MAN S RESPONSE TO LONG-DURATION FLIGHT IN THE GEMINI SPACECRAFT

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 78
• Document Creation Date: December 14, 2016
• Document Release Date: August 14, 2002
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: January 1, 1966
• Content Type: REPORT

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NASA REVIEW COMPLETED
24. MAN'S RESPONSE TO LONG-DURATION FLIGHT IN THE GEMINI SPACECRAFT
By Charles A. Berry, M.D.
Chief of Center Medical Programs
Manned Spacecraft Center
D. 0. Coons, M.D., Chief
Center Medical Office
Manned Spacecraft Center
A. D. Catterson, M.D.
Center Medical Office
Manned Spacecraft Center
G. Fred Kelly, M.D.
Center Medical Office
Manned Spacecraft Center
The biomedical data from the Gemini III through VII missions support
the conclusion that man is able to function physiologically and psycho-
logically in space and readapt to the earth's one-g environment without
any undue symptomatology. It also appears that man's response can be
projected into the future to allow 30-day exposures in larger spacecraft.
When contemplating such titles'as "4 Days in?June," "8 Days in Au-
gust," and "14 Days in December," it is difficult to realize that just
2 years ago, only an uncertain answer could be given to the question -
"Can man's physiology sustain his performance of useful work in space?"
This is particularly true in this great day for space medicine when man
has equaled the machine.
Prior to our first manned space flight, many people expressed legit-
imate concern about man's possible response to the space-flight environ-
ment. This concern was based upon information obtained from aircraft
experience and from conjecture about the effects of man's exposure to the
particular environmental variables known to exist at that time. Some of
the predicted effects are listed in table 24-I, and it will be noted that
many of these are contradictory.
STAT
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This nation's first probing of the space environment was made in
the Mercury spacecraft which reached mission durations of 34 hours. The
actual situation following the completion of the Mercury program is sum-
marized in table 24-II. This first encounter with the weightless envi-
ronment had provided encouragement about man's future in space, but the
finding of orthostatic hypotension also warned that there might be some
sort of limit to man's exposure. The reported Russian experiences
strengthened this possiblity. No serious gross effects of simple expo-
sure to the space-flight environment had been noted, but the first hint
was given that the emphasis should shift to careful' methods for observing
more subtle changes. These findings influenced the planning for the
Gemini mission durations, and the original plan was modified to include a
3-revolution checkout flight, followed by an orderly approximate doubling
of man's exposure on the 4-day, 8-day, and 14-day missions which have
been completed. It was felt that such doubling was biologically sound
and safe, and this has proved to be the case. The United States manned
space-flight missions are summarized in table 24-III.
This plan required the use of data procured from one mission for
predicting the safety of man's exposure on a mission twice as long.
These Gemini mission operations are complex and require a great deal
of teamwork in the medical area as in all others. Space-flight medical
operations have consisted, in part, of the early collection of baseline
medical data started at the time of the original selection of the astro-
nauts and has been added to with each exposure to the simulated space-
flight environment during spacecraft testing. Physicians and paramedical
personnel have been trained to become a part of medical recovery teams
stationed in the launch area and at probable recovery points in the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Flight surgeons have been trained and uti-
lized as medical monitors at the various network stations around the world
thus making possible frequent analysis of the medical information obtained
in flight. A team of Department of Defense physician specialists
have also been utilized to assist in the detailed preflight and postflight
evaluations of the condition of the flight crews. Without the dedicated
help of all of these personnel functioning as a team, the conduct of
these missions would not have been possible.
A high set of standards has been adhered to in selecting flight
crews. This has paid off very well in the safety record obtained
thus far. The difficult role that these flight crews must play both
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as experimenters and as subjects deserves comment. From a personal
point of view, the simpler task is to be the experimenter, utilizing
various pieces of equipment in making observations. On these long-
duration missions, the crews have also served as subjects for medi-
cal observations, and this requires maximum cooperation, which was
evidenced on these flights.
Physiological information on the flight crews has been obtained by
monitoring voice transmissions; two leads of electrocardiogram, a sternal
and an axillary; respiration by means of an impedance pneumograph; body
temperature by means of an oral thermistor; and blood pressure. These
items make up the operational instrumentation, and, in addition, other
items of bioinstrumentation are utilized in the experiments program.
Also, some inflight film footage has been utilized, particularly during
the extravehicular exercise on the 4-day mission. The biosensor harness
and signal conditioners are shown in figure 24-1. A sample of the telem-
etered data, as received at the Mission Control Center, is shown in
figure 24-2. These data were taken near the end of the 14-day flight and
it can be seen that the quality is still excellent. The Gemini network
is set up to provide real-time remoting of medical data from the land
sites to the surgeon at the Mission Control Center. If requested, the
medical data from the ships can be transmitted immediately after each
spacecraft pass. The combined Gemini VI-A and VII missions posed a new
problem in monitoring in that it required the simultaneous monitoring
of four men in orbit. The network was configured to do this task and
adequate data were received for evaluation of both crews.
It must be realized that this program has involved only small numbers
of people in the flight crews. Thus, conclusions must be drawn from a
minimum amount of data. Individual variability must be considered in the
analysis of any data. Aid is provided in the Gemini Program by having
two men exposed to the same conditions at the same time. Each man also
serves as his own control, thus indicating the importance of the baseline
data.
PREFLIGHT DISEASE POTENTIAL
As missions have become longer, the possiblity of an illness during
flight has become greater, particularly in the case of communicable dis-
eases to which the crew may have been exposed prior to launch. The dif-
ficult work schedules and the stress imposed by the demands of the
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prelaunch period tend to create fatigue unless watched carefully, and
thus become an additional potential for the development of flu-like dis-
~eases. They also preclude any strict isolation. On each of the Gemini
missions a potential problem, such as viral upper respiratory infections
or mumps exposure has developed during the immediate preflight period,
but the situation has been handled without hampering the actual mission.
As yet no illness has developed in the flight crews while in orbit.
However, strenuous effort must be exerted toward protecting the crew from
potential disease hazards during this critical period.
DENITROGENATION
The 5-psia cabin pressure and the 3.7-psia inflated suit pressure
create the potential for the development of dysbarism and this was parti-
cularly true on the 4-day mission which involved extravehicular activity.
Care has been taken to denitrogenate the crews with open-loop breathing
on 100 percent oxygen for at least 2 hours prior to launch. No difficul-
ty has been experienced with this procedure.
The crews have used various forms of exercise to maintain a state
of physical fitness in the preflight period. The peak of fitness at-
tained has varied among the crew members but they all have been in an
excellent state of physical fitness. They have utilized running and
various forms of activity in the crew quarters gymnasium in order to
maintain this state. Approximately 1 hour per day has been devoted to
such activity.
There has been a multiplicity of factors acting upon man in the
space-flight environment. He is exposed to multiple stresses, as sum-
marized in table 24-IV and the particular effects of any one of these
stresses will always be difficult to isolate. In a sense, it could be
said that this is of only limited interest, for the results always would
represent the effects of man's exposure to the total space-flight envi-.
ronment. However, in attempting to examine the effect's of a particular
space-flight stress, such as weightlessness, it must be realized that
the responses observed may indeed be complicated by other factors such
as the physical confinement, acceleration, dehydration, or the thermal
environment.
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On all missions, the peak elevations of heart rates have occurred
at launch and reentry. The peak rates observed during the Gemini flights
are shown in table 24-v. These detailed timeline plots of heart and
respiratory rates demonstrate the peak responses associated with par-
ticular activities required by the flight plan, as was noted during the
Mercury missions (fig. 24-3). As the mission durations have become
longer, it has been necessary to compress the heart rate data to the form
-shown in figure 24-4 from the Gemini VII mission. Such a plot demon-
strates the diurnal cycles related to the night time and the normal sleep
periods at Cape Kennedy, Florida. In general, it has been noted that
there has been a decrease in the heart rate.from the high levels at
launch toward a rather stable, lower baseline rate during the mid-portion
of the mission. This is altered at intervals since the heart has re-
sponded to demands of the inflight activities in a very normal manner
throughout the mission. The rate appears to stabilize around the 36- to
48-hour period and remain at this lower level until 2 or 3 revolutions
before retrofire. The anticipation and the activity associated with
preparation, for retrofire and reentry cause an increase in the heart
rate. for the remainder of the flight. The electrocardiogram has been
:very helpful in observing the response to the sleep periods when heart
rates have frequently been observed in the forties and some into the high
thirties. The graphing of such rates by minimum, maximum, and mean has
also been helpful in determining the quality of sleep. If the crewmen
have awakened several times to check the condition of spacecraft controls
and displays, there is a'noted spread between the maximum and minimum
rates.
During the extravehicular operation, both crewman noted increased
heart rates. The pilot had a heart rate of 140 while standing in the
open hatch, and this rate continued to climb during the extravehicular
activity until it reached 178 beats per minute at spacecraft ingress.
Future extravehicular operations will require careful attention to deter-
mine the length of time these elevated rates are sustained.
The electrocardiogram has been observed on a real-time basis with
a series of detailed measurements being taken during the Gemini VII
flight. The electrocardiogram has also been evaluated postflight and
the only abnormalities of note have been occasional, and very rare,
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premature auricular and ventricular contractions. The detailed analyses
have shown no significant changes in the duration of specific segments of
the electrocardiogram which are not merely rate related. On each of the
long-duration missions, a special experiment has involved observation of
the relationship of the Q-wave to the onset of mechanical systole, as
indicated by the phonocardiogram. These data, in general, have revealed
no prolongation of this interval with an increase in duration of space
flight.
The blood pressure values were determined three times in each
24 hours during the 4-day and 8-day missions and two times each 24 hours
on the 14-day mission. These determinations were made before and after
exercise on the medical data passes. The only truly remarkable thing
in all blood pressures to date has been the normalcy with a lack of
significant increase or decrease with prolonged space flight (fig. 24-5)-
The blood pressures have varied with heart rate as evidenced by the
201 over 90 blood pressure obtained after retrofire during one of the
missions. This was accompanied by a heart rate of 160, however, and is
felt to be entirely normal.
Some blood pressures of particular interest were those determined
on the 4-day mission: (1) just after retrofire and while the crew was
still in zero g, (2) just before the transition to two-point suspension
on the main parachute which places the crew at about a 45? back angle,
(3) just after transition to two-point, and (4) with the spacecraft on
the water and the crew in a sitting position. All of these pressures
were in the same general range as the inflight blood pressures and were
all certainly normal, demonstrating no evidence of hypotension.
Body Temperature
The oral thermistor was used with each medical data pass, and all
body temperatures recorded have been within the normal range. Occasional
spurious readings were noted on the oral thermistor when it would get
misplaced against the body causing it to register.
Respiratory Rates
Respiratory rates during all of the long-duration missions have
tended to vary normally along with heart rate. Hyperventilation has not
occurred inflight.
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Inflight Exercise
An exercise consisting of 30 pulls on a bungee cord has been uti-
lized to evaluate cardiovascular response on all of these missions. No
significant difference in the response to this calibrated exercise load
has been noted through the 14-day flight. In addition to these programed
exercise response tests, the bungee cord has been utilized for additional
exercise periods. Daily, during the 14-day mission, the crew performed
10 minutes of exercise, including the use of the bungee cord for both
the arms and the legs, and some isometric exercises. These 10-minute
periods preceded each of the three eating periods.
Sleep
A great deal of difficulty was encountered in obtaining satisfactory
sleep periods on the 4-day mission. Even though the flight plan was
modified during the mission, in order to allow extra time for sleep, it
was apparent postflight that no long sleep period was obtained by either
crewman. The longest consecutive sleep period appeared to be It hours,
and the command pilot estimated that he did not get more than 7.5 to
8 hours good sleep in the entire It days. Factors contributing to this
lack of sleep included: (1) the firing of the thrusters by the pilot
who was awake; (2) the communications contacts, because the communica-
tions could not be completely turned off, and (3) the requirements of
housekeeping and observing made it difficult to settle down to sleep.
Also the responsibility felt by the crew tended to interfere with
adequate sleep. ,
An attempt was made to remove a few of these variables on the 8-day
mission and program the sleep periods in conjunction with normal night
time at Cape Kennedy. This required the command pilot to sleep from
6 p.m. until midnight eastern standard time and the pilot to sleep from
midnight until 6 a.m., each getting a 2-hour nap during the day. This
program did not work out well due to flight plan activities and the fact
that the crew tended to retain their Cape Kennedy work-rest cycles with
both crewmen falling asleep during the midnight to 6 a.m. Cape Kennedy
night time period. The 8-day crew also commented that the spacecraft was
so quiet that any communication or noise, such as removing items attached
with Velcro, produced an arousal reaction.
On the 14-day flight, the flight plan was designed to allow the crew
to sleep during hours which generally corresponded to night time at
Cape Kennedy. There was a 10-hour period established for this sleep
(fig. 24-6) and it worked out very well with their normal schedule. In
addition, both crewmen slept at the same time thus obviating any arousal
reactions from the actions of the other crew member. The beginning of
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the scheduled rest and sleep period was altered to move it one-half hour
earlier each night during the mission in order to allow the crew to be
up and active throughout the series of passes across the southern
United States. Neither crewman slept as soundly in orbit as he does on
the earth and our inflight observations were confirmed in the postflight
debriefing. The pilot seemed to fall asleep more easily and could sleep
more restfully than the command pilot. The command pilot felt that it
was unnatural to sleep in a seated position, and he continued to awaken
spontaneously during his sleep period and would monitor the cabin dis-
plays. He did become increasingly fatigued over a period of several
days, then he would sleep soundly and start his cycle of light inter-
mittent sleep to the point of fatigue all over again. The cabin was
kept quite comfortable during the sleep periods by the use of the polar-
oid screen and some foil from the food packs on the windows. The noise
of the pneumatic pressure-cuff for Experiment M-1, did interfere with
sleep on both the 8-day and 14-day missions. The crew of the 4-day
flight was markedly fatigued following the mission. The 8-day crew was
less so and the 14-day crew the least fatigued of all. The 14-day crew
did feel there was some irritability and loss of patience during
the last 2 days of the mission but they continued to be alert and sharp
in their responses and no evidence of performance decrement was noted.
The diet has been controlled for a period of 5 to 7 days preflight
and, in general, has been of a low residue. The Gemini VII crew were on
a regulated calcium diet of low-residue-type for a period of 12 days
before their l4-day mission. The inflight diet has consisted of freeze
dehydrated and bite-size foods. A typical menu is shown in table 24-VI.
The crew are routinely tested with the inflight menu for a period of sev-
eral days before final approval of the flight menu is given. On the
4-day flight, the crew was furnished a menu of 2500 calories per day
to be eaten at a rate of 4 meals per day. They enjoyed the time that
it took to prepare the food and they ate all the food available for their
use. They commented that they were hungry within 2 hours of ingesting
a meal, and that within 4 hours after ingesting a meal, they felt a
definite physiological need for the lift produced by food. These find-
ings were in marked contrast to the 8-day mission where each crew mem-
ber was furnished 3 meals per day for a caloric value of 2750. Again
these meals consisted of one juice, two rehydratable food items, and
two bite-size items. The 8-day crew felt no real hunger though they
did feel a physiological lift from the ingestion of a meal. They ate very
little of their bite-size food and subsisted principally on the rehydra-
table items. A postflight review of the returned food revealed that the
average caloric intake per day varied around 1000 calories for this crew.
Approximately 2450 calories per day, was prepared for the 14-day mission
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and included ample meals for 143 days. Inflight and postflight analyses
have revealed that this crew actually consumed about 2200 calories per
day.
There has been an ample water supply on all of these missions con-
sisting of approximately 6 pounds per man per day of potable water.
Prior to the 4-day and 8-day missions, the water intake was estimated by
calibrating a standard mouthful or gulp for each crewman; then, during
the flight, the crew would report the water intake by such measurements.
On the 4-day mission, the water intake was less than desired in the first
2 days of the mission but increased during the latter part of the flight,
varying from 2.5 to 5.0 pounds in a 24-hour period. The crew were
dehydrated in the postrecovery period. On the 8-day mission, the crew
did much better on their water intake, averaging 5.2 to 5.8 pounds per
24 hours and they returned in an adequately hydrated state.
For the 14-day mission, the water dispensing system was modified
to include a mechanism whereby each activation of the water dispenser
produced one-half ounce of water and this activated a counter. The num-
ber of counts and the number of ounces of water were laboriously logged
by the crew. It has been obvious that the crewmen must be reminded of
their water intake and when this is done they manage very well. The
14-day crew were well hydrated at the time of their recovery and their
daily water intake is presented in figure 24-7.
Waste Disposal
A urine collection device has been utilized on each of the Gemini
missions and has been modified according to need and experience. On
the 14-day flight, for the first time, the system permitted the collec-
tion of urine samples. Prior to this time, all of the urine was flushed
overboard. The system shown in figure 24-8 allowed for collection of a
75cc sample and the dumping of the remainder of the urine overboard. The
total urine volume could be obtained by the use of a tritium dilution
technique.
The handling of fecal waste has been a bothersome inflight problem.
Before the mission, the crews eat a low-residue diet, and, in addition,
on the 8-day and 14-day missions, they have utilized oral and suppository
Dulocolax for the last 2 days before flight. This has proved to be a
very satisfactory method.of preflight preparation. The fecal collection
device is shown-in figure 24-9.
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The sticky surfaces of the bag opening can be positioned much easier
if the crewmen is out of the space suit as occurred during the 14-day
flight. The system does create only a minimum amount of difficulty dur-
ing use inflight and is an adequate method for the present missions.
On the 14-day flight, the system worked very well and allowed the col-
lection of all of the fecal specimens for use with Experiment M-7.
Bowel habits have varied on each of three long-duration missions,.
as might be expected. Figure 24-10 lists the defecations recorded for
these three missions, and the longest inflight delay before defecation.
occurred was 6 days on the 14-day mission. The opportunity to measure
urine volume on the 14-day flight has been of particular interest as
it had been anticipated a diuresis would occur early in the flight.
Figure 24-11 shows the number of urinations per day and the urine vol-
ume as determined from the flowmeter utilized on the 14-day mission.
The accuracy of these data will be compared with that from the tritium
samples.
Medications in both injectable and tablet forms have been routinely
provided on all flights. The basic policy has continued to be that a
normal man is preferred and that drugs are used only if necessary. A
list of the supplied drugs is shown in table 24-VII and the medical kit
is shown, in figure 24-12. The injectors may be used through the suit,
though to date none have been utilized. The only medication used thus
far has been dexedrine taken prior to reentry by the Gemini IV crew.
This was-taken to insure an adequate state of alertness during this
critical mission period. In spite of the minimal use of medications,
they must be available on long-duration missions and each crew member
must be pretested to any drug which may be potentially used. Such pre-
testing of all of the medications listed in table 24-VII has been carried
out with each of the crews.
On the 14-day mission, a sensor repair kit, shown in figure 24-13,
was carried to allow the reapplication of medical sensors should
they be lost during the flight. The kit contained the sensor jelly,
and the stomaseal and dermaseal tape for sensor application. In addi-
tion, the kit contained small plastic bottles filled with a skin lotion,
which was a first-aid cream. During the 14-day mission, this cream was
used by both crewmen to relieve the dryness of the nasal mucous membranes
and was used occasionally on certain areas of the skin. During the
mission, the lower sternal electrocardiogram sensor was replaced by both
crewmen and excellent data were obtained after replacement.
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Frequent questions are asked concerning the ability of the crew
members to get along with one another for the long flight periods. Every
effort is made to choose crew members who are compatible, but it is truly
remarkable that none of the crews, including the long-duration crews,
have had any inflight psychological difficulties evident to the ground
monitors or that were discussed in postflight debriefings. They have had.,
some normal concerns for the inherent risks of space flight. They were
well prepared for the fact that it, 8, and 14 days in space in such a
confined environment would not be an easy task. They had trained well,
done everything humanly possible for themselves and knew that everyone
connected with the program had done everything possible to assure their
stay. There is some normal increased tension at lift-off and also prior
to retrorocket firing. There was some normal psychological letdown
when the Gemini VII crew saw the Gemini VI-A spacecraft depart after
their rendezvous. However, the Gemini VII crew accepted this very well
and immediately adjusted to the flight-plan activity.
A word should be said about overall crew performance from a medical
point of view. The crews have performed in an exemplary manner during
all flights. There has been no noted decrease in performance, and the
fine-control tasks such as reentry and, notably, the 11th day rendezvous
during the Gemini VII mission have been handled with excellent skill.
ADDITIONAL INFLIGHT OBSERVATIONS OF MEDICAL IMPORTANCE
The crews have always been busy with flight-plan activity and have
felt that their days were complete and full. The 14-day crew carried
some books, occasionally read them in the presleep period, and felt they
were of value. In neither instance were the books completed. Music
was provided over the high-frequency air-to-ground communications link
to both the 8-day and the 14-day crews. They found this to be a welcome
innovation in their flight-plan activity.
The crews have described a sensation of fullness in the head that
occurred during the first 24 hours of the mission and then gradually
disappeared. This feeling is similar to the increase of blood a person
notes when hanging on parallel bars or when standing on his head. There
was no pulsatile sensation in the head and no obvious reddening of the
skin. The exact cause of this condition is unknown, but it may be re-
lated to an increase of blood in the chest area as a result of the
readjustment of the circulation to the weightless state.
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It should be emphasized that no crew members have had disorientation
of any sort on any Gemini mission. The crews have adjusted very easily
to the weightless environment and accepted readily the fact that objects
will stay in position in mid-air or will. float. There has been no dif-
ficulty in reaching various switches or other items in the spacecraft.
They have moved their heads at will and have never noticed an aberrant
sensation. They have always been oriented to the interior of the space-
craft and can orient themselves with relationship to the earth by rolling
the spacecraft and finding the horizon through the window. During the
extravehicular operation, the Gemini IV pilot oriented himself only by
his relationship to the spacecraft during all of the manuevers. He
looked repeatedly at the sky and at the earth and had no sensations of
disorientation or motion sickness at any time. The venting of hydrogen
on the 8-day flight created some roll rates of the spacecraft that became
of such magnitude that the crew preferred -Co cover the windows to stop
the visual irritation of the rolling horizon. Covering the windows
allowed them to wait for a longer period of time before having to damp
the rates with thruster activity. At no time did they experience any
disorientation. During the 14-day flight, the crew repeatedly moved
their heads in various directions in order to try and create disorien-
tation but to no avail. They also had tumble rates of 7 to 8 degrees
per second created by venting from the water boiler, and one time they
performed 'a spin-dry maneuver to empty the water boiler and this created
roll rates of 100 per second. On both occasions they moved their heads
freely and had no sensation of disorientation.
The crews of all three long-duration missions have noted an
increased g sensitivity at the time of retrofire and reentry. All the
crews felt that they were experiencing several g's when the g meter-was
just beginning to register at reentry. However, when they reached the
peak g-load, their sensations did not differ from their centrifuge'ex-
perience.
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PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
A series of physical examinations have been accomplished before
each flight in order to determine the crew members readiness for mis-
sion participation and also after each flight to evaluate any possible
changes in their physical condition. These examinations normally
have been accomplished 8 to 10 days before launch, 2 days before launch,
on launch morning, and immediately after the flight; and have been con-
cluded with daily observations for 5 to 10 days after recovery. These
examinations thoroughly surveyed the various body systems. With the
exception of items noted in this report, there have been no significant
variations from the normal preflight baselines. The 14-day crew noted
a heavy feeling in the arms and legs for several hours after recovery
and they related this to their return to a one-g environment at which
time their limbs became sensitive to weight. In zero-g condition, the
crew had been aware of the ease in reaching switches and controls due
to the lack of weight of the arms. The 8-day crew also reported some
heaviness in the legs for several hours after landing. Both the 8-day
and 14-day crews reported some muscle stiffness lasting for several days
after recovery. This was particularly noted in the legs and was simi-
lar to the type of stiffness resulting from initial athletic activity
after a long period of inactivity.
On all the missions there has been minimum skin reaction surrounding
sensor sites and this local irritation has cleared rapidly. There have
been a few small inclusion cysts near the sternal sensors. In preparing
for the 8-day flight the crews bathed daily with hexachlorophene for
approximately 10 days before the flight. In addition, the underwear was
washed thoroughly in hexachlorophene and attempts were made to keep it
relatively free of bacteria until donning. The 14-day crew showered
daily with a standard hexachlorophene-containing soap and also used
Selsun shampoos for a 2-week period. Following the 8-day and 14-day
missions, the crew members skin was in excellent condition. The 8-day
flight crew members did have some dryness and scaling on the extremities
and over the sensor sites, but after using a skin lotion for several
days, the condition cleared rapidly. The 14-day crew members skin did
not have any dryness, and required no treatment postflight. After their
flight, the 8-day crew had some marked dandruff and seborrheic lesions
.of the scalp which required treatment with Selsun for a period of time.
The 14-day crew had virtually no dandruff in the postflight examination,
nor was it a problem during flight.
The crew of the 14-day mission wore new lightweight space suits
and, in addition, removed them for a portion of the flight. While sig-
nificant physiological differences between the suited and unsuited crew-
man were difficult to determine, it was noted that the unsuited crewman
exercised more vigorously, slept better, and had higher urine output
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24-14
because fluid was not being lost as perspiration. The excellent general
condition of the crew members, in particular, their skin condition, is,
to a large extent attributable to the unsuited operations.
Bacterial cultures were taken from each crew member's throat and
several skin areas before and after the long-duration missions. The
numbers of bacteria in the throat flora were reduced and there was an
increase in the fecal flora in the perineal areas. All fungal studies
were negative.
Postflight ear, nose, and throat examinations have consistently
been negative and caloric examinations before and after each flight have'
been normal. On each of the long-duration missions, the crews have re-
ported nasal drying and stuffiness and this has been evident by the
nasal voice quality during voice communication with the surgeon at the
Mission Control Center. This symptom has lasted varying amounts of
time, but has been most evident in the first few days of the mission.
The negative postflight findings have been of interest in view of these
inflight observations. The crews have reported they found it necessary
to clear their ears frequently inflight. Some of this nasal and pharyn-
geal congestion has been noted in the long-duration space cabin simu-
lator runs in a similar environment. It may be.related to dryness,
although the cabin humidity would not indicate this to be the case or
another cause might be the pure oxygen atmosphere in the cabin. It may
also be related to a possible change in blood supply to the head and
thorax as a result of circulatory adaptation to weightlessness.
The oral hygiene of the crew members has been checked closely be-
fore each flight and has been maintained inflight by the use of a dry
toothbrush and a chewable dental gum. This technique provided excellent
oral hygiene through the 14-day flight.
Weight
A postflight weight loss has been noted for each of the crew mem-
bers; however, it has not increased with mission duration and has aver-
aged 7 to 8 pounds. The majority of the loss has been replaced with
fluid intake within the first 10 to 12 hours after landing. Table 24-VIII
shows the weight loss and postflight gain recorded for the crewmen of
the long-duration flights.
Hematology
Clinical laboratory hematologic-studies have been conducted on all
missions, and some interesting findings have been noted in the white
blood-cell counts. The changes are shown in figure 24-14. It can
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 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285WO400010001-6
24-15
be seen that on the 4-day flight there was a rather marked absolute in-
crease in white blood cells, specifically neutrophiles, which returned
to normal within 24 hours. This finding was only minimally present fol-
lowing the 8-day flight and was noted again following the 14-day flight.
It most likely can be explained as due to an epinephine response. The
red-cell counts show some postflight reduction that tends to confirm
the red-cell mass data to be discussed.
Urine and blood chemistry tests have been performed before and after
each of the missions, and the results may be seen in tables 21-IX and
r14-X. The significant changes noted will be discussed with Experiment
M-5.
On each of the long duration flights, plasma volume has been de-
termined by the use of a technique utilizing radio-iodinated serum al-
bunin. On the ii-day mission, the red cell mass was calculated by
utilizing the hematocrit determination. Analysis of the data caused
some concern as to the validity of the hematocrit in view of the.dehy
dration noted. The ---day mission data showed 7 and 15 percent decrease
in the circulating blood volume for the two crew members, and 13 percent
decrease in plasma volume, and an indication of 12 and 13 percent de-
crease in red-cell mass although it had not been directly measured. As
a result of these findings, red cells were tagged with chromium 51 on
the 8-day mission in order to get an accurate measurement of red-cell
mass while continuing to utilize the radio-iodinated serum albumin tech-
nique for plasma volume. The chromium-tagged red cells also provided
a measure of red-cell survival time. At the completion of the 8-day
mission, there was 13 percent decrease in blood volume, 4 to 8 percent
decrease in plasma volume and 20 percent decrease in red-cell mass.
These findings pointed to the possibility that the red-cell mass decrease
might be incremental with the duration of exposure of the spaceflight
environment. The 14-day flight results show no change in the blood vol-
ume, 4 and 15 percent increase in plasma volume and 7 and 19 percent
decrease in red-cell mass for the two crew members. In addition to these
findings, the red-cell survival time has been reduced. All of these re-
sults are summarized in figure 24-15. It can be concluded that the de-
crease in red-cell mass is not incremental with increased exposure to
the space-flight environment. On the 14-day flight, the maintenance of
total blood volume, by increasing plasma volume, and the weight loss
noted indicated that some fluid loss occurred in the extracellular com-
partment but that the loss had been replaced by fluid intake after the
flight. The detailed explanation of the decreased mass is unknown at
the present time and several factors, including the atmosphere, may be
involved. This loss of red cells has not interfered with normal function
and is generally equivalent to the blood withdrawn in a blood bank do-
nation, but the decrease occurs over a longer period of time, and this
allows for adjustment.
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24-16
The first abnormal finding noted following manned space flight was
the postflight orthostatic hypotension observed on the last two Mercury
missions. Study of this phenomenon has been continued in order to de-
velop a better appreciation of the physiological cost of manned space
flight. A special saddle tilt table shown in figure 24-16 has been used,
and the tilt table procedure has been monitored with electronic equip-
ment providing automatic monitoring of blood pressure, electrocardiogram,
heart rate, and respiration. The procedure consists of placing the
crewman in a horizontal position for 5 minutes for stabilization, tilting
to the 70-degree, head-up position for 15 minutes and then returning to
the horizontal position for another 5 minutes. In addition to the usual
blood pressure and pulse rate determinations at minute intervals, some
mercury strain gages have been used to measure changes in the circumfer-
ence of the calf. On the 4-day, 8-day, and 14-day missions there were
no symptoms of faintness experienced by the crew at any time during the
landing sequence or during the postlanding operation. Abnormal tilt
table responses, wl n compared with the preflight baseline tilts, have
been noted for a period of 48 to 50 hours after landing. Typical initial
postlanding tilt responses are graphed for the 4-day and 8-day mission
crews in figures 24-17, through 24-20. A graph of the percentage in-
crease in heart rate from baseline normal to that attained during the
initial postflight tilt can be seen in figure 24-21. All of the data
for Gemini III through VI-A fell roughly on a linear curve. The pro-
jection of this line for the 14-day mission data would lead one to
expect very high heart rates or possible syncope. It was not believed
this would occur. The tilt responses of the 14-day mission crew are
shown in figures 24-22 and 24-23.
The response of the command pilot is not unlike that of previous
crewmen and the peak heart rate attained is more like that seen after
4 days of space flight. The tilt completed 24 hours after landing is
virtually normal. The pilot's tilt at 1 hour after landing is a beauti-
ful example of individual variation, for he had a vagal response and the
heart rate which had reached 128, dropped, as did the blood pressure,
and the pilot was returned to the horizontal position at 11 minutes.
Subsequent tilts were similar to previous flights and the response was
at baseline values in 50 hours. When these data are plotted'on the
curve in figure 214-21, it will be noted that they more closely resemble
4-day mission data. There has been no increase in the time necessary
to return to the normal preflight tilt response, 50-hour period, re-
gardless of the duration of the flight. The strain-gage data generally
.confirm pooling of blood in the lower extremities during the period of
roughly 50 hours that is required to readjust to the onc-g environment.
The results of these studies may be seen in figure 24-21+.
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24-17
Bicycle Ergometry
In an effort to further assess the physiologic cost of manned space
flight, an exercise capacity test was added for the 14-day mission.
This test utilized an electronic bicycle ergometer pedaled at 60 to
70 revolutions per minute. The load was set at 50 watts for 3 minutes
and increased by 15 watts during each minute. Heart rate, respiration
rate, and blood pressure were recorded at rest and during the last
20 seconds of each minute during the test. Expired air was collected
at several points during the test which was carried to a heart rate
of 180 beats per minute. Postflight results demonstrated a decrease
in work tolerance as measured by a decrease in time necessary to reach
the end of the test amounting to 19 percent on the command pilot and
26 percent on the pilot. There was also a reduction in physical com-
petence measured as a decrease in oxygen uptake per kilogram of body
weight during the final minute of the test.
Certain procedures have been considered of such importance that
they have been designated operationally necessary and have been performed
in the same manner on every mission. Other activities have been put
into the realm of specific medical experiments in order to answer a par-
ticular question or to provide a particular bit of information. These
investigations have been programed for specific flights. An attempt has
been made to aim all of the medical investigations at those body systems
which have indicated some change as a result of our earlier investiga-
tions. Thus, attempts are not being made to conduct wide surveys of
body activity in the hope of finding some abnormality but the investi-
gations are aimed at specific targets. A careful evaluation is conducted
on the findings from each flight and a modification is made to the ap-
proach based upon this evaluation in both the operational and experi-
mental areas. Table 24-XI shows the medical experiments which have been
conducted on the Gemini flights to date.
The long-duration flights have confirmed previous observations that
the flight crews are exposed to very low radiation-dose levels at orbital
altitudes. The body dosimeters on these missions have recorded only
millirad doses, which are at an insignificant level. The recorded doses
may be seen in table 24-XIT.
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24-18
CONCLUDING REMARKS
A number of important medical observations during the Gemini flights
have been made without compromising man's performance. It can be stated
with certainty that all crewmen have performed in an outstanding manner
and have adjusted both psychologically and physiologically to the zero-g
environment and then readjusted to a one-g environment with no undue
symptomatology being noted. Some of the findings noted do require fur-
ther study, but it is felt that the experience gained through the 14-day
Gemini VII mission provides great confidence in any crewmen's ability
to complete an 8-day lunar mission without any unforeseen psychological
or physiological change. It also appears that man's responses can be
projected into the future to allow 30-day exposures in larger spacecraft.
The predictions thus far have been valid. Our outlook to the future is
extremely optimistic and man has shown his capability to fulfill a role
as a vital, functional part of the spacecraft as he explores the uni-
verse.
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 Approved For Release- 2002/09/03: CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
TABLE 24-I
PREDICTED WEIGHTLESS EFFECTS
ANOREXIA
NAUSEA
DISORIENTATION
SLEEPINESS
SLEEPLESSNESS
FATIGUE
RESTLESSNESS
EUPHORIA
HALLUCINATIONS
DECREASED g TOLERANCE
G. I. DISTURBANCE
URINARY RETENTION
DIURESIS:
MUSCULAR INCOORDINATION
MUSCLE ATROPHY
DEMINERALIZATION OF BONES
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 Approved For Release 2002109/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
TABLE 24-11
NASA-S-6o-1708 FEB 17
POST MERCURY MEDICAL STATUS
NO PROBLEM
0 LAUNCH AND REENTRY ACCELERATION
0 SPACECRAFT CONTROL
0 PSYCHOMOTOR PERFORMANCE
? EATING AND DRINKING
? ORIENTATION
? URINATION
REMAINING PROBLEMS
? DEFECATION
0 SLEEP
ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION
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 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
TABLE 24-III
UNITED STATES' MANNED SPACEFLIGHTS
ASTRONAUTS LAUNCH DATES DURATION
SHEPARD
5-5-61
15 MIN
GRISSOM
7-21-61
15 MIN
GLENN
2-20-62
4 HRS 56 MIN
CARPENTER
5-24-62
4 HRS 56 MIN
SCHIRRA
10-3-62
9 HRS 14 MIN
COOPER
5-15-63
34 HRS 20 MIN
GRISSOM
YOUNG
3-3-65
4 HRS 52 MIN
MC DIVITT
6-3-65
96 HRS 56 MIN
WHITE
COOPER
CONRAD
8-21-65
190 HRS 56 MIN
BORMAN
1.2-4-65
330 HRS 35 MIN
LOVELL
SCHIRRA
STAFFORD
12-15-65
25 HRS 51 MIN
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 ____App.rove.dFor.Release 2002/.09103 :.CIA RDP75B00285R00040001.0001-6..._
TABLE 24-I1
SPACE FLIGHT STRESSES
FULL PRESSURE SUIT
CONFINEMENT AND RESTRAINT
100% OXYGEN 5 psi ATMOSPHERE
CHANGING CABIN PRESSURE (LAUNCH AND ENTRY)
VARYING CABIN AND SUIT TEMPERATURE
ACCELERATION-G FORCE
WEIGHTLESSNESS
VIBRATION
DEHYDRATION
FLIGHT PLAN PERFORMANCE
SLEEP NEED
ALERTNESS NEED
CHANGING ILLUMINATION
DIMINISHED FOOD INTAKE
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 Approved For Release`200-2/O9/03-:-CIA-RDP75B00285Rfl0040001000.1 -6- ._.__. _... ~_
NASA-S-66-1709 FEB 17
TABLE 24-Y
GEMINI
PEAK HEART RATES, BEATS/MIN
FLIGHT
GEMINI III
GEMINI IY
GEMINI Y
GEMINI YI
GEMINI MIT
LAUNCH I REENTRY
152
120
148
128
148
155
125
150
152
125
165
130
140
125
170
178
125
140
180
134
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it'
 --._-Approved-Far-Release 2002109103-_ CIA-RDP-75B00285.R0.0040001,0001-6 _-
TABLE 24 VT
TYPICAL GEMINI MENU
DAYS 2, b, 10 & 14
MEAL A
CALORIES
GRAPEFRUIT DRINK
83
CHICKEN AND GRAVY
92
BEEF SANDWICHES
268
APPLESAUCE
165
PEANUT CUBES
297
905
MEAL B
ORANGE-GRAPEFRUIT DRINK
83
BEEF POT ROAST
119
BACON AND EGG BITES
206
CHOCOLATE PUDDING
307
STRAWBERRY CEREAL CUBES
114
MEAL C
829
POTATO SOUP
220
SHRIMP COCKTAIL
119
DATE FRUITCAKE
262
ORANGE DRINK
83
684
TOTAL CALORIES: 2418
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?
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TABLE 24-VEI
GEMINI VII INFLIGHT MEDICAL AND ACCESSORY KITS
MEDICAL KIT
MEDICATION
DOSE AND FORM
LABEL
QUANTITY
CYCLIZINE HC1
50 mg TABLETS
MOTION SICKNESS
8
d-AMPHETAMINE SULFATE
5 mg TABLETS
STIMULANT
8
APC (ASPIRIN, PHENACETIN,
AND CAFFEINE)
TABLETS
APC
16
MEPERIDINE HC1
100 mg TABLETS
PAIN
4
TRIPROLIDINE HC1
2.5mg
PSEUDOEPHEDRINE HC1
TABLETS
60mg
DECONGESTANT
16
DIPHENOXYLATE HC1
2.5 mg
ATROPINE SULFATE
TABLETS
0.25 mg
DIARRHEA
16
TETRACYCLINE HC1
250 mg FI LM-COATED TABLET
ANTIBIOTIC
16
METHYLCELLULOSE SOLUTION
15cc IN SQUEEZE DROPPER BOTTLE
EYEDROPS
1
PARENTERAL CYCLIZINE
45 mg (0.9cc IN INJECTOR)
MOTION SICKNESS
2
PARENTERAL MEPERIDINE HC1
90mg (0.9cc IN INJECTOR)
PAIN
2
ACCESSORY KIT
ITEM
QUANTITY
SKIN CREAM (15cc SQUEEZE BOTTLE)
2
ELECTRODE PASTE (15cc SQUEEZE BOTTLE)
1
ADHESIVE DISCS FOR SENSORS
12 FOR EKG, 3 FOR PHONOCARDIOG.RAM LEADS
ADHESIVE TAPE
20 IN.
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 Approved For Release 2002/09/03: CIA-R 500'265ROOQ40 O-IOOD1-6 ____-_.___-_
NASA-S-66-1711 FEB 17
TABLE 24-M
ASTRONAUT BODY WEIGHTS IN LBS
FLIGHT I COMMAND PILOT
PILOT
GEMINI III
PREFLIGHT 158
POSTFLIGHT 155 1/4
(-23/4)
PREFLIGHT
POSTFLIGHT
GEMINI LY
PREFLIGHT 1561/2
POSTFLIGHT 152 (-41/2)
PREFLIGHT
POSTFLIGHT
GEMINI Y
PREFLIGHT 152
POSTFLIGHT 1445/8
(-73/8)
PREFLIGHT
POSTFLIGHT
GEMINI Yl
-PREFLIGHT 1761/4
POSTFLIGHT 174 (-23/8 )
PREFLIGHT
POSTFLIGHT
GEMINI I
PREFLIGHT 162 1/2
POSTFLIGHT 152 1/2 (-10)
PREFLIGHT
POSTFLIGHT
165
161 1/2
(-3 '/2 )
173
1641/2
(-8 '/2 )
154
145 1/2
(-8'/2 )
171
1627/10
(-83/10)
1691/2
163 1/5
(-63/10)
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 -- -Approved-For-Release 2002/_0.91Q3 ,: CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
TABLE 24-IX (a)
NASA-S-66-1705 FEB 17 7
GEMINI VII URINE CHEMISTRIES
COMMAND PILOT
DETERMINATION J PREFLIGHT Dr1C'rr~
DATE, 1965
No+ meg
24 HRS
K+
CI -
Ca++
mg
24 HRS
P04
170HCS
11/23+12/1
143
71
228
1131
7.7
12/18
95 (66%)*
118 (166%)
89 (63%)
269 (118%)
2133 (188%)
18.6 (241%)
12/20
182 (127%)
168 (119%)
260 (114%)
936 (83%)
7?3 (95%)
7.8 16.4 (210%) N S
50.3 j1(204%) N S
12/21
150 (105%)
-----------
90 (127(7o)
145 (103%
210 (92%)
978 (86%)
9.1 (118%)
N S
N S
ug/24 HRS 26 75 (288%) 28 (108%)
CREAT, mg
24 HRS 2035 3297 (162%) f1380 (68%) 207.0 (102%)
*PERCENT OF PREFLIGHT VALUE
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E p i -2u--L-
24 HRS
Nor Epi
ALDOSTERONF
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NASA-S-66-1706 FEB 17
TABLE 24-IX(b)
GEMINI VII URINE CHEMISTRIES
DETERMINATION] PREFLIGHT -4 _ . 0^f'Tr-m
DATE, 1965
11/23+12/1
76 (51%)
60 (86%)
996 (83%)
11.3 (183%)
47 (181%)
2003 (90%)
94 (63%)
89 (127%)
73 (52%)
105 (57%)
8.1 (130%)
8.2 (132%)
60 (230%)
w
Co
40
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 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
TABLE 24-X
GEMINI 3 BLOOD CHEMISTRY STUDIES
COMMAND PILOT
DETERMINATION
PREFLIGHT
POSTFLIGHT
NOV 24
NOV 30
DEC 18
DEC 20
DATE, 1965
AND
AND
11:30 A M
18:20 A M
DEC 19
AND
NOV 25
DEC 2
EST
EST
DEC 21
BLOOD UREA NITROGEN (BUN) mg PERCENT
19
16
16
20
25
18
BILIRUBIN, TOTAL mg PERCENT
0.4
0.2
0.3
-
0.3
0.4
ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE (B-L UNITS)
1.7
2.0
1.7
-
-
-
17-OH CORTICOSTEROIDS, mg PERCENT
SODIUM, m Eq/1
147
146
138
140
144
143
POTASSIUM, m Eq/1
4.7
5.4
4.1
4.7
4.7
4.9
CHLORIDE, m Eq/1
103
103
100
102
103
106
CALCIUM, mgms PERCENT
9.0
9.2
8.6
9.2
9.0
9.2
PHOSPATE, mgm PERCENT
3.2
3.7
4.0
3.2
3.1
3.6
GLUCOSE, mgm/100 ml, NON-FASTING
71
90
98
-
-
ALBUMEN, gm PERCENT
4.6
4.73
5.16
-
4.5
4.6
ALPHA 1, gm PERCENT
0.23
0.26
0.08
-
-
-
ALPHA 2, gm PERCENT
0.40
0.39
0.40
-
-
-
BETA, gm PERCENT
0.63
0.84
0.72
-
-
-
GAMMA, gm PERCENT
1.03
0.97
0.72
-
-
TOTAL PROTEIN, gm PERCENT
6.9
7.2
7.1
7.6
7.0
7.1
URIC ACID, mgm PERCENT
6.8
6.6
4.6
6.0
5.9
6.0
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 Approved For Release 2002/09/03: CIA-RDP73B=-285RD1304D0'100Y01=6
NASA-S-66-1762 FEB 18
TABLE 24 II
MEDICAL EXPERIMENTS ON GEMINI
LONG-DURATION MISSIONS
CODE
SHORT TITLE
GEMINI IY
4 DAYS
GEMINI Y
8 DAYS
GEMINI VIE
14 DAYS
M-1
CUFFS
X
X
M-2
TILT TABLE
IN
O
CLUDE AS M
PS PROCEDU
ED
RE
M-3
EXERCISE TOLERANCE
X
X
X
M-4
PHONOCARDIOGRAM
X
X
M-5
BODY FLUIDS
X
M-6
BONE DENSITOMETRY
X
X
X
M_7
CALCIUM & NITROGEN
BALANCE STUDY
X
M-8
SLEEP ANALYSIS
X
M-9
OTOLITH FUNCTION
X
X
4
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 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
11
b
TABLE 24XII (a)
RADIATION DOSAGE,
ON GEMINI LONG-DURATION MISSIONS
IN M RAD
GEMINI i
COMMAND PILOT
38.5 ? 4.5*
40.0 t 4.2
42.5 t 4.5
45.0 t 4.5
42.5 ? 4.7
45.7 + 4.6
42.5 ? 4.5
69.3 ? 3.8
GEMINI Y
COMMAND PILOT
PILOT
190 ? 19
140 ? 14
173 t 17.3
172 ? 17.2
183 f 18.3
186 ? 18.6
195 t 19.5
172 f 17.2
*VALUES ARE LISTED IN SEQUENCE:
LEFT CHEST, RIGHT CHEST, THIGH, AND HELMET
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 -Approved- For Release 2002/09/03 CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010004-6
NASA-S-66-1710 FEB 17 TABLE 24-XEI (b)
RADIATION DOSAGE ON
GEMINI LONG-DURATION MISSIONS
IN M RAD
GEMINI v u
COMMAND PILOT
PILOT
178?10
98.8?10
105?10
215 +15
163?10
151 ?10
VALUES ARE LISTED IN SEQUENCE :
LEFT CHEST, RIGHT CHEST, THIGH
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 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-1
BIOSENSOR HARNESS AND SIGNAL CONDITIONERS
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 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-2
SAMPLE OF BIOMEDICAL DATA
AXILLARY EKG-COMMAND PILOT
STERNAL EKG-PILOT
NASA-S-66-1772 FEB 18
STERNAL EKG-COMMAND PILOT
IMPEDANCE PNEUMOGRAM-COMMAND PILOT
PILOT BLOOD PRESSURES
IL It I
AXILLARY EKG-PILOT
IMPEDANCE PNEUMOGRAM-PILOT
Approved For- Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved ForAelease 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001t6
FIGURE 24-3 (a)
SLEEP
PERIODS
REVOLUTION
-COUNT
HEART RATE,
BEATS/MIN
GEMINI IV
PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS
PILOT
120
180
160
140
100
80
60
40
RESPIRATION 20
/ M I,v _0
I II
I II
I
II
11i 2+311 4 1-5 T 6 t
i II L I I
LIFT EVA1I-?--
OFF I o
7 i 8 9 T10-11--12413-!-14{15T
I 1 1 I I 1 I I ,
M-3 EXPERIMENT
V IN-FLIGHT EXERCISER
I t
I I ;, -HEART
RATE
rl "
I
~ I I
I
V~ _---.---'V 1 1
LI
RESPIRATION
9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
GROUND ELAPSED TIME, HR
Approved For Release`2002/09/03: CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-3 (b)
GEMINI IV
PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS (CON'T)
SLEEP
PERIODS
PILOT
REVOLUTION 31t32+331-r34-x357I 36+37T38439-x40 jd1-+-42r4j3r44-t 45-xt46
COUNT I I , , , , I , I
, I I , I I I I I I I 1 , I I
HEART RATE,
BEATS/MIN
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
M-3 EXPERIMENT
IN-FLIGHT EXERCISER
V
.
RESPIRATION 20
L 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1111111 11
/MI1q 0 I
49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71
GROUND ELAPSED TIME, HR
V
I 1
,, .,?__ r
.I../ ~.` ; ~~? ?i ~i'~ ~.~ t_ i.~.
~ it
I V
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-4 (a)
GEMINI Y11
PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURMENTS
220
200
180
160
140
HEART 120
CAPE
DAY-
NIGHT
100
80
60
40
20
SLEEP
- ^ HIGH
^2 MEAN
LOW
o
TV L/O ......
0
PRE-LAUNCH
4 16
32 48
HIGH MEAN
LOW ---
64 80
96 112 128 144 160 176 192
GET
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
F1 GU RE 24-4 (b)
NASA-S-66-1780 FEB 18 GEMINI VIII
PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS
220
200
180
140
HEART
RATE 120
100
80
CAPE
DAY-NIGHT 40
SLEEP 20
[seise
HIGH MEAN
LOW ---
01 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i
192 208 224 240 256 272 288 304 320 336 352
Approved FQr Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
it
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001V6
FIGURE 24-5
NASA- S-65-12 5 92A
GEMINI MI
COMMAND PILOT BLOOD PRESSURE
PRE-EXERCISE
--- POST-EXERCISE
160
BLOOD 140
PRESSURE 120
IN 100
mmHg
80
60
40
20
PRE-LAUNCH
0 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192
GET
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R00040001000.1-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-6
NASA-S-66-1773 FEB 18
100
90
80
70
60
SLEEP
IN 50
HOURS
8-140
6H
4H
2
30
20
10
0
GEMINI III SLEEP DATA
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
MISSION DAY
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R00040001000{-6
(
 ~" ~~~'ApprovecT~"or F2e`lease 2~b~T03%if3 : ~~A-1~Y5F~~5~00~85R000400U10001-6~V ~ ~ -
FIGURE 24-7
NASA-S-66-1764 FEB 18
GEMINI VII
WATER INTAKE VS MISSION DAY
100 r-
90
80
70
60
WATER
50
IN LBS
40
6-30
I- 20
21- 10
CUMULATIVE INCREMENTAL
- 0 - COMMAND PILOT
-- ? PILOT
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 "- -Approved- For-Refease 2 O2F09/03 :-CM-=RDP75BO0285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-8
NASA-S-66-1759 FEB18
URINE COLLECTION DEVICE
Approved Forelease 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001t6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001 6
I
FIGURE 24-9
NASA-S 66 1758 FEB 18
FECAL BAG
PART NU',19ER
X551 3 102
ORLP CL CRP.
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 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-10
NASA-S-66-1707 FEB 17
GEMINI IN-FLIGHT DEFECATION FREQUENCY
GEMINI vu
GEMINI V
GEMINI Ig
GEMINI III
0
0
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
DAYS
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 CIA-RDP75B00285R0004000100,,01-6
FIGURE 24-11
URINATION
FREQUENCY
URINE
VOLUME
(OUNCES)
GEMINI = URINE VOLUME
AND URINATION FREQUENCY
VALUES DERIVED FROM FLOWMETER DATA
LEGEND
F3 COMMAND
PILOT
24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288
MISSION DURATION - HOURS
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400O1.000,1-6..
I um
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
-'4ASA-S-65-8900
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-12
GEMINI MEDICAL KIT
 A-proved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-13
NASA-S-66-1760 FEB 18
GEMINI MEDICAL ACCESSORY KIT
N
A
1
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-14
GEMINI ASTRONAUT LEUCOCYTIC RESPONSE
WBC'S AND
NEUTROPHILES
PRE R+2 R+8
GEMINI IY
PREFLIGHT I POSTFLIGHT
PRE R+2 R+g
GEMINI Y
PRE R+2 R+8
GEMINI YII
Approved For Release-2002/09/03 CIA-RDP75B00285R0004000'1000.1.-6__
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-15
RED
CELL
MASS
CPS
CP
PLASMA
VOLUME P
TOTAL
BLOOD
CPS
VOLUME ? r
GEMINI BLOOD VOLUME STUDIES
-12%
_260cc
CALC
VALUES
-4% ~ -8%
-ll8cc -209cc
-12.6%e
-492cc
-7.2%
-378cc
-13%
-592c
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
NASA-S-66 1761 FEB18 FIGURE 24-16
TILT TABLE
4,
Approved For Release 2002/09/03: CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001 6
FIGURE 24-17 (a)
NASA-S-66-1768 FEB 18
GEMINI IV
TILT TABLE STUDIES
COMMAND PILOT
2
160
150
140
130
120
BLOOD 110
PRESSURE 100
AND
HEART
90
RATE
80
70
50
40
MAY 28, 1965
JUNE 7, 1965
STARTED AT LANDING + 2 HR
POST- PRE TILT TO 700 POST_
TILT TILT I TILT
BLOOD PRESSURE IN mm Hg
DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS P
UL
Al 1 11 11 111
111
1
111
0 50 5 10 150 5--b-10 510 5 10 15 5
PREFLIGHT TILT STUDIES
POSTFLIGHT TILT STUDIES
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
SE PRESS.
III
--Approved--For.. Release 200.2/09/03_: CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002109/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-17 (b)
GEMINI i
NASA-S-66-1766 FEB 18
TILT TABLE STUDIES CONCLUDED
COMMAND PILOT
1601
1501
140
130
120
JUNE 8. 1965 JUNE 9. 1965
STARTED AT LANDING + 32 HR STARTED AT LANDING +. 52 HR
`T TILT I till 1v rv . I POST-
PRE- TILT I liii 'v iu- it POST-
TILT
BLOOD 110
PRESSURE 100
AND .
iEART RATE 90
80
70
60
50
401 11
0 510 5 10 150 5 0 510 5 10 1510 5
V
HEART RATE IN BEATS/MIN
- BLOOD PRESSURE IN mm Hg
POSTFLIGHT TILT STUDIES
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
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 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
BLOOD
PRESSURE
AND
HEART RATE
LEGEND
160
150
140
130
120
110
PRE-
TILT
00
100-
90
90-
80
so-
70
70-
60
60-
50
50-
40
40-
FIGURE 24-18 (a)
FIGURE
GEMINI TV
TILT TABLE STUDIES
PILOT
MAY 28, 1965
TILT TO 70?
%r t?-r
I
I
f
0 50 5 10 15.0 21.0 510 5 10 1510 14
PREFLIGHT TILT STUDIES POSTFLIGHT TILT STUDIES
-- HEART RATE IN BEATS/MIN
BLOOD PRESSURE IN mm Hg
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS PULSE PRESS.
JUNE 7, 1965
STARTED AT LANDING + 1.5 HR
TILT TILT k.& A TILT
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 CIA-RDP75B00285R0004000100.6,1-6
FIGURE 24-18 (b)
NASA-S-66-1767 FE B 18
GEMINI Ig
TILT TABLE STUDIES CONCLUDED
PILOT
JUNE 8, 1965 JUNE 9, 1965
160r, STARTED AT LANDING + 32 HR STARTED AT i
BLOOD
PRESSURE
AND
1501- PRE- I I POST_ PRE-1 TILT TO 700 I POST.
1401- TILT ~ A I Ak ~_ TILT TILT. I A I TILT
130
120
110
100
HEART RATE 90
80
70
60
501
40
0 A 1*i0]5O51
-
POSTFLIGHT TILT STUDIES
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
Approved for Release., 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
-- HEART RATE IN BEATS/MIN
DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS PULSE PRESS.
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
AUG 5, 1965
180
170
160
150
130
BLOOD
120
PRESSURE
110
AND
HEART
100
RATE
90
40
PRE
-TILT
70
60 V
50
FIGURE 24-19 (a)
GEMINI Y
TILT TABLES STUDIES
COMMAND PILOT COOPER
DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS PULSE PRESSURE
HEART RATE
BLOOD PRESSURE
50 5 10 150 5
0 5 0 5 10 150 5
PRE-FLIGHT TILT STUDIES 1
LEGEND Fi eocGn TIue .. ...
POST
-TILT
180 PRE
170-TILT
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
t.J"J
AUG 11, 1965 AUG 17, 1965
TILT TO 70?
POST
-TILT
180 PRE
170 -TILT
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
POST
-TILT
4U L40 0 50 5 10 150 5 0
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 41
Approved For Release 200270900 :ETA=RBP75B00285R000400010001-6-
NASA-S-66-1782 FE
B 18
180 PRE-
170 TILT
160
150
140
130
BLOOD 120
PRESSURE
AND HEART 110
RATE 100
90
80
70
60
50
40
LEGEND
- --- HEART RATE
BLOOD PRESSURE
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS PULSE PRESSURE
180 PRE-
170 TILT
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R00040001000.1-6
FIGURE 24-19 (b)
GEMINI Y7
TILT TABLE STUDIES
COMMAND PILOT COOPER
AUG 2.9, 1965 AUG 29 196
5
TILT
170 TILT
160
-
140
120
110
H 100
90
70
60
50
Liml
L ,40 0
LANDING +11 HR
TILT TO 70?
0 5 10
POST-
TILT
POSTFLIGHT TILT STUDIES
AUG 30, 1965
LANDING +30 HR
TILT TO 70?
POST-
TILT
0 5 10 15 0 5
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
NASA-S-66-1783 FEB 18
BLOOD
PRESSURE
AND
HEART
RATE
180 PRE-
170 TILT
160
50
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
AUG 5, 1965
TILT TO 70?
FIGURE 24-20 (a)
GEMINI Y
TILT TABLE STUDIES
PILOT CONRAD
AUG 11, 1965
POST-
TILT
X180
-170
-160
-150
-140
-130
120
110
100
90
80
70
TILT TO 70?
JV
60
o 5 0 5 10 15 0 5
-PREFLI
GHT TILT STUDIES -
LEGEND
"-'- HEART RATE ELAPSED TIME, MIN
-BLOOD PRESSURE
DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS PULSE PRESSURE
50
POST.
TILT
40 LuiiIIIiiiiIIIIlit,,,Ill I
0 50 5 10 150 5
AUG 17, 1965
TILT TO 70?
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved
160
150
140
GEMINI :7
TILT TABLE STUDIES
PILOT CONRAD
AUG 29, 1965
LANDING + 2 HR
TILT TO 70?
BLOOD
PRESSURE
AND
HEART
RATE
180 r PRE-
170 r- TILT
130
120
110
100
50
40
70
60
90
80
~J q
II i rrl w^,,,
i / 11
POST-
TILT
0 5 0 5 10 150 _5
LEGEND
--- HEART RATE
BLOOD PRESSURE
DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS
FIGURE 24-20 (b)
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
90
80
70
60
i- 50
Lop
0 5 0 5 10 15 0 5
-POSTFLIGHT TILT STUDIES-
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
PULSE PRESSURE
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80 ,
70
60
50
40
ren/ "1 _! \
L111IIIIIIIII11111iiiilh iIIIj
0 5 0 5 10 150 5
_,_Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
AUG 29, 1965
AUG 30, 1965
LANDING + 10 HR
LANDING + 29 HR
TILT TO 70?
TILT TO 70?
POST-
180 PRE-
POST
TILT
170 TILT
_
TILT
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
180
PRE_
170 TILT
AUG 31, 1965
LANDING + 48 HR
TILT TO 700
BLOOD
PRESSURE
AND
HEART
RATE
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
FIGURE 24-20 (c)
GEMINI Y
TILT TABLE STUDIES
PILOT CONRAD
SEPT 1, 1965
LANDING + 73 HR
TILT TO 70?
-180 PRE-
. 170 TILT
-160
150
? 140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
SEPT 3, 1965
LANDING + 104 HR
TILT TO 70?
POST_ r 180 PRE-
li~,illl~~~~I~~~~I I~I I
40 0 S O 5 10 15 0 5
POSTFLIGHT TILT STUDIES
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS PULSE PRESSURE
LEGEND
---- HEART RATE
BLOOD PRESSURE
- 160
170 TILT
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
ILi~0 5 0 ii5 iii1 0 ~~15IjJ 5
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-21
GEMINI TILT RESPONSE VS MISSION DURATION
100
HEART RATE CHANGE
DURING INITIAL
POST-FLIGHT TILT 80
AS % OF PRE-FLIGHT
RATE
IV
I I I I I I I I i I I i i
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
MISSION DURATION IN DAYS
0'
1
14
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
5 x
FIGURE 24-22 (a)
GEMINI J11
TILT TABLE STUDIES
COMMAND PILOT
----HEART RATE IN BEATS/MIN
BLOOD PRESSURE IN mm Hg
0 5 0 5 10 15 0 5 0
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
110
BLOOD
PR AND URE100
HEART RATE
FIGURE 24-22 (b)
GEMINI VII
TILT TABLE STUDIES
COMMAND PILOT
DECEMBER 18. 1965
LANDING + 2 HOURS
-----HEART RATE IN BEATS/MIN I
BLOOD PRESSURE IN mm Hg
DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS PULSE PRESS
.
40L 1 1 1 1 1 I I I . . . . I . . . . . . . I I I I . . . . .
0 5 0 5 10 15 0 5
DECEMBER 18, 1965
LANDING + 10 HOURS
._ApprovedFor Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
GEMINI VIT
TILT TABLE STUDIES
COMMAND PILOT
BLOOD
PRESSURE 100
AND HEART
RATE - 90
BLOOD PRESSURE IN mmHg
FIGURE 24-22 (c)
DECEMBER 19, 1965
LANDING + 25 HOURS
TILT TO 70?
---- HEART RATE IN BEATS/MIN
r r r I r r i t r r r r r r r I r r r r I I i 1 1 r I I
'
DECEMBER 20, 1965
LANDING + 49 HOURS
TILT TO 700
10 15
0 5 0 5 0 5 10 15 0
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
POSTFLIGHT TILT STUDIES
Approved For Release 2002/09/03: CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved.-For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
our ---- HEART RATE IN BEATS/MIN
5o r DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS PULSE PRESS
0 5 0 5 10 15
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
PREFLIGHT TILT STUDIES
FIGURE 24-23 (a)
GEMINI III
TILT TABLE STUDIES
PILOT
TILT TO 70? I POST-TILT ?-
f
...Ap.proved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
BLOOD PRESSURE IN mm Hg
 Approved For-elease-2002/09/03- :- CIA=RDPT5B00285R00040001 GOO1-6
FIGURE 24-23 (b)
HEART RATE IN BEATS/MIN
BLOOD PRESSURE IN mm Hg
DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS
r' PULSE PRESS.
GEMINI III
TILT TABLE STUDIES
PILOT
15' 0 5 0 5'0 5 10 151 0 5
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
POSTFLIGHT TILT STUDIES
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
FIGURE 24-23 (c)
GEMINI MI
TILT TABLE STUDIES
PILOT
DECEMBER 19, 1965
LANDING + 24 HOURS
DECEMBER 20, 1965
LANDING + 50 HOURS
4
U
0'
TILT TO 70? POST-TILT
BLOOD 110
PRESSURE
AND 100
HEART
RATE
60 ---- HEART RATE IN BEATS/MIN
BLOOD PRESSURE IN mm Hg
50 DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS PULSE PRESS.
0 5 0 5 10 15 0 5
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
POSTFLIGHT TILT STUDIES
1 1 1 1 h I I I I, h i i i
10 15 0 5
4 %1
Approved For Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6 3
 Approved For gelease 2002/09/03: CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
NASA-5-66-1785 FEB 18
BLOOD
PRESSURE
AND
HEART RATE
FIGURE 24.23 (d)
GEMINI III
TILT TABLE STUDIES
PILOT
DARKENED AREA REPRESENTS PULSE PRESS.
40
0
5 0 5
TILT TO 700 POST-TILT
50 ---- HEART RATE IN BEATS/MIN
BLOOD PRESSURE IN mm Hg
10 15 0
ELAPSED TIME, MIN
POSTFLIGHT TILT STUDY
DECEMBER 21, 1965
LANDING + 73 HR
-- Approved For. Release 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B00285R000400010001-6
 Approved For Release 2002(09/01.': CIA-lRDP75B00205ROOO4Db0'1-0001-=6-
FIGURE 24-24
GEMINI U
PILOT WORE THIGH CUFFS
ENTIRE MISSION
rq
GEMINI M
LEG
VOLUME
CHANGES
DURING
POSTFLIGHT
TILT TABLE
STUDIES
%o
ABOVE
PREFLIGHT
MEAN
VALUES
PILOT WORE THIGH
DAYS
GEMINI LV
NO THIGH CUFFS
CODE-
0 COMMAND PILOT
? PILOT
F I i I
12 24 48 72 96
HOURS POST-RECOVERY
w
81
00
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 Approved For Rase 2002/09/03 : CIA-RDP75B002850400010001-6
26-1
26. ASTRONAUTS REACTIONS TO FLIGHT
By Lt. Col. Virgil I. Grissom, Astronaut
Command Pilot, Gemini III
Astronaut Office
Manned Spacecraft Center
Lt. Col. James A. McDivitt, Astronaut
Command Pilot, Gemini IV
Astronaut Office
Manned Spacecraft Center
Col. L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., Astronaut
Command Pilot, Gemini V
Astronaut Office
Manned Spacecraft Center
Capt. Walter M. Schirra, Astronaut
Command Pilot, Gemini VI-A
Astronaut Office
Manned Spacecraft Center
Col. Frank Borman, Astronaut
Command Pilot, Gemini VII
Astronaut Office
Manned Spacecraft Center
The Gemini spacecraft was designed to make use of man's ability
to function in the space environment. The extravehicular activity
carried out during the Gemini IV flight demonstrated that an astronaut
could maneuver and work outside his spacecraft. Man's capabilities in
space were further demonstrated with the successful rendezvous between
Gemini VI-A and VII.
Very few anomalies occurred during the five manned Gemini flights,
enri most of the planned experiments were performed successfully. The
flight crews have been well pleased with the Gemini spacecraft. Even
though the cabin is small, the crews have been able to operate effec-
tively and efficiently.
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The pilot's role in manned space flight has changed somewhat from
the days of Project Mercury. Initially, man's reactions and his capa-
bilities in a space environment were two of the big unknowns, but Pro-
ject Mercury proved man to be both adaptable and capable. Therefore,
the Gemini spacecraft was designed to use the pilot as the key system
in its operation.
PREFLIGHT AND LAUNCH
When chosen for a specific mission, a flight crew is immediately
faced with two tasks: training for the flight, and checkout of the
spacecraft. The emphasis in these areas has changed from concentrating
wze major effor-Con spacecraft testing and checkout for the Gemini III
mission to concentrating on training for the Gemini VI-A and VII mis-
sions. This was a natural evolution in that Gemini III was the first
mission to use the new spacecraft for a manned flight, and the flight
plan was designed-'to check out the spacecraft systems. The crews of
the Gemini VI-A ard'VII spacecraft had high confidence in their vehicles
through their association with previous missions, but they had diffi-
cult flights to accomplish since the emphasis was on operational mis-
sion requirements.
The schedule on launch day has greatly improved since the Mercury
flights. For the Mercury flight, MR-4, the pilot was awakened at
1:10 a.m. and manned the spacecraft at 3:58 a.m. The Gemini launch is
usually between the rather gentlemanly hours of 9 a.m.and 11 a.m. Also,
the interval between crew awakening and insertion into the spacecraft
has been shortened. However, it has not yet been possible to shorten
the time between crew insertion and lift-off; although, it is recognized
that efficiency is increased by shortening the interval between the time
that the crew awakes refreshed from a good night's sleep and the time of
lift-off. This increased efficiency is especially helpful during the
early, critical phase of the flight when the crew members are becoming
adjusted to their new environment. After long periods in the spacecraft
(90 minutes or more) the pilots begin to become more uncomfortable from
lying on their backs in the Gemini ejection seat. The back, neck, and
leg muscles tend to become cramped and fatigued.
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The pilots concentrate during the last few days prior to a flight
on the details of the flight plan, the status of the spacecraft, and
both normal and emergency operational procedures. During this period,
the backup crew and the flight crew director endeavor to keep the crew
from being disturbed by anything not connected with the operation of
the mission.
Some experiments do place heavy burdens on the crew at this time,
and an attempt should be made to avoid adding to the crew's workload
during this period. A typical example of one of the heavy prelaunch
activities was the preparation for the medical experiment M-7 by the
Gemini VII flight crew. The preparation involved a rigid diet, com-
plete collection of all body wastes, and two controlled distilled-water
baths each day. The diet went well, the food was well prepared and
tasty; however, the collection of body wastes was difficult to integrate
with other activities, because the waste could only be collected at the
places most frequented by the flight crew, such as the launch complex,
the simulator, and the crew quarters. Fortunately, the fine cooperation
of the M-7 experimenters resulted in a minimum number of problems.
Even though some of the flight crews, especially the Gemini V crew,
had a comparatively limited time to prepare for their missions, they
were well trained in all phases and were ready to fly on launch day.
During the prelaunch period, the backup crew is used extensively
in the checkout of the spacecraft and, at the same time, this crew must
prepare to fly the mission. But their prime responsibility, by far, is
spacecraft testing and monitoring.
All flight crews have reported lift-off as being very smooth. The
Gemini VI-A crew indicated that they could tell the exact moment of
lift-off by the change in engine noise and vibration, and all crews
agree that vertical motion is readily apparent within seconds of lift-
off. Even without clouds as a reference, it i,s easy to determine when
the launch-vehicle roll program starts and ends.
The noise level is quite low at lift-off, increasing intensively
until sonic speed is reached. At that time, it becomes very quiet and
remains quiet throughout the remainder of powered flight.
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With one exception, the launch has been free from any objectionable
vibration. On the Gemini V flight, longitudinal oscillations, or POGO,
were encountered. The crew indicated that the vibration level was severe
enough to interfere with their ability to read the instrument panel.
However, POGO lasted only a few seconds and occurred at a noncritical
time.
The second stage of the launch vehicle ignites prior to separation
from the first stage. This causes the flame pattern to be deflected
and apparently to engulf the second stage and spacecraft. The crew of
Gemini VI-A indicated that the flame left a residue on the exterior of
the window, and every crew has reported a thin film on the outside of
the window. The pilot of Gemini VI-A noted that a string of cumulus
clouds was very white and clear prior to staging and that the clouds
were less white and clear afterward, indicating that the port window
obscuration could have occurred during staging.
The horizon is in full view during second-stage flight while the
radio guidance system is guiding the launch vehicle. Each correction
that the guidance system initiates can be readily observed by the crew.
It would appear that, given.proper displays and an automatic velocity
cutoff, the crew could control the launch vehicle into a satisfactory
orbit.
Second stage engine cutoff (SECO) is a crisp eventf The g-level
suddenly drops from approximately 7 to zero, and in no case has any
tail off been felt by the crews.
The powered-flight phase has been closely duplicated on the dynamic
crew procedures simulator (DCPS) trainer at the Manned Spacecraft Center.
After the first flight, the vibration level and the sounds were changed
to correspond with what the pilots actually heard during launch. The
simulation has such fidelity that there should be no surprises for the
crew during any portion of powered flight.
The insertion into orbit has been nominal for every flight. The
separation and turn-around of the spacecraft and the operation of the
onboard computer have been as planned.
At spacecraft separation and during turn-around, there is quite
a bit of debris floating all around the spacecraft. Some of these small
pieces stay in the vicinity for several minutes.
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During insertion, the aft-firing thrusters cannot be heard, but
the acceleration can be felt. The firing of the attitude and trans-
lation thrusters can be heard, and the movement of the spacecraft is
readily apparent.
Inflight Maneuvering
The flight crews have found the pulse-control mode to be excellent
for fine tracking, and the fuel consumption to be negligible. The direct
mode was needed and was most effective when large, rapid attitude changes
were required. However, the use of the direct, and also the rate-
command, mode is avoided whenever possible because of the high rate of
fuel consumption. Rate command is a very strong mode, and it is rela-
tively easy to command at any desired rate up to full authority. It
is the'i'ccommended mode for the critical tasks, such as retrofire and
translation burns, that are beyond the capability of the platform mode.
The platform mode is a tight attitude-hold control mode. It has
the capal3ility,of holding only two indicated attitudes on the ball dis-
play, zero-degrees yaw and roll, and zero or 180 degrees in pitch. But
the platform mode can be caged and the spacecraft pointed in any devised
direction and then the platform released. This gives an infinite number
of attitudes. It is the recommended mode for platform alignment and
for retrograde or posigradc translation burns. The horizon-scan mode
is a pilot-relief mode and is used when a specific control or tracking
task is not required. It is better than drifting flight, because it
controls the spacecraft through a wide dead band in pitch and roll,
but has no control of yaw. Drifting flight is perfectly acceptable for
long periods of time, as long as the tumbling rates do not become ex-
cessive (5?/sec or more). Spacecraft control with the reentry control
system is very similar to that of the orbital attitude and maneuver
system. Slightly more authority is available with the orbital attitude
and maneuver system than with both rings of the reentry control system.
This results in some tendency to overcontrol and, waste fuel. Actually
the one-ring reentry control system operation is satisfactory for most
tasks. All pilots used both rings for retrofire, but some used only
one ring for reentry. The reentry rate-command mode has not been used
by any crew, except, Gemini IV. The automatic reentry mode also has not
been employed.
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Two orbital maneuvers during he f'lii lit of Gemini VII were accom-
plished in a spacecraft, powered-down configuration. This means they were
without the platform., the computer, and the rate needles. The yaw atti-
tude was established by using a star reference obtained from ground up-
dates and the celestial chart. Roll and pitch attitudes were maintained
with respect to the horizon, which was visible to the night-adjusted eye.
The pilot made the burns, maintaining attitude on the star with attitude
control and rate command, while the command pilot timed the burn. No un-
usual difficulty was encountered when performin~., the no-platform maneu-
vers, and the crew considered this procedure acceptable.
During the long duration flight, it was found desirable to adhere
to the same work-rest cycle that the crew was used to on the ground.
To support this schedule, both crew members slept simultaneously, ex-
cept during the first night. The ground was instructed not to communi-
cate except for an emergency.
The Gemini IV mission was a good test of the life-support systems
for extravehicular activity. Preparations for extravehicular activity
--.-started during the'i'irst revolution and continued into the second. Ex-
travehicular activity demonstrated that man can work in a pressurized
suit outside the spacecraft and can use a maneuvering unit to move from
one point to another. The maneuvering unit used short bursts of pulse
mode. During extravehicular activity, the pilot used the spacecraft as
a visual, three-dimension orientation reference. At no time did the
pilot experience disorientation. The pilot made general observations
and investigated tether-dynamics. Control with the tether was marginal,
but it was easy to return to the hatch area using the tether. When the
pilot pushed away, the spacecraft pitched down at rates of 2?/sec from
the resultant force, and the pilot moved perpendicular to the surface
of the spacecraft. It was difficult to push away from the surface of
the spacecraft at an angle. After the pilot had reentered the space-
craft, the hatch was to be closed, but the latch handle malfunctioned.
However, the pilot had been trained thoroughly in both the normal and
failure modes of the hatch and was able to successfully close it.
Life-Support Systems
The bite-size foods for the crews were not as appetizing as had
been expected. The rehydratable foods were good and were preferred to
the bite-size foods. Preparing and consuming the meal takes time and
must be done with care. The food is vacuum packed to eliminate any
waste volume, but this capability does not exist when the crew is trying
to restow the empty food bags. Thus, they have a restowagc problem.
Most of the food is in a semiliquid form and any that remains in the
food bags is a potential source of free moisture in the cabin. The
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water has been good and cold. Even so, there seems to be a tendency
to forget to drink regularly and in sufficient quantities.
On the first long-duration mission, the crewmen had a difficult
time sleeping when scheduled. The spacecraft is so quiet that any
activity disturbed the sleeping crewman. For the later missions, the
crew members slept simultaneously, when it was possible.
Defecation is performed carefully and slowly; the whole procedure
is difficult and time. consuming, but possible. A major problem for
long-duration flights was the storage of waste material. It was nor-
mally stowed in the aluminum container which held the food. It was nec-
essary that a thorough housekeeping and stowage job be done every day.
Otherwise, the spacecraft would have become so cluttered that it would
be difficult for the crewmen to find anything.
The Gemini VII crewmen wore the G5C space suit, which is 8"to
10 pounds lighter than the normal suit. This suit contains no bumper
material-and has only two layers of nylon and rubber. The G5C space
suit includes a zipper-type hood, which is designed to be worn over an
ordinary pilot helmet.
For the Gemini VII mission, fully suited operations were conducted
during launch, rendezvous, and reentry. When the hoods were on, there
was considerable noise in the intercom system because of the airflow in
the hood. Visibility while wearing the hood was acceptable during
orbital flight, but during reentry, vision was somewhat obscured and
the command pilot removed his hood. When fully suited, the crew found
it difficult to see the night horizon and to observe and operate switches
in the overhead and water-management panels. In the partially-suited
configuration, which was maintained for approximately 2 days, there was
a loss in suit cooling efficiency, and some body areas did not receive
sufficient cooling. Intercommunication was improved with the hoods off,
but mobility was restricted because of the hood being on the back of the
head. On the second day, the pilot removed his suit, and his comfort
was definitely improved.. Ventilation was adequate, and the skin was
kept dry. In the suit-off configuration, there was increased mobility.
It was easier to exercise, unstow equipment, and perform other oper-
ations. It took approximately 20 minutes to remove the suit, including
the time required to place the plugs in the suit openings in case emer-
gency donning was required. During the sixth day of the mission, both
pilots had their suits off. One apparent improvement was that all crews
on the long-duration flight felt a need to exercise. Even though exer-
cise periods were scheduled regularly, most crews requested more frequent
and longer periods of exercise,
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System Management
One of the crew's prime functions is to monitor and control the
spacecraft's various systems. This requires a thorough knowledge of the
details of each system as well as how to operate the system in any
failure modes. It is true that the ground complex has much more infor-
mation concerning the operation of systems than the crew does, and they
have a staff of experts for each system. But, unfortunately, the crew
is in contact with ground stations only for a small percentage of the
flight. The crew must be prepared to rapidly analyze problems and make
correct decisions in order to safely complete the mission. Every flight
has had an example of this. Gemini III had the DC-DC converter failure
and suspected fuel leak; Gemini IV experienced a computer memory alter-
nator and Gemini V experienced fuel cell oxygen supply degradation while
performing the rendezvous evaluation pod experiment. Gemini VI-A proba-
bly had the most difficult problem of all. The shutdown on the pad oc-
curred in a manner that we had not considered in our training. Gemini VII
had flight control and fuel-cell problems. These are the times that it_
pays to have a well-trained crew onboard.
The Gemini III crew were surprised at the flame that appeared
around the spacecraft during staging. During the remainder of the
flight, the Gemini III crew observed thruster firings, northern and
southern hemisphere constellations, and the town of Mexicali, Mexico.
The Gemini IV crew were impressed at the clarity with which objects
could be seen from directly overhead. Roads, canals, oil tanks, boat
wakes, and airfields could be seen. The moon was a bright light; how-
ever, the stars close to it as well as the stars of the seventh magnitude..
could be seen. When the spacecraft passed from darkness to light, the
airgiow was clearly observed and the planets seemed to increase in
brightness. Meteors could be seen as they burned in the earth's atmos-
phere below the orbital flight path.
The Gemini VI-A crew made some very accurate visual sightings which
have been reported in the presentation of rendezvous.
The Gemini VII crew tracked their launch vehicle during the station-
keeping exercise by using the acquisition lights on the launch vehicle,
but they could not estimate the range. The spacecraft docking lights
were turned on, but they did not illuminate the launch vehicle. As the
time approached for rendezvous, spacecraft 6, at a range of approxi-
mately 2 to 3 milest appeared to the Gemini VII flight crew like a point
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of reflected light against the dark earth background just before sunset.
.At approximately 0.5-mile range, thruster firings could be seen as thin
streams of light shooting out from the spacecraft.
All crews reported that accurately tracking an object on the ground
is an easy task. The difficult part is identifying and acquiring the
target initially. It requires that the ground transmit accurate ac-
quisition times and pointing angles. Also, a careful preflight study
of maps and aerial photographs aids in early identification.
must have equipment available at an early date to use in their training.
Experiments and their results are covered in other papers. But,
the point should be made here, that for the crew to successfully com-
plete any experiment, they must have a thorough understanding of what
the experimenter is attempting to do. And, even more important, they
One of tht biggest problems is getting the actual flight equipment to
work well in its environment. A ground rule has been established that
all flight gear, experimental and operational, must be available and in
the spacecraft for the altitude chamber test.
in damping out the oscillations.
fire would be impossible when using the horizon or stars as a reference.
When the retroadapter was jettisoned, there was an audible noise. Jet-
tisoning could be felt, and there was debris around the spacecraft.
During reentry the spacecraft was stable, and there were no difficulties
thrusters obstruct the view of the horizon at night, a nightside retro-
During the Gemini III mission, a reentry control system plume-
observation test was conducted. Because the reentry control system yaw
so that the hand controller did not have to be held deflected in roll
for the entire reentry. The spacecraft rolled about its longitudinal
axis at the beginning of reentry,.and, after aerodynamics started to
take effect, the spacecraft rolled about its trim axis and reentered
gree. The reentry rate command with the roll gyro turned off was used
During the Gemini IV reentry, the rate-command system provided ex-
cellent control, and the attitudes,were held within plus or minus 1 de-
in a wide 'spiral.
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point because of losing their night-visual adaption.
The Gemini V crew performed retrofire during the middle of the
night, using the attitude ball as a reference. At retrofire, the out-
side appeared to be a fireball. The command pilot reported that it felt
as though the spacecraft was going back west, and the pilot reported
that he felt that he was going into an inside loop.
The Gemini VI-A crew also performed their retrofire at night and
did not see the horizon until just before the 400 000-foot-altitude
During reentry, the command pilot had to remove his hood because it
interfered with his vision of the horizon.
The Gemini VII crew had communications problems during retrofire,
since the vented air noise in the helmets hindered good communications.
The drogue phi-achute is normally deployed at 50 000 feet to stabi-
lize the spacecraft prior to main parachute deployment. After deploy-
ment, the spacecraft appears to oscillate about 20 to 30 degrees on
each side. The onboard recordings indicated that these oscillations
have never exceeded f 10?.
Main-parachute deployments take place in full view of the crew
and it is quite a beautiful and reassuring sight. Up to this point,
all events have been quite smooth with all loads being cushioned through
line stretching and reefing. But, changing from the single-point atti-
tude to the landing attitude causes quite a whip to the crew. After
the Gemini III flight, all crews have been prepared, and there have
been no problems.
r
The impact of landing has varied from a very soft to a .heavy shock.
The amount of spacecraft swing, and at what point during the swing the
landing occurs, change the landing loads. The amount of wind drift,
the size of the waves, and which part of the wave is contacted, also
vary the load. Even the hardest of the landings has not affected crew
performance.
In conclusion, the flight crews have been well pleased with the
,Gemini spacecraft. Even though the cabin volume is very limited, they
have been able to operate effectively and efficiently.
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