, about ~60 million tons u.t. of hydrogen per year are pro-
duced and used in the world. Its basic users are petro~eum refining
planta and chemical industry enterprises for producing ammonia and
methanol. They uae about 95% of the total hydrogen produced. The
remaining hydrogen is used by the cr~etallurgical, processing, food,
pharn?aceutical and other industries. By 1990, it is forecast that -
, the production and use of hydrogen in the world will increase to
200 million tons u.t. and even greater with inaignificant changea in
the structure of consumption. A comparison is frequently made in
literature of various methods for producing hydrogen and an analysis
of its long-range use in various areas of the national economy, on tt~e
basis of estimated costs for producing hydrogen by this or another
method. This approach has sense only if this commercial, or "free"
_ hydrogen goes directly to the market and to the user, when the use
technology does not depend on the method for producing hydr4gen. At
preaent, and long-range, up to the year 2000, this ia not the case
because the transition by basic users of hydrogen from natural fuels to
"commercial" hydrogen is related to the change in the technology of
production of the final product and these changes depend on what kind
of hydrogen ("thermochemical", "coal", "electrolytic and others) they
use, on the possibility of also using, besides the hydrogen, the heat
and electrical power, produced by the nuclear power plant, the
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possibility of usin~ byproducts, etc. Therefor~, it is more correct
to make a technical-economic comparisan of various methods of hydrogen
procluction according to tt?e change in the eatimated coste of the final _
product (ammoni~, methanol, etc.) bq replacing in the production
cycle natural gaseous and liquid fuels by nuclear heat or coal and
hydrogen, and not according to the eatimated costs ot hyc;�-ogen. A _
aimilar situation exists alao when uaing hydrogen as fuel in transport
where the comparison must be made in accordance with the cost of the
transportation and not the cost of the fuel, as well as in power
engineering and other industrial sectors.
- Moreover, because of tiie limited inexpensive natural poWer-resources
and the necessity of their efficient utilization in the national `
economy, a comprehensive technical-economic optimization of power
resource consumption by various sectors of industry is most efficient
including tiie power sector, in analyzing the feasibility of changing
them over to nuclear power and coal as power sources, and using hydrogen
as a power carrier and as raw material. Such technical-economic
investigations made at the High Temperatures Institute indicate that
even at today's prices for natural gas and peak electric power, it
may be found more expedient to create power-technological complexes
- for the production of ammonia and electric power~including peak, on
the basis of modern AES with electrolytic production of hydrogen for _
full replacement of natural gas.3eparate preliminary estimates made
previously for the production of ammonia indicated that electrolytic
hydrogen, produced at the AES, can be used expediently for the prc~-
duction of ammonia for partial replacement of natural gas at natural
gas costs of about 68 rubles/ton u.t., i.e., in the fairly distant
future. A more comprehensive analysis changes this conclusion -
- essentially. Apparently, the most efficient method for introducing
hydrogen power in the national economy is the creation of large inter~
industrial petrolednrefining and metallurgical complexes based on
nuclear power, and coal using hydrogen to atore energy, as an energy
carrier and as raw material. The optimal structure of these production
- facilities and their combination with the power source, and between
= themselves, must be established as a reault of a comprehensive system
analysis for individual regions. _
Investigations made abroad and in the USSR indicate that hydrogen may
be used expediently to transmit heat and power over long diatances.
Main-line long di~tance pipeline transport of hydrogen and the conver-
sion of its combustion heat into electric power at the receiving end of
the main-line with an efficiency coefficient of 40% is a taird of the
- cost of tranaporting electric power over AC VL ~.L)rr~rheati line
The advantages of hydroSen transport are preserved, although to a
lesser degree, conipared to DC VL. At present, processes of long
: distance transport of heat from high temperature :zuclear reactors
are being developed for home heating and technological purposes based -
on the endothermic reaction of converting methane and the exothermic
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process of reverse methane production. In this case, heat tr~nsport
_ can be implemented as a heat transport process, as well as a simul-
taneous pipeline transport of artificial methane to the user. Te.;hnical-
economic evaluations indicate that transporting heat over long dis-
tances ha~ advantages over transporting hot water. _
Hydrogen can be used in transport as basic fuel and as an additive to
liquid hydrocarbons fuels to reduce the toxicity of the exhausts.
Hydrogen may be used in aviation in liquid form as fuel for super-
sonic and hypersonic planes. ~nvestigations done in the United States
and the Soviet Union indicate that at the cost of liquid hydrogen
aboard a plane of about 30~ rubles/ton u.t., direct costs for operat-
ing a supersonic plane on hydrogen fuel are close to thoae for a
plane operating on kerosene at a cost of kerosene for the plane of
about 200 rubles/ton u.t. for a flight distance of over 4004 to SOOOkm.
Thus, the use of liquid hydrogen as fuel for long distance supersonic
aviation may be found to be expectedc not too far in the future. A
changeover to hydrogen fuel in aviation, however, involves large
capital investments. For example, costs to reequip a large airport
for hydrogen fuel are, according to Lockheed, about one billion
dollars.
Investigations and developments in the use of hydrogen i.n motor vehicle
transport, done in the USSR and abroad, indi~ate the ex,~ediency of
using hydrogen as an additive to regular fuels for city motor vehicle
- transpor~ even at present business conditions. When fi~e percent -
_ hydrogen is added to the usual fuels, it is'possible to reduce exhaust
toxicity considerably and improve the efficiency of engine operation.
~ By using hydride systems to store hydrogen aboard a motor vehicle in
various laboratoric:s in the world, the first prot~~types of such motor
vehicles were created.
At present in the USSR, FRG, United States, Japan, France, Italy and
other countries, wide programs of investigations and developments are
~being adopted in the area of hydrogen power engineering. A broad and
imiltifaceted devel,opment of hydrogen power engineering and technology
- is not expected before the first quarter of the Twenty-First Century.
However, the increasing costs of liquid and gaseous fuel and the ~
- increase in the demand for hydrogen by its traditional users, esgecially
in the NPZ, enterprises for producing ammonia and methanol and in
- metallurgy, may make it profitable to develop large-scale production
of hydrogPn and before the end of the century gradually replace natural
liquid and gaseous fuels produced in the processes of petroleum
refining, the synthesis of inethanol and ammonia, and metallurgical -
_ production using nuclear heat and coal. _
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The natural power source-technological unit system for producing
the energy carrier (hydrogen) may make it possible in the last quarter .
of the 20th Century, to solve problems relat;ed to the creation of
large autonomous power-technological complexes that do not use hyd~ro- -
- carbon fuel, to produce power and chemical synthesis products.
- Already, in this sense, at the present time, the problem must be
solved of creating a power technology that uses nuclear power and
coal as basic power resources, whi?.e hydrogen and arCificial fuels
made on its basis will be used as power carriers and raw materials.
Along with this, the. developmEnt of large power systems based on
nuclear power and coal as power sources and including numerous users
of various kinds, leads to the necessity of utilizing in the very near
future, artificial~fuel based on hydrogen, and hydrogen as a power
carrier and for storing power, which will make it possible to destgn
a more flexible system more adapted to the users and one that does -
not depend on the type of power sources.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Legasov, V. A. 'RJniversal Possibilities of Hydrogen." KOMMUNIST,
- 1976, No 1, pp 72-73.
2. Dollezhal', N. A.; Zaichko, N. D.; Yemel'yanov,
.I.Ya.; et al. "Comprehensive Utilization o~ Nuclear Reactor
Power for Heavy Tonnage Production in the Nitrogen Industry."
In book: "Voprosy atomnoy nauki i tekhniki. Atomno-vodorod-
naya energetika" (Problems of Atomic Science and Technology.
Atomic-Hydrogen Power Engineering), 1977, No 2(3), pp 5-14.
3. Legasov, V. A.; Ponomarev-Stepnoy, N. N.; et al. "Long-Range
Prospects of Utilizing VTGR and Basic Problems of Introducing
VTGR in Technolo~ical Processes and Electric Power ~ngineering.
In book: "Voprosy atomnoy nauki i tekhniki. Atomno-vodorod-
naya energetika" (Problems of Atomic Science and Technology.
At~mic-Hydrogen Power Engineering), 1978, No 1(4) pp 3-18.
4. Shpil'rayn, E. E.; Sarumov, Yu. A.; Popel', O.S.; Zhukova, I.A.
In book: "Voprosy atomnoy nauki i tekhniki. Ato:nno-
vodorodnaya energetika" (Problems of Atomic Science and
Technology. Atomic-Hydrogen Power Engineering), 1979, No 1
(5), pp 11-21.
5. Le Roy, R. L.; Stuart, A. K. Unipolar Water Electrolyzers
a competitive technology. Hydr. Energy System. Ed. N.
_ Veziroglu, W. Seifritz, Vol. 1, pp 359-376. Per~amon Press,
- 1978. -
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6. Menth, A.; Stueki, S. Present State and Outlook of the
electrolytic H2 Production Route. Hydrogen Energy System.
~ Ed. N. Veziroglu, W. Seifrtiz. Vol. 1, pp 55-60.
, Pergamon Press, 1978.
7. Biederman, N.; Darrow, K.; Konopka, A. Utilization of hydrogen -
Rep. EPRI, RP320-1, Aug. 1975.
8. Nuttal, L. J.; Russel, J. H. Solid Polymer Electrolyte water
= Electrolysis Development Status. Energy Syatem. Ed. N.
Veziroglu, W. Seifr~.tz, Vol. 1, pp 391-402. Pergamon Press,
- 1978.
9. Doenitz, W.; Schmidberger, R.; Steinheil, E.; Streicher, R.
_ Hydrogen production by high temperature electolysis of water -
vapour. Energy System Ed. N. Veziroglu, W. Seifr~tz. Vol. 1,
pp 403-422. Pergamon Press, 1978.
10. Hammerli, M. Heavy water as a valuable byproduct of electro-
lytic hydrogen. Hydr. Energy System. Ed. N. Veziroglu,
W. Seifritz. Vol. 1, pp 423-450. Pergamon Press, 1978.
ii. Shpil'rayn E. E. "Thermodynamic Bases of Thennochemical '
Decomposition of Water." IVTAN preprint No 2-- 007, 1977.
12. Cox. K. Thermochemical production of hydrogen from water,
a critical review. 7~ASL. 1978. USA/USSR Workshop on
Alternative Uses of Fusion Energy. High Temperature institute.
_ Moswoc, No 20-24, 1978.
13. Deneure, F.; Roncato, J. P. Thermochemical or hybrid Cycles
of Hydrogen Energy System. Ed. N. Verizoglu, W. Seifritz;
Vol. 4, pp 2179-2204. Pergamon Press, 1978.
1~~ Legasov, V. A.; Rusanov, V. D. Fridman, A. A. "Nonequilibrium .
Plasmochemical Processes in Heterogeneous Systems~" Plastaa
Chemistry. No 5, pp 116-147. Moscow, Atomizdat, 1978.
15� Breelle, Y.; Gelin, P.; Meyer, C.; Petit, G. Int. Journ.
Hydrogen Energy, 1979, vol. 4, pp 297-308.
16. Hadden, L. D. The Economics of Producing Hydrogen from small
air blown Coal Gasifier. Hydrogen Energy System. Ed. N.
Veziraglu; W. 5eifritz, Vol. 2, pp 983-1006.
- i'j. Tai, A. S.; Kraskovskiy, R. A. Centralized Energy Balance,
Economic considerations for thermochemical Hydrogen production
from Fusion Reactor Blankets. LASL. Paper presented at the
17
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USE/USSR Workshop on Alternative Applicatians of Fusion
Energy. Moscow, Nov 20-24, 1978.
18~ Escher, W. J. D.; Donakovakiy, T. D.; Veziroglu Ed. N.
- Cc~nference Yroceedings of thP lst World Hydrogen Conference
- Miami Beach, March 1-3, 1976, Vol. 1, pp 2A-1,
19� Krikorian. 0. H. The 2nSe Thermochemical Cycle for Hydrogen
Production: chemical and process design studies. Hydrogen
Energy System. Ed. N. Veziroglu, W. Weifritz. Vol. 2,
pp 791-80$. Pergamon Press, 1978.
20� Broggi, A.; Joels, R.; Mertel, G., Morbello, M. A n~~thod
- for the techno-economic evaluation of the chemical process
improvements to the "Optimo" code. Energy System. Ed. N. -
Veziroglu, W. Seifritz, Vol. 4, pp 2205-2230. Pergamon
Press, 1978.
COPYRIGHT: Zzdatel'stvo "Energiya; "Teploenerge+ika", 1980.
2291
CSO: 1822
I
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_ ELECTRIC PO~WER
- SOLAR POWER STATIONS CONTEMPLATED
Moscow TEPLOENERGETIKA in Russian No 3, Mar 80 pp 5-8
~Article by F. V. Sapozhnikov, Deputy Minister of the USSR Ministry
of Power and Electrification, Yu. N. Malevskiy, V. K. Gusev, Minene'rgo
~Ministry of Pawer and Electrification~,ENIN ~Power ~nstitute imeni
G. M. Krzhizhanev~kiy~ , TEP [Teploelektroproyekt"]]
[Text~ In recent years, work on utilizing sol,ar power in the USSR
and other countries has developed noticeably basically for supplying
~ hot water,heating and sir conditioning buildings, drying various
materials and agricultural products, demineralizing water, etc.
The creation of solar electric power plants (SES), operating on the
basis of machine thermodynamic cycles and capable of producing electric
- and thermal energy occupies a special place.
_ The attention and interest in developing SES in the USSR are due to
the poasibility of replacing some amount of foseil fuel used in
traditional methods to produce power and reduce the contamination
level of the environment due to the absence of chemical exhausts.
Some attention is also being devoted to this problem in the USSR in
the work program on utilizing solar power. Starting in 1978, certain _
scientific, planning and design organizaCions of the USSR Minenergo
(ENIN, TEP, SKB ~Special design bureau~ , VTI ~All-Union Heat
Engineering Institute imeni F. E. Dzerzhinskiy PKB ~Planning
design bureau] for mechanizing power construction, PKB "Energostal'-
konstruktsiya", etc.) began working to create the �irst experimental
SES in the USSR to dete~ine the long-range prosperts of using plants
af this type in southern regions of the country.
The idea of creating SES of an induetrial type was proposed for the
first time by Soviet enginepr N. V. Linitakiy over 30 years ago. He
then propc~sed an arrangement of a solar power plant, which is naiw called
a solar power plant arrangement with a central receiver or tower
arrangement (Fig. 1).
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\ _
~1) (2)
/Iadaroevee /lpueronuK
_ uonyvt~ue ~'j~
� Hecyu~aw ~au~N~
- ~cnuuc~
o~inei
- //i// . / .
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a solar plant of the t~wer type.
1. Incident radiation 3. Tower
2. Receiver 4. Heliostats
In this system, the steam generator (solar radiation receiver) is -
- located on a tall tower, surrounded by a field of mirror reflectors
(heliostats), by means of which solar radiation is focused on the
heat receiving surface of t?~is receiver. After that, the heat energy
is transfoztned into electrical power in accordance with the usual
steam-power industrial parameter cycle. At the end of the fifties, _
on the basis of this concept, the ENIN developeu a technical proposal
for a 2.5 Mw (electric) SES which later became widely known due tA
publications in the scientific-engineering journals of several -
countries.
In the mid~dle of seventies, the problem of utilizing renewable energy `
sources in industrial electric power production in the USSR began to
be considered on the level of concrete evaluations.
_ These evaluations were made in the direction of studying the technical-
economic indicators of solar electric power plants operating either
independently or within powe~ systems, as well as along the "ine of
scientifiq design and planning developments of a small capacity
prototype.
The USSR has regions where the intensity of solar radiation is fairly
high and stable. In the Central Asian republics, Kazakhstan, Crimea, '
Caucasus and Zabaykal, the sun shines 2000 to 3000 hours per yesr.
Taking into account the natural and economic conditions of the southern
USSR, it is sound practice to consider first the importance of solar
power from the standpoint of improving the power supply to numerous
scattered comparatively small agricultural users of power. :
~
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As shown by an analysis made by the Sel'energoproyekt, the power
required by such uaers is from 1.5 to SMw. A great number of auch -
' usera are, for example, in Kazakhstan in regione south of the 500 of
the northern latitude. These regions (their area is over half the
area of the republic) are characterized by the fact that it is
preciaely here where machine irrigation is conceatrated and almost
all arid and aemiarid pastures far sheep-raiaing are located that
irrigation ia required; here are located numeroua large salt lakes
and considerable reaerves of underground highly mineralized watera.
In such zones, solar installations operaCing with flat collectors,
- autonomous small capacity SES may find application for comprehensive
electrical and heat supply, including Chat for obtaining commercial
_ steam, heating, hot water, drying, refrigerating feeding electric
pumps for irrigation systems and dernineralizing water.
- SES are characterized by ununifoYm production of heat and electric
power which, to a certain extent, can be equalized by a system of
a limited energy capacity storage. For this reason, the use of SES
is preferab~.e in regiona where users may permit some interruption in
power supply or it is possible to etore the energy produced by the
~ SES in the fonq for example, of ice or elevated or demineralized
water. In all other cases, either a standby power installation can
_ be used or local 35 to 110kv electric network may be employed which,
according to the Sel'energoproyekt data, have a transit capacity in
the majority of zones where solar energy can be utilized.
Technical-economic calculations, made by taking into account long-
range increasea in fuel costs, indicate that in several regions of
Southern Kazakhstan and Turkmenia, reduced costs with electric power
supplied by the SES, including that operating jointly with local
_ electric networks, may be comparable or even lower than the reduced
costa for the version of power supply from sources operating on solid
or liquid fuel brought in from a distance.
Autonomous condensation type SES, operating outside the system, most
favorable in the load mode, are pumping stations for irrigating oases.
Such pumping stations operate from April to September 12 to 13 houra
duiing daylight, while in April-May, the electric power need changes
to 30-60% of the maximum, in June-July 100%, decreases gradually
to 60% in August-September and then to 30%. Thus, the daily schedule
of pumping station operation during the year coincides with the
schedule of reception of solar radiation. This fact, as well as that
the use of such SES does not require st~ndby power sources reflect
poaitively on the technical-economic characteristics of the SES. Data
analysis on the long-range development of machine irrigation in
Kazakhstan indicated that there are large irrigation areas and more
are planned (basically oasea) located considerable distances from
power system centers that, in each case, require over 1000kw of electric
, 21
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power for transporting water. Capital investments for competitive
SES of such a capacity must be within 750 to 500 rubles/kw with the
power system centers being within 300 to 50km away and fuel costs _
not greater than 30 rubles/ton of conventional fuel. _
- The trend in changing the annual achedules of the operations of the
power asaociation in some southern regions of the country atteat to
the fact that in the future (10 to 20 years), the annual maximum
power loads will occur in the summer (i.e., in the period of maximum �
reception of solar radiation) due to the increasing ehare of power
consumption for aeasonal agricultural work, sir conditioning and
' machine irrigations. This fact ~xpands the prospects of utilizing -
SES in the indicated regions.
In accordance with the program for further study of the possibilitiea
of creating, operating and utilizing SES as a power source in the
country, it is planned before 1985 to build in the Crimea and to make
tests of the first USSR experimental 3 to SMw SES, which will include
all basic subsystems of a solar electric power plant with industrial
parameters. Table 1 shnws the basic characteristics of the plan for
such an SES made by the Teploelektroproyekt on the basis of the _
scientific development of the Power Institute imeni G. M. Krzhizhan-
ovskiy.
Table 1
- Basic characteristics of an experimental solar electric power plant of
the tower type (estimates)
Characteristic Value
Electric power, Mw 3-5
Heat power, Mw
maximum 21
average annual 18.5
Number of operating hours annually 2000
_ Annual electric power output, million
kw-h~urs up to 9 _
Helioatat field Ring
Diameter, m:
outer 470
inner 140
Total area of mirror surface, 1000m2 40
Number of heliostats 1600
- Size of heliostat 5 x S
Height of tower, m 70 ~
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- Table 1 contd. -
Characteristic Value
Density of radiation flux on the
surface of the eteam genera+tor
(7 x 7), kw/m2:
2= June, 12 houra:
average 135
maximal 225 -
- 22 December, 12 hours; -
average 90
maximal 190
Steam parameters ahead of turbine:
pressure, MPa 3
temperature, �C 232
, ~o~ ~
N . 197on~
� ' tcnuotmamoC
`N~Ol' 7~'~'
_ -
1400r~ ~tnuocmaT
Fig. 2. Grouping of a large 300 Mw solar electric power plant arrange-
ment consisting of four modules (75Mw each).
1. Heliostat field 2. Heliostat
23 -
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~ 4=~~:,~;~~K ~ ~.y1,~~
~c,,,rr�~,~,o_ ,
.~n u _
~p~~,u
i~~�� ��r,~p-
U.~ n yng�i~N -
- ~ -
. =1 ~ =s~ _
_ ~
~ s _ -
Fig. 3. Thermal arrangement of experimental SES-5 with receiver- _
accumulator
1. Solar radiation receiver 3. Separators -
2. Receiver-accumulator
Fig. 3. shows one possible thermal arrangement of an SES using a -
receiver-accumulato~' whose basic features are as follows: -
the thermal arrangement ia made on the basis of a cycle with saturated
_ steam with the turbine operating in the condensation mode;
the solar steam generator is of the drum type with natural circulation;
a type P-6-35/5 SMw turbine is used;
= to keep the turbine hot during short interruptions in solar radiation ~
(one to two hours) a receiver-accumulator is used in the system, filled
with water at saturation teanperature a reserve of which is created by
a part of the ateam apecially condensed for this purpose, produced by ~
the ateam generator, after it becomea operative at the nominal mode.
During interrup*_ions of solar radiation and, therefore, a stoppage in -
the production of steam in the boiler, the thermal arrangement ia -
kept 1-~t due to ventilation by saturated steam evaporated from the
atored saturated water.
;
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The use of saturated steam as an operating medium, especially, at SES
with Che combined production of heat and electric power has certain
advantagea. The reduction of electrical efficiency ia made up by the
increase in the reliabliity of the eteam generator, that has to operate
with the intermittent arrival of aolar radiation, by a eimpler
arrangement of Che autrnn~atic control of the 3ES and the accumulator
and, therefore, 6y lower capital expenditures for thie part.
The experimental SES-5 will have the possibility of testing several
thernial arrangements, including one- and two-loop with a heat
accumulator that makes it poasible to equalize and ehift the output
of heat and electrical power during the day. -
~
In the first loop of the SES, it is beneficial to use as a heat carrier
e liquid with a high boiling point or a liquid metal heat carrier
with high specific heat. This makes it posaible to create an _
inexpensive heat accumulator of large energy capacity in which the _
_ pressure will not exceed 0.8 to 1 MPa. However, in the first S~S,
it is expedient to use water at moderate pressures of 2.5 to 4.5 MPa _
as a working medium that permits using as an accumulator equipment
available in the power, chemical and gas induatries.
Under Crimean conditions, the number of operating hours of the
- experimental SES per year will be about 2000. In this case, the
change in the daily hours of plant operation during the year will
vary from 12 (in the aumQaer) to five (in the winter) from the manent
the sun's altitude is 15� above the horizon (Fig. 4) in a solar
- radiaCion flux density range of 0.65 to 0.87 kw/m2. -
In implementing in practice the full technological arrangement for
tranaforming solar energy into heat and electrical power, the planned
- power level of three to five Mw for the experimental plant is
sufficient for experimental debugging of the principle of operaCion,
the ASU ~Automatic control system the design of the basic
subsyatems, their interaction and identification of special feaCures
of the operation of such electric power plants, includin~ larger ones
also.
'I'he scientific, planning and design organizationa of the Minenergo -
also evaluated the projected deaign and technical-economic characterie-
tics of large industrial SES on an example of a 200 to 300 Mw eolar -
electric power plant, operuting within a power eyatem.
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I,0 nQr/M~~
_ (2~ _
~ lfavano u Koneq
- --s - - - - pa~omei G3C
/!n~ /3�Qe~comei
nod zvpuoonmaro
~ .r- ~ .0 - ~1y
~ / `n~ ~ ~ .
-6 ' -4 -z nc:-~c.~o ~ 4 s "
~3) ,
Fig. 4. Cnntinuity of SES operation during a bright day and the
change in solar radiation intensity (kw/m2) in Crimea (45� northern
1aCitude) for days in the summaer (June), winter (December) solstice -
andequinox (September).
1. kw/m2 3. Noon
2. Start and end of SES 4. For s 15� altituae above
operation the horizon
The operation of a SES within a power system under USSR conditions
is of independent interest. The presence of a branched power system
~ network in the country makes it poasible to utilize in varioua ways
large solar electric power plants of varioua types in various climatic
and economic zonea, including ~ES operating in the mode of feeding
electric power into the network during the day, and plants that have
_ a aCorage ayatem and that participate in the power balance of the
power syatem independently, as well as in combination with thercnal
ar hydraulic plants (hybrid version).
By a corresponding increage in the heat capacity of the storage .
facility, it may be possible to achieve a basic mode of SES operation
which not only replaces a certain amount of fuel burned in the aystem
by solar energy, but also correaponding fuel of a basic thermal
, electric power plant as a whole.
In one gossible version, the S~S-300 may consist of four modules each
_ of. which (with a power of up to 75Mw) repreaents an electric power
plant operating on the "steam generator-turbine" thermodynamic princi-
rile, that has a separate heliostat field with an area of up to 2km2
and a central ~ower 250m high (k'ig. 3). Each SES-300 module contains
about 12,000 heliostats with a mirror aurface of 7 x 7m and a saturated
steam pressure ahead of the t~urbine of 6I~.'a.
26 ~
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Table 2
Expected power characteristics of th~ SES-300 in southern regions
Indicator Crimea Uzbekistan Kirgizia Dageetan
- Lower Tadzhikietan Tranabaykal
Volga Turkmenia
Annual output
of electric
power, Mkw-
- hour 355- 560-715 430-575 450-600
445
Hours operation
per year 2000 2700 2150 2270
Saving of fossil
fuel per year
(1000 tona of
conventional
fuel) Up to Up to 245 Up to 195 Up to 200 _
150 ~
Table 2 shows expected annual electrical power outputs of an SES-300
in southern regions of the country, the number of hours of plant
operation per year and possible fuel saving. Below is given an
estimate of unit costs of SES operating on a free schedule in which
they can compete with traditional power plants at an average uniC
cost of the latter of 200 rubles/kw.
The moat favorable SES cost indicators may be expected for Crimea
and the Lower Volga region. This is because in the forecast 20-year
- period, the rated fuel costs for the indicated regions may increase
almost to 50 rubles/ton of conventional fuel, while for Kazakhstan
_ and Transbaykal lower fuel costa are expected (24 and 10 rubles/ton
of conventional fuel reapectively), which is characteristic for the
eastern regions of the country that have rich fuel resources.
Calculations made by taking into account the possible reduction in the
cost o� the SES in the future with increasing fuel costs, indicate -
_ that for condensation SES operating on a free schedule without parti-
cipating in the power system balance, the maxi~um competitive capa-
bility with thermal condensation plants ia a cost per inetalled lkw for
the considered regions of fraa 270 rubles (Traasbaykal) to 550 rubles
(Crimea). For example, for cond3tions of the Lower Vol~a region, 300Mw
condensation SES may be more economically profitable in the case where
its unit cost does~not exceed 530 rubles/kw.
27 ~
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_ According to plan esti~r~ates, the unit cost of installed lkw of large -
SES may vary, depending upon Che regi~on, within 750 to 900 rubles
for an electric power production cost of two to four kopecks~(kw-hour).
In the �uture, due to technological improvements of the SES system,
including an increase in opersting parameters of the equipment and
- uaing more optimal matarials, a certain reduc~tion in thie value may
be expected. ~ .
. The data shown above indicatea thP long-range poesibilities of uaing
- solar electric power plants of vartous types (nt firat of small
~ ca acities) in the aouthern re iona of the count -
P g ry may, in aome cases,
be evaluated as poaitive.
Only the future will show what place solar electric power takes in
_ the fuel-power balance of the country and what efforts will be
required for its development.
Scientific research and experimental design work in this area will be
directed to technological and technical-economic search for ways to
increase the efficiency and competitiveness of solar electric power
- plants. The problem of power storage requires further investigations.
It ia also necessary to develop types of SES that, besides heat and
electric power, can also produce products (for example, hydrogen or
ethanol).
In the futur~ photoelements may be used widely in tower SES systems
capable of operating at high densities of the radiation flux and
temperaturea of up to 300�C. It may be expected that the use of
photoelements on the SES receiver surfaces will make it posaible to
increase the total efficiency of converting solar energy into electric
power to 35% and higher.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Malevskiy, Yu. N.; Tarnizhevskiy, B. V.; Fugenfirov, M. I. "Solar
Power Abroad: Forecasta and the State of Art." In book: "Energetika _
i toplivo (dostizheniya i perapektiva)" (Power and fuel, achievements
and prospects). No 1. Mezhdunarodnyy tsentr nauchnoy i tekhnicheskoy
info~atsii, 1975, pp 41-50.
- The PY Enersy BudgeC-Nuclear News, 1978, vol 21, No 4, pp 30-35.
Aparisi, R. R.; Baum, V. A.; Garf, B. A. "High Power Solar Installations."
In book: "Ispol'zovaniye solnechnoy energii" (Utilization of solar
energy), (symposium I) Izd. AN SSSR, 1957, pp 85-98.
Linitskiy, N. V. "Arrangement of a Powerful Concentrator for Solar
Energy with Stationary Flat Mirrors." GELIOT~I~TIKA, 1969, No 4, ~
- pp 21-28.
- 28
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Baum, V. A.; Aparisi, I~. R.; Garf, V. A. High Power Solar Installa-
tion Sol~r Energy, vol 1, 1957, No 2, pp 6-10.
COPYRiGHT: Izdatel' etvo 'tErneo!$~~~'-t;~ "T'ep~o~g,~tike~," ~ 1980. .
2291
CSO: 1822
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ELECTRIC POWER
UDC 629.7.064.58
POWER STATIONS WITH Mf~ GENERATORS �
: Moscow TEPLOENERGL~!'IRA in Russian No 3, Mar 80 pp 2-5
[Article by Academician A. Ye. Sheyndlin; B. Ya. Shumyatskiy and E. E.
Shpil'rayn, doctors of technical sciences; and G. N. Morozow and G. M.
Koryagina,, ca~adidates of technfcal sciences, AN USSR High Tempera~ure
~ Institute; "Present-Day State of the Problem of Constructing Electric
Power Stations With A4ID Generatorsl]
[Text] Research in the are a of energy conversion by magneto-
hydrodynamic rnethods, conducted about 20 years ago in the
Soviet Union and abroad.~ makes it possible for us at the pre- ~ _
sent time to proceed to a qualitatively new stage--the com-
mercial introduction in power engineering of thermal electric
power stations with magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generators.
_ The first large-scale experimental and experimental-industrial
installations called upon to demonstrate the feasibility of
utilizing the MHD method and to accumulate experience in oper- _
ating the individual systems have been built in our country
and abroad. The MHD power unit is a two-stage power instal-
lation, in the upper region of whose temperature range (2700-
2000�C) the MHD generator operates and in the lower region
(5~~-3~�C) a conventional steam-turbine installation is en-
gaged. The high initial temperature, which is practically un-
attainable in other types af structures, makes it possible to -
increase the efficiency of thermal electric ~ower stations
- with MHD generators to j0-60 percent. In this way~ great sav-
ings in fuel are achieved in comparison with the best modern ~
thermal stations (efficiency of 3?.3 percent). The savings
are approximately 25-30 percent greater. The promise of MHD
energy conversion is also determined by the fact that the MHD ~
= l0ur readers can become acquainted with the basic trends in
fuel and power production resources economy in the coal indus-
try by reading the articles in UGOI,' No 3, 1980. ;
30 ~
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generator can be utilized not only in a binary cycle with'a
steam power plant~ but also in a multistage cycle. In this
case, thermal machinery (a potash turbine~ for example) can be
used in the 1200-600�C temperature range. The more efficient
the lower and middle stages of a combined MHD installation~
the greater the thermal sa~ings of the entire electric powar
station.
The utilization of the MHD generator is promising not only
for increasing the savings at electric power stations where
chemical fuels are employed but also at nuclear electric power
installations.
A non-equilibrium plas~ia MHD generator with an initial inert
gas temperature of 1300-1500�C is possible in combination with
a high-temperature gas-cooled reactor. In the long term it
wi~l be possible to use gaseous-phase nucleax reactors with an
MHD installation, wl~ich in this case will be the sole or pri-
mary source of electric energy. There are interesting propo- _
sals for the utilization of MHD generators in combination
- with thermonuclear installations. ~
- An important virtue of the MHD installation is the feasibility
of achieving great indiva.dual outputs from the power units.
- In this case~ t~ne higher the output, the greater the sav~ngs
for the installation. This is due to the fact that the useful
- effect--the conversion of energy--is volumetric, while all the
deleterious effects~ such as the friction losses, current
leaks along the insulating walls~ etc., take place on the sur- -
f aces of the MHD generator. Consequently, it is necessary to
have a sufficiently great ratio between the volume of the MHD -
channel and its surface in order to decrease these deleterious
effects. Estimates show that open-cycle MHD generators become ~
adequately efficient at outputs of 500-1000 MW. The overall -
_ output of the MHD unit, including the steam turbine, will com-
prise approximately 1000-2000 MGJ.
With the utilization of the MHD electric power station pollu- -
= tion of the environment is reduced. The enhanced efficiency
of the MHD electrzc power station leads to a reduction of the
thermal emissions with flue gases per unit of energy produced
which is proportional to the reduction in the unit expznditure
of fuel, that is~ by 20-35 percent. .
With the increase in efficiency from ~0 th 50 percent the ex-
penditure of cooling water decreases by a factor of 1.~5, and
. by more than a factor of 2 when the increase in efficiency
- reaches 60 percent.
31 ~
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The injection of an ionizing additive--potassium carronate
_ (K2C03)-- into the MHD electric power station's combustion pro-
_ ducts almost completely fixes the sulfuric oxides that are
formed during the burning of high-sulfur coal or fuel oil.
This eliminates the problem of constructing special, expensive
- sulfur-scrubbing equipment, the cost of which~ the estimates
show, reaches 30 percent of the cost of a traditional electric
power pla.nt.
By virtue of the very high temperatures at which the combus-
tion process takes place in MHD installations, greater amounts
of nitrous oxides (up to 2 percent) are formed in the combus- -
- tion products.
The most widely used method of combating nitrous oxides is the
two-stage combustion of the fuel. It is this method that is
successfully employed at MHD electric power plants. In the
primary combustion chamber the stoichiometric ra+io is main-
_ tained at the 0.9-0.85 level, at which point CO and Ha are
formed, which at temperatures above 1500-1300�C dissolve the
nitrous oxides by taking the oxygen from them. Later on air
is fed into the combustion products and an afterburning of the
incompletely consumed fuel takes place. Calculations and ex- _
perimental data show that, in addition~ the nitrous oxide con-
- tent can be reduced to values substantially lower than those
allowed by existing standards. Besides this, in certain cases
it may prove to be expedient to extract the nitrous oxides
from the combustion products in order to produce nitric acid.
~
The MHD electric power station is characterized by its great
- adjustability:for specific schedule determinations the load
can vary from nominal to 20 percent, which significantly ex-
ceeds the control limits at conventional thermal electric power
stations. Such a wide range of control is insured by the
feasibility of shutting down the MHD generator and switching
~ the steam generator over to a mode of operation using self-
contained burners with consequent regulation of only the steam
power unit. ,
The MHD open-cycle installation can utilize almost all forms
of fossil fuels. Naturally~ at the first stage preference was
given to the utilization of "clean" fuel--fuel oil and natural
gas. However, most of the coal from USSR deposits can also be
effectively utilizeds in particular, bituminous coal from the
- Kuznetskiy Basin~ Kansko-Achinsk coal or semi-coke, obtained
on the basis of thermal treatment of the latter. With the
utilization of coal the operation of the individual systems
becomes more complicated. This occurs, first of all, in the
system for preheatin~ the air~ for injection of the additive -
32
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~ ~ �e ~ .
~f' '
~ - ti~ c.
� b � ~e ~
- ~ ~T ~
a
� ~ .
om
~S
S~ S~
c~ s
- ~ H i
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
r- -
i ~
' ~ I
~ ~ ~ i
- ~ ~ ~ I
~ , ~ ' ~ i -
r~J _ J 1
I . . I
i 4 ( r-----
- ~ ' ~ _ _
. i~~
i
- , N ; i _S ~ .
. ,
-,a*-= - ~
I
~ '
~ ( . ~
~ ~ .
~O~'r .
w �
~ ~ ; ~ , .
` h N
^
_ ~ ~ 1 T I I -
anT3 oy
33 -
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BASIC EQUIPMENT I~AYOUT OF THE MHD
POWER UNIT AT THE RYAZAN' GRES
1. Air fractionating unit ~
2o Oxidant compressor
3. Catalytic reactor
4~. High-temperature oxidant heaters (VNO's)
5. Combustion chamber
6. MHD generator (nozzle, channel, diffuser) -
7. Inverter substation
8. Combustion chamber cooling system
9. Self-contained system for cooling the nozzle and the
initial portion of the channel
10. Channel cooling system (p=2.0 megapascals)
11. Channel cooling system (p=4.5 megapascals) -
12. Industrial c~ndenser ~
13. Steam generator
14. Air preheater for independent operation of the steam
generator
15. Cottrell precipitators
16. Flue
17. Turbine unit
18. Flue ~;ases
19~ N atural gas
20. Air
21. Oxidant '
- 22. Steam, water ~
SS - Steam superheater
WE - Water economizer
FP - Fuel preheater
_ PE - Pre-engaged economizer
3~+
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and for recovery of the additive, where the presence of scale
a,ffects the operation to a greater degree. There are, how-
ever~ certain merits to the coal-fired variant: a layer of
slag protects the walls of the station's high-tem erature ele-
ments ( the combustion chamber and the MHD ch~annel~ and the
coal combustion products possess a somewhat higher electrical
conductivity (in comparison with those from gas or fuel oil
at the same temperature). This can substantially facilitate
the solution to the problem of extended operation of high-
- temperature materials and can reduce somewhat the necessary
level of oxidant heating.
The figure attained for the savings in fuel (or the efficiency)
at an open-cycle MHD electric power station in compaxison with
the traditional steam-turbine electric power plants depends
primarily upon the method and level of heating the air (the
oxidant) in the MHD electric power plant's cycle. For example,
in MHD installations in which the oxidant is heated to 1700�C
by combustion products from a special (self-contained) com-
bustion chamber, a combined-cycle efficiency of 48-50 percent
can be attained. If this same oxidant preheating level is pro-
vided for through the utilization of the combustion products
exiting the MHD generator, that is~ through heat recovery in
the MHD cycle, the combined-cycle efficiency increases to
50-~4 percent. An additional increase in the degree of heat
recovery (wit~i the engagement in the system of the installa-
tion's MHD unit for the thermochemical treatment of the fuel
by the heat of the gases which exit the MHD generator) increas-
es the efficiency of the MHD installation to 55-58 percent.
The higher figures for MHD installation efficiency cited in
the literature (up to 60 percent) can be attained in the long
term when tY~e installation's parameters are increased (the
oxidant preheating temperature to 2000�C~ the magnetic field
induction to 8 tons, etc.).
In the USSR the MHD installations that are best prepared and
are planned for future industrial introduction are the open-
_ cycle, gas-fired MHD plants with self-contained oxidant heat-
ing and a bottom-cycle steam turbine. The construction of a
gas-fired MHD electric power plant will allow us to create the
necessary production base for industry and to accumulate the
operational experience which is necessary for the construction
of a coal-fired MHD electric power plant. The most special-
- ized installation elements (the MHD channel with its magnetic
system, the inversion system~ etc.) will undergo practically
no changes in the transition to another type of fuel.
- The leading position in MHD electric power plant development
belongs to the Soviet Union. In addition to some large-scale -
scientific reseaxch installations, the U-25 experimental-
35
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industrial installation (whose MHD generator in 197~ re ached
its designed electric output of 20.4~ MW and over the course
- of more than 250 hours operated continuously at loads of up to
10 MW) has been in operation since 1971 in the Soviet Union.
The installation's overall operational time exceeds 6000 hours.
In the U-25 installation not only the main unit--the MHD
- generator--but also the other elements have been mastered~
the additive injection and extractions systems, the high-
temperature combustion chamber~ the steam generator, a system
for inverting the current drawn from the MHD generator~ the
apparatus for keeping the heating surfaces free from additive
deposits, high-voltage electrical insulation for elements of -
the MHD generator and the combustion chamber, etc. Some of
these elements are either totally new or acquire, in combi-
nation with the MHD installation, special characteristics that
are distinct from the working specifications of traditional
thermal electric power plants.
In recent years, research associated with the development in
- the Soviet Union of a coal-fired MHD electric power plant has
been conducted at a U-02 installation where the mineral por-
tion of the fuel is imitated through the use of ash supplied
by the gas-combustion products, as well as at the Minenergo
installation at Kokhtla-Yarve. Further substantial develop-
ment of the utilization of coal at MHD electric~power stations
_ is planned on the existing experimental basis in Kokhtla-Yarve
at the Kazakh Scientific Research Institute of Power Engineer-
ing (KazNIIenergetika) in Alma-Ata and at the U-02 and U-25
inatallations which will be refurbished and fully equipped.
The development of coal utilization is also planned at newly
~ constructed special stations and installations as well. Con-
struction in the future of a coal-f ired experimental-industrial
MHD installation on the basis of the U-25 facility will allow -
us to ootain the data necessary for designing a 1000 MW hard
coal-fired industrial MHD electric power plant.
In the U.S.~ Japan, India and Poland great attention is being
devoted to the development of MHD electric power plants. Some
research is being conducted in Canada~ Finland, Romania, Yugo- -
slavia and other countries. England, France and West Germany
at the end of the 196o's shelved their MHD energy conversion
research in vie:v of the absence of sufficient reserves of
fossil fuel and the fact -that they pinned their hopes on the _
immediate development of atomic power. -
- In the U.S. more than 20 organizations from government as well `
as laxge private firms are engaged in research in the area of -
_ MHD power conversion. The largest scientific research cen-
ters participating in research into MHD power conversion axe:
36
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the U.S. National Bureau of Standards, the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology~ the Argonne National I,aboratory~
the Pittsburgh Coal Research Center, the University of
- Tennessee, Stanford University and other firms: Westinghouse,
General Electric~ Avco-Everett, Reynolds and many others. At
present a special MHD power conversion institute is being or-
~ ganized in the U.S. in the state of Montana (MERDI), where
- experimental and experimental-industrial installations are be-
ing built. ThA transition to the practical introduction stage
is characteristic of MHD electric power plant development in
the United States.
= The majority of research being done in the U.S. and other
foreign nations (excluding Japan, which is oriented basically
toward importEd oil) is directed at the creation of co41-fired
MHD installations. In the U.S. at the present time more than
- 80 million dollars axe being invested yearly in this develop-
ment. The first large-scale experimental coal-fired MHD fa-
- cility with a 50 MW thermal output is in the final installa-
tion stage, and the start-up and adjustment operations axe be-
ginning. There are proposals for the construction in 1985 of =
an experimental-industrial MHD station with an output of about
125 M4V, which will subsequently be increased to 250 MW. _
The construction of a coal-fired 2000 MW MHD electric power
_ plant in the U.S. is proposed for completion in 1990. A
forecast done by the General Electric Company shows that, ac-
cording to their technical nad economic indicators~ MHD instal-
lations may prove to be the most preferred in the U.S. by the
beginning of the 21st century.
Taking into account the nature of thermal electric power plant
development in the Soviet Union, we are orienting the realiza-
tion of a development program fcr MHD electric power plants in -
two basic steps:
the construction of several ga~- and fuel oil-fired MHD elec-
tric power plants witli the engagement of a pilot power unit
in 1985~
the construction of a coal-fired MHD electric power plant with
the engagement of a pilot power unit at the start of the
199o's. -
At the present time the development of MHD electric power
plants has passed the stage of technical and economic demon- _
stration. The technical design stage of a pilot MHD power
unit will be started at the Ryazan' GRES.
37
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The following prerequisites have been prescribed as the bas~.s
_ of design development of a pil+~t industrial MHD electric power
plant .
The techr.ical-~conomic indicators for the MHD electric power
plant's pilot power unit should be higher than those of the
= known alternative Qlectric power producing installations pro-
posed for introduction in 1985. '
- �
_ The technical decisions incorpor�ated in the design should pos-
sess reliable experimental confirmation. This predetermined,
first of all~ the choice of fuel, since w~ in the Soviet
- Union have at the present time experience in u tilizing only
natural gas in MHD installations.
It seemed expedient to adopt the steam-power installation of
the MHD power unit as the standard layout~ since its manufac- -
~ure and operation had already been mastered. On the basis
of considering the limited expenditures for the pilot unit, -
_ the steam-power installation's output should be kept to a mini-
mum, but it should not be lower than the output at which the
MHD generator proves to be sufficiently economical. -
- The K-300-240 turbine~ widely used in the Soviet Union, con-
forms completely with these conditions. The output of the
MHD superstructure for this turbine comprises 24o-26a nRw,
which, a1 though it is substanti~,lly lower than the optimum
figure for the MHD generator~ is sufficient for demonstrating 4
the principal advantages of th.e MHD method.
In connection with the characteristics of the MHD ~nstallation
(increased combustion-product temperatures, the pre~ence of
additives in the combustion products, the necessity of utiliz-
ing the heat extracted from the combustion chamber cooling
system and the MHD generator in the steam cycle, etc.), the
MHD unit's steam genera+or differs in construction from the
standard model.
The design development carried out has shown that all the new
_ equipment (the super-conductive magnetic system, compressors~
a system to separate the combustion products from the additive~
the electric portion of the MHD generator, etc.) is on a
_ technical level where it can be manufactured at existing in-
_ dustrial enterpris~s~ usin~ a minimum of new materials. =
The oxidant preheating is done at temperatures up to 1700`C ~
an3 is carried out in self-contained, high-teniperature,
fu;^nace-type heaters (Cowper blast air heat~rs), since the
higher preheating of the oxidant or a replacement of the self- -
contained heaters with regenerators is associated with t~'~e use
_ oi new materials, the manufacture of which demands a substan-
tial refitting of industry.
~ 38
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- The thermal flow sheet for the power unit of the pilot MHD
electric power plant~ developed in accordance with the con-
~ siderations discussed above~ is represented in the diagram. -
The MHD generator is designed in such a way that the dischaxge
- and enthalpy of its exhaust gasea are sufficient to obtain the
quantity of steam neceseary for the K-300-240 turbine.
The application of atmospheric air or air that is slightly
enriched with oxygen (up to 27 percent) and preheated to 1700�C
is planned for the oxidizing agent. The slight enrichment
is foreseen as a back-up measure in case in the initial period
the temperatL~.re and electrical conductivity should prove to
be iower than calculated. In both cases the same equipment
will be used.
The equipment layout at the MHD electric power plant is ~om- -
pleted with compressors that are driven by synchronous moters.
A more economical solution is the installation of a compressor
driven by a special turbine wh.i~~h receives a portion of the
steam from the primary turbine's TsVD (high-pressure cylinder)
after intermediate superheating. In this case, however~ the _
~ development of a new prima~.�y steam turbine would be required
for the electric generator drive, since the flow rate of
steam within it would be different before and after the inter-
mediate superheating. Such a solution would not be adopted
for the pilot unit~ but it is proposed that when the MHD elec-
tric power plant goes into commercial production this solution
be rEViewed and that we make the transition to a steam drive
for the compressor.
One of the complex problems is the efficient utilization of
low-potential heat in the MHD cycle. In contrast tc~ conven-
tional steam-turbine plants~ the cooling of exha,ust gases in
= Mh~ electric power plants in the temperature region below 300�C -
cannot be carried out by the oxidant, since it exits the com-
pressor at a higher temperature. In addition, 7-9 percent of _
the burned fuel's heat is extracted from the combustion cham-
ber's cooling system and from the MHD generator at tempera-
tures no higher than 250-260�C. Zow-potential heat can be
utilized only under conditions of partial displacement of the
steam regeneration; for utilization of the heat of the exiting
_ gases to heat the fuel and preheat the air that enters the _
self-contained high-temperature heaters; and for other pur-
poses. The design developments that have been carried out show
that the application of MHD electric power plants~instead of
steam-turbine electric power stations provides a 21-22 percent
savings in fuel. With the cost of fuel at 30 rubles per ton -
of conventional fuel this makes it possible to reduce the cal-
culated expenditures for the output produced by 6-7 percent. _
39
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The designing of the MHD power unit for the Ryazan' GRES is
being carried out by the Moscow branch of the -
"Teploelektroproyekt" Institute. In the development of equip- �
ment for the MHD power unit~ the laxgest scientific research
institutes and design organizations of the USSR Minenergo~ -
Minelektrotekhprom~ Minenergomash~ the USSR Minchermet and
Minkhimash are participating, as well as from other depart-
_ ments~ such as the Zeningrad "Elektrosila" union~ the NPO
TsKTI (Scientific-Industrial Union of the Central Scientif ic
Research and Design-Construction Turbine ~oiler Institute imeni
I. I, Polzunov)~ Ukrgipromez and others.
The plans for 19 long-range, special-purpose programs relating
to new developments in the area of power engineering have been
examined by a permanent commission for the formulation of a
long-term, complex program of development of a fuel and power- -
- production complex for the Soviet Union. This permanent com-
mission is under the control of the USSR Gosplan, the USSR -
Council of Ministers State Committee for Science and Technolo-
gy and t,~le AN USSR. A preliminary analysis has shown that,
even with consideration given to all the allowances made for _
the possible deviations in the program's results~ the gas- and -
solid fuel-fired MHD electric power plants occupy one of the
first places among the new power-production technologies with
- respect to the expenditures cited.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Energiya," "Teploenergetika," 1980
9512
- CSO: 1822
~+0 ~ ~
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ELECTRIC POWER
= UDC 621.3.019.3
RELIABILITY TESTING PROCEDURES POR POWER STATTON EQUTPMENT
Moscow IZVESTIYA AKADEMII NAUK SSSR ENERGETIKA I~ TRANSPORT in Ruesian
No 1, Jan-Feb 80 pp 11-18 manuscript received 17 May 79 -
[Article by G.I. Gladyshev, Moscow: "Methods of Estimating the Reliability
of the Main Thermal Power Equipment of Electric Poxer Stations"]
- [Text] Diagnostic monitoring and statistical probability methods
of estimating the reliability of the ma~or thermal
power engineering equipment of electric poarer stations
are treated. The efficiency of their utilization in
various operational pariode ia analyzed. The theoretical
capability of utilizing the data of monitor diagnostic
measurements for statistical probability estimates and
forecasting tRe reliability of equ~pment ~a demonstrated.
Figures 5; references 7; pp 11-18.
Equipment which is in servic~ subject to both obsolescence and physical
aging4 Physical aging is expressed in a loss of operability by parts
and assemblies which operate under conditions of creep, under cpclical _
loada, ae we11 as in cases of corrosion and erosion.
Process~es which lead to a loss of operabilitp contfnue throughout all
operational periods of the equipment, and some, for example, corrosion -
processes, also continue when the equipment is not operating. Thus, -
physical aging is continuously taking place. This circumstance determines
the necesaity of ascertaining the time intervals for parts, assemblies
and units of a whnle, during which their performance does not fall bel.ow
some previously specified level vhich assures the execution of the speci- -
fied functions. For individual types of equipment, such time intervals
- are stipulated during the design. For the components of boilera, turbines
and pipi~ng which operate at high temperatures (more than 400� C for carbon
- steels, more than 450� C for alloy steels and more than 525� for austen-
itic nickel-chrome steels), the time factor is tak~n into account by a
conventional long term strength limit at the design temperature, which
corresponds to fracture after 105 hours, as well as with a conventional _
limit of creep, also after 105 hours. Within the range of this time
41
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period, which is the design ti~ae period, the funct~onal time--long term
strength and time--creep relationships are known, aince proviaiona are
made for deeign marg~na ot etrengtl~ [1].
The accounting for long term strength and creep at temperatures above
400� C is due to the fact thaC ~rith the action of the applied loads and
the stressed state arising as a consequence of this, the performance of
heat resistant steels and alloys, which is deteranined by the resistance
to defor~nat~on and fracture under conditions of creep and the capabilitp -
of degorma~ion during delayed fracture, varies with time. The mechanism
for the change in the performance of steels and alloys, from which the -
parts and assemblies of thermal power engineering equ~pment are fabricated,
is determined by the ~egree of alloying of the base, the quantitative
ratio of components in the solid solution and the parameters of the excess
strengthening phase (carbide and intermeta~lic). Structural and phase
changes are constantly taking place in a metal and are accompanied by a
reduction in its strength characteristics in time [2].
The loss in the strength of 12MKh and 15 KhM steels due to the transi-
t~on o~ molybdenum to carbides at various accrued operating times is
shoWn in Figure 1. It can be noted that the influence of te~perature in
the etressed state within a range of 105 hours ia taken into account
sufficiently completsly, although it is necessarp to continue research
on a number of problems [3].
In assessing the influence of cqclical loads on the long term service life, -
only some ot the factors are taken into acco~nt ~n the design calculations:
the change in the pressure of the ororking mediwn durtng atartups and ahut-
do~rns, fluctuations in the woiking pressure, fluctu~t~ons in the external
- loads, cycles during temperature atresses during the.time of startups and
shutdowna and oscillatians during operation. The impact of water-chemical
modes is not taken into account, which, as is well known, have a catalptic
action with the occurrence and development of defects in components, and
in a number of cases, are the decisive factors in the formation and apread
of damage, for example, in the bends of unheated pipes and the drums of
boilers.
Corrosion is taken into account in the calculations for the piping of
heating surfaces in the case of high temperature procesaes. Other ki.nds _
of corrosion and erosion processes are not taken into account.
_ Thus, phys~cal aging and consequently, the loss of performance can be
determined by calculations only on the basis of a few criteria for a
part of the equipment of electric power stations and in a nwnber of cases,
only for its individual components and assemblies in a range of accrued
operating tin+e of up to 105 hours. Tn the case of operation which exceeds -
~his timeframe, physical agi,ng is estimated either by physical or by
probabliatic statistical methoda of checking, or ~p Doth methods simul-
- taneously. The gossibilities of each of the methods is to be assessed as -
well as the promise for their use in power engineering. ~
42
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~ ~a) u . 3
. fl~ . - ~ ,
. a 2 f.muns /ZMX f.n~:ti~n 15xrd
5
,a ~ o o~
~ nv - - - - ~ 5
o ~
~ - - p ~p ~ o
b DO I o _
o4p 1 1 -
(1) i ~ - - - -
tl ~y ~ _
y ZO - - _
y - - v - � -
G
~ ~ p 60U~~ 0 ~U(1/10 lUOO~~U ~ _
� 10000 ~D0000 70UOD
� kg f~~2 (4) `~aFa6o~�Ka., y .
Q6~NZC/MM~ b ~u~
~ - - -.-T . : ~ ~ ~
v I O
10�C x o 0 0 0 0� ~
SD �o - - - - - - 10 C
_ c~ o ' o
d~ o 0 0� o � e
lx .
40 - o _ _ _ x
-x_ -
x " S10~C x xx x 510�C -
. ~ -x % x
~0 xx x x s~ % xx x x~ j x~� x'
x ,~x -x. x
x xx ~
x
1 � 2~ Gman~ 12MX 3~ Cman~ 15XM ~
' Z~0 20 40 60 0. 20 ~ 40 60 BU~
~1~ % nepeioda n+onu6dena e Kapbr~ad~ ^
Figure l. The 1oe~s of strength in eteela with a change in
the molybden~a content in the carbides.
Key: 1. Percentage of transition of Mo into carbidea;
2. 12 1~IICh steel; _
3. 15 KhM steel;
4. Accrued operating time, hours.
The level of equipment reliabilitp, whtch at everp point in time cor-
_ responds to its physical state, is characterized bp several determtnate
criteria, Which can be quantitatively estimated [4~. The ma~or onee of
~hem are the following: the ~hort tena mechanical properties of the metal -
at room and working temperatures, the long term strength, chemical compos-
ttion, densitp, structure, residual deformation, the preaence and nature
- of defecta and stress concentrators, as w~el't. as the rate of corroeion and
erosion wear. The magnitude of the criteria is est3mated by means of -
instrumented diagnosis: ultr3sonic and magnetic flaw detection, X-ray
and ge~na ray radioscopp, measureaents of residual deformation, mechanical
properties and chem~cal composition, eCc.
~+3
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The high precia~on of ineaeurement of the cri~eria ueing diagnoatic
inatrumentaeion makea it poasible at anp fiaed point in ti~ne to conti-
den~ly eafiimate the actual per~armance of aeaeTnDiies and crnaponents on
which the meaeurements are made. HoWever~ tt~e res~slte oDtained cannot _
alotays be extrapolated to identical components on wRich the diagnostic
procedure was not performed. This circwnstance auDatantiallp reducea the
effectiveness of physicsl methoda Qf checking. TRua, during the ultra-
sonic fla~z detection of the Dends of unheatnd beiler pipea, a batch of
36,179 Denda of 133 x 10 mm fabricated from carbon steel Was tested for -
- the purpoae of estimating their reliability. Of the entire number of
those tested, flaws were found in 725 bends (2 percent). In this case,
defective bends were not detected at all in some of the boilers, and
in some others, the re~ection tigure e$ceeded 10 percent. Tt is obvious
that the estrapolation of the reaulta obtained bp ultrasonic flaw detec-
tion from some un3.ts to othera is precluded in practice. _
There are even fewer possibilities for ultrasonic flaar detection in the -
forecasting of changes in the criteria being measured. Tn fact, as a
result of testing the 36,179 bends and finding 725 flaared bends among
Ct~an, an answer was obtained concerning the rel~aDilitp at the moment of
Cesting. However, it remained unclear when and at ~rhat rate flaws Would
occur and spread in the remaining parta. At the present time, this -
drawback is localized in practice a.t periodic control checks, which are
made at time intervals specified bp regulationa, and on which considerable
material and personnel resources are expended.
However, using some instrumented diagnostic procedures, it is possible to
predict reliability (residual deformaCion, 3ong term strength, hardness
and a number of others). To d~ this, repea~ed measurements are needed
a~ definite, rather lengthy intervals of time.
As a rule, the diagnosis is performed on parts and assemblies, the damage -
or destruction of which cannot be allowed becau~e of c:onditions for dis-
ruption of the power supply to consumers, the safetp of servicing personnel .
and the maintenance of the equipment. Since an estimate of the level of
reliability at every point in time of the measurements is rather high,
while the possibilities of predict~on based on the data obtained are
limited, the monitor diagnostic work is carried out syatematica111p at
specified time intervals, during which the probaD~li~y of failure or
damage is loW. -
- Monitor diagnostic measurements for the purpose oi estimating the reli-
ability of equip~ment are made spstematicallp on a one-time basis. The
necessitg of making one-time measurements is determined by the resolution
of various individual problems arhich arise during the operational process.
The essence of such problems consists in determining the level of relia-
b~li~y based on individual criteria at definite points in time. The
spstematic performance of the measurements is directed towards estimating -
44
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~
the dynamics of the reliability level, ~fiich is m~asured u~ing one or
several criteria. Syatematic monitor diagnoat~e operattona are performed
at the preaent time primarily on turbiciea, Doilera and I~igt? prea~ure -
ateam linea [5J.
~ -~j _
s j~~ I ~ - j..'T".
~ { 1 -
. ~ - f - ~ ~
~d1- - - _ ' -
~ uti
� ~ ~ 0 50 f00 /SO ~ ZDO
~
o$S-
- ~tl b - ~
~ _
~ -
~
_ ~
0 50 100 150 200 3
Hapa6omKn, mSIC.4 10 hr
Accrued operating t{.me
Figure 2. The periodicitp, kinds and volwnes of moni~or diagnostic
operations on the casing componenta o# turbines.
a) The housings of check valves: 1. V~sua1 inspection of the
surface at a temperature of the metai of 450' C and above
(100% of the surface); 2. Viaual inspection of the surface
at a temperature of the metal beloW 450' C(100X of the
surface); 3. Magnetic powder flaw detection of all of the
_ radial transitions at a temperature of the metal of 450' C
and higher; 4. Magnetic poFrder flav detection of a11 radial
transitions at a teaperature of the metal beloW 450� C;
S.An investigation of the mechanical properties of one
- notch sample for 35 KhML and 30 KhrII, steels; 6. An investi-
gation of the mechanical propertiea of one notch sample for
- 15 Kh1M1FL steel; 7. An investigation of the mechanical
properties of one notch sample for 20 KhMT~'L steel;
b) The housings of cylinders: 1. Visual inspection of the _
surface, 100X; 2. Magnetic poWder flaw detection of all
_ rad~al transitions; 3. Non-sample meaainre~nent of the mechan-
ical properties (no less than SO pointa); 4. An inveatigation
of t~e mechanical properties of four notc~ samplea for 15
Kh1M1F steel; 5. An investigation of th~ mechanical proper,-
- ties of four notch samples for 20 KhMFL steel.
~+5
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S-- -
al ~ I
'3---~- - - ~ 1
{ i
ytl - -i ~ - -
u~1- . . ,
o i D SD !00 130 Z00 .
~otl J - - - - - - , .
~ b
ti-~i 4
q - - -
J - - - ~
= 0 30 f00 1S0 Z00 3
) Hnpn6omKa, m~it. v 10 hY
' Accrued aper,.ating time ,
Figure 3. The periodicity, kinds and volumes of monitor diagnostic
- operations for the flo~through portion of turbines.
a) Parts which operate at a temperatnre of 450� C and
above:~ 1. Visual inspec~ion of the aurface, 100%; ~
_ 2. Ultrasonic testing of the weld ~oints of the shaft, 100%;
3. Color flaw detection of the surface o4` the heat grooves,
100X; 4. Ultrasonic flaw detection of fastenings ~rith
diametera of 42 mm and more, 100X; 5. Measurement of the
firmness of fastenings witix dir~metera of 42 mm and more, 100X;
b) Parta operating at temperatures below 450' C: 1. Visual ~
inspection of the eurface, 100X; 2. Ultrasonic testing of ~
the rotating bladee of the ChND [leW pressure ~ectfof~], 3,'OOX;
3. Ultrasonic testing of the weld ~ointe of ehafta, 100~.
The housings of cplinders, check and control valves and nozzle cages, as
well as the ~reld ~oints of cast parta between eactt ott~er and with forged
parts are checked in turbines. The camponents of Ct~e flo~r-through section
are alao checked: rotors, the veld ~oints of rotora, tt~e thermal grooves
' of ehatta, disks, rota~ing bladea, diaphragms, st~tor blades and fastening
Wi.th diameters of 42 mm and more are likewise checked. The most complete
measurementa are made on those componenta and aaaembli.es, the Working :
- temperature ot ~ieh exceeds 450� C. Nonetheleaa, diagaoatic work is -
also performed on medium and lov pressure cplinders.
- The periodicity ancl kinds of ckeck diagnostic operations, performed on
the housfng campcnents of turbines, are shown in Figure 2. In the original
state, the hardness of the metal of the cylinders ~s checked no less than
at 50 points in the zone of the regulating stage and tt~e flange ~oints
_ outside the aeating positions. The entire internal surface of cplinders
is inapectnd and ~nagnetie po~rdes fla~r detect~en (I~D} is performed on the
46 ;
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radial transitions and repair aaaples after everp 25,000 hours of opera-
tion. The asseaament of the mechanical propertiee of tt~e netal based on
- tRe saaplea ia made after 100,00~ houra of accrued operat~ng ti3ne for all -
- Curbines. Repeat meaaurementa and an eati~atP of tl~e mechanical proper-
tiea are made for the housings of cylinders, fabricated from 15 Kh1M1FL -
- ateel every 175,000 hours, and for the housing~ of cplinders made of 20
KhMFL ateel, every 220,OOQ houra.
a a ~ (~1 s ~hl
' Z
0, 40 p
0, 30 -
3 Z 3 1
0, ZD - -
0, f0 ~
40 44 4B 52 56 21 25 29 J~ 37 ~
Qa~KLC~MMY~~~,~Z ?O,Z~ICZCIMM=
Figure 4. The distribution prabability for the ultimate strength
and tha contientional qield limit: 1. In the original _
condition; 2. After 45,000 to 65,000 hours of accrued =
operating time; 3. After 85,OE0 houra of accrued operating
time; a. The d3atribution probability for the ultimate -
strength; b. The distribution probab~litp for the con-
_ ventional yield limit.
The mechanical properties are not determined for medium pressure cylinders;
onlq magnetic flaw detection and an inspect~on are peri`ornded. Visual
- inspection is made of low pressure cylinders.
The same kinds of monitor diagnostic operations are provided to evaluate
tfie houeings of check valves.
- The components of the flow-through section, Which operate at temperatures
af more tha~n 450' C, are su~ected to a 100X visual inspection every
- 25,000 hours. Ultrasonic fla~r detection of a11 seama is made for welded
~aints of shafts after 100,000 and 200,000 ?~oura. Color flaw detection
is used to check the condition of the thermal grooves of shafts at
theae aame intervals.
Fastenings with diameters of 42 mm and more, which operate at temperatures
of 500� C and above, are checked everp 50,000 fioura uaing ultrasonic
f1aW d~tection equipment (UZD). Moreaver, tfle f~rmneaa ot` the f~sten~g
is measured.
1+7
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_ The components of the flow-through section, wh~ch operate at a temperature
belo~r 450� C, are viaually inspected every 25,000 nonrs. The rotating
Dladea ot the loar pressure ~ection ~n the turbinea of poWer units with
a capacity of. 150 MW and ai~ove are fully checked once every 25,000 houre
ueing ultraeonic f1aW detection. Ultraaonic fla~r detection is performed
on ail the ~relded ~oints of ttte at~afta after 100,000 and 200,000 accum-
ulated hours of running time (Figure 3).
It can be seen from the data given on moniCor diagnostic operations,
that they are used to estimate the level of reliabilitp of the major
componenCs of turbines after specified intervals of time. The primarq
goal of the diagnostic work is to ascertain flaars which occur in th~~
~ assemblies and componenta dur~ng the operational proce~s, as we11 as to
oDserve the change ~n the properties of tAe metal at var~ous accrued
operating ti'mes.
The heating surfaces, unheated pipes, drums, collectors and weld joints
of boilers, as well as high pressure steam lines are checked in a similar
manner. The indinidual components of feed lines are likewise checked.
The cost of performing monitor diagnostic operations is rather high,
e:nd at the present ti~ne, is eatiinated to be 10-20 percenC of the cost of
ma~or overl:auls of equfpment in power units.
- Along with the diagnostic work, statistical probabilitp methods are used
to estimate the reliabilitp of equipment with various accrued operating
times. The problems solved using these methoda are different from those
- described above. The main one of them is the eatimation of the relie-
bility of a group of units, components or aasemblies, which are made into
a sample and which are characterized by a definite statistical homogeneitp:
the kind of fuel, the accrued op~rating time, the type of equipment and its
parameters, e~c. The accuracy og the estimates and tt~e representativeness
of the results obtained in this case are determ~ned by the correctness and
the volwne of the generated sample. Up to the present time, information
on the operation and downtimes of equipment, which makes ft possible to
compute the following various indicators have been taken as the basis for
the determination of the reliability level using statistical probabilitp
methods: the readiness and operational readiness factors, the running time,
the forced downtimes, the average restoration time, the mean time between
failures and a number of others [6]. The change in these indicators in the
case of various accrued operating times can likewise characterize the phys-
ical wear on the equipment. However, the data obta~ned in this case con-
cerning the reliability level can be extrapolated to other samples with
dif~erent confidence levels, Which depend primarilp on the agreeement or _
lack of agreement between the conditions characterizing both samples.
The computation ~f the probability of failu~e-free operation of thermal
power engineering equipment based on the true mean time between failures
can obe~ various laws. Exponential and normal d~atr~butions are encoun-
tered more frequentlp than the othera. ~11 of tAe main components of the
boiler heating surfaces have an ezponential distribution.
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Among other reasons, failures can arise as a result of the phqsicsl
aging of components and assemDliea. This ctrcianaCance makea it posaible
to draw the conclusion that at certain accrued operating times, after
which changes in the metal characteriatica are a8certained frrnn data of
a phpaical check, one can campute the probabilitp of a change in the
propertiea of the metal. The generation of a sample in this ~ase ahould
not be made baaed on the mean cpcles between failures, but rather on the
basis of tr~e mean time until a change in the properties, in which case, -
all of the attributes of sample homogeneity are preserved, and in a
number of cases, are specified more preciselp. The latter condition can
be explained aa folloWS. If sufficient conditiona for the generation of
a sample for the purpose of deter;nining the probability distribution of
failure free operation of steam lines are the identitp of the nominal
steam parameters, pipe diameter and tppes of steel, then additional con-
ditiona on the observance of the temperature modes, including overBhoots
of the temperature above the nominal level, are needed to determine the
probability of a change in the properties of the metal. _
It is obvioua that in generating a sample, to observe the conditions for
its homogeneity, factors which have an impact on the change in th~ metal
properties must be taken into account: temperatt:re, pressure, compensation
and cyclical loads, the variation in the chemical crnnposit~on and phpsi-
cal properties, as we11 aa the var~atton in rRe structure. The factors
can be considered separatelp and in groupa, depending on the prcblems
~hich are to be solved bp meana of the informat~on obtained from the -
generated sample.
As a reault of such an approach, it is possible to combine the results
of monitored diagnostic measurements ~rlth the reliab~l~tp indicators
determined by statistical probabilitp methods.
The distribution probabilities for the ultimate strength and the conven-
_ tional pield limit, obtained in tests of aamples cut from steam lines
(12 Kh1MF steel) at various accrued operating t~nes are ahoWn in Figure
4. In other words, tIie distribution probabiltties Were obtained on the
basis of samples of the "accrued operating time until a change in
properties" type generated on the basis of monitored diagnostic measure-
ment data. Two circumstances are noted. The first ia that the distri-
butions obey a normal laW; the second is that arith an incLease in the
length of operation, the probability o! the occurrence frequencp of the
appearance of samples wtth good properties falls oft. Tt folloa~s from
this that bp knowing the law governing the diatribution probabilitp of
the frequency of the change in the metal propertiea o# parts and assem-
blies for different accrued operating times, ane can predict the reli-
ability level of the equipment. Thus, there is the theoretical possi-
bilitp of establishing a relationship between the results of monitor
diagnostic operations and statistical probabil~ty eatimates of equipment
reliability I7J. Such relationaRips are obv~oualy more clearlp eapresaed
~+9
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in the case of long accrued operat~ng t~nes, since ieany reliabilitp indi--
cators are ~n~kedlp degraded enly~ iri the aging peri~e,d of the equiptsent.
It can be seen in FiguXe 5 tAat aacertaining relat~onships between lthe
results of monitor diagnostic neasurements and an esti~mate of the equip-
ment reliabilitp level by means of tt~e faiiure f].o~r parameter ia prefe~r-
able in the case af long accrued opera~3:ng ti~nea. Tt~e failure f1oW para-
meter variea substantially onlp ~n tAe run-~n and aging �,periods. The
- diatribution probability of tAe frequencp of the change in~meCal proper~iea
has a marked drop onlp after an accrued operat3ng time close to or eaceed-
ing 100,000 hours. This confirms the eapedtencp ot crnaD~ning DotR meChod~
for iong running equipment.
_ ~al 6
_ ~ a Ca~ p z ~
. 3.
i
1 2 3 . ~ Qp,Z _
~4~ HnPn6omKa dPEMlMLL~ y.
- Figure 5. The variat~on in the fa~iure #low paralaeter and
the distribution proDa~i~lit~ tor the conventional
yield limit at various accrued operating times.
a) Tt~e variation in the failure f1oW parameter;
1. The run-in period;
_ 2. The normal operational pertod;
3. The ageing period. -
b) The variation in the conventional pield limit:
_ 1. The original condition;
2. After 45,000 to 65,900 hours; -
3. After 85,000 hours;
4. Accrued operating time, hours.
Iti all probability, onlp by combining monitor diagnostic operations ari~h
statistical probabilitp estiznates t`or equipment rei~a~ility can the pro- _
_ blems of determining the max3n~~n permissible serv3ce lives of components
assemblies and units as a whole be solved for thermal power engineering
equipment of electric power stations.
- The utilization of the accumulated stat~stical data on equipment reliability
and tt~e resuits of ~monitor diagnost~c measurementa of the state of a metal -
make it poss~Dle, part~cu9.arly when they are cambined, Co reduce the labor
ou~Iays and~material expendiYures for tRe est~matien of tRe reliabil3ty
- of equipment wAich has been 1ef~ in service bepond the design period.
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The requisite conditions for the deveiop~en~ and ~ple~tnentatioa of pno~
grams directed toWards optimiz~ng the d~agnosttc volumes and per~od~citp _
are essentially being created.
_ An important measure related to booating the efficiencp of deterndinate
methods of reliability estimation can becorae the e~upplesnenbat~on of the
stock of ineasurement equtpment With net~r ins~rumenCa, and particularly, ~riCh
ultrasonic flaw detectors. The exiattng f1a~r detection ~natrumenta and the
methods of their utilizat~on do not permit tAe rel~able checking of the
reliability of contact ~reld ~oints of tt~e heating surfaces of boilers, the
weld connecCions of steam lines made of austenit~c steels and certain other
components of thermal poarer engineering inatallations. There are practi- -
cally no means of estimating the depth and shape of cracka WAich propagaCe
from the surface tnto the depth of a part. Tnstnanents are lacking for
checking the ehaf*_ing of turbine rotors from the axial channel side.
There is no need to continue the enumeration of the aeaemblies and parta,
to evaluate the reliabilitp of ~rhich php~ical teating tools should be
refined or redesigned. Tt can be seen fron~ tAe exarmpies ctted here that
~ such a problem exists, and its solu~ion arill a11oW for the optimization -
of the volumes and timeframes for the perfor~ance of monitor diagnostic
operations.
Thus, ways of optimizing the esfiimation of reliability consist~in combin- _
ing diagnostic and statiatical probabi].ity~nethods, in refining the exist-
ing measurement tools and in develop~Lng neW and more re~ined onese
It must be no~ed that for the estimation of the reliability of long running
thermal power equipment, th~ tools and procedures uCilized on installations
operating within the li:~m~ts of the deaign serv3:ce period are altogether
suitable.
Cor..clusions. 1. The evaluation of the reliability of thernnal power equip- -
ment using diagnoetic tools is characterized bp a Aigh level of ineaeuremen�
precision and a wide range of evaluation criteria, but has limited capabi-
litiea for prediction and extrapolating the re~ults obtained.
2. Statistical probability methods make it possible to predict the change
in the reliability level with t~me, and to extrapolate the results of ca1-
culations for homogeneous samples, but pield greater errora in the estimates
in the case of small volumes of raw data. This precludea the use of pro-
babilistic criteria in the calculation of the reliability of individual as-
aembliea and parts, for which a small nwatDer of events have been accumulated
during the operational process. -
3. In the case of long accrued operating times, the change in the probabil+-
- ity and determinate indi:cators is rather w+ell pronouneed in the ageing per-
- iod of the equipment, because of which there is tt~e theoretical capability
of establishing a quantitative relationship betveen Deth methoda. The
esiatence of a relationahip creates tAe conditiona tor pred~cting the -
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results of diagnostic measurements, and for their extrapolation for ~
homogeneo~s sa~nples.
_ 4. Combining the results of diagnostic work and probability estimates can
reduce the volume of per~odic testing of the reliability level of equip- -
ment which i~ in service. Moreover, the confidence level of the forecast -
in the determination of the additioanl operati~nal time wi11 be increased
for thermal power installations left in service beyond the deaign service
_ period.
EEBT,IOGRAPHY
1. OST 108.031.02-75, "Kotly statsionarnype parovyye i vodogreynyye i
i truboprovodp para i gorpa~chey vody. Normy rascheta.~ta prochnost
["Permanent Steam and Hot Water Boilers, and Steam and Hot Water Lines.
Strength Design Standards"], Implemented 7 Apr~l, 1977, Minenergomash
Put,lishers, 1977.
2. I.R. Kryanin, L.P. Trusov, "Perlitnyye stali v templovoy energetike"
_ ["Perlitic Steels in Thermal Pawer Eng~n~ering"], TEPLOENERGETTiCA
- [THERMAL POWER ENGTNEERING], 1978, No 10.
3. P.A. Antikayn, B.M. EsCrin, "S~oysrva meta.lla paroprovodov iz staley
12MKh i 15RhM posle ekepluatatsii 90-1C0 Cy,a. cR." ["The Properties of
the Metal of Steam Lines made of 12MKt~ and 15::hM Steels afte~ 90,000
to 160,000 Hours of Operation"'], TEFLOENERGETIKA, 1973, No 10.
4. V.K. Adamovich, A.I. Levchenko, et al., "Opredeleniye resursa
dal'neyshey ekspluatatsii energooborudovaniya iz khromomolibdenovoy
stali posle 170-200 tys. ch ekspluatatsii" ["The Determination of the -
Service Life for Further Operation of Power Equtpment Made of Molpbdenum
- Chr_~me Steel after 170~,000 - 200~,000 Hours of Operation"],
TEPLOENE.LGETTKA, 1978, No 10.
- 5. G.P. Gladyshev, "Otsenka nadezhnosti teploenergeticheskogo oborudovaniya
- otrabotavshego raschetnyy srok sluzhbp" ["Esti~nating the Reliability
' of Thermal Power Engineering Equipment Operated Beyond the Design
Service Life''], Report to the All-Union Seminar "Putt povysheniya
nadezhnosti ekapluatatsii elektrostantsiy i seteq" ["Ways of Increasing -
the ~perational Reliabili.ty of Electric Power Stations and Networks"],
VDNKh jExRibition of National Econom~c AcRievements) Publiahers, 1972.
6. "Rekomendatsii k metodikam prognozirovaniya nadezhnosti pri
proyektirovanii energeticheskog oborudovaniya" [''Recommendations far
Pr~cedures to Predict Reliability when Designing PoFrer Engineering
Equipment"], TsKTT [Central Scientific Research and Pro~ect Planning _
and Design Institute for Boilers and Turbines ~nen~ T.I~. Polzunov] '
Publishers, 1975.
52
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7. G.P. Gladyshev, "Nauchno-tekhnicheskiye issledovanipa problem
nadeshnosti pri ekspluatataii teploenerge~~cheakoao oDorudovaniya,
otrab~tavshego raschetnyy aroIt aluzhby" ["~Scientific and Engineering
Researct? on ProDiems of Re1~ab~lifiy-~n the Case of Thermal Power Equip~
- ment Operated Eeyond the Dee~gn Service Life"], Repor~ to the All-Union
Seminar on "Prognoz~,rovaniye i optiTnizataipa pokazatelep nadezhnosti
' turbogeneratorov" ["Predicting and Optimizing Reliability Tndicatore -
for Turbine Generators"], ~:igTElektrmnaah PuDlisAera, 1979.
COPYRIGHT: Tzdatel'stvo "Nauka"', "'YzveaCiya AN 3S3R, energetika i
transport', 1980.
- 8225
CS0:1822
- '
~
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- ELECTRIC POAER
UDC: 621.31], 21-827 ,
� KISLOGUB TIDAL POWER S~ATION DESCRIBID
Moacow ENERGETICHESKOYE STROITEL'STVO in Russian No 1,Jan 80 pp 64-67
[Article by Doctor of Techni~al Sciences L. B. Bernshteyn and Candidate
of Technical Sciences I. N. Usachev: "Significance of the Kislogub Tidal
Power Station for Hydraulic Engineering and Power Engineering Conatructio~i']
[Text] The tough energy balance, caused by the rise in world crude oil
: prices and limited reserves of natural fuel, has led to an intenaif ied
search for new sources of enQrgy, inc.luding tidal power. In spite of a
certain stagn~tion in conatruction of PES [Tidal Power Statio~] since
construction of the French tidal power barrage at Rance, recentily there
has been noted a realistic solving of the problem, expreased in the
forthcoming construction of two large PES in Canada (1 and 3.8 million -
kilowatta), South and North Korea, as well as in e?aboration of PES ~
pro~ects in England, Australia and other countries. The USSR is examining
the possibilities of building ia the White Sea and Sea of Okhotsk PES with ~
a total generating capacity of 120 million kilowatta, anxiual electric
power ~roduction at which would provide savings of 100 million tons of -
coal per ~ear at thermal electric power plants.
On the baeis ~f 10 years' experience of operating the Kislogub PES [1], =
a~e ca~Z state with full justification that such a turning point occurred
- not only as a consequence of the above-atated ob~ective factors but also
- to a significant degree thanks to new technical aolutiona implemented and
' tested at the Kislogub experimental PES. This experiment was based on '
~ full-scale teating of a new lightweight building design, making it pos- ~
aible to employ a floating technique.* The strength of this design is ~
provided by the thre~e-dimensional structural performance of thin-walled '
elements (15-20 cm in section), and barrage stability by sand ballast~. ~
This solution made it poasible to erect the PES buildia~g under the
favorable conditions of a coastal industrial center and to deliver it in
finished foxm, together with inatalled equipment, to the barrage site,
which frees construction crews from the necessity of erecting costly
* Certificate of Invention 135028 (USSR).~ Building for a Low-Head GES/
L. B. Bernshteyn. Published in B. I., No 1, 1961.
= 5~
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rofferdams and from the necessity of working in the sparsely�populated,
difficult-access, harsh-climate area of the barrage site.
The floating method of construction has long been known and is extensively
employed in the erection of floating drilling rigs, underwater tunnels, -
water intakes and other atructures sited at fairly large depths. Nowhere
in the world, however, had hydroelectric power stationa been constructed _
in this manner. Therefore the solution we proposed evoked many ob~ections
and doubts. ~
Today, after successful erection, delivery, insertion at the barrage site -
" and 10 years of studies, we can confidently state that the proposed design
and method of erection are entirely reliable. It was established follow-
ing thorough and extended study of the readings of 20 reinforcing rod
~ dynamometers placed at precisely calculated points in the structure that
when the barrage site was flooded, tensile forces in the reinforcing rods
of the block walls increased by 30-40 kN without any abrupt bursts and
reached 200 kN (substantially below calculated figurea). When a block -
was lowered onto a temporary bed, a rehearsal of insertion at the barrage
site, forces reached 280 kN, that is, ~emained within allowable limits.
During wave action fluctuations of forces did not exceed 15-20 kN. Under
operating conditions measurements of forces in the reinforcing rods when
the structure took a head showed extremely small fluctuations (2-5 kN)
during the tide cycle. Analyais of observational data indicatss that
u~der operating conditiona, when the average daily head absorbed by the
structure variea insignificantly (within a range of 20-30 cm), forces
in the reinforc~ng rods, with some shifting in time, are determined only
by change in ambient air temperature. Stresses in the slab and sidewalls ,
change in conformity with change in temperature of the concrete. Forces
in the sidewalls increase in an upward direction and from the interior
axis toward the periphery. Forces change by 1-2 kN with a temperature ~
chan~ze ~�~F 20�C.
Dynamic studies conducted with the aid of pulsation and vibration sensors, -
conducted by Gidroproyekt's Scientific Research Station during critical
conditions indicated that the Kislogub PES building, in spite of ita open
conetruction, possesses a high degree of rigidity, exceediag that of the
Saratov GES building, which ie constructed of monolithic componenta.
= Analysis of pressure fluctuation on a structure in the process of operation
under specially created critical conditions indieabes that the Kislogub PES
building ie also on the basis of its dynamic properties a relatively more
_ rigid structure than, for example, the Kiev GES building, which is also
- equipped with capscle units, but the section of the building components
of which is three times as large. The dimensianless natural frequencies -
of the first form of oscillation for the Kislogub PES building fall within
the range 33.5-43.6, and for the Kiev GES 22-27.2. Within the range
of disturbing frequencies excited by passage of water through the PES,
eibrations of structural components are negligibly small.
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rox UrrzcraL usE ornY
We should particularly note that the design of the turbine mounting, which
caused the greatest concern as it seemed highly fragile, proved to be en-
tirely reliable. Analysis of the vibration characteristics of the prin-
cipal components of the turbo-aet indicated that the vibration load on -
- them is 2-4 mkm in reverse pumping mode, which is the most difficult mode
for the generator, 2-6 for the rapsule, 5-20 for the thrust bearing, and
7-24 for the runner chamber, which ie substantially below standard values.
Design of the unique Kislogub PES, with the floating erection technique,
required solving a great many technical problems: development of new and
upgrading of existing structural materials, methods of protecting them,
_ and construction of an underwater foundation.
~ Let us examine the propoaed solutions and their reliability. -
~articularly high frost-resistant concrete was unqu~stionably that decisive
material which dete~ined the viability of the Kislogub PES design.
A concrete composition of particularly high frost resistance was specially
developed for the Kislogub PES building [2]. The fact is th~t, as was in=
dicated by studies performed prior to initiation of PES construction, the
few concrete structures on the Murmansk coast began diaintegrating in the
_ tidal zone from the very first year of their existence with an intensity
(by depth) of 10-40 mm per year. It is understandable that under these
conditions, with a 20 millimeter protective layer of concrete in the 15-
centimeter PES structures, the PES building would cease to exist within a
- few years. Calculations established that, taking into account homogeneity
of concrete in frost resistance and reserve strength factor, concrete for
the PES should be grade MrzI000, which exceeded by twofold that allowed by
the GOST.
Concrete compositions proposed by various inatitutes were teated by ac-
celerated methods under actual Kola Bay site conditions. Based on test
results, preference was given to a composition with a combined addition of
sodium abietate and sulfite-alcohol malt residue proposed by the Central
Construction Scientific Research Institute [2]. Features of this concrete
include a limited quantity of water (water-cement ratio=0.376, OK=1-3 cm)
and the necessity of maintaining 2-3~ air of a specified quality in the
- poured concrete in order to maintain a high degrea of frost resistance
required development of a special on-site process, which was elaborated -
by Gidroproyekt. This concrete was poured in the PES building, and over
a period of 10 years of operation it was thoroughly tested at various
experimental sites. The results of study of this concrete in the tidal
zone by Schmidt instrument on core samples and specimens indicated that
at the most critical sit~s (average level 6,800 cycles) it does not sus- -
tain disintegration or losses in mass, its compresaive strength with a
designed M400 was 70.1-83.7 MPa, watertightness V10-V14, water absorption
0.65-0.73y, and frost resistance Mrz1000.
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Investigation of concrete in the zone of total immersion with the aid of -
remote-control radia devices, as well as determination of concrete
strength with a PIBG-2 underwater gun with ball punch and an ABG-1 aqua-
concretescop~ enabled us to establish that disintegration of concrete
under aquatic growth bioanass doea not occur. Ite etrength in thie zone _
was 67-72 MPa. The obtained poeitive result of extended teste of Mrz1000
concrete made it poeaible to adopt a national regulation on ita employment
in harsh conditions and to recommend its adoption.
- Of course the inveatigations are not ending with development of Mrz1000
concrete. A aearch ie in progress in this area for a compoeition with
a longer aervice life in the North, which can be achieved by the incor-
poration of a number of special additives. For large PES presently on
the drawing boards, the structures of which will be sub~ected to ths
effects of large ice fields more than 2 meters thick with high ice
strength, it is necessary to develop a concrete capable of withstanding
the abrasive action of ice. We cannot model ice action in laboratory con-
ditions, and therefore the possibility of conducting continuous (for a
period of 8 months) tests on structural ~ragments for ice abrasion in the
basin of the Kislogub PES is of exceptional importanCe. Tests of the
ice abrasion resistance of concrete structures have been in progress for
6 years, at the PES. Specimens of concretes impregnated with various com-
pounds, plastic coatings and epoxy compositions are being tested on- -
site. Tests are being conducted on a new method of protecting reinforced
concrete structurea from ice, proposed by the Georgian Scientific Research
Institute for Hydroelectric Power Construction, a method which calls for
- coating them with a polymeric heater.
Insulation and waterproofing. Design studies indicated the importance of
temperature atressea occurring in the upper part of the atructure as we11
as that part periodically exposed by overfall. In order to eliminate
these stresses, in place of the usually employed "fur coat�' (wood plate-
asphalt), which is quite heavy, foam epoxy ineulation and watertight
_ sealant was adopted to maintain buoyancy, applied from slabs 5 meters in
thickness [3].
Investigations of this coating indicated that its heat conductivity
diminished by 10-20X during the first 2 years (under the condition of
coating integrity when sub3ected to mechanical action), evidently as a
result of shrinkage, and subsequently heat conductivity remained con-
stant. This positive result made it possible to apply foam epoxy insul~-
tion and watertight sealant on a commercial scale 3n conatruction of
Dneproges-II, the Nurek, Ust'-Ilimskaya and Sayano-S~?ushenskaya GES, as
- well as the Karagaada Canal. In future utilization of epoxide-foatn water-
tight sealant one should bear in mind that as a result of protracted
measurements under "winter-sumaner" conditions it was established that dse
to the thermal inertia of the water washing a structure in the tidal zone,
at the contact point with the structure there exists a microclimate which
decreases the calculated temperature gradient by 30-40%.
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Y
Future investi.gations should also resolve the as yet unresolved problem of
increasing the strength of insulation and watertight sealant under the
effect of inechanical abrading loads.
Protection of PES atructures and equipment from marine plant overgrowth
also proved to be a very difficult problem. In the PES zone there are
� 53 species of fouling organisme, the biomass of which reaches 10 kg/m2 in _
- a year. Many of these species attach so firmly to the surface of a
structure, forming a layer 2-5 centimeters thick, that they can withstand _
high water flow velocities (up to 8 m/s) and low air (down to -30�C) and
water (down to -1.5nC) temperatures.
Since such intensive fouling of the turbine blading, ~usL as on a ahip's
_ hull, can seziously deteriorate operating conditions, we employed here the
best of the marine paints: equipment was protected by the French-manu-
factured coating Cellobrase, while structu ral components were protected
with Soviet-manufactured non-fouling paints: KhS-79 (blue) and KhV-750
(green), as well as KhV-712, recognized as one of the finest in the world.
Their service life (together with anticorrosion coatings) of 4-5 years is
considered entirely acceptable. Subsequently, however, it is necessary to
_ restore the coating which, in contrast to a ship, in conditions of atruc-
tures permanently immersed in water, is extremely complex and costly.
In order to find more effective solutions, study has been conducted for
12 years now at the Kislogub PES of new coatings on test frames which are
totally and alternatingly submerged. Alongside these studies, a search
is in progress for new ways to protect structures. Or, the basis of a
proposal by A. N. Usachev, for example, studies have been conducted at the
Kislogub PES aince 1972 with the aim of developing a concrete with anti- .
fouling properties, by introducing a number of bactericid e adc2itive agenta -
to its formulation. Theae additives are introduced in the concrete in the
form of aqueous solutions together with the mixing water in an amount up
to 0.2% of the cement by weight [4]. A concrete formulation with lantanax
additive was selected and tested at the first stage of this pro3ect.
Tests at the PES indicated that under conditions of the Barents Sea this
concrete does not become fouled by marine organisms for a period of 6 years.
In addition, the cost ~f implementing this method of achieving a nonfoul- _
- ing effect is almost 15 times less than the cost of restoring nonfouling
coat3ngs . In addition, installation of equipment to protect the suction
pipes from fouling with the aid of electrolytic chlorination, with sea-
water used as raw material, has now begun at the PES. We can assume that
adoption of this method will substantially advance solution of problems of
biological protection not only of PES on the drawing boards but also
protection of large-diameter water pipes on various water engineering
structures operating in rhe sea.
Hydmphobic soil in the form of a batched mixture of sand with high-
strength residual oil was employed for ballasting the floating atructure
in the zone of variable levels. Investigations of this ballast, which is
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contained both in enclosed cavities within the atructure proper and on
test fragmenta, indicated that after more than 800C cycles of alternating
thawing and freezing, the hydro~nbic properties of thia ballast remain -
unchanged, which confirms its reliabili.ty. -
Cathode protection [5] of the Ki~logub PES, following the design of
Gipramorneft' and Azneftekhim, encompasses both the structural part (re-
- inforcement, reinforced concrete and sheet piling metal cathode box in
_ the rock-fill linking barrages) and the equipment, where it operates
~ointly with imported (in the turbine unit) paint coatings.
- Cathode protection of reinforced concrete structures is effected from a
powerful source a VSA 300/600 rectifier; protection is provided by two
tubular ~nodes placed on the bottom of the head bay, and 32 anodes in-
atalled in the PES building. Turbine protection is provided from a type ~
KSS-Sh power-line cathode station, an automatic control syatem, service
lines and comparison electrodes for monitoring effectiveness of protec- -
- tion. For this system the foreign supplier compan,y installed on the
turbine unit 30 built-in platinimm-plated anodes. The cathode protection
_ of the hydroelectric power equipment has preserved it throughout the _
10 yeare of station operation in extraordinarily aggressive corrosion con-
ditions of ocean-salinity seawater. As operating experience has shown,
protection of the gates, provided with built-in magnesium sacrificial
aaodes, is effective only in the zone of total immersion.
The underwater foundation was especially thoroughly examined, since it
constituted the most important condition making it possible to erect a
PES without cofferdama. The foundation was laid out in the form of a half-
meter layer of sand-gravel, poured down after excavation of marine sedi-
ments to the specified depth. The required antifiltration and suffoaion
properties of the bed were determined by the composition of the local soil,
selected by the All-Union Scientific Research Inetitute of Hydraulic En-
gineering, ecreening out particles more than 50 mm in diameter, as well as
by the effect of a frama (blades in the ghape of a 250 mm angle bar),
framing the block's reinforced concrete bottom. Poured in place by the -
clamshell of a floating crane, the bed was leveled by specially built
devices.*
Thorough studies of the foundation were conducted during the entire 10-year
_ period of PES operation. Observations employing piezometers placed at the
base of the foundation indicated that change in water levels on the sea
and basin sides of PES are rapidly recorded by piezometers, which attests
to the absence of stagnation zones, while the preasure head gradients
varied within limits of 0.08-0.15, which produced a filtration flow rate
of 0.12-0.15 m3/s. Regular annual measurements of approach channels
* Certificate of Tnvention 268279 (USSR). Device for ~orming Underwater -
Beds/V. G. Gavrilov. Published in B. I., No 13, 1970. ~
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indicate d the absence of dangerous deformations and any suffosion of
material from the bed.
The moet indicative for the etate of the foundation were the reaulte of
' observations of aettling of the PES building, performed on a regular basis -
by precieion leveling: at first annually, and subsequently once every 2-3
yeare. During the first three years settling averaged 20 mm at the four
corners (maximum difference 3 mm), while subsequently settling stabilized
to 1 mm per year uniformly at the four corners. All these data attest to
the suffosion filtration reliability of the foundation and enable us to
recommend it for large PES and other floating structures. In particular,
such a foundation bed was prepared for the floating foundations of the
towers of the 330 kilovolt overhead line in the Kakhovka Reservoir.
Power generation studies. Studies of hydroelectric power generating -
operations were not for the purpose of obtaining any new solutions, since
they were performed by the supplier (the French (Neyrpik) Company) on the
- basis of de~elapment af the hydroelectric generating unit installed at the
Rare Tidal Power Station, where these units have demonstrated their ex-
ceptional efficiency, obtaining from the flood (ebb) tide a maximum
quantity of electric power and transforming generation of tidal power
- from a lunar to a solar cycle. Studiea of the power equipment at the
Kielogub PES conducted by the Gidroproyekt Scientific Reaearch Station
confirmed these capabilities as well as the possibility of generating at
the PES the designed quantity of electric power while operating in a mode
of maximum yield and specified power output: 0.75 of installed generating
_ capacity during peak demand houra, regardless of tide phase.
A new innovation in this area was development of a variable rpm unit. This -
proposal was presented in 1961 by L. B. Bernshteyn [6] and based on the
fact that in PES operating conditions pressure heads on the turbine change
betwe~n five and seven times during a cycle. Maintaining constant rpm
leads to substantial energy losses. Study of ways to solve the problem of
obtaining constant generator rpm (required by its AC power line hookup)
resulted in selection of an induction-synchronous motor-generator(ISMG)
proposed by M. M. Botvinnik, Yu. G. Shakaryan, and N. N. Blotskiy [lJ,
equipment which, due to a variable state or magnetic field rate, makes it
possible to convert the turbine's variable rpm to generator rotor conetant
rpm. This unique equipment, built at the Elektrosila LPEO [expansion un- -
known] with a control system built at the Uralelektrotyazhmash Produ~tion ~
Asaociation, was installed at the PES (in place of an imported ,
synchronous generator) and, upon completion of testing, demonstrated a
capability to increase PES power generation by 10~6. whir_h opens up
realistic prospects for increasing the efficiency not only of tidal power
stations but also river hydroelectric power stationa which experience con-
siderable head fluctuations.
Ecology, commercial fishing. These studies are of decisive significance -
for designing large PES. Studies conducted by a number of organizations
indicated that the ecological properties of the PES basin did not undergo
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change during the entire 10-year period of PES operation. This is due to
preservation of the natural water exchange between basin and sea at the
PES eite.
It w~~s zatablished that the PES rectilinear-axis blading promotes the
passage of commercial fiah not only through the water passage openinga
but also through the turbine without causing in~ury [7].
In the process of these studies it was established that there is a
favorable potential for utilizing a PES base for development of commercial
fishing. This was demonstrated by establishment in the Rislogub PES basin
of a fish farm for breeding Atlantic and Quinnat salmon.
Investigation of side recovery of trace elements from seawater. We know
tha.t world reaerves of rare elements are rapidly becoming exhausted, while
some are close to disappearance. Under these conditions the age-old
problem of extracting these elements (including gold, silver, etc) is
being studied today in a number of countriea. Determining in this study
is the development of efficient sorbents and organization of passage of
very large quantitiea of seawater. Independent resolution of the second
part of this problem requires building extremely costly water-passing
dams spanning entire straits or narrows. Academy of Sciences Corresponding
Member Yu. V. Gagarinskiy adva.nced the idea of secondary utilization of
PES structures for this purpose [8]. On-site studies conducted at the �
Kislogub PES demonstrated the practical possibility of such a solutioa,
which requires installation of frames with sorbents in the water-passage
and turbine penstocks, which leads to corresponding relatively small ad-
ditional expenditures and loss of several percent of PES power generatior..
The effectiveness of this solution can be established upon obtaining high-
productivity sorbents, a search for which is in progress. -
It becomes obvious from the figures cited above that construction of the
Kislogub PES and the studies conducted at it are opening up the poeaibility
of well-~ubstantiated designing of large tidal power stations (Lumboeskaya
0.4 million kilowatts; Mezenskaya,l0 million; Tugurskaya and Penzhinakaya
from 35 to 100 million kilowatts). The significance of the Kialogub PES,
- however, ia certainly not limited to this. New technical solutions ob- -
tained during its construction and verified in the process of subsequent
studies have found application in various areas of hydraulic engineering -
- and power engineering construction. _
We should mention first of all construction of a 330 kilovolt overhead ~
power line crossing on the Kakhovka Reservoir, employing 100 meter towers
brought to the on-water site on floating foundations. This pro~ect was
carried out on the basis of experience gained fro~m construction of the ~
Kislogub PES and provided savings of 8 mi,llion rubles [9].
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By decision of a USSR Goaetroy expert commission, a variant design is
presently being developed on the basis of this experience, for construction
by the floating method of spillway gates in a Leningrad flood control dam.
Conaiderable savings have also been obtained by employing the structural
materials of the Kielogub PES (extremely high frost-resiatance concrete
and efficient epoxide foam insulatioa and watertight sealant).
The Kislogub PES played a very important role in development in the USSR
of an efficient capsule hydroelectric turbine and its extensive adoption
at low-head GES.
~
In 1959, during study of the French experience of building a capsule unit
for a PES in the USSR, the proposal was first made calling for extensive
employment of these units for specific low-head GES which were on the
drawing boards at that time [10]. A thorough study and investigations
made it possible to implement this proposal on a broad scale. At the _
present time 54 capsule units with a total generating capacity of 1.26 mil-
lion kilowatts have been inatalled and are successfully in operation,
which has produced savings of 57 million rubles on capital inveatment.
In addition, Soviet machine builders have mastered the manufacture of this
' equipment so wAll that they have been able to take an important step for-
= ward in the evolution of these units, building the world's largest en-
cFaed unit with an encased suspended wheel diameter of 7.5 meters, with -
eight such units sold to other countries.
Thus we can make the entirely warranted conclusion that the Kislogub PES,
located far beyond the Arctic Circle along the rugged coastal cliffs of
- the Bar, zts Sea, has proven itself and has become a laboratory of advanced
technology in hydroelectric power construction not only in the Arctic -
but also in varioua other parts of this country.
- BIBLIOGRAPHY -
1. "Kislogubskaya PES" [Kislogub Tidal Power Station], Moscow, Energiya,
1972, 263 pages.
2. Usachev, I. N. "New Materials for Water Engineering Construction,"
STROITEL'NYYE MATERIALY I KONSTRUKTSII, No 4, 1978, pp 11-15. _
3. Certificate of Invention 234666 (USSR). Method of Producing Epoxide
Foam/ V. I. Sakharov, A. A. Igonin. Published in B. I., No 4, 1969.
4. Usachev, I. N. "Protection of Water Engineering Structures in the _
Barents Sea," in the book "Prfineneniye polimernykh materialov v
gidrotekhnichskom stroitel'stve" [Employment of Polymeric Materials
in Water Engineering Construction], Leningrad, Energiya, 1972, pp 143-
148.
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5. Trifel', M. S.; Plizade, G. Ya.; and Mamedov, A. K. "Electrochemic~l
Protection at the Kislogub PES," GIDROTE[QiNICHESKOYE STROITEL'STVO,
No 4, 1972, pp 20-26.
6. Bernahteyn, L. B.' "Pogruzhnyye gidroagregaty" [Submersible Hydro- ~
electric Turbines], Moscow, TaINTIMash, 1961, 211 pages.
7. Pasternak, V. S., and Surkov, S. S. "Distribution and Behavioral
Features of Commercial Fish in the Zone of Influence of the Rislogub
Tidal Power Station," in the book "Biologicheskiye oanovy upravleniya
povedeniyem ryb v svyazi s primeneniyem rybozashchitnykh i
_ rybopro~usknylch sooruzheniy" [Bielogical Principles of Controlling
Fish Behavior in Connection With Employment of Fish Protection and
Fish Passage Structures], Moscow, 1971, pp 20-23.
8. Gagarinskiy, Yu. "The Oceaa Through the Eyes of Chemists,'� PRAVDA,
17 March 1973. -
9. Bernshteyn, L. B., and Gavrilov, V. G. "Construction of a 330 Rilovolt _
Overhead Power Line Crossing on Floating Reinforced Concrete Founda-
tions," ENERGETICHESKOYE STROTTEL'STVO, No 8, 1977, pp 26-29.
10. Bemshteyn, L. B. "Increa~ing the Efficiency of Low-Head Hydroelectric
Power Stations," GIDROTEKHNICHE~ STROITEL'STVO, No 9, 1959, pp 36-
42.
COPYRIGBT: Izdatel'stvo "Energiya", "Energeticheskoye stroitel'stvo", 1980
3024
CSO: 1822
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- ELECTRIC POWER
UDC 621.3.019.3:621.314.212.001.14
METHODS OF TESTTNG POWER TRANSFORMER RELTABILITY
Moscow IZVESTIYA AKADEMII NAUK SSSR ENERGETIKA I TRANSPORT in Rusaian No 1,
Jan-Feb 80 pp 19-25 manuscript received 28 Map 79
[Article by V.V. Sokolov and V.A. Lukashchuk, Zaporozh'3re: "Queations of
Estimating and Providing for the Reliabii~tp of Poaier Transformera"] -
[TextJ Questions of quantitatively evaluatfng the
reliability of power transfonaers are treated. Results -
of an analpsis o~ the level of reliabilitp of trans= -
formers are given uaing nontraditional methods of
processing the sCatistical data. A classification is
given for the causes of transforn~ers fa~lures in ligAt of
- the design ot a diagnostic spstein. ApproacAes to the
assurance of transformersreliability are formulated.
Figures 4, tables 1, bibliographic citations 6. pp 19-25.
The growth in the power and working voltages of electrical installations is .
_ confronting transformer construction with the problem of further improving
the technical and economic indicators of transformers and improving their
operational reliability. These requirements are to a certain extent -
contradictory, since making a design efticient leads to an increase in the _
apecific working loads on materiala, something which entatls aa increaee in
the sensitivity to the degradation of the condition of the transformers in
operation. Operational experience with foreign transformers shows that the
reliabiliCy of modern transformers proves to be lower in a n~ber of cases
than those produced 15 to 20 years ago, where the specific number of fail-
ures [1J increases with an increase in the voltage class (I+igure 1). More- ,
, over, the failure of a large transformer leads to cons~derable losses,
related to the failure to deliver electrical pmaer and the cutoff of gener-
ator capacity, as kell aa expe~:diCurea for repair, Which frequenCly amount
to more than 60 percent of the original cost. All of this n+akes it
necessary to increase the requirements placed on tranformer reliability as
well as the methods for estimating and assuring it.
For a number of reasons, power tranaformers are not sub~ected to tests for
- reliability, and the effectiveness of designer efforts to increase the ~
reliability can be quantitativelp assessed only from the results of
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transformer performance in service. Eut eatimating transformer relia~
bility based on operationzl resulta alao has its or~n spec~f~c features.
Group 15-05 of CIGRE proposed a procednre for estimating the reliabilitp
of tranforaera, accord~ag to ~iet~ Che indicators are defined as the
avnraged figurea aver a specified period, specifically, the failure rate
is detined sa:
m = n/NT
xhere n is the nunber of transforaers t~Ric?~ have failed, N is the
number of installed tranformers and T is tl~e observat~oa period.
~onsdiering the fact tt~at the average service life of transformers amounts
to 20 to 30 years, it is reco~ended that the observation period be speci- _
fied in a range of 2 to 3 years. Such�an approach is convenient for a
comparative analpsia, but ot ltttle effecti~eness in resolving the
qu~ations of forecaa2ing lailure free aervice ~rithin the li~mits of the
specified t3ae peri~~da, planniRg observations, establishing guarantee -
periods, etc.
q
i ~9 1 . 1
~
B '
~ ~ Figure 1. Number of failurea per
. i 100 pears of transformer
3 service of foreign transformers
;i - as a function of the vol.tage
-1 claaa. -
- Z
' Key: 1. The combined power
Z systems of the Federal
~
- Republic of Germany;
~ - 2. Hqdro-Quebec (Canada);
6 _ - -
, 3 ,4. Block transformers
q ~ and sutotransformers
~ as evaluated bp .
committee No. 12 of the
Z . i CIGRE.
0
~ ~00 2 J 4 6 B 1000
KV K e
Power transformers number among the higly reliable stattc devices with
service lives of tens of years, ~ere an ins~gnif~'cant ~raction ot the
installed transformera eiCher fails or is damaged within the period between
maintenance servicirlg, something which does not make it possible to use
traditional methods of probability theorp and mathematical statistics to
process data on ~a~.lurea aad requires the use of nontraditional methods
[2-5].
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. ~
- ?.~Plt)
_ ' ' I ~
l ~ - -
i
~ �i~ i ~ ~ I .
-S ~ ' ~ 1 ~ -
4 ~ i i
_ -3- - - ~ I I I
i
-Z ~ ~
- - . ~
- - , i
' 1 '
- ~ - Q -
~ i
, _
~ - , i
- - ~ -
~ \
0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8t
~d~$ ncm
Figure 2. I:istogram of the rat~ (a) and the curve for the probabi-
litp of failure free service (A) of 110 RV power trans- -
� formers.
Key: 1. Insulation failures due to nioisture; `
- 2. Tnsulation failures (interwinding breakdoun~; -
3. Heating of current carrping connections; ,
4. Short circuit;
_ 5. Otl~er.
In analyzing the reliability of various groups of tsansformers, an inter-
mediate characteristic is ;