SAUDI ARABIA: A GUIDE TO THE HAJJ

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP89S01450R000300320001-9
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 35
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 12, 2012
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: June 1, 1988
• Content Type: REPORT

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Directorate of secret
A Guide to the Hai j
Saudi Ada ia:
A Reference Aid
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NESA 88-10035
June 1988
Copy 41 1
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. at" E Directorate of Secret
Reverse Blank
Intelligence
Saudi Arabia:
A Guide to the Hajj
A Reference Aid
This paper was prepared byl (Office
of Near Eastern and South Asian Analysis (NESA). It.
was coordinated with the Directorate of Operations
Comments and queries are welcome and may be
directed to the Chief, Persian Gulf Division, NESA,
Secret
NESA 88-10035
June 1988
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Summary
Information available
as of 1 April 1988
was used in this report.
Saudi Arabia:.
A Guide to the Hajj 25X1
Saudi Arabia to perform this act of worship.
The Hajj, or major pilgrimage to Mecca, is the fifth pillar of Islam and is
considered the deepest religious experience of a Muslim's life. Every year
from 7 to 12 Dhu al Hijjah-the 12th month of the Islamic calendar-
from 1 million to 2 million Muslims from around the world descend on
the Christmas season.
The post-World War II period has seen a dramatic increase in the number
of Muslims making the Hajj-from just over 100,000 in 1949 to a peak of
2.5 million in 1983. In 1987, 1.6 million people from 120 countries
attended the rite. The pilgrimage has become a mammoth technical and lo-
gistic undertaking for the Saudi Government. For several months each
year, key ministries are preoccupied with Hajj planning. Although the
pilgrimage long ago ceased to be a source of income for Riyadh, Saudi
merchants look on the Hajj period much the same as US merchants view
of God.
The rites of the Hajj are intended to remind pilgrims of how Abraham, his
concubine Hagar, and their son Ismail, did their best to obey God. The
three mandatory rituals are:
? The tawaf, or sevenfold circumambulation of the Ka'ba, which recalls the
hard work of Abraham and Ismail in building the house of God.
? The say, or sevenfold running between the hills of As Safa and Al
Marwah, which reminds pilgrims of Hagar's puzzled and hasty steps in
search of water.
? The wuquf, or standing, on the plain of `Arafat by the assembled
multitude, which is a tribute to the brotherhood of Islam and the oneness
supervision of the guide organizations and other aspects of the Hajj.
The primary responsibility for guiding the pilgrims through the prescribed
rites, supplying food, shelter, and water, and generally providing for the
pilgrims' welfare during the Hajj rests with a group of tightly knit guide
organizations, which have been providing these services for centuries. The
steady growth in the number of Muslims making the pilgrimage, the
tremendous opportunity for corruption among the guides, and growing
official concern about security problems have led to increasing government
The overwhelming majority of pilgrims are interested only in obtaining the
spiritual benefits of the Hajj, and they react harshly to groups that try to
politicize it. Official Saudi regulations prohibit the importation of political
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NESA 88-10035
June 1988
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literature, and there is a strict ban on political demonstrations during the
pilgrimage. Nevertheless, the annual pilgrimage provides Iran, Libya, and
other religious militants with an opportunity to advance their political
agendas and to discredit the Saudi regime.
The Hajj is a yearly test of the Saudi regime's ability to protect the
kingdom from threats to its security. Every year since 1980, Riyadh has
improved both the quality and quantity of its Hajj security measures by de-
veloping a comprehensive network involving elements of the Ministry of
Interior, Saudi intelligence, the National Guard, and the Ministry of
Defense and Aviation. Although the Saudis have depended solely on their
internal forces to maintain security at the pilgrimage, violence and the poor
performance of some Saudi units in 1987 may cause Riyadh to seek
external security assistance from Muslim countries in the future.
Traditionally, the Hajj has served as an entree into the kingdom for
thousands of illegal immigrants, and every year the Saudi Government
embarks upon a security sweep of the western provinces to arrest and
deport pilgrims who overstay their visas. Most hajjis who try to remain in
Saudi Arabia are only looking for work, but
Da small number of those that remain-primarily Iranians-pose a
serious security problem.
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Contents
Religious Significance 2
The Pilgrims: "The Guests of God" 3
The Wukala
Libyans
Riyadh's Annual Security Nightmare
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Security Preparations
Post-Hajj Security Roundup
In pocket
at end of
text
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Scope Note The Hajj, or major pilgrimage to Mecca, is a unique event that has come to
assume political importance beyond its religious significance. This Refer-
ence Aid is intended as a guide to understanding the Hajj and the context
in which it takes place. It examines the Hajj's historical and religious
significance, the massive Saudi support structure, the human dimensions,
and the extensive security measures Riyadh takes every Hajj season. A
glossary of Arabic terms related to the pilgrimage is included for easy
reference. An unclassified foldout at the back of this publication explains
in detail the religious rites of the Hajj and the timing of various ceremonies
during the pilgrimage, as well as other background information./
This Reference Aid is based on a wide range of sources)
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Most of the statistical and geographical data
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on the pilgrims is drawn from official Saudi Government figures, but those
figures often are inconsistent and incomplete. Until recently, detailed
reporting on Hajj security forces-other than the Saudi National Guard-
has been fragmentary
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Boundary representation is
not neceeeorny autaoruatroe.
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Saudi Arabia:
A Guide to the Hajj
And proclaim unto mankind a pilgrimage. They will
come to thee on foot and on every lean camel; they
will come from every deep ravine, that they may
witness things that are of benefit to them, and
mention the name of Allah on appointed days over
the sacrificial animal He hath bestowed on them.
Then eat thereof and feed therewith the poor
unfortunate.
Koran 22:27'
Every year from 7 to 12 Dhu al Hijjah-the 12th
month of the Islamic calendar-Muslims from
around the world descend on Saudi Arabia to perform
the Hajj, or major pilgrimage to Mecca.' The Hajj is
one of the five pillars of Islam and is considered the
deepest religious experience of a Muslim's life. Saudi
Arabia's claim to leadership of the Muslim world and
a large part of the legitimacy of the ruling Al Saud is
based on Riyadh's ability to safeguard the holy places
and ensure a peaceful and orderly Hajj. The pilgrim-
age has become a mammoth technical and logistic
operation that poses an array of challenges for the
Saudi Government. Most important, the pilgrimage
has assumed political importance beyond its religious
significance.
Historical Context
Islamic scholars believe that the principal rites of the
Hajj had their origins in pagan cults before the advent
of Islam and that some of them go back to ancient
Semitic practices. The center of attention during the
Hajj is a sanctuary-the Ka'ba-that was built about
'Saudi Arabia uses the lunar Islamic calendar, which has 354 days
divided among 12 months. This causes the dates of the Hajj to
advance about 11 days each year. In 1988 the Hajj rituals will take
25 centuries before the birth of Mohammad. Through
the centuries the site gradually assumed importance
for the pagan cults in the area as a place of worship
and of commerce. The rituals protected by these cults
loosely followed the traditions of Abraham and his
son, Ismail. There is evidence that the pagan ceremo-
nies in Mecca included periodic feasts or fairs, which
over time had taken on a commercial flavor, and
people traveled long distances to attend them.
During his exile in Medina, Mohammad apparently
became interested in the Mecca pilgrimage as an
Islamic rite, according to Islamic scholars. In about
630 A.D., Mohammad incorporated the Ka'ba into
Muslim practice as the center of worship, and Islam
was historicized by tracing the origins of the Ka'ba
back to Abraham. Mohammad probably was influ-
enced by the large Jewish population in Medina, and
he utilized the commonly accepted tradition that
Abraham was the father of both Arabs and Jews.
Under his direction, Islam purged the Hajj celebra-
tions of their pagan influences and institutionalized
the annual rituals that are performed today.
The primary elements of the Hajj as it exists today
were set down by Mohammad about 1,350 years ago.
Guidance for the performance of pilgrimage rites is
derived from Mohammad's own observances as well
as his participation in the Hajj of 632, also known as
the Farewell Hajj.2 These observances were passed
down in the hadiths, or traditions of the Prophet.
Although the Hajj ceremonies did not evolve into
their definitive form until about the late eighth
century-and some of the practices attributed to
Mohammad in the hadiths are apparently later modi-
fications-Mohammad's observances at the Farewell
Hajj are still considerd by most Muslims to be the
basis for the present-day ceremonies.
' Mohammad died in Medina less than three months after perform-
ing the pilgrimage in 632. The Farewell Hajj is generally consid-
ered by Islamic scholars to have been the culmination of his life's
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Religious Significance
The Hajj is the fifth pillar of Islam and as such is
foremost an act of worship of God.' The Koran states
that every able Muslim should make the pilgrimage to
' The five pillars of the faith are the recitation of the creed ("There
is no God but God, and Mohammad is his Prophet"), daily prayer,
almsgiving, fasting during the month of Ramadan, and performing
Mecca at least once in his lifetime.' It is a profound
statement of devotion to God, a rejection of sin, and a
celebration of the brotherhood of Islam. The Hajj,
'According to Islamic scholars, in general, a Muslim must be of
sound mind, a free citizen, and have attained the age of puberty in
order to be obligated to make the Hajj. Those meeting these
qualifications may still defer the Hajj if they are physically or
financially unable to travel. Ultimately, the decision is left to the
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and especially the gathering on the plain of Arafat,
also is viewed as an annual demonstration of universal
equality and fraternity among Muslims. According to
the Koran, "no ideology or international law can go
further in nourishing the hearts and minds and shap-
ing the behaviour of different people."
The rites of the Hajj remind pilgrims of how Abra-
ham, his concubine Hagar, and their son Ismail did
their best to obey God. Obedience to God is the
cornerstone of Islam, and the pilgrimage rituals are a
symbolic representation of this belief:
? The tawaf, or sevenfold circumambulation of the
Ka'ba, recalls the hard work of Abraham and
Ismail in building the house of God.
? The sa `y, or sevenfold running between the hills of
As Safa and Al Marwah, reminds pilgrims of
Hagar's puzzled and hasty steps in search of water.
? The wuquf, or standing on the plain of `Arafat by
the assembled multitude, is a tribute to the brother-
hood of Islam and the oneness of God.
? The rami, or symbolic stoning of the satans in
Muna, recalls how both Abraham and Ismail were
tempted by the devil to disobey God.
? The Id al-Adha, or Feast of the Sacrifice, is a
reminder of Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his
son as a symbol of his devotion (see foldout).
Most pilgrims view the Hajj as a once-in-a-lifetime
experience and as the spiritual climax of their lives.
After performing this rite, a pilgrim often uses the
honorific title "hajji" for the rest of his life. Academic
sources indicate that a disproportional number of the
pilgrims are old and men generally outnumber women
2 to 1. Many make great sacrifices and invest their
life, savings to travel to Mecca. Some walk thousands
of miles believing that, the more arduous and chal-
lenging the pilgrim's journey to Mecca, the greater
the spiritual benefits.
Since World War II the number of Muslims making
the Hajj has steadily increased-from just over
100,000 in 1949 to a peak of 2.5 million in 1983,
according to official Saudi figures. By the early 1980s
the large number of pilgrims threatened to overwhelm
Saudi Arabia's transportation and infrastructure fa-
cilities. The Hajj Research Center recommended that
and cost $4 million, according to press reports.
The Ka`ba, built long before the birth of Mohammad,
is a simple cubelike structure of gray stone from the
hills surrounding Mecca, measuring 40 feet by 35 feet
by 50 feet, that stands in the center of the courtyard
of the Grand Mosque at Mecca. The only remaining
relic from the original Ka `ba is the Black Stone,
which measures 12 inches in diameter and is set in
silver in the east corner of the Ka ba. The door to the
Ka ba weighs more than 600 pounds, is made of gold,
The Ka'ba is covered with a black pall, called the
kiswah, decorated with a gold band that contains
verses from the Koran. The kiswah was originally
made in Egypt and ceremoniously brought to Mecca
each year by Egyptian pilgrims, but since the Saudi
conquest of the holy cities in 1925, the kiswah has
been made in Mecca. Each kiswah is replaced twice
annually and is reportedly made from nearly 1,500
pounds of pure silk and 250 pounds of silver and
gold, and it is worth $3 million.
Muslims believe that the original Ka ba was built by
Abraham and his son Isma'il as the house of God. It
is the point toward which some 1 billion Muslims-
nearly a fifth of mankind-are required to turn five
times a day in prayer. Seeing the Ka ba for the first
time is a highly emotional experience for most pil-
grims. Although there is nothing inside the building,
entering the Ka ba is considered an honor reserved for
special Muslim dignitaries.
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Figure 1
Growth of the Pilgrimage, 1925-87
a limit of 1.5 million be imposed, with the number
gradually rising to 3 million by the mid-1990s.5 The
US Embassy in Riyadh reports that in 1984 the Saudi
Government began restricting expatriates resident in
Saudi Arabia from performing the Hajj if they had
done so during the last five years, and religious
scholars in 1986 were asked to examine ways to
restrict Saudi citizens from repeatedly performing the
Hajj. These two groups traditionally account for
about half the pilgrims. In addition, the Saudis have
tried to develop an acceptable quota system based on
' The Hajj Research Center, located at Abdul Aziz University in
Jiddah, is an important planning facility and data bank of the
Saudi Government. It has a staff of about 150, maintains offices in
Jiddah and Mecca, and utilizes high-technology equipment-time-
lapse aerial photography for crowd control, for example-to advise
the regional Hajj Committee on how to better organize the Hajj.
ing to Consulate and press reports.
negotiations with the major Islamic states-Egypt,
Iran, and Pakistan-to restrict their numbers. In
March 1988, Riyadh announced plans to further limit
the number of pilgrims attending the 1988 Hajj by
imposing a quota system-1 pilgrim for every 1,000
Muslims in each country.' Last year 1.6 million
people from 120 countries attended the Hajj, accord-
The pilgrimage has become over the past decade a
mammoth technical and logistic undertaking for the
Saudi Government. For several months every year,
the Saudi bureaucracy's attention shifts westward
toward the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, as
Riyadh attempts to cope with the annual influx of 1-2
million pilgrims. We estimate that, since the oil boom,
of the 1970s, the government has spent at least $6
billion-nearly 75 percent of this in the last 10 years
alone-on development projects in the Jiddah-Mecca-
Medina area, including new construction at the Hajj
ritual sites east of Mecca.
The responsibility for organizing the yearly pilgrim-
age is in the hands of two special committees. Accord-
ing to the US Consulate in Jiddah, the Hajj Commit-
tee operates on a regional level and is chaired by the
Governor of Mecca, Prince Majid. The Supreme Hajj
Committee operates at the national level and is led by
the Minister of Interior, Prince Nayif. Both organiza-
tions include representatives of the ministries most
involved in pilgrimage planning-Interior, Pilgrimage
Affairs and Religious Trusts, Defense and Aviation,
and Health.
Influx Control
The Ministry of Interior has the primary responsibil-
ity for processing pilgrims entering and leaving the
kingdom. Upon arrival in Saudi Arabia, all pilgrims
are screened to determine if their passport and visa
information is accurate and if an individual presents a
6 Only Iran refused to abide by these restrictions, which would limit
the number of Iranian pilgrims to about 50,000 in 1988, and
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Table 1
Total Number of Pilgrims, 1978-87
Total
1,899,420
2,079,689
1,949,634
1,943,180
2,308,555
2,501,706
1,663,000
1,599,740
1,600,475
1,619,324
Foreign pilgrims
830,236
862,520
812,892
879,368
1,150,555
1,003,911
918,193
851,761
856,718
960,386
Domestic pilgrims
Table 2
Pilgrims From Selected Countries
Attending the Hajj, 1982-87
China
12
500 a
1,200
1,500 a
1,790
1,578
Egypt
98,408
121,453
133,071
130,872
98,606
97,216
India
28,000 a
30,000 a
30,000 a
33,691
39,344
40,854
Lebanon
3,000 a
3,300 a
3,500 a
3,862
4,298
4,797
Libya
17,787
38,986
25,000 a
13,441
14,509
28,864
Morocco
25,000 a
24,000 a
24,000 a
22,935
22,912
29,334
27,890
45,432
18,729
11,143
15,803
14,972
Taiwan
1,500 a
1,600 a
1,700 a
1,909
2,267
2,500 a
Turkey
43,788
41,853
41,000 a
41,693
54,624
96,711
USSR
l0a
10.
10a
15a
27
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Figure 2
Changing Modes of Transportation
Land
29
Transportation Network
Air Links. Since the mid-1970s most pilgrims from
abroad-almost 75 percent in 1987-have arrived by
air, according to diplomatic and press reports. Most of
these-more than 500,000 in 1987-begin arriving in
a massive airlift during the three weeks preceding the
onset of the Hajj celebrations. During this period
King Abdul Aziz International Airport in Jiddah
becomes one of the busiest airports in the world, with
more than 600 flights arriving and departing daily.
the Hajj terminal, located at the northern edge of
e airfield, can accommodate up to 20 747-size
aircraft and reportedly can handle 80,000 people a
day. The airport in Medina also has been used heavily
in the past, especially by Shia pilgrims, according to
US Embassy reporting.
Seaports. Official Saudi figures indicate that only
about 5 percent, or less than 40,000 in 1987, of
foreign Hajj pilgrims travel to Saudi Arabia by sea.
According to the US Embassy in Riyadh, most of
these are from India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, al-
though traditionally several thousand from North
Africa also travel by ship. This contrasts sharply with
the mid-1960s, when more than 125,000 pilgrims
were transported annually to the Hajj by ships.
Those pilgrims traveling by sea usually arrive some
six weeks before the start of the pilgrimage. Since the
early 1980s the Saudi Government has permitted
ships to dock only at Jiddah because of its better
processing facilities and its ability to better monitor
Land
24
Air
62
Air
72
the pilgrims' whereabouts. The pilgrims are lodged at
the port facilities until they continue their journey to
Mecca and Medina.
Land Travel. Official Saudi figures indicate that
nearly 25 percent of foreign hajjis, just over 200,000
in 1987, travel overland to Saudi Arabia. A senior US
official reports that pilgrims entering the kingdom by
vehicle must follow specific routes to the holy sites.
They are routed around major cities and are subject
to frequent identification checks at police roadblocks
scattered throughout the country. To limit congestion,
the Saudi Government in 1981 restricted vehicles
from entering Mecca with fewer than nine people.
Sea
9
Sea
4
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Despite these obstacles, large numbers of Turks,
Iraqis, Jordanians, and North Yemenis continue to
travel overland to the pilgrimage.
Health and Safety Measures
The potential for a serious disease outbreak during
the pilgrimage and the threat the Hajj presents for the
spread of international epidemics has long been a
concern of Saudi and international health officials.'
To help alleviate these problems, Riyadh has rigorous-
ly enforced international sanitary regulations. It re-
quires all hajjis to have up-to-date health certificates
and has on occasion refused entry to pilgrims on
medical grounds. In 1972, for example, the press
reports that two planeloads of hajjis from Sierra
Leone were forced to return home because their
health documents were not in order. The Saudis also
maintain quarantine facilities on islands off Jiddah
and Yanbu' al Bahr ports, but these apparently have
not been used since 1968, when 2,000 Filipinos were
quarantined off Jiddah.
Health and safety problems in recent years have been
minor. During the 1985 Hajj, which fell in mid-
August, 1,000 cases of sunstroke were reported. A few
dozen isolated cases of cholera broke out among
Nigerian and Turkish pilgrims in 1986, and last year
a meningitis outbreak caused several dozen deaths,
according to Embassy reporting. Saudi authorities
have quickly extinguished the small fires that periodi-
cally threatened to ravage the tent city at Muna, and
there has not been a serious fire since 1975.
Saudi officials have taken great pains to ensure that
they are well prepared to cope with medical or safety
emergencies:
? Each national contingent is required to provide
medical teams to accompany their pilgrims. In
1983, Iran sent a 500-member medical staff to the
Hajj.
' Many medical experts believe that the spread of cholera westward
from India in the 1830s can be attributed to infected Indian
pilgrims traveling to the Hajj. The world cholera epidemic of 1865,
? The Ministry of Health established 46 health cen-
ters in 1987, 13 of which were in Mecca and another
33 scattered between Mecca and the plain of `Ara-
fat, to treat the sick and injured.
? With the cooperation of the Saudi Red Crescent,
special clinics have been set up to treat victims of
sunstroke and heat exhaustion. Summer tempera-
tures in Mecca and Medina can reach 126 degrees
Fahrenheit.
? Civil defense helicopters and firefighting equipment
from all parts of the kingdom are stationed through-
out the Mecca area in case of a fire emergency.
Information Services
The Ministry of Pilgrimage and Religious Trusts in
cooperation with the Ministry of Information is re-
sponsible for publishing literature in several languages
that explains both religious and governmental rules
for the Hajj, according to US Embassy and press
reports. The Saudi press reports more than 500,000 of
these pamphlets are distributed annually. In addition,
the Ministry of Information in 1984 began broadcast-
ing on Saudi radio-in Arabic, English, French,
Urdu, Persian, and Indonesian-information on Hajj
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rituals, traffic, and health to assist pilgrims in per-
forming their religious duties. Saudi television in 1982
began transmitting live, via satellite, all the pilgrim-
age rites to 45 Islamic countries.
The primary responsibility for guiding the pilgrims
through the prescribed rites, supplying food, shelter,
and water, and generally providing for the pilgrims'
welfare during the Hajj rests with four tightly knit
guide organizations, which have been providing these
services for centuries. The steady growth in the
number of Muslims making the pilgrimage in the
post-World War II period, the tremendous opportuni-
ty for corruption among the guides, and the growing
concern over security have caused the government to
supervise the guide system more closely. Since 1965,
Riyadh has instituted several reforms and, according
to Consulate reporting, in 1983 established the cur-
rent system where the Ministry of Pilgrimage and
Religious Trusts supervises all guides.
The Mutawwifin
The mutawwifin's (singular-mutawwif), or guides',
main function is to guide and serve pilgrims during
their stay in Mecca. This usually includes leading
them in the performance of religious rituals, arrang-
ing transportation, providing accommodations, and
sometimes providing food. Although not religious
scholars, the guides are expected to know all the
required prayers and have detailed knowledge of the
Hajj ceremonies. In 1982 there were 1,160 mutawwi-
fin working in Mecca, according to academic sources,
and we suspect that, because of increased government
streamlining, the number in 1988 is less than 1,000.
According to Embassy and press reporting, the mu-
tawwifin are organized into officially recognized com-
panies, each handling pilgrims from a different geo-
graphic region of the world-Southeast Asia, the
Indian subcontinent, North Africa, Sub-Saharan Af-
rica, Arab countries, Iran, Europe, and the Americas.
Hajjis are then distributed to individual mufawwi in
on the basis of the guides' expertise and language
ability. No foreign pilgrims have been allowed to
enter Mecca except as part of a group led by a
mutawwif since 1986, and individual guides are pro-
hibited from soliciting business within the holy city,
according to Embassy reporting. A single mutawwif
may lead up. to 3,000 hajjis-although few handle
more than 500-and will have numerous assistants,
usually one helper for every 50 pilgrims. The mutaw-
wifin are paid by the Ministry of Pilgrimage Affairs
and Religious Trusts and not directly by the pilgrims,
in large part because of the guides' infamous reputa-
tion for fleecing the faithful. It was not unusual in the
late 1970s for guides to make $100,000 during the
Hajj. The US Embassy in Riyadh reports that guide
fees in 1985 averaged about $80 per pilgrim. The fees
are paid directly to the government, which then
redistributes a share to the guides.
The Wukala
Each mutawwif generally has wukala (singular-
wakil), deputies or agents, based in Jiddah, who
essentially function as expediters. The wukala are
responsible for meeting the hajjis on arrival; guiding
them through customs if necessary; finding adequate
housing, food, and water during their stay in Jiddah;
and arranging transportation for their journey to
Mecca, according to academic sources. The wukala,
like the mutawwifin, are divided into groups-accord-
ing to the nationality of the pilgrims they serve. Saudi
regulations require the wukala to assist the hajjis in
processing travel documents. The wukala are respon-
sible for ensuring that upon completion of the Hajj all
pilgrims depart the kingdom as scheduled.
The Adilla
The adilla (singular-dalil) are Medina's rough
equivalent of Mecca's guides, and they perform many
of the same services, but on a smaller scale. The
primary difference between the guides in Medina and
those in Mecca is that the adilla are responsible only
for taking care of the physical needs of the pilgrims
and do not act as spiritual guides like the mutawwifin
of Mecca. Moreover, not all pilgrims make the trip to
the Prophet's Mosque and tomb in Medina because it
is not officially a part of the Hajj. Thus the demand
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Second only to the Grand Mosque in sanctity is the
Prophet's, or Great, Mosque in Medina, with its
green dome and four minarets. It is reportedly the
site of the first mosque ever built by Mohammad and
has special reverence for Shia Muslims because it is
the site of the Prophet's tomb, and many visit it either
before or after the Hajj ceremonies in Mecca. a The
mosque has undergone a series of enlargements since
the 1950s. A $1.3 billion expansion, which was begun
in 1985, is nearing completion, according to press
reports. After it is finished, the mosque will have 27
entrances, 18 escalators to carry worshippers to the
roof, and underground parkingfor 1,300 vehicles, and
will accommodate 255,000 worshippers.
Medina in general is important to the Shias because it is where
several Islamic figures are buried, including several early caliphs,
Mohammad's daughter Fatima, and some of the Prophet's early
during the Hajj.
pilgrims from the holy Bi'r Zamzam well, located
inside the Grand Mosque. The zamazimah, though
independent businessmen, often develop a working
relationship with a specific mutawwif. Although they
work year-round supplying visitors with water, the
zamazimah earn the greatest part of their incomes
The Hajj, which was the primary source of the
regime's income before the discovery of oil, long ago
ceased to be profitable for the Saudi Government!
Riyadh spends far more on the pilgrimage, directly
and indirectly, than it receives in the form of fees. In
addition, Saudi Arabia receives no compensation from
other governments, and the financial burden of the
Hajj falls solely on the kingdom. According to 1972
estimates, the government received nearly $9 million
in taxes and fees but spent a minimum of $45
million-about $45 per pilgrim-on Hajj services for
that year alone. Revenues were further decreased in
1975, when Riyadh abolished the $16 entry fee to
lighten the pilgrim's financial burden.
The pilgrimage, however, continues to be an economic
blessing for the region's business community. Saudi
merchants look on the Hajj much the same as US
merchants view the Christmas season, according to
academic sources. Businesses stock up on items for the
pilgrims, and prices skyrocket, despite the govern-
ment's efforts to control prices on Hajj-related goods
and services. Regulations issued in 1985 prohibit
foreign Hajj committees from importing foodstuffs,
with the exception of meat, into the kingdom, and all
food must be purchased at local markets
In 1985 the average hajji spent
for guides in Medina is much less than in Mecca, and
press reports indicate that there were only 200 adilla
in 1980.
The Zamazimah
The zamazimah make up what is probably the oldest
of the Hajj service guilds, according to academic
studies. Their function is to distribute water to the
about $900 in Saudi Arabia, contributing an
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etimated $1.5 billion to the local economy. A sample
1985 bill, in US dollars, of Hajj expenditures breaks
down as follows:
200
200
Iranian pilgrims have been the most popular custom-
ers They
constitute the largest national group and generally are
big spenders-at least twice as much per individual
by our estimates. During the 1986 pilgrimage, for
example, Japanese companies such as Sony, Toshiba,
Sanyo, and Seiko undertook major sales campaigns
using Persian-language brochures to sell their prod-
ucts. Total annual Iranian spending related to the
Hajj over the past few years probably has approached
$400 million.
Religion or Politics?
The overwhelming majority of pilgrims are interested
only in obtaining the spiritual benefits of the Hajj and
react harshly to groups that try to politicize it.F__
Official Saudi regulations prohibit the importation of
political literature, and there is a ban on political
demonstrations during the pilgrimage. Every year
since the early 1980s, Minister of Interior Nayif has
warned pilgrims to avoid public political activity,
stating that violators will be dealt with firmly and
troublemakers deported. Nevertheless, a fundamental
difference exists between the majority of Sunnis, who
see the Hajj solely as a religious occasion, and Shia
and radical fundamentalist elements, who believe the
pilgrimage is also a political event.
In addition, Iran, Libya, and other radical countries
have tried to take advantage of the pilgrimage to send
subversive elements into the kingdom to undermine
the Saudi Government. The anti-Saudi propaganda of
these countries focuses on the alleged non-Islamic
nature of the regime and Riyadh's ties to the United
States, portraying the Al Saud as unworthy guard-
ians of Islam's holiest sites.
Chronic Troublemakers
Iranians. Iranian leaders insist that political acts
during the Hajj are part of the religious obligation of
Iranian Shia pilgrims. The annual pilgrimage pro-
vides Tehran with an arena for spreading Ayatollah
Khomeini's message of revolution and an opportunity
to confront the regime in Riyadh.
Every year since the Iranian Revolution, pilgrims
from Iran have conducted political demonstrations in
Mecca and Medina, according to Embassy reports.
Normally 30,000 to 50,000 pilgrims, nearly all Irani-
ans, have been involved in the protests, although a
1986 demonstration in Mecca may have included as
many as 100,000 people. Tehran claims that these
unity rallies are directed at the enemies of the Muslim
people-the United States, the USSR, and Israel.
Chants of "death to America" and "death to Israel"
are commonly heard.
Riyadh and Tehran
apparently reached a modus vivendi about 1985,
allowing the Iranians to stage at least two demonstra-
tions annually-one in Medina and another in
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1980. Fighting breaks out between Iranian and Iraqi
pilgrims in Mecca on three occasions in early Octo-
ber. Dozens are injured and several houses are
burned before order is restored.
1981. Iranian pilgrims hold demonstrations in late
September and mid-October in Medina. Police arrest
60 protesters. During mid-October a series of large-
scale Iranian demonstrations take place in Mecca in
which six people are injured and dozens arrested.
1982. A large number of Iranians participate in a
protest in Mecca on 24 September. More than 100 are
arrested. In Medina a week later, police break up
another Iranian demonstration, resulting in many
injuries.
1983. In early September, about 10,000 Iranian
pilgrims stage an anti-US, anti-Soviet, anti-Israeli
demonstration in Medina. Police detain several hun-
dred. Minor injuries reported.
1984. Saudi security forces in Mecca clash with 200
Libyans celebrating the anniversary of the Libyan
Revolution on 1 September. Less than a week later,
Mecca-with the limitations that slogans be approved
in advance and that there be no violence.' These
protests have been relatively peaceful. In fact, the
violence during the 1987 pilgrimage was preceded by
three similar, yet peaceful, demonstrations.
In addition to holding political demonstrations, Teh-
ran distributes large quantities of pro-Iranian propa-
ganda to other pilgrims. The leaflets contain harsh
criticism of the superpowers, Israel,=and Iraqi Presi-
dent Saddam Husayn and are usually printed in
Saudi security forces use water cannons and electric
prods to disperse 12,000 to 15,000 Iranians holding
an anti-US, anti-Soviet, anti-Israeli demonstration in
Mecca. Fighting between Iranian and Iraqi pilgrims
takes place on 14 September in Medina, leaving six
dead.
1985. In early September, police use water cannons to
break up a violent demonstration near the Grand
Mosque by 250 to 300 Libyan pilgrims commemorat-
ing Libyan National Day.
1986. Saudi authorities report several minor clashes
between Iranian demonstrators and police during
protests-one involving about 80,000 people-in
Mecca and Medina.
1987. Iranian-instigated rioting in Mecca on 31 July
leaves 402 dead, including 275 Iranian pilgrims, and
649 injured. Saudi security forces equipped with riot
gear take nearly five hours to end the disturbance
and arrest several hundred protesters.
several languages, including Persian, Arabic, and
English. The Saudis have attempted to stem the flow
of such materials into the kingdom
The Iranian regime relies heavily on its Revolutionary
Guard to undertake political activities during the
pilgrimage.
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We estimate that since
1981 Revolutionary Guard members and other reli-
gious zealots have made up 5 to 10 percent of Iran's
annual Hajj delegation.
Libyans. On several occasions in recent years, Libya
has sought to use the Hajj to discredit the Saudi
regime and to intimidate Libya's opponents.
In 1984 and 1985, Libyan pilgrims staged
violent demonstrations, attempted to assassinate anti-
regime opponents, and plotted to disrupt the
pilgrimage:
? In both those years, Libyan pilgrims attacked police
with canes and rocks during political demonstra-
tions near the Grand Mosque in Mecca.
? In 1984 the Saudis forced a planeload of hajjis to
return to Libya after discovering explosives and
weapons among the pilgrims
Although there have been no
major incidents since 1985 and the number of
Libyan hajjis has declined to an average of about
20,000 annually, Riyadh remains concerned about
the potential for future problems
Militant Shia and Sunni Fundamentalists. In addi-
tion to the Iranians and Libyans, other Muslim
extremists have tried to use the Hajj to further their
own political causes. Since the mid-1980s, Saudi
authorities appear to have become increasingly con-
cerned about the potential for serious problems among
Shia pilgrims from Lebanon and, to a lesser extent,
from Syrian Sunni fundamentalists. In general, Sunni
fundamentalist elements have been some of the most
vocal critics of the Al Saud regime, decrying its
decadent behavior and close association with the West
as un-Islamic.
The Al Saud take seriously their religious obligation
to allow all Muslims-regardless of political affili-
ation-access to the holy cities, but they also have
shown a growing willingness to take forceful action to
prevent disruptions of the ceremonies. The annual
presence of more than 100,000 Iranians and 15,000
Libyans at the Hajj over the past five years has placed
an enormous strain on Saudi security resources, and
the potential for a serious, bloody confrontation is
always high, as the 1987 Mecca rioting proved.
Riyadh also is deeply concerned that radical elements
will attempt to carry out terrorist acts to embarrass
the Saudi Government at a time when international
attention is focused on the pilgrimage.
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Hajj Security Forces
Every year since 1980, Riyadh has improved both the
quality and quantity of its Hajj security measures.10
The Saudis have developed a comprehensive Hajj
security network
/ In
the wake of the 1987 riots, 1 888 security preparations
are likely to be more extensive than ever.
Ministry of Interior. The Ministry of Interior (MOI),
under the direction of Prince Nayif, has the primary
responsibility for maintaining security during the
pilgrimage and is the kingdom's first line of defense.
Riyadh's increased preoccupation with security is
reflected in the marked expansion of MOI personnel
assigned to Hajj duties in the past six years. An
estimated 30,000 were involved in the 1987 pilgrim-
age, nearly twice the number in 1981. Although the
MOI personnel are assigned many functions, ranging
from routine traffic control to quelling civil distur-
bances, their major responsibility is the detection and
monitoring of potential troublemakers.
? The Special Security Force (SSF) is a quick-reac-
tion paramilitary force of 3,000 to 4,000 men used
to counter civil unrest during the Hajj.F
? The Special Emergency Force (SEF), created in
1981, is a specially equipped crowd-control unit of
about 3,000 men. The SEF suffered many injuries
during last year's clashes with Iranian pilgrims
The MOI components involved.in Hajj security prepa-
rations include:
? Police throughout Saudi Arabia are responsible for
monitoring all border crossings and ports of entry
into the kingdom. Special attention is given to Shia
pilgrims traveling across Saudi Arabia's northern
borders. In 1985 the countrywide system of road-
blocks was augmented to prevent pilgrims from
entering cities other than Mecca and Medina
10 The year 1980 appears to have been a turning point for Saudis.
The Iranian Revolution in 1979, the seizure of the Grand Mosque
by Saudi religious zealots in November 1979, and riots in the Ash
Sharqiyah (Eastern Province) in 1979 and 1980 emphasized threats
to the regime overlooked before and stressed the need for Riyadh to
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Saudi Arabian National Guard. The Saudi Arabian
National Guard (SANG) has played an expanding
role in the Hajj over the past six years. In the early
1980s the SANG Hajj contingent usually numbered
about 1,000 but now is estimated to exceed 6,000
annually. The primary task of these uniformed troops
is to assist in crowd control-especially of large
groups of Iranian and Libyan pilgrims." Elements of
the SANG also function as a reserve force to help
quell serious civil unrest. In addition, some guardsmen
dress in civilian clothing and support police in and
around the Grand Mosque, according to US defense
attache reporting. Until at least 1984, all SANG
personnel were prohibited from carrying arms in
Mecca, but this is no longer the case.
Ministry of Defense and Aviation. The Saudi mili-
tary's security role during the Hajj is limited to
establishing a reserve force of 1,500 to 2,000 in the At
Ta'if area, as well as placing additional units on
standby status. Active involvment is historically con-
fined to elements of army units
The com-
mander of the Western Region told US diplomats in
1986 that he can have reinforcements at an airstrip in
Muna within one hour of receiving the order. No
military units, however, have been used to augment
security forces trying to quell civil disturbances-
including the 1987 riots.
Security Preparations
Training. The focus of Riyadh's training efforts in
recent years has been almost exclusively on crowd
control, although attempts have been made to improve
antiterrorist capabilities. Many MOI security person-
nel appear to have received at least elementary crowd-
control training
Units such as the SSF and SEF are especially well
instructed in riot-control tactics, according to defense
attache sources. Although generally considered well-
disciplined, less than 50 percent of SANG personnel
receive even limited crowd-control training before
their de to ments according to defense attache re-
porting.
Despite these efforts, training programs have not kept
pace with the growing security commitment.
Equipment. Violent clashes between demonstrators
and Saudi security forces have led Riyadh to arm its
personnel with specialized crowd- and riot-control
equipment.
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External Security Assistance
The Saudis have depended solely on their internal
forces to maintain security at the pilgrimage
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The worst outbreak of Half violence in memory
occurred on 31 July 1987, when Iranian demonstra-
tors clashed with Saudi security forces in Mecca.
Following the afternoon prayer, thousands of Iranian
pilgrims-estimates range from 20,000 to 40 000-
shouting political slogans
The situation in the Al Ma`abidah area worsened
rapidly. Personnel equipped with riot gear from the
Ministry of Interior's Special Security Forces (SSF)
and Special Emergency Force (SEF) were dispatched
to help suppress the disturbance,
that elements of the 2n an r Combined Arms
Battalions of the Saudi National Guard-about
1,000 men-armed with rifles and bayonets were
ordered to the area to assist in extricating security
force personnel from the mob.
The rioters moved south along the Al Masjid al
Haram road, which leads to the Grand Mosque. A
security cordon of SEF personnel armed with riot
batons and supported by elements of the 4th Com-
bined Arms Battalion of the National Guard was
established less than 1.6 kilometers (a mile) north of
the mosque, according to defense attache sources.
10rder was restored by night-
Official Saudi figures state that 402 people, including
275 Iranians, were killed and 649 injured in the
rioting. Local observers believe-correctly in our
view-that the actual casualties suffered by the
Iranians were considerably higher. Tehran later
claimed more than 400 Iranian pilgrims died, accord-
ing to press reports. At least 85 Saudi security
personnel-mostly from the Ministry of Interior-
died, and the National Guard reportedly suffered
almost 250 casualties,
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Although the vast majority of hajjis who try to
remain in Saudi Arabia are only looking for work,
a small number of
Post-Hajj Security Roundup
The US Embassy reports that traditionally the Hajj
has served as an entree into the kingdom for thou-
sands of illegal immigrants, and each year the Saudi
Government embarks on a security sweep of the
western provinces in an effort to arrest and deport
pilgrims who overstay their visas.
pilgrims-primarily Iranians-do pose a serious secu-
rity problem. After the 1983 pilgrimage, the US
Consulate in Dhahran reported that Aramco security
personnel in the Eastern Province were warned that
30 Iranian half is had traveled to the area and were
engaged in subversive activities.
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Figure 6
Mecca, Saudi Arabia
1 Kilometer
I
t-I
1 Mile
Ministry of Defense!
--laddat al-Bab ,
Tunnel,
eigious 21
Supreme
Court
Mosque
ISL
An Naga
Q N
ti
Ash Sham yah yl
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Tunnels
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Glossary
The and gravel plain about 24 kilome-
ters (15 miles) east of the Grand
Mosque in Mecca where one must be
standing on the afternoon of 9 Dhu al-
Hijjah, Standing Day, for the Hajj to
be valid.
The ritual purification performed be-
fore entering Mecca to perform the
Hajj or the Umrah. It also refers to the
special garments worn by one in the
state of ihram-two seamless, usually
white pieces of toweling or sheeting.
The upper part is called the Tzar and
the lower part the rida.
(Pl. adilla) A member of guild of guides
in Medina who look after visitors to the Jamrah
city, particularly during the Hajj
season.
Dhu al-Hijjah
The 12th month of the Muslim lunar
calendar during which the Hajj occurs.
Ifadah Ka'ba
The mass exodus, or rushing, from
`Arafat to Al Muzdalifah after sunset
on Standing Day.
The major pilgrimage to Mecca. It may
be performed alone or together with the Kiswah
Umrah, the minor pilgrimage.
One who makes the Hajj.
Id al-Adha
The Feast of the Sacrifice, observed on
the 10, 11, and 12 Dhu al-Hajjah,
usually by butchering an unblemished
animal. This feast is celebrated not just
at the Hajj but throughout the Islamic
world.
The term used to designate three pillars
in Muna at which stones are thrown
during the Hajj ceremonies. Represent-
ing satans, they are the Jamrat al-
Aqabah, al-Jamrah al-Wusta, and al-
Jamrah al-Ula.
The stone structure in the center of the
Grand Mosque in Mecca toward which
all Muslims face while praying. It is
covered by a black brocade and gold
cloth called the kiswah.
The black brocade and gold cloth cover-
ing the Ka'ba. Made in a factory in
Mecca, it is replaced twice each year.
A small town located between Mecca
and `Arafat in which the three jamrahs
are found; also the site for the obser-
vance of the Id al-Adha for those mak-
ing the Hajj.
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(P1. mutawwifin) A Hajj guide from
Mecca who looks after the secular as
well as spiritual needs of the pilgrims
under his charge. An alternative term
for mutawwif is shaykh al-Hajj.
Al Muzdalifah
A small town located between Muna
and `Arafat, used as a camping area
during the Hajj.
The act of throwing seven stones at the
jamrah-the pillars in Muna that sym-
bolize satans.
One of the rites of the Hajj and Umrah,
consisting of seven one-way trips be-
tween the hills of As Safa and Al Zamzami
Marwah.
A special ritual prayer repeated
throughout the Hajj.
The sevenfold circumambulation of the
Ka'ba. There are generally three tawafs
during the Hajj-the tawaf al-qudum
(arrival tawaf), thetawaf al-ifadah (per-
formed on 10 Dhu al-Hijjah), and the
tawaf al-wada' (departure tawaf).
The lesser or minor pilgrimage, which
can be performed jointly with the Hajj
or separately at any other time during
the year. It consists of at least ihram,
tawaf, and sa'y.
. (Pl. wukala) One who looks after the
needs of hajjis from their arrival in
Saudi Arabia until the time of their
departure from the country after the
Hajj. Wukala work in conjunction with
a mutawwif.
The "standing" vigil at `Arafat, which
begins at noon and ends after sunset on
9 Dhu al-Hijjah.
One who provides water from the holy
Bi'r Zamzam well.
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