POWDER METALLURGY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: R
• Document Page Count: 314
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: May 7, 2012
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: August 13, 1952
• Content Type: REPORT

Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
Poroa kovaya 1u' taI1urgiya, Russian bk, zi943,
(Mi (photostat)
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
STAT
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
aptx V
(A) c U P fli T AND T] "1f WG
owed iL'i8b(d pxoducbs do not s $ slLi i i t
e t to be put i t? se z ct T The op atiafl o bakes on'
point oi to ba iO COrnPOZlCnt aXId or it pUipO? ,pVOV Cft
the u b :Lc p p 1 ti 8 pr uct . rnebi eS~ as Ira b r
o d out in O t3? E,, it i n $rn Y to resat to a.
? ft r bin; ardor to obtain tdo ix~d pro
perties.
Furnaces
In thb g t t&UQ D p duct 'f a3 O the
most v iod Used both w, y respect to & s gn a d to tb
tethod o h~ .g. The rj of ?urna dppmd on r -
:Length of 1xpo$E), t ra b? CPO c1 the
produet. the numb, tze L sbaP . w
too oC the rna of b~ :1xg edi :i its x' very w 1i on b
big owed t in p~
Protect 't
Pro Gags
C b G ~ a ; u e
F n a? r
Flo . ' aft*xfl! i race.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
A
~ a
Ft g1 86. Hi?
i ro taus 'w 5 th I1iob* ~ o " f or
co'ils suited fox bad t x t at1fl o O c eG3s
to 1200 d ge a, a ootr Q axn Oa With S W
T&uiafl :Wna e w cd the rL1 t w'
had a3 (Figure 8) whiCh re hed by
. bon tube., produce a p Zak ' i p to 2000
brxpr ature o 200OO deg$. Fina in crr to 4btth~ to
bighasb X tUZ E r4 t ? 3200 d C for b u r r
heating by past 3.GCt cum flt d 'ECt
h tho ob ec being ba rd txi Q- &i1~d w 4i haodB
vI
iproot ba
water c e si n 3
uZ't pp~1
nor ooh" prodW bog * iron disk; 7
ctuavtz s 8 - On pt X .mod
e2 va Wind
Id
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
tunnel ox ox' ?urfaco nC the ax'diraXr t1e m' be weed when
to be bead Ln a e1osad~ box. there is u~sd
loading pr~aducts
t vc medium a pacicin; (such as a paces of petrc eurn
as a protac
cafe whOxl biking broxuzp ` ate beads),, then the 8runs campaZ"t"
?
merxts may Lo bs used 'c r the a tat cf cC products. Wh %f the
prstective medi is a gas, the oompartxaent pro Wed with pipes
u
(" wre 69) for the c''culaticr~ of the prctectiat1sha-
i
etal1acerlc products because of the porosity
c1 ed to ~xidi e axed when air is being tcrccd through,
peciaUy j) e-
-
they are t to oxidize zat cxr an the outside but thrcu bOUt the
ate mass. For this reasozi it is necessa ' to carry on. not m1y
bad but a1so cooling in a prat, tlVe medium. In thts corinectLOfl
the more proved mcde1s o' turfaces e deli fed with a viw to dew
creasing :Lo$$ o? heat and uttin down the expclc to of prctecd
uwve as cooling . This i$ aehieiied in Purr aces o C two types ,
b .:Lsmtype d imbular with ccoUr de'cd.ces.
The be ~tlpe m acs s shown ifl F!na e is o'wn in Fire
has two he l - an inner case with a lead for the fir
0. It
ctectiV atrrosPhe which shis1ds the prcduats
culaticxx .of the
bo:thg baked and outer hcatlx case with e1ecbri a1. coils hsn
baking i3 oVeZ the out s case is r ao d d placed over ax oth r
inner vus repa'cd for bakes. In this way1 cn the one
is achieved pnafl1 a sctrICitI for elim
hand, there
cutez cae and on the other hand, he c. r pro
heating c:' the
s res ter in decreased e;~xiditure Of pr t c
i8 sp~~ded up,
duct
tive gas.
The most of ecti t v Of . pp rrat1X$ is be f rnd the
-9
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
'The UO3t iecU 1 e o apt 'at'e LS tO b sound in th
tubular with oa~1 d wi e$ (L gee 93. and 92).
'~~~ px~~~d
con t O a c aambe ? wi b w$ b
about 3 0 rn' i es) down to rocn tep atU ?O a prQt -
ra~r~d" ~ x ~ rLi
tip atmo.orra?
Ada or coy er$ a8$if thEa pxodUCt tb u the 1urnaCe.
The tip as sn X 3 to S flaCC On tbO pa?xip1e o1 a co t ? arid "otectiV' as ;Ln cO1~ are reded to a mizi"
current pasirig from the rei3?atC cI' to the loading
~~~~ of bead
mm in .r ~rrtaca5 ? T ar f13? C$ that OV4LcI$ !02? t ~
automatic Dioq:thg i baked obact$ aar abtniflg aC the most
atandardted pd,UciOZ.
$: _
q
~.I r .w+.., w?M.r 4?~ N, -.,iri 1.?1lI~ .e.rn~n.Fwr.n M+. n,J
i aen
Fi SB ? App at for Sintering FJ 5e
c1anp ) boU opp" pipe.; C - baael " c1np;
] bar bin . bd F miw7 contact;. . a * bear with wate3?
ack t J d K brc1ro do met & td ut t.
? e,
Qa
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
a - der cases b base i or ' nave oii; d out
0 e; 0 ;md mot n, outlet for
Noiybdexit
Protective
Cas
~,ti;,. .M~,rn?.p~.,r~,. ,m~~~
F uz a 1. T o rb rn `emce'e
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
i:I11 tzation]
Fide 92. TubiA Furn~oo.
Protective Nediw
In baking the fo11ewing diverse demand a made of a prateo-
tive medium:
(1) to prode'or the reduction of oxides;
(2) to , evont un sir bie cunt inetion of products (by soot,
foflaat;Lon of Carbides, nitrides, etc.)
(3) to prevent undeeirbie combustion doing bakes of indite
I.dual components (such ae of carbon in h d &.oye)
.04) to serve a a ety factor during the baking proeaee;
() to be ae economical as possible.
In thin connection, the se1e t on of a protective medium strong
depends on t he eoxaposition of produ~te, the type Qf race,
economic considerations, etc. Thus, pine oxy gen m be used in aU
furnaces, but its use in age furnaces is connected th the possi-
bility and d ger of an xploe one
,U kinds o park are teed a p~yottive medium 004,.
graphite1 metal shays. eduir and prottve a6e - oxygen,
gexirator gas, prod~cte of in ompiete ear~bustion from ilLumnting
or natural gas, noni gas, etc.; oonb n ti ne of a protective i ds,
phere with a protective tiller, etc.
In baking, b r Oar ;rbon a deopmposed with the formation
272
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
soo'b on pro fs 0. For the . ea sore, a1 c~a with a oonsit z'ablo con
tit of ydvocaboSza,, uah as iU ~i a t'i ox' natux'a - ~'~- ~ ~
4 opa G,I 3hauid he auh jc cted to pzti cobuationw F -e 2
showy the z'o tion of tha cc mpos t ou of p ti U omit d
atux ~a to the c ornpoaition o C a r in the pziztwe, ire 91i,
and 9 uipnaxxt or paz'ti 1 c~ambust4 u.
F iz'e r Re ion c th p it Lon of P rtiaUy
Boned Natural Oars to the Co~npostion o Mx in Vie.
Fgax!e Apparatus or the Ir onp to Go ast - o.
I ate Or ' t "i . Gas.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
Lie 9S. OQnbu8tiOfl
th the speed with
:L 0oos:th ch b d?Q ?
~? butte' it .V OD " "
,? combUsti0b i~
ty~s
valve ??~v+ yyyy ~~yy YA p Vy ~yyy~~gyq{~ +~ ~r~, ~~gY
y~ti~~a& ~~~ 19 ~ ~?y W+tii/W7u~Yi+1~1&~41~; ~~~~d-~I++D
0
t t a t biflg of iron.
oncentratiOn
lrjhen bakt;g raet~ W1 dO Ot t0Xbi~ With O8ZbOfl *fld ?QX
bid nat a ste.
Sty DaCta " met.8, hi~h a Uy ion
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Aproved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
cabidO3 pure are to used as a protootivo ataQepl ?x . Tn iaVfl the ba1~ ,grace is fed o water vapar
~'~n Apo
to h watar"oa01ad oondonae?a and co1umfla oontai"iJ3t
being p~-aaod
NaOa H O , etc. ), after wl~ it 'is reuaod
~~ aoxat~ ~~~~~~~ . ~
'
baking in the rocaaa. The diagram a aow th o; oi1itiof o oc~rz
is givn in Figure 98
When bakg 3Urr1 aUo~~~ ~t i8 naaaaaa' axe tea ot~aar ~a~~ to
aavroa to proveut the aonbu$tiof o e " (by ut g
take sp~o1
arburiflg packapw ~8p ao i '' whop ba in mo 'bt flUX11 rx oaa)
o
"' the material beis b , od oontainS metc:?a w~iiob forin oxic
~.~
diffiou:14t to redu~o (atit a ohrom um~ a1U1XU2rn ~ Ito.), the pr a a~oo
of CO and ? 3hOU1 be a triad i the proteoti gas. 13aki is
" oarrio4 on in as U very cry o gee wliioh is let in
througi ooliamna contiuing water absorber aauts (oaiUfl cIor~
muatia ao~a y%) iuto a en ace o ntaini metal s ?
Halo ahou . b carried on in a vaou oC such mataia as
tanta1 iiob show rn rko affi tt ^ r a a o p iflI't
bakers it practai to use for a prGtec;tu~apa+~
baking trproduota and wuate from mauutaatu3?~(uob as wet
a j of DOY- the otrc 'o a of aodtum ohiQr?iU$) .
The o g u Ld $ut pr e$aea t p3.&u when ba1pressed or Un'G5S t POWdC $
Declassified in Part -Sanitized Co Approved for Release 2012J05/07 :CIA-RDP82-000398000200080001-1
pY
 (1) Increased atode acbivity die to increas tem turn
() Chime the size of ontict mace of partio1 g. i
b it the size of contact u aea qui f frequsnbij .tn az'e a?
Tvou whc3 to
1 .,
Figure 96. ffact of CO/CQ M uze on , qn 1$LY.
F .tz r of, N tq on Iron ::L5;L
tc)t 1 su tce of p tip a incr in number of ca as
w~
grain ie the p rQpQZt?On of contact aactoxs in ref atic n to the
ab of?uta i s of co tact rf~ics deere , because of n i cre a is
we t(
A#
t
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
contact o ctor d3nd t)x m " tatiOf of t p'oo+ jai
ex e c~or boot a r t
i$ entiD r 0? paZbiO169S. This t1B*
'connection with chine the so o contact juice
since the oh of conic ctor8 ~waya t place a a1
both
of a xa a other (bee) size soc m to from
within pa rtioa.
(6) Shifting off` pOsi OX2 ski" p&7t i cor eQt ad wtt a
ume ii d porosity a ow z bodies It also d
pends on the a be and ch t 3? of contt t?
Figure 96.
`~ a ?...4 / /If, I iI t.
t;l .,.~y++
Jy} i 7
,..
),.-,,, (rrug , d l
Arrangement for InducGay
1 ?. f j ; Crying cf a r SOU C - CO13t
eizriaco; washers 6 andou to 7 '88SW o U1&
p .
t(ct ui d a$ h pr is 0gttt with a
ti, eh2nge in eonta t iU eoni T' t, be re n p, 1ii1Y1'1es
(8) .Ciwe iz ~$i propertie8
7?
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
tr5.C orc on gra"f ato Y
In " ' all n rt tiOf
ect or tndiZ cozu~ad
et .-a ~ ho u.34 be nad~ betW6~n bakes a
jrate. (A ~iich ~a far i~Z ~p~~~ ~ ckir~ng along a
mriai ben b~Gd)
T.... --- ._,YF',"f I>'t (O t tCt
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07: CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
r o? O a. n ibQ O $-"-& N
)o Of t1u q y j y~ $ J ent ;Dom a ref E ,t:1.Of
the :orrn a
"& the o ziW1
~~~er'l { s the eon &aF^! cP"/YT MMY \~f ' '
eJ'~Y MivY1M
iGi1Y;L,
GYP
r
~Ibii 3jj'fe?fl aim ~ ~ . c
M Table
h rs a 4 wig. the c t '$
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Lactic
: Within a G $t i or with
the contact cur aCG off` two
ceta
I the Maces of internal
aagies or at the poifl QF
contact of three identic'
oriented orysta
On the sides o inter
aflgi2$ or on the horida'
oj~ t cant4at sie of.
two identica f ort xi1 e
to rta a of * rysta1
the silo o extern Ica
the VSO, (
auag~~
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for
Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R00020008000!-1
Nbe atOna
A
At a Diet8nc e At a
Lqu to a fee than
No a in Prater oZ Pareter8
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
a ~-
bra the ~ E; o eXX
is oA 'fie mo : `
nUer the e cgio g page " ` 'i 1
ab1 .1? , W ; with
q" i{~~
~y'~]((7JJ7.~R~(."' ' tom di1VflBt0
the 3? , e$Qi
t is , xi that txk to
;
btu ' :~ ~ ' >a ~ i
j`n.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
td tie poE
'
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
ct $eW ?a contact eectoxs and 1rz the vu'exeis of 1rtc~rna1 ang Lee
at a on the bo'und'es of two c nntact sectors and or to sidesa '
intern:L ~ atcmas in mw e presslo , atoms a siwi ace p ~
truslan8 axed e1cVatlcne azd a1o sides external arig1ea j ate
sfl axe text s of external a ice (dt the cc~x 1e ~ t1iat the
smalle)? to n1e the gxeatex the rcb1 ti of atoms).
(see fo11ow1 page fox Table 17]
Table 17 $hows, with a increase the size ' c r st&Ls
there 1s a decrease in the number of mobile surface atons (apprex
mater in i sz se p port1 on to U near clmeui io ) . The number of
the move ~aob11e atoms along he sides (wet e `'r atom) ar d in 1
I y
v t? s of ages ("point' atom) decreases ev r more rapt,' . h
Th xur er decreases in irev e. proportion to t o qaare a e
ar the )1ne dnslcns off' to erst.
A first glance a 0 n L tion of Table 17 would create the
1apxess ,on hat to nib r cf the more mobil: atoms, esp Ur
a1 ng the fides a the vezbs of anj1es~ 1s most insignificant
(eve when tke fact 1s taken a zto co ldexa ion that thanks to surer
f e wzevurness tefr actua1 ibex 1a ea iderab r greater than he
compu?ed f the pxcp g
ostxic form) and that they could not
c.ert a percept bLe in ue a an the b to process. cwsV3r,
ziU1c t ibex of the Sao e ac ? e tors i in manr c se$ more
than compensated ' their great mebili. Thus, at room tneratur
the moo` 1lit of copper atoms *r a, f e su a 1s thu s
at 72? gxooe 14 md31iafl to : billion times, d neaz me1tiwj pQiub
at 1077 g e3 the and 3, lion times gxeatex t Lor
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
Number of At&s
for the ~i de Tatal Sher
of a Gabe
Qf A'I',OI-tS
RELAY`IVi NUMBER OF B3F1!NT ATt(S Iti k~I.fi~t0 I3 fiQ THE DiIENSIO1
4?F A GFiYSTAL ;dITfi A S3kiPL~ CtJBIG LPtTIGa~
percdrfiage of Mans
along Sides
pce:itage of ace
AtoNE i .Of
to Sum Total of Ate
In Terms o:C
In Terms of
Surface Atazns
Percentage 'at g'tcss in
Vertee6 of Angles
In Texas of
All Atoms
Li Texas of
3uriacs AtoEs
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
as cr. tom aiithi fl
tbati an r*a in s t$&
to the nobi1it a 1 i X' at n8'
vi5c0U8 f"1o ) r
? . d ra t t mere ob 1e a1XiSo
particla8 e, a t weXae in a 134 d state.
In bkLfl one xOUP or p1Q~$~~ 1P ~~~~ size rah"
N ye a th pie corr ct Qa8
Csitb, groom the
ste 0f contact swf ce du Lug bd .- the diiaeern of atoms .Zk
ps tCie or rirkgo.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
To to cppa8itE rcu)a cp?cce E ~ thane wbie a docreasG
the i ?of cont~ c,t u i C CEO p X C1Pra1: to ahso tion a
res:Lduai strc~ ca J th~~ :trru1 ~r? bcc11z at:tan of tht!, ifljyllg pro'
CE 33 id iiidi 4ui :L ra~~anges in p irtic Le Th.Le group c prcoersas
:.0a& t) ccp t, tiOf Of p~rt1 r nd, to r. ;Lncrcuse in dur
baidng a
Fi I , there aye proo& e wka ch iii reiai4on to t1i c tx ndi?
tion c their occurrence ini some c c am coi nae' d to increase
in the $1ZE of contact sir's tnd to a drawing tape er of pax"t,L
c1es, and .n other ca es a ~ecrea e ern contact ,' cc~ and c1r wt ;
apart cf prb Ic'1
'the ;din1 resu.:Lts or halo n incr?ee or decrease contact
surf cG,, dra' ~ together or ancv r oC pt +. s ro pa ib1e for
d term. ; i tote prcpert:i. E of the ba d x net pend' or wh h
group of pc~aee predcrt.
h proce a ccratributhig to ~xt m reaee in ccxitact s J c0
18 WE7S cc t d t +. drawing o etb r c p rt; s. tae other
: each of the .rycceec~s ac:]in to a cerEe iu ccaat.ct 83t&c
cci8t3 in drib wharf jai part iclee ., weep eluded the sum
tOtiai ` t b different. groups oZ pz?Qaessee there rna be cb erv d
csse of dec a ct cone u fa e acccxnp ied 'i . draLng
to ;rttciea. Or the bas?is of tudring to e'eota o comp
pace, c d bakes ore r r t to igLb. ' in. h~ nka e~; Ut o : con
n r d to to prce a of dr a i g g er of p r cL p c~ nt of
p um~t$o rye ozesrith c noreasi of ccx . surface of
rasa 1r , , pe zoen4. With a c aw s par't . of p e , k owever,
a ed . ; ~ t cri of r~.4uti etrea eu c c p ti , I, per ezt
.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
a-erearie (gr'owti oC 1 -e) corr'esponae to dooreaee of conta t
ew;race in the ordsx off' 20 peroe or more. Let us pr e, by
way o:t:1e~ that the ~~~oe~~ea v~" dray tether d:~ bad
ca~e~d a a wixkagc a: ' i~ netrio percent, lire the dz'awii'g ap t
:i vo1 otr'ic pewi t o increaae. Qorz's poncthig cha ea off' co ntact
C6 d he an Korea e ' 3~ ` ,percent, eaerueis Of
the e o ? contact aces cction prior to ~rnd ~ t b1 j 8 sewed
tart as a rc alt o? baking there usua1ir a d crtaaoe is the she
cj' contact rf ce cf p rtici even Mere t shrink je 2 psrm
cent OCCu2"3a O thy; basis of thc ~e abaorp ~ tian or ?i r thn t a.
decrea a n d rant a n n e e c? coxtact surface at part s is obi
of d have taken p1ac t bzdth g
The prcoaas s of defor tiox~ off" t met . p ale' eurring
d ~ bak m be broken down into eve a1 fps a way tier
th ' the re uit of their ctioA (d afrirfl together or
part otpartj wit :a depth off" t
+atw.EJ a 1 z e aztity cox. ia v j n the
t 3 G yep z ~rp ~
,
e .gt*) both tic~ ~t thr d avtng p1 of
rr
Uh `ep ' to cod ",c' $ t t j ra. to ax 4
o. he o s 'r g s quite ?a rzt
:th :Luea Th '4!o .. 4 Zge, Cw nd tne?
of anti 8 *~
o to 1Uik (te ~, q
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-RDP82-000398000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
~-ue h*a been . eeod (i ) p Ti opt dg
puwdez it o8 )4ea 1o~e to the actin t po'b (;ge
cric1ds of the m e ?b ( L3 ' th') ? " t om ahZ3k
spodes :1QZ! t th' o * bra to 3u3
d e'x to r~ t T d to i.e & r rng
BFI i 4e .. MIt1*rM~t i FJf ^"7 !V b aQ1 W tU " M/ L^*' f 1TNY'MI'i n'
1^
w, Length oZ
co' e. a 700
pouzd wt eS had at 600
(1a shin ) .
'
- r4
r " t 'fib&t ' '3;* COX$~ ~
tM '~ ~ and rE 1 .
i
j3 $E rrvh fob o
~ fl4 tpDt~ m ' . " stage
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int ern rcigiout tha uz'u.on o e
o3cde . The dues Ln zoug1me~s ~ dne s Lnze~
cpo uz e,, whUe t ~ Jit cones in 'thout
s.rvnn
~NI N
Yrvlnx r.r n, w,,. 7
Lr /'?111 i F?'' ~IV?" i" n.
?r" 1 0, j?
and Mo?a .fin MN w ler (D W
;I
r'i'~tt r
tined core.
F t' it ' S tli ?
` ~n ?Wrxy.4t?I'Lr ,"+4M'Mx141l.MnpM+vnwF,.MMr:rl.rwl,nn?Inn~lY?a1MM1117exIM1 I~wlr
c f'1 'rY414ix?.r,wNy1?,?I'x.'}'h'+nMa?LW:NrntllNtl?INM1ftI+I+N"^i,4tT'.MNyxInTMnVI'?;+l yngY?+ki~l~xrV~W4r .yHxe,l rl,?,f
'r: I ,,: ..
,tN . P
uz st'f ).
of o' a not bu
ga z place in aw . __
t sz~ iM? a r a o?` , 'I siae o c coed r zxr
4m s the Oz'iijai z'o taa
.
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A xe.ativv clear s d,L siOn of the w ttoza of 'bp atuz'e
is obs r d durizg the ourth a far ra ve t' a powdaro.
?e e o 'nth, just a densiti1 uE 1 acreasei with
grease in bakes t?vipsrat ure. hEa ind as aC d 'orat n ins.
cxeaee with an lease in t pert a ern wh a there is d p
density and ton i1a ' r gt i.
Ohms x h dnass (as well as the bait o yield during c on-
i)rraction, is distingut hed ?'ro charges t he irtd a of tensile
strergth diug etretohind in the is of deformation. With
an irease of t perature there is a decrease in the size of maid'
zal etree3e8 CU d by oo pacts (mss L actor ewers hl'd s ),
this there is an increase irt psi and ao1esion cf the meta) pow-
dex' (this 'actOr convci'se , increases hardness). or' this reason
change parr esia da ed b t perat'o varies for compacts of
different . densi4ies (Figure iii) . Compacts of 1ight den ier ectn
pressed under owppr + urc possess insignificant reeiduai st sse8
and rink a gz'et ; during p ss . it is or 'peso roa ons
for eh Cope .
th'har?o s ~ e*upteoELV 4th ientperature.
der very die cc aots comprssd der high presses
continue to o s oonsid r b sidua ze at have on
~h ahr .e dui bye Fs hardness o such c pa s
r a i wlh .a o 'a t p atu int vai.
late of sh a a, good d x ths pza ea of bakes, tr.
asinuoh * it 3,3 pDG rtion to the use Q ato stn durixg a
from free sects to contact ta. o e , h rate
cps not on on t wat but o on the mint of thne during
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high it s being me*~uxed, baeauae with tt e the number o tha
mom active atOms decreasa$ guiOlc Id ao consequent/' the rats
e. For this mason rates ?Qr d; ex ent baking t~mpara''
o~ shr inlc
tares have to be compared ared with equivalent intervals o time i. e.,
with mc1nenta that correspond to a similar total shringe. Instead
oC compaxing equivalent rates of shricZkaga, it would be ampler to
compare intervals of time required to attain identical shrinkage
at dujTerent temperatures (the ratio of these intervals o time is
appraximto '' equal to the ratio for identical rates of shrini age).
a
Determination o the act3?on of teperatura on the baking proeess
according to the time required ?Or attaining identical shri age iS
more practicable than tha frequent practice o estirnatin ~ it on the
attained for an identica]. interval of time (Figtu e
basis of ,shrinkagQ
109)?
t37 . 1/
y. I r l!yb
2
1 IB
I 1) 14
Y '
~
,
/ d
1
?r .
,1
,J
pr
rd
,l
5
I,~
Figure 111. 0hang8 s o hardness durirng Baking ?or eartor rl from
Compacted at D: f event ?ressux s ( ) +
rease in the rate of shrinkage with tperature in cord.
inc
where "e" is the base for natural iogarith1flsm r'Q" the aotivatin.
1R' the ga eoue constant,. d "Ti" the bsaiute temperature
enez~,
In an increase of belong tperat.ure nr'aat -
iron a oa er
ba.~~ , , pp
with formula (I6) is proportional to the expressiOf
ante e
cal uee equ~i. up to l degrees carresp afds to an crease in he
rats of shrinkage o 2-10 Manes (this increase grows with the case
mesa of the original powder).
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which it is being measured beoauae with time the number of t
more aot.ve atoms deoreaaee quiC111 d Q consequent the rate
of shrinkage. Pox this reason rates for different bak g tempera"
Lures have to be compared with equivalent Lntervals of time, i. e.,
with moments that correspond to a sim;Llar total shrix)1Cage. Inatead
of comparing equivalent rates of shrin1cage, it wain! d be simpler to
compare intervals Af time required to attain tdsntical shrinkage
at Brent temperatures (the ratio of thews intervals o t:~me is
d~,f ~
approximate equal to the ratio for identical rates of shrinkage).
~'
Determination of the act,an of temperature on the baking process
according to the time requfed for attaining identical sinkage is
more practicable than the frequent practice off'. estimating it an the
attained for an identi~4 interval of tinge (Figure
basks of shrinkage
~,,. ,~ .,?,..~ ,_~.,w..M?
if
t
. 5?
a... ar~~yuw?u.,?,,,e.
1 ,
~ I
1 , `r
., .,l..
,r' ?,
ir'.
Figure Ui. Oranges of 1 ard?i~as during Baking for earboryl from
Compacted at Diffrent Pressures ().
Increase in the rate of shrinkage with terczperature in cordi
n
to the expressio
ro
ortional
(6) i
3
p
.
s p
.
a
once with forrnu
e
where uef is the base for natural gar`itlZS, 'SQ" the activating
enei'gyj tiR? the gaseous constant, Arid "hc absolute` to~cperata
In baking on ?a' copper an increase of bale temperature in pr ct i
oai use equal up to 1O. degz es carne ponds t4 an croar a in he
rate of sh, .nkage Of 2?10 ties (this increase grows 11 the. Ca .ee-
ness of the original powder). .
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A^
I'
1 n~ :~~ ;1? ..
1+1 1. /(?;??
I
I I~I
drr
d + 1
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pzoes bib also a n e, xa a
rent iiobUtte WhtO1 take part i tk~e bng p
(t the big
rcnwth stg).Ct m
e1tingbo
(b) ; ff' A
e.
8bnkae at rst groww r'api~ i* .'cv aown. to
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a c no t m~ the art hrir 1 as o ea h d tts i h~ it eie3. wick
ro 1a, ohaxxg~ pith ?'ux'ther pauro. 't'he rate off' she
in this C e dropa to zero am41 4' r poaure rcmai t
Z i DO :L i ;L. In the second . caa the o riU shrinkage roachoi
n iln Elf t~ Iaapa a some t and tea decre a o with ftu'ther
closure, The rata of a 1 t n o iu t a e oa~d oiu a upon c op g
dowf to zero does not stay Ott that vei but decreases ?tu'th r and
chaff its s; jn. I tii . w y ha powder neta1 tae and case
begins to ccpd t that mrent with a gertiai~i speed,
under the in i ence of two coup of forces expandingand con
tracti.
O may think oZ the rate of hr'irkag a aa.s the rosult of creep
T~ contraction o a metaa1 powder i pz'inoip y caused by
the tion ott' a urf e . tnt at c Oroe and li1wiso by th filler
of pores diw zg the tonal e~pa n ion of particle. ontraotion
6 a rca It o? therrn pan drops down to zero ve qu k y
.mss iit upon becoming thoroughly heated to the t apcz?ature a
epoaure.
r
"
y }
A1, 4.,,.. ~
t .u
' ... ,a..~
j
l
1
'; a it2. soh
bV'~l x I:4'. f ~ii ~lyl.
9F~~khT~ .J 11? 9
aw ?~~,~~~ VIII
_a
r f rrf ~~
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4H i
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,
A ~ n) 1
/ , rr.'i.i.i.:1 Y; j Iniw 1 V?';.
n F
1big Lz.e .3. ita1ation of b in1a e i po tre ?oz' . nd
Ui i T np nature (167 ).
r
! t i /9 ~. ,(i.,'-:
I /i
, ..A
(' Y
f
r
1
Figure Uh motion a ; k.ssist c to "xsa tu.re to a1 Tie
at 800E ea$ (150) .
cues decreases With epoure a a result 0t lotion in the peci
space p t .e . for this ne on the z'ak o coxxtz'uction
ear Gs after a er n t ;e t practicai an c t a e.
The rato of eantra~tion due to the action ' interatomic oz
pion i due to the absorption of reai4u Stec Zr~IU
pactin, lvc separation of the shh ct proe ea , , d tO.
r&t a pa:i*ian also deoreaie , t~ b a e f cUrn ixt?an .
eaiUu 1 $tr ae in he rate a1 proceisci oC 1oc L s . io [
er ? sinkage (white d sea with ihe rate of Vi e) . ?
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$es reiat g to the individual mods ication ~!: party
csr1ain praces
ales which cause ~ansion preserve their rate upon Further exposure which at s, curtain rather constant 1. Thus' lcc unGVenncss in heat"
jug, ;Loo a1. oxidation and reduction o?' p&?t.cles do riot raCAll
change with expoaure.
then the rate of eont?acL4on is compared with he rats o
expansion the reaultant rats oT' s],rinkage drops to zoro. l with
Curther exposure he rates of expansion and cQftDAGtion decrease
the rate o shrinkage remains at zero level. Iowever,
contraction decreases more rapid,y' that expansion, then the rate of
shrinkage duri)g exposure becomes negative and there occurs agrowth
of porosity.
Figure 113 shows the relation oT shrinkage to exposure time
at middle and high temperatures. M high temperatures shrinkage
very quicklY reaches its xnaxamurn value, while with lower temperatures,
it t( es considerab"l r more tire. This is explained by the more rapid
decrease in speeif is surface of particles due to inoreasc in teanpera?
tune.
The properties oC a metal powder change during exposure to
same extent as shrinkage and density The tensile
approxate the
strength o a metal powder (Fig re i4) usua
level an a relative short period
for the most part over the course a1 ~. consiDab longer period o
(Figure -time This is expl*ined by the fact that coxaplete olim~
Lnat vn of oxygen ( e S), as Oferxa 's studies show (i.7 O,
reaches its highest
With further exposure it odnb-
ues to rjnain at than level or raj even decrease somewhat. The
properties c 1 ractex' tic iii` plasticity, i uah as elo atidf, increase
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;: ~IWw11
a wY ~,?,"WwMNMwh~!YY."h ~'1??'~
, b. JC~'1 I 17f~j,
Fig q m O? a1 L g Tnc < d Temp ratY rc on the Ozy ~,n
Otmtcnt of Ca be 1 Xrn (17).
In practicc exposure to baking vi ?r 10 minutes "
hours (;amctimo even sure) according to the canp itian and density
ce the nat i~ , the da,~ nsicxi a product the mount o thu charge,
prctr ctivo medium, d desig~i c Ana e.
The rite gal' cooling (where it i~ not acc tnicd ph e trns
orniati)ns} p:L gain role only in cos c short pa a to
rnximuxv ~ thdrig temp z1at we 4her this ht apt icw cooling m a i
tim$ ccnuir1e incaae density and at1aer prcpti.
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(0) Ini Iuence of the Original Properties of ?owdere
In increasizo of powder particlea from 10 to A
microna, surface tension which causes shrinkage decrease8 b
times. The rate of creep `shrinkage), mcireover, decreases even
more. For this reason, when baking at the usual industrial tens
atures (2/3 - 34~ of the absolute melts point) the rate of ehri M
age for metal compacted from i'iue powders with particles about 10
microns in size is about 0?l-l percent .per minute, whir with
particles about ~4 microns in sire it is practically equal to zero.
With an increase in temperature' the rate of creep increases. For
this reason, in temperatures close to the melting point, even powders
that are rather coarse have considerable shx?inkage (see Figure 109).
The tensile strength of compacts usually either decreases
with au increase an the size of parka. cles or remain, at the former
level. It is for this reason that in the majority of cases the
activity of processes contributing to severance of contact either
remafns at the former leve]. or even increases somewhat with a drop
in dispersion. As in such circumstancer there is a s; iltaneoue
decrease in the activity of processes contributing to a drawing
together of particles, compacts of coarse powder often undergo an
increase in size after baking,
Compacts made of fine powders subJect considerable shrinkage
show a tendency to uneven. localized, shrinkages during high temperatures
(page 120 of original text).
When baking dispersible powders the contact. surface of parts
cis greatly icreasee. In the case of coarse powders contact formed
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dur:11ng pressing quite fequent1y even decreases sorewhat dur.ng
baking. In such instances the part played by bakes resolves
pr?i.ncip :Li a qw ,native charge of contact (trana?tion rrnm
a state o1 stress t one o? non~streas and from metallic to a non
metallic condition).
The mechanical properties a baked products vary directly
with density and increases as Figure 116 shows with the dispersion
of the oxiginal powders,.
Kg/mra2 gg/mra2
Figure 116. Relation of the Mechanical Propertiee of Iron
to the Size of the Original Powder.
I. particle size up to 0.075 millimeters, specific gravity 6.91;
II - the same O.75.O.l .U neters, p c1fic gravity,6.99;,,, .
iii: the same Q4 O. miUirneters, specific gravity 7. LO;
Iv - the sane up to O. millim eters, specific gravity. 7.16;
resistance to rupture limit of yield; Brinell.
hardness; o1or gat on (150).
Percent
Relative Voiwne
i for Iron of 1.55
U) o
1 Grams per Centimeter
?4 .
p Poux'ed Weight
in Grams Pei' .
Dispersion Cubic Centimeter
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Fiw;ure U?.. Re1at on o? Linear l'Iodi!ication oC i)imenaia
after baking to the Poured Weight of Iron Powdere (Bai.'en).
:i. . in a direct?on parallel to comps eaaion at a temperature
oi' 1000 degTeea~ . in a direction perpendicular to com-
preeaion at a temperature of 1000 degreeaj 3 w in a direc ou
paxaUe L to compression at a t~np'erature cC OO dagree8;
4 * in a direction perpendicular to compression at a temper-
ature ai 1100 degrees.
The tensile atrenth of compacts drops with an increase off"
poured weight, which helps to break contact among particles.. -r
this reason an increase in poured weight of powder is accompanied
by a decrease in shrinkage (Figure 117) and mechani.ca1 properties
(Figure U8)...
I) i.apersion
Poured Weight
Grains per
Obic Centimeter
Fiore 118. Relation of Resistance to Depending to the
Poked Weight of capper powders (B, i sue)..
- Copper' the relative densi ty of the compact being 0.6
i1 the d ec .on parallel to comp es.sionj 2 - the same in
C)
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a d c~cx' to 0amprei0f3 3 von, ~,~
~.rea ~a ~ p~xpe~
7 ~ t~a~.n~ O. ~ d~x~c~~,~-n
relative dai.'~y a the compact
'p G' - thQ same to a d xe vtion'
par1le3. to erpendia1 x to compreaaion.
AU structural iaCtora wbiGh c,rease t1ae t~nai1e tregth
to p~-aduc~ ~~ more t~ux~b~e aa~~l dense
of cox~pacta c+~ntr~.b't~te tk~exeb," .
' reason powders With rough pa:r. t~.ca giT~
baked tteria
~
,~afl with smooth ~a?'~~,G~e$s 'wUth deru~t
axe sa,t~,e~actox~' reau~~ta ~~
~3 than th round and smooth particle ?
and with ar~ar particl
x xest~lta a obtained era. pp~~th suffic"ie11t dispersion o1 the basic meta,) causes
besides a :Lowering of sbrinka 'e and density what seem, to be on
drat ,1ancc a paradoxical it crease in mechanical strength and
capacity for deformat1On? ` h1s 13 exiained by an increase in the
equaiiitr of density distribution in the compact caused by the
inclusion graphite (F:1gixrc 70).a thanks to wbich there jE
decrease in distortton of &iape,, bucking, and internal stresses
after baking. Sometimes graphite also escorts a favorable decaxidiZ
ing action.
() With a decrease in the dispersion Qf the basic xT.eta1~
there is an increase in the insulating action oL graphite on the
surface of particles and in its unfavorable influence on t: mech c ],
ro erti.es?. ?or this reason the metaUcera.c industry" in practice
p
avoids incLudingti graphite in i ixtures composed oC coarse powders.
6) The relationship of mechanical properties to dispersion
(
a graphite is rater complex. When the basic metal is the fart
,
of firLe powder the best results axe u a .y obtained by graphite that
is .re dispersed even though it considerably decreased shrirka e.'
graphite 1od g the porgy existing between ind i td particles
~'im~e does not interfere With their contact. Coarse graphite resu:t in
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al iioiatian of a nuunber o pa,rt'ic~.e$? On the other
ro~sider alaie lac
handy ~rtt1a the coarser powd rs best resu1t8 are obtained
~.ps~ae,at to ~
from 1ax ox ra1ahlta ticles w)i,ich j.ind their way tnt~a tnt~rparhle
s~
pores . ~,e coy 1c.te~.y, :nu~.ai~e,/~hc ~ atcT ~ac~~ v
a hL, /
~ , ~Ina~'~~~a~rt~..c,'~e ,a~
par tn. a mast 'iLn!avpxablf action on their propc,r-tieB.
~,~r~~o~~ e~arcls~
'thus it i~ nc~cessarY for a certain cornaatibi1~,tT to exist botwaen
the sizes ot` iron and graphite partioes.
CLxa' bite docas not exert any sign;J'icant influence on
.
the teture Ior the begixm1n f; o C eh ?~a e and U brrn
n~ a w
o;: particle yc grQwth. In those cases where the inclusion off' graphite
e 7 i a strong growth of. porn atty during baking, there was
Qbsc,rved a ~ certain deerea$e in grain sl e. For the rema.i rthoases
thc~ro gas not observed any perceptible increase in gram size.
,
art off' the graphite is burned out in baking. The
burning .up tncreaseS with genera. porosity and the
rake a;C such ~~
si;e of individual pores.
y (S M p t,te nti~YtuJ. es s i.ou.i. d b~ ittixsd iJ i d ruins
as to avoid ti tnsu1ation ot? particles.
not in ball xrilis ~o
The 0onclus Qf reached with respect to copper rapMte
corositQns may be . ~, app' ~ to p .1r system ~ such as txoxx~ ~~xa~~ts.
'ied
It is ppssib1s to apply to a certifl degree the r?esuit$ obtained .e ?nL
front .1ro $i"axr to the C'.ct+iaodZ front the study or C~ppGr' ?~ ~~' ''
h he basic metl and which are to
tuxes which do net react
. ~art~.cle8 or r~~ mechanlca.~' co
on the sur~'ace off' Sa
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.,~a~g 1fq ~8r rP $y~tuopp kl f~ o~C"!'-+& Viper"men. x;oo (~'s~)
,~ .~M P~
of t$ Which do riot rneLt dwiri bald.tg art
f:.s~ure to G c r 3 rfGVi 1A+6~AU t 4+i~1r Z~ y ar ob~1'IYwNG~ O to bocO
tact oi: the ~- ioIe oil the e th" th igh e1t ~ po:Int.
~ctua p O b tY t the ixiurnE o the liqutd
oponent (the t the ~ Y ?h gn at u ~ wik e) o
o ? ?i a e t na LOf re, Iii
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obaerired in certain oaaea (Fuse 18) may be explained by the
action of a certain amount o solubility o Gbpper in the me],ted
lead, The ba ci g o? such aysteni is also QJ ten cc p1icated by the
man:Ueatation ai ,quidation an the part of the melted component.
(b) Systems of Mutual Solubility oi Components
In the baking of powder mixtures, a ar'1ced formation of sold
solutions or chemical compounds begins below the lowest melting tempe~
ature of the original components or their compounds and solid solution.
The rate of mutual diffusion for t non-homogeneous metals
is alwa considerably higher than for aselfdif sionn oIb the atoms
o.f one and the same mega For this. reason there niay be creted at
first glance the false impression that one may expect a considerably
greater shrinkage and growth of contact surface than ?ar pure metals,
H weir?, Sauerwald (l8L) showed that in reality shrinkages pmpe
ties off' s riTTen$ baked from a mixture of Pe Ni, ' Cu ?F'e, and Cu4 i
pokers are always lower t
tiveness for shrinkages and properties of the riginal componentso
Two basic?eason,s exist which are responsible for such a
decrease.
(.) it in diffusion the mobility of atoms of two mutually
sc Luble metals is .greater than the mobility of atoms of the same
metal, then a completely recipe relationship is obsarved for the
products of this action -. the hard solids arid chemical coupounda.
The mobility of atd iai t me complex lattices of solid solutions
and compounds is Most arrays ss than "or pure me .s,
A decrease of mobility is reacted in essential increase
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of reoryaatallizatLon temperature with tae introduction of adture
into eolid solutions (in spite o C the Lowered melting paint) . This
decrease in mobility slows down the rate of creep or the majaiV
of solid e0lut4.One in comparison ith pure metals. In thiax way ire
the baking o C powders in which solid sciukz.ons were formed even
prior to baking shrinkages and grain growth must be less than fox
pure metals because of the decrease of surface forces (surface tension)
and the increa8e in the stability of creep as oampaix'ed to pure ueta1t.
When baking,, however, mixtures cif metal powderaa in which a reaction
has not yet taken p1ace~ the speed of shrinkage decrease very apidiy
to the level of the lesser than for pure metal a i because the maw
active atoms an the surface of partice;a form solid solution,, dur.ng
the initial stage of baking.
(2) if not more, at least not less importaant is the procesa
of separation that takes placo in the shr kage of multi-component
systems. Let there be baked a compact composed of a mixture of copper
and nickel ponders. With in23uf'icientiy ides mcirig in different
parts of the product the following combinations may take place (l)
copper copper contact, () nicke .?nicke1 contact, (3) copper~niokel
contact, (is..) solid solution solid solution contact, () solid
solution-nickel, contact, and (6) solid solution~eopper contact.
We have listed oral` s types of different contacts. Adtual.y goers
are coxsderably more because solid solutions are of different cones
centrations. Al these tees of contact give a c3if ferent ;ahrirakage.
There should .ao be taker~ into consideration that not only does the
chemic composition influcnce shrinkage, but alsOshrinka ge influences
the . 'campaaition.
?Let- us suppose that there begins in some spot of
the product an ~.ntens~.fi,a~d shrinkage and grbwth of a*cantacopper and nickel particles? This leads to a sped ng up of ciffu 3.vn
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in thiat spat in ~l1UCh as di union can take placo only through con".
tact aeatorew The formation of solid solution in ita turn wi
mddiiy subsequent rate of shriage'. Dierence in shrin1~age or
individual spots lads not only to the Formation v" sectors o
varying delsity but also to a general decreac in density for the
entire voice A ' the metal. M can be seen fr what ha been dae'
cribed, the process off' uneven atinka;e piaj in the case cad powder
alloys a much more harmful role than or pure meta.L., in particular
when the mixtng has not been suiciently goody rJhis is wh r it is
necessary in certain cases to resort to a ,C ive~da3r 1On mi :Lng or
powders in baf rni1ls.
In connect?On with what has been said there arises the cardinal
question as to whether it is practicable to homogenize by means of
preliminary heating a powder mixture composed of several metais arid
to resort to car paoting and basin the already homogenized particles
or whether to compact and bake a powder x ixture oi' pure metals,
Each of these methods has its advantages arid disadvantages
?he advantages in horaogeni ing a mixture lie in the ur ' mity
of shrinkage and composition. The disadvantage s of this meted lie
in the difficulty of obtairi ng durable compacts (the hardness of a
he agenized soUd soia.tion is greater than the haz'dness of the original
components) and the using up or a con idex'ab1e part of a z is mobility
an obtaining a preliminary diffusion..
4here it is necessary to obtain a porous sintering, it might
prove ctic ab .e to use u eated powder mixtures. ere it i
necessary to obtain almost solid materiaZe (without later r pro cesang
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after ba1du ), it is frequent1~r p srab1e to use a homogenized
mixdare. Thus5 wheal fabricattn tungstentita um hard aUo
pre imina heating o the mixture o tungsten carbide and titanium
carbide. is resorted to
The basic ruse for baking ntu1ti.component systems in the
absence o a liquid phase may bca reduced to the following.
(1) shricage and change of contact surface and of properties
of powders is generally subject to the same rules as for single
component systems, i, e.' there are chnnges with dispersion o paderE3
for each of the components, cor tpacttng density temperatures and
length of exposure, etc. If powders which have been subjected to
preliminary hommogeniation are used, than he bin of even the
system [sic).
(2) The speed and completeness in the formation of solid
solutions and. intermetl.lic combinations increases with the dispersion
of &;ch component.
role.
(3) The method of rr> in ; the c iaosiUon plays an mpprtant
axing in ball ndlis helps atieve a closer contact amw
particles and to a large extent asmLwb the process oC diif?uiiOf
than' xin& ; n r um .
(it.) in increase -m mctt d~ns.ity increases the contact
surface of particles a:rd weeds up the caur'se of diffuBion proces$S
(Figurs 129)? .
V y?i
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Percent
Percent
Cornbined
Figctre 129, Re, tion of the Content of Combined Carbon in
:1:ron-Graphite to Compaeting Parosity (J3a1'
(5) shrinkage and dig cation of contact surface during baking
affects the course of dffsion processes. In the case of shri 1a.ge
of large prcdUCts during the coarse of baking, the largest stresses
vi" shrinkage, density, and size of contact surface take place in the
central zone. In conseti once the ?or ation of soiid solutions and
intermetaJ-lic combinations occurs there with the greatest degree
of camp1eteneas.,
5onretix es the greatest degree of actii.tty aiuong components i
also observed In the centrai sane during the expansion of products
from baking when:. eaandg stresses achieve heir greatest size in
this zone. It is possible thst under such conditions dif:f'usion is
intensified both as a resit of the presence 'of treiases rid as a.
result of considerable displacement of contact points during baking.
(6) The number of reacted omponento increases with temperature
(7): name admixtures interfere with sioh,' according t ,
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 the u'thoris i'indings caxburizatjon of iron bens only at 1UQ
1100 degrees after an adequateiy complete xedUGtipn of o,de
~ can
tamed ii the o "igina1 powders ? Rapid, reduction of re
siduaJ. oxide
takr~s place at a temperature 2/3.u3/Ii. cat the absolute melting point
oi' the meta. In this way such a temp erature is not onlth
~' he tempera.
ture marking the onset of perceptibica grain growth but in some casea
the onset of peroeptibLe di.Ciusion.
(8) Certain adrnixturee considerably speed up dif'fuaicn? Thus
according to Offern1an (175) slight adnixtures of sulphur and phaste
phorus help carbon to react with iron in the fabrication of carbony1
steel. ;;, all probability this effect may be e1aincd by the forma.
Lion of eutectics which melt at baking temperature and increase cox.
tact between particles and mobility of iron atar~s which are on the
surface an,d have entered into k~O1utd on, as a result of wh:Lch djffusion
is :inten jf ed.
(9) If d 'fusion processes pass through a gaseous phaae
,
then its composfrion plays an Important role. For axampie iron.
graphite products are carburized more If they are baked in r hy~'
ogen than in wet hydrogen. Chi gveat importance is ga> p tsabil
tya
which. incr?easee with totem porosity and the size off' individu pea,
Gas cementation of products made foot coase pders which are ire
porous takes place more dompiete,y and quio1y than for products
rnlade
from fine powders with slight poro4ty. The ' bu~Lng out of carbon
are.parti C1C
The factors mentioned above m cause an unevenness in Structure
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deusitie composition, and properties even where mixing, and compacting
has been ideally uniform and even. In actual, practice, unevenness
o:t mixing and compacting plc" a sinii'icant ~o1e.
(o) Baking o Multi' Component Systems axon the Formation of a Liquid Phase
The baking of a hard 1'oraogenau - x tai, powder at a temperature
below the melts point may be considered as a epeoia3, kind off' border's
line case in the baking of a two phase system at a temperature above
the melting point of the more i"usibie phase.
The obtaining of complete contact among particle and a 100 ?
percent solidity for baked products in such a borderline case is hinu
dered by the inadequate quantity and, mobility of atoms o the "liquid
phase".
Such detects do not occur in baking, powder ithctures of two or
more components where the smaller part melts and d.ssolve.s a part of
the less fusible metal.
(1) Solubility off' to liquid phase in he hard phase is re1a'
tive].y small, For this res. on the system remai he rogeneous
regardless o1 the time o exposure for a given temperature.
() The so.ubi1ity of to liquid phase in he hard phase at
baking temperature is so considerable that after a certain time the
system becomes homogeneous.
Let us begin by oonaidering the first poesibity Let us
asp that there is baked a powder x4 ture of two et s.
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oamponent. A with the y meiting point a a rn re readily to ib1e,
so~ca ,ed c~rnent g component B at a temperature aboire t I melting
point rat: dissolver A in B. Fox' the sake of simplicity let us propose
that the cementing component B is camp1ete1 r insoluble A at baking
terrrperature, although, as Jonea correctly points out, nothing o arr
importance happens i.C some B dissolves in A (wider conditions where
heterogenity af structure is preserved). An inevitable consequence
oI: the solubility a A in B is a process o1 interchange of atoms bet-
ween the solid and liquid phase, evert after the formation o a satu-
rated solution. The saturated solution contains a dynamic equilibrium
between atoms which are being dissa1ved and t1iise which are earring out
of solution. In this connection, the first to be dissoly?d are the
more i~bile at?rri, while the first to separate from a solution are
the less mobile atoms.
Figure 130. a Faceted and b Oval Shape of Crystallites
in Powder Allays.
a. hard alloy WC~Co; Xl000 (l67) b heavy
alloy W-Cu-Ni (178)
For this reason the atom which are dissolved came pr;xrar Ly from
the sides and earners o particles, while the. places of comet where
the less mobile atoms are located tend to separate A atoms from the
solution. In this way tyre is an uninterrupted drawing o A atom
through the liquid phase the places of contact oC particles accom
paned by an intense shrinkage during b~1cng. Cra growth teS
place panel to the shrinkage process because the nunb of mobile
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is smaller and the num~be*+ eparati.ng from t solutn !0st0x' for
tdtort3 :.s greater in sm 1er particles thEm in 1 wer canes. Fax
this reaaon the number of atc)ms di, solv!d durtn a unit of time
a fusion of the original crystals of cast alloys. BoeWar (23)
being identical to the one taking place during crystallization from.
furthsr recryatallization (perkristaU&atsYa) through liquid phase,
during this recrystallizatian, which may even be qualified as a
percent of its absolute melting points r'he shape off` erysta,.ites
to take place at very low temperatures, sometires at less than hO
ones. Furthermore, considerable grain growth of component A begin
an unintexrupted growth of lage parti.ci es at tbe expense of small
smaller than for larger atciis, while there continues to take place
points out the existence of two basic shapes for the original crys-
tals of cast alloys - Faceted and oval. Bochvar explains differ
rences in shapes being due to variations in the surface tension
hard metals the latter being relative/' great in oval and in4g
ficant in faceted crystals. In powder alloys baked in the presence
ot: a liquid phase these two shapes are also obeerved for the grains
of the basic component (and probably for the same reasons). Figure
130a shows WC faceted crystallites in hard alloys (WC Co) s. Figure
In the final analysis, increase in contact surface of particles and
130b oval tungsten grains . in tungsten copper-nLOkE l powder alloys.
reduced to the same growth of the number of less mobile atoms at
graifl growth during baking i the presence of a liquid phase may be
the expense of more mobile ones that des place in the baking
enab.ea one to aci.eve greater contact orig particles, density
pure metals. However baking during w .ch a liquid phase occurs
( most teoret cal arid... tensile strength. Th . is exp.a ncd '! the
fd..dwing' reasons
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1) The nwiber Qf mobile atoms of th c basic component is
considerably iartri c'n bakUig pure metals. In uz?e metals
the m rbcr oC the more mobile sir1'aec atoxn$ reaches one percent
at Use most (Table 17) and as baking prOg esses it fps to an
in~3ign fi cant part o C one percent. In baking in whiff a liquid
phase occurs the number of the more mobile atoms ( surface an
djssolved) compr.Lses everal percent and decreases much more slow-
For tbir reason the speed o.i creep (s1 inkage)
ly with expcrsa~xe
strongly ?ncreases during baking.
flow ai' the surface se~nliquid layer of pure meth; ( consequently
(2) The ?%ow of t f: liquid phase (arid consequently the mo
bility of the dissolved atoms) is considerably greaten than the
r'
the mobility of the corresponding atoms). or this reason capillary
pores3 which hard to reach, are more quickly filled up.
(3 The area of initial contact among partiolcs in the mixture
:increa$es co iderab1y because of t spreading of the liquid phase
over the 'aX' face ( contact through the liquid phrnse).
()4) Shrinkage in;reases at the expen,t3 of an increase in
effective porosity. rhus"+r an alloy with 30 percent pores e
20 volumetric percent ? of liquid phase, shrinkage should be the same
f'or a re meth. with O percent pores. FurtherTOre, the greater'
as
the porosity, thy: greater is the sh ?ankage (Figures 120s 112, 2i).
(!:) The fIiling up oc larger interparticle poxes is eased
because the liquid phase i"e squeezed into these pores durtg shrinkage.
(6) wring grain grh there is no ? such tendency to fad
intrapartcle pares which are hard to ff when baking without a
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liquid phase beaauee recryata11i ation takes place through the ce nt-
g phase and not through direct contact.
This Cactor makes it easier when baking w.th a liquid phase
to obtain alloys with 100 p cent den ity. Alloys without pores are
hard to obtain in those cases where aside from an overerystallization
through a liquid phase, there may aLsa take peace grain growth because
0f direct contact among part:LcJ.es off" the base; netal with the higher
melting point,, which is connected with the creation of intracry: talite
pores. For example, it i;; difficult to fabricate non?epoironi. copper
alloys because the melting point of lthE cementing metal ( copper) i
higher than the temperature of particle growth off' the basic metal (iron)'
they being in direct contact.
In investigations of the nature of contact ex Sting among grains
of baked hard alloys (WC-Co) the cementing phase was removed by the
dissolving of cobalt in reagent which would not act upon the basic com,-
ponent, tungsten carbide (.8) Strength (resistance to bending)
of the non-dissolved carb c1e skeieton (Table 20) is to a certain extent
a measin of direct contact between grains of the basic component.
grains of the bas, e component is quite considerable siren when there is
In this way, at any rate tten the oonteht of the cementing
met a1 is not very high contact and strength are determined to a con. ?
iderab extent directly by the basic component. A decrease in strength
when cobalt i dissolved is be explained by t1xe har PfU1 effect o?, ?
porosity. However: it i quite probab.e that direct contact hang the
a high content , of the cementing metal. Let us awe' that for each.
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Table 20. STRE'.VGTh OF A CARBIDE SKELETON IN ALLOYS WITH VARYING COBALT CONTENT
(BAKING TENPERAJRE OF 3150 DEGRE FOR ONE HOUR [IL8I
AcnFSmt of Cobalt Resistance to Bending
in Percent Kiiogram s per
square n llimeter
Original After By Or1gi By
Alloy c Alloy Skeleton
3.0 D.tkt 126
6,9 O.ola 165
11.0 0.03 385
of Ce n ti Phase
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tree grc ns of carbide two are joi ied by de t COftact .and th$
third by he camc~nting phase In such a ease the a.oy breaks up
upon cobalt being disso1ved and tabus acquires zero s trenglth. However,.
this does not serve as a paoo,f of the absence oi direct contact among
thc) rains off' carbide, Moreover, such experiments proved that in
he bad g of the a11o with U percent carbide to 120
increasing t
hours at J.1D de reel with the disao1ving of carbide strength grey
to 1 kilo aiii per sqi.ara mil C~eter,,. i. e. g dare ct contact amok
the grains of carbide becaxe quite signht"ices
Tha ce1fl$nt1n metal i; added in the quantity of f 3O vcluinetrLc
p erCanta usual)-7 1020 percents Too slight a quay tity of the cdment
ing metal does not wufi icieflt1Y activate baking, too large a quantit1
results in liquidation txich causes distortion and other defects.
. in practice $UCh aUoys are usually baked at a temperature
omewhat h, her than the melting point of the cementing p me (moresbi
s ~
s the larger cap the size be for the original
over, n, the higher it i,
powders of the basic component)
Hard alloys (WC Co, wc.Tio? o):, heavy aUo ?'s (w cu Ni), iron'.
) a number a
copper a11oys (Fe Cu), cappersi~t'er alloys ( a ig
loy s to which ahosphoruE l'as been added to a copper or iron bask.
etc.i xai seriTe as examPles rar this type oC lcya. ors ttTaea it is
sup. 'riEnt ror only a sight d s sglvin of the basic e ponent in the
:i ~.
e phase to take p ace in order to c btai the type .ot alloy.
c~;tr~n~~n
Thus; the author obtaaned if some cases: (L) scar cap x-dead wdex~
icays a character sti fa .in growth touhha liq~id phases desto
"
the ? ht solubility o copper in lead at baking tempeture (Fire 128).
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Thera may serve as practical of the a eco~ad vax'i,ant
of bra during which a liquid p oceure the ayetem Cn,
F ~ - 'Ca alnico) and other systems, For such caso th3 liquid
phase diffusss after a while into the basic componc,nt and resu.ts
in the Trrnation off" a hom~geneau3 solid solution. The first stage
m thus be cafSider$d as an ins tance of baking in the preaence
of a liquid phase and the sccond stage as baking without a.+z,d
stage, In such a case it i~ possib1e to fx uently acquire consi'-
derable strength and almost the full theoreti-c density*.
The dependence of they properti.Fs of alloys baked in the presence
of a liquid phase upon different factom (d.ispersion, of powders, oom~?.
ching pr a ure, ternperaturc: and duration of baking) is basically
the sarns as for pure mete.
Baling is one of the Last operations in which here can occur
not only dae due to improper conducting of baking but also damage
resulting from the earlier operations of compacting, nixi , arid La"
brica,tion of powders.
The most important reasons for r a ge are the folio g:
(1) . Hidden l amifaattan. Corpacting improperiy conducted may
result in the i'orination of sal laminated cracks not visible to the
unaided eye which may coi iderab1y increase d~g baking. The rneaaure
for. dealing with them e he sage as for visible lamination.
(2) )3uling and distrtion of ahap?. This type of damage is
eoialy Lretehtly observed for fiat products, to thdeas oif
p
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whtcth is insi?'icant in oompari~3on with its length ru.nufacturcad from
.thl) powc1ers rich e suh ject to considerable shrinkage. Tlis type
of damage iu promoted by poor znixin, u11even compacting dens.tty due to
:Lperi'ect oonstrUctic>n of the pr ss mold or poor compacting epex'atioris,
too rapid an increase in textipera,ture~ surface oxides or the buming
up of the protective medium because o improper ~.e1ectioxrs or an exceesi
vely high 1:raking tarrnper a Lure Prote ctive ~mmsur e; include the a1ixina'
tion of the defects just mentioned, using Lor some. cases powdt~rs which
are iess prove to buckling' and baking under pressure, Damage mfr be
rectified by subse uent hat or cold pressure treatment (calibratiq
~.
baking under pressure)
(,3) OvcxhE ting - products cracking in baldng ternpc~ratures
which are too high for a iven rrixture~ Phis type o? spoilage 18 ins
duced by the s use ictors a buckling.
( 14) Formation of macropores due to shrinking. Observed in baking
products compacted from a powder mixture of two or more components
Caused by uneven shrinkage which is especially favored by the uneven
mixiig oC components. Measures to avoid this include a more scimpuious
xTLi ring, and a preli:r~ unary heating' mixture. Such spoilage may soret: es
be rectified by suhrequent cold or hot presure treaant.
(i;) h:~ ormation of a looses poax'ly baked core ?Tis is primarily
observed when baking mixtures off' powcrers which become very dense cau
o: oonsiderab1e & rinkage dui to the presence of a liquid Abase. It
t ea place when the outside of products. bec m heated too qui ;y
thxou h oven rapid al ing of .temperatut'e to baking hire/. u herm ?e,
shrinkage in the extern ~ ceases prior to tie beg. x tang of shri'ik
in the cefltr zone. A premature fvziiiatiol of a dense external' v s
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in terie with the hr Lnka a of interim layers and with the circ u~?
l tlcn of aeea. T th type of tpai1age is also aided by the fcriaticn
Qf differences in chemical oompceittcn between externa1 and intexn.
cones due to i.ncarrect eeieet.Lon cf a protective medium. The meaaurea
r?
fox dea1ir g with this include a more gradual ,rehe;ating Qf product.e
and a pr per sOlectic)n of' he protective medium0
?v 1 .
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Chapter vl
iIOT I R ;ssINar
The operation of hot pressing combizs the operations Qf
pressing and baking into one. One actual dttLnction can be made
between presaing and baking under pressure, This distinctian bet.
weer thorn consists in the fact that the term "hot pressing" should
be app led prim triiy to press~.fl ; at high speeds. Inthen pressing at
high speeds thwc3 is only a l.Lght manifestation of creep. Diffsicn,,
recrystailZatiof, and reduction also do not occur to the fullest
extent. In this connection a second heating is required for eve
rLtng out composition and structure. At the present time hot press
s:.ng of powders of non4errou3 and ferrous metals i not economtcal
:i4 fnasibie for the following reasons.
1. Hot pressing is connected with considerable wear of the
press mold and also partly With the di.ffioulty of selecting a rna
tonal for the press mold which can be used at high texeraturea.
For the hot pressing of the :na ority of powders press molds are re ?
(1UJ.rod which have a more complex design ftr avoiding o .dation of
products during pressing or ejection,
2. Hot in contrast to cold pressing is not very productive.
3. In the ma jorit3r of cases hat pressing does not eliminate
the necessity either for later heating (1 r evening out eonp s do t
and structure) or for a prelmLnary. cold pressing (to make pre aing
easier).
However, on the qualitati side hot pressing is co'riectred
't ortatdvantages. Table 21 presents coaara'tive d as of
U u
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o$au waa1d axed Gunchek (SL.) relating to zresistance to ruptuze
on the pant off' iron ad copper specimens,
TT21
Temperature in in Kilograms per in Kian per
Degrees Centi Square iii tr L'or Square ,i1ir~ater for
grade for Hot Baked &pecimens Ho ressed Specimens
Pressing or
Baking Cu Fe Cu
Fee
610
iL,,2
?$
26,3
19,7
71
13,2
6.6
2!i..1
29?
810
10? 3
ii.;
23,!
39,6
920
i)4 7
M can be seen from Table 21 rr chanica1 properties are con.
siderably higher .th hot pressing, pressure in hat pressing is
considerably lower than for cold pressing (Table 22). The advantages
mentioned iake it pons b1e to app r hot pressing Liar the obtatning
of materials ax'td products the fabrication of which by cold pressing
Lfld baking is ima.ted by the composition or structure of the powder
or the size and shape of product.
At the present tirr (127),. hot pressing ie used on in s-
triaai scale only for the production of metal oceradc har4 alloys
and diamond-metal materials (Chapter XII). In oQr ctiQfl With its
being ss econor ica1 thaxa cold pressings hat pressing is used i hr
i_xl the production of ha"d.alloy products of vexy large size weighing
several tens. o ki1ogrns or of thin prates, ska , etc,, which bucki,~
in baking. ring the weir hot pressing w ; used in the pro c.t
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of substitutes far hard alloys (12) with vanadium carbide, etc,,
for a baoer The manufaotur3 of suoh materials so that they kiave
the requisite qualities by cold pr~sstg and baking is difficult
and eaaflEstimes impos8lb1e~ Hot pressing of Yard alloys is carried
on either in graphite or carlDo a mraLds which are capable of pree??
ing oy a very ',rh.tsd number of details (from one to several
feces), In the hot pre sixof lard alloys there is no need for
p
a speciai protetive atmosphere nasmuoti as 0fl13 is created. by' a
slight cor~lbusti.on of the graphite of the press mold. In some ca%s
hot pressing is carried on in a, reducir.g atm asphere which cute down
the burzt,ng of the graphite and :U used for lengthefirxg the ;fife of
the press mold. The design of press molds used in hot pressing is
no different in pr,incip1o from the design of press molds for cold
pre s sin.
(Figure 131. Frees for Hot Pressing (i9L.).3
For purposes of incmasing the length of eervice of graphite
press molds it ie poseib1e to use replaceable graphite lining. Pares
of press nflold5 are fabricated from graphite rods and tuhes~ the in-
ner dia~'aieter of wh b is made exact by puling through brush s$. In
spite of all, such measu,res~ the cost of press moils uaed in the hot
pressinM of other non..ferrous and ferrous metals turns out to be b
g
high.
The poured idx re in the i~ress mood is subjected to a iittnary cold coi Tess Lof ~' rio ?ry high prey 3U e$ 4CL?~ry '~d if hOt
pressing pis aChiSV d by passing an electric curr nt through the pass.
mold, gure 131 shows an industriaL press for hot pressi ng accord
ing to Engle t 19Li. The hat passing of hard alloys ray also be done
in apparatuses use for welding under prey (127) r nth a dress.
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tis ~:iu' 0" of th ?oo
1 pestg, b y w O
u ()
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ao(oDdif t(r, t t1?"" ~' (17).
Z bob ~1RqreaNtht ` Mrd IA NiM M pra` wa3 lie boon A MM1 1
inc x m ',p 300 kzxA poi qw c u r t~ ~ depending on t%
torn ,.a i)u eo iti of (L6) At e oo there s
Fia r i1 w7~blA: *ka il+b~ ?i ?+ crrted it 0 to 30 `f ~nL pr I '4 M
9 r ~' AP? W 1~ (L9 b) T1 CwRr a G1 W: , G mhtta ttL'W tihFJ that bC~ sdr & V+r 1 WJ!'a th~ b r
ass?'.n g a o i' e*. t1wou tho .t it w u posibi~ to
a ide, Q r~ f ed iith rob) zL1r t pLo t
j 4RWl
t p~vu +u' {9bi4 to SiiM1wzM At iGr wW 'th that tt d 'iJ+'k t! b kin
c1d x ?d oaxt sett c rah}~ ~ Ojt o~ ~ With ezb . i
1
~
~+y S~j r
RDr)fltrO+ o10I z J ti k *l~r iM w d ? ~ i y b xc aAd of Cdn ()p'J a4~a1 ^9 r
!fir ` e ~U of t.J o the , '~.
s~
b it t'h t
:So2oo hgp ? L" rh r . f t u ' oaf th c4 ,'t C '
t ma; c tiGfl Ox" k tefl e a
l
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Zit pressing inoreai c ity, hardness, strength, and the
c,t tting propertie8 of hard a;1ioy's (167, 19k) N P'igu a 132 shows
that in hot pc essing in distinction to cold, hard alloys have prat
cafly a nonporous structure. T'he ma, mu n. hardness o? alloys mad .e
by cold essing arid bakifg (i6i) ' is 92 and"wLth hot pressing is
9 .6 according to Rockwell. The advantage o:t" hot pressing for pro?
ducting c ama~~d meta . a11oys J i,e a in the fact thai iess diamond i.s
burned out becauate of the shorter hr?~atin; period.
The processes of hot pressin, and the properties of xt~atariais
obtained by th:L; method have been studied by a nuiriber of investiga..
tors, including Vasiiiyev (17), oroi a Zarubin (22), Mol'kov,
Gruzdov, Trzhysbyatovslc y (192 ), and others (iLJ 18h). The hot
pressing of different powders of eoppor and its a1ioy, iron and
its alloys, gold, bard alloys, and ou rs were investigated. However,
the material obtained e aeryimenta1iy is not 'yet sufficient for estaw
bishing a satisfaotory theorj of hot pressing. The fundanenta
Facts as know at the etent tirr may be reduced to the following.
(1) in hot pressing increase o C contact' aw n.g powder parti
cle, is achieved through deformation by external forces and by the
nobility of atoms activated by texirper ature. 1'or this reason it
est&., shes the possibility of obtai dng material th a density
approaching the theoretical and?wi.th properties not for than those
for east metais treated by pressure.
(2) With an increase in temperature (19)4, as Table 22 shows ;
lowers the sfo both of the specific pressure necessary for attain-
izig certain density for the powder and of the moxLmum specific
pressure for attaining 100-per cent dansity Certain exceptions to
the, rely io hip just . given may be explain d by phase . transformation.
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TAB X " 22
1agticity 1U$ dew pit eratU$ to a 1e$ eX c" e
but a o to the o siof o rtie1e .
' " 9 IUIZ SIZE IS O I4ICRO 4$ (1914)
Ui ici 9m per & t aN LilixnoteD
1:Lati1TG ten CoOtth& Pes/C a Temperat'W of
sitar of I3riM
quG in r
90 160 30 :L6 9 14 6 3
:6 8 6 9 6
9 . 2140 30 ~R " 9 I7 3 16 12 14. 11
100 :o C.) The idincrease of nsi1e $tXh or llbt
preings corrpari$on with uu kd o L I res if $ oannot Liiia
rtartb DO: is also p ,i d by tb o1 LoWi y a Qra
irea e in the e:C ci$. off.' tera1 tre as
MY YN.W"erth 'uNi3 YI lMI
ten 1o trees (r s nee to )rnure,.
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and this nDAt e either c tineS a
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the reaiatae aC iron pture at different te'm~peraturea which hard
en co -raasOd at pre eure cad` 7 1ogr.n per square ccntinte'
at 780 degr ea in a reducing radium (duration, O and a seconds)
was somewhat lower the iron aom esod at 700 doees.
TA
1EcHAfl:cAL STRENGTH OF IRON CC* R1 SS D UNDER. DI'FFERi NT CO DIPIONS AT
A PIE$SURI~! 7 KILOG 'JS PER SQUARE ILL a'TER (1hLs)
Temperature Time in Specific
in Degrees Seconds Weight in
Centigrade Ki1cgraxn
Per Sq
O 6.31
1o 6.33.
)4SO ? 6.71
600 a 6?70
o 6.89
r
!o 7.0
'Too ;o 7.32
:L0 7.
780
2.0 60
28,0 1,0 6
19 0. 62
2.6 1.0 77
3i
33.E
$ 0
7.8
1.
o
7.9
3"x.9
o
7..71
6.7
)4O
7.76
37,0
neae
50
51
90
100
poi
32.0 3
.37.0 96
This, re1ati nship t ' 1a rsed in the fry j4g gray. Ted
s ren t h depend basically on three actors deny t ^ ter ,
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(f
i'~M,Ir,YI1 IdSd; Y~7L? 1}'.Lln~.rru.Ii:.nlblA mwl1~'~ :r 'IqY"'J ~,VU':Ir1;~'x, ,"11tIn^Y~.il
'M M
IMWINTA'INNIYIAAYAD?NlNhlr(f ,( 'IYVV ..... urngYlY"V?'LYh 4dp{Ygn.i i.u4dMmI+YVed~nab~Mtihpp?AIYIAN?
m~hY~;YYWGII+rIY'~YW~'narxu'Y?w'v cull r: "~I'Y .,.
C tt a
11
?wwrMY'WYbVpN!INIMYII:'1wIYN'p)AU.N,.'IuMMY.MM+41r NRAl11'WMB's!YM1VCRINI/IW.MWI'kk4WMi/,"rlaai V;'
200
e aU o of I~ ?operbi~e to ac
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I
L(gIL F
~uSl'AA!M'SyIRH!WCM'r'IfNRNR1Y!M'IVGMC?IJtItYW W'1?II!YN!
IU'(.eI4C'IN4'\ II 0.ll,NM1 1' 1tl,I'b' LW JR!4,Hin1AY1,c4..l,.llItbhI.Nfl'%NN!INnIY!'NYW I N.w$"'I Y. 1:M,r,.vnr .
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rtie $ Inc a with oWbh in fit: aottI'I pDe8
3ure ' but or1].7 to a certLtfl point whiOh U ~heached when there i~ 100
n ~ rac~ti~a1" ~ t?~e acme 'with addtt1a~.
d~~~~~ Th$f ~ rely,~
per cent
inoraasa~ in pressure,
The pre$$ure at which propext1M8 lie QOa ootaht to
low oritiral pxe-~$ura in sp
Lure.
(6) The duraiiofl of hot reeeif is a very iiportant factor
, ~,~, ~, by tna~.fee'~a~~.o of creep at
~~f~~ax~~ rah,
as a very ~ it p
high teiet'? T~ sower the p$iflg the Lr~r is the preen
sut`e required for attn. f? certain deX it L and properbie , or,
~ g'eater are propetie$ and deit1 for a i~rerL oa~actiflg presw
~
sure (Table 23) ? Aside from xa.'eea~;.an of cre pro1ofd pres-
sing ~detio~ of oxides, reory8ta11iZa
~~ ~ Ofl~ and h a.kafl~ do of cold ~aardeniflg. AU these ~a~~idera~io~~
of properti (except dnee and teneib1e etxeu~th at higher eipera
$e 8oxn hat for rr asofS ivsu in par9 raPh i,
lure e which n,iy dE~ ire a
' U iCtJ.rar~ Dike UudeI P~eeSu~e ~
(vi) are observed in hot
60
*
of capper even at der?e$ (ppoxLmt7
in the h~~ pra~~a~~
point) . it is ohr9cteriStic that rocrYWbi?
the ~e cif ~oar'~~ j and, not fir, powder3.
T1tiia i~ obv`ou8-' aoxmeCted
bsc~:uB of this with a ors rapid redic1~.On of ' a`S? parti.~S i re.
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ti dy hot pet cf hot
(8) An ieaUn by hot p e8sn
g is wj?~i
OrY tai; iiatjon,, ca x cij ~ x~ac?~
ak~anes jn d~njty.
pace of $:Light daxiaity Shaw a cert
in size (94) . The cc,no oC n shx'jJa, far ~~Gj increase
shr:~~a~ and Bch ~~, tiaei~- ca
8hOu3.d be
pa r d in the say ay a for cold
bj? ? growth.
y the o:Limination of ga~ea du~in
~c~~u~?~~.~n v.C cxidand ah8o
cif re8idual stxe8se8, tran
Baking Ufl~er' pr5s1are :L~ not done
It features are Prolonged ~ to the bakjn~ ?~~az~p~;xa~;,ti,; and
what :L~ re]ated to this, a c:L$
trZflactj0 of the. proce8 of
difsa.on~ recrySta1lizatian ~nd a occurrence of oxbeep in re.
:Lati,an to rhich ~ ur are
T process Pressure is used in pxe
:ac~x~,z.c fricta.~n disks (C, .~
ter XI)' Which in the opposjte ca~ ~
from the steel 1injm ~ou1d hare huckd and separated
g uud~~ as Gardjn pain?~~ outs
disks and frietjara 4 rigs ~ &nd co zsd ?rcrn pt~dr of oads ~' h~ c~ppex; t~.~,,.
a loaded into fur wii" i a
Which the dome i~ put a a.~+~r
on and prase appiie, with baking
place in a prtectj ataixop- - the he11 ~} achje
e applied to the $urfaG~ a~ the baking
per square centi?baxM. Teaaraj
..and tre the ~~ ~~ fox'
baking all
oys of this type Witht pr~ssuze, beixg ?OO.86 degre
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from 30 rr nutee to sever;i hours. 'When bang under pre suY, therexe obtained ooneiderab ~i er prapertiee and a trongar cohesiou
of the retai1oaexramic layer to the etaei disk.
CHM TER VII
Dt MRE " ~TfOD OF TA) LOC_i kW1IO 'ECHNQLOOY. UPPL Al
ur.wu.....wwaw~wnwr~L~MMNwraYwrwM~MwYM
REAT ANT) MEiC}IANICAL ,t' I Nisi Iwo o BAKWt) OBJ1 OTS
r.YNWM~IMNNMINw'MMIN W YMM'IA?+rrY~1YYWYMYNW~M"~MMW MNMiMw'MmM Mh'NMM~MMM~~ir~MWArMMN~YMMNMYMNWMMMMMMIW NMM1~MMM WIAIMMMMMMFMI
The producUon o objects by etp1oying the operations of niix..
ing, pressing, and baking o: metal powders ie basically thEa most
ddsspread method of the i taiiocer uic industry.
Yther, quite numerous anethoda (Figure 1) may be broken don
(1) Methods c . tinW1.ehed by specific &W'erences in con
ductin the above meritio ed fndatm nta1 op rations and also by the
inciusion o.f umplementary interiied .at processes between pressing and
ba~:g
(2) xcIuS1on of the pre;~oing operation.
(3) xc1u ion of the baidng operation. .
()) Combination of the operatiof 3 of ees ng and bang in
to of soca11ed hat pressing (gee Chater VI r
() supplementary and/ar heat firishing o bald abject
(6) Special i z s of fin 2h baked ob j ct ?
Th above' is1 ed supplernentary .o ratiar~s are used in faotorie$
whit contact for a1io roc produot6r. or over,. au 1ex e tart'
, : shil2g sa tirne a,,... esp; a1iy rc . is alto c rr . d
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by co 1;u rs o, meta1ioceramic materials.
SPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN MIXING, ?fl 3SING, !u) BAINC OPRAT IONS
The faUo lg pe,c. ,c variations in carving out mixing,
pxes$inf:;, a.2d baking operations vr be listed,
(a) the pressing and baking of mi.trea composed partially
or compDe tel off' metal oxides or corr~bix t ions which are reduced in
baking. 'his method of teclanolo" ins used in on cases in order to
improve and rye easier the mixing of powders (such as in the prop
duction of hard alloys), in othra
in order to obtatn high porous
products, and still other cases - for the purpose of lowering the
cast of production tIx ough conibini.ng the ope rations of obtainixlg
the p*wder (reduction) and ?baking.
(b) The pressing and baring of m tunes with special adcli
tives in order to obtain hiz:>ly porous produce (higher than ho per
cent)i Such additives axe either hwmed out and volatLlzod during
baking (aluminum carbide ) or a ?e wa.~hed out o the pores o i produots
aI ter 'bald g (soda).
(c) Some baked ma eria1s, sash s hard aUoye (Chapter XI I)
arid, magi st c riaterNials which contain aluxriizlum, nickel and cobalt
.
(a,1ntco f Chapter vi) do not lend themselves to n~.cha ca finishing.
in such cases recourse is had to the px oesasing cif sei iniohed prow
roots on polishing whee prior to baking or dot after pressing
der an initial ba1dx at a lower eii erature than that o `the
.
in ; ( second) baking. The pro sing of both bard aUoya and, of
magn~ti,c alloys (lot) direct) y a: tier px sin is r~ prodiwti e
and pickles an instant less than prorxessi .g ter a praUmin
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ba n . Powders off" hard ai1oy x st co acted with adhesive aM
gents :for ,iueohanicai procesrl,n without a prellii.nar fakir. In
t process?n of hard ,a:! io r there are; usuai used thin carbo
rundum disks on a vulcanite binding which rotate with s, opted of
about 2000 revoiutLons par rnl.xiute. Accorcing to Ra1vski (101)
satisfactory resin; s caxi be aehiwed ith carbtde -tun sten whsc1s
on. a bakelte binding.
Sam times preliminary ba1dn ; :ts done with a 1a~ er temperature,
even where theta is rmo necessity foram cr~an~.aa~. fj i hjr.g of obi
jeets. Pr?s)irt.tary baic.ng in such cases is reconrr ended either for
detecting spoi1a. e which had not been discovered in cornpacts (suoh
a sentUinisha1 prcthict may be easily reduced to powder) or :far rbi
tainin ; a hor- geneous conpo- ition prior to ::Lra1 baking (reducta~n
of oxides, ' extraction of adrrri ores, burning out o? additives used
for easing pre 3sing~ etc. ).
(d) In some oases a Iaicr of m etalioceranic material is on
a superix~osed meta, sheet: p1 c c, or disk., or a. an insert in a.
meta1 socket. At Other tirrs, a core or tnsert made of a solid
meta]. is inserted into a mst&liocerazn.r socket. Steel is us 1
used as a meta, base to which the powder rmctai is fused. T fusing
of the power iiietal is done either in px a ing . or in baking, aornetirtis
s
basing uiider pressure (Chapter V. ?i-ta1s aye used in the fog
1owirg i tan s z (1) when strength of the u to ,ooeram .c material
is inadequate and must re 'orce4 () for decreasing the cost
of` products ride from . very exppens 're powder met .; () to ake fer
o Bier asse b when it is either im oss b or d ficu1t t.o pro ess
xr taUoaer iic nrateria .s diroot (1) the combination of this above
rne3atianGd consider tions. Ex u p s of such b -aetals may be Lound. ii
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fr;ti:) :thxl cep s (C~ XI) ,,, i * s c'. ribbon rnd
~ dpMMYM'" pi 7' 1~ntific t n as 'L (~f" Np !o~"M X) `t^ ~,I"s'' ~1M le'1Tw 7
bbaa Lt( r Lc ta1t p :t- f a %t ":ffl. .C (C 1~tCZ 'I) i
c oz b c b rnt'1Rr'LLia1 .C t Wftt wad, ?r (Ci p4 a Z11T )
It is poNuiibie to pro of bi IW1ntWM o Jy fr a Io ;
t , d E ac is w t but ver'w~ti powd ,: '
1c tfszow s '' O " A ION
Thtt3D d u n p ~ d~ c d o indwtriai s i ? ~ f, b g.
') to 2 tare of s .v 2t.1y' down earl i 2 iron or n cI bako
:tn s t:icd ~a it' Yn , Tb , x~w&~i?t h m b~, h p rd g b (rte
8a for th z' a ^tiC ti * TE b d :L guts r to
FLt$ th L bwcon wab pros
4
z: ' with high out ~ (dztty puxing b. z
X LU 3 N (,)I` :~3A'I'N x c) A' Ic 1~
Mic r or .iiiduetto ) n
r?'wM~Yd d i tic (Oh t . VY+ri)'. ~1F aMR'iz g MMr1WR 1 ~
Wra a 1w psuze 8i5 ton p [M b?7~IWYra 'iT MN'~1N 'T ItA YJ"Wq'1 ?. .?
tG 1O to w' 1 fi r:
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Poroua U'on ?oz~ &,,n S (72 ) px'o~ed b~ CtflE
sUPP ;t ip r ARIM Aii?4c. AN:tW AL ~ M' j,W r{~ nrlMrS ~+Y4 t J.RM'1
;its d p o erU o m ~*
sazr for t ng i e ~wn fl s or ro nt der.
nc at 7y O c'm th t po1e) quits b
coi cti ~ ri U b the ; r e 'h , .
Ltbr " g x nio%d T Sh 'or fib n .,,r
t~ fit ter o ii I iz i b p . i i gur & ~L z?.
tghb 411' u "i x 7 (Z9!),
4 p or rt) in h+w+ ? di Sdd~ito s 9.tl~1 4t11*: Th D?A b~W
S a o oL con. ti d 4t att d b t
i *h.NzhJnF; to pt f'4plX
ii fed . ?~ o f
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:i ^e 13? A Ga1ibr atin ?Mss .
1 .. punah; 2 ~ ,topping deg
actor; ! ' table; 6 product.
[Figiu2e 138. r li ? ` Mold rLth Recei ng Contater (i86
Ii ba1dn residual stresses From comactang are eUminated,
whil8 the hardnc~ $ oC the grains of the neta1 s reduced very much,
quite aguen t by several times, because od the removal of cold
the reduction o1" oxides For this reason compacting
hardeniflg and
pressure (riot pxe 3 W e ) i maxi' t n less for a baked ratarial than
actin . of a briquet o tl'ze sue porosity. Tl-s pres'
for dater camp ~
'cons .derab] T ss than for procc sstn,fa cast solid
eu:ra is a1so
met al oZ the same com~odtidne The p ssur, e used in c J ibratio1~ is
usua per cent off.' compacting pressure. order to use
~.~' ~~a3~ p
it is better to do the calbratin &~ter a partial
less pressure
impre the product with oil. Calibration is best done with
~~~~.on of to
crazy ry calibration is done sucoessiil1Y with
pxesw es, In :~.ndu~ t~'
vabla containers (Figure 138),, which conaLdc;rablY increases
remo
Thus (i36), calibration speed without; a ccm
labor praductivitY.
ty of outside 3urf:ace. Fir this reason even nth i. sjgjnficaflt
$naes in density o ,teria1 are evened out in alibra-.
Dif:ex
ado
tiwn (the more pvrou~ places are easier to solidLf'y)? Here is
increase of ma,ct anon,: rains and an iprov3ment in the quaff
co ,
ta,a.ner is ~6 pieces a notes with a container 10 pieces a minute
~
to ?Q pieces during a shift).
(p
increase densit of about 1 per cent, he stro~h of articiss
in ~'
inc2$aSe5 consjderab (up to 0 per ent)
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
$ubsequent proca8$ing by pressu'e, either hot or cold, as
well as an additional thermal ; ,a ,shin ~s done not ark to achieve
ccise asurei nts, but also bor increasing density and properties
of the ateria1. Thus, in obtairin dense and strong materials
with an iron or copper base, recourse is had to ao1d corrpressh
:.n press molds, sc tetimes with later annsain.
Tab1a 2!. shows changes in properties aid density of iron
with dJ!fere ft working according to Mes'kin, Shipu n, Mitrrniri, and
Vaynshteyn?
Upon increasing density to its theoretical Orel, th.e proper-
ties of a powder x etai approach the propcrUes of cast iron treated
by pressure.
(See Table 2L. on next page]
As has been n nti owed, baked c.axbonyi iron ingots are sub-
jected to not forging and rolling before being allowed to cool of.
Data has been published concerning the fabrication by pressing in
a reducing atmosphere from hots based bidets (19Li) of round, rec-
tangu1ar~ and irregularly shaped bars o ' o r en ee copper har1ng
a crow section. of to 30 square cent:irneter. , There hits also beet
desoribed the production of thrust eo11 rs from coarsely found
shavings of austeni,t c steel (avtaraatnara st4'') by being pressed
at a pressure of about 5QO kilograms per a quare csentimeter.. comp
pree$ed briquets are bid at a ter erature of 1OOQ41OO degrees. in
tubular furnaoe with the use of a push rod. T1 ? billets re picked
up with specii tongs at the nlaading end of the furnace acid are
ch'cp forged before they can cool o in a preys in a pecia1 die.
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17.0
22.0
26.3
26,0
2q?9
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~
t~TIFs~ OF ~~~
3NG Q2~ SHE PROPE
INgL~f3 g OF P2?iSCOY~IP&ESSZ%G AND S~tA~i- $AK
7.B,taN (81)
72.2
23.2
16.1
15.1
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The dice (sht~xap) has a c;entra], mandrel which is tnrted in an openw
a.x~g in the baked bii1t held from the side by eight radial oia p ,
The presi plunger exerts six 1taneous1y a vertical pressures Pre s.
sure, in drop forging varies from ! OO to 8000 kd.lograms per square
CE ftiri29 ti r , The productivity of this op~ratl.on is f op pieoes sn
hour, After drop forging the dotails are cooled of in water quad
then processed for he xemovu 1 of 1atcrai protrus1ans Figuxc 139
shows a dra :Lng of a detail arid Ltappearance folio 1,ng diforent
stages of finishing,
Figure 139 ,Dratn? of a Detail Made from Steel Shavings and
its Appearance Following fifferent Stages of nishing.
after baking; II - after drop f3rging; III after final
finishing.
Bars baked from r~taL dth a high melting point (tungst?m,
a bdenunit ,taiwi) are subjected to dzap forgth in rotating for
ging machines (Figure l~ ) . A baz this way reo i s approxi ate y
000 blows a ninut a from forging hammer (s , gbaken) ( 16 )
for a. g1, the origin Scare bars v~ a cuss section of 9X9
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11iitere, but are traf orr +d in evera1 stage :Cato rotund
rods
with a diamejer o2 appro ,nato y 2 mil , e~-ar ,
A er this th~ rode
are eubjacted to a hot pu1ln. on a straight chain maohira
(pyr
olfeinyy teepny etanok) ui tii they arqujre a di eter of 1 mi
mtc~r and to a further hot drawing on a draw ben12 (bioohr]yy sta
sic) to a diameter of Q. mihireter3 and from a rime
hei x o:i O? ~ wd.1,?
meters to 12 micas ~ on modx,um, fine, and very firs w. re c r
a,n
rlac,nE~ i
{ r 0, R0tationa]. Forging Machine I
In tare to Lnrpro~re the properties a a baked proear s the p
may 1)e subjected ;tO the Mantra heat am chem.ca1heat finishing a,
$o1id .metC~.1s4 Use jL made of teraperjn~ of rnet 1iooer~jo ~jt
eLy
aging of cQerwni~cke,'~..,cc~n a1io},. cementation 'and tetra
t3.an of
Iron chrome J cacr tuii, . and piatir fo ~?mpro~,n,g Corrosion
resistance of powc er m ta1a annealing for rern vt
ng cold hardeningr
etc.
Later im rn tan of the baked sk 1e f/c n made of ? . mcjrd ~ ~ ,.
f.
foul fibe axial by an easily fuibie metal a
metal is ues;d in obi..
taming ant ctior~ ater.ia (Chapter x) . a s
d ~ ie ad-b?arxe
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t1tripisi.rrycr" ms,? contact tateria1s (Chapter ) ? to ster
copper, tungstenwsilver ~ r1o ybdenuvi coppery moiybdenwn iiver, etc.
powders composed o coarse p rte .c1ss which assure ~l high penstrabiliti
&rE to be pre: erred fcr such impr gnatione In impre natifl a thtn
iayor o.` porous zeta. Liner powders of th~a difficultly iu.sib1e cer-
poncnts may be used. An important consideration is to have the
ieast possible mutual dissolving of the basic components of the
oiid and 1iqe i.d phase during i prr gnat ion.
tr bcenum'" ,i ~, ?.z d
ci,b:L (167). in this way alloys of tungsten or
At the present time there are being produced very ; ntere3t1ng
alloys :rich have a resistrar,act, to . rupture of 3S '8 kilo gre per
square niilimeteran elongation of 33 per cent, a neck reduction
ox: 3?3a per cents is;ct strength (I,od specimens) up to 2 kilogram.
maters (1143,177 ) They ave. produced by impregnating a steel ske-
leton with copper (2!) per cent) and adntixtures of silicon,. phas?i.
phorus, cbromiw etc, An ixr ortant advantage of such types of a].-
loys 1$ "sel: w~iairig' a ti13 possibility of soldering and welding
tthout a~iy older or lux, inasmuch a the "sot der" ( copper, pene
tration c the stee1 3kcleton) is to be found in the actual materia]..
This enabies Ofl3 to obtain complex structures from individual details
of r3impia shape. Tim optimum w:Lght o,f details fabricated from , uch
alloys varies from 125 grains to 10 kic ramrs a When iLt IS floes axy
to inc:inde very Large quantities of the iow rtte ting component (more.
than 3O-LC) per oent} , it i s done by iregnating noai?cor?ersed
powders of the hi hrr ltirig metal which have been depo to?d` in a cru?
Impregnated alloys m be subjected to hot or cold compactIhg,
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?ti.ch contain 3.6O per cent copper or siwkver.
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A metal. k ietOf rr~;y he saturated Lo ith aiomstaUic ma'
tGria1$ such ae piastics.
In or der to 1Y2rro~re harms acid roc I & ance to eorro s:Lon of
porous a,rou aaterU 1s ~ naked products are treated (l9Li.) by super-
he aced ~-tem (Chapter XV III:) ,
Porous lxarings ae saturatod with oil at a temperature of
about 100 de gees
FINISHING O ETALLCCrq,PjrIG PRODUCTS BY THELIB USERS
In the majority of cases produca.ng plants release reta1io
cer iC products i:~i their final shape and izt which do not require
y fi x ther .. fi xaisting by mach Lntn . The latter, however, is ne ces?
s r for 1rietaiiOCCrWflc products of a, a?iv m dL nension which are liter
tie used when it is not f esib1e to make speciai pre 3 molds, in
order to make haies and notche p;rpendicui -r to the axis of cork
press 1on. hu1E.s with a di meter varying fors the length of & scree
proc3uct$ frith very co:n)a;Gicatc;c1 shape etc.
The method of cutting solid rata iOCe1^arr LC materials .5 the
uaine as for cast ai1ows off' s ra i1ar ooa osition. The method of rta
c)thiing porou$ powder naetais, horro r 1.s so aewhat different from
the ,fif J hilg of solid metal$d the differenc tncreasLrg with porno it7?
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00200080001-1
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30
C) nutting Tool '
F~,;lre i) + tiel')metL
-
or pe $ t Lg
C Lofg o
T3ITSh its data (6, 7','8) reco rd
use. bjng p
a.ax1 , , small ~~ifloa~~~~ gie
u or for s c tiff a
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r J s tb1fl th Bo hoqrL to igU t a '
:?an i to b 0$3 and the front
: i2 ' ~., ,;1. .'
qtr o ~ing
thi'~ iJJ c E t havflg high po$tY
tM'E(' ~~[y1~Jp[~~/J'J+y~yq+ M~, it i ~NV tl1I i.Y~ to ^'tWa
u' A btz'4-
m ?2' td o.h i t~
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feed shouid be used for maxims depth In both cases.
Cooling emu13i.on$ should not be used to avoid having them
gel into the poxes of the material.
it ng should be avoided where passi,b1e. Where it coast
?here should be left a slight alwance for later turning
bavoided, t
an a1lowa a of q.O O.O7 mi11imr ters the smoothing
or re'amrdng. With
cif U ITen1$ses With an expanding mandrel. The drill should be
out
sharpened to an angle of 70 degrees.
It is not permitted to finish the word ng surface of porous
ace of be rings filtering surface of filters)
details (inside surf
With grinding materials to prevent abrasi.v$s getting into the pares,
is permitted to use a sharp scraper With light pressure in order
it
to remove small unevennes$es not exceeding O,O1u O.a2 mli'i imeter.
it is recoran31mnded that fthal lapping in machining by cutting
shou The i er of m texial should riot exceed
~,d be dyne by broaching.
O,2 millimeters.
After machi:)ing by cuttings shavings should be removed by
washing with oil followed by drying with pure. po ?shifg materials.
~'
through ' roper mchining pores are closed ups the porosity of
if thr
anon and br~rn a materials, according literature, may be restored
by a haifminute pic1Ug in a d per cent solution of '~3 fallo~d
?
neutral.:ation by a coda solution, washing in hat water and sata
~'
t~.r~?n in oil at a tornperatur above the boiling paint of water
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^e s:th in tc I Mode of TG iOZ1 ( hnosr) I
In use o oxo det &di4 (bus ng ) ,, tt c iz setting into
:is best of U dons with a ra th thG help of
2 :1 th bsenoo o,C pa and xn dr4
in3a is with here a td a woof rin .
When rsss, ink. q' /~
~ &zt. N:e1W'4.An in of pWrGu on bufl $
yyy~^~.~`jNyy;.~~~ - OC' t ~ on hE hA4!4
?R Yir .. ts of cia' s IX ~ cw aC7 Any-allS Or a iAIeMO X1dYiA4X ?fl of
third sscoci r. ttflgS,. and for okt
second olass accuracy for a c r d tiOx of eoord ac-.
t3t 4 y s a t ng. ire th tho s tlra. tins so ti $
h rep c. h shit 'acing when
.
the ro:Latiori of ho z? s n farce to t grtZth o ten on
j e c.f
'~'l~e ~`artnx~~ r;~.?~rGn above r~lal~e
. ~ ~~enx>. cast and met~ll.act~r~a;~o ]r~~.t~e?":~a1:~
ff~~~ex~oas in Gani~~r~s~.t~.on bet
..c~. ~Cfialan iron cantaine much h ti~h.:~a raet~~~..o~
For a~c~~~,.~a cast an'~~.f , .. cast
t~,e ;~iJ.icc~nw In crantrada.8?~c,ton ~ ~o
cer amic iron ctintaA ~n~ ~.~. `~ ~
. ~~t iron pn~e~:~~l is e ~ to be ~~raerred.:~p~?
3.zi~ ~~"~re~ur~;~ ~,l~e fur?,~ in
,.. or1y ~.~?c~y:3.n r e~.rYflen(except carbon) used
porous bearifl8s with an iron base is copper ~~~ioh
than proc~uctic)n ap,~r~u~ beax~.,a~ ' d
makes it easier to obtain . etrol mater i b f , i
phase in bakin?
COMPONENTS OF NET?ALLOCERI? MATERS ,
Iron ac3, Its Allays
indu$t2MiaUJ' f roan iron and i?~~
The tanufacturg of produot~
aWciexrnet.1u7'' bean dater then
allaye by using the methad8 of
er-ic~ far nonferro1.~ and r are rnetale
the application of met.ac
ra id deve~.a~mnt ~n all
Powder metailU' Y thawed an especiY p
,
countr~1ar . card~.r~g to Frey ~. e~ during the ~enand. World
tha anufaC?~uTe of rnatailaae
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towards the end of the wax O, 00Q tons per year, ine1c1i 30 QQ0
ton8 of shall collars (0hapte;r XVII), about yOO tong of porous
bearings, and up to 200 tong of different details. Most powders
for these products were obt&ined by eddy- miU pulverization
followed by granulation of molten metal and reduction o? oxidized
matter. Electrolytic powders were also fabricated to some extant,
The manufacture of carbonyl powders, primarily for magnetic niateria1s,
by the: vacuum technique [i) i) reached 1000 tons a year. In the U
there were manufactured, primarily bearings, details and magnetic
tons of iron powder.
The principal n'i thods for producing iron powders are reduction
(of pulverized oxides, oxidized stoe1 scrap, caic.Lned ferrous sulfate),
grinding of ,steel shavings with subsequent decarburizing heating
of powder, granulation; arid electrc1yis.
in particular, there are
used iron and steel powders obtained by pouring into w~.ter cast iron
with slir ht si:licon content (with ).i.,2 ' percent G, Oil - 1`2
percent Mn, and 0.2 w 0.6 percent Si), then t ub j e ctin the granules
to decarburizatian by heating the granules in a rotating furnace
containing an atmosphere of CO. CO . The bigger parts of relatively
large granules are remelted for obtaining cast iron and steel,
he small particles (up to ) O percent smaller than 0
rillinaeters and up to 8 percent smaller than 0,2 millimeter) m be
used successfully in tho production of rieta1lc~cerand.c products,
include ac3rixtures in powders), There are produced from iron alone
having an iron base, iron Is the only component (If one does not
In the majority of metallocerarn.e porous and dense materiais
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
in baking (to the order of l percent.)
Carbon in free (jran?grapbite) or combined (rrleta.locer~~~i,o
Form contains many poweler materi.a1s i ter. an iron base,
,steal
Graphite in the cif percent is introduced soraetimee into
quantity
the powder mixture Th the manufacture o1" porous bearings, steer
ears and other details.
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porous bearinga: shell ooi,Lr$, te1ephonc inductQX, pole pieces
rer't mator8,y and othax soft magnetic rateria1s
f'ar small direct cur
vacuum toht o1o " , nary detai1sa a ling or
materiels for use in
ackcinr materia Teets (zh(3$t' ) from carbon 1 ,ran With
~.s , :S.rorr sx
~ ualittas y etc r PorOUS Iron for ca1k.Ln~ pipes :t high ~t~rflp.~,r1 ~ ~.
made of iron grit jmpregn;sted with bi tumerh Iran powders and
,
y1MIn1~ /~y /JM. ,,, in ~n,anetic c:arasR In certai.n ~nater:~~,.a3.s
~~~MN4Yw?~I~/~ ~+ p1aY!//~~~11~ N~M?R V~~~ M \A?N \~11~~ r : M
it is characteristic to find a higher content of phosphar'fe and
sulphur s,dmi,xtures (t7aarin $ from austeriitic" (tt avtomatnaya") steel
shavings) which assure the production of fine, more easily pulverized
and compressed shavings? Recomn-endatiOrls also exist E162J for in
creasing the content of phosphorus in iron in order to achieve
'eater qtrangh from hot pressing and b akifg. Admixtures of phosw
phorus and b, suphur 11Th] make it easier to hold carbon when intro'
forn into a powder mixture (graphite c tcd). This
ducin it in free
positive act phosphorus %s expIained by the formation of
~.on. of eutectic c melting lting at hak?ng tempc3rature and by der x:i.diZiflg actions
ociuCts made reduced oxidized psa?tiCles (o'c 1ina) contain a
~M from .
consjde~~~. . rble quantity of ox!da (i0 and i aO) which cannot be reduced
 Con .raction
wiwW w~M+bYWrWIM,MgMI~MMM~MMMM' MMMM`w~
~pyynNrWM~.~' ~wMr1~~+1N++n+4~MFN~IKM~NMw ~MW~wY/PM-----.WY
W w
Elongati on
rrwrrn?n,.w~,wwdww~rwww.u+www*rw+++wwe~w..wrAr~"w'w~.r~""""Nmrwr"wwwiw"~r`niw~-
30
20
10
4w
impact Toughness
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
N1rpWMliN19MNMWMN'~M wNw~VMN ~MMMNyMW1+MA'M~M~~MMMMM~~~NNM~
0 0.1 O.2 0.3 O.). c 0,6
carbori1i atecl
induction stefl
electric steel
Martin steel
Fi.~rur :L)1. Properties of Mete .iOCe1~anl C Carbonyl a'te :?t.s in Compari-
son with the Ordinary Steels produced in Nartin, Arc, and Induction
Furnace$ 1:i7)
Carbon rr~taiioc~?r rniC steels may co.. tai r~ the w uai Cr smaller
quantity of ordinary aC1flhiXtUrG E (Si Mn, F, ). Thy properties Of
Cca1T)...a,ct tafor;eraaidc ;.carbon eteeJs do not differ markedly from the
properties of cast etehla of corresponding composition. Steeds pre
iron as compared th the usual. steelS (Figure
pared roni carbonyl
i I, have the same ore sTera elightly greater eia ation, reduction t~f
area, and nt act taughnoSe and a, aomewhai smaller resistafCO to rup,
ture t id yield point. With rnetalloCe amiC Steels made from. ether
powders (186), resistance to fracture i almost the seats, while
elen~ration and reduction in yea areV smaller thorn .:for east steels.
,
Carbon in metalloceramie steals may be introduced by adding to the
wder mixture graphi t>e or east iron powders or is mead' contained
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:i.n thEy o?1. 1Ua1 s teed. powder's ?.
The w app,catlaxr of cant iron powders in matal1widespread ceraxn ed by the lowering oI properties caused by the
~.ce i13 h,~,nc~,nr ~'
oxr , content of graphitci and r L1icof ?ihi h form orJde
os.~derablo dli;ia.cult to reduce and 1oW X' weidability. According to th ~ data
' of Bal' ?~,2] , it is usrdesa~rab`.~e to ~:ae cast
~~.i.n and ~ora:~en~:ca ~~~ ?
iron c,ontain~.ng nor o than 1? 3 I. percent si.li con? Cast iron/
cunE,aining a sra1icontent of wiitcon raay be usfd to produce
bearings with somewhat t^ lower but atiil acceptable proparta.ee? For
t.this ?eaSO' cast iron 1 a u- ed i,ra powder metailu~Y oi'~Jy on a
limited tec~. ? 3c,a1a? Thus, steel powders are obtained from decarburized
s ~?i.r^on shot produced by atoiza.rag. Cast iron
~,~.Tht~.y~s7.l:~can c~rs' c
powder :L used which .as been. 'E,1rcatod to deca~burizi.ra~ heatiig with
~
iron o~ade; C2J . Cast iron powders are added to a powder mi x'ture
~.c~
used in t ~he manu~'rtr~ctore of metaiicacc tic ste'1 ? In produc ~a cast
~
iron pc t is possible to use w ste shavings and iron shpt
~r~ew~?fa, ~.
1
.from casting (txsteel" sand.
The s of powder metallurg7 rn e it poasib1e to obtain
~;Chad .
alla i ateeIs and allays with an iron base with
alloyed and s per;~a,.t.
and other a+ziXture~ . .A11oye made fr~it
smaller content of carbon
ca,rbonyl powders with ?la 3~ - 36 percent Ni have a lower coeffiCient of
A
neta e because of their grater pur~tty [167 w
heat eparxslnn than cash
a
It is 3asi.er to regulate the composition on and size of the coeffoier.t
.~
to..lcac~ari :rrcterials of this type . For this
of expansion for
mason they are u in the fabricati0n o bi~aGta1 and in
used ~16ri ~
~ruRc:~~~'~~ I'o~`
~umez~ts (~~a~,t regu~.atc~r?8$ i~rxt,
e;~ee~~r~.ca~. control. ~..str
the cur?rant) ? Al ley containing aluminum
~.u.tomatically burn can
nd iii ckal (a)n1) and a ilx~ ! Ickel and cobalt ( ainicc Y o u8 d
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in making pc rnanent magnets (Ohaptor XVl) a
Alsifer powders used in maldng ra netio cares contain 7 Ra
percent Al and lC peroent i. It is a1 o known ti9Li.1 that meta11o'
oeranic staix~1ess steal oontaining 18 percent Cr and 8 percent ii
is being manufactured. Iron alloys with - 20 percent Mo and.
1 percent Cu [19L,] are recomrend c3. for so1doring in g1a s.
'iateria1s speoifioaI1y intended for metiJ,locerwnios are iron
alloys containing copper and lead. Copper ( ' 2 percent) used in
porous bearings and steel details is a 'ttechnoioical't component which
raises density and strength because it cr{rates a liquid phase during
baking. However, this effect may be obtained without introducing
copper by the proper modification of technology. Alloys are prew
pared whose steel skeleton is impregnated with molten copper and
additions of silicon, chromium, etc. They have the faculty of
Fusin without the addition of flux at the xneltixa temperature of
he copper alloy inxpregnated in the skdietox~. Lead in small content
may be added to the powder mixture in the form of oxite.s in lame
content through impregnation of the iron skeleton. According to
d9ta existing in literature t1671, he addition of lead improves
the ability to be treated by pressure. At one time it was recommended
that lead be added., to antifriction alloys with an iron base.. However,
according to more recent data, lead when in quantity above 3.5 percent
lowers anti,fiction and mechat i.ca1 properties. Its addition in quan-
tities up to 3.~ percent is not connected ir particular advan-
tages (18).
Superheated steam is used in the finisbing of porous iron or
steel [i L ]. The oxidized film that is thus forrat d in t] e bound es
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l)atween gr128 arid ppr 6~8 1nCXehta.^dnand r+~si$tafl,r;~ to
roslof on the part of the mateDU1.
trot
Iran t8 a1so used aa additive or ac miXtW E in meta11n'
rarxraue tnota~.s as a base magnetic
ceramic al~.c~y~ with ran~ ~
nic1Ca7. 1aa contains 1? ~ 21 percent
alloy permaJ.1oy wry, cb hay a
co a ~a~^ ~~a~~ eo~~ta~n up to ~.~ percent
~'e friction niatc~r'i.~ ~r:~.t~~ ~, ~~ r ~
Fe hard alloys up ~-? 1. percent Fri
Copper at d its Alioy$
Copper i5 one of the materials most widespread in powder
ar in ~, r~~der ~>?~etal~lur' is i"avored by
mota~,lur? ~k~~ use o~ c,opp .~
~.n x its p~,as~~~,cityy easy redti~c~,bi~.~.~y
its ~.aw melt~.npoint in 1aa~ ~-~
with ~'h~.ch its powder can be fabricated.
of axide~~ end the e r ~.~e
e mcst? wid~spread. metl:aod for abtin'lppwder is electrolysis?
This iS followed by atomizing of melted coppers reduction, and eddy?
mill comrinutio1.
s re a ally obtained by atornizin.g he
C~pper~al,~.Y powders ~
liquid metal.
t~ ale 169 of origthal text)
BQt ifl of baked p
c en-free copper. The c~:~etr~.ca'i aor~?
results In m~atal~.occram~.c '~
r 119 1 is a~ 3 percent ? higher than for the
duc'.: ~.ty of ccpp~
d ?t made ~'rOlrt ~~Yie same, ray prr~du~ct s
~.ectrc~.yt~c
best e cpp
Capper is used, as the haej c eorpanaf in the following
.~ ~~x
metallocaran e . materials:
cca8Ianl additiph of tin or lead,. the rest naiv
p~Tit, with p
~ev~er~.l to
'f0'
(a) c0pp r?gDap to hashe$ 4 ap~~.tet .
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copper) 3
(b) friction materiaia (60 7 percent Cu, - In percent
Sn, occasIonaiiy 6 J. percent Pb, ? 3 percent raphitey 0
percent 5102, 0 ~- 10 percent Fe);
14
(c) filters (92 percent Cu, 8 percent Sn);
(d) tin bronze for details and porous bearings (about 10
percent Sn, sometimes several percent Pb, and 0 - 14 percent graphite,
the rest being Cu) ;
(e) special brvnes. They include the recently-develapad
antifriction bronze with 2?L percent Ni; 0.8 percent Si and 0.3
percent P, adapted to aging ~ to dispersion hardening (Chapter x),
also meta11ocerarflic bron 8 (1S9], capable of aging, the properties
of which are given in Table 28;
and 40 percent Ni.. Copper nickel porous materials are used in
England to prevent icing of airplanes (page 2l of origna1 text
( ?) brass with 10 or 30 percent zinc. Netallocerar-1ic brass
characteristically has a content o 0.3 - 0.8 percent of the
"technological" cohponent phosphorus (Page 166 of original text).
The properties of meta1loceramic brasses are given in Table 29;
(g) cop,per?-nicke]skelaton in tripleiiayer antifriction, material
Durex-100 impregnated with lead babbit contains ahau.t 60 percent . Cu
A large quantity of capper (10 ?. 140 percent) is contained in
copper tungsten contacts. The use of copper in alloys having an
iron base was mentioned above. Several percent of capper and nickel
are contained in so called heavy alloys having a tungsten base (3 20
percent Cu., 3 - 16 percent Ni); 0. percent capper is contained
in dent, fillings.
,l#
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Composition in Per~nt
ot:~er
Ni Cr
C11
2.00
5.00
TABLE 28
PROPERTIES OF sP~cThz BRc;NLES CAPABLE OF AGING
y
~ : Electrical conductiVi..t~
Elements M
[3l [h3 [S] 167 [t81
0.2~
0.sfl
0.25
fl.l,
--ri 4
bD
ct,)
.>N
4.r4 ri
-~ ter , iQ r
-r$ t1?
@ ~ M Solid After
i44 fl 4 h fl
r- t i j Qs
_a a-
in Percent of Copper
Solution Aging
23.3 30.0
32 i4 21.0 LI0.0
34
0.5T]-H2 36
21:s,4 114.1
-_ 32,2 55.6
-- 11.7 12.8
7 32.2
8 33.5
6L.3
69.1
Rockwell Rardness
Upon
Being Said A ter
Produced Solution Aging
22Fs
19B
33B
l~2B
]46B
.[3ij [121
25F 2fl8
36F 23D
1t5? 3JB
2bF 1,J4
34B 35B
15B uaB
38} 53F
3513 %$1 SIB
38Ti b2F 68B
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 :lj (2} t3l [h]
2.5
2.5
2.5
0.5
0.5
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[5] [6j C7l
[Sj
t9l
tioj
[iii
t121
26 15
2. flGo
28a.I
h3?h
3QB
28
39B
72B
61.0
3:
36 ?
60B
52.0
35B
3g.4 5
8oB
35.5
35B
O?5S2 LS3 2.5
8513
Li.6
35B
2.:Co 55 3.1
--
0.50
0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5
0.5
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lii
2.5
(2~ E3l [b} [5]
0.50 2.flCo
0.5 Q.5 --
0.5 0.5 --
0.5 0.5 o.5si
[Bi
2I.
c51
43.4
61.0
52?0
35.5
11.6
[zoo [lii [12]
3flB
2$F
39$
3-I
35B
35B
35$
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72B
63B
$OB
1':
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TABLE 29
PROPERTIES O BRASSES
Composition in Percent
Specific Gra ty
in Grams Per
Maximum
Tan ile
Elongation
in
Cu
Zn
p
Cubic Centimeter
Strength
Percent
70
30
..
7.88
23,0
l
70
30
0?3
7?80
21.,O
L3
?0
10
?
8.2
22+0
18
90
10
0.7
7.6Ls
i6~
26
EASILY-FUSIBLE METMlS ( r~Er,CUhY, LEAD p ''rii, C' C 7~
CATIt4IUM, ZINC)
Easily4usibie rr~ata1s sometimes do not enter into he con
position of meta11ocerrir is materials as a basic COmponent 4 Tin
and lead powders are priraar]y obtained by atomizing of the liquid
metal and zinc by atomizing and volatilization.
Mercury was first used in the preparation of pastes for the
nozzle eJ thrusion method of pres$in; tungsten (page 61 of original
text). At the present time mercury is only used for producing
pastes (wmal ems.) for the fabrication of niataLiocera cal dental
fillings (Chapter XVIII).
Aside from iron and copper alloys. lead is used in the ire
pregnation of the coppe ra nicke1 skeleton of triple-layer material
(an alloy of lead with 3 parent antimony and h percent tin).
Patent literature speaks of impregnating tsten with lead used
X*miray screens.
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Cadi i'u1 is used in contacts in the form of an ax.de on a
si1v?r be. Furthermore, it is used in electrolytic cadmium surw
face plating of metallocer wflie materd.als for the purpose of increas
ing resistaulce to corrosion.
Zinc, bcsidea copper alloys, is used in preoipitati.n, cobalt
and. nickel from ammonia solution on powder particles of tungsten
earbide. The properties of aium?nw alloys containing 10 percent Zn
are given in Table 30. Zinc is also used as an anticorrosion coating
of matalloceraznic products.
TABLE 30
PROPER 'IES O F ALUMINUM ALLOYS 1.19L ]
Rests tanc
+ 7% Zn +
+ 3% M
3,1
14.7
1k,30
9.1
1i30
6.3
370
6?3
L30
6.3
i_0
6.3
370
6.3.
130 .
6.3
10
13,0
7.~
3,3
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rressure J3aking to Fracture Density
in Tons rf porature in Kilograms in Gram:3 Porosity
Composition per Square in Degrees per Square per Cubic in
in Percent Centimeter Ce`ntigr'ade Millimeter Centimeter Percent
90% Al 4.
4. 10 Mg
90% Al +
4. 10 Zn
90% Al +
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CiHT (ALUMINUI4, MA,GN)'IUM, BEit LLiUN)
1o .-
c ~' w
~.,~.,n-uWO
...w..
Ktii1o~rams per Square
1....l.Ritt vas.
tree of twee porous beart 3 have not 'bean made public.
reduced an an industrial scale. The exact composition and proper
Aluminum is used as the main component ,tn porous hearings
The re1ati()11ak~iP 0 the properties of metaliocaraItiC aluminum
to the condjt3,orls o: fabrication 11Ia is given in FigurE 1SS.
iI#
Kilograms per
Square Miil-
. Compacting Pressure
Figure i%. Properties of Metaliocera~dc , uminufln 11W-ti
'h ~ properties o1 aluminum to which 10 percent of rrxagnesium
~ ,
or zinc or both of these metals has been added I19)- have been
given in Table 30. A1um1nUXfl carbide has come to be used as a
substitute in hard alloys.
;~ quality. See above scar the use of beryllium in bronze.
;.nd
gz,~
Beryllium (166] is used in the manUCaCture of windows for
'.ray tubes. Meta11oCeramiC beryll:Lum is superior to cast for the
~.
m .ufacture of thick X ray wincl0ws beoause of its greater c1o.se-
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L`-OHT1 Mi!TMa$ (i Lug{C. NUM,, A(N: It) , T3ER L:CIUM)
A1urinum is used as the rain coitponcnt in porous bo rin s
produced on an :tn.clustriai scale. The exact composition and proper
ties of these porous bearings have riot been made public.
'1'lne rolationsbip of the prOIX tie$ of metallocerarnic aluminum
to he conditions of f&~ricatiun [i1.] a.s given in Figux'G 155,
Kilograms per
Square Mi1l~
meter
~~, rAII~'
NYwMwww~AWr.r+W1'OwrM~Mw~r~wMWM~wMrOw~MM~M~rMwWwMx /y
pl,'110NMY/'rNNIMWV yq I
~rYA
~ ,' c ~
riw.rn.rrrw.uw.~w~xntiMw.vww,~wwrbYrM~~
W1 r+wnwrww~wn.nw~~~
1 ~.rr+rlMw+YYAIMM ,~~?
1yyyyyy~~~~~'
V
nyn YY~~ 1".I
1/MA+++W WrY~+yMNW~Mrtl~WN~rra WrM~iMyMwYA.M
ti1ograrn pcr Square
-T3 --1x ...r-irr._, -r' Mii1.m to ?
Compacting Pressure
Figure 155. Properties of Metafocerarnic Aluminum E1
T'hproperties of a1urnix~wn to which 10 percent of magnesium
or zinc or both of these metals has been added i:L9L] have been
given in Table 30. Aluminum carbide has come to be used a a
substitute in hard alloys.
Beryllium (166] is used in the manufacture of windows for
X.ray tubes, Netailoceramic beryllium is superior to cast for the
manufacture of thick X-ray windows because of its greater close-
gr cin? d quality. Sot above for the use of beryllium in bronze.
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METALS OF THE IRON GROUP (NICKEL AND CO)3LT)
Nickel poWder3 a.r$ obtflGd by redUcta~ or heat d~.$eoct
Uf CarbolVi .(f)0) .
~.~' component In
tip"~~,ae a an
Nickel ~.s uead in ~,~.m~.ted ,~
T ~odu,ct~oxa, Of bimetals anc~, ,~~,itGr~?
vacuum technalo
As a princtp ccamponcnt, ikei is in the magnetic
78.~ percent ~i aracl 21.~
for re5 in of cores
ant 'Fob and 2 pe rc ent .Ma ).
ant U ar 81 percent Ni, i7 per c
perc
iron ~nd caper have ,?ready been
AlloyS of ick1 with referred to above.
Nickel is u~ed as a rernentin mta~. in certain hard ,lQye
ehe"~ie with 97 percent
as an allay for the cores oaf ar~aax' ~
"me .eu~~et~.?~utc~ canta3.nin ~
ran ~a,t
~~ and ~ ~ ercent Ni , the Om t~,t~a1~'~;t~l 8
ercent TIC, and l0 percent lip
.
percent ~0~ p - 13 eruent Ni)
carbide allol Rar~et with 8 p
parr er,t Ni y tar~ta:lvm.
.`~ duct~.c~~.. C~ob.t is used.
Cobalt powders are o~atal.rab re V
as a cementin metal 1nhe
principally
3 to 20 percent co).
reductiofl of salt ~o~,ti~t~.one or
llver 1$ Q~~~aned either by ,
atniain of the quid net. _
the fabrication o f filters
silver pure form 1f3 deed in
~~it~
t n ~;ohtac'~u (~~.~.~rcr.~grap~
It is used ~s~ a ma~.x~ component
~:t ~ of
e ~?~ant~
ox~.d~) A ~~~~~,dsrabl
ei~.v~er_r~icl(e~., s~.~.ve:cadm~-a .
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ai1ver (10 - )40 percent) is contained in contacts with a tungstexx
or mo11bdenum base. Silver ie the principal cornponQnt in metallo
ceramic dental filings (about 5O percent).
Gold is used in so*called eleotrostatic eliminators for
eliminating static charges from telegraph ribbons X177].
Platinum was he first industr, lad, r7iata1 to be obtained by the
methods of metal1ocer8xa1cs 120 years .go. Metallacerarnic platinum is
softer and more plastic than cast because of smaller admixture can-'
tent [167]. The T3rinc1l hardtxess of cast platinum is L0 4th, that
of metafocerarnic 38 ? -
About 19C)O osmiun was used in the production of incandescent
filaments Tor electric lamps. Osmium at the present time, as well
as palladiums rhodium, and iridiuni9 is used in concentrations of
1, -' 10 percent in place of cobalt in hrdalloy contacts for
telegraph relays.
REFRACTORY METALS (TUNGSTEN, MOLYBDENUM, T TMauM~ NIOBIUM)
Refractory reta is in pure form and alloys in which they
are he basic components are produced at the present time almost
exclusively by the methods of powder rnetallurg r. (Tantalum is also
produced on an industrial scale by means of vacuum arc smelting)
The properties of refractory metals [167] are given in Table
Tungsten powders are obtained by redctiarx
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TABLE 31
PROPER S OF R. ACTOR{ METALS
Metal
Property dol. denni Tantalum Niobi~
3 ~
[Ii 21
Specific gravity
~ 0 10?3 16.6 _ 0.1 8.57
i~.~ ,. I~.3 1cubic centimeter
in grams per cub
Melting Point
degrees Centigrade 3itCO - Q 263G ? O 2900 ? 100
~
Resistance to Rupture
kilt) ass r square ndiliiite
?
Cold -hardened ;petal 18 i 100 Q 90 - 120 & 90
8? 120 35 SO 3
Annealed petal
Monocrystal not hardened '?~ned 110 3
~,
d
Elongation in percent
Coidhardened metal 1 L. 2 2 3 2
10 , .
Annealed metal . 30 25 . O 10
~~ rs~.1s not hardened 20 30
Yield point
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[21
? ~.~.117~'~7P
s per sqUare
1
iced
~cld
Annealed
,d1us
?jiastiGitY 'll
tee
~:lc-atas per sq
in ~
` ne1l hardness
square
in O3? . per iealed
4 ezpanS1O' at
ar
Ceei~.c~
de _ :ees
2.
e eat conduc s~ at 20 de eGS
- ~-
d
eccr l
n. ~.~cter s
Draw per ce
~? calms
degree
?~
Specific elec C
20 degreeS in Qh; square TniIl'
t
:35c -Ica
c.o55
[3:1
4.O- 60
33,600
211.E - 255
5.2 ? 10'6
0.35
U: v
200 - 250
7.2 ? 7.c6
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t3l
Vapor
. ? 3 , e of iaercllrY
of
thJ
[5l
1530 ~ 153Qa ? 6.l~ l0
1 ,93 IO"15 i730? _ 8 10 ~
2130 ~ 7.4 " lo-~ 1930? _ h ~ 1O-5
330?
ti.?$ 10"3
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Turngaten 1a used pz%incdpai1y rorr ifcande 3ceft ?i1arente
for e1eetria 1 pe, parts of cathode lamps in vacuum techno1o,,
X-ra~r tubas, rect:Lfi ra . t ranafor merS, diaoharge tt bee,
electrodes, spark p1ug3, contact$ and electrodes i'or atomc?~
arc welding, hard alloys, heavy afoys for radium ihi, idep etc.
(see Chapters : I , XVy XVII, III I ) . Modenum pawdcra are
obtained by reduction.
Molybdenum is used principai1in th e1eotric-1arnp and
electric-vacuum 1nduEtrie8,for attaching tungsten connecti
f1ament3 to glass, or anodes in vacuum tzbea, in Xray tubes,
for heating e1emc3nte. in igh t amporat1 re furnaceu in contacts ~
anal in ob3o:L' to brands o' hard afoya ( for greater detai.i eee
Chapter xv).
Tantlum powder is obtained by t`e reduction of alkali
metals and by the electrolysis of melted media4 Tantalum is bated
in a vaunt.
T&Ltaluu is used in vacuum technalog (Chapter xv), in hard
a11oy3 (ChaptE3r xii) in idli tart' surgery (Chapter xviI). Thanks
to its high resistance to corrosion, tantalum is widely used in
chemical rnachine 'bulc wng in apparatusee for tIze production of
h`c3ror ,oric acid, c tc
Niobium powder ?s Qbtained, pri,niarily by electra:lyct s of
The industrial application of niobLum In v'acuun technology.
and for hard aUcy3 is atiU >ml1.
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OTHER N1 TA
Manganese i used as an admixture and sometimes as an
addLtt've to meta11ocezs1Ltc steels.
Chromium is ueed ;1.n alloys o f iron and copper. Chromium
carb;Lde is contained in certain kinds o C hard alloys.
Vanadium is used in hard alloys as, substitute, as in
srna during the war (L percent VCS l percent TIC, 10 percent
Ni )
Titanium is one of the ten most widely used elements con?
the earthts crust. Titanium is used in the form of a
tamed in
carbide TIC in powder meta11urY for present day hard alloy: used.
steel. Additions of titanium hydride TIH2 may be used
in cutting
[1914] as a source for atorTlic hydrogen for the reduction of diffi
cuit-to?reduce oxides (such as aiumimim) .
Titanium in its pure form or as a basis component in alloys
has not yet come to be used either in casting metallurgy or in
powder metaliur . Moreover, the mechanical propErrties of titanium
have not b een well known. The reason for this lies in its exceptional
affinity to gases (oxygen, azoteg hydrogen) and t n carbon, thus making
cult to obtaifl. Only recently has ductile titanium Cl~9]
it difficult
been obtained by the ciethods of powder metallurgy. The initial pow
~'
der.s were prepared by the reduction of titanium tetrachloride with
~'
actin 7 was done at a pressure of 6000 kilo-
mg Comp ~"
magnesium.
per square centimeter. ', baking ~?? in a vacuum with a rarefaction
grams
of 2 + 1Ow millimeters of mercur7 column at a temperature of 9SQ -
over a period of i6 hours. The properties of titar iurn
~.CUQ degrees ~
are given in Table 32
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In its resistance to corrosion titanium is close to steel
l3..8. Concentrated N2504 and HC1 quickly erodes titanium, but
percent HnSOJ1, causes a loss o only 0?L~0 rnLlligr s per square
declmciter in 2)4 hours. Diluted solution of Na2soJ do not act on
titanium. Specimens of titaniwn showed no change after aQdsy
stay in a salt chamber. Titanium will not burn in air when heated
up to 800 degrees.
Titanium possesses exceptionally valuable properties. Its
melting point is only 190 degrees above that of irony but it is
stronger and considerably lighter (by L3 percent) than iron and
has a very high resistance to corrosion. A phase transfonnation
at 880 degrees (910 degrees for iron) permits the treatment of
titanium allays by heat and tempering. In this way, powder
meta1lur r opens up the prospects of industrial utilization of a
newxnportant metal.
Zirconium is used in the vacuum technique as a getter (as
absorbent).
Thorium is introduced into tungsten in the form of Th02 to
regulate recrystallizatjon and increase emission capability.
Radium compounds are used in electrostatic eliminators [177J
for the purpose of removing electrostatic charges from the ribbons
of telegraph apparatuses (Chapter ,v).
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TABLE 32
PRC)PERTI'FS OF TITANIUM
Property Vaiue
Cif [2)
in kio, r ns per square 1iineter
Cold-hardened
Annealed 28
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'lattice Coxastruation
p( et T is gx;wty in greaiis per
cubic centim&:-er
Melting point in degrees
centigrade
I
Resi53tance to ' rupture in
kilograms per square millimeter
Co1d~hardexxOd
Annealed
YIe1d point
in kilograms per square mt11irneter
}exagon1 dense packing
a = 2.9 ,, C = t73
Cubical above B80 degrees
a 3.2A
CoidthardefOd r 70
Aea)Ac L
Limit of proportionalitY
Coid- aard+ ned
Annealed . 39
Elongation in percent
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oun I$ modulus
in kiloxams per square millimeter
Goldwhardenad 10,800
Annealedd l:L, 300
Hardnasa
Cold.hardened 6!
Rockwell "A"
Annealed
Rockwell "B"
Eleotrical c0ndu,ctiVity
in ohms per cubic cexiti. r>.c~ter '
Carbon in the form of diamond dust is used in diamond'
metallic compositions (Chapter XII ) . Mention has already been
made above of graphite and corioined carbon in iron, copper, and
hard alloys, etc. Organic compounds of carbon enter as plastics
primarily into the composition of cores.
Silicon ordinarily exerts a harmful, influence in view of
the difficulty of reducing its odes and because it decreases
ldabili,t~ (intering) of metal. For this mason silicon in the
we ~'
ma orit of cases is used in materials that are produced without
recourse to baking. Thus magnetic cores pressed with plastics
utilize the alloy alsifer with 10 percent Si. Silicon in the form of
SiC2 is introduced into friction materials for raising the coefficient
of friction.
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Mention has also been made above of the role of
s u1phur
am phosphorus jn meta1iooei^amje materja]
phorus prays
more frequently a positive than a neatvca role in
powder metals ?
Oxygen appears in the great majority of cases as
an
undesirah1e ac1rnjxture? Referez~cv has been mac1 abVc
o ,. to the
special oxidation of porous iron by supenc~ated stet' t
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Chapter X
MTERThLS
TAL
. PORDU$ BF,ARI1O$
were introduced to industrial use relatively
Porous bearing
recently about 2~ years ago. This branch of industry has developed
then. At the present time industry In the US employs
rapidly since
oroae bearings. The output of porous antifriction
more than 1 billion p
materials in terms of total metallocerami.c production is quite signif?icant.
As is known, pure cast iron. having a homogeneous structure cane'
not be used as an antifriction material. Figure i6 shows that pour
is iron` has an irregular structure (ferrite grains and
metalLoceram
The macrohardness of porous iron contaifling 2percent pores
parse).
is about 3a~ MOm while the microhardness of ferrite grains is about 70,
with zero hardness for pares. Thus, antiIriction lead bronze (where
lead tales up about 2 lumetric percent) has a macroharress of 3,
~
with a nnicrohardness of 6 for the copper and B for the lead. As can
be seen, porous on is quite comparable to lead bronze in hardness ??
~.x
for the collective and individual structural composites. The prosenoe
of pores, which contain a supply of oil against accident and which
~'
excellent workingln quality, makes it possible to utilize
provide an
successfully materials for bearings which do not possess antifriction
qualities in the compact state, such as iron.
figure i6. Porous 4eta1locer8mic Iron. X O0 (Bal'shin) EPhotol
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P roue nieta11ace1"amia bearifig8 have the foUawing advantages
over other sliding bearings:
This to the presence of an emergency supply of o, in
the pores and to the possibility of simplifying the introduction of
t
s there is a decrease in many cases of the 'a nger of bearings
1ubri.cant
going out of order, in wear on bearings and shaft, and in expenditure
of oil, eliminating the necessity of frequent lubrication and canse
damage to products frora lubricants, and sp1fying the design
~,uent of assemblies, etc.
(2) ee11ent accoumodation due to the presence of pores.
(3) P'os sibiity of working not only with tempered but also
with plain shafts C syyye1 ?
(4) The possibility of obtaining finished details with desired
dimensions and requiring no machining.
() Simplicity of.nsta.$t.on and operation of porous bears'
ang s.
(6) possibility of manufacture from nondpficit meterials
(iron).
.-
In contrast to 1 ol1er bear'ings3 the vantage of pus bear
ings lies in their cheapness and quietness of operation.
Porous bearings have forced out from many branches of technol-
ogy cast tin b ronze. In some they have. replaced roller bearings and
have given better performance.
jr
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however, it wou34 be incorrect to consider porous iron as
.
ute for tin bronze. Poroue metals are new teahniCal
solely a substi,t
materia1s and surpass bronze with respect to a number oi' properties.
.
Co osi.tiony truotuare~ and Density of Porous T3oar.ngS
At the present time the'o1lawir varieties o1 porous anti-
friction on materials are being produced on an industrial scale.
and bxc~nze graphite with a porosity' o about 20w30
(a) Iiran~e
percent (87?90 percent Cu, 9w10 percent Vin, O?L percent graphite,
adc itlons Of lead). Fabricated primarily from tine
sometimes with
and med3urn powders. Used in work under conditions where lubrication
is difficult and which call for law loads and speeds (product of
specific load "p" and velocity sir" up to 20 kilograms per square
centimeter~meters per second). (Sometimes porous bearings have
several percent of lead).
b Porous iron with iO.3O percent pores. Prepared mainly
from medium and coarse pciwders. With a satisfactoXY lubricant it,
may work at values of pv s 100 and, with an unsatisiactary one, up
to kilograms per square centimeter*nleter$ per second. When work-
~
ing with tampered rollers, one may use carbonization from bearings
during caking or afterwards,
c) ?orous irons'graphite with 20.30 pores (97m98 percent Fe,
up to 2 percent graphite, including up to i percent combined carbon)..
The structure is ferrite, ferrite'.pearlite, or pearlite. When work
ing with terrpaxed rollerss pearlite structure is preferable. , Fri.
catad from line and mediwu powders. Intended - f or the same conditions
~.ne a
of work as porous iron.
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(d) :cron*?aopper ands troncoppe r~ raphite with O.3O percent
poroeity (8397 percent 3~1 percent Cu, O.2 percent gr phtte,
Cw?i percent combined carbon). Intended Lor the same conditions o
work a compositions iister~ under psra,raphs b arid. a.
(e) Lead 4ron rnd iron,?? ;raphite (167), At first contained up
to 18 percent ;Pb.t the prescnt time iron is used with na higher
than 3. percent ~b content. An opinion exists (i8 ) that the intro
duction o1 lead does ~aot add any advantages but even exerts an un. a "
vorable action.
(i:) P0r0u8 bearings with an aluminum base. Cniy fagmc3nt t
data exists concert them (specific gravity about 23 percent that
of cast bronze, high sistance to corro ions and approximately the
same xrtaxarnum loads and speedo as ' or porous bronze).
The Collowing porous antifriction materials are also reserving
of attention although they have not yet found their way into industry
J1. &3 Cci . bronze (159) which contains 2,L. percent Ni,
0.8 percent Si, 0.3 perent , the rest being coppers Auer being
chilled in water from 8S0 degrees, it can be improved by aging at
1_so degrees. A materi with approztiate1y 12 percent porosity, it
has a resistance to fra`Ct ?e' of ;about 3! k ograms per square Dili.
meter, an elongation of about l percent, and e 31O ockwe1i B
hardness. Bearings fr this, bronze, after a prelirninazy working in
for a period of hours with a load. of 38 kilograms pei aware enti?
meter and a speed of L meters per second and for another period of
3 hours with 9 kilograms per squat cent rieter and 5.9 meters per
second, were thew tested ;oz O hours at 160 kilograms per square
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and e)4 meters per saa~ t
centimeter b8exV'ea an th~3 S'l~':aC~b a the bea"
perceptible gear or de~eGt~ were a
tugs or the roUax~
with ~,~.~~ p~rce~t ~~~ up to
(b) Me
ta~.~.ac+~ra.c cast .ran w~. 9ercent 0, up to ~ percent a~
which was carn~iincd. FabrIcated
~ra~ lxan shaves or cast fan pcrdexs with sltght s~icr~n
bas~.aal~Y
content art~.cs and content ~ 10-20 percent paxasttys Me an cal prof
r
Hawevex, they' can do wa~'k '~
,~ axe sma~.lar than for paraus ran?
load
w centeter~~etaxe per second
nth PV ~ about ~~? ~i?~,agrams per s~ axe
and even samEWhat gxeatero
The tandenc during the course of development a1
~s absaxved s ~~~'' ba xadnced to the ~pl~.aw~.n~r
awdex ~~;r~.ctlc~n material
., e is beg forced out by parcus Irons
(1) ~araus l.;.n brans
Porous Iron, wh~.ch is not a deficit matar~.a1, has hI~;her antffrlct~.an
~'a
the
d
s
to work with more sizeable 14s,
properties and may be u~ad
porous braneo
~.ncx to coarser pawdars? 3~axgs
(2) .traflsiti0n front f
axtic1ee are cheaper, caUtain f~we'
--.~.~ nrmrd.ers aC caar$ex p
closed dares and are more per:eable with reference to yaoxw~.w~..
:~n~.tia~.ly parau.s ant~.fr~.ction
c3\ ca^easa In pa~?asIt~'~.
,
may be used with more sizeable loads. Pr.ct1ce cn'
~.nwork w~.
bearIngs have higher mach~c
be preferred. Denser
~
, .
they s.x -
and
l
t3 an a~ hearings with i~3Q Percent paras.ty has ct'
~
erials had apprOX~tely 34.O percent porosity. In r scant times
ooa
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~,,~, ~~~de o~ pc~~~e~tY fox
ova deQt8ive ~?ndlaat~.qfl0 a the ~ ~ opanditiOne of pe ~ ar ~n0e ? 1t msy p otnted
diiexent matex~..s and o ~.~ the
r~e'' the or~.~3~n powder the. smaller out hQwever'~ that the cod
jtnde oi: opt&m paroaity?
(4) Re;f:u$al to introduce comPQnents wh~.ch lower
se antifrict~on propsr"t~es (graphi.te'
properties even where they incr a
t of ,Chrys~.er has turned down ~-aphlte
lead in iron). thus the f lr~r
., 8 contala~in~ grapkiits can give satlr~.
becauue it believes that beaa~~.n~
and as long as , nath~.ng foreseen happens.
s,ctory ~aer~ crmance, but r
f
d. not be added to cas,rE3e pQW'de29? For
Graphite .n particular shoal
te may be introduced into baked bear~~
such cams co~?o3.da1 ~raph'~. ~'
with the lubr, care.
?1 1rorL have
brok (i6) bearings of eddyl
Accard~.nto GeYde
riGt~on properties than these made from re~
considerably higher arrtif
duced iron.
phys3.comecMaica1 Properties of P9roue Antifrictlan Materials
Table 33 ,pr:eents the indexee (~) of physicecht1 proper-
ties of porau$ antifQn materials manufactured bdifferent
s ~ra~.ues o~ parous ~eta~.s make ~t
Amer~.carz firms. Favorable harmses
passible to use them tn work both n0ri1tempered and tempered
shits.. A decrease in mech$n.c properties accorripar,iied by an ifli
~.nclu~~on
cruse in the size of particles (Fi~r~ 116) cawed bythe ~
of graphite .(Fig"` 127) and ~rar~h c~situy (Figures 1I8, 1h9)
was noted even ear1ler.
- de xeesy the p~Opertie,~ of porc~us
pan being heated to 200
t~
se `chan$! any .insiaicantly.
rnetai harrin~ &n ZOn bn
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Table 33. PH3CSIG4AILCHANZCAL CHAIi6CTERISTICS OF BEARINGS AiA&DFs BY AHERZC9AI FIE-NS
(valves of pv' with slight lubrication)
Firm Brand Alame Gainpasitiog Specific Porosity
o Gravity
Material in ? % in gsans in %
.per Cu. cm.
W 9- . r4 $4
. ? W -z
Presstre for
Lateral Thrust
in cgs.
a a persq..
?r4 .
g g per . per .
$:k
LO a ii fl
b 4bD
c
Z t4 o1
E2J [31 Ell [5l I61 [77 E8j [9] t101 [lil [12a t131
Bovaa Brook Go
Ccmpo 88.5 ~u
6.3
27
7.6
45 -
25-35 1s7a
16
7 -
17.6
3?3 sn
Powdiron 55-P 96 Fe
5.5
32
7.6
88 -
25'35 950
16
to -
13.E
5Cu
20
Povdiron 61-I6 tip to 10 GU
6. 1
25
19 .0
8$ -
60-90 12S0
13.E
Po rgy 51-i Zoo Ye
5.9
25
7.6
sz -
35 5Q 1250
16
ys
12.2
C3'
W
'1,
p
cr
O u) 0 iQ
c) 11 W
H Q
;
00
47?I
D.
o u 0
c
- d r-l
?rl
J U)
p4
W a
.
X03
~ . .kteab25 ~t 0.13
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[2] [3} t4l
arbor Co.
Qilite
9OGu
'Os"
Soper-Oilite 75 Fe
2SCu
[ron-0i].ite 100 Fe
se7flube 90 L
'Bronze 10 sn
Sel.flntae 96 Fe
Iron 5 Gu
[Si
6.h 25
[6] [71 [81 [ul I~' [mil
[91 [10]
7.9 Tb 5 30 500
19.0 125 a i$ 2000 16 I930
~-25
7.1 30 9.5 82 1 L.0 _ 1250 16
5.5 29 11.0
I3.9
lt}.8
$ Fe
Durex Iran 9
enera1 1(otQrs
55-6.0 20-30 22.0 - - b(7-9J 950 lb 32-16
Durex Bronze 89 Cu
la sn 6.a7.fl
lliidted States 61 90 Cu
OS
Graphite (o.
l
n
$1 90 Cu, lcs Sn
and slight
graphite addi.-
do
20-3Q ?.6
bs6 20r25 13o0
6.0
20-3O 11.0
25-ha b70 16 7
- y~50 ib 9 u 17.5
bOo 16 6 8 1?.5
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tll
(2j [31
$6 85 Fe, 15 Cu
aaul .slight
graphitC ad- 5 a
dtom
Zco!e 5.5
(16
')0I .~
E
16
I?
12.2
i61 [71 ray [sl C].o3 rUI tai ~~~ []hi
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The size of the coefficient of thermal expansion for porous
and compact materials of the same composition is approximately the
same. Beat conductivity and electrical conductivity of porous mate?
rial8 is lower than for corresponding compact materials.
Resistance to corrosion of porous materials, including iron,
impregnated with ail is entirely satisfactory. here so desired it
can be increased by finishing with , ichelson' s method (82), banderi?
zing, eta.,
Antifrict3Lon Properties of Porous Materials
(a) Coefficient of Friction and Expenditure of Energy
out
Corrparative tests carried/by Sushk a and Korolenko for Ts
TaNIITMASh showed that with ample lubrication the coefficient of
friction f or porous iron graphite ( 2 percent graphite, 2530 percent
porosity) some:hat smaller than for cast tinbronze. Xt was also
established that calibrated porous bearinghave a smaller coefficiemmt
of friction than those machine finished. This should be eplained by
deterioration in 'the quality of surface and decrease in strength and
binding of porous metal when machine finished. Figure 157 haws,
according to the data of ENIMS, the relation of the coefficient of
friction and the temperature to load for iron with 2 porosity and
2 percent graphite and with additional lubrication (6). With increase
in load,. the coefficient of friction decreases while temperature
creases. Figure 1B shows the relation of the coefficient of friction
to spud for eddy-mill iron with 19 percent porosity when lubricated
.--
by forced circulation at. a pressure off` 1 atsphere ( /''. )'. As can be
seen, with an increase in speed the coefficient o? fr1cbi,on , L at
:A.cwl;nI
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~ rapicyY to its miiim~ Value of about 0.001 and tbefirst drt~ps very1l
a~ achieves ita aim value at a speed of about again ~xq"WB ~p that it ac~l~?C~
2 maters per second, after which it once more daps spnewhat. The
decrease in the coefficient of friction for speeds above 2 meters per
second . ?' ~ s explained by Geydebrok as due to the 1,eating of the oil.
1~~~ 1
~~ ?m, G..N{ rv' ~"'u /~a w.x,x ,1?. ?wi.N+.?N.,x.w,,...?,....N.+w.rr.,.,.,....,x.x?Y.1?. /./y
; ,/$? ?? /i J?I?_' ,.d1 . ( 4? 1;
N/ 5, .'/
,,r
.MxUM1MM.r.nw.a.M?wx+N?r__Uw.Y M'?rxN~M-0?1 xU.,iMxNx Wrwtxlr.V+HUi+,?Ah~x"'n,l'~rrxNYh Y.irrY.xinV Y,vn~r~r.
?lomeut of Friction (14) and Temperature (t) to Specific Pressure
(Ginsburg)
eed
f
k
~t
1/
N'r- "^'NmMyy"r [
I _?yYNWIWNr.~?"NhW4M1,VN11,
+IIWY
5 d
I '
))C ~t~,Q~y' ? ~~MpM"'nM~.+ll?t~'WIM~w"?*.Mu.WMNRL.rI~, 4
6SJ./' NI'MA'a'1`M.I'""MM'YnMxnMy.:~,?
i. ~~~ N~~~1.WlMINMxM?NYY"~
M'
(p)
., x'
tc; i1 'J Y
.?.n.?.r.vN?w...r.:xw?ww?xM~..N? L,) (
r
Pgure 16. Relation of Coef f icien of Friction to Peripheral
i
(i8)
Declassified
. w ~.,rw..mo..eurv N,YI Ur r~,. r4
...,.....~.,.rw~ .s dr
. w...? xr~? ,., w., r
' ....?.
7. Relation of the Coefficient of Expansion ('
Figure 1~
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p 8Qfl cast brC?n~e i~ larger siren
,
I~ the OOefiCiBRt of
that ar paraua ~.rpn, then with scant?"
~,th ~~p~,ous lubrication than
au~d increase still ntore. Cpmparat~.v~
u
~,u~ar~.cat~an this d~.screpcY testa at one plant (6)
sbawed that with canny lubrication poro8 iron
is rarn the paint of energy' 23 tomes more eCanamiCa1 than aa.st. tin
ended energy ( watts) was 3.1L3.39
brpn2Q ? With ~~~ loads the expended when ~.
grease and Q percent a~.~?a !~?9 ~?
grease was usedq a.~~?~~ ? ~~. 1~~,th ~,
~
from neck ai' shaftg 2 ?O6M2 .~.~~ with ?~~~~
lubricant ~'rc~ ~ ?
upon remavd.ng
ruIa?ted application of o~.~, (20 drapS per d,nute) and with lu-
? For irr~n~grapha.'te it was 1?~7~?1?~7 with
bricatiaI~ d.ascax~ta.nued? ~'
i~, 2.92 with continued appl~.catiaax of a~.~.
per~.ad~.a s,pp~,x,cations of o ~
1?I.7 after djscOnt3.X1u1ng lubrication.
("Q drops per minuta) a and.
It can oleo be seen gram the data presented that supplying oil
.
taus materiaJ.s did not ;rawer oxpefldituac'e
from an outside sour CE ~ or pa
increased it cansiderab (two)
o~ energy buts quite the opposite,
as compared to ?catn with the supply of oil conta3~ned the
~.ubra.~.a
This interesting phenamena~- of a
parse (CapillarY lubrication)'
' tai ~'rictlan tk~rough app~.~.cat~.ar~ of yuppie"
grQw'~h the Caef ~ iL~.en
s been observed more than ante in the perf or~
mentar7 i,ubricatiar~ ha
nCe o Parous bearings with sx,.i iaads
mme
the constant pre sence of adsorptive ( capillary) lubrication in
ta.n cae~'f~.C~.ent of frict?on and si,~.m-
parnus bearings ~.awers the actua
mates manUO$tatians of dry rictiof.
wear exam Qpe aton bath of the porous be~.4ng5ofd . a the
,
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tha~a
shan't is tjrictaf materialS, such as tin bronze and
less/for cast an
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
babbitt. This 1.s e lained by the absence of dry f rictiOf, thane to
the constant presence of oil in pores a the insignificant va'ue for the
? Ont of friction, and to good accomxflodative ability of poroua
coefficl
material.
Table 314 shows the ssslu1ta of relative tests on porous mate-
rials (.?30 percent porosity) and babbitt alloys carried out by
~
show that wear of the bushing, shaft (ring),
Professor Saytsev. They
and the coefficient of friction were considerably smaller for porous
materials than for cast babbitt alloys (6).
[See following page for Table 3L)
Numerous perf or~ance tests on porous iron carried out by
TsNxl'MASh (6) showed that in the majority of cases wear on porous
beeri s was smaller (larger only in very rare cases) than for cast
antifriction materials. Thus, in comparative tests of porous iron
and graphite on electric motors havirig a capacity of 1 kilowatts
lasting 300 hours, the results obtained were as follows. Slack at
the beginning of the test was O .OS millimeters for both b ab1 tt and
iron. graphite. At the end of the experiment it was 0,10 to q.3 for
~
babbitt e.nd 0.0 to 0.07 for iron graphite.
Such j si ificant wear assures a prolonged preservation of
exactness in dimensions and a long life for porous bearingsw
Accommodation
The experiments of TsNIIT Sh on relative accommodation showed
hite has better accoaodation than bronze, consiaaerably
that iron grail
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
alt ? RESULTS OF RELATIVE TESTS OF POROUS MATERIALS ON PN ?9E" MCHiiE CLRRIED OUT BY PROFESSOR ZAYTSE
(Speed of ID Meters per Second, Lubrication With No 3 Spindle Oil)
fit}-hour hest with Weare after 12 hours'
2-hour Test with ~ 50 Ki1ogr1as per operation
g 2~ kilograms per p square eeneter ~ ~1~HBte~
aqiare eenti~fi~r
.terial.
Porous IrOfl
-lros~Grapbi.j6e with
Pc-rous
ii:Percent Graphite 26.6
ormis`Irvn-Graphite nth
Perceat, Graphite 25.6
Poroaa 3ao~Graphite 'Twi.th
2 Percent Graphite and 2.3
7'Fercent Copper 3
Babbitt 8=83 26.8
F3abbitt 28..7
..Increase in
Tempe~atvs?e
in Degrees
Centigrade
Increase in
fjcient TemperattEr0 oeff.cient
y
:in Degrees
~~ of Friction Ring
of fri ? non Cetttiale ~
c
0.013 0.111 O.b
21.5 O.oi8 X0.7
13.026 36.2 0.0114 0.3}, 01I1r.
0.026 33?8
0.016 39.8
a.o57 33?Z
o.ct-2 35.7
o.o1b 0.3?
0.010 0.34 0.0
0.033 9.0 2.5
a.02l: :1.1.0 0.0
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
exists an optimum porosity which probabr depends on the kind of
material avid on test conditions.
l'te.a:.s from coarse powders have worse accoodation than
hasten and strength of such xateria1s and also by the fact that
st oases deformation occurs to larger sized ,evenhesSs
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better than its substitutes, and appraximate1y the same as for
B abbi t ~ 3. Fox' cx& ple, when t eating bushings at a peripheral
speed of 2 a 2 meters per se coed with copious lubrication and stepped
:30ncresse in load (by 3 1d.1ograms per square centineter) up to i67
kilograms per square centiter, the time of accommadcfion for
achieving a stable heat temperature was 6 hours and L minutes for
Babbitt , B hours and 20 x nute,s for cast tin bronze, 7 hours and
20 minutes for iron?graphite ~dth 2S percent porosity on a nano
tempered shaft aaad 6 yours f or a tempered shaft. The good accoxru oda"
Lion o1 porous bearings .is to be shplained by plastic deformation
caused by change in the voiurn-e of pores.
It should riot be thou h,t9 however, that the accoxnxnodation o1.
metaUoceramic materials increases without interruption with growth
of porosity. Tests carried out by Sushkina and Korolenko at TaKIITMh
showed quite the opposite, that accommodation for iron' sphite with
30 percent porosity is worse than with 20 percent porosity. Thus
material with 20 percent porosity was accommodated at the end of
7 hours and 0 minutes and with 30 perceut porosity ori1y after 9
hours and 3 ninutes. This man; estaUon should be explained by the
drop in adhesion and strength of x-.ateria1 with growth of porosity
leading to disintegration of the metal at the surface of friction,
umblinx,, of` the partic1es,, and prolonged accommodation. Thus, there
those from fine powders. This is to be explained by the arnaUer .di'
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r~lu8 metal increases the q''~"~'~
The ~,aad aaggmm~a~~t~an a~ ~~
rr~,e d out by T sNx ITM$h showed the
q~ ~~c~aG~~ 'thus invv~t~~~t~an~ ca ~
o~ tin bran~a to b~ ~ ~~f}and v
size auna~ven~,esses on the s~ar~'sae porOue iron O. 1 /
and ;a1ity o~ surd sae in their turn
Good s,ccommadatian
other ant,'rict3.on proparttes o~
evert a bengfiet influencs an
aw~ri~~~~ the coe~f~.c~ent o1 friction,
a~rcauS ~I,ter~..s a such as ],
p
and jnrreasing perisstbls ~atmUm loads.
wear on bushifl~ and shaftp
lubrication reaches. the surfaC by iay of numerOus cap.laries are
capable of wor xreat+er loads. specia.ll~' and rests in
k~.n~ with ~
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(d) laciauum Loads
figure 1~9 shows relative cur~ras of the relation of permis-
porous bronze ~16~ ~ .
s~.b1+~ loads to the rotating speed or at and porous
urves that with low speeds pe~.ss~~.ble
It can be seen from these c
loads are heater or porous bronzes, especiallY thou fsbricated
than: for costThis Ts feature
from f~.ne powder/; with ~mal~. pores,
th su ~ mentary ~.ubricat~.on or With
holds true for ward e~.ther wi pp ,
The magnitude of pernissible lade
~,ubr~.cants existing ,; in the pores .
not GhB,n ,8 with the ~t~d~t~.pTl of
of porous bes.r~.r~~;s at low speeds does na ~
supplement937 lubrication. With increased speeds supplemental'
of er~m~.ssib~.e loads. ~vreaver, at
lubrication ~.ncrease~ the s~.~ ~
high speedS loads for cast bronare higher than for porous bronze.
Bann serePancy from the point of view of the
~ e~p~,a~.ns this d~.
t~.an. An unbroken oil ~~.lm cannot be
q~~ic theory of lubr~ca
formed at low rotatin speeds. For the reason porqus bearings whose
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r
._$ah./W...?*S? ~WItk "#hv.,4, 4
n.. r~
,q+gr.VMVILu
ynr
Y
V \
1 4A~ h r
. ? '(..
t w ACwallMUre .xmwrM+W+"
Aw~ixu
V
Figure 19. pv Curves
a. Caw st bronze; b. baked bronze without supplementary 1ubr1caw
tion; c. rand d? baked bronze with supplerr~entary lubrication (167).
Elimination of heat is most portant at high speeds. Heat conduces.
tiv for porous materials. than for east. This factor
~.ty' is smaller
must result in a decrease in the. size of rnax ur loads for high speed3.
Accommodation of porous bearings is gx?eater than for casts even at
In this connection it should also be taken into
high rotating speeds..
cons pointed out abode in point c, that excessive porae~
~.dera'tion, as .
does not inoreasa but decreases accommodation. For this reason
ity
ve been obtained with bearings made from fne powders
this connection ha
eater number of sma11 pores. With ?ncreased speeds an un~
and with a gr
rrx~s on the surface of cast bronze. Pores in rneta11o~
broken film fa
ceramic bear ;aiC up Continuous surf ace aUCI internera with the
~,n~s br
ontinuous film. Moreover, a porous surface from the
f arrration of a c
purely mechancal. point ref view can support a sma21er weight than a
~,
It is f or this reason that at high speeds the values
solid suri,ace.,
for perrniss are san,ller for porous bearings than for cast.
~,b~.e loads ar
Hydrodynamic then withnut doubt can explain only a portion
~'
s observed in working with porous bearings. There
of the manifestation
taken into consideration d:ifferencas in heat conductiv''
should also be
aty, raodaticrxa and other properties of porous and cast beartngs.
a,ccoxn!
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
with a su?fiaent1 adequate 1ubrication carryif away the beat and a
~l ~'
proper deree a porosity should cause maximum loads of porous bear
~
ubtedlY hi~;hex than I or cast even at very high speeds.
~.n~s to be unldo
nctiona1 curves of loads p and rotational apeed
Figure l60 snows fu
V for porous iron (i8). These tests were carried out without sup"
lubrication and with drop lubrication and a forced circu
plernentaxy
It can be seen from the
lart:Lan at a pressure of l atmosphare ( )
curves that the va1ue5 for pv were very high (up to 700 kilograms
centimeter merte1}s per second) with forced circulation of
per squre
lubrication.
1 X
f 1
`rrn" r
NNMM&!e.*__rv'" I
1
t.
_1,
r,Nlr'riINJr1M+Wrr~ IP,NWr MN?1t IN Y
N,
Sw 9
X
',,N,e ?
1`; !;i w 4} i #i
FiguZ?e 16o. pv Curves for Porous Iran (i 8)
.~ 1 iron, ~aed.um's1ed powders; specific gravity 6.1i
1, e dc~r .~.
grams per cubic centimeter: calibrated, canplete lubrLcat on after
n ed accommodation; . the same, after accozr iodation of 3 hours;
pxolo
3 , the same, drop 1 .,ubricaticlfro the care, without added lubrica
~
tion3 ". eddY"mil iron, fine', specific gravity .B grams per cubic
~
centimeter, m.ach.~. 'ne fintsheda without added lubrication 6. eddy'
mill oarse speoifLc gravity 5.8 gams per cubic centimeter,
iron, c ~
rnach.ine~finished.: without added lubricatI.Orli ? reduced iron, spe~
c'fac rams per cubic centimeter, rrtachiner4iuished, with
~ gravity ~
out added lubrication.
1
b~
rs;l 6
A11,
N r.,y1X:VxVrWw~,,.~MININ.Wr~yNil.~'"
~b
v. Y'Xxw:11rvt1,1 .,,..r
'W'?'anlyJ
rWr.~,
~yv
f/?
el r, A
Yk1Y11'1_+ '. 'N
IlI4
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
The comparative tests carried out at TsNiTT?1ASh on porous
i,roxagxaphite (about 2 percent porosity) made from powders of re-
stored iron and electrolytic porous bronze, on east tin bronze
.? O~2 and on Babbitt 13?83 with a lubrication of 3O craps per
of 2.2 meters per ecord gave the following re
minute and a speed
? tt B83 pv liras 222, for bronze OTs4O'2 pv wa,s.
suits -
e For Babbitt
~3 , for iron graphite . from electrolytic iron with 1 preent graphite
content pv was $4. and With 3 pereent graphite coraeaat it wss 109,
with 2 percent graphite content, and for porous
for reduced .ran
bronze 0 s 39 kilograms per square centimeteZ meters per
~..te pv wa
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lubrication (10 drops per minute) and capillary
With drop
lubr suP~~~'
~. contained in pox) p values were smaller. lubrication (from It should be p0a,nte
d out that these experiments did not disclosci arty
particularly targ + di11erences beti'een the action of capillary or
drop 1ubr?cat In the case o the densest specirrlen which had 19
~.~.aaa~
percent porosity, p Y values rase up to ?BOO grams per sqi re cent i-
? ter per sod (.p being apprOXiaV2.t)ly 13 k Lograms per
meter.me
v i.n t he vicinity of 31 meters per second)
square centlmete~ and
.?ra s gave considerably lower value f'or maximum bade than
Coarse powders fire or medium powders. Load rnagnitude 3 were greater for calibrated
;
than for rrtach' nef in1shed bearings. Bearings from eddy"mill iron
~.
a better results than those Pram reduced iron; values for pv
gave
decreased with increase in porosity. This behavior may be explained
cs in accorr'r,odation and adhesion (accomriodation and
by diff erenc
adhesion are lower for bearir&s from coarse powders obtain by reduc~
t?on and for bearings which were machine finished and had greater
ti
porosity).
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M~ctrawn load at Ver?Y law ;speeds aiay exceed 1000 ldiOgr8Das per
In$ta 1 tiara and Use ai Porous '~3e ring$
Porous ba if.,e are f abr1C~tited as details with precise mea8UT
~'
exceed meters per second (6).
(page 171).
With respect to the size o tolerances certain contradiCtions
exist in data.
T tether w t oars that tolerances for porou$ aaterialwith ~,rad~ca~.
sho.d b e s mn1lc r than for c t bronze (6) there also exist indLca'.
t ions should. be larger' (162), inasmuch a he special meet
~.ons that t~' ,
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e~per d orease even mare under cond:E.tiana o.
~ hou~.
shown
~.ment-~ have
,
gett ng poor iubriCatsian, wh .e pV c u
~it~r
pax~o
and 2~
in .~; ~.ubr~.cat~.axa? With ~`uxther ~ilproveman~-
70~-~.0'when thane was rap~.av
~
Se ara pc~ros~.tYa pv va~.ues9 as Goydsbrok'
mat~:r~.a1 and c~ocxea
W
aecond. xhus 'per va~,uee were ~,ar~Ex for porous boar~.nt~ with an iron
base than ~'ox CEt tin bronze.
Can the basis of the agreement oxistif ; betwesfa laboratory and
t$ it rn~, said that pit is '~pw2~ J~~.la~~ram
prc~duCt~.on ex~~ex~.mea~ ~' and
per ~
sc?nd far' materials with an iron base squexe r;ant~.metar mete, , ~ 41
ed
copious 1ubr.caUari?
bearings may operate under ? condb.ti0fs o poor lubrication e iou,La, nay,
-Ca,nt margin (Tabla 36) e s4a at which
~r,,igre ;nteter by a signi
stallation or porous bushings into sockets was describad in Chapter vi.L
Al' ~eeond class 01 accuracJ' (Chaptex1 iii) ?. The j jnishtg and in"
menu whose tolerenc4s for d amct sr and ' ength usually 'all into third
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enien; of lubrication for porous materiats dcruands a a ficieent y
ire at thickness f or they oil film making it six'abl s to have 1 zrge
clearances. To +Q11 appearances (6, 7), ciaarance norms depend ax1so
on they size of rain and on the products of wear. They shouti b e
larger for coarse powders than for fine, Furthnrmort s the amount of
to1eranc,e should probabJ.y be increased for large v~iues of pv.
The folic'wirag to1erc~nces have bcen reconineradeds porous
bronze 16L + 0.08 percent d; porous iron
2O /U'+ O.l d; and
porous iron-capper -? 35 + O.17 percent d, where d ie the diwn'
titer of the shaft. Geydebrok recon nexads a tolerance of not lees than
0.-D.25 percent of the diaieter of the shaft for porous iron. In
our opinion, the narrn recorramended by Geydebrok are best stuited for
the more heavily loaded bearing.
With insinf'icantiy sriU pv (up to G ki.logras per square
centimeter.meter per second) it is not necessaz'r to build in within
the bodies of bearings slots anal sup;p1exrientary oil rese:'voirstl
Lubricants included in he pares of a bearing area sufficient for
severe) nflonth5 Of operation. With heavier loads it is necessary to
l2ave regular feeding of lubrication. Oil reservoirs may be built in
he body of they actual bearing as shorn in Figure 161.
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
Fi~ur~ 16:L Left ~ Ordinary Porous Sea .ig ai r t With
Lubricant ReseX'VO"a.
Figw?a 3.62 ehcw insx ei daeign o fictic joints ,th lubricant
lubziCaft i3 ,euppiied through the outer wail ai the
reeir$. the
bear and s through pares to the inner waif. (capilla ' iubr .
cant ~s pay ~~
eadin) For' vaiuea of pv above 2! k ca gram per squa
per second there should be used the regular thodB
~e~1t~leter~~e'~~r~ ' ~
of supplying ler flt 7 lubZ' aatiOrZ. There is also attained or
such case~ ea~mY C lubrication, ,thOU 1 it i3 leas e Cti O In
cape lubr icatiori e cana is quite couJidaable (3~rl t~n o
tilne)?
Figure ~62. DU ereUt r rpe of apill~' Lubri CaUOf f or Porous
~ ~
eat .
. - with upper of er !irs1 ? deeding big , of
A a~ad
oiled wick; Dy E and F
ring reserYo 4ls.
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..N?wrMr .4-, S?n.M!?e..rrx,~wrxu?.+1~uN rx?x?,.'Y.,wnx.,~~?. u....u ar r?n?Nwn.. MrnUnN urf.," .x.h war l l /
Figure 163. Tenting Curves for Porous Bronze Impregnated with
Different Dubricanrbe
1 ' oil with i6 O viscosity at 38 degrees Centigrade, according
to Scybolt; 2 - 660 viscosity; 3 102 viscosity; L = 3 viscosity
(191)
Figure 163 shows the results of tests on bronze with 27 parosb
ity and pv of about 18 kilograms per square centimeter'meterr per
decreased with lowered viscosity. Bower, it should be kept in mind
second, saturated with oils of different viscosity, without a supp1e-
menu supply of lubricant. Viscosity' gave the same effects as for
ordinary materials, i.e . , the. coef ficient of friction and temper&tordinary
of permissible loads (in Figure 163 the /luring with the least viscous
lubricant, No h, went out of commission after 220 mutes)
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that with lower oil viscosity there is a decrease in the mum size
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Teo carried out by TsN fTSh shared that with znaU and
mediuu va1wn for pv it it prererable to use somewhat less viscous
lubricants than for the ordinary cast rateari
According to data e4sting in literature, oils used abroad in
dude SAE 20 (viscosity at 98.9 degreea according to Engle being L8,
at SLt4i degrees )4.7 and at 37.8 degrees 7.) and SAE 30 (viscosjt r at
98.9 degrees accordant; to Engle being 2.0, atr degrees 7., at
37.8 degrees 15.8).
Application of Porous Bearings in Industry
Porous bearings with an iron base may be used with adequate
tub cai4on in all joints whose values of pv do not exceed 7O 1aQ
ki1ograrns per squara cent/ ter meter per second, in the absence off'
mute shock 1oadsa With inadequate 1ubrr cat on ' values drop to
O-25 kilograxus per squar ! centd aetez?prneter per second. The use of
porous bearings should be avoided under conditions where here 1s
direct contact with water. Porous bearings give good perronnance
user cvnditloiu of both tcreaaed and dscre ,sed temperature.
For example, bearings are used the conveyer off' a bread
big ad1e L 1y 1 o. podlcovaya) ova with a load o 0 kilog'arn
per square centimeter and a spaed off' 0.01 hers per second at a
temperature of' 250-300 degrees and in a stew at nosph~re No beam
made dram cast antifrjctjon maters could work under such ~ ndat bns.
earings de from porous iron' aphite peri o sails ctorll
iuc ovens and have a 1e l?en h exceeding s x months (6). er?ngs
of textolite and bz?onze for go er ? onvvey ws of a large 1e x.11
would not work because o the high terperratuze and scales. Bearings
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of arnue txon gave 8aU8fscto r $erdce exceed 7 months an the
8EL1fle roller C4fVex8~
It i5 aspects 1y desirable to use porous beartnga in the "o1'
1QWiU tt t ULc 3t
(l ) Jhere it is d ficult to provide regular lubr'ioaUOf;
( 2) where a lubri CAnt mUBt not ; 3t into product (text e
and food dustxies) 9
(3 ) Presence off` dust in surrounding r ?tmospher +j
(1i.) Frequent start.n and stopping:
(5) Co asiders.ble loads at low speed (directing bushings
bears for sh'ts with reversible rotation, etc)
(6) Noss protection of bearings with specific d er iOZ.
Below is given s condena~ect 1i3t:l Of the application of
porous an'tifriction de'taiis in different branches of industry.
Automobile s s s1eeVe p i.eoes, 3pr g lining, brake ehoc$, "trau8w
usi$$Lon shaft, cam shaft, ventiiator fan, water pump, throttle, steez?
ing gear, pedals, coupling, unir joint, electric equipment,
s aoc absorbers, bumpers, windshield wipers.
Tractars% ventilator fan, water per, oil p p dyn O drive.
gear.
Afaraft g control bearings of u .lid' inStrUDaflt8, etc. Up
four r or b t l e .
to 14000 et a:as used , pe8eUtdaP
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
Machine buildings au4liary beax'gs for lathee, shavers,
cutters dr111ers, woodworking lathes, and presses.
Agricultural machine building. bearings for straw cutters,
binxders, nnowers, straw presses, etc,
Lift transport machine building s in cranes, hoists, conveyers,
lifts, eta. The operational life of porous iron bearings was eight
times longer than for ball bearings in conveyers of the coal industry,
Textile industry s in weaving looms bearings for crank and
blade shafts, cylinder stands for ringspinning frames, spindle foot..
step bearings, feed cylinders, printing machines, wringer, ribbon
machines, etc.
Electrical industry: generators and electric motors (Q.or.
15 kilowatts), fans, etc.
Transport machine buildings yard locomotives, pit locomotives,
cars for carrying slag, inserts for steel supports of cars with tilA
ting platforms, etc.
Metallurgy: bearings for roller conveyers of rolling mills,
large sheet mills, blooming mills, bearing inserts for rollers of
steel casting cranes, care, etc.
Other branches of industry food industry, gas engine pumps,
motion picture apparatus, precision machine buildiing consumers'
~ goods
instruments (vacuum cleaners, . washing machines), etc.
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
Use of Porous Details as Elerjiants in the Construction of Bearings
Recently porous metallooeramic separators (Figure 2) have come
to be widely used for baU and roller bearings. The use of these
separators, which are impregnated with a lubricant, has made it pos-
sible to produce enclosed sealedwtype, free'p1ay bearings containing
a lubricant supply intended to last for their entire length of ser'
vice. Such bearings are widely used in aircraft, automobiles, etc.
These separators are prepared from porous bronze and, iron.
Very favorable results are bein~z attained with porous iron with 12-20
percent porosity, 3O O Brinell hardness, resistance to fracture up
r
to 20 kilograms per square millimeter, and an elongation of 2.S..L
percent.
The do output (d being the diameter of a. shaft in milli-
meters, n the number of revolutions per xdnute) for ball and roller
bearings with porous separators can reach 3OO,0O07Oo,ooo millimeters
revolutions per minute.
The advantages of porous separators become particularly
noticeable with frequent starting and stopping. The bail bearings
with ordinary separators in the pressure mechanism of the clutch of
a passenger automobile were not able to exceed more than 178,000
c1uthinng operations. Ball bearings with porous separators stood up
114 times more.
At the present time there is ?a tendency to replace free
rolling bearings with sliding bearings ` in a series Of points. There
are being used for this purpose short bushings with a Q.3 0~ ratio
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af? length to diameter and with smooth inner walls without ubricatiug
data (: i). It is recommended that lubrication be applied to such
bearings (1!1) by removing the outer porous iron rfng (Figure i61).
The porous matexia]. in such a case operates as a s ort of wicc
or fi1tere We,iat one more example The surface of a complex form
for a special design was not accessible to lubrication. As a result'
porous rivets weighting O.O gams were used that had been impregna~.
ted with oil.
Figure 16S. Use of Porous Iran for Introducing a Lubricant to
Slide Bearings
l bushings 2 - porous iron.
COMPACT MTIFRICTION MATERIALS
The most important of compact metalloceramic antifrictiof
alloy$ consists of a steel band with capper-nickel and babbitt
layers (17O1.l9Li.), the soca1led "trtple?laycr"' material.. Figure 16
shows the structure of such material. There is pressed onto the sur-
face of the steel band a powder mixture of copper and nickel (about
60 percent Cu, 100-290 mesh size, and LO percent Ni, 80400 mesh size).
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The niC1Ce3. in subsequent sinter increases the adhesion ol:' coppe'
pe,rticlee to the eteel base The thic)cnese of the meta11oceramia
liXieters. After sinterin the pares a the
sayer is about O.~ mid
meta are impregnated in a vacuum with muted lead
~,~.aceramic aublaysr
wbch forms the third surface antifriction
babbitt, the surplus of
layer with a thiaknsss after machine f inLshin~ not exceeding 7~
(for certain uses even 20 p4.
I
Figure i6. Triple?laye~' Material.
coppernickel layer, impregnated with. load
1 steel layer; ~
babbitt 3 - lead babbitt layer (191) [Photo)
The antimony and tin content of the impregnated alloy should
be considerably maller than for ordinary lead babbittt' (in order to
decrease the reaction of antimony' and tin with the coppernicke
skeleton), ccordih1 to published materials (170), the alloy for pur
.~
pones of impregnation contains 93 percent Fb, 1~ percent Sn, and 3 per
cent ,Sb. ~ ,.~. ..,,.~.,ti...,.{., , ,..,.... ,~..,..., .,...~.u,~; v, !
., s
.3
,~ - `if l
{ \
, a, Mil
?yN~h ~ "Wyw R
u
q ;c
7 ~` `w qy 1
rr ` ti"Vu
?M
Figure 166. - lat on of I sistahce . to fatigue to the Layer
babbitt at a Computed Stress of
Sqr Millimeter (rushchov)
1 i:.o ' s per
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Such an alloy has considerable advantages over regular
babbitta with a high tin content or a lead content. The principal
defect which prevents babbitts from being used in crank or connecting
rod bearings of modern engines is that they crumble as a result of
the formation of fatigue cracks. Different measures fox dealing with
fatigue in babbitta are brought together in a book of Khrushohoi''s
(l2) entitled Fati?uein Babbi, ;. One of the principal meaaures
consiste in decreasing the thickness of the babbitt layer, which in
turn increases its fatigue resistance (Figure 166). However, a numw
ber of considerations go against any considerable decrease in the
thickness of the babbitt layer below GQ /. when using the usual
way of lining the steel or cast iron base (125).. Babbitt does not
adhere with sufficient strength to the smooth surface of the steel
base. Shafts often bend with high loads and speeds. A. certain
thickness is required for the babbitt layer so that it can adjust
itself to deformations caused by the sagging of the shaft without
laying bare the steel base of the lining. Finally, when the thin
layer of babbitt wears out it lays bare the steel base and the bearp
ing thus goes out of order.
Such defects are eliminated in triple-layer bearings due to
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the presence of the metailoceramic subiayer. In their case the adhe-
sion of babbitt to the metalloceramic skeleton is considerably
greater than for a comparable steep, s Zace with ordinary lining.
Surface unevennesses of a copper nickel 'skeleton hinder the spreading
of fatigue cracks. The metalioceram c aublay'er'(lead bronze) is in
itself a material with exceptionally high antifrictiab properties.
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For this reason it is possible to greatly deczease the thickn+sss of
the babbitt layer (up to 2gas75 ), inasnuch the baring o1' the
n~etaUoaeramic layer through wear or a conaequence of bending of
he shaft is not connected with harmful after effecta. This factor
makes it possible to considerably decrease the thickness of the
babbitt layer and at the same time considerably increasos its fatigue
resistance,
This triple layer material has been in production since 19l~O
and is used for crank and connecting rod bearings of automobiles and
aircraft engines and diesels. Ita fitness was put to a severe tests
during the war. It has been shown that this material can work with
loads that are 1S?2O percent higher than for the best babbitts of
high tin and lead content. The rated load for this rateria]? is about
loo kilograms per square centimeter under normal oonditions, To give
precise limiting values for pv is very difficult for this material.
It has performed excellently in many joints at pv values exceeding
5
2600 kilograms per square centimeter per meter per second. Triple.
1a3re1' material has not given satisfactory results in some joints with
Pv below 1000 kilograms per square centinietermeter per second.
Severa3. research works have been devoted to inetallo ceramic
lead bronze (167). it is quite probable that powder nmeta.llur
gywitl
be able to decrease the difficulties of its fabrication as compared
with cast lead bronze. Certain data has already been given above
relating to the properties Af special bronze having 12 percent
poros.
ity, with 2J. percent Ni, 0.6 pert nt Si O.:3 even
~ p t X', the rest
being capper. With a specific . gravity' : of 8.Li. grams per cubic centi
meter, it has a 7-8o Rnckeeu 3 hardness, a reaistan
, ea to rupture;
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about 4o kilograms per squaraa ml1imeter, and gave the same results
in antiZrLctiontests as the bronzes with 12 percent porosity (page 202).
At the present time there are being produced guide bushings ?'or
valves of internal combueton engines made of" brace with a large
quantity of graphite. These give better than 0O hours of performance
at 1430 degrees without lubrication. Guide bushings of cast materials
could riot operate under he same conditions in excess of 50.75 hours.
Compact bearings of steel shavings (l9Lt) are being used in the
automobile industry in place of antifriction iron. They are less
expensive and superior in quality (show less wear). The technology
of producing these materials has been described on page 169. The
properties of compact alloys on an iron base as produced by this
method (l9Ji) are given in Table 35.
Most interesting is the wide industrial use of metalloceramic
alloys with a tungsten carbide base as an antifriction material (172)
for bearings opezating under very aggravated conditions. Thus, in
machines used for grinding hard alloys with diamond disks working at
a speed of 10,000 revolutions per minute ordinary ball b earings last
about a weak (172). Eearingt from hard alloys coupled to the shaft
with a hard alloy nozzle (Figure 167) operate for more. than a year
with a wear of 1.0
F gure 167. B e arings ' lade f ram Mara Alloys ( Photo J.
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Rotsghl.Y ~granulated
Steel Shain
? T.
11;e .Iron PC r
from Steel Shavings'
0.35 Percent Graphite 7`.1a.0
7.79.
7.78
,..,vim _ t +h f _
Re sstance to
~.
Rnptnre in .10~
grams per 5q care
.3fleter
yield Point
in Kilo a
~ r Square
. .1lime ter
38
26
39
26
36
78 23
39 31
Elongation Reduction in Rockwell B
Neck .Area in
in Percent Percent Hardness
:i.Z
13
59?4
1)4
13
61-68
23
32
7.-85
3
3
67-82
b6-7tt
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Table 35? MECSAATIGAL PROPERTIES OF C0NP> ALLOTS I?H Aid IRON BASE (I9b)
Specific Gravity
is Grams per
Gnbie-Centimeter
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A caref i polishing of the surface of such bearings with diamond
paste or alloys is neoeaaary. Kerosine with colloidal graphite is
used as a lubricant.
Copper tungsten alloys (page $9) are used on a limited scale
in bearings through which electrical currant is conducted.
C. ANTIFRICTION MATERIALS CONTAINING NON-MILTALLIC COMPONENTS
There is no doubt that the combination of plastics with metal
po ders in antifriction materials presents a certain interest (7).
Such a union makes it possible to corribine heat conductivity and acw
comrnodation of metals with resistance to b i d ng on the parts of
plastics. Two possible ways exist for producing such materials:
impregnation of the sintered metal skeleton with plastic and. using
metal powders or shavings as a filler for the plastic. The future
should demonstrate the passibility 01' their industrial application.
In finishing (191. ) porous materials with an iron base by means
of steam at BOO?6OO degrees' iron oxide forms on the surface of par'
tidies according to the reaction
hardness (up to, lOO Rockwell B hardness), resistance to deformation
Stun treatment considerably increases resistance to corrosion,
and rupture, and the yield paint. Resistance to rupture and compr+sw
sign decreases somewhat during steam treatment.
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P0r0u3 iron treated with tern is u8ed a an antrictian
material in thnt$c cans where there is rcc;uired great h dnea$ and an
increaaed resiatance to dei ormation, corrosion, and wear Cor work in
huh t e ersture$, in moist atmo3p sere, in $i arp yr iaticn$ off' ten''
crature etc. (for conveyer rc11cr of furnace$, rollerS for ?
fricratar, etc).
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Chapter
FRICTIQ) TERTA
The steady prow "O of t chno1ogy" in tha field off" aviation,
at~to tractor indu8tZ7 tank bui1dii ?g etc., is connected with to
speed and rgo*.carrTin abi1tty: of rnacbii ee artd for this reason
makes cant. nua heavier demmnd$ on braking xi ateria1 . It may be
~,~,'
rnentioxed b w off: ilustratiQf that when testing rnt11oeeraraiC
friction material:3 for use in airplanes braking rust x"educe a ro..
tat of 20,Q(0 revolutions per ?nute to zero in less than 0.1
~.on
second. Friction casks sorneti es heat up to 5O degrees and more,
while specific pressttre r~eachc 70 kilo r" s per square cent imeter.
?
For this reason purely' metallic materials ( such as iron) and none
~i..~ r
metallic materials are not suitable for severe codiMons o.C work.
" hality friction materials must be nscessari1y' composed both
~,u
of metals ,,th high heatwconducttdtY and aca~odati0n and of nonw
m,
metals which 'ch uld " ncreaSe resistance to seizing during friction
~.
hate silicic acid). Such materials, someth)1es jnclu,ding
up to 4 volumetric 'p percent of nonmata11ic ccip?nents may be ob
othods of m to 1Ocer. 3. 'the inclusion o
tamed ot by the m
r;~~ afEflte feCaS$arilY 1C W I the sty er t of the ma .
nan:~ta~.,ic c.o
t6r is ?rict al m,teX?La1.3 for this reason are used
~. .. ~etal~,p~~ra~
i or ltni ,~ an a steed. supporting layer (diskin the farm of a ~~er ~
bands, shoes.,, etc.). The carbiflatiOf ..are a meta1loeerflic lay?r
done during the fabrlcat1of of the
ateria). ,M durIn g stntering under pressure (hapter VIA, page
16~~ ~?. oriina text). For better adhesia to the layer of metal.
locex_ is 'bronze the steel supports (disks) are subjected to
a
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relimi4ra electrolytic copper platin. 5ometines there is also
p
used a mechanical joinin (riveting) of metal;locaraTic ?'acinGc to the
steel support.
Fire 168 shows the deli ;n of 1-bimcjailjCU friction details
for brakes and clutches.
A rather large number of articles have been published on the
fabrication and application of metaliacerart C friction materials,
including the worits of 1ybal~cherikO (107), Rostarchuk (1O), i(ras
nokutski 63), Gardin (32), a others (x,91). Thsse ar'ticl.es,
~' 4
however, hardly mentioned the quantitative characteristics of the
properties of metaLl.ocera is friction materials a This factor is
due on the one handy to he use of such materials in bi neta11ic
form (a metailacerac layer on a stee1 support) y and9 on the other
hand, to their military value.
Figure 168
i aIce and Clutch Bimetallic Friction Details
The follo ,ng duds are made of hid . ua]Mity metallacera
mic tri.ction materials:
Ufi'iei:ent magtude of the ooeficient of friction d it
constancy during tempertUre variatiO
Low tear and very long ie ;th of service;
Adequate strngt to withstand oent.ftal.y shearing,. and
other fOraes in brakitig
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p4jrgjnAxPy tic copr 1stiru $rAtira'a tho cu io iiaa
168 i iw th6'a danj; l ):t +rbit'n **tLLUtC" "X c' +jr~l detAiia
;nor rtkGa t r 1utch t
r it"r" a numb ;r o .hzrxro be fim pubii2thod can the.
?LbD'i of and ipiicattcn o :t Trt ~t 1loc 3rf is .LX'tot.1.an mate ,+ . ,
the wa ii ct RybI i r 21kCy (1I0?) r 'i.' at r'cb tk (1O) D
jncltidiii,
o" C) rdin (32), 9nri cthorf (191), Thu trrttclr~3,
~~~. ~:~ the
tiarrs tho q~;r;~,',~. ~r chr!9,r'ari o.?
tAc~x~vcr~, ~~ar~~r?d1.~' m
propirtif 1ricti?fl n t.L9,1oM T?hi r rct)r i13
du cm th hand, to u a cf." such rri tc ~ i i in b at liC
~ e
11ocoD)n ic 1 j'or on , toc1 uppo:r'b) r ind, c the tex
?
r tc U it rrtiiit(4U 1 V1 U
r ,ka and Q~h tch th~ tA1lic Frjrtirn Dt t ,iia?
"VY
hVV :eo11 o9IR? g d OJP AIfddIF' PAtrm*d o ~ W~ eNf ~IW 1cA mW IbIMii'V'W IIF ~T
rii.c I ,nri+ tin m t r ;
xi 9initu 4 c the c ff ci flt c " Cr ct Oil tta
Law .ar ti, it r 1o Lo th oC r
~ i )th br th* tt jrkd
d ; ~tt?t1 t ~-?l~r'Ix~ c itri~ M,
)t V~AAI ? IMZ O o if IM k f'lI3A j
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The thjcknp a~ of he mata .ocerarajc layer on disks used in
airoraZt usu , ly varies between, O,25 5 to 2 rii:-, Meters arxJ. in auto
rmobi1es, tractors, tanks) etc.a between 2 and 10 niilimspers.
The thickness oC the supporting steel disk with meta1ioee.
rani.c layer on one sida only of up to S z.iui eters is 1,6 midi
raeteers and for a rr~etai7 oceraxrijc layer of 5 to 2.0 millimeters it
i.s 3.2 miUirrieters~ Disks which have a rr~etailoceramic flyer on
bath sides have a thinner stnei support, but one which is not less
than 0.$ r i11imeters. In the case Qf large segmented disks (with
a diarneter up to 900 miili:r eters) the distance between individual
section should not be J.ss tl m:tilimeters,
Friction net ~:Llocerara1c materials started being ma u actured
in 1932 The first branch of. industry to use tbcse na t erialr; eras
that of aviation.r~ctalacerar~- G friction: rnateri,s are being used
for driving and driven disks of clutches Lor aircrat engines,
disks of superchar germ airplane braking d1 k. At the present
time such frjctjoa~ disks are insta:Lied in all American airplanes,
These .rrleta11oceramjc friction mater?i als have come to be used in the
autotractor industry since 19L10, At the prE~'ont time these materials
are beir used for autobuses trucks ( from l f It. to 10 tone), and oc
casionally in p seen er mac.hirxe8 4 Met CL1ocerbaxyic braking materials
have performed in automobiles ia1t1ess1y up to 160,000 ki1amcters~
In the caterpillar tractor the length of service of main and side
friction disks with a rta11bcez?ai,c facing has increased 3 times in
coraar son with fo er materials, MetJ.1oc era ujc material are being
usd in tanks a the brakes rf .rotating towers., in, clutches, braking
can& P i platG$ L " o r automatic transmission bo es The use. of metal
l~Erarn c friction mater ais is also incr?e& ix g in other branches
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?
off' industry (in macnines for excavation work, Ln industrisL;as
e~ inc~ locomotives, locomotives, i ftin ; crares, sImpors~ revoly
:bg lathes, friction pre c,es~ ,etc.) ets l,iocer xnic rateris,1s iz
Lorging fiction presses with a capacity off' 1~OOO tons have same's
times lasted saves^s1. tens of times toner than former braking nateri~
Meta1iocorarnics cQn 91s0 be u ed in the fabrication of fried.
tiori materia on an iron base for lightar conditions of work (in
stead j4 iron "shot's, etc.). Their use in industry is connected
with a greater decrease :ln the price of meta]. powders.
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Chapter XII
ktM ALLOYS , rI) DI ; () 4D .M ETA,LIG GOM ?SITIONS
A. HJUW AL t$
The production of rncta11ocerarri? hard a11oys~ begun about
20 yes &;o, is at the present this one of the most import t bzart
chas cxC powder rnetaUU2 Ye Qn may state without ark' aeration
that the introdU(~ticyn of iet .ocera c hard alloys has caused a
genuine revolution in metal wacin. It is suiiciant to point out
rhea thanks to the alloys it was possib1$ d1'ing the Father1afl1
War to finish by maohir~iing artilierI sheiis ten tines raster than
in 193J44916. Up to 191 alloys tee1s were milled at a speed o1
18 meters per mi.nut?:. ".'hc: transt~~n -Tiuz~ing the ~r to cuttiri
with prates made of met~Uocc~rarnic ti.taniuim tunten hard ai1ays
I
made it passible to "super'mli" alloy s r ee s at speed of '11O
300 meters per mifuts 1A es, 6i6 times faster than formerly
~
28, 97)
eta11ocera1nic hard alloys made it possible to machine iron
with a Brineli hardness of 200 at a cutting speed in excess o;r 100
caters per rni.rrto, medirnuhard teed, at a speed of SOJ meters per
mi.xulre, wid i.,ght alloys t 'xcess of 2,500 meters per minute (8).
The use of hard alloys is very effective in wo is metal,
by pressure. in drilling rack,' and n the au4ti?fS induct T as
cores for a,rmo~piercixl she1s.
CompositiQn and Prapertiss of stalooera.o Hard Alloys
The ?oudwin varieties of rnetallocer3ffiie hard alloys re ;l
existnoe.
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aUOY ~
3 p
IIJ11 ~.
arCet;stefl earbid$ d
rckei ?
e e ~,a 1.
a -~ae r~
v~
n
~~
.
~
{ 1o~$
. `~~ . ,a ' ,~C C, 6'~,Q "ler6~e~Tlt Tie, the
?btta iclCS TIC With -i3 perOex~t ~
rest being 'C ( .. to IfoekVatl ~ Hr~7flll ?} ?
() 11oS with 9?92 perCeat tantl1 carbide TaG and -i3
ob~a~;ete.
at ~~1~e ~~rec~c~at '~irnc~
percent ~~~~ ~1~,C;e1. are
() 11oy ,th a bae fly:' complex caibi of t;st, t1
~ ~'i~~~ cobalt, in ~l1ch the prifl'
? ?d,
tarit~e~.~.~ ~ti~,ob~la~~ aa. u, van
eip ro~upCnet i tufge den, carlaide ( Ge
~
Cd 7 Aerc:nt OC'
.ercc~n,t VC and ';a
~ I ~ eree~~t ~a~~ O. ~ ~
~1erGent ~~~ `~ ri~ 9. pez`"en.~U
to .rtn 62.9 percent W, perCen m
C~et~ ~ c?~ ta~.r~a~n ~a? ~,Grcea~t
percent Coy ll~.;1etal. coy
` ~' ~.U. "~ ~3~'~', ant Go;
.2 percent i nd Ti,
1~?~ pc~rcC~ T~ 10 L"' rr~r~`~'~ `~a9 L pe~''cant an
K$ C
10.8 per Ceflt Oc- etc.).
. ~ 11o ~ CarD-de$ of z~o~.~'be~e1fl and
with ~ base o ff:" ~~~~~,~
`~`~ ~?, 37 per
39 pc~ra~
tan , . ft, C ' jtanitO
L t- :rriu ''
'
' Can
a 3 percent 38 perc$ WD,
t x
cent Ti, I VC, .
N1 and 3.6 percent a)
hex carbides of vanat
~ th base Of cp
, or cob t a deve1cped
tttr wn 4th ~cCe
.~J_.Lvyi' 44 ~ UQ (iO1}
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strength o t riai and lower tie baking temperature. Cobalt of a. tine.. ~
a dens e a nonporou$ &,J.ay
and cl~ei are cent netaJ- which melt der n ; b n (Cha er
p t im taL ma1ce it po 8ib' to obta n
~`~w the preence o~ ~ ~eaner~
. ' ' C3 c4 a es on and the rneehLLQ
Refractory caz?bidee (Wa T: C TaC~ etc d ) in met focer~arniC
hard alloyS create high cutting; pro pe te$ hardne$s, rES Stance
to wear, and ., to ,~u~, ~ ; , c,tic~n at ~~f.gh t enxperatvrCe a Cobalt
an ability
a cernentin metal gives better rests for al1by's w1 o e ba3 c
~.
., carbide.. 1~ir,ke1 is to e pre.ferrad for
basic high content of tithe earbides (;ta., er orite,
a~.:Loy's
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Durthg la r there ware used in Ge ar ub t-itU"ba or 1 ax"c~
c, ~'
for their tur ;sGen carbide arad crrbid3a o tun s'Gen
a11cys hairi
"
and ?bttaiiiwu (Alloy V 81L, contaiflt L percent TiC, poa cen
vo, and 3 percent co).
iio s ?in?; a base o?' complex carbides oa ehroriUItI
Cr 02, and t:Lta U1f TiC with nickel,
was us ed riur1n~ the wa in erirafY a3 a substituts
(g ) There
a rtlta ally kiavin{ for it ease alum.flWn carLide. This
~a~,,ocerarr~.c ~'
alloy, however) did not give Matisfactor7 resuitc,d xtaidea the
components r,n ted hard al.ioy~w~ eoraetines c~oxrtaif rather a co . 3,
c.ca ~
der,abie ntitY of a&rLixturee w A'tnon tam may be ?nciuded iron
~,~
( percent) and chron -Ufli Q,O O,iL percent' which ;UId th?ir
.
.~ ~, .s a
Into he pOder mixture as a result of the gear o laa
j,ung o ball mills,
baking in furnaegs with carbon tubes (Tainrnafn'S fur
when ~,
xiaces ) , admjxturea o : su1phur find their way into hard alloy's,
Titanium alloy3 have considerable aclm: tu:reB of nitrogen `(Alloy F
w
with 60 percent i c contain i, i.t percent of [ ? f l .
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TiMtarite, V 01k). N ckei i used in p1aGe of cobalt because it is
1Pj deficient in. aiioys ?th a tunten car~4 base used or ar
mor..piercing cores ( Chapter XVII ) various Other cementing metals
and alloys lave been propor ed (ixon, ?orrochrrnoy additions t co
bait, copper, tungsten, molybdenum) but the r have not rseeived
industrial application.
Tth sten.cobal.t a11oi 3 are baked at a temperature of about
i, oo degrees The baki1ig ternperatre decreases with an increase
in the content of a cementing metal ( about 1, 3f30 de ;r:'ees ~dth l
percent Co and 1,L20 with 6 percent Go). Exposure to baking varies
xainutes b'c r small products to 1 , hours bbr large on.
?'rom 15 I ?1
The baking tem.peratLU:e for. titanium, tungsten allays iw
Higher. It grows with an increase in the conk;ent of titanium carw.
bide (from 1,500 de .cees for Alloy a3 with S percerrt TiC and 7
percent Go up to 1,700 degrees for. .airy 12 with 60 percent; Tic
and ;.5 percent Co).
titanium carbide and oes up to 3 '. hours Tr large p x ducts
COntairaing 2'6O percent T i0.
Titaniun vanadiwn hard alloys are baked, according to Rakov~
skkiy (101.), at, relatively low temperatures (1,2Qui,>O degrees).
of pressing gives better result than cold presu~ing 'cr s~~b
stItute aUoys having L or their base. vanadium and titanium carybides
chrolniu~n a- titaniuan carbides car aluminum carbide,
Figure 169
Structure Qf the Hard Alloy. with 87 Percei it W0.1, Percen.t Op (161)
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cposure ci.so increas+ s ti 1th the amount of
 Fia'uro 1.70
StruetuLle of a Hard Alloy Contctiinii ; 36 percent ~O, 1~raant
TiG,, and 9 Percent Oo (167) a t Photo]
Figure 169 &aOW7 the typical truoture of tung ten~coba?t
Gi:Loys and Figure 170 titani.un..tutn~sten hard a1ioy.
The proptrtiof cel1tatc:: nat i.ve hard allays a prentd bi
akov$ki,y (1.01) arse iven in Tab1 36, Garniian, according to itieffer
and Hotop (167), and Conwtock (T2) in Tbie 37, and Jrnoriean, acs
cording to En 1e and Scht~arzkopf (19k), in Table 38
Tita,niumavanadium alloys having arati o of Ti C? VC 5p s S0 or
30;70 have1, accordiiru~ to R,='covskiy (10:1), 4specific gravity of ;. w
S.7, a resjstarzce; to tench of &)-.7a ?~:i,1 o a r s per squa:' mia:Li meter, acid a RoC 3e1i "A~r izardness of 89!:9O,
taniwa possess less strength than alloy having far their babe
Alloys having for their baee carbides of raolybdenum and ti-
complex carbides of tun~steri and t:Ltanium, d for this reason
they are no longer u;ied*
The prop rrtie4 o,C ~neta1ioce a mjc hard alloys are rea~iarkab1e
the as these aateri ia. TI size ai? their .iodu.1u of elasticity
baron carbide, carbarurtclum and corundum'. t they are not as bri w
in maw r4spect. They are i.rd'erior i_fl hardness or r tp di or d y
tance to corpra lion is very high for hard ar1J. oys, re,istanc to
t:k~ey show thE; s rel. e t decree of deform ti cn under a load. Thsis .
xce ds that of all I m o n metals . e n d alloys acid Lor t >a r ea or
rupture grad bending adegimte ' while plasticity r nd irr!p tct tou ?
n a re most ix ignifi+ t,
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Table 36
PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN NATIVE HARD ALLOYS, A.GC0fl13IATG TO HAg4FS%ZY (3Cl)
Trademaxk
of Allah
Percent
Specific Gravity in
-
Grams per Comic
RA
Hardness
~esistance to Bending
' KilOgraIfl5 per
1at Conductivity in Relation
to Heat- Conductivity cf
tam
TIC
Co
Centimeter
Ste i1I line ter
Past-Gutting Steel
V3
31s.9
89.5
105'
1.0 - 1.2
Yx6
6
87.5
:1)4a
~
Vx6
92
~.?3
87
'so
i.i - 1.5
vN6
9!~
fi
I)4.7
89
125
1.E - 1.3
Tlavxio
80
10
10
10.9 ~ 11
89
125 - 120
X15 eKl
78
a5
7
11.2 - 11.E
88
125
0.3-0.h
~21VE7
72
21
10.5
89
110
0.2 - 0.25
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x-3.3
11.2
il,]r 2600
90 150
9E3.5 71.x.0
115
91.5 110
92.5 80
Alloy HI dif
~' fart from 01 b
1e~s time a baking,
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[3] [17 [51 [63 [77 I81 [97 [Ia7
[13] f 1i$I
- 0.25
5.5?1o-6 0.26 _
5.2.10-6 O.1h
6si0-$ Q.lt3 0.06
d.77
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Table 38
~~~~~TIEs OF nHERIcr-N H!RD A TLOYs (194)
Bending Presion
[3] [141 [5]
Ilk.~b 88.5-91 - l~80
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C - sit1an.. of
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Table 38
PRO}1TS OF ft4ERICAN PLARD A LLOYS (19L)
t2] (31 [hi [5]
15.0!; 92.3 :UL0 625
iJ.56 88.5-91 - 18O
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til
A11..].oy' of WC With a Small
Quantity of Tic and $-13
Percent Co
A].loy of irJC ~i.th a large
Quantity of and 7
Percent Co
t27 t31 t14l (Si
tbl t71 [8J [91
7.h-.1Th.7.5 87-89.5 210 3$0-h3.t0 9 56,000 0.652 5,9?lo'E' 0.I96
12.5h 85-$7 250 3$5
12.80 9d-92s5 175
505 5.1
9.0 92-93 105 510
K813nEIDB't3I KB With 62~9
Percent w, . 9 Percent Tai le
Percent Ti, lol Percent Co ~ 91 i.1ao-20a bs5
o.o`t5
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Kennainetaz iM with 55.5
[2I C3] [4J
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E77 [sl I91 t303
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to redness. Figure 171 shows that an alloy contatniri iS percent
We and percent Co x&s a greater hardness at 700 degrees than a
faet?cutting steel at room ternperatux'e (11.8), ,Resistance to bend
Meta1iocer inic har4 alloys lmve an exoepi4ora11y hi h reaie*.
Lance to heat. As oo npared with f ast..cuttin steels, their hardne$a
and strength decreases relatively ins Lgntficantly upon being heated
t ; oil an alloy cmntaining 87 percent WO aid l percent Co changes
upon being heated in the Ioliawing rna,nner (167)t at 20 degrees 17I. kilograms per square millimeter, at 800 degrees 137, at 8O
degr ? Gs
tures hard alloys surpass the best heat-rer~istant steels.
127, at 900 degrees
meter. With respect to resistafce to oxidation at hi h t pera?
With respect to wear, hard alloys surpass by many tames all
other known metals and alloys. In toots involving a jet of stem..
fox' fast?-cuttin steel and 110 less than for carbon steel.
sand, wear for metllocerar ie hard alloys was 58 timcs less than
These properties of hard alloys make them e cceptiona1ly adap-
tible for machine and preure finishing of metals and ogler materials
square Millirieter
FastCuttng Steel
centigrade
Figu.r?e 171. Red atiaxi i
*J' Mw
Figure 188. Lass o ' ?' ~?.
xessurv in Lation: to Wall
1 r wall thickness 1.5 millimeters; 2.2,E mini.
meters 3 - 3 millimeters; )4. - 3.75 millimeters.
x Y'~r~ Jam:r ?7#l~ C .
,. ., ,.
Figure 189. Drop in Pressure with the Passage
1 - wau thicknosa ~.. milhimeters; 2 .' 2.2S millli-
Air through Filters with Varying Walk Thickness.,
meters; 3
3 ml1imeters; 1 . 3,75 millimeters (180).
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Po u Ito ' re - ceted npi tde3, bu m
c M I o , di8i13 p1a , etc. T i yams from d~.s
:i? Ubte:o t* dt4ant 3? d ou s :Lo than a thtrnb
a ow e;,1nds wti imete o 300 m e t vrd `La u
za hiit,tord * TQ1 XZ1 ~U.?L but $ e nt
o th 3 thinStOz $ of a ? rSze did , = ne o~ d
hOA trig poz#Gu films, tn view' o t pod d o
dteniz~ s ,ne; o oases itez' ire o1 ed oz a oppe
plated ate . t a (i aw h h l ovo i At fl 4 th o au
.Gta1 o Ld bra vGtded) The at i~ o , l r to
plays a1 o b done du : ba g A sczew r d -y o bra
t in to por)ta et oz Lt may be and by mani o lines oz
rtng o so:ud m t 1 scbi~iE .zi8htg off" filters (turzd , 4LU
i g, a db) i 9 a Tsai 1. &YweY it t i Wo t wig Vlcounief 5w d
that the urXace ot L1ezs be act r, . ov . off' ed u
dr e 4th. a gadw eel
ton , u of poxcu et to w o p ?e uZc ittin is
,fit) a ?t: x o v e r i vti o the he eSo o 'i1te Lt
1teng) it wig idy ~ in 'ou't ( x n?C
Fgttx 190 xd Itvw 'w1 o U n u$ :iltro
Tk.e .o ffa pO u ~ Ei ? e n i dens by
bflg + t of aLr cz sty ( a c3icthn oppo.tte . to that o
2r 0?
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I
--rr--,,.. _.I.rrx,r.M.,,r,,__.,,~r$A,,Yr'M,Mw?.''., rI
~~ iaM
I,I....~,xay(rr
gl'NtitWI+xY!1"
yr1 ?, rlr~~?IYb
s1 iin plated with copper (connected to the porous
.
IMWMJrrn+.-rn~x.'I I,?.,Hx,,, a'*,, lw'11gMp.rl.wr.K.+Mlul 4?'
! tinlTrllx MrTlgr~'rn.Y' .- J~YI
J
~.in y...F.NIMIIWTWMN,.J~ Jw
MIYw~uwlr MrR.MIM.rM.
i' ,Y ~ax,l'. y` wr ~lrl ?rer..r.. Jlrrwln ~ly.r l"n.?y
Y r ~ / l{Yrxy "nw)xM"inh+rAll~nrY, r,T ~W.xw.'.wixwxuM?Nxn~`I
vN.N;14 Ww gTlrrl..Y~:I+ixln.v+AT'x~ It ! !rq"'v~~NHlrr.+.v.NxMN~
...~..nwhr 5r{ A M.WNln.r+w
xMh P (, (I F
s
Figure 190. I Sta .1atiof Porous Fi1ts1
ter in dreg unit of a rcfrigsraxn
4k porous ftl
instaicnc 1 porous filters, 2 - s11tca gel; B
a di8se)- g e 1 ., porous .1teX,
fuel ftlt~r for
pr~ssure. in a device or prayg paints 1 .:porous fig
purification of atr off' motst!re .gad r iSting and reg,.attng
filter d ng n1LaCtu2); C ? porous filter combi ng
q. ~..2 . scra'En;. I f. ter3flgand centrifugal device or
I
.
port ,Iquild$ and gases: l' , porous filter,
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
et4L:Locer'uJic to 1i4 back i3mU haz'd.ti8 bsitr
t tts:w beaa o t wtncra and mte Si
pas.! o pcz d buy of to ~a ,mod, unrriobLe die..
$ittQn a " mew par c1ec In d t t A oaf pape eta,
l zns et a x's is L1tO2? the il ci iiq d az~ s riot
corxtninat d wt h . frrn tha ? it x taUermt filters
have a r a ab it" t oth z f 1tez ~. can operate er
h;Lg (Table I.3 )
E s se T'abi : i Chapter DL'S' )
Uac3r is .' tero ar most a ibL `ar use as a
art1ci , h1 a ontin to a 1arg quantity of 1tqt s ~d ? ~.
b1 1o e3yn ` Lora nu1t eius1y Lt i p n' +tr~ U:Lt Lo
prtt
Po.rws ?t:Lra .ar ue it it*rg qd
st ti0Qu ~ btp uto! t~ 2 aircr t (fgxr8 1903 and 1123)
Such tiltrs may pooib to :L ie cper t a Q a
a ' C X hi h i rti iW iy pox bomber aim. ft,.
J
w b a s. no iargz br . . a iuW.-' try !UUx ete S)
'+t~tern oiuN io w+ t a ibex o i t ai m
t tiic4 e size " ft1trs cony .
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1 1 d
la . ~
/4j F.~ 1 y i
Figum 191, In t UtLO 1 O? PoOUE X .i1tCXa.
rnQ ua die s. T t ii t Q makes U p ibi A r
~y 'y Y/(1M~ 1y'
Mfr 1Mit rMTng to t'&k~ ~W,a with t ~ e,* L ixi Mperat l-Vx
tank to the pDe 3xi e o two 11tt (L and 2) C
filter of g airs 1 ar e" P? i tee egg ttfr
to Li p
pux0 ert r &th the o U Ite with
bent edges
ob a ttQf g U% 6 sites gel 4 .
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)etaUaceramic i1ters are r iso used for pu?i'ying air and
gases (?i ures 19CC and 1910) of dust in appliances for condenstg
airs pneumatic hammers, etc.
Besidea per~'onatn esaerItia11y 'i Ltering sobs, metailoceramic
fitera are also used for the following purpa6ea.
(1) Separation o,t' a mixture of liquid mmteri .s with die?
ferent viscosity and soaking quaiitiesy etc, through the use of
fi1tera with varying penetrability. Thus, rneta> L1oceramtc filters
are used for separating water from ol in emulsions, etc. It is
also possible to effect similar separation of uses.
( ) Reg .sting the quantity of a flowing liquid or gas -In
neasiring d distributing apparatusos~ and also 1or softening
shocks in releasing compressed gas.
(3) I'or stopping sparks, as in explosion-free motors.
Figure 19U shows an instrument for oirc attng air used in ex'
plasion.~free motors. The porous filter through which the air
circulates serves in such a case a a barrier against the igniting
aatiox of sparks
Porous meta possess a number of propeies which make it
possible to use the as sealing materials and in sealing details.
In the hectic sealing of atationaxy apparatuses (such as joints
of waternain) it is inportant to have exceptionally. goo4 plasticity
and sofhe$s in porous materials t Iron with a considerable p rceni
tae of pores is closer to lead than to compact iron in 'softness
and deformation. (Faire 192).
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~4 MnN{N`xi llxNwuubY.1:.~~b 1)MI1gN4.IMH+1'qNn,M1W.~Mes'M1i1~x1M`KIr~Y.iMx+xwmMplM1'.~IYI.1'h .(#IIi MMA"'~fl~
%; i
/
F r' f
~..( P '
Y S (1 1
{ i 'A
"4 +. ,f y
': Wn ~ F f
L,I ' ~,
~ ~ulo 1 i' I~+
~, .+'1 , Ynd ~1YY u ' 1
~' x ~,.91 tMr '"` h'YMIhw,M1$N 1~hrWNWJ:YFAN .
ti hl ^~,q+-Ix WI)
N I r.. _ 'j f
1 ~ (+ ;' ;??? '. i('
r~f~ Hoyt,,
Ft e 192, re in A1)i1 t o1 Parr run (Vogt).
Teas re in bi1ity how in Fiore 19
vlclu a se asnts fastez e~. togethe by ix'oxi iT pos ing h ui
them) and k g c'f pipe joy 1t aze h- f b .titre 193 o
(Abcv) Ld CL. , of 5.te 1 Ptp ( l ) ? (photo]
o:L 4th3t&1d:In p c x'e off' O t ph ~r i p wh1. h v
b n th ce k d an withstand di Lod nor t wkten b& t wh
aaik with Lad whU 'i i tan e vibxt of and cor sLo 'or
such trop ii cvn greater
It to torpor nt that s i thtndad to se e as se w
g is bit oeat d b e en moV~b . and tati0 a27 prt$ to *e z
L5rne have ?d anttiicttai ppt lit r~ and ama?
tiara o ' a u m t x en t ? Yb . tY of r~ t&' with in
poi'ea eta u z oil,. i ~ does not inter ,. ui here t fU of *s s th e
Po iz sad Inge *aihr ' 1witI I Od eaig
enttan o been made; o piton rings Chapter XXI.
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 Vanes desorbss an interesting device or pxeventifg icing
~.
w a which are eub ject to dangerQU
~~ airplanes. The edge$ of g
a OQpper~nLCI0l pa~u$ ~~+,p~- A liquid C~.r~
icing are wavered w~
cnlates through the pores hindering icing (antt~freeze ) . Butch a
ctivensss of anti$reeze by five ttmes.
device increases the ?ff e
The entire weight of the installation, na1u1ing the pomp and super
pa,y antiix?ezs, is 0.6 percent of the weight of the airplane
of
and of this 0 percent belongs to the anti'freels.
As has ea' been pointed out in Chapter III porosity
~.x
with respect to many metalloceramic details, such as gears and
a mechariSLns, is 'an important feature (des'
ether movable parts
crease in wear and, friction, increase in accomadation). Porous
iron seals axas~.t have been proposed by Bait shin,
1;~a.th 60 percent p ~'
Barak, and 01 `khav (l ). Prior to compression these seals have a
there have been proposed many other interesting
Moreover,
Brinell hardness a1 3. to lt., i.e. s the same as lead ones. After
compression in a "plombtr", the hardness goes up to 60 as for ore'
This factor interferes with the. forging of seals as
unary lead.
compared with those made from lead0
aw r porous materieis. Among their nu~ber may be in-
~,~,c~at~.an~ ~ ,
t breakers, electrodes far accumulators and secanc.Ary.
chided cir
rainier wiekS and; lighters, and 1iglatning m~-x~est~ars.
el,ementsi meta1lace
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apr xv
: EcT c ?i ALS AND Dj T L
The manufacture of electric inoandeacent lamps p with math,
filaments wasp one of the xeasona for the z?ebirrth
of metaJ.1acexamj13
s
at the beginning of the twentieth cent '
~' ir~ce then the can.
tinued progrs88 of electroteohx~alogy is so losel
y oannected with
powder metallurgy that preaent.~day electroteoanalo
gy ie unthinkable
w.thcrut metallooer~+a.o materjals
Aside from ele ct ie bulbs (Bee; Figure 19LI, ) , details from,
powder metals are eaeent-jal to flUereSOent a
nd X?.ray tub es ~ cathode
lamps, reotifiers and amplifjers ~ eiectric motors and dynamos, elec~
trio"welding apparatuses telegraph apparatu
se~, all manner of elecs
trical instZamnts~ z?adio location installations, etc, W
auitht the
use of mmtal1ooez ujc materials it would not have been possible to
reach; the high leve of preseltday radio telancalc .
The important role of powder mete lurgy in eieotzotec
alogy
is due to the posaibility of producing such
mateal~ why,, are
difficult or even impossjble to obtain by other methods, the
methods of metUocejc technology make it passible to produce
rcracto2y metals (tungsten, molybdenum
~ tantalim, niobiura) ,. very
pure met, s and icy, compdsjtjofla of metals
that will net alloy
with each other (tungsten..copper, `?tung8ten i y~r, eto ),, cempoej
bona of m t ,s and nQn~meta]. (co *,
ppa~' ,grap~i'~e, si~.~er.cad.um
aide, ironMplastiCs, etc:*
Z4etallooernid l,riale and detain
are eeptiona~ly wide
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used in ihcandeacent lamps and vsrious cnctrovaeuum lumps and
tubes - fluoares cent 1ampa , X~ray tu.bes, cathode lamp, reotilexe
and amplifiers, generator lames, kenotranea, etc.
Incandescent tar ' .laments are 'abx Lcated out of the moat
refractory metal tungsten.
The high melting point (3 Oo degrees), low evaporation and
significant durability at high t?nperatures (Table 31) make tung-
ten an irreplaceable material in e1ectrov8.cuum technology (167 )
s
Tungsten is used in inaandeecent cathodes of Xray tubes, radio
tubea9 generator tube, rectifiers and amplifying tubes. Tungsten
can ~.thstand a temperature of 2000 to 2500 degree,,, and for short
periods up to 3000 degrees.
The cathodes of industrial lamps are frequently manuactured
froze tungsten to which thorium oxide has been added,
e addition of 1 to percent Tho2 increased by several
times electronic emissLof..
Tungsten is alp: used for making anticathode$ for Xray
tubes, rsgcaating and acreen1ng grids for ray tubes and cethode
lamps ignition tips o' hghVoitage rectifiers for ignition by
immersion or sparking.
Tantalum (Table 31) is u . ed for details in the vaouum te,eh-
ni ue, oPsrattnng at temperatures why do not require as high re-'
ctorines$ as in the case of tungsten., Tantalum to used in the
fro
manufacture of anticathpdes' anodes,' and , o? X-ray tubes, radio
t ea 1, rectifiers' generator tubes etc. Thntalura is considerably .
lighter and more plastic than tungsten, thus rak iig it easier to
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produCe froni it ii eo 8 4 e 1 foz'm (Zaao4?yye ) de ail W.
Figure 19L. Use off` Molybdenum and Tungsten in
Incandescent Bulbs and dto 'ubea. a incan
descent bilb; b radio tazbe.,
Molybdenum (Table 31) is used in the electric lamp industry
rincipa].ly as filaments hoods and loops for retaining tungeten
p
filaments in incandescent lamps (Figure 19Ls) and for joantng glass
or quartz to metal in incandescent iarnpa, mercury rctifiers,
quartz and mercury lamps, etc. Ether metals besides molybdenum
are also used for fusing in glass. Depending on the variety of
glass and its ooefflcient of e~cpansion these include tungsten foxy
refractory glass of sho;cave transmission radio tubea1 an allay
with h percent Fe, 7 percent Ni 9 l8 pcxent oo and ironma1yb-
denum alloys ( to 0 percent c l percent Cu, r ainder Fe) (19L ) w
There are also made frank molybdenum grids of transmitting
radio bes, spiral grids for tubes o radio receivers,. anodes
springs for supporting cathodes in. resonator tubes, anode sdreans
and aup5 in Xay tubes,
In the vacuum technique these is also u.d a certain amount
mf; especially pure iron cksl snd their loys , obtained fro u
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arb~ 1 powders (3.67). 1IetaUace2?aflt0 iron and nickel contain
xab . 1es as the cast, which tact &a very poztant ?03?
cc~ns~.de ~' ~
the vacuui technique.
In order to absorb the snta11 quanttty off' gases whioh are
given b metal details during the operation 0:1 vacuum apparatus,
powder metals ?-. $o~ca.1ed agettpr&' are emplOysd. Tanba1u1.
and zirconium are used for this purpose because fey have an ex-
tional affinity ?or all gases oxygen, hydrogel, nitrogen, 00,
a
09 , etc.
Surfaces coated with ztrcon -t1r have a dark grey color and
adiate heat much better then nun*coated metals For this reason
r
.rcon make it paseib1e to decrease the dimensions a
~.um coating
anodes used in the vacuum tech.que and in some cases even replace
the anode material. For anodes of oertain power tubes zirconium,
coated mo1 denum has came to be used instead o? tantalum and zir
conium*coated nickel in8tead n molybdenum. Zirconiur coating
Greases diffusion by 34 percent.
!i0btt1m has been used so far in the .eotrtc lamp industry.
expertmentaUi* Niobium is more duct .e than tantsluun and rather
close to t in other properties (Table 3) For this reason the
application a tantalum and niobium in this field should overlap
rather a3osely.
W. doors of Xwray tubed made from. metallocerarnie beryllium
Windo!s r0m cast iii clo ene5s o?s n. and rneoh th cal
properties (1,66 ).'
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 :CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1 J
Mi r.AJ2-oci aA 1:C AT]" LB IN L UTII CAL R5 I 'U1 AC
;#; t a , rye
Relation to Tnperature (167)..
(1) Beaue or the fact that. molybdenum., is hi41y oxidin
at. high titpez'atur?es, th.e operation of het?ng elements xaust . take
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At the proeent time reefracto metals, eepecia - y _molibdenum,
are widely ue d a heating e1e m1e nt in high?.teemperatuz'e (up to 1700
degrees) electrical resistance furnaces (167 ) a The incrsaeing Use
of molybdenum in this field is dues to its strong durability at
high temper?ature8 (Figure 205), good electrical cpndUOt5 V?ty~ and
except:Yonal:.y high ripeaiic loads per unit of conductor aurfacre
For nichrorne, pcrmiBsib1e 1oada range up to watts per save
cenhneeter~ for eemicanductore (SUit) 23 watts per square oantip
meter, and for molybdenum more than '. C watts per square centimeter.
In conne+ tion with the character of teemperatu elation to they
e 1ectrio .resistance of uo1ybdonum, casual fiuctu& ionJ of tension
:thi the grid cause smaller variations in temperature, than, for
ample nickel
~yait+"m
k;t
___..w?*T MYNWrr~.M1/hha.va$w'.rnu~~y.fl flW,'tFa,iY ?~J,~WIW~A.vm?w..ti....q?...
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p:Laeo t a protective attmasphez (hydrogen, dissociated w onia ga y
generator gaa,, partially burned illuminating gaso~ etc ).
(9) For theo zeason it is deei.rab1e to use ma11bdenurn
not as wire or ribbon but ds heata.ng eircnt with t large tram
verse cross sectican, In this connection thezc re molybdenum fbur.!
rzac~s of a new desigix which operate at log tensioa
(3 ) Wierever possible, direct contact between molybdenum id
the ceramic lining of Furnaces should be avoided (alundum, slhim~
anite, to)~ It is trefore recommended that molybdenum elements
shouId either be suspended or have a r'ew a number of contact
points as Laos sibi e.
(14) it is' necessary to provide cooling (by water or air) and
a hermetic dense-gas (gazoplotnoys) connection of the terminals
conducting the current to the furnace.
Tungsten having a somewhat lower electrical conductivlty
than molybdcnunt, is used in heating elements in refractory ?ur-
naves with very high t~nperatures up to 3000 degrees (167).
Copperographite brushes f'~r dynamos and, electric motors
possess both goad aonta.at and anti'?Ct4an p'operties Graphite
preventa the adhering and waling of metallic particles to the
rotor through sliding contact dez'eases the cecin a fri'o..
tion and wear, and prevents the coppe' ni The coppe
oontr butos high strength, lent coal, gonducUvit~r pe issib1e
cent density, and a law 'value for ransittona1 voitge, Cop .
p graphite ' brhes contain from 8 ' to., 7 `peraont gxphjte and co
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tc to t;,txe I -o :: : c
1 . 1fl8Z*73
S jg47 ?oV 4th
l
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pontflr 92 t 2 p
d
a31e 43 thow~ the
b
bt
ce~
QZi any cbA
e O o'
- on oUotn4
'r from cope e
in t h t1It ht Th
r$ r m
0qar
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SABLE 143
GHA%GTEBiSTICS OF SOVZ1 COPFER-GP11ITh AD GRAPHITE-COPPER BRUSHES
Characteristic of Brash
MG-1
Gra :te Content in
"et
Specai.f c Elsetricai fie-
sistsnee .in t}tna$: Square
N3.3.limeters per deter
PexmiseDle Linear Speed
in deters per Second
Na1!1al ~ressure in Grams
per Square Ceitt3ineter
Thademark
-3
i3-1 1(-2
sv.~~t IO-L5 3$-20 2O25 About 50 About 75
6-12 5-? i-6 3 5 --
o.a5-o.1 O.1-ae25 o.z-o...
Ida Low Z,t3w Low
25-30 22-25
1fec33.um Low
20 20
a20-150 120-350
22-2~
Low
a2a-35a
Low
3t-!s2 28-38
h-20 b-lb
Nedivm Iiadiuee
12
20
160-200 I60-2O0
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TABLE Ith
c ossTsrrN OF cERNAN use IN P er (167)
Cu c sn Pb
85 5 10
$0 10 ~ a0
80 10 10
74? 20
70 30
68 12
30 io
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eoSrraoN OF GrsINax BRUSHES IN PERcIIr (167)
Cu C
85 5
so 10
so 10
7o zo
70 30
68 12
30 70
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TABLE h5
ccThRisTIcs OF G~ia BRUsR (67)
Brcrias with kith Lange
Slight Gra- Graphite
pPsa.te Content Content
Drintiefl Witness
Shore : GAS
?
of wear pant in
C~ffzcien~
Direction
n anal
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I 0.7
0.85 9,Z
0.6 0.2,
1.8 I.1
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T.BLE hb
CRITICAL VAI[7ES FOR INv GLI83T EE1ivE CONTACT, IN AniPEB$S {794}
Voltage
25 Volts ~0 Vo1ts I20 Volts 220 Volts
S O7 0.1
1,3 0.9 0.5
3 2 I.m
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TABLE h7
WEIGHT LOSSES OF CONTACTS IN SP.AEKIfiG (:#92.x)
Characteristic Sparking Current Weight Lass in 24ifltgrsms per Coula~b
18 x.0013
lei Q.p1)4
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CONTACT TEALS
Very hi demaxds are made of presentwday contact. They.
meet have a cor i.derabie hardness and streiagh and alight deTrma
tiQfl at high temperatures, an in ig 'icant tendency for f'us:Lng
and a hering, low vapor pre, sure, high rer i,stance to oxidatLon and
e eotri,ca:L e s .any ahd a eomb'lnati,on oi" good heat ccnciucttvi.ty,
e1ectrloa1 conductivity, and :Low transitionaI resistance4 It 1s
vary difrioult to rind a:3 J these pxapertiea in pure meta a M Sirni1
any the usual alloys axa little autte . 1'or this purpose because
there is a decrease in electrircaloonductlvity t,dth the formation
of soiid solutions and into: etaL1ic combinattc>ns.
Meta11ocera)1'Lio co.rnpostt .ons, ha ig ma apical mixtures of
metala certain inatais of which proda~ ?or exa?np1e hardnes, lack
of fusion, or 'e,sietanoe to aroeion~ and, on the other hand, elec~
trio ., co)1ductivity and heat conductivity most aui.table for con.
tact materials,
At the present time the following metaUocernic contact
material are uie.
(a) Pure tungsten contact, Tungsten r ains very hard and
strong at high texpcratcr and has only a slight tendenoy to
sparking ;d a high rsistance to electx?ioal e:sion. Table h6
gives the critiaLalue for the tragth of currant fo estab?
liehing an eleot c ar Th using contact erosion fo. d,iff erent
m tai... It carp be satin from Table that tie 1 valu s are
groat r for tungsten t th f.o. other materials. T b1o .7 shore
that erosion of tungaten,s nit vat great, At hene tlxae rem
stst 4 to o Ula,tion at high tempexatuis is r :.., Similarly,
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heat and eLectrtOal conduotivit1 are s1tght in conpar?ison with copes
In aooordance with the properties thus given, pure tungsten
pir.
is suitable for contacts used in vx'y rapid switching with a very
rable derietty of can ent, such as ;1n breafd.ng contacts of
coneide
i nitto~a ilstrunt$ and al.tarnating-cur'ant rectiiiers.
b ) Compositions with a tungsten base. Tungsten provides
hardness, strength and resistance to erosion. Silver (10 to Ls.0
percent) or copper (ld to l.C percent) a erves as to component for
providing e1ectriaal and heat conductivity. Such contacts have a
specifta gravity of l1t. to 17, a hardness of 110 to 2O , a specific
teal conduotiv,ty 30 to C percent of the slectricalconduc"
alectri
tivity of pine copper. Ccixiing .ectrical.conductvity with
strength norx~welding and resistance to erosion, they, depending
upon the composition, may be used either as main contacts , working
at high current densities, or as protective contacts which are
meant to protsot the main contact from erosion when turning the
current on or off. These contacts are being vary successfully
used in high-voltage switches -.. o. (primarily W?iCU) and aerial
(preferably wa.Ag ) and also in iow-voltage onsa. The oU owing
example shows under what severe conditions such contacts can oper-
ate. In one aerial high voltage switch the silver tW $tGt con1
tacts are obliged to operate with aontii:aious switching on and off
of the current at a current density of I,CCO amperes per square
centimeter and a voltage of 600 volts. The period 'of service of
WAg and W-Cu contacts is considerab'y greater than for pure eul-
er or oppex under s ilar conditions (Figure 19b) . Such contacts
~r
can operate briefly at' tempertes above the melting point of cop-
per or silver because the oapi1l ry foraeL prelrerAt the extension
of the mod ted copper and l? a'wer the pressure of its rapo.r.
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A artain cunt o use is made a' a~appernieke~.tungsten,
Conta t5 (80 to 9 percent W, 2 to 10 percent Cup, and 2 to 10 par"
cant Ni) htch have a icwer degree of e1ect,ca1candUctivLty than
~ ~
cappertungsten (about 20 to 2 pereent that of the aleetric con'
du~t~t y of copper) but a greater hardness (~O to 300 accoxd ing
,~. ~ ~
to Brin el.) ,
(o) Compositions 'with a )na1 bdanum base to which add Uons
of silver (10 to La pea'cent) or copper (10 to LI.Q percent) have been
added are simtiar to compositions with a tungsten bases but they
are leas wdeapread~
(d) Contacts with atungsten carbide base. They are es
ecia1iy resistant to the action of erasion during aroing. Be.'
p
sides twig sten abide they contamn as a cementing meta. i. to
10 percent caba'lt, osmium, or sonne other noble ret 1 (platinum,
rhodb xn, iridium)
The use of ttungsten carbide contaets &n telegraph relays
made it po sslble to inorease transmission speed from lL O to 700
setters per minute,,
(e) Contacts with a silver base snvergztphil (Li to.
:30 percent C)a?lver'oadnhiusn r d (.2.a to '10 percent cd0), s ver-
nicked (10 to 60 percent Ni) (191). he ca antaet are employed
lighter conditions of work with respect to voltage and frequen
in
of a itching than azripa it .on with ,. a , tungsten base f r?~
craft relays with d `ect cbrrent , The use of siive ? OXide eon
tarts is most tnters tiug. Cac1niu , od.des bmsk. down at high tern-
raturoe and volatiz$ 9.8 a result Q which such csontaete pd
s arc extin uish ng .proper a, The elec' al conduCttVity
of silver-oxide contts . .69 to 9 peraant pu~
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Y.ugnXMlYa"wx'/.uV'~xn. ?ar?rrnw''+rnN ryAllnrMM
t~lyr,y.xr w,hax?'
1
}
ry
`MI-,w..-ww-i,.--N.. rnnwbn.wrw~~,.. ,..,.. - 1
" uxe 196. Length of Serliiee of Contacte.
Fa
B ' Goi pceit ? with 64 percent W and
A.? upper;
140 percext Cu (1iO )
igiire :197.
*lr
a
1
R e%?
f
*((- p . /ia Pt
Eac trp static . ' . iY1~.X a'tG? `.
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OTC BaE c MATERIALS
The Ube O met .viceramto to ia1s for arc and contact
electc wedding is described in Chapter XII.
e cx'odss Lox spark plti',;s axe made from tungsten.
Re tLy there has appeared a description off' an instrument
for e2lminating charges off' &ectrestatic electricity w~. the as*caJ led
electrostatic elbiinator. In maxzu 'actur g the eliminator (Figure
197) powders are used which include Z~adtoaotive eomapound and gold.
A thin sheet of up to 2. miUlmeter's of a comp?eaaed and baked
material is welded on to a non..radioactive layer of silver. The
appax'atu$ is mounted in a case which provides careening. The use
of go id powder makes it pos sibJ. e to obtain a durable radioactive
layer without interfering with the radium emanations. he concen '
txation of radium yn this layer may be up to O micrograms per
square cexitimeterj the &:I radiation comprises 60 to 75 percent
ai the theoretical. There is an ionization current of i.L micro..
arnperes per l milligram of xac .'ume The e1ar inator ionizes the
air and makes it possible e1$ mate eleotrosthtic electricity
for a distance up 75 miiLimetexs from the radioactive surface.
It is used for removing electrostatic charges from rapidwoper'aM
Lion telegraph apparatuses.
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T methods pow mew i y ae uied tn the mac
t;ure of ~QwiZ1? 'nanctc mMez'ts1h
(1) ~atn di e t tc1 p aed 'e arr ii mti doz
ru3u1atd by cUciect*&Ca (p1i tti1'MW
rind niekel
(3 ) f'4~ iMc!4 Don Q' i'ini tad dF~ i,1f z r soft end r ,
n4 tLc r teri81$.
In the oa 1y tags oi' d~ e . rA ' Dtdic tsmio '
when long w v~ icy t ed~ nd cti rn oi1 d b c te
wig caze conaistt?ng o bundi o Dine ,' 1..a d wiz'.
~ iter piss o 1o as me with
owe i dic) f den o An 1 + 'In M ?r qw nc r Vi a.
an mesa X 1 'ou a Lt a T h i s m it u e e
+Jt z, th QZ` J, 14 W1iud, O ifLtlU ya tQt CA1 c+i ? b >ri t 41 v Ui FrJ Miarv 4W 1i W ynetsz of l v a ~Tczon b Wd s Wss mpo a is ri'e the
urr(ut deveio t 'g ~ - t hn Lo y. Bau o this there
to aet '* nrn tozi s ftz 1 i~M1 reaE~ the o oe Q i c.
ti on cons (M ,iguz~Nw7 8). eta1 ceza to coil.s tiade1 it pL+T stb ie t".W!
W6i gn con~et dk d&cs YJr . nkat at 4U n ' ', OcThe a
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Figure 198? ComparIson of the ensjona of $
evera1
Deduction Coils, Left without a care ri h
~ ~ t wjth
powder COrea. tphoto)
the densjons cif a set ?rom 230 to mi1i?me
fi ors (1)?loreovex, seta that have meta ,ocexama.c cores
are more sensitive
ad have much ahax'per tLtn3 ng M Compresaed oo ces ax 'e being t
y~".+ w.4dRiri.y
used in htgh$requency techna1o r ?'ar tuning coils,
~ filters, Input
and output txanefoxr~ere, etc.
Pressed coxes are also used in pin cods which are employed
for compensating capacitance of telo have able.
For low ?.x'equency there are used prirnarjl i
y ion powdsz?s re~
duced with hydrogen (size of panic es 1 to 0
~ ~ microns), elec..
trolytic irony and ?er hall"ay ( 78 *5 percent Ni and
percent Mo)
The effective pcrmeatilty of Per iaUo . ~.
~ cores is 12a gauss per
Oersted and of iron reduced with hydrogen only So (iLs.~r) . For
frees
quenejes of 300 to LU,O00 kilocycles he best rest
i,s are obtained
with oarbonyIran powders a At the low end
the powder partic1es
ahouJ,d have a sloe of Li. to 1CJ microns
in the middle 2 to ? microns,
and at the tai "end I to 5 mi
4rc~ns ~
We use for pressing cores ,.lifer alloy powders with 7.5 pe'
cent Ale, l0 ,percent Sj 82.5 percent Fe
(38).
Ma~;neta~d3.e~.+~ct~, cs
for tonal frequenajee are made from Al fe
r T ? by with parties
about the size of 50 mi crons and having are effect-lye magnetic per.
meabi ity of 60 and ooeffiaiant of 'Foucauj.t.
current loss )UO?lo4.
The properties of sifer cprea for radiofrequency, ?9 with par~
bales having a diamete ? of i to 20 micron
e are, given, accaxdjr
to aymavsty. (!), in Tble )8'.
Lp v,
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In the ma j a ty of cases there are used as ix Gu1ating dieiec.
txica plastics (b, 1it~, air aopiast, polysti.rol), 1e fequently
cardboard (exro1 z't tab) ) oz cerartc compositionso Tura powciaz?
with phenol plastics are pros sed at room temperature with a force
cif to tcaxs pe~^ square ctimoter and, then heated to iao to iO
degrees for pol er1zation and hardening of theplastic. In the
case a: other plastios pressing is often done at a temperature o
120 to 150 de ree .
TABLE Li.3
PROPERTIES O ~LSI?ER f 9 ACCORDING TO SAYMOVSKIY (38)
Specific Gra .ty in am per Cubic Centimeter
Shore Hardness
Spec.lc Eiectrioai Resistance in 1 eters
ohms Centimeter
Dies e ctxic Cons tarot
Coercive Force H in Gausi?Oxteds
Rsaiduai Induction Br in Gauss
Induction when { = L.0O Oersteds B)400 Gauss
init-1a] Penneabilty )"- in Gauss/Oersteds
Ratio of Maximum to initi Peeablity
/A i74
Coeffi cient 'of ?ouc t C ?rent Lass
Aig
a.5 .la" 9
t t:: '" 1) L0 where ~ i the
Initial Perieab,ity and,., the
eabi1?ty after One eaar' Opz?atiot
Pi,Bi; uric iETALLCCERAJYJI C ' DIALS
Iron baked ?rQm cazbony1 powdery pa se ses ari ' exc ptiona11y
high pt.rity. C rbon r1 pan after annealing in hydrogen contaixi;
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cent N 2, 0.002 psZbC t, O. O xcort U. The ne c pro
psrtie3 off' ca r e ti g v z Thb U Li $.
o.o6 permit G 0,2zct $ O.Ort 5, 0.003 por
CoGztcive FozCe in taus o~
in a/ete
Meet Maze Pezeabt1tty O0
.a Dd ~gn tin l3 in *us 6000
TmI1;~
2!* ,
x3 z serf o't i vt o to .s ba u; they p~ a
jzea t nagne 4JiA~1 p ermlw i+bt iid. ; Si1nd rnagne {jic 4 iNWuile t than o i7tLy
Ox p I t xaan ' he tad ;a iou +~ za it tan .
boX yL tin nick 1 Al y re thown in F tw X99.
'q d
`.'.
?1H h
r1.. Y
$~,
h
. ?
c~t. q
~,.I. `. Lwh. ??5 ~ ?,b~ti
j H
I1 l I JI
l) . I ,~'1
0
rr 1
r 1
A
It ~^JIJr '1 rY
~'~ 111
ily
w
;
~ ~~, JH.h~Y1,^^ , 1~11Mi,.iw Yl.ilihti?'A'~J!1ryl
IrM+HiUili~Tf.H,rH.YV ~.YwH?W Y5H ?hl
1J $: :I :f Pfy .."?~: ;_tr t11r4 pl )
Figre 199. Ow `e
?tci 1
"* * ickei
U 44 percent N'i4 , meaera4 n nN ?
io d 7 ero t i3 h? c it w t d en Nib.
G' ).
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enbly tai I
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GNETIC ~T+LQCERi4IC D~TXLS
to ih
Pexar t emetic ma a od the type o' nt (
poz'cert 1" t 3S pe oorat Ni t iron) arc, ainica (iron,
a1minrn nicks oabaLta camethm nth addition o copper and
ti ni M,1i) az'e vz'y brt M Mle and haT d. FN this qI as M n such cast
magnetic alloys cannot b press ura war d or machine fni hed. Th
carry method by hicth the magneUc Hoye at1 and alnico can b
'tntshaddd is bar gz ding there down to zaquired di anaiona .
In this comie ttan ter become rath r do p ad to
ab i,eatLan of ar k pent Gagne s the type of Int end
moo by the methods cx powder meta,u?. With a amewhat leaser
der ty (app ~rnat y 2 percent) net 1 cezEic a11O a are Liar
gzatned, ter b t u d trorer of Rai t ce to up
Lure oL cast alloys of the type of Mini is 0 tc a ?iagr a p
square mii1 ime ~ t and for metaiiocer pie L00 1LO kilog,'ama per
square mill e r (167)
.
1 gure 2 . Details uit b1e (a) nd (b) Una tab L
for eLrLg anu ctu ?ad from Alnico Aii r b r 4a a
oL' Mea1arara f (photo]
Figure a. Ord az r Inc fez rotor poL?
Pieces. (photo] .
R a atanQc to xptu e o rnet11ooozmtc . e altos iO
ki:Lo raz per square m .; a z' (3 to des more then Lot
c I hBidre s 4 O (1 ). T maettc proper ..ea o
metiaoeranic ni and aIiico a o~*a are 10 percent Lower
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(3.6?) M pry ent o Li ainLa II ? being p Q 1 Ced.
10 rcer t A1, 1? percent Ni percent Go,
6 percent u, the zest e) (182'? The propeZ'bt' S - dt- -~ ~
&ico II are the o11owing (the i.gure$ in parwntho$ S how caractexietiCa oC cast ,ntco 1i, io pu po a$ oC compa ,2on): spe-
ciic ? ) rami pez' cubic cant met r, re tth ai roag
B (7200) coerctva tQ?cw H2O (ho) aui meg-
netto enez B 1 L30, 000 (1 O,OOO) aui /oert!4E3, The max
alloys mans o m HOC XLrU1c i~ usua11l 60 rain (167,
hoU " a win g o t as much a ' io kilogrrn1 are
x1~ Dinniaf for alnico de
nomtc a Y to s b1 stay within 'u11 a g
YA
i?rnt1. y W 7~iUV' T"^Mi ~ 1p trWK~~VTR IIN re
o.6 ;bo 1 ua a? oe f titer ai t 0.02 ? 60 am o u ion11
up t 20 1o u (191) Shap of detthi which az'i sub able
d. 6uttab1e fad manu Ct ?e bi the m thod o p'deg t :Liu
hewn in Fide 2OO ag tiC ' t o details art not iu ted
or :ibratto a tr b ,k. . For t . c an th it 1 er fQ6
than or other m t 1O X riiC p aduot (d aen on up t
ter p1u a ~n 0.13 ~'i~t , rm 3 16 m ~e ZE
m 1~~
p1u~ or m:thus O. mutt from 1 to 32 di eteZ 5 plus Q3
xrLt1m O.? 111metSD . fzt " 7 miU yet "S plus or minus 0.8
/
mi:1,].~~~sz'$ , nod bQv 7 zil.meterS plus or hnue 1 J U ietez" )
lpho:I
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Ft e 2O4. baUo r*unto aettC D" 'or
z'eadi - ~ w dezpzead o' v'a ?i det d:L6 soft r2 etto ma
hotted nd pvtrtd oter). Thu (6I 19) , the *re
'teCo fob ~U di e t do ~n X tO'E3
(t:ure 202), O aM h deti b~ V a dM t of bit 9 ?C3nt
1 , d ozrwbat 1c3? mMt C t1i& ordt
nary C. ter o th o t c A t& J
M / f ~ryp, t) Y d~PeJ '1R 1?'T' \I TW RIB ~S'W ~A~~
y ,? 33~' -" `Zh4r ptMbitt3T of
par r"a
. t. n'p 'dohs' '
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Ohapter XVII
L~ APPS LICATIONS OF T' LocBn zQ I Th,r $
Examples afmetaUocerail.c matexxiai used In axmamenta are
armor-piexoing shells, atrpiane and tank fiction dLsks, porous
i i1ter in Flyiz g I`orbxesseap etc.
CCU OF M OR.?IERCING &flJLS AND i3'L11!,Tu
Metalloceramic armor pier?oing cores for bullets and ahe11
played an extraordinarily important role during to Fatherland War
and were included in the axmaments of all belligerent nations (13,
139, lLi.2). Azror*piexcing cores are made from tungsten carbide
powders cemented dth a small quantity pf nickel or cobalt. G'er
man armo piercing shells contained 0.7S to 2.S percent Ni and
o. to 1 e percent Fe a
The advantages o?' aneta1loeeramio armar.pieroing cores in
dude a combination off" great hardneac (about 90 ockwU 'A') and
a conEiderable speotIio gr wity (1L7 to 15 grams per cttbic cen.
timeter) , The use o metaiiocer r~i o coxes not on ..y raises the
armorpiercing ability off` she11 but also improves heir baliisti`
properties makra it passibie to .eereae the caliber of" ahel.
and thereby use lees expensive rapidsfrt and accurate guns o
smaller crl?iberp Figure 203 depicts 0 i an arimorwpiereing co e.a
arid shells..
Figure 2O3... f Aflor Piro ng Cares and Shelia (139,)..
Cphota
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Duriti the Father anal War dells and buUvts with armor..
piers g were wideiy wed Cor righting with tanks (13).
LETALLQC' RI IC HI COLLAR
wing the war there was widely used by Germaxy iron shell
ool:,ars (snaryadnyye poyaski) (152) In piaoe of brassr popper
r
onea (Figure 20L), Copper was replaced by neta11oceramj iron in
all German shells whose caliber wqs 'between 0 and X10 mi11jzgers
(152). Collars for shells larger than 210 mt11 etc~~rs were not pro
duped by means of the methods of powder metallurgy because ut the
lack of suff1oient1y powerful presee. The porosity of iron for
shall collars was about 20 percent, J3rine11hardriess about 6o ~e
sistanoc to rupture for sma1i c&,ibere 7 to 9 k ogra m per square
m1111meters for large 12 to 1$ kilograms per square mill metarn
Poxes were ?npregnated with paraffin to dec ?ease friction and
corrosjon. At first iron rneta11ocera7 is cofare gave inferio,
results to brash ones, The length of service of guns which used
the first output of iron collars was. only 60 to 70 peroent of those
which used brass. But tho quality of the eQilars got better as a
result of imprcv?nents In tech.noIagy. The latest batches of
meta1w
1ocerarrlic ,o11ars a re superior to bras.
The uSe o iron collars is connected with a very ooneiderable
sang in awerra meta1s?
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Chapter XVIII
PES OF 1 TALLoCB MIt ?RODUCT$
USE OF PODS METALLURGY IN WBL DING
The progress of present?day e1eotric WG1dti g ic1o7e1y
conneoted with the use of xrLetaUoOersiflic niateriaJ.s.
The development of atomic hydrogen arc welding ie due to
the use of refractory turxgsten electrodes fabricated by the methods
of powder metaliurty (126). A drawing of an atomichydrOgefl weid*
in apparatus is shown in Figure 24. When the currant reaches
the tungsten electrodes (i),p a~n arc () is formed between them.
The hydrogen is fed through side inlets (3), which, upon tssuing
through a red lot between each nog sl e (1~) and electrode (1),
reaches the heated zone of the arc where the temperature can be
as much as seve .~ thousand degrees Then the hydrogen molecules
break down into atoms. The process of breaking do the hydrogen
molecules is endothermic and is connected with a decrease n tern'
at the ends of the electrodes. Upon 1saving the arc (the
perature
middle section), the hydrogen atoms recombine into moleculea,
thereby Qausing a considerable Increase in temperature (up to
14.000 degrees) at tho pera.pheZ7 of the lame. Atom c hydrogen
welding (126) is a moat. economical way of making pipes foam, high-
aUoy,; stainless., acid-reaistanta. and heat*resstant Steels. It
is also widely used ?n the building of dreraf t and automobiles.
The use o metr lveera c capper.t a stef electrc-de8 in plaQe
of copper for contact welding . (l9 ) increased the l$e of electrrodes
3~aes.
by 10 to 80
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Gay ~~~~"tM
e 25.. Dr ,
e:Ld:tn3.
It i i v r pr t~ L to ; rs with `
" ;dam taro toe (iL'.? ) , Sj i; ~ .;
oJ st un C t ov r d with a i t ooh p d?r ~n~ e o n o e
R d 2 t 3 orot nt rape ~~&n th uua1 $ re
m t frMNJL YY a Lfl1.FAAJ N 4L (iI
ai
~ c O W1 J g Vfl O of ort U . *Z t3 o
pr1 A11f Sriw~,Jwg. O ~14+i~L:(z'o z w tr' r tatii1 il~id~yl.
*Mpp crtatn iAflt odp :..)'fit ~'g !ent ) and
W1'RM'.'+^ WP tn'IR'. W r4 m ( c^^fus AM a~IMaz ob 'W 1 c1udd the p
n4 4mmd te33 .!Ut (O pe3e iietsd o rB) sa
~z'oa t usui stat (166)
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Thntuiu (:L67) art bitdd among oae maa
wbi+TF RI A moM 111 T~s itant to the X' or~ Wt h i ai
aZ mt$ at c1u or :Ltibte 1 ghC12 t p a? 1 (t1p 1x 100 to L!O
1M~/A k~rT1~,VRP 17f } o4 or dfik M ~kM WiNi Ifs Itnttc~ cdiIgYAR q~ WMYMMIRri1~IM G1rWYfl""
L ith3 mitt 12, bz m w
te'2 r-1 , m it e of HC1 wd Htr;O3 (aqu a s td aq' gi,
~ E 13, O 1 t Of + of a p 'a' Cat` e ` N , whtch
cr It xthc z COD; ixriOff Tart ii44 not . to to r c 4nt;L m
cd '~,7 R,1~7R'^", P4MM $iQ i 'ROWa4Mr?r''YNand 'M1" 1bonL ai:.L d mniai !Tq,'WA 1.
13 mau e oir t1 tr nt& u red. ~~
z*a ori ar i te i r tine Width . a ppain ?b
i,, ,for r d o y r hi oz1 t,
1~i? 1 p z etc T lath o s, e c tnt1 sp n s,
o 'bogie e'er
t,$o*L 3l ]1O3 1X bG by a
aL ufld(v Gee. toMttio.
t ~3 1h upstt item (page ) .( z g r
Wit ' 1t$4ad A x U r and bring. c ? tuzm n t
(' ig .. ) ,.
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OVER NTLOCEW4IC T,Is
Important mctallocerami o materials consist of so~ca11ed
heavy alloys with a tungsten base and additions of copper and
nickel (80 to 9a percent W, 2.a~ percent Cu, and 7 percent Ni)
(176). These allays have a specific gravity o1 16.3 to 17 grama
per cubic centimeter, a resistanoe to rupture of 63 1ogras per
square millimeter, a li nit of proportionality of 558 kilograms per
square milixaeter, a modulus of elasticity cif 23,000 kilograms per
square mill meter, an elongation of Lpercents a i rinneu hardness
of approximately 2O kiiograms per square miliimeter, a coefficient
of linear expansion of 55.6 by 1O# a head conductivrity of O2$
ca1ori per centimeter second degree, a specific electrical con-
(1
ductivlty of about 17 percent of the electrica lconductivity of
copper. Heavy alloys are4sed to nnufactureron "ners for stor-
ing radium; screens for protecting personnel from radioactive mm
diations, etc. Moreover, heaver alloys are used in gyroscopes, ba1-
ante mechan:L ne, contacts, diamond-metai1ic compositions, etc+
Because of the refractory quality and considerable strength
of certain metalloceram,jc material s, they may be used as heat re.
siatant metals. Unfortunately, there have not yet been developed
alloys, having for their base refractory nnetal s, which combine
strength and resistance to o.dation at high temperatures (except
for brittle hardalloy carbides). For this reason metallnceramic
heat-resis ant alloys with refractory net s as a base are only
being used on a limited scale to serve. a prctect?on aga st o da
t on. The use of molybdenum as. a heating element comes winder this
classificatjon (Chapter Xv), Motallocerarnjc allays cif cob .t : th
C 3S pendent W are used for forge sides (dlya kov'achnylth bakeno
)
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l r t1O f OQ 4C ?$ }3Cd 'Cn p de'a of
baked :"o nth low t Z' Z' .
Powder met Uuz1 i ad t some extcwt* th jowe1'y mfl
utte t
" h * is sic r the '.x der m t e~ to iC) pr
perct
I'Z' ++ e t bng .1 ~~ 1f W- ,~ Th filling c ii 9f -w$
a MAl X`WN) to Y q!~"MF M 'N 1W ^f' The p~cs S 8
mAxa nc , In the du of ft 1L o a +
wide c1) about 80 o o ter rnd tin p xmsU (167 )
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 Chapter XIX
ECONONICS ANA PRO$PECT QP Tf] D1V LOP T' OF POWDER METALLURGY
A. CONO C$
The limited litsrature aontat.ng information on the size
of prroduction and capital investment, manufacturing cost of pow?der' v and products does not give a sufficiently oornplete picture of
the economics of powder metallurgy. The entire output of metao-
ceramic manufacture comprises less than 0.1 percent of the world
production of metals. However, this relatively modest figure does
not by any means chara;terize the totairole of powder metallurgy
in the nation, economy. lta economic significance is compo6ed of
the following factors.
(l) Economy from the use of materials which can be produced
only by the rnethads of powder metallurgy.
() The economy of ruetal &id substitution for deficit non
ferrous metals.
(3) Lower cost of ruanufacturing products as compared with
ocer.c ;Materie:s
B;conarny from,... the Uae af eta11
Saiiinge resulting from the use of materials which may be
produced only by the methods of powder m t lurgy exceed by may
times the cost of these materials and the total sun of capital in-.
these savings wh dh determine to a large degree the importance of
sentor the entire metaUnaeram c indust r, It is pre 4sely
paw4sr metallurgy for the n tignal dOnamy
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FQX BrampLo1 acooz ' n to J3ata to p e ert o a won
't1 t in octwa Lmp by x acte m to to i
watt metric bulb . a t ~in &nc c t t I, next ding t
eo1 o i~ u*G GnaXr the atI off` LAC) IdL+tt oiws
our is obtdnecl by to a of m i31O 'r 1X'd cU y'1 Tb ke
it p o ' I T 5 . b i ~. to n o e N/YAIodM*ti rity% of 1~MryW her i aoI Lne 1V is n
n tEth br 30 t 60 pe rid eqw ti r even mozae.
,eta i ' tt Z o Ci Ids iu z i
tto i e i ch 3n over t pore u berm i i r th geatea~
ba TgF i ltt?cJ st.
I the nsjczLty Q O it ULt Q in
is guz e ~ noa r eui 'th from the uee ~.
MI alexia lr The 'T 1,~WWt Y+"rir W have ~4MM1 a it p ss IM1e. thi e a WIR
tubes etc.
4. a
The aCOP " met:. . from the rrttctiir o
aI :o ra 1r trn b n 4 t a p+- (abe.
rft)o o ?rcft 1 e u l ter porous
n t i t o & et a c metes
of! etdyY the a l3thOdE1 ' dez 1. t 20 t' 80 eel
' t e o ads (bets th1 o
lead (o berm s) t other m t1S..
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cons deratton the sniaUer pew
oU1'& cza r mid ab'aefa ' c ' 1o3 ' cif metal, is ec,WLV e t to
tons a1 shell t~o11aro from porous tron~ thezeby reeult g in a re-
In 1 944 (139) about 30,E
~, ~? ,, .. ,..~ ,
p1acemot''?''a.`,.c~~ n, as and one to two
o, d i e c~ h to a.' usediIi a aci o to' thou i d
o no i rou ie ep To. total output c f pr x r co pe
eo r~ied `?th Ge ry before
not more,ha~a 4;x00
ex-p? ehraoecteaa "be to I$ubstitution of
, 44
Decreas in the Cost off' Mar 'aeturt jetE lJ?
T1 c ve p nt . ~c C .. ,, ~
ex iae~iurg W d4
ne not only by tha gains enumerated above but in many ca8ea by
lower rt)'ctb cdt a'` l%d '- aua'te ? phis lace puts
irietaora3to compete with the usual method Lor producing
detail; (c apt , ) ?
A dec ?ea a. in ` c a ' n a 'a u~ t d 1 ,1? . due to
the poi cMin lactoy r
of met~1beite~...,.
t 4 ay atr, 4YK 1 P 4 5
;n,~n~' v 4.~~'.~'itaUt N iwM~' ~~}ar 41~u~ ~p...~P jq:
~c-m~t~~:m~~ ~h~re ~ reat~~ed
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4. 4
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One ton oZ poxau ton, taken into con sideration the c i1 er
of 'io gravity and absence o1 lose of metal,, is equiv .erii to 1.
to tons of popper a.ioy or 2 to 6 tone of Lead.
. In 19 there were produoed in Gar ay (139) about 30,000
toys o ehe11 co11ars ?ram porous iron, thereby zreu1ting 1.n a re-.
p1ac ant and a saving of hS,000 tons o? braes) and one to two
thousand tong oC other r teriale used in puce o Li, to thouoand
tans o:f: non-erroue nlet, e. The total output of prima copper
?rom 0Th eoaip sed in Germany before Ur not more than 3O000
tone. This example shows how effeot?iv~ +aa be he ubstitution of
nonferrous meta1e by porous iron.
Deoreaee in the Coat
The development and scale of powder metallurgy is deter-'
mined not only by the gains emxmerated above but in many caeee by
lower pro luction oo t of ir1i5hed ;roducts. This factor permits
meta11ocer aiiae to compete with the uaua1 a thole for producing
detai1E (Chapter XIII ).
A decrease in the cost of rn"aoturng detai1e i due
the go1iowin factory 0
(a) Economy of metal (gee above)..
(b) Higher labor productivity connection with the e1 ii -
Lion o:' maohirxe finishi.
8c et me then ii required o y one twentieth o product on rise,
(C) In a near o case over e,aenditure for getting ready
production, shozter periods for going tno it p+duton etc.
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used to the aheatian of detail b other mathod$ a In order to
put to prgduCticn one 3p1inad detail 'with an instde siot 9 months
were needed f or pr p4 ring broacha~s acid ar othex it tI'U & * In prom
duc:g tb detail from powder t was pnssib1e to r hcrten the period
as
or ettt ready ?or production down` to 6 weeks.
Factors 'which make the cost o5 metaUoceraXflic details more
axpens:tire are a re1a v'1y high cost of powders (usually oneoha1.f
to t~rathtrds of the total cost of products is compoed of the cost
of powder) axed large ecpene for piss molds. For this rec,son
polder meta1:birzY is ?eaBLble only for the mass product1on oC such
details whos a production by ordinaz7 methode is labor consumiYt 02
connected with large /owes of meta..
The nomenciatinre o detaIls which are profitable to make by
the methods ai tafoc r nics depends on the cost o powder.
Tbie So 1v " the price of nz t a1 powders in. the U dur
ing 19I16.
[See Table O an following page]
we can eke the oiiowing conciu,siOaS ?r0x31'?abae O
(l) With respect to the noi~ 'errous met&-s
upper tin,
aluminum, an nCkel the, pace o~ powder is 10 to 90 percei~t' higher
?b? e cased ies a ens ve Haan d tai s tuaziur'a tared by ardin . a '
m-
`ini ed p d~zcts made from Of~-?e2r02.$ ~net4 Dowd r are: ifl 8 . Uu
oribed eaonomtc advantages of te methods of powd r meta is
des
? z^e d }. In this ray by t ?g into consideration the above
than to ' ride o ordmnaxy o1 id irie&.s. and app imat ly th same
p
as for the price o ! etaflQceram .C iZi .jhed pro ducts (ahst ts,.
,.
. Q4._'
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Name of
Metal
TABLE SO
PRxe~ a~ METAL Pc~anJRS AND oaDINARr NE'rAIS IN CENTS PER POUND DCBEI( 19h6)
Powder
Iron Gntshed, 200 Neshs 90 Percent
Sponge Iran
Intlustr~al: ].00-20a Mesh, gb Percent
Eleetz!o7yte, Annealed Plus 100
Mesh, 99 Percent
carbonyl, $inus 300 Mesh, 9$-99 Percent
Copper Electrolytic, 150=200 Mesh
Reduceds 15G-400 Mesh
AiumiTn;Ja Atomized, 100 200 Mesh
Nickel edueedy 150 Mesh
Tin
Atomized, 100 Mesh
Price Type
14 Sheet Iran
Wire
iii6
Ora Metal
17
90
23 .5."27 oS Electrolytic
22 2j3 Sheet
25 Pri*n2sy Altmixanm
Sheet
51.5 ~lectsolytic
58.75 ergot
in
Price
3.9.5
29,21
Bigots, 99 Percent 15?00
23.7-32.7
35?00
52.00
Remarks. ? g industrial iron is not given.
producing
e d used f ~ rcd~.c
1. The ~ too
2, the perce its tQta~. percent. refers nt a~ the element in a metal Mate: not to n refers the content
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
mesne*? In one case, the cost. of mstaUoocrarrcic bronze sealn d
tails comprised onli 10 perceivb of the cost of past. Durtn thc~
secoxid half of ;9I6 the paces cad non ferrous meta, powders
(a:i,a Qf cast metals) increased somewhat compared wit1~ 1914 but
eea than those of cast me.ta],a, The prices of certain iron pow.
dex?s, on he other hod, decreaed. There appeared less expensive
powders made from eleotrolytic.rvn (more thaxi two times cheaper)
and cheap Swadish sponge iron.
(2) Iron powders :lza the US at present are considerably more
sve than semifinished products of solid iron (wire, sheets),
being, approxfurately Li. times as expensive for :tdust ?ia1 iron. PuJ
ver zed iron shavings ae11 for aomeTr hat less than semi nished pra?
ducts of solid iron. However, in ite of the re1ative1y high coat
of powder, find shed iron prod cta are in a niniber of casea less
expensive. According to Peru gears made of stet. powder are 33
percent cheaper than those made from cast iron.
B., PRO P GTS FOR ThE DE LOP T OF PYWTER M1~T,LLURGY
One should expect to see in the near future furthez and oon+
siderable development of powder metallurgy. A considerable dev L-
opment of this kind wouJ4 be due to the fofowing two factors.
CL) A decrease in the cost of products made from powder
because o: mastery and Furth iprovant of ogy. This.
motor would make it poseibla to e p i.d o,onsider b1y the nomer oia..
Lure ,cif neta1locer mie details an. 'actux'ed from ferrous. and nonce
fexu?s metals.
() pars on o the application of a .~ready4;'knQwn material .
wh1ch are pducod solely b the methods of powder metallurgy, and
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
rt nt tho se wW be a o O urt in
it ?rn
o ~r--~ ~- The
ttilLti(m Q sto per'
t.,rat t i (br1, potter,
t ttiat in thaw re1atiVe ear futuze meO
x h1e tp to 1 p ?ce t o:r t'DXC)U reta3 pry".
, r base w&U be u~d i 1rg?X voibw
tp to n v for ~ V" ~W ' 100 t 1 t o peg
1;r~1~ s etGar m t 2? ? 1.O tOfd~ ThEe i 1 bi er 11;N"
Wt4G7'A~ar ~S,y~ i? ~~
va1wS r o iwtr cn w op ba uin crn pore and
c~ a.ct 4.%UOYS z m spec
Uo~ (Chapter I ) a.
Ct :'urher rth to the ~aee of meta:1-
We shct:34 :Lo
tiof nat a1 beta porous std camp Cta 1 Etta
~i? L.c both in
-, E QUW~- $" (spa +a t au
tom ba, m1 pXQdUOtE3 GtC.
to O peen
GCS t o ~*. a v qua '
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
Sce x per . " m t 1 iUX0
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/05/07 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200080001-1
ecttca:L oa*aerth1d b cd
t1a ?Od O1 o and in the
s c await z 4 veiopm t c ~~?x a me
a;i for tt :1o r a E5zE3t Oo2Qtofl htCi tend s
pc s4Lbic tl t a ve &L1 ~xt o1' mataUQO
ryW ~y)ect1y tg Y~tC.~f M T'T AR. Y~91K fN 'N ~~ pN~M, y~, ?H'ilil 1Ml
~T V \F fflYY
ou~E:, ? Q UP1 nd &..1 come x o cn py' the L a i