INTRODUCTION TO SURVIVAL

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP78-03362A000900050001-4
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 277
• Document Creation Date: November 17, 2016
• Document Release Date: August 29, 1998
• Sequence Number: 1
• Content Type: REPORT

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INTRODUCTION TO SURVIITAL
What is meant by the word survival? (definitions to be given by
audience). The definition of Webster is, "To outlive, to remain alive
after the death nf others, or to live through anythint; else that may
have hapoenedn. In the Oxford Dictionary, it means nto continue to live,
that is, not to die".
If you are stranded, alone or with other survivors, on sea, in the
desert; the jungle nr in the cold north country, you will find that
ytm will have to overcome not only personal fears, but adverse conditions
around you. Personal fears can be overccme by the will to survive-but
you must have some knowledge in knowing how to live in uninhabitated
locations with only meagre resources. It oannet be too strongly impres?
sed on all personnel, that what they are learning in this course is for
their own personal benefit and to pravide them with as much kntwledge
as possible so that if they are ever fcrced town in uninhabitated regions,
they will be able to exist until help arrives.- It is a personal insur?
ance policy, with this knowledge as the premium and the life pf each
individual as the benefit. Think that last sentence over and decide if
yon-want to live to collect your ewn benefits: Unless full advantage
is taken of the training offered, it is not only possible, but probable,
that if you are forced down in isolated country, you will not come out
alive, but will die through starvation, exposure, or acc5dent.
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In order to visualize the predicament into which one may get in
the event of a forced landing in th,; bush whether in summer or winter,
it is only necessary to picture one's self standing beside the wreckage
GT an airplane, three hundred miles from the nearest habitation with
nothing except what is on your back. Anyone can realize that this
situation is anything but desirable. However, if you have absorbed the
training and p...Anciples available in this course of instruction, you
will be in a position to do many things that can be done to keep your?
self alive until help arrives. It is also important that you not only
know what to do, but what not 12 do.
It must always be remembered, that it is possible for human beings
to exist on their own resources but, through the gradual process of
Givilikation where it is not necessary to practice these accomplishments,
th1c. Gploability nas been slowly lost to individuals until when left with?
out tae little comforts of life that we know, such as electricity, heat,
running water, etc., the result is that the human being, unless he is
tauEht how to live, ? dies, and uni.ess you learn how to live in the bush
without the aids and comforts you have been accustomed to, you, will
have the dlstinct privilege of dying there, The uninhabitated wastes
of the world are cold and impersonal. They do not care if you live there
or not. Make nature work for you instead of against you, and if you know
how to adapt yourself to the new environment, your existence can tot only
be secure, but in many instances pleasant.
Tom often, the attitude is assumed that "it can't happen to me 't.
We fly over hundreds of miles pf absolute wilderness in which there
does not exist a living soul, and we have no knowledge cir comprehension
of what is below. In one hour we cover three to four hundred miles
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Api4iAPliaFeftliktilfeiti6a/oobietf2setsbrORInntf-trisaeMoebgtiolotticioi4 would
take as much as one year to cover the same ground, or else die in the
attempt.
When operating in uninhabitated country, one never knows when one
will be forced o exist on his own resources with what little he has
managed to bring with him, so let us nnt go unprepared, or when the
occasion arrives, TIME is the only advantage which you will have with
you. TIME in which to remember what you did not do. TIME to think of
the things you wish you had with you and TIME to plan what you are going
to do.
You are the one who is going to perish unless you learn and under?
stand what yOu are going to be taught, and only you alone can profit
from the bitter or profitable experiences of others. It is better to
learn and to have with you now, than to 12,0 have with you then.
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SURVIVAL MANUAL
TABLE 02 CONTENTS
1. Parachute Jumping and Landing Techniques
2. Ground Navigation & Orientation
3, Ground Navigation #2 - Use of Magnetic Compass
4. Ground Navigation #3 - Ground Celestial Navigation
5. Primative Land Travel
6. Rivers and Rafts
7. Back Packing
8. Northern Shelters
9. Cold Weather Clothing
10. The SAC Survival Rifle M-4
11. Northern Hunting and Stalking
12, Northern Fish and Fishing
13. Snares and Snaring
14, Outdoor Fire Bldging (Emergency Food in the Arctic)
15. Procedures for the Preservation of Meat of Wild Animals, Eirds & Fish
16, Water
17. Personal Hygiene and Camp Sanitation
18. Emergency First Aid (Improvised)
19. History of Rotentone, Derris
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PARACHUTE JUMPING AND LANDING TECHNIQUES
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26 April 1951
LECTURES FOR INSTRUCTORS
BASIC SURVIVAL TRAINING
I. Title and Duration
a. Title: Parachute Jumping and Landing Techniques.
b. Duration: One (1) academic hour.
Four (4) hours practice and damonstration.
II. Objectives
a. To teach air crew personnel the correct jumping and
landing techniques.
b. To impress air crew personnel with the importance of
a safe exit from the aircraft and a safe JRnding.
III. References
a. None
IV. Training Aids
a. None
V. Presentation
a. Introduction. At the present time in the Air Force
thirty-three percent or one out of every three airmen who bail out
of an aircraft sustain some type of major injury. This rate is
alarming when we consider the extra burden placed on personnel
under actual survival conditions by having to take care of injured
personnel. It is even more complicated and serious if this survival
happens to be in enemy held territory. The first prerequisite for
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successful survival is to reach the ground uninjured. That is the
reason for familiarizing air crew personnel in proper bailout proce-
dures and landing techniques at this school. The lecture for this
period is divided into four phases.
1. Bailout procedure.
2. Control of the parachute in the air.
3. Parachute landing techniques.
4. Collapsing the parachute.
h. Procedures
1. Bailout Procedure.
(a) Parachute harness adjustment.
Parachute harness adjustments are practically elimi-
nated when using newer type parachutes. However the old type harness still
has to be adjusted to fit each individual. It is of primary importance
that each crew member insure proper fitting of his parachute harness as a
safety Precaution and also to prevent possible injury.
(b) Correct exit procedure.
The Aircraft Commander should have dry runs on prac-
tice bailouts with his crew to eliminate confusion and a waste of time in
the event of an actual emergency. Everyone should know which exit he
will use, also a secondary exit in the event it is impossible to reach
his main exit. Aircraft Commanders should time their crews to determine
the length of time it will take for their crews to bail out. It might
mean the difference of a bailout at low level or an attempted crash
landing.
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(c) The Correct Rip-Cord Procedure.
(1) At the first sign of an emergency the crew
should be alerted. The Aircraft Commander will order the crew to prepare
to bail out. At this time the crew will make all preparations for
abandoning the aircraft; (Check equipment, kits, etc.). The Aircraft
Commander should let the crew know the plane's altitude so they can
plan a delayed or quick opening. When the Aircraft Commander gives
the bail out signal or order the crew will move quickly and directly
to their exit and bail out. After crew members have bailed out the
Aircraft Commander should check on his interphone to determine if
everyone has left the aircraft.
(2) The exit you make and the body position you
assume on leaving the aircraft will depend on the type of exit opening.
If the hatch is so arranged, face forward and squat to the rear of the
hatch. Then roll out with your knees tucked under your chin. This
is a "cannonball".
(3) When jumping from narrow side doors, crouch
slightly, hold both sides of the door -- then propel yourself out
with both arms and legs.
(4) When jumping from wide side doors, especially
at any speed above 130 to 150 mph, leave from the rear edge. Use your
arms, if possible, to help speed your exit. Dive forward and down.
(5) If exit doors are fairly close to tail surface
radomes, etc., curl into a "cannonball" as soon as you leave. This
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reduces body drag. While you will fall no faster for the first few
seconds, your forward speed will drop off more slowly. Thus for a
given distance aft of the door, you will be farther below the air-
plane "cannonballed" than if you had remained erect.
(6) Keep your eyes open.
(d) Body Position.
(1) Tuck your chin down on your chest so you can
see the ripcord handle. Don't get your head upright. Rubber-necking
at this point is not recommended. When your parachute canopy opens,
it comes out fast. You shouldn't put your head in a position where
a riser, a connector link or a pilot parachute can argue about the
right-of-way.
(2) Cross your hands on your chest. Keep them
there until you're ready to pull the ripcord handle. The preferred
body position should be held until the parachute opens. Don't wave
your arms and legs; it will make you spin very rapidly. While spinning
won't really hurt you, it can make altitude hard to judge. Whether
you bail out manually, through an escape tunnel, or with an ejection
seat, remember to assume proper body position before pulling the
ripcord.
(3) If you jump with a chest parachute, body
position is slightly different:
(a) Turn your head until you're looking
straight out over either shoulder, to avoid shroud line burns.
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(b) Cross your hands across your body below
the pack, until ready to pull the ripcord handle. In this position the
arms won't retard the opening.
(e) Pulling the Ripcord.
(1) Opening a parachute is a simple operation.
If you have a seat or back parachute, grasp the ripcord handle with
your right hand and also hook the thumb of your left hand in the
handle. On seat and back parachutes, there is slack in the ripcord
system. So, with both hands, pull the ripcord handle away from your
body hard and fast, to the length of your arms. Try to pull the
ripcord cable free of the housing.
(2) If you have a chest parachute, hold the bottom
of the pack with your left hand and grasp the ripcord handle with
your right hand. Pull the ripcord handle with a hard, fast yank
and follow through, pulling the handle completely free of the pack.
(3) Put your feet together and hold them there.
It's easiest if you bend at the waist, as though you were sitting
stifflegged in a chair.
2. Control of the Parachute in the Air.
(a) After your chute is fully open the first
thing you should do is to look up and check the canopy. If there
should happen to be a suspension line or a group of suspension lines
over the canopy, grasp the riser that controls those particular lines
and shake them off the canopy. CAUTION: Do not cut the suspension
lines as you will lose the support of your parachute canopy.
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(b) Checking oscillation. After your chute
is fully opened, uneven escape of air will usually cause an oscillation.
This leads to your weight swinging under the parachute canopy, pendulum
fashion. This oscillating, if allowed to continue, can prove dangerous,
upon landing, so you should correct it. Use extreme caution in attempt-
ing to correct oscillation below 500 feet. This is a good method: With
your chute fully opened, there are four risers extending above your head.
Place your right hand well up on the front riser and your left hand on
the left rear riser, pull down slowly and hold. After approximately 30
seconds, release very slowly. Do this several times if altitude will
permit and oscillation should be negligible.
(c) Maneuvering the chute can help avoid
dangerous ground objects. This is done by slipping the chute. In order
to slip forward, reach well up on the two front risers and pull down as
far as possible. This causes the air to spill out the rear of the canopy
and the direction of your travel will be forward. To slip to the right,
pull the right forward riser with your left hand and the right rear riser
with your right hand. To slip to the rear pull down on the two rear
risers. To slip to the left pull down of the left rear and left front
risers with your left hand. CAUTION: Do not attempt to slip below 100
feet as the loss of air by spilling causes a faster rate of descent which
may lead to broken bones.
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3. Parachute Landing Techniques.
(a) The landing phase of a jump can mean the
difference between walking away, if it is performed correctly, or being
carried to the medics. It is in landing that the most non-fatal injuries
occur. The most desirable landing, of course, is an open field, but one
doesn't always have a choice; consequently, emphasis will be placed on
the type of terrain landing most likely to be encountered.
(b) Open terrain. By the time you are 100 feet
from the ground, all preparations to land should have been completed.
The correct position of the body should be as follows: Feet and legs
together; head and eyes up -- looking out to your front and not at the
ground because a person has a tendency to pick up his feet just before
he lands, causing serious injury to legs or back. At this time your
hands should be grasping all four risers. When you land, your knees
should be slightly bent. Try to land on the balls of your feet and then
go into your parachute landing fall.
(c) Tree landing. When you're over a wooded
area and you find it not advisable to slip your parachute to miss a tree
or a group of trees, do the following: Be ready to land by the time you
are 50 feet above the trees. Forget your risers, cross your arms in front
of your face and keep them there. Keep feet and knees firmly together,
but don't cross your legs, or you might break them on a limb. Don't be
in a hurry to get down, after you stop. More men have been hurt trying
to climb down than in actually landing in a tree. If you can, wait for
rescue.
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If you can't, you have hundreds of feet of suspension lines to use as a
rope to let yourself down. Use your knife to cut some of the suspension
lines, tie them to the tree and let yourself down.
(d) Overwater bailout.
(1) To bail out over water rather than ditch is
a decision to be made by the Aircraft Commander in view of the existing
circumstances -- the ditching characteristics of the plane, for example.
Bailout is not recommended over a possible ditching unless visual contact
is made with adequate surface help. If no rescue vessels are in the
vicinity, bailout from bombers and transports should be used only as
a last resort because of the extreme difficulty of getting the crew to-
gether in the water. The large life rafts offer more elaborate survival and
signaling equipment than do one-man rafts. Fighter pilots have all their
survival equipment attached to their chutes, and a bailout is preferred to
ditching.
(2) In any but the warmest seas, a man will
survive only a few hours if kept afloat by means of a life vest alone.
The wearing of an exposure suit will increase this time considerably, but
it still cannot compare with the time of survival possible in a life raft.
In icy seas, an unprotected man will survive only a few minutes.
(3) If overwater bailout is required or decided
upon, the following procedure is recommended:
(a) If surface help is available, head the
airplane in a direction to allow the crew to drift into the course and
just ahead of the rescue vessel.
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(b) On the command "prepare for bailout", or
when verbally ordered by the Commander or copilot, the crew will don
exposure suits if available, then life vest and parachute harness. Be
certain the air In the exposure suit is not trapped below the waist band.
Make sure the Individual one-man raft is snapped onto the parachute
hArness. The crew members should check each other to see that all
equipment is in place.
(c) The man or men assigned should stand by to
release the life rafts. If time permits, the rafts should be released and
then the aircraft should circle twice over the rafts, bailing out half
of the crew over the rafts on each pass. It is advisable to bail out as
close together as possible so that it will not be so difficult to
assemble the crew in the water.
(d) The best altitude for an overwater bailout
of a crew is about 2,000 feet. By so doing you tend to keep the crew
together. Low airspeed also aids in the bailout procedure. As the
Aircraft Commander prepares to abandonthe aircraft, he should engage the
autopilot.
(c) Water Landing.
(1) WITH CLASS I HARNESS -- While you are
several hundred feet above the water, push the sling under your buttocks
with your thumbs. Then loosen the chest strap by pushing a lift web
toward the fitting with one hand and unsnap the chest strap. Then lift
your legs, one at a time, and unsnap the leg straps.
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Cross your arms over your chest. When your feet touch the water, but
not before, arch your back and throw both arms over your head. The
harness will slip off. Then inflate your life vest and swim upwind,
away from the canopy.
(2) WITH CLASS II HARNESS -- Pull the safety clip
and turn the quick release box button to Unlocked, at about 1000 feet.
When your feet touch the water, hit the button hard with a clenched fist.
Arch your back and throw your arms over your head. If the wet leg straps
don't want to unthread around the main sling, help them along.
(3) WITH CLASS III EARNESS -- At 1000 feet, loosen
the quick-fit chest strap, then unsnap it. Loosen both leg straps and
unsnap them if you want to; it doesn't matter. Put your right hand
on the right canopy release, and your left hand on the left release.
When your feet touch the water, operate both releases quickly. The
canopy will drift away.
(f) Landing at Night.
In making a parachute landing at night, use the
same method as described for a day landing in open terrain. If it is
light enough for you to see objects on the ground, naturally you will
check your oscillation, and slip to miss dangerous objects.. If, however,
it is too dark for you to see, keep your feet together, knees slightly
bent, and hands well up on the risers. Hold this position, and as soon
as your feet touch the ground, go into your parachute landing fall.
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4. Collapsing the Parachute.
With a harness equipped with a quick release
this is simple. Just let your chute go free. But, if you are unable
to get out of your harness, you should if at all possible get to your
feet and run to the leeward (downwind) side of the canopy. This will
spill the air from the canopy, causing it to collapse. If the wind is
blowing too hard to accomplish this, then roll over on your stomach and
start pulling your bottom suspension lines in towards you. This will cause
the air to spill from your canopy and collapse.
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14ECTUn FOR INSTRUcTORS
BASIC SURVIVAL TRAINING}
Timp NAyqoATToN ANp ORIENTATION
I. TITLE AND DURATION
TITLE: GROUND NAVIGATION AND ORIENTATION.
b.' DURATION: Three (3) Academic Hours
Ono(1) Hour Field Instruction
Two (2) Hours Training Films
II. OBJECTIVES
20 April 1951
At the conolusion of this period of instruotion and demonstration
the student should know:
a. How to Read and Understand a Map
b. How to use the magnetio compass
c. How to use celestial bodies to establish position, direction
and time.
III. REFERENCES
a. The Life Raft Book- Harold Getty
b. Arctic Manual - TM-1-240, June 1944
c. Navigators Information File - USAF
d. Air Navigation,4 AAF TC
e. Handbook for Boys - Bey Scouts of America
f. Survival On Land And Sea - United States Navy
g. Map Reading For the Soldier - The Infentry Journal Ino.
IV. TRAINING AIDS
e. Training Films
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(2) TF-21-2074- Basic Map Reading - Part IV
b. Magnetic Compasses - (One Per Student)
o. Maps and Charts
d. World Globe
e. Weems Plotter or Protractor
V. OUTLINE
This lecture has been divided into three parts as follows:
a. Part I - Map Reading One Hour
(1) Definition of a Map
(2) Map Symbols
(3)
Contour Lines
(4) Distance Scales
(5) Latitude and Longitude
(6) How to use a Map
b. Part II - Use of the Magnetic Compass - One Hour
(1) Direction and the Magnetic Compass
(2) Variation and Local Magnetic Disturbances
(3) How to use the Lensatio Compass
0. Part III - Ground Celestial Navigation . one hour
(1) Direction by Celestial Bodies
(2) How to Determine Latitude and Longitude
(3) Methods of Determining Time.
VI. PRESENTATION
Introduction. Proficiency in map reading and in the use ot the
magnetic compass is an absolute necessity for successful ground navigation.
The compass and map,when used together properly, will enable you to
determine the course from one position to another, to follow that desired
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two or more landmarks of know position.
This lecture will present the application of elementary and emergency
methods of determining direction and position. It is vitally important
that tal crew members become familiar with these procedures.
as Map Reading.
(1) A map is, in it's primary conception, a convention-
alized picture of the earth's surface as seen from above, simplified to
bring out important details and lettered for added identification. A map
represents what is known ablaut the eatth rather than what can be soon by
an observer. However, a map is selective, in that only that information
which is necessary for the map's intended use is included on any one map.
Maps also commonly include features which are not visible on tho earth,
such
as parallels, meridians, and political boundaries.
Since it is impossible to accurately portray a round
the earth, on a flat surface, all maps have some elements
object, such as
of distortion.
Depending on the maps intended use, some sacrifice constant scale for
accuracy in measurement of angles, while others sacrifice accurate
measurement of angles for a constant scale. However, most of the maps
you will use for ground navigation will be a compromise projection in
which a slight amount of distortion is introduced into the elements
which a map portrays, but in which a fairly true picture is given.
(2) Map Symbols. By moans of standard symbols maps
show important rands, side roads, trails, towns, villages) woods, streams,
lakes and all the features that help you recognize the terrain as you
look at it or travel over it. Conventional signs ens symbols aro stan-
dardized and are muoh the some on all maps. Those which require special
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of most maps. A great deal of information which is necessary for the
proper interpretation of a map is usually printed on the borders of the
map. Always read the marginal information beforo using a map, It may
save you from making serious mistakes,
(;) Contour Linos, Contour lines are the wiggly brown linos
on a map and ars da wA linking all points at a given height above 000 level.
You will note that these lines are broken at intervals and a figure inserted
in the break suoh as 6,5000, 7,000, 7,500, or 6,000. Theso figures indicate
the height of the contour line above moan sea level in feet. (Some foreign
maps hove the height indicated in meters, so be careful when using a map
for the first time). Always check the marginal information to find the
contour interval.
since the contour
Some of the lines
interval is known,
be determined by its relation to the
carry no identifying numbers, but
the height of any unnumbered lino
numbered linos. For oxamplo: the
con
contour interval is 100 foot and an unnumbered line is twti linos away from
the 9,000 foot lino and throe linos from the 9,500 foot line, the elevation
at any point on the unnumbered line is obviously 9,200 feet. The height of
any point on a map can be determined by roferenco to adjocent contour linos.
Elevations are further indicated on maps and charts by measured elevations
for the peak or highest point of a mountAn. The arrangement of the contour
lines indicate the form of the land. The contour linos around a ridge point
downhill. The contour linos in a valley point upstream. The spacing of
contours indicates the Otoepnoss of a slope. Contour linos close together
indicate a steep slope. Contour linos -which are far apart indicate
gentle slope. Those are points for people who are travelling on foot to
consider when planning a route.
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whore you want to go? Maps give this information by providing the user
with A 0?010 whioh honcan use to measure distanoes on the map, Those
sealgA pan be usod to find the distancoabetweon any two p0i4t4 04 th9
map, Lay any avai1abie straight odgO, a COMA foiQQ9 of paper, a string,
the edge of A perlOil, or what-havo-you, on the map 00 that it joins the
two points, Mark on the edge of the
two points. Lay the marked straight
off the distance directly. Tho some
distance along o-orookod course such
straight edge the position of the
edge on th) 600lo and road
technique oan bo to measure
as a road or rivof by brooking the
course up into short straight segments.
(5) IERELYILLIELIElitud?
To describe a location in a city, the intersection of
two streets is commonly used. Knowing the name of only one street
establishes the general area of the location, but tho intersootion of two
streets constitutes an exact location. In the same fashion, in order to
locate a point on a map or chart you must indicate the coordinates of this
particular point, in degrees of longitude and latitude.
a. Latitude can be described as a division of the surface
of the earth into north and south. An imaginary circle, known as the Equa-
tor, drawn around the earth midway between the North and South Poles servos
as the starting point. Tho surface of the earth north of the Equator is
divided into ninety equal divisions by circles drawn parallel to the Equa-
tor. Each circle is called a Parallel of Latitude and is numbered start-
ing from 00 at the Equator to 900 at the North Polo. Any parallel of
Latitude North of the Equator is known as North Latitude. Tho earth's
surftoo south of the Equator is divided in the same manner and is known
as South Latitude. Each degree is further subdivided into sixty Divisions
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38? and 451 North of the Equator.
b. Longitude can be described as an East and Test division
of the earth's surface. Longitude is measured in degrees East and West of
a base lino which passes thriough Groenwich, England. This lino is a circle
which passes through both the North and South Poles and is called the Prime
Meridian. LoligitUdg is dividod into 360 oquai parts op degroes. If you
stand on the circle passing through Greenwich and face the North Polo, tho
circles on your ieft are numbered loW, 2?W, etc, to 180?T, and the ones
on your right are numbered 1?E, 2?E, etc, to 180?E. 180?E and 180?W coin-
oido and are identified as the International Date Line. Again by using
this system,
Greenwich.
we .find Camp Carson, Colorado to bo 1040 and 481 West of
c. All navigational maps and charts aro laid out in Latitude
and Longitude. Tho position of any point on tho earth is described as so
many degrees and minutes oast or west of the Prime Meridian and so many
degrees and minutes north or south of the Equator. To describe the exact
location of Camp Carson, Colorado, we would say 380 and 451 north Latitude
and 104? and 481 vest Longitude.
(6) How to use a Map. How can the information on the map be
used for ground navigation? This information can be used in several ways.
First, you can locato your position on the ground by a comparison of the
map with the, terrain. Second, you can determine the best route from one
point to another by reference to the map. Tho map shows you how to avoid
rough terrain, and will help you plan the easiest route. The contour linos
add a third dimension to the flat mop and give you this information.
Third, by marking your route on the map you have a record of your journey.
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If you get off courso, you oan book track te tho point whoro you made
your mistake and start in again. Fourth, a mon in a survival situation
usually foels a lot bettor and approaches problems in a more conBidont
monnor if he knows oxactly where he is. A map can give you that con-
fident feeling.
b. Uso of tho Magnetio Compass
(1) Diroction and the Magnetic Compass.
birootion is measured in dogroos frem North, Clockwise,
through 360 dogroos. Tho most common instrumunt foot moasuring direction
is the Magnetic Compass. Sinoo most emergency kits contain somo typo of
magnetic compass, it is imporntive thnt you know somothing of its use.
Compasses will generally ho markod in dogroes from 0 to 3600 by way of
East which is 900, South 1800, and Tost 2700. The oasiost way to undor-
stnnd direction is tn consider yourself to bo at tho centor ef a largo
compass. Tho 360 dogmas of your compass dial aro now 360 ditferont paths
or stroots that you mny uso in following a map. The direction to a given
point on tho mop is detormined by me-suring the angulnr distance clockwise
from North to that Point. This angulPr distancol oxpressod in dogreos,
is tho dirootion of that point from you.
(2) The torm "North" is usually considored to moon the
direction of the North Geographic Polo. Tho Compnss noodle points to
the North Goographio Polo in only a few placos on tho surfaco of the
earth. Tho roason for this is that the North and Scuth Magnetic Polus
do not coinoido with the North and South Goographic Poles. In additien
doposits of magnutio matorials nt vnrious plocos koup tho compass from
pointing to the North Magnetic, Polo. A magnotic compass, therefore,
points net toward the North Geographic Polo, no0 oxoctly toward tho North
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diffrence between true North and Magnetic North is coiled "Variation".
Variation is represented on a mop by linos joining-points of equal
variation and is expressed in degrees East and West of a Base Lino whore -4W
the variation is zero.- If you oto East of this line your compass will
point Vest of True North and if you ore West of this lino your compass will
point East of Truo North, Tho variation of any point is indicated in your
maps; for example, the variation hero at Camp Carson is approximately 13?E.
This means that your compass will point 13 degrees Bast of True North.
Therefore, if you wore going to travel True North or 3600 True North from
hero and maintain this direction with a magnetic compass you mould have
to follow a hooding ef 3470 on the compass. In other words, you mould
travel 13? loft of Magnetic North. A little rhyme that has long boon in
use to remember how to apply variation to the magnetic compass is: "East
is least and West is Bost".
(3) How to use the lonsotio compass
(a) The lonsotio compass may be hold with the thumb
thriugh the holding ring, supporting the compass with the first two fingers.
Hold it level so the card may swing freely on the pivot.
(b) Adjust the eyepiece until the fingers on tho dial
can be rood plainly through the lens.
(o) Tho arrow at rest point S to the magnetic north.
Tho anglo any lino makes with the north lino, measured olookwiso from the
north point, is the magnetic azimuth of that lino.
(d) Hold the compass as directed in a and b above.
Stand so that the arrow is under the stationary index.
(o) Turn your body either to the right or to the loft.
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Tho ftumber now undor tho stationary indox is tho magnutic azimuth of tho
now lino of sight.
(4) Dotormining azimuth
(a) Ti objoct on grouAd. To dotormino tho azimuth tit
any lobjoct, alight the roar sight (slit in tho pyopioco) and front sight
(hair lino in thq compass covor) upon tho objoct. Tho numbor undar tho
stotionory indox is the dosirod magnotic azimuth,
(b) To objoct on mop.
I Draw a fino lino on tho mop connoting your
position ond tho objuct.
2 Oriont tho mop by matching it with tho torrnin
or by alighing tho magnotic north lino on tho
map with magnotic north as indicatod by tho
compass.
3 Placo tho compass on tho map, compass covor to-
word tho objoct, with hair lino in tho lid direct-
ly ovor tho lino drawn on tho mop. Tho reading
at tho stationary indox now indicatod tho dusirod
mognotic azimuth.
(0) 1:hon a specific azimuth has boon indicatod, back
azimuth i4 tho opposito diroction. Numorically it equals tho original
azimuth plus or minus 1800. (For oxamplo: Tho back azimuth of 120? is
1200 plus 1800 or 3000; thu back azimuth of 2000 is 2000 -1800 or 200
You can dotormino your position by the uso of book azimuth. Talc? tho
azimuths cf two or moro points of known position such ns mountn poaks.
'hon drawn on a map, the intorsootion of tho babeazimuths of tho known
points gives your position.
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(5)
I Look through the ions and turn your body until
the required azimuth is rood.
2 Piok out a reference point in the lino of sight.
3 March to the reference point by the most practi.*
ioablo routo.
Repeat with successive reference points as often
as necessary.
Use of compass at night.
761 Preparation.
I Turn compass until the desired azimuth is next
to the stationary index.
2 Turn the glass face until tho luminous lino is
directly over the luminous arrow. The compass
is now adjusted for marching on the desired
azimuth. It can be carried with the cover closed
so long as the Ottis face is not disturbed.
(b) Marching
I Open the cover of the adjusted compass,
being careful to hold it lovel so the dial
uill not bind. Raise the Dyopioco and turn
the compass until the luminous arrow comes
to rust directly under the luminous lino on
the glttss face.
2 Sight along the lino of luminous dots and
select some point on the skyline in tho-lino
or sight.
3 March to the selected point and ropoot the
process from thoro.
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the compass will not function properly if it is close to iron or oloctrio
al fields. Riflos and knives should be laid asido when tho compass is
being used. Experiment to find how for your rifle or knife must bo from
the compass so as not to affect it.
c. Ground Celestial Nav*gation.
(1) Direction by Celestial Bodies.
(a) Direction by tho Polar Star (Polaris). In tho
Northern Hemisphere, tho star "Polaris" will be Noun constantly in one
position with nearby stars moving around it in a circle. "Ptlaris", as
its namo implies, is a Polar star. Since it is almost directly over tho
North Polo it con, for all practical purposes, be considered to be duo
North of you mhorovor you may be.. On a clear night in tho Northern Hemis-
phere, tho onsiost way of finding your North Point is by "Polaris". Tho
unfortunate thing about Polaris is that it is not very bright and is some-
times hard to locate if the sky is hazy. Tho easiest way to find the Big
Dippor, and thon find Polaris as shown in the illustration. After you have
determined True North, thu other cardinal and intermediate points (East,
West, and South) may then be determined. A crude compass may be construct-
ed on tho ground or traced in tho sand or snow. Another pointer to Polaris
is Mizar, tho second star in tho handle of tho Big Dipper, to tho Cantor
Star of Cossiopea.
(b) Determining direction by the Sun. True North and
South may be dotorminod by the shadow cost by the sun. If your watch has
kopt accurate time, and you are familiar with tho correct local time,
tho shadow cast by an object at 1200 mill indicate North and South. In
tho Northern Hemisphere, tho tip of tho shadow will be North and the base,
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vortical to the ground. Should you be without a watch, you may still
obtain direction by the shadow cast by the sun. By following this
mothod, select a level spot and impale a stick or some other straight
object in the gequed pr snow: Start in the morning by marking the
point at the tip of the shadow once each hour and oontinuo throughout
the aftornpon: Oonnoct those pints and you will have a lino which
represents the shadow cast for that period of observation. Tho shortest
distance between the base of the stick and the shadow lino will indicate
North and South.
(c) Direction by the Belt of Orion. The constellation
of Orion consists of seven stars; the throe close together are the
brightest and most distiotivo. Phonovor Orion can be observed, this
star rises above a point on the horizon duo East of you; Oeion will
sot duo West of you wherever you may be; Orion will pass directly over-
head if you are on the Equator; finally, Orion will pass North of the
Point directly overhead if you are in South Latitude and South of you
if you are in North Latitudes
cl3N/1 Belt of Orion
4:34
Belt of Orion.
(d) Direction by the Southern Cross. In the Southern
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distinctive constellation. As you fly south the Southern Cross appears
shortly before Polaris drops from sight. An imaginary line through the
long axis of the Southern Cross or True Cross points toward the South
Geographic Polo. Tho True Cross should pat be ponfusod with a smaller
cross nearby known as the False Cross Thq False Cross, though the stars
or.: more widely spaped; is loss bright. It has a star in the canter,
making fivo stars in all, while the True Cross consists of only four stars.
Two of the stars in the Southern Cross ore the brightest stars in the
heavens. thue bright stars aro located on the southern and eastern arms
of the cross. The stars on the northern and western arms, while bright,
are smaller. There is no star abovo the South Polo to oorrospond to
Polaris above the North Polo. In fact the point whore such a star would
bo, if one existed, lies in a region devoid of stars. This point is so
dark in comparison with the rest of the sky that it is known as the "Coal
Sack".
Tho figure below not only shows the True Cross, but to the west of it
the False Cross. Note, just to the east of the true Cross two very bright
stars. By using those two stars in conjunction with the True Cross you
can pretty accurately locate the spot within the "Coal Sack" which is
directly above the South Polo. As in the figure below, extend an imagi?
nary lino along the long axis of the True Cross to the south. Join the
two bright stars to the east of the cross with an imaginary line. Bisect
this lino with one at richt angles. Whore this oast lino intersects the
one through the cross is (approximately) the point above the South Polo
and con be used to indicate Truo South in the same manner in which Polaris
is used to indicate True North.
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r 4' True Cross
,4 A
Point---
Directly
over South
Pole
(0) Wu
A 7,t
Nlse Cross
X %
Dark Pocket
have discussed sovoral methods by which you
can find North, South, East and Wost by day nr nii.t. If you con doter-
mino any of the cardinal directions, you cen oos.lAae dotorrinQ the others.
Those aro the only gonoral rules. There an, mony iocql ori Pomo seasonal
exceptions. Learn to pick out the stars mhich have bool montiorod. Learn
to look for thorn in the heavens. That is how the fird,., nav',.gotors found
their may, and without navigational instruments is still tho mast reliable.
Determination of direction by use off a match and the sun: nhioh is included
in most books on woodcraft and in many orticlos on .42101.v/icy navigation
has boon omitted since errors as groat as 240 can be mado by this method.
Diroctions obtained from the sun or stars can be usod directly or as
a chock on the compass. Tho difference botwoun Truo North determined in
this mannor and Magnetic North on the compass is tho variation for your
present location. Chocking magnetic variation can be very important to
a man damn in poorly mapped territory, since much of the surface of tho
earth, especially the Arctic, is poorly mopped magnotically. Also, mnall.
local magnetic fiolds mhich mould be of no importance to a piano travelling
300 miles an hour can be very important to a man travelling only a_few milge
a day. Always make oortain that 17.11 do not create, any magnetic fiolds by
having metal objoots near mhon using the compass.
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(a) Latitude by Polaris. Tho Polo Star Dr Polaris,
(commonly knoun as tho "North Star"), may also bo used to determine
latitude. Anuwhoro north of tho Equator, tho anglo formed by Polaris
and the horizon, as soon from your positions is a measure of tho Latitude
of that position, This iiimply moans that if Polaris is 300 above the hori-
zon, you are in 309 North lAtituclo; if it is 500 above tho horizon, you are
in 500 North Latitudes and if it is directly ovOrhoad; you aro at 900 North
Latitude or at the North Polo. Polaris does not col.:irsdo exactly uith tho
tho True North Polo but moves about this Polo pc stars do, in a
oirolo which at present is never more than thLI: -r .f no degree
or sixty minutes in radius. Since tho CLO I-J'favo...y :A707.1 Polaris
can be used as an indioation of tho ul'evotJd polc imply appying a
small correction to the observed reading, Thun P,J1a/4.s is in tlia same
horizontal position as the True North P01,1, it hcilit above tho horizon
will constitute your latitude. When it is at th.1 tp or bottom of this
small circle, there will be an error of one degree or sixty minutoss
equivalent to sixty miles.
f- Corr
-c.^, o
, - - -,,,, 1...)- 0
o
S
Corr?;5?
,o/r" ''s d,' Corr.
... ?J." .... ,'
J - ,--- --North Elevated or
-Corr I ieo3;i.1 Pole
North Googrlpric Pole
North Elevp.ted Pole
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APPR:twill E ctraRetlfflagoitt2QQ040721RIDIRS4)3362A500BG08?101)0104s.
For our purpose this is hardly necessary as this error may be dotormined
approximately in the following manner: At the end of the handl? of the
Big Dipper you will find the Alknid star (also known as Bonetcnsoh). When
this star $5 diroctly bolow Polaris, Polairs is on top of its circle, and
to obtain latitude at this timo2 subtract one degree from the height you
moasurel Mien 4.t.is below, it is necessary to odd one degree, Whon
Alkaid is in a horizontal lino with the polar star, on either side of it,
there is no correction and the angle you have measured will constitute
exact Latitude. To measure the latitudo or height of heavenly bodios abovo
the horizon, navigators use an instrument called an ootant. Howovor? you
may not have salvaged the octant, or if one is available, the navigator
may be a casualty and there may be no one present knowing how to use it.
In such a case, it will be necessary to devise some makobhift means to
measure the anglo between Polaris ondethe horizon. Tho Wooms Aircraft
Plotter provides a simple and reasonably accurate tool to aocomplish this.
Attach a plumb lino to the grommet or holo in the center of the plotter.
Put the Plotter to your eye and sight Polaris along the straight or plotting
edge. Road the uncorrected latitude whore the plumb lino intersects the
compass rose or protractor portion of the plotter. Apply the nooussary
correction described above to obtain your corrected latitude. A Wovms
Plotter is light, does not take up much space, and is carried in the
E-1 Survival kit. If you are not familiar with its use, nom is a good
time to learn. A makeshift plotter can easily be constructed from card?
board, wood, or parts of the aircraft.
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--A- Poliris
Sighting Polaris
with the Weems Air?
craft Plotter.
(b) Latitudo by tho duration of the day. Lotitudo can
be dotormined by tho duration of the day or the clasped timu botmum sun-
rise and sunset. Using this method, you mill need a watch) on Air Almanac,
or some sort of Astronomical Tables giving tho time of sunrise and sunsot
for different Latitudes and dates. It does not matter to mhot particular
time your match is sot as long as it is an ocourato timopioc.); but it is
necessary for you to observe tho sunrise in the mbrning and sunset in the
evening. Chock and mind your match before sunrise and wait until tho top
of tho sun is brooking tho horizon lino. Write down tho time indicated on
your match. Whon tho sun is setting, malt until tho top of tho sun is again
in lino with tho horizon and note tho time indicated on your match. From
the time observations that you have noted, you will be able to compute tho
number of hours botmoJn sunrise and sunset. In tho Air Almanac) tho times
of sunrise and sunset are given for ouch two degrees of latitude. At a
given latitude) tho duration of the day will be tho same anywhero along
that latitude. After you have determined the duration of tho day for your
position) you aro ready to use the Air Almanac. Look under tho date of
tho day the observations moro made, end find tho times of sunrise and
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Latitudes. When a figure is found which corresponds to the one obtained
from your observations, the Latitude which has this number of hours of
sunlight is the Latitude of your position. Since the time of sunrise and
sunset is given for only each two degrees of latitude in the Air Almanac
it will be necessary to maculato mathematically to obtain your Latitude
uhonuvor it Fari9E1 from those listed.
(c) Latitude by Sumidurntion of Sunlight Graphs. Lott-
tudo can be quickly and accurately computed by using the graph untitled Semi-
duration of Sunlight in the back of thu America Air Almanac. To uso this
graph you must know thu number of hours from sunrise to sunset. In order
to do this take thu time of sunrise (when thu top tip of tho sun is in lino
with thu horizon) and thu time of sunset (when the top tip of the sun is
again in lino with thu horizon). Half of this time will be the semi-
duration of the day. For example, if the total number of hours between
sunrise and sunset is four hours the somiduration of sunlight is two hours.
Each lino running from the bottom of the graph forming an apex at the top
is marked Oh, lh, 2h 'etc. up to 12h, and indicated the number of hours of
semi-duration of sunlight. Tho bottom of the graph gives the day of the
months and knowing the semi-duration of sunlight and the day of the month
the latitude can easily be road off the scale up the side of the graph.
If the semi-duration of sunlight wore 2 hours and the date wore 16 November
1948, the latitude mould to almost 700 00' N or 690 561 N. A little inter-
polation will be necessary each time but this can be done visually with
accuracy to within 2 or 3 miles.
(d) Longitude by sunrise or sunset. Longitude also may
be determined by sunrise or sunset if the date and Latitudo are known and
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on Air Almanac and a watch sot on Greenwich moan timo is available. Observe
the Greenwich time just as the sun rises or sots. By looking in the Air
Almanac under the data of the observation, and the latitude previously
determined, the local timo of sunrise may be found. Compare the time of
sunrise or sunset at tho posi.tion of the observation with the Groonvioh
time of swirls() or sunset. T19 figure yo ll obtain will be the time difforon-
oo between Groonwich and your position. To obtain Longitude from this differ-
once in timo you must oonoort timo in corresponding vro degrees: Example:
As the earth revolves around its axis, completing 369 degrees in 24 hours,
one hour of timo is equivalent to 16 degrees or arc. Lot us suppose that
at sunrise, your watch indicated 1940 GMT. From our Air Almanac we determine
that Latitude and the date of local sunrise time is 0940. Tho time differ-
ence is 10 hours, and, when converted-to aro (10 x 15) we find our Longitude
to be 150 degrees West. If GMT is greater than local time, longitude is
west of Greenwich; and if Greenwich time is loss than local time, longitude
is oasr of Greenwich.
(e) Longitude fEll_12221.J.Eparont Noon.
lifithout
measuring the angular height of a oelestial body, we can obtain a lino of
position by timing the moment the celestial body passes our meridian. Tho
easiest celestial body to use in this manner is the sub. Use the same
method as employed in finding direction by the sun, (Stick and Shadow Mehtod)
Observe the time on your watch when the shadow is shortest. If this is_not
Groenwich time convert it to Greenwich. You now note the time difference
between local apparent time and Greenwich time and convert this time to
degrees and minutes of arc to obtain the Longitude as in (d) above.
de CONCLUSION.
(1) Tho capability for establishing position with some
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If radio oquipmont is available to transmit this position to rescue units,
the survival timo will bo considerably roducod. If it is necessary to travol,
both position and direction will be equally vital.
(2) The practice of those erudo navigational measures, prior
to an omorgeliov .411;
(a) Inoroaso the accuracy of the results obtained.
(b) Increase your solf-confidonco should you be placed
under survival conditions.
(c) Servo to establish thoso practices firmly enough
in your memory so that they will not be forgotten.
(3) As in all survival training, the responsibility to loam
emergency navigation procticos remains with each individual.
20
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Title:
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1 APRIL 1950
LECTURE FOR INSTRUCTORS
BASIC EVASION AND ESCAPE TRAINING
Ground Navigation
Lecture II Use of the Magnetic Compass
Duration: 1:00
References:
Training Aids:
FM 21-75 Scouting, Patrolling, and Sniping,
5 February 1944.
Mockup of lensatic compass or blackboard
drawing of lensatic compose. Lensatic com-
pass for each student. Tactical Map, Camp
Carson and Vicinity for each student.
Notes for Instructors:
1. Since the object of this hour of instruction is to familiarize the
student with the use of the magnetic compass, it is very important that each
student have a compass in his hands while he is listening to the lecture.
2. It is equally important that the instructor have at hand a mockup
of the lensatic compass or a blackboard drawing of the compass. The mock-
up or drawing should be large enough to be clearly visible to all students.
3. The instructor should indicate the operations he is describing on
the mockup or drawing and the student ahould follow the lead of the instructor
on his own compass. (To aid the student in mastering the nomenclature of the
compass, the instructor should indicate the location of each part of the compass
whenever he mentions it, and the student should find that part on his own cony-
pass),
4. If possible each student should be individually checked for proficiency
in all manual operations covered in the lecture. To accomplish this the in-
structor will probably have to enlist the aid of the more proficient students.
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5. If weather permits) this hour of instruction should be given outside
so that part F., Field Demonstration can be integrated with the lecture.
6, It is recommended that a copy of this lecture outline be given to
each student.
USE OF THE MAGNETIC COMPASS
?. Introduction
1. Proficiency in the use of the magnetic compass is an absolute
necessity for successful ground navigation. The compass, when used properly,
will enable you to find the course from one spot to another, to follow a
given course, and to establish your position by measuring azimuths of two or
more objects of known position.
2. The outstanding advantage of the compass as an emergency naviga?
tion device is that it can be used without regard to the conditions which
limit other means of navigation. Darkness, poor visibility, or poor radio
reception have no effect on the compass.
B. How to use the lensatic compass
1. The lensatic compass may be held with the thumb through the hold?
ing ring, supporting the compass with the first two fingers. Hold it level so
the card may swing freely on the pivot.
2. Adjust the eyepiece until the figures on the dial can be read
plainly through the lens.
3. The arrow at rest points to the magnetic north. The angle any
line makes with the north line, measured clockwise from the north point) is
the magnetic azimuth of that line.
4. Hold the compass as directed in 1 and 2 above. Stand so that the
arrow is under the stationary index.
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5. Turn your body either to the right of to the left. The number
now under the stationary index is the magnetic azimuth of the new line of sight.
C. Determining azimuth
1. To object on Fround.
To determine the azimuth of any object, align
the rear sight (slit in the eyepiece) and front sight (hair line in the compass
cover) upon the object. The number under the stationary index is the desired
magnetic azimuth.
2. To object on map.
(a) Draw a find line on the map connecting your position and the
object.
(b) Orient the map by matching it with the terrain or by align?
ing the magnetic north line on the map with magnetic north
as indicated by the compass.
(c) Place the compass on the map, compass cover toward the object,
with hair line in the lid directly over the line drawn on the
map. The reading at the stationary index now indicates the
desired magnetic azimuth.
3. When a specific azimuth has been indicated, back azimuth is the
opposite direction. Numerically it equals the original azimuth plus or minus
1800. (For example: the back azimuth of 1200 is 1200 plus 1800 or 3000; the
back azimuth of 200? is 200? ?180? or 20?.) You can determine your position
by the use of back azimuths. Take the azimuths of two or more points of known
position such as mountain peaks. When drawn on a map, the intersection of the
back azimuths of the known points gives your position.
4. To march in a given direction.
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(a) Look through the lens and turn your body until the re-
quired azimuth is read,
(b) Pick out a reference point in the line of sight,
(c) March to the reference point by the most practicable route.
(d) Repeat with successive reference points as often as necessary.
D. Use of compass at night
1. Preparation
(a) Turn compass until the desired azimuth is next to the
stationary index.
(b) Turn the glass face until the luminous line is directly over
the luminous arrow, The compass is now adjusted for marching
on the desired azimuth. It can be carried with the cover
closed so long as the glass face is not disturbed.
2, Marching
(a) Open the cover of the adjusted compass, being careful to
hold it level so the dial will not bind. Raise the eye-
piece and turn the compass until the luminous arrow comes
to rest directly under the luminous line on the glass face,
(b) Sight along the line of luminous dots and select some point
on the skyline in the line or sight.
(c) March to the selected point and repeat the process from there,
E, Precautions in usirig the compass. Remember that the compass will not
function properly if it is close to iron or electrical fields. Rifles and
knives should be laid aside when the compass is being used. Experiment to find
how far your rifle or knife must be from the compass so as not to affect it,
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F4 Field demonstration. (The instructor should demonstrate the uses of
the compass outlined above. Each student should be checked on each use of the
compass by the instructor or his assistants.)
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Title:
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1 April 1950
LECTURE FOR INSTRUCTORS
BASIC EVASION AND ESCAPE TRAINING
Ground Navigation
Lecture III Ground Celestial Navigation
Duration: 1:00
References: None
Training Aids: A blackboard
Notes for Instructors:
1. This lecture has been prepared to explain how to navigate without
instruments or without tables other than the very brief ones included in
tho lecture. Obviously a man with standard navigational equipment can
navigate more accurately than a man with none. Therefore, point out to the
students that if navigational equipment is available by all means use it.
2. Determination of direction by use of the watch and the sun, which
is included in most books on woodcraft and in many articles of emergency
navigation, has been omitted from this lecture since errors as great as
24? can be made by this method.
34 Determination of longitude by time of. sunrise and sunset has also
been omitted since in land navigation a suitable horizon is not present for
the accurate measurement of time of sunrise and.sunset. Furthermore,
anomalous refraction over land would introduce errors which wouldinvali?
date this method even if a horizon were available.
4. Encourage discussion by experienced navigators in the class on
the methods outlined in this lecture. It is entirely possible that some
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of the students can suggest other methods of navigation as good as or
better than those given here.
GROUND CELESTIAL, NAVIGATION
A. Introduction
1. As most of you know, an aircraft navigator carries a small
suitcase full of instruments and tables to enable him to practice
celestial navigation. You also know that a person in a survival situa-
tion on the ground cannot carry all this gear. But just what can we do
in the way of ground celestial navigation without using navigation
equipment and tables?
2. In the determination of position you can't do very much
without an instrument to measure the altitudes of the celestial bodies,
ye will discuss this matter in detail later. But what we can do, with-
out any instrument whatever, is to obtain direction from celestial bodies.
We can use the celestial bodies either to aid in setting a course or to
serve as a check on the accuracy of our compass. This may not seem like
a very great aid to navigation, but in some instances, for example, when
a man has no compass,his compass is damaged, or he does not know the
magnetic variation in the area in which he is traveling. A knowledge of
how to obtain direction from the stars may save his life.
B. How do we_get direction from celestial bodies?
1. Direction from polaris. The land navigator in the northern
hemisphere is fortunate in that one star, Polaris (the Pole star) is
never more than approximately one degree from the Celestial North Pole.
In other words, the line from any observer in the northern hemisphere
to the Pole star is never more than a degree away from true north. We
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find the Pole star by locating the Big Dipper or Cassiopea, two constella-
tions (groups of stars) which are very close to the Celestial North Pole.
The two stars on the outer edge of the Big Dipper are called the pointers,
as they point almost directly to Polaris. If the pointers are obscured by
clouds, Polaris can be identified by its relationship to the constellation
Cassiopea. Diagram I indicated the relation between the Big Dipper,
Polaris and Cassiopea.
The angular distance of Polaris from the meridian of the ob-
server, the north-south line passing through the observer's position, can
also be determined by the relative positions of Cassiopea and the Big
Dipper. Diagram II illustrates positions of maximum error and of minimum
error of Polaris. For positions between these extremes, the observer can
make a mental interpolation to find the angular distance of Polaris from
the celestial pole.
2.ilesui_l_aatmidcDirectionfrolly. A man with no instruments
whatsoever can determine the north-south line through his position by
observation of sun at midday. To do this put up a stick as nearly verti-
cal as possible, check the alignment of the stick by sighting along the
line of a makeshift plumb bob. (To make a plumb bob, tie any heavy object
to a string. The line of the string indicates the vertical.) Sometime
before midday commence marking the position of the shadow of the stick.
Nark successive positions of the end of the shadow until the shadow can
definitely be seen to lengthen. The line of the shadow when it is at its
shortest position is the north-south line. In our operational area, the
sun at all times of the year will be south of the observer at midday.
Above the Arctic circle in the summer, this method can be used to obtain
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/ _
7-(?
0
Big Dipper
DIAGRAM I
Cassiopea
, .
0 Polaris
Celestial North Pole
4
Pointers
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DIAGRAM II
? /
?0' - ?
o.
Polaris 1? below the Pole
and on the meridian
g - '
1 i
1 e
1 /
-- 0
V
No
Polaris 1? above the Pole
and on the meridian
??1? ?
Polaris at the same altitude as the Polaris at the same altitude as the
Pole but 1? West of the meridian Pole but 10 East of the meridian
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a north-eouth line at midnight. At midnight the sun will be north of
the observer.
3, Direction from the sun at sunrise and sunset, By observing
the position of the sun when it rises or sets, the observer can determipf
a reference line from which he can determine north. The following table
shows the bearing from north of the sun when rising or setting for all
months of the year in the northern hemisphere.
BEARING FROM NORTH WHEN RISING OR SETTING SUN
Lati-
tude
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
N70?
130?
100?
600
200
50?
80c
1200
160?
60
140(
120
90
70
50
400
400
60
80
110
130
1400
50
120
110
90
70
60
50
60
70
90
100
120
130
40
120
110
90
80
70
60
60
70
90
100
110
120
30
110
110
90
AO
70
60
60
70
90
100
110
120
(This table accurate to plus or minus 30)
The table gives the bearing from north of the sun for the
fifteenth day of each month. To find a bearing at any other day of tne
month) make a linear interpolation. In tne morning the true azimuth of
the sun will be the value given in the table. In the evening the true
azimuth of the sun will be 3600 minus the value given in the table.
4, compas check. As we said above we can use the directions
me obtained from the sun aria stars either directly or as checks on the
compass. To check your compass, sight on the heavenly body you are using
as a reference, either Polaris or the sun, and note the magnetic azimuth
of the body. The difference between this magnetic azimuth and the true
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azimuth of the body will be the magnetic variation at your position.
Note this variation, and check it with the variation given on your map.
(For example: The magnetic azimuth of the sun at midday is 1900. The
true azimuth is 180?. 190? -180? is 100. The variation is 10?P. Sub-
tract 100 from your magnetic azimuths to get true azimuths.) If it does
not vary more than three degrees, make no change at that time, but check
the variation again at the earliest opportunity. If even a small differ-
ence in variation is constant, adjust the magnetic north on your map to
correspond with your observations.
Checking the magnetic variation can be very important to a
man down in poorly mapped territory, since much of the surface of the
earth, especially the Arctic, has not been well mapped magnetically. Also,
small local variations which would be of no importance 1,0 a plane travelint
300 miles an hour can be very important to a man traveling tweilcy mile a
day.
If you find a great discrepancy between a variation shown on
your map and the variation you observe, first, make suA, that you do not
have any iron or electrical fields close to your compass. Iron may be
present in the rocks around you, so observe carefully to see Whether
varying the distance of the compass from rocks will change the magnetic-
north as indicated by the compass.
C. How to find position by observation of celestial bodies.
1. The navigator with a sextant obtains position by observation
of the height of a celestial body above the horizon, and by using this
observed height can determane aline of position on tire earth's surface.
Witho& a sextant we are restricted to types of observation which do not
Involve measurement of angle.
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2. Longitude from local apparent noon. vathout measuring the
angular height of a celestial body, we can obtain a line of position by
timing the moment when the celestial body passes our meridian. The
easiest body to do this with is the sun. Use the same set up as described
above to find direction by the sun and note the Greenwich time of the
shorteSt shadow of the stick.
Now correct this observed time of meridian passage for the
equation of time, that is the number of minutes the real sun is ahead or
behind the mean sun. (The mean sun was inven-uu Iv astronomers to
simplify the problems of measuring time. It rolls along the equator at
a constant rate of 150 an hour. The real sun is not, so considerate. It
changes its angular rate of travel around the earth with the seasons.)
The following table gives the values in minutes of time to
be added or subtracted to mean time (watch time) to get apparent time
(sun time). (See page 9.)
Now that we have the Greenwich time of apparent noon we can
find our longitude west of Greenwich by converting the interval between
1200 Greenwich noon and our local noon from time to arc. To do this
remember that 1 hour equals 150 of longitude) 4 minutes equals 10 of
longitude and 4 seconds equals 11 of longitude, (On February 4 the
Greenwich time of local apparent noon is 20:10. The equation of time
for February 4 is ? 14 minutes. 20:10 ?00:14 equals 19:56; 19:56 ?12:00
equals 7:56; 7:56 of time equals 119? of longitude. Our teridian is
119?W.)
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EQUATION OF
TABLE
EQUATION OF TIME
EQUATION OF
TIME*
43.0 min
3.8
7/3.0
42.0
1.0
0.0
-1.0
2.0
-3.0
DATE
TIME*
DATE
Jan
1
-3.5 min
May
2
2
4.0
14
4
5.0
Nay
28
7
6.0
9
-7.0
Jun
4
12
8.0
9
14
9.0
14
17
10.0
19
20
11.0
23
24
12.0
Jun
28
Jan
28
-13.0
Jul
3
Feb
4
-14.0
9
13
14.3
18
19
14.0
Jul
27
Feb
26
-13.0
Aug
4
Mar
4
-12.0
12
8
11.0
17
12
10.0
22
16
9.0
26
19
8.0
Aug
29
22
7.0
26
6.0
Sep
1
Mar
29
-5.0
5
8
Apr
1
-4.0
10
5
3.0
13
8
2.0
16
12
-1.0
19
16
0.0
22
20
41.0
25
Apr
25
2.0
Sep
28
-4.0
5.0
6.0
-6.6
-6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
-1.0
0.0
711.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
7/5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
49.0
EQUATION OF
DATE TIO*
Oct 1 410.0 min
4 11.0
7 12.0
11 13.0
15 14.0
20 15.0
Oct 27 416.0
Nov 4 7116.4
11 16.0
17 15.0
22 14.0
25 13.0
Nov 28 412.0
Dec 1 411.0
4 10.0
6 9.0
9 8.0
11 7.0
13 6.0
15 /5.0
17 4.0
19 3.0
21 2.0
23 41.0
25 0.0
27 -1.0
29 -2.0
Dec 31 -3.0
*Ada plus values to mean time and subtract minus values from watch
time to get apparent time.
9
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to holding a course at night. Find a star on your line of march a few
til it sets. A star is usually easier to keep in view than a terrestrial
landmark.
degrees above the horizon and use it as a guide in holding your course un-
azimuth has been established.
pointer system of locating Polaris.
can be used as rough check on direction at any time of the day once its
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D. Celestial Bodies as Course Indicators
E. Field exercise,
A celestial body near the horizon is often valuable as an aid
Since the sun changes azimuth approximately 15? an hour, it
A night class should be held to acquaint the students with the
Meridian ;
Local
Meridian
Greenwich
10
North
Fole
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3. Longitude from local apparent midnight. To obtain longitude
from local apparent midnight, the process is the same except that longi-
tude is equal to the corrected Greenwich time of meridian passage and
not the difference between noon and the corrected Greenwich time.
(Note to instructors: Work out several problems on longi-
tude by meridian passage on the hlackbnard with the aid of the class.
Use the diagram below to present the problem graphically.)
Sun
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25 April 1951
LECTURES FOR INSTRUCTORS
BASIC SURVIVAL TRAINING
PRIMITIVE LAND TRAVEL
I. TITLE AND DURATION
a. Title - Primitive Land Travel
b. Duration - One (1) noademio hour
II. OBJECTIVES
At the oonolusion of this period the student should know:
a. The requirements for land travel.
b. The requirements for the conservation of strength
through the correct use of clothing and equipment.
o. Seasonal influences on travel
d. The requirements for patience, caution, and determination.
III. REFERENCES
n. Text references.
1. "The Friendly Arctic" - V. Stefansson
2. "The Arctic Manunl" - V. Stefnnsson
3. "Survival on Moving Ice" - Captain T. P. Cunningham
4. Arctic Training School Pamphlets and Lectures
IV. TRAINING AIDS
a. Outdoor Training
b. Visual Demonstration
o. Trnining Films
d. 5904th Training Squadron Lectures
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es Diagram Nos. 15, 16, 17, 15, 20
V. PRESENTATION
a. Introduction. Primitive land navigation is based almost
entirely on experience, and experience is acquired only by actual
physical performance. However, experience may be acquired to a lesser
degree through the intelligent application of certain practices, or
through observation and instruction. As an example, travel routes may be
established by observing the way a bird flies, the notions of wild animals,
the way a tree grows, or even the shape of a snowdrift which would indi-
cate the direction of prevailing winds. Compass bearings, or the ul,e
of the sun and stars implement these observations and confirm original
headings. All these aids are influenced by the location and physical
characteristics of the territories where they occur and by the seasons
during which observations were mode. Successful primitive "Land Navi-
gation" presupposes the ability of the individual to survive, therefore
the main concern of this lecture will be that of presenting actual travel
problems and semis of the principal rules related thereto. Never forget,
however, that primitive travel depends on regional food supply. You
must forage as you travel.
b. Land Travel.
1. Land Travel requires knowledge of various skills. No man
can travel without possessing a general idea of the location of 1,115 ulti-
mate destination. No man should have to travel without havini, been brief-
ed on the country he will travel through and the charaater of the people
he will meet, for if the population is hostile, his entire method of
travel and existence must be adapted to these factors.
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Approved For Fielenledardkeirldrikil5F7e6MMOV406a8tAg-T.
A novice will view the landscape from the top of a hill with what he
considers is core and interest and then say, "Let's go". The experienced
man will clean his binoculars, settle down comfortably and start surveying
the surrounding countryside carefully. A distant blur of mist may be smoke;
a faint winding line on a far off hill may either be caused by a man or
be on animal trail; a blur in the lowlands may be caused by a herd of
caribou or cattle and the travel route for the next day may be planned
after carefully reconnoitering the terrain. Distant landmarks must be
studied carefully for characteristics that will insure their reoognition
from all other points or angles. A famous Indian hunter once pointed to
his binoculars with a grin of satisfaction and said: "Sit down little
time -- look in die glass an' you walk one hundred miles".
3. Before you leave, study your back trail carefully. You
should know your travel route "forwards and backwards" as game may move out
of cover, after you have passed, to watch your future movements. A
professional plains hunter once said, "An antelope's eyes see everything,
but his eyes don't tell him much". Careful.and intelligent observation
will train you to interpret correctly the things you see, whether they
are distant landmarks or a broken twig at your feet.
4. Topography.
(a) Mountains. Mountain ranges frequently affect clima-
tic changes which in turn influence vegetation, animal and bird life and
the character of people living in these areas. Ti illustrate this point,
the ocean side of mountains will have more fog, and be subjected to more
rain or snow than the inland side of a mountain range. So while forests
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AppaN94cPF6hReltifi?esttit0/118/2s8411A2063Picg-63362A0 ob?o bstfle 124
when crossing a mountain range, a complete change in route finding pro-
cedures and survival techniques may be required. Travel in a mountainous
country is simplified by conspicuous drainage landmarks but is complicated
by the roughness of terrain. The mountain traveler con readily determine
the direction rivers flow. However, he will have to reconnoiter to deter-
mine whether a river is safe for rafting or a snoweitild or mountainside
can be traversed without danger. Mountain travel differs from travel in
rolling or level country, as there are certain cardinal rules governing
climbing methods. A party descending into a volley that becomes increas-
ingly steep and where walls become progressively perpendicular, may be
oblidged to climb upward again and follow one of the ridges until easier
descent is made. In such a situation, rappelling with a shroud line
rope may save many weary miles. Avalanches of earth, rock and snow
must be guarded against as well as crevasses on ice fields.
(b) Forests. Forests grow in humid areas. If forested
areas are dense, river trails and ridges will be the easiest to follow. In
open forests land travel is easy and provides for a greater choice of
direction, but may be deficient in concealing cover, Along rivers,
isolated homes, villages and towns will be found, and these may dictate
changes in travel methods. Where populations are unfriendly, it will
be necessary to travel at night.
) Northern and Arctic Prairies, In certain parts of
the northern prairies, the direction of streams will be difioult to deter-
mine, Countless lakes with poor drainage may add to travel difficulties.
Rain or fog may hide the sun, and at times the experienced traveler will be
obligedLto orient his course by observing landmarks caused by prevailing
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Ambulated Fveraelleaso 1200008P24N414ALFID1278v91134311A00096013SERWPAr
is difficult and will continue to be so until streams, hills or a sea-
coast running in a definite direction come to his aid. Some of the
principal landmarks to be
(1) Vegetation.
blow inland
observed by travelers are given below:
Near a seacoast whore prevailing winds
from the ocean, thicket growth will be
dead or stunted on the windward side, slowly increasing
in height towards the loo. Individual trees will loan
away from the prevailing wind and their branches will be
thicker and longer on the leeward side.
(2) Sand. Sand contours are affected by wind, but less than
snow. Old drifts formed ,by strong winds will be more firm-
ly packed than recently formed drifts and sand will lie
deeper on the leeward side.
Snow. Under the hooding "Tolling direction by
snowdrifts" Stefansson lists the following rules:
"You should have learned the traits of drifts by
studying snow surfaces after storms. Tho force,
(3)
duration and other charnotoristios you know. Failing
that, common sera? (if you don't got into a panic)
will tell you a lot. You can tell the direction of
the wind by the fact that the drift is lower and
narrower to windward and gets higher and wider to
leeward before dropping
level".... "Traveling by
light, (so thpre are no
that it is so dark that
5
down abruptly to a general
night, if there is diffused
shadows) or, in the event
you cannot SOO the drifts,
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or drop on all fours and examine them with your hands."
O. Polar Ice. On polar ice, the traveler should proceed
according to lost known observations, based on the
location of the nearest land and seasonal influoncos
(See Survival on Ice.). This subject is broad in
scope and there ere very few mon oxperienced in
travel on .the polar son. By carefully reading books
mentioned in III, "Referoncos", you can pick up
additional information on this form of primitive
travel. (For instructions in the use of snowdrifts
?
in navigation on polar ico see page 348, Tho Arctic
Manual, Stefansson.)
d. Glaciers. Many glaciers offer possible travel
routes. Their main contribution to emergency travel
is that they serve as avenues across and over moun-
tain ranges. Glacier crossing demands special
knowledge and tochniques, such as the use of the
life lino and poles for locating crovassos.
Shelters requiring a minimum number of tent
polos and artificial heat such as gas stovos
ore desirable. There aro, however, numerous
places in the north, where mountain ranges could
be nogotiotod on foot in one day, by following
this method.
e. Roquiromeht for the conservation of strenph by proper use
of clothing, equipment, and the ability to improvise.
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AppeanitrOVikreMievfiCitiflithr?dilikt-Wbgtteb/S56A6000126161(3-46.
Methods for procuring food, typos and use of shelters, clothing, fires
and travel undor arotio conditions booano highly specialized. Hero again
oxporionoo is of the utmost importance, and tho most valuable advioo
that con bcr given to a novice is to use oxtromo caution when travelling
in sub-zero temperatures. Loonidas Soppola, one of the most experienced
Alaskan trailsmon, refused to travel when temperatures fell to thirty
below zoro, unloss there was some very important reason for doing so.
"It is not that travolinc in thirty degrees below zero may not be cam-
fortablo or pleasant", ho stated, "but if anything goes wrong in thoso
temperatures, you will be in for a bad timo". "Whilo children may play
outdoors in sub-zero temperatures, children can retreat indoors at any
dosirod moment." A strong wind, springing up oven when the temperature
is only a few degroos below zero, may place a man or party in a serious
predicament if they aro far from shelter. Uso of snowshoes, propor
"brooking" of winter trails, and other minter procedures will be token
up separately as they require individual treatment. Tho most dangerous
situation for a man is to bo caught out at night when a blizzard is
blowing. For if you struggle on aimlossly to the point of oxhoustion,
until your clothing is uot with perspiration, you are unwittingly com-
mitting suicide. When you fall down in a stupor, you will freeze. Tho
first thing to do if caught in a blizzard, is to make a sholtor. A
hole or cave hollowed out with a snowshoe will do. If possible, lino
the floor with boughs. Then roll up in your chute, tarp or extra
clothing, putting most of it under you. "If you fall ()sloop you will
freeze to death", is an old wivois tale, beoause when you got too cold
you will awaken unless you aro completely exhaustod, and by steady
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your worries, shorten tho passage of time and strengthen you. Tho \
main thing is to Boo that you do not get caught without shelter. Long\
before tho arrival of darkness you should have a comfortable snow cove
hollowed out, linod with some brush and all other stops token to insure
your safety.
F. Seasonal Influence on Northern Travel.
1. Winter is considered tho bost time for land trove]. boon so
rivers, lakes and muskegs are frozen and inequalities of the land
surface are filled with snow.
2. Spring is usually tho most difficult time for travel.
Melted snow and spring rains, swollon rivers and lakes convert flat
country into impassable marshes. With a good boat or raft, experienced
mon con navigate swift flowing rivers sor floodod areas. However, during
tho period when ice-jams form, river navigation is dangerous.
3. Summer. During tho summer season travel by night is
preferable to travel by day. Land will dry out and rivers hovel re-
turned to thoir normal levels. Under those conditions land and water
travel will bo oxoollont. During this season big game is dispersed,
as tho cows are in tho process of dropping calves and insect posts
disturb thorn. Wildfowl and their eggs will furnish an inexhaustoblo
food supply, particularly along the cliffs of northern bleaches whore
tho soafowl gather. Small gamo as moll as beds of odiblo shellfish
in tho shallow bays will free the traveler from tho necessity of constant
hunting. This of course reduces tho time required for foraging and
allows on increase in travel time, Soo basic Lecture No. T.S. 12).
Tho long hours of summer sun will roduoo tho need for fired. Mos-
quitos and other insects will bo.bothersomo, in foot can become ono of
your greatest travel hazards. To got away from thorn, sloop on a raft
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in tho trees.
4. Autumn. Northern natives prufor winter for travel which
permits the use of dog sleds, but tho survival traveler will find
autumn the soason that affords the best travel. Streams will be low
and clear, fording and rafting will be easier. Swamps will have dried
and become hardened by night frosts. The departure of tho wild fowl
and tho hibernation of rodents will increase dopondonoo on largo go
but autumn heralds tho rutting season with wide movements of caribou
and mooso. This aids tho hunter in his foraging. Heavy orops of
berries in sheltered localities will odd variety to tho food supply.
The Indian Summer may lull you into tho belief that winter is still
far away, but no man should be drawn into a false sense of security
as heavy snows may fall at any time. Every precaution for the
approaching winter should be completed down to tho last dotal.
g. Fuel. (For information on Fire Building Soo Diagrams and
Lecture on Outdoor Fires.) Fuel may play an important part in tho
selection of travel routes. Tho timborlino traveler will descend to
tho spruce groves for ovornight camping and tho seacoast trasolor will
watch for ci good supply of drift wood. On tho- southern mast of tho
Boaring Soo outcrops of coal are oommon. Many northern grasses make
oxoollont fuel, not only as fire starters but also as n stable fuol.
Green willow and alder gonorato hot fires and if laid in tho form of
grill will aid starting a coal fire. Green willow branches thrown en
tho fire at night will form ooals that la at until tho morning.. Plenty
of good mood makes a happy camp, but while a fire constitutes tho eur-
vivorta best friend it can dovolopo into a dangerous enemy when it
burns important equipment or clothing. Never leave a fire without
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h. Sholtors. (Influonoo.on Travel.) oopt for the presence
of mosquitos or for an occasional storm, summer shelters do not call
for the requirements of winter shelters and could be roughly built.
But oven in summer, a poorly built camp never pays. Tho difforonoo in
time taken for a good or poor shelter and camp sito is negligible. Tho
propor oaro of equipment, clothes, and food depends on proper sholtors
and an orderly camp. In the fall, when the last mosquito has departed
and a sky full of stars prosages a clear night, fold your sleeping bag
under a tarp, (to keep off the dew), and sloop in the open, but such
nights are usually rare. Thoro is one rub o in camp making that never
fails----atop early enough to insure a good night's rest. If you
find everything you nood to make a good clamp, a half hour or so before
you intend to stop travoling,--stop anyway, for complete rest predi-
cates an early start the next morning. Details for construction of
shelters will be found in lecture No. T. S. 5.
Tho Roqiiromont for Patience, Caution and Determination. Rivers
will always offer the oasiost and fastest avenue of communication through
the wilderness. In the summer the use of rafts or boats will insure
speedy travel while in winter the frozen lovol river surfaces will
afford easy walking. Large lakes or connecting systems of smaller
waterways likawiso provide good travel avenues. "Overflows", causod by
river water flawing over the ice, are very dangerous in low tamporaturos.
There is always clangor from thin ice on both lakes and streams. If
travelers will guard against this clangor which may form, the level
surfaces will allow for rapid traveling.
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a. Tho novice is prone to follow a compose lino, tho experienced
man follows tho linos of least resistance and recognizes at a glance that
a ourvod route may be shorter and easier; that an apparently innocuous
strotoh of forest may be filled with windfalls or that a smooth, green
meadow is in reality an impenetrable lino of beaver ponds.
b. Gamo trails pan be used when they follow your projected
course. Trails made by migrating caribou bro froglontly oxtonsivo and
usoful. On soroo or rook slides, mountain sheep trails aro very helpful.
Moose and boar trails aro almost always unrolinblo and frequently load into
almost imponutrablo thickets or swamps. Equally promising routes may
error varying prspoots, such as tho chance of soouring game or of
locating water holes. In other words, route finding in wild country
rogairos tho highost dogroo of mental concentration, knowledge of 'wilder-
ness "road signs", oanmon sense and judgment. Fortunately trail-waking
prootioos develop progrossivoly and instinotivoly with timo, and a oloar
mind will rogistor observations and form deductions almoat subaonoiously.
o. Tho oharaotoristios of calmness, self-confidence, constant
observation, oourago, caution, and unlimitod pat/I:moo which are possossod
by tho best typos of outdoor mon, will also dovolop .
d. One lost word of warning. In ovary traveling party there
mill be at least one individual who will not conform to travol rubs. He
will lack patience and tho wisdom of tho trained outdoorsman in tho select-
ion of trails, in the location of game, or in solvink Zama of the count-
less problems that mill develop during travel. Ho is tho typo of man
who, if allowed to, will endanger tho entire party. Your mission may bo
one that requires groat skill in order to avoid tho slightest error in
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for scouring tho moat that may be dosporately needed, or ho may place
tho lives of the party in joopordy. After a day or two in wild country
you should begin to recognizo which of your companions possoss the
necessary qualitios for survival loodorship. Your wisest move will be
to book up thoir docisions with loyalty and tho courage of your con-
victions.
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9 MARCH 1950
LECTURE FOR INSTRUCTORS
BASIC SURVIVAL TRAINING
I. TITLE AND DURATION
tA. Cs
Title - RIVERS AND RAFTS.
b. Duration - One (1) academic hour.
OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this period the student should knows
as Types of rivr.,?= found in the North.
b. Effects of glaciers on rivers.
c. Methods of choosine fords,
d. Preparations for fording.
e. Use of a pole in dangerous fords.
f. Advantaes of heavy pack in fording.
g. Fording: Two or more men.
h. Rafting principals.
1. Safeauardiro firearms while rafting,
j. Method of raft navigation,
k. Construction of Sweeps.
1. Dangers of rafting.
m. Emergency boats.
III. REFERENCES
a. Arctic Training School, (Lectures and Diagrams)
b. Basic Training Lectures - 3904th Training Squadron.
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IV. TRAINING AIDS
s.- freirci.ng,
b. ViSURi
V. PRESTITTkTIJM
Intrl The rivers of the N-th are of every imaginable
type.
mouNTAINS
Wherever rno'.tin tr1. hishlaads exist, the meltinT of the snows
produce oncerit tr f .r.?.ter that pour downward in series of cateracts,
falls and swift r.IT,)c,a, w'wre current is chliznod to rem and the roar of
the raoids deewnq hnm-,y1voice Such rivers cannot. be rafted or tra-
veled in canoeF, but at tines they MUST BE CROSSED.
GIACIER RIVERS
Glacier rivers f1z7nrIng from ice-eap.s, hanging, piedmont or serpentine,
are notoriously tra7,chorous, (Piedmont - lake like glaciers; Serpentine -
winding or valley glaciers)
a. To begin with, northern glaciers may be vast in extent, and
under the influence of tne summer sun, the amount of water liberated may be
b. Ice is unpredictable. When looking at E.n ice-field from
above, it may look innocent enough, but in reality, under its smooth looking
surface, there may be countless sub-glacier streams and water reservoirs,
either under a condition of draining or temporarily blocked up or dammed.
Lakes a mile in extent may lie on the upper snowfield, waiting only for a
movement in the glacier to become liberated and pour their millions of
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gallons downward irto the valleys boi21w,
FLOODINC GLACIERS
Glaciers f7'ort. vt,ict clTr.:lysmical torrents of water descend, are
called nf1eedn4 ?.re cf twn types.
a. uentioned abcve -rater on its surface in the
form of lakes.
b. The ot'per a gir.-1,-1 that in passing side valleys. dam
them with tLat oP.Ls(J r.La 7,-kter to back up in the valley until in
certain e fol-ned, de 3ontinue to increase
in size, uLJ cr 1:',?cak in th.? zemes opposite
to the 35.ko ear:.1rmid in an Lrr.;.zitib3e flood,
F1oodin tn1),3 rocogn1.,ed from ,xbe by the flood swept
character of trio lower v71.?1,:y !I .e Influence of these glaciers is some-
times felt mary iL..L? 1.3,w and prcspectors have lost their lives while
rafting otherwic r-ers, by a sudden flood entering by a side tri-
butary and de9COVdr7 jr P --11 of white water.
d1S-fi;
AN FALL OF GLACIER RIVERS
All glacier :I.vers are suujece to fluctuations in the water generated
by sunlight. The peak of flooa water is usually at its height in the after-
noon, after the noonday effect of the sun on the ice. For sometime after
the peak has passed, rivers draining the glaciers may be unfordable, or
even unnavigable, but by waiting until midnight or the following morning,
the water will have receded to a point when fording is safe and easy. In
following a glacier river when it is broken up into many shifting channels,
it is vise to choose routes that offer safe access to one of the banks to
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escape being caught between two dangerous channels.
CHOOSING A FORD
No man traveling on foot through wild country can escape the neces-
sity of fording streams. These may be the small ankle deep brooks that
rush downward from side valleys, or the larger snow and ice-fed rivers that
are so swift that water-borne boulders on the bottom, can be heard crashing
together.
You have been advised that before fording such streams, if they are
of glacial origin, they must be allowed to decre-se in strength during the
night hours.
This does not mean that forcing means waiting, for no matter what the
conditions are, you must find a ford that is basically safe and this in
turn, necessitates careful and experienced study.
If there is a commanding hill Heside the river, leave your pack and,
taking your rifle and binoculars, climb the hill and begin a careful ex-
amination of the valley. Look for:
a. Level stretches where the river is broken into numbers of
channels, for a river, like an army, can best be defeated when separated.
b. Make sure that after a ford is discovered, you have an unin-
terrupted route on the further bank. If exceedingly rough cliffs come
down to the river beyond your ford, you may find better travel on your awn
side.
c. Where a dyke of rocks cross the valley, there will be rapids
or canyons. Make sure that you will be on the side where the travel is the
easiest. Where heavy timber grows, the channel will be deeper.
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In fording there must no a number of factors to remember:
a. enever possible, choose a course that leads across the
current at about a 45 degree angle downstream.
b. Never ford directly above or even close to a rapid, water-
fall, or a deep channel.
c. Always ford in a spot whore, if you lose your footing or get
rolled, you will wash up against a shallow bank or sandbar.
d. An occasional rock may help as it will break the current,
but keep out of rocky places, as you may fall and break a leg.
u. Depth, if you can keep your feet, is not necessarily a deter-
rent. Deep water may run slower, it may be safer and you can lways dry
out later.
PREPARING TO FORD (ONE MAN)
If you are alone, before you commit yourself to the water, plan ex-
actly what you are going to do and how you will do it. First'you must take
all possible precautions. If the ford looks pretty bad, take the follow-
ing steps.
a. Remove your punts and underdrawers, and lash them securely to
the top of your pack. The water will have less grip on your legs.
b. Keep on your shoes and socks, as they will protect your feet
and ankles from boulders, and give you a firm footing.
c. Tie your rifle and binoculars securely to the top of your
pack. If you are forced to release your pack, the chances are you can
locate it eventually with your rifle and glasses, but if your rifle and
binoculars fall by themselves, you will never recover them.
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d. See that your pack is well up on your shoulders and that
the slip nooses are in good operating condition in case you have to drop
your pack.
You are now so prepared, that if you are swept from your feet, you
can release your pack and, unencumbered, hold on to one end of your pack
strap, and half swimming and half wading, fight your way to the further
bank. Many men have been drowned by being unable to extricate themselves
from their packs.
USE OF A POLE IN FORDING
If you are alonu, there is one more precaution that you can take that
sometime helps. If you can find a strong pole about 3 inches in diameter
at the big end, and about 8 feet long, take it along.
The pole is used on the UPSTREAM side to break the current, DO NOT
USE IT ON THE DOWNSTREAM side, as the current will tend to push you down
on the pole and lift your feet, in which Case, it Will do you more harm
than good. Keep the pole grasped firmly on your upstream side. Get your
feet firmly planted, lift the pole ahead and downstream a little and step
below it. Keep the pole well slanted, so the force of the current will
push the top downward on your hands and shoulder. On occasions, the pole
will be a great help, but if you have to lot it go, nothing has boon lost,
as you would have made the ford without it, if no poles were available.
ADVANTAGES OF A HEAVY PACK
Lastly, never worry about having a heavy pack on your back. Nothing
helps more than weight in swift water, provided you can release it when
nem.aar-ry aeergAir titrahington In one of his diaries tolls how, when he was
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a young man traveling with Indians, they would shoulder a heavy stone on
making a swift ford, to enable them to keep their feet. The amount of
junk, rifle, glasses, axe, etc., on your pack will make it inadvisable to
further complicate matters with a heavy stone, but it is well to remember
that weight is a help.
FORDING TWO OR MORE MEN)
Every man entering a swift ford should take the precautions and make
the preparations listed above. When there is more than one man, however,
the technique of using the pole is different.
The heaviest man forms the downstream anchor. The pole is held paral-
lel with the current. The lightest man, on the upstream end, breaks the
current so that those below move in the eddy formed by his body. If the
current is coming from the right, the polo is grasped under the left arm-
pit with the right hand extended. At times the upstream man may be tempo-
rarily swept from his feet, but as stated previously, the eddy thus formed
will enable the man below to move with comparatia ease. The route as al..
ways in fording, should be quartering downstream. Currents that are too
strong for one man to stand against can be safely ,rossed in this manner.
Experience in crossing swift rivers, enables a man to judge water with a
high degree of accuracy, but like the farmer's pet bull, - the danger is
always present.
RAFTING
Rafting rivers is one of the oldest forms of travel known. Under
Survival conditions it is the best and quickest method of?traveling. Rafts
must be made of dry, dead, standing trees. Spruce, which is found on
Arctic and subarctic rivers, make the best raft.
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The greatest difficulty in constructing a raft, is making it strong
enough to withstand the buffeting it will receive from rocks and swift
water.. Even if 6 or 8 inch spikes are available, which seldom occurs in
wild country, they are not satisfactor:i, as they pull or twist out easily.
Rope quickly wears out in contact ,/,l_th rocks and gravel.
Northern men have evolved a method of construction, which, while re-
quiring neithr of the above aids, produces a raft that is far superior in
strength and which can be built with no other tools than an axe and sheath
knife.
It is made by cutting inverted notches, that is, notches that are
broader at the base than on top, on each log (s ;o attached diagram) and
then drivin through those notches a three sided wooden cross piece that is
about one foot longer than th(
width of the raft. Two such cross piece's
are driven through notches at each end of the raft, on the top and bottom.
The overhanging ends can be lashed for added strength, but the swelling of
the cross pieces when immersed in water, will hind the raft together with
great strength.
A raft for three men should. be 12 or 13 f--;et long and. 6 or 7 feet in
width, depending on the size of the logs. The logs should be about 12 to
lq inches in diameter to hand1,7) easily and should be !uell matched so the
notches can be level when the cross pieces are driven into place.
The raft should he built on two skid-logs sloped downward evenly on a
beach and well smoothed with an axe so that the raft logs lie evenly.
Small
poles with straight edges or a string pulled taut should be used to mark
the notches, When the end notches are ccmpleted at two ends of the raft,
turn the logs over and drive the three sided cross pieces through on the
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underneath side, then complete the top notches and drive the top cross
pieces through. If too loose, the cross oic-ces can be checked with thin
board-like pieces of wood split from a dead log. When the raft is in the
wc,ter, the wood will swell and the cross pieces will become very tight and
strong.
A deck of light poles on the top of the raft will be needed to keep
your packs dry, but further precautions should be taken by wrapping them in
some waterproof covering. Details of a steering sweep is shown in the ac-
companying diagram.
The most important part of your equipm,,nt will be your rifle, and
nothing sinks faster than a gun. A raft is not "fool proof" and can turn
over when it hits a rock or a "swceper". The river beds of northern
streams ere liberally spotted with rifles that have been lost from rafts and
canoes. Even when attached to rafts, rifles /nye gone to the bottom when
the logs have been broken apart when hitting obstructions. If you tie your
rifle to a. raft, lush it firmly to ONE LOG - if the raft should be broken,
you have a chance of recovering your rifle by going downstream and finding
the log to which your rifle is tied, even if you have to swim for it.
RAFT NAVIGATION
Rafts can be steered by sweeps and poles. In fairly shallow water,
a pole is the most efficient, but when the water is deep, the sweep is pre-
ferable.
Poles and sweeps should be used from both ends of the raft. The bow
man can see any obstructions ahead and the stern man can follow his direc-
tions in steering. The poles are useful too, in pushing a raft in quiet
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water. Perhaps the most important rule in navigating an unknown stream
is to use caution in looking over stretches that may be dangerous. Swift
water rapids, sharp bends where the current is strong and the view ahead
obstructed, should be scouted, by beaching the raft and looking over the
questionable stretch and planning the safest route. "Sweepers" are one of
the most dangerous obstructions found on northern rivers. A "sweeper" is
a large tree growing on a bank of a river which is being undermined by a
swift current. As the bank is washed-away, the tree begins to lean out-
ward until it may actually bounce up and. down on the current. One of the
worst features of the sweeper is that a
suddenly confronted with a sweeper that
the
swift water, there is little that
party may, in rounding a bend, be
blocks the channel. Helpless in
rafting party can do. Hundreds of
men have met disaster through hitting sweepers in dangerous rapids. Land-
ing above a bend and looking over the river ahead is the only safe method.
Snags and sunken boulders make charonteristic aisturbances on the surface
of the current which you soon learn to recognize. Navigation of rivers in
unfriendly country, while possible, would be rendered more difficult by the
necessity of
tate greater
the addition
navigating at night. Such navigation would of course,.neessi-
dherenoe to the precautionary methods just advocated, with
of camouflaging the raft during daylight hours.
hile "hard and fast" rules are not always advisable - a valuable
procedure is to always stay close to the point of a bend in a river. If
the river bends to the 1.ft, keep close to the left point; if the river
bends to the right, keep your raft close to the right bank. The water
will be shallower on the points and you can jump out and ease a raft
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gently around the point. For this purpose, a coil of rope or a painter
of parachute shrouds should always be attached to the stern of the raft,
for controlling it when necessary.
EMERGENCY BOATS
The only type of emergency boat that can bc constructed quickly would
be the type made from 4 tarpaulin or light canvas cover, stretched over a
skillfully shaped framework of willow with a well formed keel of green
wood such as a slender pine or spruce. Gunwales of slender saplings are
attached to either end and equalized by spreaders or thwarts. The ribs
made of strong willows are tied to the keel and the ends bent upward and
tied to the gunwales. The frame is turned upside down and the canvas
lashed on firmly. Thu inside of the frame is then covered with close lying
willow to form a deck to stand on. Such a boat is easy to handle, buoyant
and lacks only the property of strength needed for long journeys. For
ferrying a party across a broad, quiet stretch of river, it is vary satis-
factory. With its mission completed, the canvas cover can be removed and
taken along for use in making shelters.
Outside of the difficulties and problems presented by every form of
wilderness travel, the navigation of streams that flow through wilderness
areas possesses a charm and excitement that will remain as one of life's
pleasantest memories.
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BACK PACKING
I TITLE AND DURATION
a. Title, Back Packing.
b. Duration, One?half (i) hour.
II OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this period the student thould know:
a. Weight carrying principles.
b. Different types of primitive pack straps and their construction.
c. Construction and use of the tumpline,
III REFERENCES
a. Arctic Training School Lectures and Diagrams.
IV TRAINING AIDS
a. Visual aids,
b. Actual construction and use,
LECTURE FOR INSTRUCTCRS
BASIC SURVIVAL TRAINING
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PRESENTATION
1. Introduction. In cases where there is no transpotation available
and one is forced to carry heavy loads on his back over comparatively long
distances, nback?packing?u is a very useful necessity. While carrying a
heavy load on ones back is burdensome, a suitable harness and other loading
and carrying techniques can eliminate unnecessary hardships. Furthermore,
a rational and philosophical attitude in carrying a back?pack is required,
as this burden invariably develops mental irritation and fatigue both of
which can result in hysteria or low morale. The experienced man has learned
the following lessons in back?packing:
a. He keeps his mind occupied witn other thoughts.
b. When resting he makes slight adjustments to improve the fit and
comfort of the pack..
2. Sourdough Pack Straps. This type of pack strap can be made out of
any material that is soft and strong, i.e., animal skin, canvas, and para?
chute harness webbing. Sourdough Pack Straps can be made up by following
this procedure:
a. First make the chest strap. .This should be approximately 12
inches long (outsid,..1 measurement) and 3i inches wide. Soft material, such
as an old sock, etc, snould bo used for padding; but care should be taken
to maintain an even and flat surface to reduce or eliminate unnecessary
body friction.
b. On the outer edges of the chest strap, two shoulder straps are
sewed on. The shoulder straps should be 2i inches wide and long enough to
extend from the chest strap over and beyond the shoulders, about li to 2
feet. The shoulder straps should be slightly padded,
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a4 On dangerous hillsides or while fording dangerous rivers the
pack can be released instantly by a pull on the slip knot, This aspect is
particularly helpful when game is unexpectedly encountered,
be For carrying snowshoes or a rifle, the broad top of the pack
forms a firm and steady platform, while the shoulder straps keep them firmly
in place.
c. The pack can be better adjusted to separate items than a pack-
sack, Light, soft articles can be placed at the bottom and against the back,
and hard and heavy items on top. Separate articles _ay be more easily lo-
cated in the inside of a pack-sack. (See diagram: Sourdough Pack Assembly)
d. The pack, when properly assembled, in ilat against the back;
howeve7., a full pack-sack becomes round, pulling heavily against the shoulders.
et, The padded chest band helps by taking some of the weight from
the shoulder straps. The disadvantages of the fabric pack strap are:
(1) That pack must be assembled and lashed before it an be
adjusted to the pack strap.
(2) That experience and ingenuity are necessary to use it at
top efficiency.
4, Methods of Packing Meat,
a. Toggle and tendon method, This method is used with the smaller
types of big game animals, such as antelopes, small deer, and the young of
larger species, Using this method, you pack the entire animal either gutted
or ungutted, depending on the circumstances, Beginning at the back of the
knees, cut through the skin, half way to the foot. Then cut through the
knee joint and pull the lower leg bone free of the skin, down to the lower
end of the cut. This forms a rough "toggle,11 Then cut slits between the
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hind legs and the "ham string tendons" large enough to force the front leg
toggles through, The r esult is that each front leg becomes a shoulder strap,
through which you can force your arms, The diagram will illustrate this
principle. In this manner, animals weighing up to 1O0 lbs dressed can be
carried easily. Cutting the animal's head off to save weight is optional,
If the animal has been gutted, it should be wiped clean in order to prevent
clothing from getting bloodstained.
Fig 2
"TOGGLE AND TENDON" METHOD OF PACKING MEAT
b. Emergency Pack Straps. A regulation pack strap can also be
used effectively In packing meat. This is a rather easy and simple method
and consists of soft shoulder pads connected with rope, leather, or fabric
lines that pass around the weight to be carried. A soft fabric pack-strap
is easy to carry and is very well suited for survival purposes.
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5. The Tumpline. Either of the above can be made in carrying heavy
loads, but the best single aid to packing is to know now to make and use a
tumpline. The tumpline can be made from any material that is strong and
soft. Pieces of skin with the hair on, tanned skin, an old sock, or any
soft fabric such as folded parachute fabric, will do. Many packers prefer
to make their own tumpline, because most of those commercially make are
usually too stiff and too thick. The tumpline should bs: long enough to
reach over the forehead and down to a point opposide each ear, (See
Figure 3.)
TUMFLINE
Fig 3
PACK WITH TUMPLINE AND PACK STRAP ATTACHED
It does not require sewing, for if left loose along the edge, the end knots
will keep it in order: furthermore, it can be easily adjusted to fit the
head, (See Figure 4.)
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WEIGHT 2 OZ.
18 IN.
Fig 4
TUMPLINE
The loops at the ends are for adjusting the tumpline. It is difficult to
reach down to the bottom of the pack and make the necessary adjustments; but
when the loops are on either side of the head, they can be reached easily and
adjustments can be made with little or no effort. The main strings can be
constructed from raw-hide or parachute shroud lines and are tied to the lower
corners of the pack, then they are carried upward to the loops at the ends of
the tumpline and are tied with a slip knot. Experience will teach you to
estimate the proper adjustment before you get into the pack, but a closer
estimate can be made after you have adjusted your pack-straps. The proper
method of using the tumpline is to have it just tight enough to transfer
about one-half of the weight off the pack from the shoulders to the head.
In other words, to distribute and balance the weight of the pack as much as
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possible. Occasionally, a heavy pack will cut off the blood circulation of
the shoulders and arms. In such cases, the tumpline is of great value, for
by a slight adjustment, most of the weight can ,be transferred to the head
and neck. Thus, the shoulder straps instantly loosen and circulation and
comfort returns to the numbed arms.. For a few days, the neck muscles may
feel slightly sore from the unusual strain placed upon them by the tumpline,
but discomfort soon disappears and, with practice, you will be able to support
heavy weights on the neck alone. In Eastern and Southern Canada, the Indian
canoeman uses the tumpline without a pack-strap and on portages between lakes
they have been known to carry loads of' 2C0 to 'fl.(-) lbs. Stefansson records:
"In t early days of the Hudson Bay Company, goods used to be made into 90
lb packages, each of which was known as. a !piece,! Some men could carry two
of these. The company rule was to employ no man in portaging who could not
make 80 miles in 4 days, carrying in addition to the 90 lb piece, whatever he
needed in the way of food and bedding." Such packing, needless to say, would
be impossible without the tumpline. The size of any type pack-sack limits the
load to be carried and the leather shoulder straps are too hard and narrow for
comfort in packing loads over 60 lbs. The .best type of back-sack for rough
wilderness travel is the 'Lichigan back-sack" with a tumpline attachment.
6. General Discussion on Packing Methods.
a. The Rucksack, The Rucksack is a Norwegian origin, developed for
skiers. In Norway distances between villages and scattered settlements are
never great, as measured in the Northern parts of Alaska and Canada. The need
for carrying heavy outdoor equipment does not exist and only a small pack-sack
is necessary as the weight of what a skier can carry is rather limited. Skiing,
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likewise, demands a form-fitting cradle, made of cane or metal tubing, and
shoulder straps only 3 inches apalc at the nape of the neck. This method in-
creases the stability reuired in making quick turns, These features however
render the Rucksack unsuitable for survival purposes.
b, How to get to your feet with a heavy pack. The rolling method of
getting to your feet with a heavy pack as advocated in some Air Force pamphlets
is inccrrect and dangerous. Frequently, by using this method, the balance of
the pack changes, and, if snowshoes, axe, binoculars, or a rifle are attached
to the load, these articles may be seriously damaged. The best method is to
adjust the pack on a hill side, or in front nf a tree or a strong bush, so that
you can pull yourself to an erect position by grasping the branches.
C. The Pack Board. The pack board, while an excellent weight carry-
ing rig, is not suited to plane travel or hunting, nor is it as well suited for
the carrying of heavy and bulky loads.
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17 April 1951
UCTURE FOR INSTRUCTORS
BASIC SURVIVa TRAINING
NORTHERN SHELTERS
I. TITLE PND DURATION.
a. Title - NORTHERN SHELTERS.
b. Duration - One (1) academic hour.
II. OBJECTIVES.
At the conclusion of this period the student should know:
a. Types and methods of construction of Northern Shelters.
b. Materials and tools required.
III. REFERENCES.
a. Arctic Manual - Stefansron.
b. Arctic Training School Lectures and Diagrams.
IV. TR1JNING AIDS. '
a. Training Films - "Land and Live in the Prctic".
b. Film Strips - FS on various shelters.
c. Sectional Units and Mock-ups.
d. Diagrams - 1-A, 1-B, 3-A,B,C, 9, and 13.
V. TOOLS PND MATERIALS REQUIRED;FORBORTHERN.SHELTERS..
R. Snow Cave
1. Snow axe or saw
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2. Practice and patience.
b. Snow House.
1.
Snow axe or saw.
2. Firm wind-pressed snow.
3. Knowledge pnd experience.
c. Long_ Fly or Lean-to.
1. Knife or axe.
2. Twenty-four panel parachute.
3. Poles, (one 20 foot pole, and eight to ten shorter poles).
4. Practice and patience.
d. Parateepee.
1. Knife or axe.
2. Poles, (1 tie-pole, 14 feet long and ten other poles).
3. Parachute.
e. Knowledge and practice.
e. One pole Parateepee.
1. Knife and axe.
2. One pole - 14 feet long.
3. Parachute.
4. Knowledge and practice.
f. Three pole Lean-to.
1. Knife or axe. ?
2. Poles, (one 14 foot pole and two 8 foot poles).
3. Pnrachute.
4. Common sense and patience.
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VI. PRESENTATIuN.
a. Introduction: There are various types of shelters thnt meet survival
requirements of climatic zones and seasons. This lecture covers shelters by
season incorpornting at the same time construction materials availAYTle nt
climatic zones.
b. Winter. For men living under emergency conditions, winter, as .the
most severe part of the yenr, presents various problems for making shelters
under cold weather and snow conditions.
1. The Snow Cave (Mountain, Wood nnd Open country). See diagram #13.
The snow cave when properly constructed, along snow house principles, with a
low tunnel entrance, raised sleeping platform, domed roof, and roof ventila-
tion, constitutes a comfortable and practical shelter. Field tests, hove
proved that any steep snow slope is suited for this type of shelter, including
perpendicular wails of crevnsses. The main drawback in. this type ? shelter-
is that men become wet while shoveling out the roof of the inner chAmber.
The roof ventilator is made by forcing a pole through the roof. A loose fit-
ting snow block is used for the door and this block can be manipulated so as
to give as much ventilation as mny be required. Building a snow cnve requires
little skill but is definitely more unpleasant work when compared to the con-
structien of a snow h use. It is on the whole, dnmper and darker than a snow
house, and can only be built when snow is deeply drifted. It serves as a dead
air space to hold and conserves body heat.
2. The Snow Housel. (Mountain, Wood, Open Country, And Sea Ice).
(a) There is no primitive shelter constructed by man, thnt fits
its environment better than the Eskimo snow house, (igloo is
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a misnomer). In shape, construction, material and comfort,
the snow house fulfills requirements for shelter against cold
and wind in barren surroundings. In fact, the Eskimo has
taken the very elements directed against him by polar blizzards
and developed an adequarte shelter. Strangely enough, the
knowledge of snow house building is confined to only a. part
of the Eskimo population of the Dominion of Canada. nnd is not
used by the Alaskan Eskimo. There is a challenge in building
a snow house, as statements have been made by writers on Arc-
tic survival procedur:s, thnt only an Eskimo can build a mow
house. Stefansson was, perhaps, the first white m2n who be-
came adopted to building snow houses and who lived in them as
-6skimos do. During World War II, he indoctrinated Air Force
instructors and consultants, who h-ve since in turn, indoc-
trinated others.
(b) Snow House Construction. It is doubtful that a man could
successfully build a snow 1-iuso from written instructions.
However, once the principles of construction are visualized
and understood through actual training practice such as the
principle of the inclined plane, the most technical difficul-
ties in the fitting of individual snow blocks is easily mas-
tered. By a thorough study of snow house construction,
(Diagram 3a,b, and c) a fairly accurate working plan will be
gained, that will assist a careful novice to build a snow
house. An all important point shown by the diagrams is the
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emplacement of snow blocks. In this type of construction the
precise practices followed in stone masonry are not required.
In fact, if the impinging edge of eaOh snow block was fitted
snugly to the edge of the previous block, the former would
probably fall. The importnnt thing to remember is to have the
block supported by the three impinging corners, namely the two
bottom corners and the top corner resting against the previous
block. The sup-ort of the three corners, aided by the down?
ward sloe of the inclined 'Dime, is the only "mystery" in
snow house building. Another important point are the gaps or
crevices between the blocks. These gaps or crevices are 1Pter
filled with triangular pieces of snow and the small remaining
gaps or cracks are filled with soft snow, not forced, but gent?
ly rubbed in with a mittemid hand. After these joints have
frozen, they function as a binder and become stronger than the
original snow block.
(c) Snow House Materials. Firm, wind pressed snow, is necessary
in snow house construction and a beginner working with poor
snow blocks will easily blame failures on himself. In reality,
failures may be caused by utilizing poor materials. Once
skill is developed, a successful snow house can be built, even
from poor quality snow. A good snow block should be about 18
to 20 inches high, 30 to 36 inches long, Pnd four (4) to six
(6) inches thick. (The first two (2) tiers should be six (6)
inches thick, while the upper tiers four (4) inches thick).
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Blocks can be cut horizontally or vertically if snow is deep
enough. The vertical cut is useful, because some of the blocks
can be cut from the snow house site, specifically from the area
that later will be used as the wall from which the door leads
to the outside. One builder working from the inside cnn lay
blocks as fast as a two (2) man team can cut them. A trained
team of three (3) men under ordinary conditions, cn build a
snow house in 45 minutes.
(d) During World War II, instructors were called upon to demon-
strate snow house building, under poor snow conditions. This
resulted in the development of a technique that porduced good
snow house building from bad snow. This was accomplished by
pressing down soft deep snow by walking on it with snow shoes.
However, care must be taken-to press snow evenly, otherwise,
soft impressed spots will remain in the block.
(e) After allowing this prepared surface to freeze overnight, it
can be cut into good snow blocks on the following morning. In
forested areas, where ther, is little, wind,. snow.rarely becomes
firm until it has settled from the warmth-of the approaching
spring. The weight of a man on snow shoes can accomplish whnt
the wind normally does in the open, wind-swept country. By
this method building and use of the snow hous can be accom-
plished in a short period of time. The prepared surface must
not be filled with brush or willows, ..because.it-mmIld beimpos-
sible to cut snow blocks under such conditions? :Lt is obvious
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(f)
that this method can not be used under steady travelling con-
ditions, as snow required several hours to harden.
A well known antarctic explorer stated recently that snow
houses were not used in the South Pole expeditions, because
it took too long to construct them. Inquiries proved that
the time taken to erect tents, employed by the expedition,
was equal to the time required to erect a snow house. Under
severe weather conditions, such 3s strong winds, etc., the
time required to erect a tent was even longer. Opposition to
the use of the MOW house is usually based upon a lack of
knowledge and frequently stems from a defeatist attitude.
c. Winter - Summer.
1. Lean-to's, Diagram #12, "The four (4) Best Outdoor Shelters".
The lean-to is the simplest of all outdoor shelters and the .easiest to con-
struct. Fabric of sufficient size to cover the occupant, rope or str'ng, poles
from green or dry wood are the only mnterials required. The frame of a satis-
factory lean-to can be constructed from dead poles with or without using an
axe, provided sharp limbs are knocked off and the pole is smoothed down with a
knife, flat stone, or any hnrd or metal instrument. Smoothing the pole surface
is required so th t the fabric used ns a cover will not be town. The success
or failure of the lean-to depends on building an adequate fire to spread warmth
equally throughout the shelterrnd the proper pin,cing of the lean-to and fire
in relation to the prevailing wind, Refernnce to wind direction in relation
to outdoor shelters frequently prompts the question; "How do you know which
way the prevailing wind blows"? The answer is, thnt men living in the open
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must learn at the earliest possible moment, the directions of the prevailing
w nds. As an example, on the eastern side of the Northern Rockies, the pre-
vailing w nd is the "West" or "chinook" wind. This w.nd, however, may shift
and blow from the south for several days or a week. The "North" or "Hudson
Bay" wind, is known as a (storm wind, bringing snow or rain and usually lasting
only a day or two. In various regions where winds are usually influenced by
natural configurations, such as mountains, they follow, valleys
am n ranges, and blow out onto the flatlands. By studying winds
of days, a fairly accurate forecast may be made as to whether a
between mount-
over a period
wind will con-
tinue to blow from a certain directi n during the night. Fair weather winds
usually decrease at ni7ht. Glacier winds, likewise usually cease at night fall.
In deer mountain valleys, the wind usually moves downward at night and upward
in the morning after sunrise. Therefore, the opening of the lean-to br the
door of a teepee sho,ld generally face directly across s valley to be situated
at right angles to the prevailing wind. Such positi?ns would insure the pre-
vailing *ind blowing fire smoke awar from a lean-to and will provide the best
draft for teepee fires. Never forget that close observation of wind directions
is of the utmost importance in amny other respects. These will be dealt with
in other courses, such as hunting, stalking, travel, establishing a c-mp, etc.
2. The Long Fly. Lean-to. (Diagrams, Fig. 2). Building a Long-Fly,
12 to 16 fe t ong: depends o
the size or.mount of fabric available. A 24
panel parachute will build a complete 14 panel pPrateepee and
Long-Fly, which are capable of comfortably, sheltering 10 men,
ten panel
(3 in the para.-
teepee and 7 men in the Lean-to). Aircraft wing covers are excellent Lean-tots
used in the manner described. However, their use is not stressed, as covers
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may not be carried on a plane. Heavy paulin, such as engine covers are like-
wise omitted, as their weight would negntc snme from inclusion in the equip-
ment of a tram ling p.,rty. In areas where men could remain safely beside their
aircraft, such m-t,rials And many other items would, of course, be of vnlue in
camp making, The pole structure of the fly is simple. A single 1/...e main
pole and other poles are emplaced on one side at short intervals in order to
support a fabric cover in such manner that it will shed rain or snow, while
possessing sufficient strength to withstand average wind pressures. l'here
are three .popular methods of pitching a fly: Fig. 1, the Long-Fly, Fig. 21
the three pole fly, and Fig. 3, the shade fly.
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The support for the ridge-pole may consist of: Fig. A, two trees, Fig. B, one
tree and scissor made by two crossed poles, or Fig. C, where trees are not avail-
able, a pair of scissors.
The ridge-pole must always be tied firmly to trees, or when tow scissors are
used, firmly staked, or tied to rocks or stumps.
The next step is to lav the
required number of poles -gainst the ridge-pole. St-nding dead poles, (when
not rotted) are usually easier to smooth down than green poles are. These
poles may be thin, (Rs is frequently the case with spruce or pine that grow in
thick "stands") but they must be sound and lohg enough to insure at least seven
feet of sleeping space, which usually req ired poles at least 11 feet long.
Poles sho id be laid parallel against the ridge pole and about 1? inches apart.
When emplacing the fabric cover, commence by stretching snmr- firmly alonc, the
ridge-pole and tie the fabric with str ng or rope to the ridge-pole and roof
poles as well.
Then attach the bottom of the fabric to the base of the roof
poles. If sufficient fabric is available, pull the bottom corners forward
and stake firmly to build a windbreak. The "Long ire q method is illustrated
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and described in article, "Outdoor Fires", is recommended with the Lean-to
shelter, particularly in cold wether.
d. Spring - Summer - Fall. (Timbered or Open Country)
1. The Parateepee. (See Fig. I and II, "Parateepee".)
(a) The teepee of the buffalo hunting western plainsn Indians is
comparable in shelter requirement with the snow house of the
Arctic barren land Indians. 'both of these houses -- (neither
should be classed as ordinary shelters) -- are examples of
the ability of primitive man to survive. Many white men
have tried to improve on their structural details without
suceess. The teepee, in primitive times, was a crude affair.
Remains of these ancient abodes can still be found in the
Northern Rockies, for they consisted of deep circular pits,
surrounded with dirt walls and covered with a crude roof of
animal skins. The western plains Indinns, who migrated from
place to place following the buffalo herds used a very small
teepee with poles light enough .to tie to a dog's back, Which
with the ends dragging on th,) ground, evolved into the
"travois". When the Spaniards arrived in this country, the
Indians were trained to employ horses as Pack animals. This
enabled them to carry heavy buffalo skins from place to place.
12he use of these heavy construction materials resulted in
larger and more elaborate shelters. In a matter of a few
years the small original skin shelter, hidden away in some
thicket, evolved into the Indian lodge in which whole families
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could live in comfort nnd dignity.
(b) 12119111DE the ParnteuE2L.
(1) Poles. Poles required for a pnrateepee should be four-
teen feet long; as the length of a panel of a p-rachute,
alqng the seam is about 12i feet, The f-bric is tied to
a separate pole known ns the wrie=polell, This pole with
the fabric attached is the last pole to be pincA in
position (wen the circle of poles is completed) -rid its
position should be directly opposite the door or entra-
nce with an equal number of poles on each side of it to
complete the circle. (See Diagram d2b). Pnrnteepee
roles should be smooth and slender. Eleven poles are
required for the paratecpce frame work, namely, I tie-
pole, 3 tripod poles, 5 loose poles, -nd 2 wing-poles.
In the event mnterials are not in sufficient quantity,
nine poles will mnkc a sntisfnctory set.
t2) Cover. Spread the parachute or other fabric cover on
the ground, and cut off all shroud lines around the
oter edge (-bout sixteen inches from the edge of the
fabric); then tie ends into two and one hnlf inch Bow-
line loops, ns close to the fabric -s possible. These
constitute tent-peg loops. Tie small end of pnrachute
to tree or have another man hold it. Locnte panel mark-
ed 1, and -ith a shnrp knife, separate panel 1 from
panel 24 by cutting along the hem on the 24 panel side,
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of the hem of the 15th panel. Locate the hem between
panels 6 and 7, follow it to the central aperture of
chute and cut off the shroud line at the opposite end,
so thnt its full length remains as a pnrt of the hem
referred to above. This short length of shroud line is
used to 12sh the top of thf pnrateepee to the tie-pole.
Then cut aff short, all the short shroud lines between
panels 1 to 14. The parachute is now divided into two
pnrts of 14 to 10 panels respectively. The 10 panel
piece is an extra that can be used in mnny ways. Its
uses nre described in other articles such ns; "Emergency
Clothing", "Fishing" and "Snares". So roll it up and
lay it aside. The 14 panel section is now a Parateepee
and final completion consists of swwing on two wing-pole
loops and three pairs of tie strings at 1 foot intervals
above the door. The wing-pole loops and tie strings can,
if speed is necessary, be tied on with clove hitches and
swwed on 1-ter.
(3) Erecting. Locate a level circle of ground sbout 16 feet
in diameter. Assemble poles which hnve been smoothed
with a knife or axe. Select one of the straight, heav-
ier poles for a tie-pole. Lay the heavier pole on the
ground, slip the loop at the bottom of the hem, between
panel 6 and 7 over the: butt and, tie the shroud line at
the upper end of this hem to the top of the tie-pole.
Stretch the hem firmly. Choose three of the heavier,
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straight poles for a tripod and lay them side by side,
parallel, to the tiepole with all four butts even.
Return to the top of the po:es and lach the three poles
poles at a point directly opposite the top lashing on
the tie.ftpole, Tie the tripod poles separtely with clove
hitches and wrap the loose ends around the outside, then
tie with a square knot. Raise the tripod to a vertical
position and spread the butts until the teepee will
stand without further support. Move butts outward to
form a solid base. The entrance may be utilized as a
door frame. The entrance, however, must face across the
path of the prevailing wind, as described in the con-
struction of Lean-to's. The fine loose poles, (required
in the construction of an eleven pole pitch) are now
placed at regul r intervals, so that their butts, includ-
ing those of the tripod poles form a circle of about 10
feet in diameter, with a space directly oprosite the
entrance for the tie-pole. The tie-pole, with the Para-
teepee attached, is now pinced in position and the two
side of the fabric cover are carried around the outside
of the pole framework and tied with the tic-strings in
the center of the entrance. Panels 13 to 14 sholild re-
main loose to form the folding entrance. Stretching the
fabric cover is now in order. This is done by entering
the parateepee and moving the butts of the poles outwnrd
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to form a larger nnd more perfect circle. The poles
should be moved outward evenly, until the fnbric is tight
and smooth. The prrect diameter of the circle should
be judged by watehing thc bottom wall of the Pnratecpee,
formed by the fabric cover, and this should be several
Inches above the surface of the ground. Commence pegging
on each side of the tie-pole. Pince pegs through the
,peg-loops, twist several times, pull the bottom of the
fabric cover firmly and sway from the tie-pole and drive
the peg into the ground. Two men can work one man on
each side, drawing the bottom of the fnbric forward and
downward in order to attain a smooth tight surface. If
the paratecpee is built by one man only, he should peg
alternately on each side. Butts of poles should then be
pulled firmly outward, until they contact the fabric.
When properly pegged, the fabric should be smooth and
tight and capable of resisting w'nd and shedding rain
nnd snow. The final step consists of-insertingthe ends
of wing-poles into the wing-pole loops and pushing the
butts forward until the upper front of the pnrnteepee is
flat and tout, forming a surface on each side of the
smoke hole and insuring good dr-ft induction for fires.
The indoor arrangement for sleeping and cooking Pre shown
in (diagram 2c). A parachute shroud line isTstretched
around the poles about five and one half feet above the
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Approved For Release 2000/08/28 : CIA-RDP78-03362A000900050001-4
an important fact in lighting para-teepee fires is that unsplit wood throws
less sparks than split wood. If grass or the ground cover begins to burn n
around a new pnratepee fire, allow it to burn for a little distance before
putting it out, as there will then be less chance of accidental fire later.
Partteepee fires should not biJ built in a hole; which destroys the drift, nor
on a platform of 'earth or stones, which adds to the fire hazzard and keeps the
fire heat from reaching the feet and lower limbs of the occupants. Stones
around a teepee fire c n be dangerous as river rocks sometime explode when
subjected to heat.
g. One Pole Parateopee, (Emergency). When there is an immediate require-
ment for shelter, a parateepec can be pitched with one pole. To nccomplish
this, however, a large tree with wide spreading limbs is necessary. The fnbric
cover is tied to a pole in the s-me manner in which it is tied to the tie-pole.
The pole is then raised and leaned in such n manner thnt the upper end is firm-
ly fixed in a crotch of a stroung branch, (dingrnm #2c). The front tie-strings
are then fastened and the loose fabric is stretched into n circle and pegged
to the ground. A little more care is required against fire accidents, becnuse
the parateepee walls lean in more than when a pole frame is used. Poles for a
strong set should be secured as soon as possible.
h. The Three Pole Lean-to, (tmergency). Bee Fog. (D). Four complete
panels of parachute fabric can be quickly made into a three pole shelter which
in emergencies will provide a satisfactory refuge for the night. The poles
necessary for this type of shelter are: Two 8 foot poles, for the scissors and
a long pole to tie the fabric cover to. Following the same prodedures employed
in the construction of the parateepee tie-pole, a three pole Lean-to may be
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erected. In this case however, the small end of the fabric cover is placed on
the grounded end of thepole ,and the outer edge of the chute is tied on the point
where the pole rests on the scissors. Two logs ?.1re then laid on top of the
loose fabric in such a position that they form a V. These logs hold the sides
of the shelter to the ground and serve as tent pegs, a short log laid between
the butts of the scissor poles form a retaining wall for the bough bed. The
outer edge of the fabric cover is laced to the scissor poles. The entr-nce is
positioned across the path of the prevailing winds. In the advent of snow, or
rain an entrance flap can be suspended over the opening by use of any extra
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fabric.
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