ARTILLERY COURSE BOOK 2 INFORMATION ON EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES.INFORMATION FROM INTERIOR BALLISTICS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP78-04861A000100030001-9
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 168
• Document Creation Date: November 11, 2016
• Document Release Date: August 26, 1998
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: January 1, 1949
• Content Type: BOOK

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ARTILLERY
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 Colonel
STOLBOSHINSKI A. P.
Colonel
NIKIFOROV N. N.
DOTSENT (Instructor - T) Bachelor of Military Sciences.
ARTILLERY COURSE
BOOK 2
INFORMATION ON EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES
INFOEU TATION ; FRONT INTERIOR BALLISTICS
Under the General Editorship of
Maj. Gen, of the Engineering
Artillery Service
Military Publishers to the Ministry of the
Armed Forces
M 0 S C 0 AT -- 149
Zsd~ 9 one
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ARTILLERY COURSE
INFORMATION ONE PLOSIVE SUBSTANCES
INFORvLATION ]OM IN ERIOR BATlISTICS
Colonel NIKIFOROV, N. N.
This book is intended as a Manual for Students
of Artillery Schools and may be used as a
Guide Boole.for Officers of the Artillery of the
Soviet Army in their independent studies.
r
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1. Information on"Explosive
Colonel STOLBOSHINSKI, A.
and
Colonel NIKIFOROV, N.. N.
2. Information from Interior Ballistic
 PART ~O N E
INFORMATION ON :'EXPLOSIVE. SUBSTANCES
CPYRGHT
GEI\fERJAL FEATURES OF EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES
ON THE HISTORY OF EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES
The first explosive substance (BB) known to man from the earliest times
was the smoky (black) powder of.saltpetre 9 Sulphur and carbon. I
Who and when this powder was discovered is still in doubt; its origin is
the subject of a whole series of legends, but there is reason to suppose that
it was invented in CHINA or INDIA. The oldest written re.cords:of these:
peoples are proof of that powder was familiar to men several centuries before
our era (i.e. before the birth of Christ - T).
The ARABS adopted powder -from the CHINESE .who oa=encing.:.from VIII
century of the Christian era, Were in close trading relations with the
Chinese; it is interesting to note that the two, Arab words .-for, saltpetre are
Chinese Salt and Chinese snow. Using powder to begin with merely as a com-
bustive means, the Arabs soon discovered its propellent propensities and
started to make wide use of it for practical purposes. A special literature
made its appearance among them on how to manufacture..:and user black (smoky)
powder.
Early in the XIV th. Century Europeans became acquainted with powder
through the Arabs. The first to make its acquaintance. were the-Spaniards who
were engaged in wars with the Arabs over the domination of the Iberian
Peninsula.
1. BRIEF I1N'FOR 1jATION
In Russia powder was beginning to. be used from the second half of the
XIV th century.
In a NOVGOROD Year Book for the year 1382 there is mention of
the names for fire weapons :
"Self Shooters," "tyufyaki" (modern ."matre-ss,;Palliasse idlers, drones, good-for-nothing-T), "let-offs" and
push-offs ("pushki" - guns, T).
The ALEKSANDROV Year Book for 1382 gives an account of the siege of
IM,IOSCO',`F by the armies of the TARTAR K: !2,T TOKHTAMYSH. The Chronicler states:
"The citizens defending the city and opposing the TARTARS,
some shot arrows from the palliasades, others cast stones
upon them, others let off guns against them and others
"Self Shooters," filling the fire weapons and firing the
powder, yet others let off'very great guns."
1 Powder is here considered as. one of the variations of explosive substances.
The above from Old Slavonic - T.
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This. means I that ' in 1382 .powder visas already in' use in RUSSIA.
Fosvder was already being produced in 14'OSC011 by the end of the XIV th.
Contury.;and, as a..result of the careless handling of it afire broke out in
.,i4.OO Of powder was MOSCOW burnt - at midnight did it-burn,' so says the
Chronicler. The. first powder works were opened in MOSCOJ in 1494. Other
toOns also began powder production apart from MAOSCO'll.
Powder manufacture greatly developed under Ivan VASIL'EVICH THE DREAD
(alias Ivan THE. TEP:RIBLE-T) on whose order powder works' were built in the
va.cin i.ty of .M10SCO-1 and specially under PETER I who built the PETERSBURG,
OKHTA and SESTRORETSK powder plants which in their productive capacity
exceeded the ;;:'EST EUROPEAN powder factories of the time.. Later., in 1761,
.S HUVA OV i.ntrpduced to the 't'echnology of smoky paNrder serious improvements
which considerably increased the quality of smoky powder and heightened its
stability when stored and in transport.
The great Russian scientist INT. V. LOMONOSOV, apart from other works; also
applied himself to the study of the laws of the combustion of pmider. He
provided a series of outstanding theoretical conclusions in his work "Of the
nature of powder.:`1
Black (smoky) powder ruled supreme and unchallenged for more than half
a millennium,. until in the. second half of the XIX th century it was replaced by
another and more potent explosive substance.
1 ;except ions to this is fulminating mercury (lit. T. ), which has. been kneum
since 1799 and fulminating salts were known even earlier but found no practi-
cal application. Fulminating mercury represented that class of explosive
substances which are now-a-days, because of their effect, knovin as High
Explosives_('brizantny-i" from the-French word 'brizer'_to destroy, cursh),
and among .these it belongs to the category of initiating explosive substances
used for initiating explosive processes.
The discovery of fulminating mercury (and what is even more important,
the. Aiet7hods ; of .making percussion caps with it) revolutionized warfare. Up to
the time when. percussion caps were introduced charges in the rifles were fired
by sparks generated by a flint striking against steel.,. This system of firing
charges, did not increase the quick. firing propensities of rifles beyond one to
'two shots a minute; in this process flints failed to strike in 1-5% of cases
and mere only for 40-50 shots; 'fire in strong winds, in rain and in snow was
greatly. impeded,.
The introduction of percussion caps increased the quick firing qualities
of rifles, helped in firing in any weather,.introduced much that was new in the
.technology of musketry and strongly influenced the tactics of battle.
The next stage in the history of explosives was led in by the discovery
of gun cotton in 1833.
From the close of the' sixties of .the XIX th Century gun cotton begins to
oust black powder (smoky) powder), first in blasting and then in explosive
charges (principally in sea mines and torpedoes), and fxomthe early eighties
it is being used as the main substance (for powder charges.), as at that time
a way of manufacturing smokeless powder from gun cotton had been discovered,
which in its ballistic qualities was found superior to black (smoky) powder.
Following the appearance of gun cotton came another.High Explosive
substance -- ni_tro-glycerine., accidentally discovered in 1876 while processing
glycerine with a blend of nitrogen and .sulphur acids in one of the laboratories.
ati:ng to the dangers attending the.. preparation and processing of nitro-glycerine,
this sibstance received no practical application at that time.
The first to point to the possibility of using nitro-glycerine blended
with additional substances as an explosive for projectiles, was the celebrated
Russian chemist N,N.: ZININ, the creator of aniline and organic dyes.
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wring the defence of S B4STOPOL (SEWSTOLPOL" - T) (1854) ZININ
personaliy_yiorked on the preparation of nitro-glycerine for projectiles.
'he:. xppriments.carried out by N.N. ZININ and V.F. PETRUSBEVSKI lead
to'concret:e results, but awing to the_ conservative tendencies of Czarist
ureauorats their results were not exploited in RUSSIA. From 1860-1863
PETRUSEEVSIcI produced"160 puds (5760 lbs - T) of various dynamites from nitro-
glycerine.
A. NOBEL was well acquainted with the experiments of ZININ and
PETRUSBEVSKI. He',happened at that.time to be in Russia and received the
informati,on personally from ZININ.
Using the results of --the work of the Russian chemists, A. NOBEL took
out the patent for the invention of dynamite and built a.plant in Germany for
its manufacture
,
Nitro-glycerine explosive substances'Imoun as dynamite were begun being
used. for. blasting operations,
At the moment nitro-glycerine and gun cotton are the basic materials in
the preparation of smokeless poswwrders.
In 1886 the high explosive qualities of picric acid became knawn, which
from 1783 had been used as yellow paint.
Picric acid entered military technology as melinite in Russia and France,
liddite in England and Shimoze in Japan etc.
The Russ an gunner S.V. PANUS1 {0-devoted much labour to the problem of
using picric acid for explosive charges. He perished in 1892,from an
accidental explosion during an experiment on melinite projectiles.
Following melinite, an explosive substance was found with-better qualities
than any preceding it - this was trinitrotoluol or t:rotil.(tol); in using
melinite it w as found (fairly often) that there were premature explosions of
projectiles., while trotil,proved nearly harmless in this connection.
In a.short period of time trotil became for this reason the main explosive
substance to be used for equipping artillery projectiles, mines, air bombs etc.
This is to be explained as follovis: first, trotile has not a high degree of
sensitivity to mechanical influences, a 'fact which 'contributes to safety in
firing;' secondly, when coming in contact 'with the-metal sides of projectiles,
trotil does not generate sensitive combinations as melinite alight create,
From 1906 trotil:"became. widely used. At the moment trotil is the main
explosive substance being used in the manufacture of detonators for fuzes and
for detonator caps?
In the first World .Tar ammoniac - saltpetre explosive substances were in
wide use. These were explosive blends of ammonium saltpetre and high explo-
sive substances, for instance - trot 11.
The period follade.r failed to produce any effective results. L more powerful
powder was needed.
devoted themselves,to its possibilities,
he,idea t.o 'turn. the. powerful high explosive
_ -41a, propelling agent proved tempting so that a
spirits) and ether (1884),.
substances of, gun cotton
succession of scientists
After 7steadfast experimental.work,a..means,was, found of adapting gun
cotton to.a smokeless powder by diluting It in .a blend of alcohol (lit.
guncotton ponder, smokeless powder went into productions ' Thus nitro- .
glycerine smokeless powder made its appearance.
an
T.,11. CBIELT'SO1T.!and other Russian scientists did much
pre~oarat.ion of smokeless nitro-glycerine. povwders.
the research
7 The period con.anencin;with 'the XK th. Century up to the present time
the environment surrounding I the focus of the explosion. Evidence accompanying
an explosion is a more or less powerful sound.
Depending on the chemical substance of the Explosive substance and on
the cony .tions of the, detQnati.on the explosive transformations. flow with
varying` speeds. The greater the speed of the explosive transformation, the
quicker pressure groirs. The speed in the growth of the pressure determines
the ' character of The mechan:c.al, function accompanying the explosion. Where
the proces of
s` the explosion is steady, pressure will ,also grow steadily. In
this case the mechanical function of the gases will express itself in the
movement of the surrounding environment.-whenever sufficient, pressure has formed
xi order to overcome the resistance of tkhe environment, for instance in the
motion off' the: "obstacle. the spreading of the gases (ding,. 1 ),. rThen,
hove ver the process of the explosion occurs in ,so brief an interval of time
thst it may be', considered as being. almost instantaneous (the'chemical trans
form,atipn e.t' once embraces the 'whole body of the Explosive charge), pressure
w l1 be s'c shaUxp, that the mechanical function of , the gases; will express itself
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in a very povrerful vibration of the environment surrounding the focus of the
explosion, and where an obstacle is in the way.- in its destruction (diag. 2).
In military matters the,qualities of Explosive substances are used
dependinG.on their components and on which different. kinds of mechanical func-
tion the explosion is capable of. In artillery Explosive substances are used
as ..a source, of..energy essential for propelling projectiles.
(propelling chargz and t'cn detonating them (detonating charges).
A epnce.p ion of an Explor1vesubstance as a.source of energy is provided
by calculating the force of a propelling charge, i.e. a computation of the
amount of energy and time in the course of which this energy becomes trans-
formed into mechanical function on a shot. The energy of a propelling charge
Diag, 1 1Jiag. 2
gradual formation of gases or an Instantaneous formation of?gases.
explosion: gases knock off the lid On an . explosion' gases destroy the
of a vessel.
nearest objects.
is spent on: providing the projectile with muzzle velocity, overcoming.
apposition in the bore impeding the motion of the projectile, on expanding
and he-atin `the sides of the bore, on blow back (all. recoil - T) etc., part
of the energy remains unused when gases issue from the barrel. The amount
of energy spent on giving the projectile its muzzle velocity can be found as
.the quantity of kinetic energy of a body in motion from formula
M V 2 IT 2
SECRE
is the amount of energy in kgs;
is the mass of the body in motion,. equating
is. the speed of the body (projectile) in m/sec.
the weight of the body (projectile) in k`
In the case of a gun with which (when the rifled part of the barrel has
a length of 1.6 m) the muzzle velocity comes to 400 m/sec, and the projectile
weighs 40 kgs, we get :
40.4002
2 g
320.000 kgs
In order to compute how much energy must be produced by.a charge on a shot
it is sufficientto.multiply the quantity found by 31~ , because it is known
that in order .o provide the projectile with its muzzle velocity only 3 of.the
total amount of the energy of the propelling charge is spent. Consequently,
the amount of energy to be produced by the charge must approximately equate
320,000.3 = . 960..000 kgs.
!ere one to.disregard the negligible time interval in the course of which
gas pressure increases up to the moment when the projectile starts moving, the
time of function of the propelling charge will equate the time of the movement
of the projectile in the interior of the barrel. Computing this time, vie-will
find the time interval in. the course of which the mount of mechanical energy
which vie have already found, will have been transformed into mechanical? func-
tion. Let us assume that the motion.of the projectile in the bore of the
ifi See. param. 15 "Potential of an Explosive Substance,"
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barrel is of equal acceleration, i.eo the projectile is moving at an average
velocity
V
cp
200 m/sec
Dividing the length of the course of the projectile along the bore of the
barrel (the length of the rifled section), which in the case of the piece
selected as an example, amounts to 1,6 m, by the velocity, we will get the
time sought for, namely t,= 1.6 : 200 = 0.008 sec. These two data deter-
mine the peculiarity of an Explosive substance as a source of energy - the
ability to transform in an insignificantly brief space of time a great amount
or energy into mechanical: function,.i.e, the Explosive substance as a?source
of energy expresses itself in a very considerable force. In order to obtain
an equally great amount of energy (960,000 kgs) in the same space of.time, one
would need an engine disposing over a force of
960,000 11,600,000'h.p,
75.0,008
3. CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES ACCORDING TO THEIR
COMPONENTS:
Explosive substances are usually divided into the following three groups
according t o ' their component :
A.
B.
C..
Explosive chemical combinations.
Explosive .components:and blends from non-explosive substances.
Explosive components and blends from explosive substances.
A. P-:losive.Chemical Combinations are characterized by the following
factor.,,! (a) by the presence in them of molecules of special atomic grouping,
conditioning he insolidity of. the connections within the molecules
(lit* inner molecular connections - T); each class of Explosive
substances has corresponding to it its own atomic combination which
forms the basis for the further classification 'of Explasive substances
9
(b)
(c)
propensity to inner molecular combustion, resulting in the creation
of a great amount of heat from the presence in the molecules of the
Explosive substance of the atoms of burning substances and of the
hydrogen -atom;
by the endothermocity of creation, i.e. by the presence of energy
(heat), accumulated (absorbed) by the Explosive substance during
its formation frori eleiaents.
1U
The rirst factor s' common for all Explosive substances of the group
question, the second and third, on the other hand, is not peculiar to all
Explosives belonging to the group of explosive chemical combinations.
The group of..explosive?chemical combinat:ions:can be broken up into a
series of sub-groups of which the following are most generally used in
artillery practice:
in
'1. Nitrates, or compound ethers 'of azide acid. High Explosives of
this sub group are obtained by processing alcohols or carbo-hydrates with
azide acid. This process is called nitration.
t cp = medium, average - T
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The most important representatives of such Explosives are:
(a) Nitro-glycerine, or, glycerine-nitrate:
From these formulae it can.be
the presence of group ON02.
Nitrates (apart from t a e n) are ge'neraily used in the preparation, of
2, Nitro compounds obtained as a result of processing nitrogen acid.
The most generally used in..practice are:
(a) Troti"l, ortr,in..i,trot o1uo1(tol)
(b) 1 . 1 e I e, ort rinit r of eno1, or Picric Acid
H2 (I\TO2 ) OH
3
(c) Tetril, ortrinitrofesni1-met i 1 n i t r a m i n
(To.- ), Or :P b H_ 0.
or ( e ) s t i p n a t (sic) of lead, or t r i n i t r o r e z o r t s i n a t
All of these express themselves by the presence of group NO2 and are used
as independent Explosive substances; in particular trotil is used for the
manufacture of explosive charges for a great number of modern artillery
projectiles.
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Fulimlinates, , or . salts of fulminating. ' acid. These explosives
axe obtained from the reaction of alcohol and the solution in
nitrogen acid of some heavy metals (mercury, silver etc). In
practice the most generally used are fulminate of mercury or
fulminating. mercury (lit.-.T):
H(ONC)2
A characteristic feature of ful notes is the presence in their
composition of the very unsteady atomic combination of ONC.
Fulminating mercury requires very little action for producing
an explosion and is therefore used for initiating the detonation
of steadier Explosive substances.
? Azides, or salts ofnytro hydrogen acid. Azide of lead P bN6
s olut ion of az ide of s odic-a ( alt .' nat rium T) on the s olut ion
?`Ofnytro acid of lead. Azides like fulminating mercury are
used for initiating detonations of other Explosives. The most
important representatives of the Explosives of this group are
pounders of saltpetre:- carbon, 'for instance the military powder.
75/ . xrro3 + . 10;o S + 1
B.
Ea plosive Co (ui ds from non--sx losive substances
losive substances of this group represent a compound of two or
more substances not possessing their dvin explosive attributes, nor
being chemically linked with each other. They are-formed of sub-
stances which. are fairly rich in oxygen,, and from the substances of
.. fuel,, and therefore they burn through the oxygen of 'the former.
Mining Powder:
70?/0 KNOZ + 12% S + 18% C;
(a) compounds of oxygen with combustible gases,. p.etrol..vapours,,
spirits, pulverized crude oil, flour,, coal dust soot etc,
Some:-of such compounds are used for interior combustion motors.
To this'group,of Explosives may.also be related:
C, ExplosiveSubstances and Cor1ounds of Explosive Substances:
The Explosive attributes of this group express themselves by the
features of those . Explosives which belong to their number;
Explosives of this group. are very ..many, but the following have the
greatest practical application:
1. ...Smokeless powders made ,from a compound of two kinds of gun
cotton (alt, pyroxiline - T) (pyroxyline,pc rder) or..from a
compound of pyroxyline and'nitro=-glycerine (nitro-glycerine
powder).
2. Anmoniuri - Saltpetre compounds whose main component is ammoniac -
saltpetre; this has explosive attributes ofits own, though
,..the,se are not strongly expressed.
D,arnites, or, nitro-glycerine explosives are' compounds of nitro-
glycerine with various 'substances which are as a. rule, explo-
sives (for instance fulminating gelatin contains: 88 - 93% of
nitro-glycerine and 7-112rf of colloid cotton).
16 is the word for fire-damp T
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The majority of explosives are products of nitration. Nitration consists of
the reaction on the organic combination of nitrogen acid (HNO3) in the presence
Of sulphuric acid (H2 S0:); depending on the chemical structure of the mole-
cules of the organic cominationn, nitration pursues the following course:
i R - H iI:J HO
NO2
H2 0 + R. NO2
H2 0 + RONO 2
s
R stands for the organic root:
% In the brat case occurs a combination of nitrates whose intrate group
o. is :directly connected wit.h.carbo-hydrate; in the second case occur
cornpour,d ethers of .nitrogen acid whose gr,
hydrate by means of the oxygen , atom.
In both cases water (H0) forms. in the process of nitration. As this
weakens 'the reaction of the'-nitration
it is essential to eliminate its
influence and in order to achieve this, nitration should be effected in the
presence of some substances which absorb water effectively.
A substance of this kind is sulphuric acid (H2 SOL,): it not only absorbs water
but at the, same time,. strengthens the.nitrationa.ry capacities,of HNO , hence
the significance of' sulphuric acid is very considerable indeed in tie entire
..experiments shops that in some cases no nitration takes place without
sulphuric. acid, Thus nitration is the action on organic combination of the
compound between nitrogen and sulphuric acids.
12 The composition of the nitrate compound is determined by the nature of
the materials of which an explosive substance is prepared and by the required
degree. of nitration..
Nitrogen and sulphuric acids may in the , process ., of nitration be used
not in a compound but in succession, one after the other. In such circum-
stances only sulphuric. acid reacts . on the organic combination (this process
is cahied`sulphuriaati.on) and then the sulphuric products are processed with
nitrogen acid.
13 Nitrogen and sulphuric acids, used for nitration, must be very strong
and as pure as possible. Admixtures in. nitratic.acidsenter-ing Explosive
substances lmer, their chvnical stability.
As cots of Explosive Transformations
it has already been said thaa.the' reactions of explosive transformations
occur with varying speeds and that the magnitude of these speeds determines
the nature of the. mechanical function of gases which are, found among the
products of an. explosive .transformation, ,, That is Why one must place the
velocity. with. which the reaction. of an explosive transformation spreads over
the body (lit,` mass - T) of an explosive substance., at the foundation of the
determination of an explosive transformation:
Depending on this velocity one disti.n wishes between the following three
aspects of explosive transformations:. rapid,-combus-t'ion
and detonation. , the explosion proper
Rated Comlii soon; of an Explosive substance is the process of explosive
transfornation i'thich occurs with a velocity not exceeding several metres per
second, and is considerably influenced by exterior. conditions.
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velocity noasured in hundreds or even in thousands of metres per second and
depending to a lesser degree on extraneous factors. The feature of the
function of gases expresses itself in a sharp increase in pressure at the
focus of the explosion, in the shock of gases against the surrounding milieu,
the increase of temperature of the surrounding object to white heat and in
their breaking u.p, but at comparatively short distances from the focus of the
explosion. Example - explosion of a charge of black powder in a "shpur"VE
(sic.; - T.) with: a plug.
Detonation is'aprocess spreading over a substance with the maximum
velocity possible for the given conditions, ~,.eneray measured in.thousands of
l ll
'
Thexlosi_~onroer is the process occurring with the alternative of
barrel. In this case the operation of gases expresses itself in the rapid
accretion of pressure in the bore as the result of which the gases fulfil
their function of propelling the projectile.
propelling (alt..powder - T) charge of smokeless powder in the bore of a gun
these of functions in shifting or casting aside the least opposition. A
typical example of rapid combustion is 'to 'be found in the combustion of a
this, process 'takes -place far more, ener~eticaily and'is accompanied by a sharp
sou.d The character of the function in tie. latter case expresses itself
1.n- the more or.'less rapid growth of the pressure -of gases and the execution by
inan enclosed space,` hawever, for instance .the powder chamber of apiece,
panied by any considerable effect and is sometimes called deflagration.
Where this process occurs in the open. air; ;.it is not ae.nerally accorn-
. per second, The. i lagnitude of this velocity is constant for the
14.. metres
circumstances in''question and for the given explosive. The character of the
?function,ona detonation shows itself in a very. sharp jump in the pressure
and in.shockproduced by the gases accompanied by the maximum destructive
of feat ; al7;owed by "the given. conditions. For instance, the velocity of a
.: detonation of pyroxyThine (all gun cotton - T) reaches up to 6,800 m./sec. and
:of nitro-glycerine up to 8,200 m/sec.
is widely used. in_blasting, for the destruction of railways, bridges etc.
"I Ai
"T46 phenomenon of detonation was first observed during experiments with
nitro--glycerine. It was found that when initiating nitro-glycerine with a
capsule of fulminating mercury the destructive effect is considerably stronger
than where the explosion is effected by a jet of fire, The practical signi-
ficance of this discovery was so obvious that it lead to the research into
the detonations of all, explosive substances.
Research into the processes of the detonations of various explosives
showed that the amount of heat produced on a detonation and the quantity of
gases formed.are nearly identical with those aroused by an ordinary explosion.
Hence the destructive effect accompanying detonation can only be explained by
the unusually great velocities in the development of a detonation. As the
result of such velocities there. occurs an exceptionally rapid and almost
instantaneous, shock from gases, The force of this shook from the gases or a
detonation is explained by the fact that in the 'irst,place the gases occupy
in the early stage. a volume of the charge up to the, moment of explosion and
in the second place - by the fact that the heat' generated by the reaction,
not being able to'escape'either by radiation ors by'dirept transmission,
entirely spends itself on heating the ,as3s. These two facts then determine
the highest degree of the manifestation of the resilience (alt. vibration - T)
of the, gases and 'their maximum destructive effect on detonation.
As the result of the violent blow- froii the' gases on detonation, a
destructive effect occurs also in.a case where the charge is placed not inside
of the object t"o be blown up but outside it. This attribute of detonation
SHPUR - an opening driven into = a -"rock for blasting.
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Th.._eo of Detonation. The process of arousing and developing a
detonation has not yet been fully established and there is still much in it
which is not clear. Of all the . theories put forward on detonation, the most
complete explanation cif this phenomenon is offered by the theories of the
percussion i~rave.and the explosive wave; According to theory of the percu-
ssion tiave-,detonation is aroused by a mechanical percussion inflicted by
some object '(for instance by a striker) or by molecules of
as evhich a
g
re
rich in energy, and dispose over.rapid- movement
formin
on th
x
l
i
f
,
g;
e e
p
os
on o
;:the -detonator. Provided the force of the percussion is suffici."xit. there
a: d
aecurs
isintegration of the molecules of that part of the charge of the
explosive which has;~receivod the blow. Apart from the purely` mechanical
reaction on the Explosive charge, the charge becomes heated as'the result of
..a part of the ram hanica1 energy passing to thermal energy (alt. being trans-
formed i:nto,...or becoming thermal energy - T)
a fact which stre
th
h
,
ng
ens t
e
.explosive transformation of the surface layer of the explosive charge. at the
focus of the percussion, The combination of these two' factors gives; rise
to the percussion wave which begins spreading.. with is~mense velocity from one
layer to another over the entire mass of explosive charge until it entirely
,transformed into the final products of the explosion.
The theory'.of the explosive wave explains the phenomenon as follows.
As the result of the percussion on the explosive substance located at
the. very place. of the percussion, the layer of this substance contracts;
the.mechanical energy of the percussion thereon turns into..hoat energy and the
compressed layer becomes heated. As. the result of this heating the,com-
pressed layer explodes. This explosion knocks against,-the neighbouring
layer which becomes heated in -its turn and 'then blows up.;' This explosion
deals a blow on the.,next.:layer etc. (percussion.,heating - explosion); An
explosive wave spreads::wittlh tremendous speed, vrhich is by no means less than
that of a percussion wave. The magnitudes of these:'speeds can be judged from
the speed with which a percussion spreads in, let .us say;.a steel tube: this
speed equates 5,,100,n/sec and .istvery close in its extent' to the velocity of
a detonation,. found in expdriments.,
Percussion waves, spreading over a medium incapable of explosion,
constantly grow weaker losing their initial energy, In contrast to these
purely physical waves, percussion waves passing over the mass of an explosive
charge do not become extinguished as their energ
is co
t
tl
y
ns
an
y being main-
tained by the explosive reaction of the layer of the explosive which the wave
envelops..
Thus: the velocity of.the detonation depends upon the velocity of the
pecussa on wave aroused by the initial irlpulse `and on the speed of the
explosive reaction.
The theory of the percussion wave is -)roved by the f ollowing. experimental
data:
s s is equivalent to percussion.
The velocities of a detonation grog With the increase of-the force
of percussion. of the initial iipulseas in this case the quantity of
energy increases and thence alsothe'velocity of the 'percussion wave,
ve
detonation may be'aroused b heating,, -.v su stances whose
y g, This can be explained by the
fact that all these explosive substances are very sensitive and
endother{:;ical in their origin, i.e. they include in themselves, even
before the explosions a great amount of accumulated thermal energy,
.which as the result of heating becomes freed in a'very brief space
of time which in it elf
The initial thermal impulse does not as a rule cause a detonation`
of an explosive. charge as -the mechanical percussion is absent during
the heating process and no percussion grave arises. Exception to.
this are very few partly initiating ex losi
' b
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coripact medium aids the' transmission beams of the percussion wave.
16 lith the increase of the density of the explosive substance, the
velocity of the detonation also'increases,.as the denser and more
The detonation velocities of various explosive substances, all
other conditions being equal (initial impulses, physical conditions,
casing etc), are not identical,. as the velocity of a detonation
depends upon the speed of the explosive reaction of the layer
enveloped by the percussion wave and this velocity is determined
by the. chemical nature ofthe explosive substance.
Methods of Determining Detonation Velocities.
detonator will subsequently cause the , detonation of the ends of
the cord.. As end 'a' of the cord will detonate a little earlier
than end the two percussion waves spreading from
The follo ring method is the simplest :
The explosive to be tested is placed in a small cylindrical
tube A (diag 3). The ends. of detonating cord R` have been inserted
into this -tube at' two points 'a' and, The detonating cord is
loop shaped and with its central part is packed (alt. laid-T).and
fastened on a thin leaden .or tin disk B; the centre of the cord is
.carefully marked on the disk by line K.
The detonation of the explosive to be tested, simulated by the
-15-
the terminals of , the. pr.ima-
cord t awards" its centre will
rip t .,r_zeet at point K but
at. some point which will
be the further from point K
the later terminal 6 of the
primacord was detonated
in comparison with terminal
i.e..the less was the
speed of the detonation of
the explosive substance to be
tested. Point of encounter
K1 is obtained with sufficient
accuracy on the disk.
Dial;. 3 Method of
determining the velocity
-of a detonation
By measuring the distance I between points a and. 6 and KK1, between
points K and K1 and knoywing the velocity of the detonation of the detona-
ting cord if J. one can compute the velocity of the. detonation of the
explosive to be tested by the following:
2KK1
- is the velocity of the detonation of the explosive;
In the time interval t the waves will pass along the primacord
along various paths. The path 'travelled from point 'a' will be greater than
the length of half the cord by KK1, while the path travelled from point 4
will be less than this length by the same dimension, Hence the difference
between the paths equates 2 KK1, while time t = 2 KK1
The two dimens _i.ons, ? separat ely (alt. each or one by.. one - T) equal to the
third dimension, are equal to each other, hence,
2KK1
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,17
Exame :
7,200
8308 m/sec.
Thus, this., method is based on a cor_ipar:Lson of the velocities of the detona-
tion of a primacord and of the explosive to be tested. The velocity of the
detonation of the primacord, .h.ovever, may also be -found by experiment.
cord consists of the follo~ring measures.
The method of determining the velocity of the detonation of the prima.-
a. g
by 8--10 r.1.. Some ends of these ;sec _~ons are fastened ,to the common detonating
cap A (diag. z) while the others are inserted to an identical depth into the
narrow open apertures of the, steel pig -. (alt.block-) Drum C turns over
these apertures with a constaxt speed.
Qnei,take.s two ,sec' ions of the prima-cord? differing in their len th
17 an a: sisultaneous initiation of the sections of the prima-cord the
percussion wave travelling along the shorter section will reach the turning
drum earlier and will-make an earlier impression (alte mark T) on its surface
than the percussion wave spreading along the longer section.
Knowing difference 7 of the lengths of the s ections of the prima-cord,
distance;.. according to the length of the circumference between the marks on
,the surface.of the drum, the length of its circumference and the speed at
which it turns fE ;, Lek /oek 7-s one can find the velocity of the detona-
.tiox. of the. -prime cordlFfrom foroula
1n fact, the:-linear velocity of
the .. movement. of the point on the
surface of the. revolving
drum. ,equates qr {4 r_i/sec,
consequently,, path 4 along
"thy ., circumference- of the drum
be traversed in time
The speed of detonation of the
pr:Lia-cord
Substituting to 'thu.' equation
the quantity found, we ;et
fit. _ n3,
A
Possibly recs/sec.- T
Diag. 4 Determining
the velocity of detonation
of a prima-cord
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The velocity of the detonating cord equates 7,200 m/sec. and
dista ce t-between its terminals 0,3 m; in determining
..the velocity of the detonation of intro-glycerine, the distance
,between points K and K1 has come to equate 0,13 m.
Thus the sought for velocity
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Exar?iple: The difference in the lengths of the prima-cord is 8 metres, the
length of the diameter of the drum is 0.6 metres and the velocity of its
revolution is 300 revs/sec. As the result (one word illegible-T) the
distance between the marks has come to 0?2 metres. Thus the velocity of
the detonation of the prima-cord will be
O;,0*6". 8 7200 m/sec.
0.2
More accurate methods` of determining detonation speeds are based on the use
of. special instruments - chronographs marking the time in which the detona-
`ti,on?spreadsalong the length of the charge of the explosive substance
under test,
18 Table 1 shows the velocities of detonation of'. the more widely used explosives:
T De of Exnlasive
Gun Cotton (pyroxyl ine) -
Nitro-glycerine
Fulndnat i_ng Mercury
Azide of Lead
Veloca.ty of Detonation in m/sec.
5200.
8200
7480
6990
5100.
7740
4500
6300
Influenced Detonation. The detonation of a, so called, active explosive
charge can cause a detonation in another, a Lassive, charge, which is at some
distance from the first. Such a detonation is knon,-m as influenced detonation.
An influenced detonation has no special practical value as a means. of
initiating an explosive, but in order to eliminate danger 'in the manufacture,
storing and use of an explosive, this. phenomenon 1:iust be. reckoned with, for
instance when planning the distance at which workshops and stores for
explosives should be from each other,
18 Causes of influenced detonation are:
(a)
action of the percussion wave from the active charge which continues
spreading, after the explosion of the latter, over.the.surrounling
milieu;
y
:force of the explosion of this charge.
The main cause is the action of the percussion wave, as the two other
causes can bring about detonation or destruction only over a short
space from the site of the explosion of the active charge.
Detonation through influence is considered to reach its maximum:
effect i.e. to be at its extreme, at a distance where`' the explosion
of the active charge is still capable Of causing the detonation of a
passive char e, The extent o f the _iax i_zuri'distance depends:
direct percussion of gases from the active charge;
percussion from the splinters of the"envelope (alt. container-T)
of the active charge or of any other objects thrust aside b
the
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(a) on the power and density of the active char e (with their increase,
the distance of transmission also increases,
on the qualities of the passive charge;
on the qualities of the medium separating the charges.
(d) on the nature of the containers housing the charges,,
The dependence of the extent of the limiting (alt* extreme, Maximum - T)
R =._R1
the weight of the active charge in kg;
the coefficient depending upon the conditions. enumerated above.
distance on the :reight of the active charge is fairly well expressed by the
following empirical fortlula:
The value of coefficient z fluctuates-Within the limits of 0.05 - 0,54,
For instance 'for an active nelinite -charge with a density of 1J.25 and for a
passive charge of trotil with a density of 1,0, coefficient .7.. = 0,3.
At distances exceeding maximum distances., percussion waves no longer cause
the detonation of passive charges, but may all the same, bring about mech-
anical destruction. This raises the very dir.T)ortant problem of the so
called safe ranges, i.e. distances at which a distinction caused byan
explosion has no real significance.
Safe ranges are'computed by formula:
R = the extent Of the safe range in metres;
the weight of the charge in kgs;
R1 = the, coefficient.
Type of
Explosive
Nitro-glycerinesand
of. the following. values of
(?)
For Uncricased 16 (?~ For Encased 26
charges charges
Dynamit es 16, 6
7, Reaction of. x losive Transf ornat ions
As''the result of the reaction of the explosive transformation, as in fact
in any `chemical reaction, nea chemical combinations are formed as the pro-
ducts of this,reaction, or as products of the. explosion.
Russian: neobvalovannyi - obvalovannyi zaryad T
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119 In their physical composition the products of explosion may be hard, liquid
or gaseous. In their chemical composition these products of explosion can
vary greatly, and their chemical composition is; principally determined by
the chemical nature of the explosive substance in question.
Moreover, v,yri ous_,factors may considerably influence the composition of
the products" of an explosion,'asy for.instance, the method of arousing the
reaction, temperature and pressure in which the reaction occurs, the degree
of houoAeneousness, of an ,explosive in its chemical composition etc. The
quantitative' andqualita it composition of the products of an explosion are
deterrz ned"b' y the followin methods.
Metkiod of theoretical calculations, the essence of which is based on the
assumption that on an explosion its products are formed according to the laws
of chemical equilibrium and conformity in a strictly determined sequence.
Thus, for instance, the elementary method for computing the composition of the
20 roaucts of the explosion of an explosive with a positive oxygen balance
(more than sufficient for the full combustion of carbon). is based on the
assumption that the whole carbon and hydrogen burn up completely at the
expense of the oxygen. It is assumed that the oxygen which remains unused
as well as the nitrogen is to be found in a free state among the composition
of the products of the explosion.
The method of Chemical Analysis. consists of taking samples from the
gases which have formed in the explosion and by processing them with different
kinds of absorbants, A decrease in the volume of the gas compound provides
in this.,experiment the approximate contents of the gaseous products in question.
20 For instance, in order to determine the presence of a relative quantity of
C02 one use. a solution of'corrosive potash in water (1.2). It is known that
one cubic centimetre of this solution absorbs,. .0 cm3 of 002.
Knowing the composition of the products of the explosion one can draw up
an equation of the rcacti.on. of the-explosive transformation of the explosive
Study of 'hese`equations is most important a s it allows one to compute
such basic features of explosive transformation as the heat of an explosion
radiated on an explosion, volume of gases and their temperature and from
these - the energy and.foree of the explosion.
.In the chemical sense all rQactions from explosive transformations can
be related to the following two basic aspects,
(1) to the reaction-from the disintegration of the molecules of the
explosive substance;
to reaction from combustion or the combination of burning substances
oapable of. supporting the combustion; -.ma.nly - the combination
~.' of, oxygen as the chief acidifyinf,- agents with carbon, hydrogen,
Reactions of the first kind arc very simple but are met with fairly rarely.
As ansxample of areac'tion of this kind may be taken the reaction from the
disintegration of azide of lead on an explosion-
Pt N6 = P 9 + 3N2
Reactions of the second kind are far more complex but more interesting
inasmuch as they are shared by nearly all explosive substance in use. As
an example of a reaction of the second kind may be taken the reaction from
' C3 H (ONO 2)3
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Reactions of combustion, depending on the oxygen contents, are classified
into:
(i )
already mentioned.
...the explosive substance into carbonic acid and of hydrogen into water,
as"'an example of a reaction of this kind may be taken the reaction
(alt, acidification - T) of the hydrogen contents of the molecules of
reactions of explosive substances with a5ositive oxygen balance,
i.e. with oxygen-contents in a quantity sufficient for full oxidation
the products of full oxidation;
of the explosive transformation of intro-glycerine. containing only
oxidized products of explosion,
~in such a quantity which is not sufficient for obtaining fully
2)'reactions with a negative oxygen balance, i.e.-with oxygen contents
explosive; transformation of trotil'where carbon in its'amorphic
full; formation of .,for instance, the reaction. of the
found side by side with the gaseous products of the 'explosion.
Reactions of explosive substances having a p ositiveoxygen balance are
usizally known r
asas reactions of full combustion and those with a negative
`b a lance tions of incorhp etc combustion.
Full and partial, alt. incomplete T) combustion must be differentiated
.from "the negative conceptions of complete and incomplete explosion.
A complete explosion is one in which the entire'body (lit. mass.-,,T)
of?Large is 7transformed into the final products of the, explosion. In an
incomplete explosion only part of the explosive'charge is affected, while
the rest remains unaffectc.dby' the explosion and does not participate in
the function` of - the explosion. Causes of an incomplete explosion are the
insufficient force- of the initial impul.s, humidity of the charge etc.
Evide4ce of 'incomplete explosion is the presence of dense smoke accompanying
the e7 explosion of even those explosives which usually. occur without
any
smoke smoke in such cases is caused by the:ptilverization of the` unexploded
of the explosive charge), or a change : in the colouring of the smoke;
thus for, instance trotil is accompanied on explosion by dense black smoke;
the colour of smoke is in this case deterMined by the presence among the
products of the explosion of-carbon in the amorphic state (soot; see the
equation for the reaction of the explosive transformation.of `trotil. already
mentioned); while an incomplete explosion of trotil,is accompanied by'smoke
which is partly black and partly yellowish brown in colour from the pulverized
unexploded -part of the trotil.q
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,!Among reactions with'a negative oxygen, balance are usually counted
(a) reactions of explosives containing oxygen suffic.ic.nt_for full
gasification flit. format ion of nas - T) for instancei the
(ONO2 )11 15 CO + 9 C02 . + 9 H,
: (b) reactions of explosives containing insufficient oxygen for a
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g
u
e v
21 the equation,.on explosive transformation or it can be measured by a gasometer.
22 Computation by the reaction equation. According to AVOGADRO's law
1 grGmmolecule of gas at. 00 and a pressure of 760 mm occupies a volume of 22,
it is
+ litres, Therefore , in pre er to determine the volume of gases
necessary to calculate..the'amount of gas grammolecules, multiply it by 22,4.
and divided by the weight of the grwrmolecules of the explosive substance in
kilograms, in order to bring the volume of gases to 1 kg of the explosive
substance.
ExamMle. Reaction of the explosive transformation of pyroxyline
(alt. gun cotton - T).(consisting of eleven azotes)
5 00 + 9 C02 H H + 5 , 5 N
According to this computation the, quantity..
grammolecules (will be ?-T),
Then from I grammolecule of an explosive the volume of gases (will be ?-T)
22,+ t+4- = 985,6 litres,
and of 1 kg of pyroxyline
Exlosion
aseous.products of an explosion can be computed by
M11 ol
me of the
N=15+9+9. 5,5+.5,5.._ ,44
985,6
1,14-3
.862,3 litres
as 1 grammolecule of pyroxyline weighs 1,143 kg (see'table'3)
In this calculation it ha been assumed that water is in` s. vaporous
condition as the result of the high temperature of the explosion.
:Should the water be in a liquid state,, the quantity of gas molecules
9
will decrease down to 35, andA to 685, litres,
r- + 9 a S f 11
22 E'xarnple 2. Smoky . powder containing 78,9 % KNO3 i~ a9 $ 2
reacts approximately as follows in an explosive transformation:
1,Q KNO3 + 4 S + 12:Q = 8 CO2
Volume of the Gaseous Products of an
N 0+.,K2.. CO
+ 2 K2 SO4? + 2 K2
S
224?., 16
N 8 + 3 + 5 16 and for = 1, 283
Measuring in a Gasometer. The explosive
special 'thick walled steel container
theft
to
279,3 litres.
be weighed is placed in a
(diag 5 )= known as a
"calorimetric (sic - T) or
manbtnetriO (sic T) shell"
(manometer = pressure gauge
T) 9 ` arid? is then exploded
electrically.
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Chemical M>ioleculat Heat
Composition Ieigh't in Nal
grams,
After the explosion the
gases are allowed to cool.
They are then let into the
gasometer through tube T.
The gasometer consists of
tiro "bel :". (.cylinders ? - T) one
movable IT and one ri: id H.
the, movable 'oylinder` (lit, bell - T)
is immersed in a'bath A filled
with mercury; the interior of the
rigid cylinder is filled with
water.
,The gases entering below the
22
23
Diag 5. Ii'Iercury`Ga.someter.
TABLE,
Fran the amount of the water thus ousted, one determines the quantity of the
gaseous products of the explosive transf Qrmation.:
Name of, Substance
Acetyline
Methane ............
Vaporous'-Water
Liquid Water ... , ... .
.., SulphurHydrogen
Cyanoger *.......~..,
Cyanic Hydrogen
Ammonia ,..?...-r.r.*e
Oxide of Carbon , .. , ,
Carbonic Acid gas
Nitro-glycerine .. .
Fulminating
Mercury .. , .. .
Pyroxyline
Smoky Powder.
...
movable -cylinder from "Shell" b
through tube P, lift the cylinder
(lit, 'bells - T) and thus oust
the water from the rigid cylinder
(lit. bell - T)
16
44
227
hg 284.
C202909(0N02 )11114.3
Mechanical
Compound 1283
of Formation in
mol
+18,4
- 58,1
- 30,5
10,5
+..4,8
- 73. .9
+ 57. .7
+ 67o5
+ 26,4
+ 94,5
+ 82,7
- 65,4.
+ 639
One can take gas samples from the gasometer through the tube for their
chemical analysis. This is done by means of special dropping tubes; as has
already been explained. Table 4. sets out volumes of gases which form on the
explosion of some explosives.
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TABLE 1+
Volumes ofGases .farmon 'the Explosion of
Some Exl.osivc Substances
Name of Explosive
~,ulminatin TALercury .....r..e...........r..ed...?e?.....<
Azide of Lead .,.ee re.~res?reroe eaeees eaw e+ae erew w.ewe>e e..e
~ ~'ITf~eeErEfi1 ~ .
Pyroxyline tong, 11 azotes ..e e.e er+e>.e>e...... a...>. e??
Nitro-glycerine .erect'ea>seeress..er.>>ere>.~aeerererrewee
Tetril .sees`e??ee.e ee sect ?ee ee?7 ee ro.e>eas e. ~eeo e~leete>oe
Smokeless Pyroxyline .,?e.?.e.a..ee.eee.>.....>