COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS CHAPTER FIVE

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP96B01172R000900100001-2
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 140
• Document Creation Date: December 19, 2016
• Document Release Date: June 18, 2001
• Sequence Number: 1
• Content Type: BOOK

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COMMERCIAL
BUILDINGS
Commercial and industrial
buildings, commonly classified as "heavy construction," are built
mainly of steel, concrete, and masonry. They represent a more perma-
nent type of construction than residences and other types of small
buildings, which, for the most part, are built of wood.
Because of the necessity to protect concentrations of people
within these larger buildings, fire and zoning codes are understandably
more restrictive and thus require the use of fire-resistive materials.
When reading working drawings of commercial buildings, we
must remember that there is a distinct difference between the purpose
of the architectural drawings and the purpose of the structural drawings
in the set. The architectural drawings show materials, dimensions, and
general esthetic design?much of the structural information is omitted
in them. The structural drawings, prepared by the structural engineer,
chiefly show the structural features?size and placement of steel or
concrete members, steel connectors, placement and bending of reinforc-
ing bars, and related notes and information. The intent is to avoid the
duplication of information. Consequently, the structural drawings
represent a careful analysis of the structural requirements only and
indicate an accurately calculated solution. The two types of drawings
are compatible, however, and the reader must be able to relate each to
the other.
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Although commercial buildings vary in appearance on the exterior
because of design and choice of materials, their structures are usually
variations or combinations of several basic types of structural systems?
namely, bearing-wall, reinforced-concrete, or steel-frame construction.
Because of advanced techniques in chemical treatment, lamination, and
the structural grading of lumber, some buildings are still built of massive
wood members and are classified as heavy timber construction.
A. BEARING-WALL CONSTRUCTION
As the name implies, bearing-
wall construction utilizes the strength of the walls to carry the weight
imposed on the floors and roof of the building. In this type of construc-
tion, the walls are usually limited to one or two stories in height; higher
buildings employ other types of structural systems. In general, bearing
walls are economical and feasible only when spans are limited to 30 or
40 ft., otherwise it becomes necessary to use thicker walls or intermediate
columns and beams.
If we examine the wall sections in a set of drawings carefully, we
can detect if bearing walls are employed. If the floor and roof supports
bear on the wall materials and no structural beams or columns are
shown along the wall on the plan, we can be reasonably sure that the
walls support the weight. Thickened wall piers or buttresses may be
shown for the purpose of carrying beam loads or for strengthening the
walls to resist lateral loads, yet they are still load bearing. Usually
materials like brick, concrete block, stone, and structural tile, which
have good compressive characteristics, are used for bearing walls.
B. REINFORCED-CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
Concrete is one of our most
adaptable building materials. In addition to its wide use as a masonry
material, concrete cast with steel reinforcing provides architects with
a versatile material known as reinforced concrete, which finds universal
application. Almost unlimited design and architectural expression have
been made possible by this combination of materials in today's en-
gineered buildings.
The size and spacing of steel reinforcement in concrete members
are based on the spans and the anticipated loads they will be subjected
to. Details normally conform to standard practice as shown in the
American Concrete Institute Detailing Manual. Bar reinforcing is usually
designated with a note giving bar size and the number of bars or the
distance between centers of adjacent bars. For example, the note #3@
12" indicates " diameter bars spaced 12" on center. The rod number
is based on the approximate number of eighths of an inch in its dia-
meter. A No. 5 bar would measure r in diameter; a No. 8 bar would
measure 1" in diameter, etc. However, a No. 11 bar measures 1*" in
diameter, which is a slight variation.
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Fig. 5-1 Reinforced concrete construction is now used In a wide variety of commercial structures.
In order to protect the reinforcing from corrosion (rusting) and
to provide insulation against heat due to a possible fire, the bars are
spaced a definite distance from the outside surface of the concrete. A
note, " Cl., indicates that the surface of the bar is to be covered with
a minimum of I " of concrete.
Expansion joints are also commonly located on drawings, and
details of their construction are often shown. These vertical joints in
long buildings allow freedom to expand and contract without ruptur-
ing the concrete. Usually the joints appear at junctions of L, T, or U
shapes, where perpendicular intersections occur. Complete separation
of both concrete and steel must be made, and premolded joints and
metal coverings are used to conceal the joint. Flexible caulking is also
used for this purpose. Frequently expansion joints continue completely
through the building. Slabs require expansion joints where large open-
ings occur, around columns, and along the periphery of a slab when it
abuts a wall.
Although sometimes not shown on a drawing, construction joints
appear during extensive pouring of concrete. Theoretically it is prefer-
able to cast concrete in one continuous pour, making it a monolithic
structure, but this practice is often impractical. Neat, either vertical
or horizontal, joints are made where they will produce the least amount
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of weakness to the structure when the pour is terminated at the end of
the day. When construction joints can be anticipated by the engineer,
they are shown on the drawings. Intersections of column footings or
beam columns frequently carry this notation. Where shown on a draw-
ing, this notation indicates a permissible location for the joint. Any
other location would have to be approved by the enginner.
You will be able to recognize reinforced-concrete construction on
drawings by the use of concrete structural members and the designations
of rod reinforcing throughout. The structural drawings typically show
a plan view of each floor level with its relating details, notes, and
schedules. Much of the technical information is placed in schedules to
eliminate cumbersome and numerous unnecessary drawings.
C. STEEL-FRAME CONSTRUCTION
Steel-frame construction, utiliz-
ing a skeleton frame throughout the entire height of the structure (see
Fig. 5-2), is commonly used for high-rise buildings. Typical structural
steel shapes like the I beam and wide-flange (v\F) sections (Fig. 5-3) are
Fig. 6-2 The appearance of the steel structure or skeleton in a steel-frame building.
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Fig. 5-3 Typical structural-steel sections and their symbols used on drawings.
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used to construct the main skeleton, which resembles a rigid steel cage
when completed. The connections between each member may be
riveted, bolted, or welded; some buildings employ several types. Availa-
bility of labor and the job location are important factors in determining
the type of connectors to be used. Various other steel shapes may also
be necessary around openings in floors, for resistance to lateral wind
loads, and so on. Each building requires some special variation from
standard framing procedure to accommodate individual requirements.
Thus the steel members and their connections arc sized to carry the
dead and live loads of the building by transferring these loads from floors
and roof to the beams and girders, down through the columns to the
footings below. Weights of the exterior walls and partitions of each floor
level are thereby carried by the columns only, on which tremendous
compressive loads can be supported without the need for massive load-
bearing walls on the lower floors.
To protect the steel framework from failure due to a possible fire,
each member is encased in concrete or other fireproofing material; yet
the steel supports the loads. Like a reinforced-concrete building, this is
an engineered structure in that sizes for each member and their con-
nectors must be carefully calculated according to accepted standards
and codes, and allowances must be made for safety factors as well as
local conditions.
Steel columns are usually placed in uniform bays or grids on the
plan, and compatible floor systems are designed to be accommodated
within the spans of the bays. Structural drawings reveal plan layouts,
sizes of each steel member, and accurate information about each con-
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Fig. 5.4 The appearance of steel frame on a floor plan.
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Fig. 5-5 The steel frame is encased In a fireproof material for protection.
nection. The plan layout is ordinarily a schematic diagram showing
beams and girders as heavy, solid lines (see Fig. 5-4). Sometimes they
may be broken lines. Sections, schedules, and notes used on drawings
are similar to those mentioned under reinforced-concrete construction.
The use of steel-frame construction is soon evident when reading
a set of working drawings. Wide-flange or I beam members used for
column and girder layouts in plan, similar steel shapes shown in the
details, and drawings of steel connectors give evidence of this type of
construction. Notice that steel members are specified with a note giving
the depth of the web, type of profile, and the weight per foot. Thus a
note, 121 24.6, indicates an I beam 12" deep that weights 24.6 lb. per
foot. Other standard notations are also used for other steel shapes.
D. HEAVY TIMBER CONSTRUCTION
Construction with heavy tim-
bers, which was commonplace in mills during colonial days, still finds
acceptance in many types of buildings even today. Southern Yellow
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Fig. 6-6 Metal connectors for heavy timber construction. Many heavy timbers are glue-laminated.
Pine and Douglas Fir, both in abundant supply, are the two main
species of structural lumber. Lumber carefully graded according to
strength and resistance to fiber stress is required. In general, buildings
only one or two stories high (in areas where codes are nonrestrictive)
are built with this method.
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Fig. 5-7 A wood truss used in timber construction.
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Although wood burns readily, it can be classified as "fire resis-
tant" if heavy, massive members are used. Extremely severe fires are
necessary before timbers burn through and fail under loads. Actually,
heavy timber has a better fire rating than exposed steel.
An increasing number of wood structural members are glue-
laminated to specified sizes in fabricating plants and transported to the
site ready to be erected. Many churches, for example, are constructed
with laminated arches or beams and masonry bearing walls. Wide spans
are possible. The laminated beams with plank roofs result in interesting
interiors for many applications.
Wood trusses (Fig. 5-7) made with heavy members also find use in
wide-span roofs. Various truss designs and shapes found on drawings
are evidence of continued acceptance of timber roof structures for
commercial buildings.
Remember that actual cross-sectional sizes of timbers are slightly
smaller than the nominal sizes given on drawings (see Fig. 2-61). All
engineering design computations, of course, are based on actual sizes.
In present-day timber construction, various metal pieces are
necessary at critical points in the structure where compression con-
centrations may cause fiber crushing, where complex connections must
be made, where joints must be held in shear, and for bearing seats.
Typical of these metal pieces are strap hangers, brackets, rods, metal
bases for columns, pintles, split rings, and gusset plates. Bolts and lag
screws are needed as fasteners at critical connections. Details for the
metal pieces or manufacturers' designations are indicated on the draw-
ings.
Drawings of timber buildings utilize systems for giving informa-
tion that are similar to systems used in drawings of steel and concrete
buildings. Plans are necessary to show the horizontal layout of the
columns and horizontal members of each level. Wood columns are
often darkened on the plan, with their footings shown in broken lines,
and detail sections and schedules are used to give specific information
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 287
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about individual members. Similar marking systems are used for mem-
bers commonly represented on the plans with a single heavy line. As in
other structural drawings, wood members are often identified by the
first letter of the name of the member. For example, B for beam, G for
girder, C for column, J for joist, T for truss, etc.
Details of symmetrical wooden trusses usually show only half of
the actual truss, to eliminate repetition. The bottom chord of a truss
detail is commonly drawn as a section through the truss looking down-
ward. Therefore, although it is placed below the elevation view, it is
nevertheless the top view of the bottom chord. As we mentioned, details
are scaled from actual size dimensions.
E. STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS?GENERAL
Structural drawings are usually
laid out with the large plan in the upper left of the sheet and the accom-
panying sections and details directly below (see Fig. 5-8). Schedules are
then placed in the upper right and their relating notes are located in
the lower right-hand corner. Plans are often drawn with the north
direction toward the top of the sheet. However, a north-point arrow
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Fig. 5-8 The general layout of a structural drawing.
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is commonly used for orientation, for directional reference is often
made in details for erecting individual members. Framing plans for
larger buildings are frequently drawn at the I- " = 1'0" scale. The
relating sections usually are drawn at 1" or -2- " = 1'0" scales.
Two general systems for identifying columns are in use. When the
structure is small, a sequential numbering system may be used (see Fig.
5-9). The system most often used for larger buildings, however, is the
grid system, as shown in Fig. 5-9(2). Both systems identify each column
within the structure. Column B-2 in the grid system corresponds to
Column 7 in the sequential system. It should be remembered that grid
lines are not always equally spaced, nor do they necessarily pass through
the column center. This fact must be closely observed in the layout.
Sometimes a grid line will be offset to include one or more columns not
aligned with the others.
Most drawings utilize a letter, as mentioned before, combined
with numbers to identify beams, girders, joists, and slabs. A notation
2B4 would indicate the fourth different beam on the second floor. Or
a note 3G6 would indicate the sixth different girder on the third floor.
Slight variations in identification systems used by draftsmen can be
clarified by relating views to verify them.
Footings are usually identified in the same way as the columns.
Footing B-2 would support Column B-2. Many times, however, foot-
ings are given an additional identifying notation. When footings vary
as to size or reinforcement, they are given a "mark" number to identify
all the identical footings. For example, footings B-1 and B-2 could both
be referenced as Mark(. This would indicate that a schedule listing of
Mark would apply to both.
As we have already seen, schedules are commonly employed on
both architectural and structural drawings for the purpose of compiling
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Fig. 5-9 Systems used for identifying columns on plan views. (A) Sequential. (B) Grid.
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complex information into a small, convenient space. It is much simpler
for a draftsman to place the information in a schedule than to place it
in note form throughout the drawing. However, interpreting informa-
tion in complex schedules requires, in many cases, an intimate knowl-
edge of the proposed construction and all the procedures involved. It
is not unusual for members listed as identical in the schedule actually
to have slightly different characteristics. Even contractors sometimes
have difficulty in reading involved schedules; so the novice should not
be discouraged if he sometimes finds a schedule on a drawing difficult
to understand. In practice, explanations by the architect or engineer are
occasionally necessary before schedule information is entirely clear.
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Fig. 6-10 Reading a column and footing schedule. The column and footing are similar to those in the Medical Arts Building.
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Fig. 5-11 Reading a beam schedule. The beam shown Is similar to those in the Medical Arts Building.
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F. COMPUTER APPLICATIONS TO DRAWINGS
Like our other major industries,
architecture and construction have been affected by the use of the
computer. Numerous architectural and engineering offices now use the
digital computer to more efficiently conduct various aspects of their
services.
Basically, the computer is an electronic calculating machine that
adds and subtracts, yet with the capacity for internal memory storage.
It even has the ability to correct itself. The advantage of the machine
is its accuracy as well as its tremendous speed in solving complex
problems.
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 291
Carefully conceived instructions, known as programs, must state
the problem in the computer language before it is fed into the machine.
These instructions may be in the form of punched cards, paper tape, or
magnetic tape. Some computers have automatic typewriter components
for typing the results of imput instruction on a paper output sheet.
One type of work in which computers have found application is in
the preparation of schedules for reinforced concrete structural drawings.
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 292
Their use has resulted in greater speed in drawing preparation, simpler
drawings, and fewer errors on the project. Conventional detail drawings
for steel placement are prepared by the detailer, and the quantities and
descriptions information are put on the output sheet by the computer.
This saves considerable time, yet the reader of the drawings must have
some familiarity with the computer language.
Often a "label system" is used to relate the bars shown on the
drawing to the machine printout sheet. Using this system, detailers
merely assign a label number to each bar-placing operation?either
each individual reinforcing bar or a group of bars. The label number
relates the detail drawings to the printout sheet, which shows bar sizes,
spacing, etc. Other programs are used to produce entirely machine-
printed column schedules, beam schedules, and slab schedules.
Similar applications are made in steel-frame construction. The
computer may be used in calculating results of the frame moment
distribution or the steel column design. The printout sheets are used
mainly as engineering aids in this case.
Some contour maps and sub-division layouts are now also made
with the use of the computer. A graphical-output device, known as an
XY plotter, in connection with the computer is able to make actual
contour maps from input data programs.
Probably the most universal application the computer has pro-
vided architectural offices is in the preparation of specifications. In large
offices where complex projects require extensive sets of specs, a library
of master architectural and engineering specs, which have been punched
into cards or loaded on disks or magnetic tape, are used repeatedly.
These comprehensive master specs form the base from which individual
job specs are printed out by the computer. Before the master spec
cards or tape are fed into the machine, the spec writer delets or adds
any special paragraphs to customize the material to each individual set.
Job deck cards or tape are made of these changes and then inserted into
the master cards or tape before they are fed into the machine for final
printout. The final tailormade specs are automatically typed out on
stencils or offset masters by the high-speed computer so reproductions
can be easily made.
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 293
G. HEAVY-CONSTRUCTION TERMS
tjciAL LOAD: A load applied on the axial center of a
structural member; usually refers to the load cen-
tered on a column.
JOISTS: Structural units made from various bar
and rod-shaped steel for supporting floors and
roofs; also known as steel joists (see Fig. 5-22).
'Ay: Square or rectangular areas, usually in a uniform
grouping, surrounded by columns (see Fig. 5-9).
icAjvi HANGER: A metal strap formed into a stirrup
shape, which lies over a supporting member and
supports the end of a horizontal beam (see Fig.
5-6).
WILED PILE: A pile with a flared bottom for better
bearing support (see Fig. 5-14).
gELB TEE: An inverted T-shaped steel member with its
vertical stem enlarged into a bulb shape; usually
used for the support of poured roof deck forming
panels (see Fig. 5-22).
NTILEVER BEAM: An overhanging beam with a
rigidly fixed support at only one end.
CAST-IN-PLACE PILE: A pile made by sinking a hollow
tube into the ground and pouring concrete into it.
OLkIRS: Metal supports made of heavy wire to hold the
steel bars in place during the pouring of concrete
in a form.
LUMN CAPITAL: The upper part of a column,
usually enlarged or decorated (see Fig. 5-19).
COMPRESSION: A squeezing force applied to a material,
creating a tendancy for it to become compressed.
CONTROL JOINT: A loose joint in a long masonry wall
or concrete slab to prevent cracking during expan-
sion and contraction?similar to an expansion
joint.
ITAIN WALL: A nonload bearing wall placed above
a spandrel beam or girder in skeleton-frame con-
struction (see Fig. 5-5).
CAISSON: A watertight compartment sunk below
ground water level to facilate the removal of earth
and the pouring of piers or piles.
1.EcTION: The amount of sag at the center of a
horizontal structural member when subjected to a
load.
%IliELS: Short lengths of steel rod cast into footings or
columns for fastening adjoining structural mem-
bers.
P PANEL: A thickened area of a flat slab directly
above the column capital (see Fig. 5-19).
PIN: A metal pin used in lining up holes and
temporarily joining members in steel-frame erection.
ECCENTRIC LOAD: A load applied off of the axial
center of a structural member; usually refers to an
unbalanced load on a column.
ERECTION MARK: An identification mark or number
placed on the end of each steel-frame member to aid
in the erection of the structure.
EXPANSION JOINT: See control joint.
FIELD RIVERTS & BOLTS: Rivets or bolts to be as-
sembled at the site.
FILLET WELD: The weld along the interior corner of
two steel plates that are at right angles (see Fig.
5-25).
FIRE RATING: The comparative resistance of a material
to failure, as stated in hours, when subjected to fire.
Ratings are standardized by fire underwriters.
FLANGE: The bottom and top portion of an I beam,
wideflange (VW), or channel member (see Fig. 5-3).
FLAT SLAB: A type of reinforced-concrete floor or roof
construction having no beams or girders below the
underside (see Fig. 5-19).
GAGE (Rivets): The distance in inches between rows of
rivets.
GLUE-LAMINATED MEMBERS: Structural timber units
constructed from smaller pieces fitted and glued
under pressure in the shop.
HEADER COURSE: A course of brick with the ends
exposed, to bond brick veneer to the subwall. It is
usually placed every sixth course.
HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS: Fastening bolts made of
superior strength steel used to connect members
together in steel-frame construction.
INVERT ELEVATION: The height at which a drainage
line must join a manhole or main for proper
drainage.
KICK PLATE: A metal plate fastened to the lower part
of a door to prevent damage to the door (see Fig.
5-40).
KIP: A unit of 1000-lb. load.
LATERAL BRACING: Usually diagonal bracing in the
structure to counteract wind pressures (see Fig.
5-2).
LOAD FACTOR: The number that results by dividing
the failure load by the working load. Often sub-
stituted for the safety factor in codes and specifica-
tions.
LIGHT-STEEL FRAMING: Construction utilizing light
steel members for the structure in smaller buildings.
LUG SILL: A stone or concrete sill under windows.
The sill is wider than the window opening and is set
into the adjoining masonry.
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METAL SHOE: A boxed steel plate used to receive a
wooden beam, arch, or column (see Fig. 5-6).
MOMENT: The result of a load on a member, creating
a tendancy of the member to rotate about a given
point or axis that is within its cross section. Moments
are measured in foot-kips, foot-pounds, or inch-
pounds.
MOMENT DIAGRAM: A graphic description of the
moments along a structural member.
PANS (Forming): Steel forms in the shape of pans, used
in forming ribbed and waffle-type concrete floors and
roofs.
PEDASTAL: A column base or support that is placed
between the column and its footing.
PILE: A long shaft of wood, concrete, or steel driven
or cast into the ground to give added support to a
foundation supporting heavy loads. It may also be
used when stable soil or rock is far below unstable
surface soils (see Fig. 5-13).
PITCH (Rivets): The distance between centers of each
rivet.
PLATE GIRDER: A steel girder built up with a plate
web and angle sections as flanges.
POSTENSIONING: A type of prestressed concrete that
is given compression after the concrete has set.
PRETENSIONING: A type of prestressed concrete in
which the steel is given tension stresses before the
concrete has set.
PRECAST CONCRETE: Concrete units cast and finished
before being erected into place.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE: Concrete members that
have been placed in a state of compression prior to
being loaded. The compression is generally induced
by tensioning steel tendons. The technique allows
longer spans with less materials.
RELIEF ANGLE: A steel angle attached horizontally
to the structural frame of a building for the support
of masonry veneer that is beyond the support of the
main framework (see Fig. 5-5).
RIBBED SLAB: A type of concrete floor construction
having ribs (sometimes called joists) formed on the
underside of the slab.
RIGID FRAME: A structural system utilizing rigid
structural connections between the beam and
column elements. Frequently the beam elements are
placed on a slope.
ROLLED SECTION: A structural steel member, such as
an I beam or wide-flange (W) section, that is formed
into its shape by hot rolling at the mill.
SAFETY FACTOR: The number that results from divid-
ing the ultimate strength by the allowable working
stress. Codes regulate the minimum safety factor
required in many areas.
SCARFED JOINT: A joint (usually in wood beams)
made by notching or grooving adjoining pieces so
that the ends lap over and are firmly joined into one
continuous piece.
SCUPPER: An openiug in a wall for the release of water
from a floor or roof.
SEATED CONNECTION: A connection in steel-frame
construction having a horizontal seat, formed by an
angle connector, for a beam or girder to rest upon
(see Fig. 5-31).
SHEAR: A condition in a member resulting from forces
or load placement that causes a sliding tendancy
within the cross section of the member.
SHEAR DIAGRAM: A graphic description of the shear
forces in a loaded structural member.
SHOP RIVETS: Rivets that are fastened in the shop
before the steel members have been delivered to the
site (see Fig. 5-24).
SHORING: Wooden posts or shores used to support
walls or other parts of a building during construc-
tion.
SKEW BACK: A sloping surface or a diagonal unit
against which the end of a curved arch rests o
abuts.
SLIP SILL: A beveled cast concrete or stone pi
placed below a window to shed water. It is the sa
length as the width of the window opening.
SOIL BORING: Boring of subsurface soil for the purp
of investigating the load-bearing and stabili
characteristics of the site.
SOIL-CEMENT: A mixture of soil and cement for
purpose of obtaining an economical, stable maten
Mainly used as a paving underlayment.
SPANDREL BEAM: A horizontal beam supported
columns on each end in skeleton-frame constru
SPLIT-RING CONNECTOR: A split, circular
ring inserted into grooves between two wood ro
bers of a joint. A bolt in the center passes thr0
both members and creates extreme resista
shear.
SPREAD FOOTING: A concrete footing that is
than the structural member it supports and is f
purpose of spreading the load to the soil or
tion (see Fig. 5-10).
STEEL JOIST: A light steel beam made from
or angles welded into rigid units (see Fig.
They are also made from light rolled sectiO
STRIPPING: The process of removing the fo
poured concrete after it has hardened.
STIRRUPS: Wood construction?vertical steel_
to support the ends of a beam or joist.
Concrete construction?steel
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 295
formed to surround the horizontal reinforcing near
the ends of a concrete beam for the purpose of
increasing the resistance to shear (see Fig. 5-15).
SUSPENDED CEILING: A ceiling hung below the un-
derside of a concrete slab or other structure. Wire
and channel sections are commonly used to support
the ceiling material (see Fig. 5-34).
TEMPERATURE RODS: Steel rods placed perpendicular
to the main reinforcing in slabs to counteract the
tendancy to cracking during the concrete hardening
process and later from expansion and contraction
during temperature changes.
TENSION: The stress or force in a material caused by a
pulling action, which tends to create a lengthening
of the material.
TIMBER CONNECTORS: Metal pieces and devices
used in timber construction to contribute greater
rigidity and strength to bolted connections of the
members (see Fig. 5-6).
TRANSOM: A small window above a door or other
window.
TWO-WAY SLAB: A concrete slab floor or roof in
which the reinforcing steel in placed in two per-
pendicular directions (see Fig. 5-18).
ULTIMATE STRENGTH: Generally used in reference to
the testing of structural materials. The strength of
a material varies during the application of stresses;
the point at which the greatest strength is obtained
is called the ultimate strength.
VESTIBULE: A small entrance hall next to the entrance
of a building (see Fig. 5-38).
VERTICAL STIFFENER: Metal angles or plates fastened
to steel members where concentrations of stress
Occur.
WEB: The center portion of an I beam, wide-flange (VF),
or channel member (see Fig. 5-3).
WEEP HOLES: Small holes near the bottom of masonry
walls to allow release of moisture accumulating in the
walls.
WEEP WICK: A short length of small rope placed in
weep holes to allow seepage of moisture from
masonry walls to the exterior, yet not having an
actual opening.
WELDED WIRE FABRIC: Steel wires welded together to
form a mesh for concrete slab reinforcing.
WIND BRACING: Diagonal struts placed within the
structure of a building to resist lateral wind pres-
sures (see Fig. 5-2).
WIND LOADS: Lateral forces acting against a building
that must be considered in the design of high-rise
buildings especially.
WORKING LOADS: Those definite forces, used in design
calculations, that act upon the structural members.
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Fig. 5-13 Piling used to support a steel column footing.
H. FOUNDATIONS
1. Boring Logs
Investigation of the soil load-bearing qualities at the site is an
important prerequisite before the footings of heavy buildings can be
designed. The characteristics of soils vary widely throughout the country
and even in local areas. It is general practice to have soil-testing firms
make representative borings in the building area so that realistic as-
sumptions can be made. Normally the locations of the borings are
indicated on the Site Plan, and sometimes the test results are shown on
the drawings in the form of boring logs. These graphic logs show the
soil, rock, and ground water encountered and their depths.
1 Cc-)Lum n
Foon n
1
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2. Piling
Depending on the nature of the subsoil and the contemplated
weight of the building, piling may be necessary for stable support of the
foundation. Piles are long lengths of wood, concrete, or steel forced
down through soft or unstable strata until they will support the esti-
mated load. Many factors about the structural concept are considered
in the selection and use of piling.
On drawings in which piles are used, a pile layout in plan is
necessary. Detail drawings of the piles showing sizes, reinforce-
ment, and information about the pile caps are also included in the
drawings. Elevation heights are given for the top surface of each pile.
Sometimes a pile layout is shown with each pile darkened and the pile
footing shown in broken lines. Other layouts may show the piles in
broken lines and the footings above in solid lines. Schedules may also
be employed to give extensive pile information.
3. Drilled Piers
Some foundation situations may be solved better with the use of
drilled piers or caissons. These are holes drilled to stable soil or rock
and filled with concrete. Some may have belled bottoms to disperse the
load over larger areas. Generally, they are not reinforced except for
anchor bolts or dowels at their tops. Here again, a plan layout must
be shown for the piers, and detail drawings giving sizes, shapes, and
elevation heights are needed. Schedules may also be used if extensive
piers are shown on the drawings.
; 4. Grade Beams
Another system for supporting moderately heavy, as well as light,
? buildings is with the use of grade beams. These are continuous rein-
_ forced-concrete beams below grade under the exterior walls of the
a building. They are designed to carry the weight monolithically, with
strategically placed piers below the grade beams where concentrations
of load occur (see Fig. 5-14). Actually, the piers or caissons act as
columns below the grade beams to carry the weight to stable soil levels
. below. The grade beams are usually reinforced at top and bottom with
straight bars rather than bent reinforcing, as is found in typical concrete
? beams. Stirrups are not required, as a rule. The bars may be indicated
7. with a note on the plan or they may be given on a schedule. Sizes and
elevations are also shown by notes on the plan or on typical section
? views.
5. Wall Footings
Walls (whether load bearing or not) that rest on the ground must
have continuous spread-type footings below. The size of the footings is
determined by the loads they will carry and the load-bearing capacity
of the soil. Frost depths, of course, also determine the depths the
- footings must be placed below grade. For various reasons, footings are
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often placed at different depths below a building; this will be evidenced
by the elevation heights shown at different points. Notice in Fig. 5-37
that the top surface of the footings is shown throughout on the eleva-
tion views, where the different levels can be easily seen.
Poured concrete, because it can be reinforced to counteract failure
from shear and bending, is the most universal material used for foot-
ings. Some wall footings may be integral with column footings, requir-
ing only enlargement below the columns where concentrations of load
develop; others may show isolated footings for both.
To conserve concrete mass in footings, some are formed in
stepped cross-sectional shapes and are termed stepped footings. Ideally
the footings are designed to provide uniform settlement throughout
the building. Uniform settlement of the entire building is not objec-
tional; eccentric settlement, on the other hand, can lead to extensive
structural damage.
Fig. 5-14 The appearance of a grade-beam foundation.
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Continuous footings are ordinarily shown with broken lines on
the plan and are detailed in section views to reveal sizes and steel
placement. Footing schedules may also supplement the sections in giving
size and reinforcement information.
6. Column Footings
Isolated footings are often used to support the concentrated loads
at the columns in heavy buildings. The footings are square or rectangu-
lar in shape and are reinforced with rods in both directions near the
bottom (see Fig. 5-11). Sometimes a combined footing is designed to
carry the loads of several adjacent columns. Reinforcing steel dowels
are cast into the footings to anchor concrete columns, whereas anchor
bolts are used to attach steel-frame column bases. When necessary, piles
or drilled piers may be indicated below isolated footings.
Each footing is identified on the drawings with a mark?often the
mark identifies both the footing and the column it supports. Some
drawings give each footing a different mark in uniform sequence.
Others give the same mark to all footings having the same size and
5ICCI reinforcement to avoid repetition in the schedules and notes. Each
type of column footing is also drawn in section to show the shape and
steel reinforcing. Schedules commonly identify size, top elevation,
steel reinforcing, and dowels or anchor bolts (see Fig. 5-11). Location
dimensions are seldom needed for footings, for their centers coincide
with column centerlines.
I. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
1. Masonry Bearing Walls
As we mentioned earlier, masonry bearing-wall construction
utilizes the strength of the walls to support the weight from the floors
and roof of the building. Many small commercial buildings employ this
structural system, and it is frequently used in parts of larger buildings
having other types of structures.
In reading a drawing, you should be able to recognize the principle
by the absence of columns throughout the walls and by the nature of
the section details. Structural members for support of floors or roof with
the bearing walls may be wood, trusses, steel bar joists, steel beams, or
precast concrete joists. Many variations are possible; some may have
intermediate columns or posts throughout the interior if long spans are
necessary, yet the walls are made load bearing.
For economy and appearance, most walls are veneered and may
he either cavity or solid. Codes regulate the thicknesses according to
heights and loads imposed upon them. Frequently, metal ties are shown
to bond the veneer to the subwall, and horizontal and vertical reinforce-
ment may be required within the walls. Metal bearing plates are often
used below steel bar joists and beams to spread the load to the wall.
All openings in the walls should have lintels (usually steel angles) to
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
support the weight above the openings. You will notice that metal
flashing is shown within the walls at critical points to protect the
structure from moisture seepage.
Bond beams are widely employed in concrete block walls to pro-
vide bearing for beams or joists. They also may serve as lintels or as a
continuous tie around the entire upper part of the wall. Usually the
beams are made with hollow units filled with concrete and steel reinforc-
ing bars.
Various types of metal anchors embedded into the mortar joints
of masonry walls are used to prevent lateral movement of beam or
joist members.
a. curtain walls
Curtain walls may be placed within the vertical framed planes of a
skeleton-frame building, or they may be placed outside the framework
to form the complete outer skin of the building. They carry no loads
other than their own weight; therefore their function is somewhat dif-
ferent from bearing walls. This difference should be kept in mind when
reading the working drawings. In high-rise buildings, the curtain walls
are generally the same thickness throughout. As a rule, 8" subwalls
are supported on the spandrel beams with a 4" thick veneer bonded to
the subwall or supported with metal anchors and relief angles attached
to the framework.
Masonry curtain walls are made from concrete block, brick, tile,
stone, precast concrete panels, etc. In some buildings, the walls are
formed mainly of glass set in aluminum frames throughout the major
walls of the building. Also, many paneled materials (sandwich panels)
having good weather resistance and insulating qualities are used for
curtain walls.
Details of the curtain walls must be carefully studied to under-
stand their relationship to the frame and their method of support.
Sometimes the curtain walls are keyed to the frame, and the frame is
left exposed. Other details may show the frame enclosed within a cavity
type wall. Many architectural treatments are possible with the selec-
tion and treatment of the curtain wall materials.
b. partition walls
Partitions within a building may be load bearing or nonload bearing.
In small buildings with exterior bearing walls, the major partitions
very often are also load bearing. This results in economy of floor and
roof framing because of the shorter spans. In larger, skeleton-frame
buildings, the partitions are commonly nonload bearing and are made
with light-weight masonry materials. Major considerations are rigidity,
fire resistance, and good sound isolation qualities.
On ground floors, light partitions may rest on slabs that have
been thickened to carry their weight, or small footings may be shown
below the walls. In upper levels of multistory buildings, the partitions
usually are placed directly over beams, or additional support is provided
in the floor framing for them. Generally 4- or 6"- thick concrete block or
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 301
toe with plaster finishes is used for single-story heights. Lighter parti-
tions may use metal studs and gypsum board or plaster coverings.
Some codes allow the use of wood studs for interior partitions.
The interpretation of partition walls is not complex on drawings.
plan views indicate both their placement and the materials required;
a typical section may also show further information.
2. Concrete
Until lately reinforced-concrete structural systems have mainly
been used for large, complex buildings; but in recent years, with advanc-
ed techniques in design, quality control, forming, etc., many smaller
buildings are being built with the system. As we mentioned, this material
seems to have the brightest future in the construction industry.
Basically a reinforced-concrete structure employs the material for
all its structural members, including footings, columns, girders, beams,
floors, and roof. Elaborate schedules are often necessary to reduce the
number of drawings. Yet many sections are still required, and a careful
organization of the various drawings is an important task of the architect
and the engineer.
The steel reinforcing bars are shown on the structural drawings
with bold, heavy lines, whereas the outlines of the concrete are made
with somewhat lighter lines. No concrete symbol is ordinarily shown
on the sections other than, perhaps, a light pencil shading within the
concrete area. Sometimes it is even left blank to save drafting time.
Openings in a concrete slab floor for stairs, elevators, chases, etc. are
ften indicated on the plan with light diagonal lines drawn from the
corners of the openings, with the word OPEN placed within. Diagonal
fines through areas of a slab may also indicate variations in the slab
Fig. 5-15 Stirrups used in concrete beam reinforcement.
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Fig. 6-16 (A) Horizontal ties used In column reinforcement.
1 I
!it k
01111111111 211 I
1
rib 41i111111111?11011 00111111 Pti i
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Fig. 5-16 (B) Spiral reinforcement in columns.
"
Fig. 6-17 Beam-and-girder construction Is commonly used to support one-way slabs.
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302
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6601172R000900100001-2
beArT15
Fig. 5-18 Two-way slab construction.
Important structural heights, such as the top or bottom surface
of footings, the tops of beams or girders, or floor levels, may be indicated
With an elevation on the plans. These elevations may be shown in feet
iid inches (Elev. 99'6") or as feet and decimal parts of a foot (Elev.
%.5'). Sometimes these heights are placed on typical sections.
One of the numbering systems is commonly employed to identify
the column footings (often the same as the columns) on the plan, and
the sizes and reinforcement needed are placed in the footing schedule.
Because of the load variations often imposed upon various columns
st a building, column schedules are the simplest method of handling all
size and reinforcing information (see Fig. 5-11). Columns may have
vertical bars enclosed either with ties or with a continuous spiral.
s of column splices at the different floor levels should be shown
vertical section. Sometimes one will notice that column loads
kips) are placed near each column. This may prove helpful if upper
rs are to be added later or if future remodeling becomes necessary.
11. slab floors and roofs
than slabs-on-ground, which are discussed in Chapter 3, a number
Systems are used to construct the floors and roof of reinforced-
ete buildings.
A one-way slab, with the main reinforcing rods placed in one
ion (the shorter dimension in rectangular bays), is the simplest
303
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IDI2OPPED PAnff
CA PiTAL-
- TA.P ER CD COL-LJ
Fig. 5-19 Flat slab construction.
type of concrete floor. The slab must be supported by a concrete or steel
beam. For a single span, details will show the bars spaced at regular
intervals in the bottom of the slab. If the slab is supported over several
beams or parallel walls, the bars are usually bent to the top of the slab
over the support. One-way slabs are typically supported by beam-and-
girder type construction (see Fig. 5-17).
In concrete slab roofs and floors, "temperature" bars are often
noted. These bars are placed perpendicular to the main or load-carrying
reinforcing and resist shrinkage cracking during the "setting-up" period
of the concrete. They also help resist cracking due to temperature
changes during the life of the slab. A note such as #4 @ 12" TEMP.
indicates reinforcement for this purpose.
Beams or girders are the horizontal structural members supported
by the columns. Girders support beams and are in turn supported by
either other girders or by columns; beams may be supported by girders
or columns. Details shown on the drawings should reveal a logical system
of showing spans, cross-sectional sizes, both horizontal and vertical
steel arrangements, as well as bar sizes and spacing. Beams often vary
in size and amount of steel required to sustain the various loads. There-
fore each beam or girder in a complex building is listed in a beam
schedule (see Fig. 5-10).
Another system, called a flat slab, is constructed without beams
and with the main reinforcing placed in two or more directions. Only
columns, usually having enlarged capitals, are used throughout the
interior for the slab support. Thickened areas of the slab directly over
the columns are called "drop panels" (see Fig. 5-19). Generally the steel
is placed in "bands" and is specified as either a "column strip" over the
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Fig. 6-20 Ribbed slab construction.
r.2115s oa Joisys
Fig. 5-21 "Waffle" floor construction.
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Approved For Release 2005/27/211
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Fig. 5-22 A pictorial section of the Medical Arts Building structure at a mortar Waal
306
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1111.11.11.1111111111111111
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Pi2eC,A.T
pL_Ani4 u n 1-1-5
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Fig. 6-23 Precast concrete units used for roof and floor decks.
columns or as a "middle strip." The middle strip consists of that half of
the span midway between the columns. Careful details of these important
points must be shown on the drawings. A floor framing plan with this
type of slab ordinarily shows the steel band locations with shaded areas,
the drop panels with broken lines, and the columns with darkest tones.
Another popular concrete floor system, called a ribbed slab or joist
construction, consists of a thin slab (2" or 2-i-" thick) supported on
concrete joists spanning between beams (see Fig. 5-20). When the joists
run in two directions, it is called a waffle slab (see Fig. 5-21). The ribs
are cast between metal pans placed in the forms, or sometimes filler
blocks may be used. The system therefore decreases the amount and
weight of the concrete needed; yet long spans are possible. Two rein-
forcing rods are usually placed in the lower part of the ribs, and wire
fabric or small bars span between joists. Sometimes stirrups are re-
quired. Because of their appearance, waffle slabs are often exposed
from below to produce interesting ceilings. Otherwise, the ceilings are
ordinarily covered with suspended ceiling materials. As a rule, the shape
of the supporting bays is influential in determining whether one-way or
two-way slabs are best employed.
Doti TL'e _
Li 11 1T5
b. precast units
In many cases precast concrete joists, made with light-weight aggregate
and steel reinforcing bars, are used as the floor structure, with either
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 308
concrete or steel-frame construction. Some are placed on bearing walls.
The precast units are manufactured to specifications supplied in the
drawings and delivered to the job, ready to be lifted into place. Slabs
placed over the units may be poured in place or they may be precast
units also.
For longer spans, prestressed units may be employed. Numerous
plants now manufacture custom-designed prestressed beams and
joists, as well as other standardized units, for various applications (see
Fig. 5-23). Prestressed units are cast with the steel reinforcing under
tension (pretensioning), producing longitudinal compressive stress in
the concrete and resulting in less deflection when the unit is subjected to
load. Economy in both the material and weight is effected and longer
spans are possible. In some units, the steel is given tension after the
concrete is cast (postensioning). Some units are made in the form of a
wide "T" section and placed against each other in the floor, thereby
eliminating the need for slab forming or for placing cast units over
them. Various other shapes and units are available for prestressed con-
crete floors and roofs.
Precast joists or other units in the structure require a placement
layout or diagram and an identification method, either by note or with
the use of a schedule, as to sizes and placement. After engineering
?lett)
SHOP RIVETS rzive-rs
WITS
IpOr /
Alf 17
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 309
f
Du-n- weLD
sm&Le LAP \VELD
Fig. 5-25 Typical construction welds.
DOU15LE LAP \VELD
rILLeT weLID
calculations have been furnished in the structural drawings, shop
drawings are made by the supplier for the different units before they
can be fabricated.
Further information on the technical characteristics of the various
types of reinforced concrete roof and floor slabs can be obtained from
the Portland Cement Association, Old Orchard Road, Skokie, Ill.
60076.
3. Steel
Steel-frame buildings may have one or several structural systems
employed throughout. High-rise steel-frame buildings, generally use
the beam and girder system. Here the columns resting upon isolated
footings continue up to the top of the structure. At each floor level,
.Orders are attached to the columns and beams are attached to the
girders, which, in turn, create rectangular or square bays for the purpose
of supporting the floor slabs. Variations, of course, exist for almost
every building, but in simple terms this is the framework of the major
steel members. Beams framing directly into columns are referred to as
Vandrel beams, as the discussion on concrete buildings mentioned.
Various masonry materials may be used for the walls; even glass
lbaY be used for considerable expanses of the walls. The masonry is
:11sually veneered on the exterior with thinner weather-resistant materials
'laving attractive textures and colors. Angle shelves anchored to the
I frame, called relief angles, or various other metal anchors are
zed to support or attach the veneer to the subwalls.
Each column and its bearing plate must be anchored to its footing
anchor bolts. Although the column lengths are generally several
es. high, each tier is erected one at a time, with careful considera-
given to the column splices. Wide-flange sections are the most
mon ones used for the columns, and the splices are placed 2 or 3
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 310
BASIC WELD SYMBOLS
PLUG
GROOVE OR BUTT
BACK
FILLET
OR
SLOT
SQUARE
V
BEVEL
U
J
-
FLARE V
FLARE
BEVEL
-v
.____/IIVVY
I
-- 1
IC
SUPPLEMENTARY WELD SYMBOLS
WELD ALL
CONTOUR
AROUND
FIELD WELD
FLUSH
CONVEX
STANDARD LOCATION OF ELEMENTS OF A WELDING SYMBOL
Finish symbol
Contour symbol Gforroopvluegawngelldesor included
angle of countersink
Root opening, depth Length in inches
\
of weld
of filling for plug
and slot welds
Pitch
(c. to c. spacing)
of welds in inches
Size in inches
?
Reference line
Specification, process
or other reference S
R
... __,
Weld-all-around symbol
Field weld symbol
3 ,..
Tail (may be omitted / -c
when reference
is not used)
Arrow connecting reference line
to arrow side of joint (also points
Basic weld symbol to grooved member in bevel and
detail
or reference J grooved joints)
Note:
Size, weld symbol, length of weld and spacing must read in that order from left to right along the reference line.
Neither orientation of reference line nor location of the arrow alter this rule.
The perpendicular leg of L, V, V r weld symbols must be at left.
Arrow and Other Side welds are of the same size unless otherwise shown.
- -
Symbols apply between abrupt changes in direction of welding unless governed by the "all around" symbol or othe,r-
wise dimensioned.
These symbols do not explicitly provide for the case that frequently occurs in structural work, where duplicate
material (such as stiffeners) occurs on the far side of a web or gusset plate. The fabricating industry has adopted this
convention; that when the billing of the detail material discloses the identity of far side with near side, the welding shown
for the near side shall also be duplicated on the far side.
Fig. 5-26 Welding symbols used on drawings. (Courtesy of the American institute of Steel Construction.)
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50uAl2e Gaoove
fILLaT weLa
IteVeL C71200ve
Fig. 5-27 Weld-joint symbols commonly encountered on construction
drawings.
ft. above floor levels for structural reasons as well as to prevent inter-
ference with girder-to-column connections. Although steel manuals
provide the allowable loads for the standard types and their various
sizes, connection details must be shown on the structural drawings (see
Fig. 5-28).
Column schedules for steel buildings give the steel section for
each floor, location of splices, elevations of floor levels, and lengths of
the columns. Typically, a space between two vertical lines is used to
represent each column, and the schedule is arranged to appear similar
the height of the building (see Fig. 5-32). Associated details often
ompany the schedule.
Structural drawings must be complete and understandable so that
fabricator can produce and erect the members accurately and eco-
illomically. Shop drawings by the steel fabricator show how each piece
tut and fabricated, plus how it is erected. Each steel member is given
erection mark, usually on one end, to aid in the erection.
Concrete floor slabs of one type or another are universally utilized
steCl-frame buildings. Many are similar to those used with reinforced-
ete construction; in fact, steel buildings are often combinations
both steel and concrete construction. In addition to one-way or two-
floor slabs, steel decking floors, tile or concrete block filler floors,
ete pan floors, precast concrete floors, or slabs on open-web steel
may be shown on the drawings.
311
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.94 LI
x
CO
di
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Approved For Release 2005/07/28 : CIA-RDP961301172R000900100001-2
A E.
SOLrFt-f
erA =
I (-
?
4 CUT
1-7 "
U
- 1?
- le \AI= c24
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-
A13C ST ff.12J_ CO. '
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Ng. 1-29 A typical shop drawing of the stmd beams shown in Fig. 6-28 plan.
Fig. 5-30 Pictorial view of the framed Imam connection shown In Fig. 5-28.
313
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opt n ttoLes
(f-or2 le?LO-
ouivtn 12vars)
4 \AP- 105
COLA) M
IS V\F G4
seAT G-L-ff
5T1Frtneas
si-rop 121VffTS
FILL PLTe
Fig. 6-31 Pictorial view of the stiffened-seated beam connection shown In Fig. 6-28.
coLu mn scrtffouLt-
155, C 5, CG
A5, AG
C7111200F
142-0
?a r L-00Q
152 -0
2 no FL-00i2
CL. /20-0
GT FLOOR
EL-. loG -0
5ns PLATe
L
c
to
1/49
c-3
24x 22.x 2
51 x28
22x 19x1
Fig. 5-32. A typical steel column schedule.
Fig. 6-33 A concrete slab poured over metal forming and steel joists.
a. steel joists
Light steel joists, often called bar joists (Fig. 5-41), are widely used
in many commercial buildings for spanning floors and roofs where
moderate loads are anticipated. Many standard types and sizes are
available from manufacturers in nearly all areas of the country. Normally
they form the structure for flat or low-pitch roofs of one or two-story
buildings. Often steel lath and plaster or channels and acoustical board
ceilings are hung from their lower bars. They are easy to handle and
are quickly erected. Ducts, wiring, or piping can be easily run through
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314
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 315
their open spaces. Forming panels can be laid over the joists and either
concrete or gypsum can be poured over the forms, requiring only wire
mesh as reinforcing, to produce adequate floors and lightweight roofs.
Precast concrete panels, formed steel decking, fiber panels, or other
manufactured products can be used for the decking. Rigid insulation is
often included in the roof deck if insulating concrete or gypsum is not
shown. Insulating properties are important considerations in the selec-
tion of roof decking material.
Because of their widespread use, steel joists are standardized
according to their span and depth. Properties of steel joists may be
found in the Manual of Steel Construction, published by the American
Institute of Steel Construction, or in literature from the Steel Joist
Institute, 1346 Conneticut Ave., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Joists are seldom completely detailed on drawings; they, of course,
must be partially shown in details revealing their arrangement at bear-
ing ends or at points where they influence the construction of other
components (see Fig. 5-42). A framing plan is needed to show their
layout; sizes or manufacturers' identification numbers are given in a
note. Cross bridging between the joists, if needed, is also indicated in
the layout. The details may show the joists welded to a steel beam
(Fig. 5-22) or to a bearing plate anchored to a reinforced concrete
beam, or they may show the joists bolted to plates supported by masonry
walls. Many applications are found for these versatile building units.
For long spans in field houses, auditoriums, and similiar buildings,
large, steel trusses are often used for the roof structure. Details of the
trusses and a layout diagram are shown on the structural drawings.
b. prefabricated steel buildings
Recently the use of small prefabricated steel buildings has in-
creased substantially. For small industrial-commercial type buildings,
prefabricated units possess a number of advantages. They are very
economical, can be erected quickly, and can be dismantled and re-
erected if necessary; they are rigid and can be made resistive to most of
the destructive elements. Basic prefabricated designs can also be varied
in exterior appearance by variations of exterior coverings, by various
arrangements of window and door treatments, and with additional
architectural wall effects.
Besides the original shop drawings, only simple architectural
drawings are needed to show modifications, floor and footing dimen-
sions, and erection directions. Partitions, which are not usually furnish-
ed by the fabricator, must also be indicated on the drawings if required.
Manufacturers' specifications, supplied with the prefabricated com-
ponents, eliminate much of the expense of professional architectural
service.
J. DETAILS
Depending on the purpose of a
building, many details other than the structure must be defined on the
set of drawings. Some details are typical of nearly all buildings; others
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 316
may be highly specialized features found only in those buildings in-
tended for nongeneral use. Consideration for these details is important
in reading working drawings; often their inclusion results in various
modifications of the structure itself during the design stage. A few typical
details are mentioned here; other specialized details may require further
reference to manufacturers' catalogs for full understanding of their
representation on drawings.
1. Stairs
One of the typical details necessary in most buildings of more
than one story is a detail of some type of stair connecting the floor
levels. Terminology and information about wooden stairs are discussed
in Chapter 3. Many of the terms and the drawings involved apply to
stairs in commercial buildings as well, although stairs in commercial
buildings are usually constructed of steel or reinforced concrete.
Stairwells are commonly constructed with fireproof masonry
materials, and adequate railings must be provided for safety. Usually
platforms are employed throughout flights of commercial-building
stairs to eliminate fatigue and discomfort during ascent and decent.
Steel stairs are often prefabricated, requiring shop drawings for
their construction. The units are installed after the floor levels are
completed. Details on the architectural drawings reveal their support
at both the base and the head of the units, total rise and run, riser and
tread sizes, and size and location of platforms, if required. Often full
sections through the entire stair flight are shown, along with isolated
details of a stair tread, bearing support, and railing profile and anchor-
ing.
Reinforced-concrete stairs are, of course, cast in place, often
monolithically with a concrete structural system. Sections show the
bar reinforcement running both ways and the anchoring at walls and
floors. Substantial support must be provided at the base of a concrete
stair; in general, it is provided by a bearing wall or a beam. Essentially,
the stairs are similar to an inclined beam with the steel placed accord-
ingly.
Treads are often covered with a nonslipping, wear-resistant
material on both reinforced-concrete and steel stairs. Interior stairs
are commonly provided with elaborately designed railings having the
hand rail of wood or other material that is comfortable to hold. Steel
pipe or square tube railings are often used with concrete exterior stairs.
Plan views of stair layouts show not only their widths but also
the riser height and the total number of risers in the flight.
2. Windows and Doors
Metal window units vary widely in type and size. As a rule, only
high-grade metal units are used in commercial buildings. On the
architectural drawings, units are identified on the plan view and a
window schedule gives the necessary information, which is similar to
the method used in residential drawings. Also, sections through a head,
jamb, and sill show exactly how the window units are mounted and
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attached to the walls. Many metal windows are glazed after installation.
Doors in commercial buildings are identified in a similar manner.
Door schedules give the types and sizes; as with windows, better quality
doors are specified in commercial buildings. Many are fire resistant,
having at least a one-hour fire rating. The door details are commonly
limited to details of the jamb arrangements in the various walls through-
out the building. Ordinarily, sections showing the head and side jamb
are all that is necessary in the details. Steel jambs set into the masonry
openings and attached with metal anchors are universally used. Spaces
within the hollow metal jambs are commonly filled with cement grout.
Many window walls as well as windows combined with door units
are made of extruded aluminum frames for use in commercial build-
ings, especially buildings used for retail sales. Careful drawings of these
alluminum and glass units are needed in order for the supplier to pre-
fabricate and install them in their openings. For the most part, they are
custom built. Usually an elevation of each unit is shown, with the glass
or panel materials indicated and with a series of sections showing the
aluminum profiles at heads, jambs, mullions, transoms, etc. Stock
profile moldings are normally indicated with manufacturers' numbers.
Complete dimensions must be given for the aluminum surround so that
accurate bids can be made from the drawings. Neoprene plastic gaskets
or caulking are the most common types of setting beds for the glass in
the aluminum frames.
3. Interior Finishes
Finish materials are the final surfaces applied to the interior of
the building as the construction nears completion. Both the drawings
and the specifications will furnish detail information about this final
stage. Of particular concern is the final surface applied to walls, ceilings,
and floors, plus the application of all moldings and trim. Careful work-
manship is required in this phase, and complete details on the drawings
help to provide it. Aside from the finish materials shown on specific
details, interior elevations are often needed for walls of rooms requiring
special consideration. Care must be taken when reading drawings to
orient these elevation views to their proper locations. Also, finish sched-
ules frequently compile the room-by-room interior materials and the
painting that has to be done on the different surfaces.
Portland cement plaster is a popular wall covering in fireproof
buildings and is applied over expanded metal lath or bonded directly
to masonry. Gypsum plaster is also popular; many ceilings are covered
With gypsum acoustical plaster. Other acoustical ceilings are constructed
with fiberboard panels hung on metal channels with wires, called
"suspended ceilings." Various walls may have ceramic tile, wood panel-
ing, gypsum board, brick or stone, or even plastic laminate. Many
buildings are now economically finished by merely painting the exposed
concrete block. Base trim materials are compatible with the material
used for the finish floor. That is, ceramic tile base is usually used with
ceramic tile floors, rubber base with resilient tile, wood base with wood
floors, etc.
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1 i
CopltiG-
\VA.5 t-f
0121 P
PARAPET WALL_
CAP F-1-AS l`t ncr
(,2
SusPen OM)
C1 LI flc3
cHAnnaL.
mrra. LATti 41
PI-A. ST="12
conc.
m-r4L-
,.flCftOQ.
sTc2n
vn m-et2
Fig. 6-34 A parapet wall and stone veneer detail, showing a suspended ceiling.
Finish flooring Materials are also indicated on the architectural
drawings as well as the specifications. Typical flooring materials used in
commercial buildings are.
1. Wood (attached with mastic or over sleepers)
2. Troweled concrete
3. Terrazzo
4. Terra cotta
5. Ceramic tile
6. Mastic materials?magnesite, asphalt, epoxy resin
7. Resilient flooring?asphalt, linoleum, vinyl, rubber or cork tile.
K. READING THE MEDICAL ARTS BUILDING
WORKING DRAWINGS
Included with this material is
a complete set of working drawings for a small medical arts building.
Several doctors and their staff would find it appropriate for conducting
their general medical practice. Although not large compared to many
coniercial buildings, it represents a variety of construction elements?
both, concrete and steel. Hence the drawings will be appropriate for
prov ing various construction examples and their representations on
drawings. For a manual of this type, the actual drawings naturally had
to t4 regIARP4141riegkcti5 Was% lifiN/Trila rigilikage9 i>1 7R,000900100001 -2
318
COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 319
which is typical of many used in practice. Further reduction would have
made them difficult to read; yet the reduction allows you to refer back
and forth through the set with less effort than with the originals.
In general, follow the points listed below in orienting yourself to
this set of drawings; the procedure is equally as effective in reading
other sets that are totally unfamiliar to you. Keep in mind that draw-
ings must be interpreted together and that they should not be taken as
isolated sheets of information.
1. First, Get a Good General Impression of the Building
Look over the elevations and floor plans quickly to create a
preliminary mental image of the shape and size of the building and,
possibly, the general structural systems employed. Relate the elevations
to the plan, and keep in mind the front of the building, where the main
traffic will enter. Concern yourself with the exterior features first. Study
the materials and where they appear. Look for irregular features on the
elevations so that you can identify them on the plan and be positive of
the orientation. All the information you can assimilate in your first
inspection will naturally save time later on when you are hunting for
specific items. Of course, remember the purpose of the building: in this
case it will be used by several doctors and nurses, as mentioned, for
general medical practice and minor surgery. The ground floor will
accommodate a small drugstore. Notice that a stairway in one corner
of the building allows interior communications between the two floor
levels.
The building is square in plan, with a built-up roof that is nearly
flat. Its overhanging fascia is covered with copper having uniformly
spaced battens. A ramp leads up to the front door of the waiting room.
Major partitions in the first-floor level are constructed with steel studs
covered with gypsum board. The wall sections indicate that the first-
floor exterior walls are offset from the ground-floor walls, which makes
the upper level slightly larger than the lower level.
These are features that should give you a quick, general impres-
sion of the building. There will undoubtedly be other features that
contribute to this first impression.
2. Orient the Building to the Site
Next, refer to the Site Plan in order to learn how the building is
positioned on the site in reference to the north-point arrow. Be sure you
understand which sides are east and west, for these can be sometimes
confusing when you are looking down on the layout. It is common
practice to find the drawing placed on the sheet so that north is toward
the top, but this practice is not always feasible because of the shape of
the property, as you will see on this plan (Fig. 5-36). The medical
building required a definite relationship with the adjoining health
building, shown lightly on the right. The medical building, however,
has been given more emphasis. Notice that the layout of the parking
area is shown and that all improvements, such as recontouring and
paving, are included on rivan?i6efigirtP 0Fiqkfileak6a2i3P3//eiliktf fit3 IADRDP96 B01172 R000900100001 -2
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS $20
throughout the area. Important information about utilities locations
is also a part of the plan. This drawing provides the builder with dimen-
sions for excavation work and the preliminary layout of the building,
inasmuch as no excavation plan is included.
3. Locate and Identify the "Bones" of the Structure
Study both the architectural and structural drawings to see where
columns, girders, beams, etc. are located. See if you can understand the
structural system being used; perhaps it is a combination of several
systems, as previously mentioned. But you should be able to visualize
the skeleton before you try to visualize the details that are attached to
it. Look for grid and reference lines in both plans and on elevations.
Usually the floor levels are the horizontal reference lines. In most cases,
the skeleton members are closely associated with the reference lines.
Look for offsets or variations of typical spacing of lines so as to be
familiar with the purpose of their being offset. Be sure you understand
where horizontal members shown in sections are supported and how
their loads are transferred to columns or bearing walls. Sizes of all
structural members are given by notes or listed in schedules.
In the medical building, the columns, beams, and joists are rein-
forced concrete up to and including the first-floor level. However, steel
tubes within the cavity walls are used as columns in the tier above. In
reading the Foundation Plan (Fig. 5-37), note that footings for the
concrete columns are shown in broken lines and are sized according to
the loads they will carry. Sizes, together with the amount and placement
of steel for both footings and columns, are shown in the accompanying
schedule. Elevation heights of footings are shown on the elevation
views. Other reinforcement (labeled dowels) is noted in the floor slab
below masonry partitions and below the stairwell. Notice that part of
the lower ground level is unexcavated. Information about the wall
footings is shown in the section details.
The First-Floor Framing Plan, one of the structural drawings (Fig.
5-46), gives us information about the layout of the ribbed slab at the
first-floor level. Each rib (joist) is shown with broken lines. The longer
joists throughout the center span are flared at their ends to allow easier
removal of the pan forms. Because the beams between columns vary in
size and amount of steel, individual marks (B-1, B-2, etc.) are used to
label them. Complete information about beam size and steel reinforcing
is given in the schedule and in the details. Not all beams will require
stirrups. Bending points of the steel bars are based on the span of the
members. Notice that A bars are straight and B bars are to be bent.
These structural drawings provide the steel fabricator with enough
information to cut and bend the steel. Information about the concrete
joists is presented in a method similar to the one shown for the beams.
In looking at the Roof-Framing Plan (Fig. 5-47), we see that the
roof structure consists of bar joists welded to steel beams. Support of
the beams is provided by the steel-tube columns placed within the cavity
walls and the partitions. Shear splices of the horizontal beams are called
for where the least amount of bending stress occurs. Several standard
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sizes of bar joists are noted in the layout, and some must be modified
by cutting and welding to provide positive slope to the roof drains.
Observe that two heavier joists are inserted near the center to support
air conditioning equipment that is to be placed on the roof. Both the
structural drawings and the architectural drawings show details of the
roof overhang arrangements. Bulb tees are clipped over the bar joists,
and gypsum formboard is laid between to support the poured gypsum
deck. This creates a roof deck that is light and rigid and yet still has
good insulating qualities. The soft-copper covering on the fascia
provides a durable yet pleasing exterior material on the overhang.
Figure 5-39 shows the uniform layout of the copper battens.
4. Look for Consistent Methods Used by the Draftsman
to Depict Information
You will find that working drawings by different offices often vary
somewhat in the way in which drawings, notes, and schedules are ex-
ecuted and presented, even though, to a large extent, standardization
exists in the industry. Observing how these minor variations appear is
a part of interpreting the drawings. Notice that throughout the medical-
building drawings diagonal marks instead of arrowheads are used at
the ends of dimension lines, and fractions have no cross bars. On the
plans, numbers within small circles identify doors, letters within triangles
identify interior elevation views, and interior metal stud partitions are
located to their centerlines. The symbols for ceramic tile, concrete block,
or wood may be slightly different than those found on other sets of
drawings. Some pictorial drawings have been used to describe the size
and construction of the copper fascia battens. Notice how leaders relate
notes to features, how titles are arranged, and how cutting-plane lines
are drawn to show locations of sections. Variations of these seemingly
minor points exist on drawings; yet you must understand their purpose.
Structural, mechanical, and electrical drawings, usually prepared in
separate offices, are especially noted for the way minor points are
handled in comparison to the architectural drawings. Abbreviations, too,
vary with draftsmen and sometimes are troublesome for the novice.
5. Relate Details and Schedules to the Larger Views
After you understand the labeling system employed throughout
the drawings, relate the details to their position on the plans or eleva-
tions. Reference to various drawings may be necessary before this is
accomplished. Some sections, of course, are typical and have no definite
Positioning planes, but you should learn from observation to what
extent on the plan the typical construction applies. Some walls or parts
of walls, for example, usually vary from the typical condition, and other
specific details are included to explain the variation. The wall section in
Fig. 5-43, for instance, is a variation of the typical wall in that the en-
trance ramp and the canopy above needed to be shown; otherwise the
wall materials are similar.
Be sure you understand the Stair Details (Fig. 5-43) and how they
are related to the floor levels. Section A-A relates to both the enlarged
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 322
Ground and First-Floor Plans shown. The first-floor view shows all the
treads; yet the ground-floor view shows how the upper part of the
stairs is supported. Observe that rubber tread-and-nosing surfacing is
required and that the aluminum handrail will need special anchors.
On the Exterior-Stair Detail, a steel pipe railing is shown.
Other details show how to construct the lead shields in the X-ray
room walls, the vertical brick joint in the exterior brick walls, the roof
overhang, etc. To help you understand much of the interior of the
building, both a longitudinal and a transverse full-section are shown in
Fig. 5-41. You may need to examine the plans and elevations again to
orient these sections correctly, since the square nature of the plan will
make it questionable as to which plane is transverse and which is
longitudinal.
The Room Finish Schedule (Fig. 5-44) lists the interior finish mate-
rials to be used in each room of the building?both ground floor and
first floor. Even finish ceiling heights are indicated. Information is also
self-evident in the Reinforced-Concrete Schedules (Figs. 5-45, 5-46), if you
can relate each entry to the plan views. Each structural member has an
identification mark. Notice that the abbreviation "DO." (ditto) through-
out the schedules indicates that the information in the space above
also applies; diagonal lines in a space indicate that no information
is needed in the space.
6. Determine How the Mechanical and Electrical Equipment
Is Accommodated into the Structure
As mentioned previously, the mechanical (plumbing, heating, and
air conditioning) and electrical drawings are made by consulting
engineers who specialize in the respective fields and who work closely
with the architect during the design stage. Their design work is tailor-
made for each building project.
The first mechnical sheet (Fig. 5-48) describes the exterior layout
of the utilities connections. The sewage drain had to be run through the
adjoining property, requiring a 10' easement, to the existing sanitary
sewer. Six-inch vitrified clay pipe is specified for this line with a cleanout
indicated about midway in the line. Elevations of the sewer line at the
connection (invert elevation) must be shown on layout drawings or on
a section view. On the profile drawing below the plan, the 5 per cent
slope required indicates that the line will slope 5 ft. for every 100 ft.
of run. Notice that a storm drain is shown leading from the low point
of the rear exterior stairs to an Outfall away from the building.
The Plumbing Plan (Fig. 5-47) shows the layout of the drainage
lines and the hot-and cold-water feeder lines in the ground floor. Much
of the piping will have to be placed below the ground floor slab. Notice
that risers to the upper floor are indicated with symbols, pipe diameters
are given with notes, and standard plumbing symbols are used through-
out. To the right of the plan is shown a pictorial layout of the drainage
lines only. Three-dimensional isometric drawings are commonly used
for these single-line plumbing layouts so that both vertical risers and
horizontal rfipoo)48 iiNdRiarbffistfiggeflooynarntwomp,4fienitig R000900100001 -2
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COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 823
lines for the upper-floor fixtures are given. The pictorial layout for
only the hot- and cold-water feeders is included on this sheet. Observe
that many of the pipes are run through the ceiling bar joists where pos-
sible. Cold-water lines are shown with a dot and long dash; hot-water
lines with two dots and a long dash. An 80-gallon hot-water electric
heater is to be installed in the mechanical room.
In reading the Air-Conditioning and Heating Plans (Figs. 5-51,
5-52), we see that a major cooling unit is to be installed in the mechanical
room, and that also an auxiliary unit is to be located on the roof near
the center of the building. Automatic resistance-type heater units are to
be placed in the ductwork to furnish heat to the building when tempera-
tures drop. A large chase in the concrete floor provides space for both
riser ducts and a large return-air duct to the unit. Individual ducts from
the unit provide conditioned air to five zones in the building. Notice
that two ducts are circular as they pass through the unexcavated area
of the ground floor; otherwise they are mainly rectangular in shape.
The duct at one end of the sales area had to be concealed by furring, as
shown in the architectural drawings. All horizontal and riser ducts are
shown and their cross-sectional sizes indicated with a note. All ducts
will be insulated. Much of the ductwork in the upper level passes through
the dropped ceiling of the hallway; minor leads go up and through the
bar joists where feasible.
Register outlets in the rooms are shown by symbol, size, and
capacity in cubic feet of air per minute. Most of the return air from
rooms, you will notice, is planned through door grills of various sizes;
it then recirculates back through a large return-air register, located in
the back hallway, to the central unit below. Some ceiling and floor
registers, in addition to the wall registers, are shown. Fresh-air intake
provision is made through louvers in the mechanical room and a vent
in the roof. Fully automatic controls will be installed to balance the
system and to maintain desirable temperature levels in the building
throughout the year.
The Electrical Drawings (Figs. 5-53, 5-54), which are plan views of
each floor level, show only the electrical work to be done. The power
service is brought into the building, with overhead leads located in the
rear, and is run to the main distribution panel located in the mechanical
room. A separate meter and by-pass is furnished to panel B nearby,
which is the distribution panel for circuits to the lower sales area.
Notice in the panel schedule that panel B will have 18 circuits, each
having a capacity of 20 amperes, and that only 15 of the circuits
will actually be used. The main panel provides for circuits to the
air conditioning unit, unit heaters, lighting and receptacles, and a
major circuit to panel A, located in the first-floor back hall. This
is a subpanel furnishing lighting and receptacle circuits to the top floor.
Circuits are numbered at the arrowheads pointing toward the panel,
but they are not completely drawn in. All wiring is to be run through
metal conduit. Symbols for all the fixtures, outlets, switches, etc. are
given on the drawing. Dimensions shown near a symbol on the plan
indicate the height the outlet is to be placed above the finish floor.
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Complete information about the lighting fixtures is included in the
fixture schedule. Special electrical equipment will be needed in the
X-ray room. Telephone outlets and installation of telephone equip-
ment, as well as outdoor lighting, are also shown on the electrical
drawings.
crer/11- TI
? STLTULbe
coLum n
.51-A15
rL-0012
rysArn 5-5
(5ee sceouLe)
Co nceere,
CoLu
s-ronE
Ven=nt2
Fig. 545. The appearance of the exterior well construction and slab neer the columns In the Medical Artg ?,
Building.
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HERCULES
AEROSPACE DIVISION
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CPYRGH
QualltyAssurance ?
High-energy, Real-
Time X-Ray assists
non-destructive
testing efforts.
Graphite Structures ?
Antenna for
tracking and Data
Relay Satellite _
Systems uses graphite !
Struts and Ribs.
The Hercules Challenge To You
Selecting the company that pro-
vides the best opportunities for your
career is one of the key decisions of
your life. In order to evaluate Hercules
and its opportunities, it is important
that you know more about us, what
we expect of you, and what you, in
turn, can expect from us if you join
our company.
Hercules is a large, diversified
chemical company, multi-national in
scope, with an excellent growth
record. Our research and develop-
ment efforts reflect the strong
commitment we have for the future of
our company, the nation, and our
employees. Hercules has several busi-
ness Divisions including the Aero-
space Division located in Salt Lake
City, Utah.
The Aerospace Division utilizes
almost every branch of Engineering,
as well as selected areas of Physics,
Manufacturing ? Computer controlled
filament winding machine laying aramid
fiber on Trident C-4 motor.
Chemistry, Material Research, Com-
puter Science, and other related
scientific disciplines. Opportunities
exist at the Hercules Aerospace
Division for technical graduates at all
levels ? B.S., M.S., and PhD.
We are involved in the develop-
ment, manufacture and operational
support phases of high technology
solid propellant propulsion systems.
Unique capabilities exist at the
Hercules Aerospace Division for
design and development of high
technology items such as thin wall
graphite/kevlar composite cases, high
performance propellants, lightweight
carbon nozzles, and thrust vector
control systems. Additionally, we are
one of the largest producers of con-
tinuous graphite fiber in the world;
we are the only fully-integrated pro-
ducer capable of composite structural
design, fiber production and resin-
impregnation, and manufacture of
complex graphite composite
structures.
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Graphite Structures
support truss for
applications satellite,
was first primary
space structure made
from graphite.
4.0
IMMINIR ?
Manufacturing ?
Mit rowave ovens
greatly reduce cost
of wing motor cases.
What does Hercules expect
of you? Technical competence in
your field, diligence, and above all,
the willingness and desire to grow in
your profession. Broadly speaking, the
technical aspects of your work at
Hercules will pose some of the same
challenges that were presented in
your university coursework with the
added dimension of application to
product development and technical
support applications encompassing a
broad range of industries and custo-
mers. The principles and techniques
you have mastered are often directly
transferable to Hercules' programs.
At the Bacchus Works of the
Aerospace Division near Salt Lake
City, Utah, professional engineers and
scientists constitute approximately
20% of the Plant's employees. The
plant is large enough to have the fin-
est facilities for research and devel-
opment, yet small enough to encour-
age cross-fertilization of ideas. Our
size and diversity of interests provide
opportunity for our people to have a
wide variety of technical interactions,
experiences, and career development
avenues. We emphasize personal
interchange and minimize organiza-
tional boundaries. We also encourage
continuing education, development of
technical skills, outside contacts, and
seminar and meeting attendance.
While most of our personnel are
located at the Bacchus Works in
Magna, Utah (a Salt Lake City sub-
urb), there are also a number of our
people located at our Clearfield Plant
about 30 miles north of Salt Lake City.
Product Engineering ?
Infrared thermography test to
locate composite defects.
Manufacturing ? Filament
winding layup of rocket motor
cases. Clearfield facility.
The Bacchus Works is divided
into a number of major technical
departments. A brief description of
each follows.
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Computations/Product
and Tool Engineering ?
CADAM analysis and design.
Product
Engineering ?
resting
hardware fit on MX
3rd stage prototype.
Quality Assurance ? Shock/
vibration data analysis system.
Product
Engineering ?
Testing
advanced nozzle
design.
Product Engineering
The Product Engineering
Department is comprised of special-
ized high technology sections
involved in design analysis, and
development work. The latest in finite
element methods and computer sup-
port equipment are used in perform-
ing ballistic, heat transfer, combus-
tion, fluid flow and stress analyses in
the design of rocket motor compo-
nents. This department uses state-of-
the-art computer graphics analysis
techniques to design and analyze
composite thin walled rocket motor
cases, insulators, propellant grains
(properties and internal shape), flew-
seals, nozzles, 1VC (thrust vector con-
trol), hardware and various composite
structures. Manufacturing drawings
are created by computer-aided design
programs whether as an output from
automated design synthesis programs
.-14?00or by designers interfacing with the
computer via computer graphics.
Once the design is initially estab-
lished using the above analysis and
computer-aided design techniques,
development engineers coordinate
component fabrication, development
testing and performance analysis.
Component design integrity is exper-
imentally verified or redesign is indi-
cated, based on evaluation of the test
data. The design engineer has the
responsibility for definition and analyt-
ical 3upport of the designing and the
development engineer has the
responsibility of converting the design
into a form (drawings, specs, manu-
facturing plans) understood by the
factory of our suppliers. Analytical and
development-type support continue
through the production and opera-
tions support phases.
Product Engineering personnel
interface constantly with customers,
associate contractors and suppliers.
They get a broad background in pro-
ject management, planning and con-
trol as well as technology. Opportuni-
ties exist for advancement along
technical or management lines
dependent upon individual preference
and ability.
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Graphite Fibers ? Industrial
line of graphite fiber products ?
cloth, prepreg tape, and yarn.
Graphite Structures-
Car chassis
Mandrel disassembly.
Materials Technology
The chemical formulation for
rieW or modified products with supe-
rior performance is the responsibility
of the Materials Technology Depart-
ment. Members of this group special-
ize in either propellant research or
resin compound development.
Through the expertise of this
department and others, Hercules has
long been a leader in the develop-
ment and formulation of tough high-
energy solid propellants. We strive for
better performance in rubber-based
insulation materials and bonding
agents. Continuing research in epoxy,
acrylate, and other resins has given us
the capacity to design many unique
properties into present and future
graphite-based products.
Materials Technology is a valua-
ble member of our team in staying
ahead of our competition, developing
materials for our other technical
departments and economizing pro-
Graphite
Structures ?
Formula I
racecar chassis.
Structures ?
Graphite shaft
reinforcement
increases stiffness,
reduces weight and
improves stability
and performance.
cesses for production.
Graphite Fibers
The Bacchus works of Hercules,
Inc. is the largest producer of graphite
fiber products in this country. Grap-
hite fiber is a remarkably versatile
construction material. It can be used
by itself, bound in a thermosetting
resin matrix or employed as a reinforc-
ing or stiffening agent to other struc-
tural materials (most metals, fiberglass
or other synthetic fibers, metal
threads, etc.) in composite systems.
This fiber demonstrates exceptional
lightness (in composite form, about
80% lighter than steel) yet retains
very high tensile (up to 400,000
lbs./in.2) and stiffness characteristics.
The fibers are used extensively in
the newest generation of vehicles in
the structural members and control
surfaces of both commercial and mil-
itary high performance and fuel-
efficient jet aircraft, in fuel-efficient
automobiles, in sporting goods and in
other applications where low weight
and extreme stiffness are required.
Hercules supplies industry with grap-
hite filaments (yarn), several widths of
resin-impregnated tape, woven cloth,
and chopped graphite fiber.
Graphite Composites
Our engineers at the Bacchus
Works are designing simple and com-
plex graphite composite structures to
meet our customers' specification
requirements. Graphite composites
have excellent fatigue life, high chem-
ical, corrosion and creep resistance,
and a very low friction coefficient
(self-lubrication properties). Graphite
composite structures demonstrate an
insignificant coefficient of thermal
expansion. These structures can be
formed to final shape through many
manufacturing processes, including
filament winding, hand lay-up injec-
tion molding, pultrusion, mandrel
winding and vacuum molding, with-
out many of the limitations and hid-
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Quality Assurance ? Precision
computerized gauging equip-
ment used for tolerance and
runout tests.
Graphite Structures ? Drive-
shaft (top). Steel driveshaft
(bottom). Weight savings with
hybrid truck driveshaft
approached 70%.
Qua IltyAssurance/Research & Develop-
ment Lab. ? Advanced testing and
formulation of resin compounds
and constituents.
Manufacturing ? 23 foot
MX cannister (launch tube)
section.
Quality Assurance ? Stress,
tensile and other physical
properties are routinely tested
on our fibers and resin products.
den costs (high energy and labor,
machining loss, etc.) of competitive
metal products and their production
processes.
We've produced space vehicle
frameworks and antennas, aircraft
floor support beams, automotive
driveshafts and internal engine parts,
Formula I race car chassis, and the
MX cannister/launch tube (70' long,
98" diameter, walls 1-1/2" thick).
Hercules was the first to use fiber
composite materials in pressure ves-
sels/rocket motor cases. Graphite
fibers now comprise a portion of the
structural material used in our motor
cases and nozzle designs.
The Quality Assurance Depart-
ment is a highly diversified depart-
ment motivated to improve and main-
tain an exceptionally high level of
quality and reliability in our product
lines. Our Quality Control Engineers
achieve this goal through process and
materials control; design and calibra-
tion of many different precision mea-
suring tools (often one-of-a-kind
tools); development and performance
of many unique testing procedures,
both of a destructive (motor firing,
hydroburst tests, etc.) and non-de-
structive (real-time high energy x-ray,
laser, infrared thermography, acousti-
cal holography, and ultrasonic)
nature.
The department is staffed with
chemists and technicians who per-
form a number of routine and non-
routine chemical tests to assure the
continuing quality of our raw mate-
rials, resins, and fibers.
Computer-supported data reduc-
tion techniques are commonly used to
assemble data into usable form. A sta-
tistical support group performs relia-
bility studies to assist our team of
quality assurance engineers in main-
taining the quality levels we've come
to expect from our products.
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Manufacturing ? 46 foot
graphite MX Cannister (launch
tube) prototype.
Quality Assurance Receiving
Lab ? checking quality sub-
intracted work.
Manufacturing ?
MERZ pneumatic
drilling machine for
first stage
trident motor.
Manufacturing
Ii spection of
finished C-4 Trident
motor.
Research and Development
Analytical Chemists and Applied
Physicists comprise most of our
Research and Development Depart-
ment, where answers to specific
complex questions are sought out
and solved on a non-routine basis. A
scientist in this department typically is
involved in venture projects; research
into new areas never before attemp-
ted by one or more of our develop-
ment departments. The majority of
the work is in the formulation, test-
ing, and analysis of new and highly
advanced rocket motor propellants in
cooperation with one or more of our
other departments. This overall team
approach develops higher perfor-
mance and better reliability in our
rocket motor systems.
Manufacturing
Our Manufacturing Department
is actually two separate engineering
groups responsible for translating
developmental prototypes and theo-
ries into actual production line manu-
facturing processes and finished
products.
Our plant, located 30 miles north
of Salt Lake City in Clearfield, Utah,
houses our large filament winding
and machining equipment and has
approximately 9 acres of work area
under one roof. At Clearfield, we
manufacture our composite rocket
motor chambers (pressure vessels)
and other large filament-wound
structures. The resin curing of these
structures is accomplished in the
world's largest microwave ovens.
The manufacturing process at the
Bacchus Works in Magna includes
preparing the rocket motor chamber
for the mixing, curing, and casting of
the propellant charge (grain). The
internal grain configuration is con-
trolled through the use of a complex
precision fin core tool placed in the
chamber prior to the casting opera-
tion. The bore grain design controls
the ultimate burning surface area and
the resulting pressure and thrust
curve characteristics. The nozzle, igni-
tor, external insulation and brackets,
are then mounted to complete the
manufacturing process.
Our engineers working in these
manufacturing engineering opera-
tions are developing equipment and
processes to acquire the high quality
products and production volume our
customers have come to expect. This
is an engineering area that requires
creativity, initiative and a good
amount of hands-on engineering
work.
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tor'
Works (Plant) Engineering
Operational support to our tech-
nical departments is supplied by the
Works Engineering Department.
These engineers are involved in the
design, construction, and mainte-
nance of the physical facilities, tool-
ing, machinery, power equipment
(electricity, steam and climate control
circuitry) and energy conservation
efforts on plant. This department
generally employs the widest group
of engineering disciplines on plant,
including Civil, Manufacturing, Elec-
trical and Mechanical Engineers. This
is another group that exposes engi-
neers to hands-on work.
Quality Assurance ? Statistical
reliability analysis group
monitors performance of our
product.
Other Engineering Groups
In addition to the aforemen-
tioned groups, the Bacchus Works
also employs a number of other engi-
neers doing specialized work. They
include:
Industrial Engineers are
involved in performing advanced time
and motion studies using the compu-
ter method MOST, planning plant
and office equipment requirements
and layout schemes, analyzing cost
saving suggestions formulating feasi-
bility studies for a number of special
projects, performing human factor
studies, and completing many other
non-routine studies as required.
Safety Engineers monitor pro-
cesses or construction activities to
ensure a safe working environment
free of fire, explosion, or other chemi-
cal or physical hazards detrimental to
our work force.
The Tekol test range near Bacchus is one
of the most modern in the free world.
Tooling ? CADAM design
and analysis of the tools
required in testing and
production areas.
Program Office Engineers
develop and administer programs as
necessary to comply with our custo-
mers' needs and requirements. They
provide an open liaison function to
solve engineering problems, maintain
schedules and control cost on all
major programs. This function
includes management support of all
missiles in the field.
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Computations/
Computer Systems Division
This department is composed of
personnel with skills in math, statis-
tics, electronics, mechanics, logic and
computer programming. Its activities
include the development and mainte-
nance of instruments and instrument/
computer systems performing
mathematical and statistical data
reduction to assist researchers in Her-
al les laboratories, engineering analy-
sis groups and production
departments.
10
Computations ? changing tape drive for
IBM computer.
The computations group special-
izes in direct technical problem-
solving support of our engineering
and scientific groups, often using
sophisticated computer software
packages developed in-house to aid
in the analysis and design of rocket
motor components. A strong
mathematical background through
partial differential equations, numeri-
cal analysis, and FORTRAN program-
ming skills are required in this area.
Computer Services Division is
responsible for the systems analysis
and business-related computer sup-
port on plant. They require COBOL,
JCL(IBM), IMS, or other data base
management knowledge as mioimum
skills.
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Computations ?
The Bacchus Works
is a major Hercules
computer center.
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Beyond Your Salary
When you are deciding on a
company, you should consider total
compensation in the factors affecting
your decision. A liberal benefits pack-
age, one that completes your financial
security picture, can be viewed as the
equivalent of additional income. The
Hercules Employee Benefits Program
offers a comprehensive medical plan
and a dental expense assistance plan
for you and your family; group life
insurance and long-term disability
insurance for you; savings and pen-
sion plans; and, to encourage your
professional and personal develop-
ment, an excellent tuition reimburse-
ment program.
The medical, life insurance, and
tuition plans are available to you
shortly after your employment. Also,
after 12 months of company service
you will be entitled to two weeks'
vacation. If you start working before
July 1 of any calendar year, you will
receive a week's vacation during that
year.
The dental plan, group long-term
disability, and savings plan are availa-
ble after one year of credited service.
The Hercules Employee Savings
Plan is designed to provide a conve-
nient, systematic method of saving
money. A year after you start work,
you become eligible to begin invest-
ing up to 10% of your monthly gross
salary in a number of different invest-
ment modes. As an incentive for you
to participate, Hercules contributes
25 cents to your fund for every dollar
you invest. The company contribution
is invested in Hercules common stock.
The pension plan is funded
entirely by Hercules, and after work-
ing only five years, you will have the
right to receive a pension from
Hercules upon retirement, no matter
where your career may lead you.
Hercules pays the full cost of
some employee benefits, while the
costs of others are shared with you
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About Salt Lake City, Utah
Metropolitan Salt Lake City, the
largest city in Utah, has a pop dation of
approximately 500,000, making it one
or are largest cities in the Moi i itain
West Salt Lake City is located on the
western slope of the Rockies dr Id is
bercming the home of an increasing
number of corporations and inttiustries.
It is one of the fastest-growintlareas in
the rountry, due to an abundant supply
or VI len-Ay resources and stable work-
nrc with a very strong work ttthic. Salt
ake City has an unexcelled stindard of
ri,,ing arid life-style.
Housing
1 ;ousinq is readily available in all
parts of the city at reasonable cost.
While most of the city's housing con-
sists of single family dwellings, an
abundant supply of apartments. L
dominiums, and rental units are avail-
able with many of the commonly
desired amenities.
Schools
Salt Lake City has one of the
nation's few growing populations of
school-aged children. Historically
Utah and the surrOunding area has
tin recognized for its exceptional
educational system, placing more
individuals per capita into college
i.ban any other state. Utah aiso
Itivests a major part of its tax revenuc
its educational system ? one Or
if in highest education dollar oer tax-
]iaver in the United States.
nere are three universities
fun a 50-mile radius ot the Sal!
tike City area. the University of
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Garden City ? Sweetwater Resort
on Bear Lake.
Salt Lake City ?
Bicentennial Arts
Center (Symphony
Hall).
Southern Utah ?
Water skiing on Lake
Powell where there
are many beautiful
deserted canyons.
Hiking in the High Uintah
mountains.
Utah, located in Salt Lake City, with
enrollment of approximately 25,000
full-time students, currently has many
graduate programs available and
evening courses for the working
community. Brigham Young University
is located 40 miles south, in Provo,
and is approximately the same size as
the University of Utah. BYU also offers
a number of extension courses in the
SLC area each semester. Weber State
College is located 35 miles north in
Ogden. The close proximity of these
large universities provides strong
intrastate sports rivalries and cultural
activities and allows our professionals
to continue their education in
advanced coursework.
Cultural Activities
SLC fosters a very strong cultural
environment, far out of proportion
with its population base. Facilities are
lvailable for large displays and exhib-
NoPrts, concerts, and professional sport-
ing events (NBA Basketball, Central
League Hockey and AAA Baseball
teams). The Utah Philharmonic
Orchestra, Ballet West, repertory
theater companies, and a local opera
company have production schedules
each season. Several Utah cities spon-
sor Shakespearean festivals, melodra-
mas, and other special events each
summer. The Mormon Tabernacle
Choir performs twice weekly for the
public, free of charge. Art, cultural,
and historical museums are available
throughout the area.
Recreational Activities
Tourism is Utah's largest industry.
The state is unequaled in its scenic
splendor and diversified terrain. Utah
has numerous National and State
Parks, mountain ranges, forests, sand-
stone canyons and formations,
deserts, and lakes; all open for hiking,
camping, and fishing activities
throughout the summer months.
Skiing at one of
Utah's many winter
resorts.
Winter brings the skiers to Utah;
we have seven major world-class ski
resorts within a 30-45 minute drive of
the city, all exhibiting the best
powder skiing available. Utah is
known for its excellent big and small
game hunting and fishing opportuni-
ties. Recreational vehicles abound in
Utah's wide open country. SLC is
known for its friendly, open, and
active people and its mild climate and
beauty.
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A Word About
Vportunities
-veryone in top manage] tient at
Hercules learned early in their profes-
sion the importance of humat resour-
ces. or that reason, a major 'Clog is
inade to create a working atrf los-
phere that will attract and keep the
talented people we need. Jot) satis-
faction is paramount. Another mea-
sure Jt the importance we pi, ice on
peoe is the salary and othei com-
pensation that our employee', receive.
Should you receive a salary orter from
us, tie assured that it will be Fair and
reasonable, and that it will take into
lull account your academic a nieve-
menis and applicable work eApe-
rierice. if you should choose To join
your future cornpensatior will be
dire( tly related to your own -rforts
..ind ambition. With the Aero pace
Divrion of Hercules. Inc. the is a
unique combination of oppo' [unity
for professional lob satisfactsi in, excel-
lent working benefits and ot.the-job
lifestyle.
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UNIVERSITY OF UTAH
elease 2005/07/28: CIA-RDP96801172R00090010000 -2
The Bacchus Works is one of the
original Hercules plants, beginning
production in 1915 to produce powder
and dynamite for the mining industry
in the intermountain area. In the late
1950's, research and development
work was started on solid propellant
rocket motors for the Polaris and
Minuteman systems ? Missile work
has been the emphasis of our work
since that time including continual
development of Navy Fleet Balistic
Missiles.
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15
iiHERCULES
Hercules Aerospace Division
Bacchus Works
P.O. Box 98
Magna, Utah 84044
[phone]
Equal Opportunity Employer M/F
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STAT
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DESTRUCTION CERTIFICATE
CFDC NO.
A. ? roved For Release 2005107128: CIA-R0P96 01172R000900100001-2 - -- --
(Include subject or title, data of document, etc.
DESCRIPTION
Identify so as not to reveal classified information)
CLASS.
COPY NO,
DESTRUCTION CERTIFICATION
WITNESS
I certify that I have this date destroyed the document(s) described
above in accordance with DOD Industrial Security Manual.
WITNESSED SIGNATURE)
BY (
DESTROYED BY (SIGNATURE)DATE
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4
.2-7:- 11.,
111?11111111111111
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CPYRGHT
ABOUT THE COVER
Hercules' new corporate headquarters building
at 13th and Market Streets in downtown
Wilmington is nearing completion. Relocation
to the building is scheduled for second-
quarter 1983.
Located on the banks of the historic Brandy-
wine River, the building was designed as an
architectural statement of quality to enhance
Hercules' image in the community as a leading
international chemical company. It incorpo-
rates the most modern communications
energy conservation, and office automation
equipment to enhance office productivity and at
the same time provide a pleasant environment
for Hercules employes.
CONTENTS
2 Letter to Shareholders
4 Management's Discussion and Analysis
8 Business Segments
28 International Business
30 Research & Development
32 Energy Conservation & Raw Material
33 Financial Section
52 Management's Report and Auditors' Report
53 Directors, Committees of the Board,
Management Executives, and Advisory Council
54 Principal Associated Companies
55 Plants and Sales Offices
56 Investor s Quick Reference Guide
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CPYRGH
A
S.
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Selected Financial Data
(Dollars and shares in millions, except per share)
1982
1981
1980
1979
1978
For the Year
Net Sales
$2,469.0
$2,718.4
$2,485.2
$2,345.4
$1,946.5
Profit from Operations
113.7
211.7
154.9
211.5
186.2
Income Before Taxes
83.6
180.4
114.7
238.4
157.8
Income Before Extraordinary Gain
86.8
136.5
114.0
172.5
103.3
Extraordinary Gain
11.6
-
-
-
Net Income
98.4
136.5
114.0
172.5
103.3
Dividends
56.9
53.6
50.9
45.6
42.4
Per Share of Common Stock
Earnings Before Extraordinary
Gain
1.97
3.09
2.60
3.89
2.36
Extraordinary Gain
.25
Earnings
2.22
3.09
2.60
3.89
2.36
Dividends
1.32
1.26
1.20
1.075
1.00
Research and Development
70.7
61.4
53.5
46.7
40.1
Depreciation and Amortization
120.5
118.8
114.5
106.5
106.7
Capital Expenditures
165.0
167.2
229.2
186.0
115.8
At Yearend
Working Capital
431.4
518.9
386.7
379.4
332.7
Ratio
2.2
2.5
2.0
1.9
1.9
Property, Plant and
Equipment - at cost
2,079.7
2,018.6
1,882.3
1,703.5
1,615.4
Total Assets
2,001.4
1,997.1
1,889.7
1,761.2
1,596.6
Long-Term Debt
431.9
454.4
334.5
280.6
296.0
Stockholders' Equity
1,078.9
1,051.4
1,009.7
945.4
818.5
Per Share
24.18
24.73
23.79
22.31
19.31
Common Shares Outstanding
44.6
42.5
42.4
42.4
42.4
Number of Common
Stockholders
35,390
37,696
37,263
37,744
38,199
Number of Employes
21,598
22,777
22,928
24,387
24,431
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CPYRGH
2
Alexander F. Giacco,
chairman, president and
chief executive officer
To Our Shareholders
The year 1982, the second year of the
longest business decline since the 1930s,
was certainly a continuing test of our
strategy. In the 1975 recession, Hercules
was unable to completely earn its dividend
payment, which was nevertheless paid. This
year it was earned in just over eight months,
reflecting the many improvements we've
made in our operations.
For 1982, we reported net income of
$98.4 million, equal to $2.22 per share,
compared with $136.5 million, or $3.09 per
share, in 1981. Sales for 1982 were
$2.46 billion, down from $2.71 billion
in 1981.
During the past four years, we have
worked hard at reducing the cost of doing
business, and over the past few years we
have lowered our break-even level by at
least 10 percentage points. In July, our
plants reached their low point in capacity
utilization, operating at under the 55 percent
level, yet we were still able to generate an
operating profit. To break even five to seven
years ago would have required our facilities
to operate at 65 to 68 percent of capacity. An
important reason for this improvement has
been a significant decline in overhead costs.
Selling, general and administrative
expenses (ex-research and development),
SG&A, have been reduced from an average
of 11 percent during most of the 1970s to
under 10 percent during the 1980s. If 1982
sales had remained at the same level as
those of 1981, the average would have
dropped well below 9 percent. However,
because of the sharp decline in sales
caused by the recession, the SG&A
percentage of sales actually increased.
Nonetheless, in terms of dollars, SG&A
expenses declined in 1982 from those of
1981. Accordingly, our upside earnings
potential has been considerably enhanced
as the business recovery results in higher
sales levels.
As part of our previously announced
effort to improve operating efficiencies, in
1982 we accomplished a significant
reduction in the total number of people in
Operations without sacrifice to either the
quality of our products or the safety of our
employes. There is no simple formula for an
excellent safety record. We believe it to be
the result of positive and active concern
expressed both in words and action, which
translates down the line into day-by-day,
minute-by-minute awareness of safety in
each worker's mind. This translation,
reinforced by continuous training, is the path
to continued excellence. In 1982, Hercules
achieved its best record since its inception in
1912. For the year, the accident frequency
rate of 0.12 is the equivalent of less than one
injury for every 1.5 million man-hours
worked. By comparison, this accident
frequency rate is approximately four times
lower than the chemical industry average
accident frequency rate for 1982.
During the year, we continued to make
strides in reducing the volatility of our
earnings. Prior to the 1970s and our heavy
commitment to commodity petrochemicals,
Hercules earnings had been quite stable
and on a solid growth path. In the four years
following the 1973 OPEC oil embargo, our
earnings averaged $1.56 from the
continuing business, but during that same
time period there was a range of plus or
minus 51 percent variation around this
average. The reason for this was that a large
percentage of our revenues was from
petrochemical commodity products.
At the very heart of our strategic plan and
management philosophy is the idea of
minimizing these wide earnings fluctuations
and thereby making our earnings more
predictable. A greater degree of financial
stability is of immeasurable value in the
strategic planning process. We have
demonstrated progress in this vital area. For
instance, between 1978 and 1982, our
earnings, affected by two recessions,
averaged $2.74 per share from the
continuing business, with a range of plus or
minus 24 percent variation around the
average. There is room for further gains, and
we are working to achieve them.
A positive change in investors' percep-
tions of and expectations for Hercules has
been reflected in the performance of our
stock in 1982. The price:earnings ratio at
yearend stood at 15, one of the highest
among the major chemical companies and
an indication that we have regained our
position among the leaders in our industry.
During the year, we cut our capital
spending program from an originally fore-
cast amount of $200 million to an actual
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CPYRGH
$165 million. It is our intention to finance
capital projects through internally generated
funds rather than through borrowing. We are
essentially still on target for our $1.4-billion,
six-year investment program, which we
announced in 1978, although we have
delayed a number of projects rather than
borrow money to finance them.
Between 1960 and 1970, Hercules was
transformed from a relatively small domestic
producer of value-added chemicals to a
worldwide manufacturer of chemicals with a
very large petrochemical commodities
exposure, which accounted for 43 percent of
the asset base in 1975. By 1984, we will have
completed a second major transformation
that will have minimized our commodities
exposure to 19 percent of our asset base,
and that will be based on products and
markets unknown to the company in the
early 1970s.
In almost all cases, these new products
will perform a specific function such as
covering, filling, protecting, strengthening, or
thickening. We will not be making a direct
one-on-one substitution for an existing
product, as was the case with the petro-
chemical commodities. Rather, our new
products will be bringing additional
properties or functions to the marketplace.
Graphite fiber is a prime example of one of
these new products. You will read more
about it in this report, under Explosives &
Aerospace. It is truly a new material and
does things no other material has done
before. Polypropylene films are another
example, and several other new value-
added polypropylene products are further
testament to our concept of selling
chemicals as properties rather than as a
cheaper substitute for existing products.
A number of our businesses continued to
make progress in 1982. Aerospace and
Electronic Products reported improved sales
and profits over 1981, as did PFVV, a small
but important segment of our specialties
business. Film also had increased sales,
although profits were about the same as
those of last year. Adria Laboratories, jointly
owned with Montedison S.p.A., reached the
$100 million sales level for the first time, and
is now poised for real growth.
In the third quarter, we exchanged
2,038,154 shares of our common stock for
$50 million of Hercules' 6.5 percent
convertible debentures. The debentures
were selling at a discount, which enabled us
to generate a book gain on the transaction,
while at the same time reducing debt and
interest expenses and increasing equity,
thereby strengthening the balance sheet
with only a nominal dilutive effect on future
earnings per share. Total debt at yearend
declined over that of 1981, and the
debt:equity ratio stood at 45 percent, a sharp
reduction from the peak of 78 percent
reached in 1975.
Once again, it is appropriate to comment
on the Agent Orange litigation. A Phase 1 trial
is now set for June 1983, to determine,
among other things, whether the U.S.
Government "knew as much as or more than
the defendant about the hazards to people
that accompanied use of Agent Orange."
We are optimistic that Hercules and the other
manufacturers will be able to demonstrate
that there was no significant risk, and that in
any event, the Government's knowledge
was at least equal and probably superior to
our own. If we are successful in the Phase 1
trial, most of the litigation will be terminated at
the U.S. District Court level, subject, of
course, to appeal.
In August, we announced the retirement of
John R. Ryan, senior vice president and a
member of the Board of Directors since
1967. At yearend, Stephen R. Clarke, senior
vice president and a member of the Board of
Directors since 1971, elected to take early
retirement effective February 1, 1983. The
many years of dedicated service to the
company by these men have been
greatly appreciated.
Special mention should also be made of
the loyalty and devotion of each member of
the Hercules family, who have contributed to
implementing our strategic plan. They have
faced difficult problems and to a large
measure have solved them, with Hercules
emerging stronger and with a sense of
purpose that will carry it forward through the
'80s and beyond.
As the new year begins, the economy is
giving many indications that the recovery
process is already underway. We are
anticipating relatively modest GNP growth in
1983, with the economy gaining strength
throughout the year and into 1984.
act-if aA.,e07
Alexander F. Giacco,
Chairman of the Board,
President and Chief Executive Officer
February 1, 1983
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CPYRGH
4
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Management's Discussion and Analysis of
Financial Condition and Results of Operations
Net Sales
(Dollars in billions)
$3
78 79 80 81
Physical Volume
(1967= 100)
)50
200
191
213
189 184
82
78 79 80 81 82
Selling Price
(1967 = 100)
78 79 80 81
82
Results of Operations Cost per Unit
Consolidated Net Sales for 1982 were (1967 = 100)
9% lower than 1981, and approximately
the same as 1980. As can be seen on
the adjacent chart covering the most
recent five years, sales have shown
steady growth over the years, resulting
in an average growth rate of 8%. The
increase from 1980 to 1981 was the
result of a 12% increase in selling prices
and a 3% decrease in sales volumes.
During 1982 the decline in volume
continued by 12%, while sales prices in
a generally poor business environment
improved by a modest 3%. The charts to
the lower left demonstrate relative
volume and price performance over the
past five years.
Profit From Operations was 46% lower in Research and Development
1982 than 1981. In 1981, profit from (Dollars in millions)
operations had increased 37% from
1980. The 1981 improvement over 1980 $75
was the result of slightly better gross
margins as well as an improved
relationship between sales and selling,
50 47
general and administrative expenses.
These improvements during 1981 were 40
the result of concentrated efforts in cost
effectiveness and our ability to increase 25
prices. The unit cost chart to the right
demonstrates our efforts during 1981
when, despite increases in raw material
costs of 12% and energy costs of 15%,
the rate of increase in costs lessened.
During 1982 the rate of increase in raw
material and energy costs declined
significantly (particularly in the last
quarter) and our aggressive attitude
toward cost control continued. However,
as noted earlier, sales volumes declined
appreciably. This decline in sales
volumes effectively offsets the gains
achieved in gross margins and
operating margins during 1981, causing
the decline in profit from operations.
Research and development costs,
which represent future-oriented
expenses, have experienced healthy
growth over the past five years, as
demonstrated on the chart to the right.
These costs account for all of the dollar
increase in selling, general and
administrative expenses in 1982.
300
278
78 79 80 81 82
61
53
78 79 80 81
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82
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CPYRGH
Nonoperating Income was relatively
stable during 1980 and 1981; however,
during 1982 it increased by 32%. Most
of this increase resulted from interest
income received on tax refunds; gains
on sale of know-how and fixed assets
also contributed.
Interest and Debt Expense in 1982
increased 9% over 1981. The increase
is primarily the result of higher debt
levels experienced during the first six
months of 1982. The 25% increase
experienced in 1981 over 1980 was the
result of the very high interest rates
prevailing during the period.
Provisions for Income Taxes reflected
an effective income tax rate of 24%
for 1982, 28% for 1981, and 20% for
1980. The major cause of the reduction
from the statutory rate of 46% is
investment tax credits; however, the
details of the causes for the respective
tax rates are covered in Note 6 of Notes
to the Financial Statements.
Equity in Net Income of Affiliated
Companies for 1982 increased, thereby
reaching levels achieved in years prior
to 1981. The primary cause of the
increase in earnings is the disposition of
certain ventures that affected 1981
results negatively and, to a lesser extent,
increased foreign currency
translation gains.
Earnings per Share results were under
recessionary pressure during the past
two years. An analysis of the change in
per-share earnings, which highlights
factors discussed earlier, follows at the
upper right:
Per-Share Earnings
Increase (Decrease)
1982 vs 1981
Variance
1981 vs 1980
Profit from Operations
Increased selling prices
$ 1.11
$ 5.43
Reduced volumes
(1.28)
(.32)
Manufacturing costs
(1.21)
(3.67)
Depreciation
(.03)
(.08)
Other
(.05)
(.06)
Increase (decrease) in gross profit
(1.46)
1.30
Increased research and development
(.15)
(.14)
Decrease (increase) in SG&A
.06
(.16)
Increase (decrease) in profit
from operations
(1.55)
1.00
Other Causes
Increased other income, net
.08
.32
Increased interest costs
(.07)
(.17)
Lower (higher) effective tax rate
.07
(.32)
Increase (decrease) in equity income
.35
(.34)
Increase (decrease) from
other causes
.43
(.51)
Extraordinary Gain
.25
Increase (Decrease) in
Net Income
$ (.87)
$ 49
Earnings and Dividends
per Share of Common Stock
(Dollars per share)
$4
3
2
1
0
00
78 79 80 81
N Earnings per Share
Dividends per Share
82
The chart shown to the left demonstrates
a rising trend in earnings per share
from 1978 to 1981, with the business
slowdown causing a decline in 1982. In
addition, dividends represented an
average payout of 42% and increased
slightly year to year.
In addition to the preceding discus-
sions, more specific information is
presented regarding business seg-
ments, international business, research
and development, and energy costs
within their respective sections of this
report. The impact of inflation is included
in Note 13 of Notes to the Financial
Statements.
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CPYRGH
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Management's Discussion and Analysis ot
rinancial ConditIon and Results of Operations icontd1
Internal Sources and
Principal Uses of Funds
(L1 in millions)
ftd
03 79 80 81 82
Ai Provided from Operations
Capital Expenditures
increase in Working Gapital
Cash Dividends
Total Capitalization
at Yearend
(I lies in billions)
/8 79 80 81 82
Notes Payable
ft I ongderm Debt
111 Stockholders Equity
ilnancial Condition
liquidity must be considered fror both
he short-term and long-term
trspectives. Accordingly, in
scussing the company's relativ,,
.rength, the current position as well as
he ability to generate funds internally
; -id externally is considered.
Hercules' quick ratio (current assets,
,