SELECTED TRANSLATIONS FROM 'VOYENNAYA MYSL' ', NO 10, OCTOBER 1965

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP85T00875R000300090018-7
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 28
• Document Creation Date: November 17, 2016
• Document Release Date: January 12, 1999
• Sequence Number: 18
• Publication Date: May 11, 1966
• Content Type: TRANS

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FOREIGN DOCUMENTS DIVISION
TRANSLATION
Number 961 11 May 1966
SFIE CTED TRANSLATIONS FROM "VOYNNNAYA MYSL? ",
No 10, OCTOBER 195
OFFICE OF CENTRAL REFERENCE
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
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-, 1 ED TRANSIATION3 FROM VOYFNNAYA MYSL',
Issue No 10, October 1965
Voyennaya Mysl' (Military Thought) is a monthly organ of
the USSR Ministry of Defense, printed by the ministry's Mili-
tary Publishing Douse, Moscow. The selected tranalationo,
below, are from Issue No 10, October 1965, which was signed
for the press 22 September 1965.
Air and Space Reconnaissance in Armed Conflict,
by Cols B. Aleksandrov and A. Yur'yev
Troop Control Requires a Stable Scientific Founda?%;ion,
by Col P. Shemanskiy
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AIR AND SPACE RECONNAISSANCE ?XN ARMED CONFLICT
by Cols B. AL., SANDROV and A. YUR'YEV
CPYRGHT
Every time that military theoretical thought focuses attention on
the essence of the changes occurring in military affairs, it notes not
only the basic revisions in the nature and methods of armed conflict,
but also the sharp increase in the role of reconnaissance in military
operations of various scales and in war as a whole. Actually, modern
weapons, especially ballistic missiles equipped with nuclear warheads,
make it possible to inflict strikes of enormous power in a short period
of time and at practically an unlimited range. And if enemy preparation
to inflict such a strike is not discovered in time, it is possible to
sustain a surprise nuclear missile attack and be in a critical situation
from the very beginning of the war. No loss important is the fact that
the armed forces will be able to use their might purposefully and with
the greatest effect only if they have adequate and reliable data con-
cerning the composition, grouping, and nature of preparations of troops
of a potential enemy, his most important military and economic targets,
and the system used for their defense., This is not new. But in modern
conditions it has acquired a special sense, since the successful employ-
ment, at the beginning of the we r, primarily of strategic weapc; ,, which
advance victory over enemy in a decisive manner, depends upon intelli-
gence data. The situation is similar to the role of reconnaissance in
operations of the branches of the armed forces. Their course and outcome
are determined to a great degree bt? the timely ascertainment of the
location of enemy nuclear weapons and the disclosure of the concentra-
tion and basic groupings of the [enemy] troops and various important
targets.
The change in the nature and methods of armed conflict is accompanied
by an increased volume of reconnaissance tasks and the fact that they have
become considerably more complex. In modern conditions, groupings of arinod
forces and important targets are located in practically all the territory
of a state or coalition of states, an6 the most important targets: are
weapons capable of strategic assault (launch installations for intercon-
tinental rockets, missile-armed submarines, strategic aviation at, air-
bases), which are located, as a rule, deep in the interior of the country
or in distant water areas, and are in constant readiness for action.
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YR Cuter space. The transition to dispersed battle formations and the in-
crease in the depth of the operational deployment of troops have required
that we increaso the depth of roconna is,snnce in theaters of military op-
erations accordingly. It has also become more difficult to perform re-
connaissance because its main targets, namely weapons capable of a nuclear
attack, as a rule are of small dimensions, and their locations are 'well-
camouflaged fixed or mobile targets.
The enormous flight speeds of ballistic rockets, and the fast-moving
nature of battles and engagements, the dynamic nature of the development
of events, and -the sharp changes in the situation, require that reconnais-
sance be conducted with the highest efficiency. Information must be
rapidly obtained, processed, and transmitted to the organs interested in
the least possible time.
Requirements have also increased for reliable data and accurate de-
termination of the positions of troop groupings and targets, since the
effective employment of very powerful weapons depends upon this. In-
creasing sharply is the significance of those methods and foi.ms of re-
connaissance which oven before the beginning of military operations make
it possible to disclose the preparation of the opposite side for unleash-
ing a war and provide the armed forces with the data necessary for in-
flicting the worst blows against them.
In these conditions, technical reconnaissance in general, and
especially aerial photography and the application of radioelectronic
reconnaissance equipment have acquired primary importance.
On the basis of data from the foreign press, let us 'consider briefly
the capabilities of various types of intelligence, their application in
military operations, and the most characteristic trends in their develop-
ment.
It was established long ago that technical reconnaissance equipment
may be used with the greatest effect if we place them in aircraft: in
this case, the sphere of activity of radiotechnical and infrared equipment
expands sharply, the field of view of photoapparatuses increases, and the
capabilities of radar reconnaissance stations increase. Reconnaissance
from aircraft most completely satisfies the requirements of continuous
observation, not only 'throughout the entire depth of theaters of military
operations, but also beyond their limits. In this case, accuracy of ith-
telligence data and good documentation of it is ensured. Besides this,
even without special reconnaissance apparatus a pilot may collect very
valuable and important information during a flight.
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leading places among types of reconnaissance as early as the years of
World War II. With its aid, the basic mass of information necessary
for the preparation and conduct of army and front operations was obtained,
and also data concerning important targets in the enemy roar, the intensity
of operations of railroad and motor-vehicle highways, the results of aerial
attacks on cities, enterprises, structures, and much other information.
In the postwar period, the development of aerial reconnaissance
methods and equipment continued at vory high rates. Equipment oi' in..
creasing complexity and diversit,', including radio, radar, and television
equipment, cameras for various purposes, infrared reconnaissance devices,
etc,, were installed aboard reconnaissance aircraft. The carriers of
this reconnaissance equipment were also continuously improved. The maximum
range, speed, and flight altitude of reconnaissance aircraft, increased
twofold or threefold as compared to the years of World War II, aid still
continue to increase. Thus, the latest models of tactical reconnaissance
aircraft (the RF-4C) have a maximum speed of about 2500 km/hr, a ceiling
of 24,000 m, and a flight range of more than 4000 km. The- new US SR-71
strategic reconnaissance aircraft, which is on the verge of being introduced
into the armament will supposedly have even higher flight characteristics.
It is estimated that this aircraft will be able to make a prolonged flight
at an altitude of 24,000 in at a speed of 3000 km/hr, and briefly develop a
speed of up to 3700 km/hr and rise to an altitude of more than 30,000 in.
The reconnaissance equipment installed aboard the aircraft will provide
for scanning ..n area of about 260,000 square kilometers in one hour of
flight at a speed of Mach 2.5 and an altitude of 27,000 m. -Pilotless re-
connaissance aircraft and also automatic drifting balloons have been widely
distributed.
But, in spite of this, aerial reconnaissance still has a number of
limitations. In the first place, the penetration of aircraft into the
airspace of the opposing side or into the zone of military operations of
ground troops or naval forces incurs great danger, owing to the sharp rise
in the effectiveness of air defense. In the 'second place, conducting
aerial reconnaissance in peacetime over the territory of other states
violates their sovereignty, which is intolerable from the standpoint of
international law. The ruling circles of the US are striving to make
up for these limitations in'the capabilities of aerial reconnaissance by
the application of space reconnaissance apparatuses, which include arti-
ficial earth reconnaissance satellites, spaceships, aircraft capable of
operating in space, and orbital aircraft.
The use of artificial satellites and other space devices will in-
commensurably expand the capabilities of technical reconnaissance. With
reconnaissance equipment on board, they can conduct reconnaissanco on ,a
global scale, inspect enormous spaces in a short period of time, and
rapidly transmit the accumulated data to intelligence centers. However,
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res`~o to tic degree o c etail in the data obtained, space reconnaissance
is inferior to aerial reconnaissance. Therefore, they do not replace each
other, but only supplement each other.
Aerial redonnaissanco, used in combination with artificial reconnais-
sance satellites, acquires qualitatively now features -- it becomes an air
and space effort.
With respect to the nature of the tasks being executed, air and space
reconnaissance is categorized by western military specialists as operational,
tactical, and strategic.
Operational and tactical reconnaissance obtains data concerning the
enemy over r the region o? military operations and in the immediate rear. It
is conducted mainly by piloted and pilotless reconnaissance aircraft for
purposes of detecting the launching positions of tactical rockets, artillery
positions, regions of the concentration and regrouping of troops and (quip-
ment, observing air bases of the tactical air force, and discovering systems.
of tactical air defense and centers for the control of the air forces. In
other words, operational and tactical aerial reconnaissance is conducted
in wartime and executes tasks in the interests of the units which are deve-
loping military operations in land or naval combat theaters.
The missions of strategic air and space reconnaissance are considerably
wider, since they are con ucte in the interests o the armed forces as a
whole. US military specialists divide them into two types. The first typo
includes the collection of data concerning large military targets deep in
the enemy rear, such as storage areas for nuclear weapons, air bases for
the strategic air forces, launching positions of intercontinental ballistic
rockets.3 the largest railroad junctions, naval bases, and military indus-
trial centers. The other type is the obtaining of data which makes it
poss'_ble to establish the intentions of the enemy, to determine the status
and trend of development of his armed forces, and to discover new models of
military equipment and weapons.
Strategic air and space reconnaissance is conducted by aircraft of
the strategic air forces, special high-altitude aircraft of the same type
as the US RB-57D, RB-57F, and U-2, specially equipped transport. aircraft,
drifting balloons, and, on an ever increasing scale, by means of artifi-
cial earth satellites.
Before the beginning of military operations, the main task of air and
space intelligence is to disclose enemy preparations for an attack and to
ascertain the priority enemy targets which must be subjected to nuclear
attacks. Such targets include strategic means of nuclear attack and the
most important air defense elements. The US military command, for example,
assumes that for each launch crew of an intercontinental rocket, submarine
crew, and carrier aircraft crew, the primary and secondary targets must be
accurately determined and their characteristic's and coordinates studied in
advance. Obtaining information necessary for planning operations in the
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in space, since the penetration of aircraft into the airspace of other
states, as we have already noted above, is associated with great difficul-
ties in peacot)mo.
With the beginning of military operations, the efforts of air and
space reconnaissance, will presumably be switched over primarily to re-
finement of the position of previously detected targets for nuclear attack
(in order to avoid inflicting an attack on an empty place), the ascertain-
ment of new targets and troop groupings, and also the determination of the
results of the operations of our own rockets and air forces. The number
of targets, especially in a theater of military operations, may be very
significant, since it is primarily the most dangerous and important of them
that must be reconnoitred. For this, a large number of sorties of recon-
naissance aircraft is required, and aircraft taking off to carry out other
missions must also conduct reconnaissance. The distribution of tasks be-
tween aerial reconnaissance facilities is performed in the following
manner. Reconnaissance aircraft of the strategic air forces conduct, as
a rule, reconnaissance in the depths of the theater of military operations
and beyond its limits; they ascertain chiefly strategic nuclear-rocket and
aviation weapons, rocket-carrying ships, and the deep reserves of.the
enemy. Reconnaissance over the field of battle and in an operational
depth is the responsibility of reconnaissance aircraft of the tactical
air forces. The basic targets they reconnoitre are considered to be tac-
tical rockets at launch sites and on tuie march, air bases of the tactical
air forces, combat formations of troops and their rear echelons and com-
munications. Space reconnaissance devices, as in peacetime, are to be
used for observation of important enemy targets located deep in his rear
and in theaters of military operations, and also for observations of groupings
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orces on the seas and oceans.
The employment of various devices and types of reconnaissance in war
and in an operation takes into account their strong and weak paints when
used together in various combinations. It is considered that together
with traditional types of reconnaissance -- visual, photographic, radar,
radio, and radiotechnical -- types of reconnaissance which have received
limited distribution or which have never been encountered at all in the
past, such as television, infrared, and radiation reconnaissance, will
also be widely employed.
Visual reconnaissance. In connection with the increase speeds and
flight ceilings of aircraft, effective visual reconnaissance becomes dif-
ficult, and sometimes even impossible. A crew member, carrying out visual
observations from great altitudes, cannot distinquish the objects of in-
terest to him, but in flight at low altitudes, because of the brevity of
observation (because of the large angular shifts), he will be in no posi..
tion to reconnoitre this object in adequate detail.
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H-6perational and tactical problems over the field of battle. it will be
used (at certain speeds and flight altitudes) for locating targets, con-
trolling the ros,ults of bombing and the launchings of tactical rockets,
observing the results of artillery firing;', and for observing the front
line and the deployment and location of tactical rocket launchers. Visual
reconnaissance may be conducted by means of optical devices, making it
possible to inspect the targets in greater detail. lave rytliing that a
pilot observes may be recorded on magnetic tape to prevent him from
omitting any details in his report when he arrives back at his base.
Aorialphotography of the terrain and targets of interest is con-
sidered the one of the basic forms of air and space reconnaissance.
Cameras for aerial reconnaissance are installed not only in all special
.reconnaissance aircraft of the strategic, tactical, carrier-aircraft, and
army air forces, but also in the greater part of combat and transport air-
craft. In recent years they have been used successfully in'artificial
earth satellites.
Aerial photography may be accomplished in good weather by day and
by night, from high or low altitudes, and at subsonic and supersonic speeds
(within certain limits). However, the altitude from which photographs may
be taken is limited by the presence and altitude of cloud cover- over the
targets.
Night photography has a special significance, since .the-enemy, for
purposes of hiding his intentions, will maneuver and deploy his troops
and equipment chiefly-during the hours of darkness. Night aerial photo-
graphy with the use of special illuminating devices makes it possible
to disclose these operations on time.
The illumination of targets in aerial photography at low altitudes
is performed by means of illuminating cartridges (flares) fired from
aircraft, and at medium and high altitudes by dropping special illuminat-
ing bombs (FOTAB, or flash bombs), which provide a flare of great inten-
sity.
Depending upon the missions assigned and the conditions in which
aerial photography is accomplished, aerial photographic apparatus of
various types having different tactical and technical characteristics
are used.
For vertical and oblique photography from great :altitudes, as a rule,
long-focus cameras are used. In the US Air Force cameras of various
types are used for this purpose, and the majority of them are designed for
taking photographs at subsonic flight speeds. A later modification of
these cameras makes it possible to take photographs from altitudes of up
to 30 km at a flight speed corresponding to Mach 2. From this altitude,
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performed by means of short-focus apparatuses.
Cameras intended for photography from low altitudes, and all the more
so at high speeds, must have attachments and devices which compensate for
the image shift. For those purposes, besides high-speed shutters of the
slotted (i.e., focal-plane) or between-the-lens type, devices are used for
advancing the film during exposure or for moving the objective lines, operatine,
of airborne ir,:,tru;r,er,ts c:cter~.ini:.g the f:i;;ht
For continuous traverse photography of a strip of the terrain from low
altitudes at high flight speeds, slotted aerial cameras arc used, in which
the film is advanced over a narrow slot at a speed equal to the speed of the
aircraft relative to the terrain being photographed.
For purposes of obtaining small-scale photographs of large regions,
aerial cameras with super-wide-angle lenses are used. The US KA-52 is
such a type of apparatus, which, according to statements in the foreign
press, can make photographs with an angle of view of 1800 from an altitude
of 85 m at a flight speed of 1100 km/hr. Thus, by means of this camera
and one long-focus lens 'rotating around the velocity vector of the aircraft,
the terrain may be photographed from horizon to horizon.
Since special reconnaissance aircraft are intended for performing
widely varied tasks in aerial photography, an effort is made to place
as many cameras as possible in them. But their overall dimensions and
weight characteristics do not always permit this. Therefore, in recent
years the so-called complex aerial photoreconnaissance systems have been
developed, which make it possible to solve a whole number of different
tasks in aerial photography of the terrain and targets.
It is known that at the present time the US reconnaissance aircraft
which are part of the armament of the tactical air command, such as the
RF-48F Thunderstreak, the RF-)01 Voodoo, the RI3-66 Destroyer, and the
naval A-3B, F-9F, and other aircraft are equipped with the "Iris" com-
plex aerial photoreconnaissance system (or part of its apparatus).*
This system, which ..-onsists of several aerial cameras, installed
with various angles of inclination of their optical axes, and an apparatus
for automatic processing of the exposed film, provides for aerial Photo-
graphy both by day and by night from low, medium, and high altitudes, in a
range of speeds from 390 to 2200 km/hr. By means of it, we may obtain
stereoscopic photographs of targets from altitudes of less than 150 m at
speeds of 1300-1400 km/hr.
A similar complex aerial photoreconnaissance system, known as the
"Wick", is installed in the Canadian CF-104 "Starfighter" reconnaissance
aircraft. The system consists of four aerial cameras with independent
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compensates for angular velocity, and processes the film exposed in flight.
VF%otography by day and by night from high and low altitudes, automatically
At present, the US is also making'wide use of spacecraft for aerial
photography. The installation of the appropriate apparatus in artificial
earth satellites placed in low-altitude orbits already makes it possible
now to solve the-task of aerial photography of territory and targets in
any part of the globe, on the scales needed.
A special earth reconnaissance satellite, which is called the "Samos`'.
has been developed in the US Armed Forces for purposes of aerial photo-
graphy. According to information publis"'cd in the foreign press, at a
flight altitude of, 480 km the photographic apparatus located in it, in-
cluding longfocus cameras, would supposedly provide for reading of targets
with linear dimensions of more than 3 m. It has also been reported that
by means of the "Samos" satellite they have succeeded in obtaining photo-
graphs of the positions of intercontinental ballistic missiles, from which
they could determine the nature of the positions and the arrangement of the
launching pads. However, the capabilities of satellite apparatus are deter-
mined by the amount of' film on board. At least two cameras are installed
in the satellite, one of which, at a command from the earth, photographs
a selected region in a strip 112.5 kni wide, and the other simultaneously
photographs the sky above, which makes it possible to determine accurately
the coordinates of the regions photographed by the first camera.
It is assumed that in late models of the "Samos" satellite there are
six containers?each, for returning the exposed film. At a command from
the earth, the containers separate from the satellite, and as they approach
the dense layers of the atmosphere a parachute opens, by means of which
further descent is accomplished. The descending container is recovered
in the air by aircraft.
Television apparatus is occupying a place of ever increasing import-
ance in air and space reconnaissance. It has the advantage of being able to
transmit the results of the observations directly to the earth. Television
cameras are installed in many types of tactical reconnaissance' aircraft, and
also in weather reconnaissance satellites of the "Tiros" type.- However,
the resolution of the television apparatus is still very low and the quality
of the images does not correspond to the requirements imposed upon intelli-
gence.
In spite of the development of improved apparatus for aerial photo-
graphic reconnaissance and. television reconnaissance, it all still has one
very essential shortcoming, which sharply limits its nilitary use. The
presence of fog or cloud cover over the targets hampers photography, and in
certain cases entirely prevents it.
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conditions in the use of radiotechnical devices, such as high-capability
CPYR HTircraft radar sets and bomb sights.
Intorest in this method of air and spn co reconnaissance is oxp;.ained
by the fact that radar sets, unlike cameras and television apparatus, are
able to conduct reconnaissance in any meteorological conditions and at any
time of day. But they do have a shortcoming -- the relatively low resolu-
tion, which, according to data from US specialists, is only one-four hund-
redth of the resolution of a camera. An increase in the resolution and
range of radar sets is usually achieved by using special devices and tech-
nical methods (the pulse-co',rprossion method, multiple irradiation of the
earth's surface, ctc.).
In peacetime, side-looking radar se;,s (SLR) are of special significance
in conducting reconnaissance, since they make it possible for aircraft per-
forming reconnaissance missions to obtain a radar image of the territory to
a grea,; depth, without passing directly over the reconnaissance target. It
is reported in the press -chat they have a number of valuable qualities; they
have a high resolution with respect to angular coordinates, a constant
azimuth linear resolutioii, regardless of the range of the target; they do
not give any perspective distortions; and it is difficult to create effective
countermeasures againcz them.
Such radar sets, which are widely used in US reconnaissance aircraft,
may conduct reconnaissance in a strip from several dozen kilometers to
several hundred kilometers wide. Thus,.thc AN/APQ-55 set is intended for
conducting reconnaissance in a zone of 18-38 km with a ground speed of up
to 4000 km/hr. A side-looking radar set is installed in the U-2 aircraft,
providing for reconnaissance of terrain from altitudes of up,to 20 kin in
a strip with a width of up to 450 km.
Side-looking radar sets now in the process of development have re-
tuning transmitting and receiving systems with detectors of the linear-
logarithmic type. In the opinion of specialists, such sets may be used
with success in aircraft whose maximum flight speed is three times the
speed of sound.
In the future, according to foreign specialists, aerospace reconnais-
sance by means of passive microwave radar systems, operating on the principle
of fixing the radiations of targets in the radio frequency range, will be-
come widely distributed. In comparison to active radar apparatus, they have
smaller dimensions and lighter weight, do not give themselves away by radiat-
ing when in operation, and have better technical characteristics in operation in dif-
ficult meteorological conditions (for example, they make it possible to detect camou-
flaged objects which cannot be made oul: by means of active radar devices). A
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of US passive radars showed a resolution of about 10 m from an altitude of
305 m. They detected structures from an altitude of 6000 m,
Apparatus operating in the millimotor wave band is also a promising
means of radar reconnaissance, since it has a comparatively high resolution.
In the next few years, in the opinion of foreign :,pccialists, we may
expect the dnvfnlopment of space rcconnaissancc radar systems with a roso-
lution of 7.5 kin at a range of up to 560 km, which will make it possible
to compile topographic maps. For artificial satellite:; of the earth radar
sets are being developed which must recognize large military and industrial
targets from an altitude of up to 400 km. Intensive development of other
types of reconnaissance radar devices is also in progress, in particular
sots with a 360-degree scan, with ranges of 1600 and 2500 km, automatic
tracking sets with a range of up to 1600 km, and dopplor radar sets, radar
altimeters, etc.
Air and space reconnaissance by means of radio and radiotechnical
devices will be given the widest distribution. The uevolopmcnt or this
type or reconnaissance is predetermined by the general trend in the dovo-
lopm;nt of armed forces -- radiating electronic apparatus is being used and
introduced more and more widely every year.
Electronic reconnaissance has the purpose of detecting and determining
the position of sources of radio radiation, and also measuring the parameters
of the signals received. As a result of the study and analysis of informa-
tion concerning tha quantity, position, technical parameters, and operating.
characteristics of this apparatus, the intelligence organs will obtain a
concept of the state and direction of development of the armed forces.
The capabilities of airborne radio and electroni^ reconnaissance are
very diversified and wide. By rr,+eans of these methods it is possible to
determine the quantity, location, and parameters of PVO radar detection and
homing stations, intercept radio traffic being conducted on short-wave and
VHF radio networks, observe the operation of electronic devices at rocket
firing ranges and establish their nature, and most important determine
methods for creating effective countermeasures against the devices being
reconnoitred. Its advantage also lies n the fact that it may bG conducted
not only in wart.;r.-, but also in peacetime.
Among the devices used for conducting such reconnaissance, receiving
devices of three types are most widely distributed: one-channel broad-band
receivers, multi-channel receivers, and retunable (scanning) receivers.
Receivers of the first type have the capability of faithfully reproducing.
the information in the signal being received. However, they have a low
sensitivity and a low resolution.
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Ili* scanning receiver has the bust sensitivity, but also a limited
rate of processing the signal received. ''.Increases in the scanning rate
and, consequently, in the processing of the signal, may be achieved only
by mans of reducing sensitivity.
Radio and electronic _uconnaissancc in the USAF is not merely collected
by aircraft violating the airspace of other states,, It is accomplished re-
gularly by US aircraft making flights along tho boundaries of the Soviet
Union and the countries of the socialist camp. In the US press it is af-
firmed that a IZB-47 aircraft, supplied with the appropriate oquipmont,
apparently may, without violating the boundaries, detect the operation and
position of radar sets located at a distance of 300-320 km from the frontier
and determine their characteristics from an altitude of about 12,000 m.
For purposes of discovering the general radar detection system, re-
connaissance aircraft use special tactical methods. While proceeding along
the frontier, they suddenly change their course and proceed directly toward
the frontier, creating an impression that they are going to violate it.
This method is calculated, obviously, to cause the possible switching on
of additional or spare radar sets, which previously were not operating.
The crews of electronic reconnaissance aircraft may also intercept secret
radio communications data. Since many rocket systems are controlled by radio,
they have the opportunity of detecting the launching of rockets, and also
intercepting signals of preparatory operations preceding the launching. An
analysis of these signals,. in the opinion of US specialists, makes it possible
to establish certain data concerning the design of the rocket and to ascer-
tan whether it is a research variation or whether the launching of a military
rocket is being prepared.
h iARdaro~/ ~ 1 j4rid~,el AgeAQOQR4/9%i(Pk4rRqN5jTM7; Q" 0Q00
theta require:; considerable time, which reduce.; their efficiency as a
Tsource of intelligence.
As a rule, an aircraft intended for conducting electronic reconnais-
sance has on board a whole complex of radio and radiotechnical equipment,
including sensitive radio intelligence receivers, operating both in a
narrow band of frequencies and in a wide band, analyzing apparatus, and
devices for recording the information on magnetic tape.
The analysis and processing of data is performed on board the recon-
naissance aircraft, which is, in essence, a flying laboratory. Since the
volume of work performed by the crew is very great (because of the over in-
creasing quantity of radio and radar inst,.llations), the number of the drew
aboard electronic reconnaissance aircraft, as a rule, is increased, and
experienced technical specialists are included.
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 i rAy _QIFrR}iasik2Q9 ~-~IJRr~ ti~~n~ti b~~'~ fiAc~ , P 4 ~A ~~18-7
developed in the USA fer this purpose. According to reports in the foreign
pros.-;, sensitive electronic and electromagnetic ill)paratus is installed in
it, as well as recording instruments intended for taking bearings of radar
and radio signals and establishing their parameters, including instruments
for recording spocial control and command signals transmitted at rocket
test areas in the launching and control of the flight of ballistic rockets.
There are also reports that the electronic apparatus for satellites of the
"Tor,:ct" typo was also installed and tested in the so-called research satel-
lites of the Discoverer type..
Since existing apparatus for electronic reconnaissance has a great
number of shortcomings reducing its effectiveness, designers are continuing
work to improvement. In particular, intensive development of new recon-
naissance receivers with frequency discriminators, with pulse compression
of the electronic intelligence device, and with coding of the carrier fre-
quency is in progress.
Receivers with frequency discriminators of the WHIP typo, according
to US specialists, should provide a 100-percent probability of detecting
signals and determining their frequency in a wide spectrum. A receiver
with pulse compression is intended for use in those cases in which simul-
taneous provision of a high resolution and a high scan rate is necessary.
A receiver with carrier frequency coding of the type used in the "Pirate"
reconnaissance system is 4ntended for detecting new electronic reconnais-
sance stations and has a direction-finder device. In the US press the de-
velopment of method of electronic intelligence making it possible to de-
termine th -nical data of a radar set with an accuracy of up to 1 per-
cent, and ,action to it within 0.50, has also been reported.
Aeri -econnaissance by means of infrared
apparatus, which has a high
degree o... -istance to countermeasures"
ountermeasures and which makes it possible to obtain
information very rapidly and to recognize targets from the spectral distri-
bution of their radiation, is acquiring an ever greater significance. In
tactical and strategic air forces, such reconnaissance is conducted for the
purpose of obtaining information concerning the redeployment of troops and
equipment on the field of battle in night conditions, detection and recogni-
tion of large industrial centers, cities, etc.
Infrared reconnaissance may be successfully applied at any time of the
day; however, it 's most effective to use it at night, when the reflection.of.
the sun's heat from ground objects is lacking. By means of modern infrared
reconnaissance apparatus, it has become possible to obtain images of the sec-
tion of the terrain being reconnoitred, with a resolution of 'up to 30 m, at
a flight altitude of 1.2,000 m. By 1970 the USA plans to develop an infrared
apparatus providing for,obtaining an image with a resolution of 27 m from an
alticude of 480 km.
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 CPYR(
HT-M RmAcF.ix ,1" Op9 f~i o) i tal
ballistic missiles. In the USA, in particular, ?;ho special reconnaissance
satellite "Midas" has bccn developed.. its infrared scanning mirror-lens
system is apparently capable of detecting the moment of launching of a ro-
cket and tentatively detorm.ining the direction of its flight from tho radia-
tion of the flame from the rocket ongino"in the powered section of its tra-
jectory. These data can be transmitted by moans of telemetric apparatus to
ground receiving stations for processing.
In the US press it has been indicated that in 1963, by means of the
Midas satellite, the US succeeded in detecting the launchings'of Atlas
and Titan rockets operating on liquid propellants, and also the launchings
of IMinuteman rockets using solid propellants. However, in spite of certain
successes, it has been established that the practical reliability of timely
detection of rocket launchings by "Midas" satellites is very low. The cost
,of the planned system of these satellites, according to estimates, exceeds
2 or 3 billion dollars, and annual expenses for its operation would amount
to not less than 100 million dollars. Considering this, the US Defense
Department has decided to dispense with the initial plan for the develop-
ment of a system of "Midas" satellites.
Airborne radiation monitoring has great significance in modern-condi-
tions. It is-cal led upon to solve very important tasks in ascertaining the
level of development of nuclear weapons that has been reached and the nature
of experimental work in this field. By means of modern radiation monitoring
apparatus, it is possible to determine with adequate accuracy, the nature
and power of nuclear devices exploded at a great distance-'. For these pur-
poses, highly sensitive apparatus is installed in special reconnaissance
aircraft and drifting high-altitude balloons, which make it possible to
detect nuclear explosions and determine their type and the power of the
nuclear charge.
For the detection of nuclear explosions in space, special artificial
earth satellites are used. In the USA a satellite called the Vela Hotel
has been developed for these purposes. According to calculations the ap-
paratus installed in it will be abletodetect a nuclear burst with a power
of 10 kilotons at a distance of up to 150,000,000 km from the earth. In
1963 two satellites of the Vela Hotel type were launched in the USA, first
being placed in an elliptizal orbit, and then placed in a circular orbit, with
an altitude of about 100,000 km. American specialists consider that for the
development of a reliable system for the detection of nuclear bursts in dis-
tant space it is necessary to have 4 to 6 such satellites permanently in
orbit.
The achievements of contemporary science every day expand the technical
capabilities of air and space reconnaissance devices, and the circle of their
tasks is constantly expanding. As practice demonstrates, aerial reconnaissance,
and especially space reconnaissance, is capable of solving a whole number of
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 tasks providing, the elements of sur ri.:ffo in a ~.1 1 01,0010 r r
par~xLedif 1C # eI.~a?1~e2~QAJQ /Ot tC tR i l ~1 kD A a'i"' tS1 d--
gethcr with its traditional forms of intelligence, is devoting more and more
uttc:ntion to the development of space duviecs. Suffice it to say that out
of 150-160 US artificial earth satellites which are to be permanently lo-
PYR ETtcd in orbit, up to 80-90 are being launched according to programs of
military dosig nation, including 20-25 specially for intelligence purposes.
Also, scientific-research launchings of artificial satellites and spaceships
in the USA are closely connected with military purposes and are considered
as reconnoitring the future field of battle. It is well known that during
the flight of the Gemini 5 spaceship at the end of August 19,650 the US astronauts,
according to a program from the Department of Defense of the USA, made a number
of experiments of an intelligence nature: they observed targets at sea and
on the ground, photographed the relief of the earth's surface, cities, ships,
highways, and lakes. The crew of thy; ship also detected two out of three
launchings of Minuteman rockets that we:c^ made specially for the purpose.
The use of a largo quantity of diverse devices, operating in various
regions, for air and space reconnaissance has led to a sharp increase in
the flow of information arriving at the intelligence centers. The process-
ing and study of this data and dissemination to the interested consumers is
a very laborconsuming process, requiring great expenditures of time. Na-
turally, this causes intelligence data to become obsolescent.
The difficulties that have arisen are being overcome by means of using
automation devices for collecting, processing, generalizing, and present-
ing intelligence information. At the present time, technical devices and
automated systems have already been developed that provide for collection,
primary processing of arriving information, its classification, storage,
and rapid transmission to the troops and headquarters. The most complex
task was the automation of the process of recognizing targets in television
and photographic images. But even in -;his field definite progress has been
made. The level of the development of science and engineering achieved
have made it possible to create exper:.mental cybernetic machines which read
and make a preliminary analysis of simple intelligence photographs and tele-
vision images. One of the machines of this type (the Conflex 1 system, USA)
can recognize 48 different classes of images and up to 100 variations within
the limits of each class.
In conclusion, we should note that an important condition -of the effic-
iency of air and space reconnaissance is its constant mutual connection with
weapons. The closer this connection is, the greater the opportunities are
available for a maximum reduction of the time between detection of the tar-
got and an attack on it. And with a reduction in this time, it will be,moro
difficult for the enemy to escape attack. The reconnaissance devices, after
the target is destroyed, can be diverted to carry out other missions.
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 Approved For Rye, q Q~~~O ~?. 1~4- tQ~~ '~OQ p P. 3( 0090018-7
, , J (~,.14b11.J. ION
'?1)c~ '.;hcr: ry C S a~::' ct m,Cu ta.'r',y ,rt, ra pr'.imtticnt l)O ; i t 1 on liras talwrzyu
been gy'ern.n the uol.u~ ri of prcb.l.c'n,, de;n.l.1n( with the control. or
t.-:oopta,.
In, recent yr..;;rc g l u t ,press ho.s published n , n rnbrr or srttc].e., ra,z
v,arYc''ut; type'; ;. a' bc._lca dev'OOied to tii s, pr'_'1)].crn, The rcr;tali or
rt.;ucl.ler.
in. the area oC the contr. ?:] f tr'oop':, ha'rc been ref].~:ct:;cd r, published i^e~;~'
ui''.tri,'cns and work in the tza:.l' nine of ., I, uder3ts
on the control of .is be:Y-ng Rccomplished In rr,i:J.f.-;,i-^y :;ehoo1s and
acradem e,.
However. y in 5.1.1. of this '?o.kccn tfict,he' :1'.' 'Car from co m.
m,,,
nc ds ? In i. v-P tl i the I- id ratep
s,
of d ;rel.,pmen: , cif rre jzn,~ .armed cc,rriba:t',, '`.her eriui j:zpi.atr of troops with the
latest; cr,-::t.rrl e,llu. pyric?r+ .ar:c] the resulting char ,cs in views on modes of
military oper;.ati.oms there are c:-+?er Increasing re:;uir'~ mei:t., for troop con..
trot,
T7:rrder these Cr;rSCl:is "ryl;; there A,r'.nc;,s I?rr., er-).':L'cre need for deeper
and more ext:et:r3.~;c' de-,'e1Dmen:: of bases cf t?r~crp control and
f.-;r the public-a;-I' n :.f.' text, books and major works enec,t-,passing the entire
complex of (aue;'{?,l - ~%s -,:i, the given probletn. Is! other words, there is re-?
1uired a fund&:re.nt'al de:vvelti~pmeut of r.T, general system in cur military
science and military art: of a s3;-ec:i..al brar-Ch the theory of the control
of troops, and also 'he izxtrcoductio'n in the program of officers
of a, special course +a:r~ the control :,f troops.
V. I . Ler_'i, ri^ lc;-,.~, .(t -~ f~'.~i r.,t?ed oat. 'that: a.ny contr, l re, 'a:i res special
'knowledge.,, ski.ll3 ; *r.odes and mefhcds., In order to control one imist be.
competent, know h1 c f'i e:Ld. completely and ?t:o the mit;v.t;c:sty detail, and
have a good scien:rifir. ''T. ILenin co":.s~ar.:t',ly and steadfastly
taught cadres skillful lead prship and considered that for this purpose
it was r_eecessar;v in ~.'ezy way possible to develop a special science of
control and to .a_.r.: l..e_-cders:i-.11i cadres with that knowledge,
~ ? Thus,, in the
article Better Less., But Better," he observed that we "should pass the
test on the knowledge ,:;f the base= rrf -the theory dealing with our State
apparatus., on the knowledge of the bases of the science of c}~ ~1 2D A 79 00@0
090 . 04,8~~er
department and control ap*ency at large, determine the necessity of each
agency and its personnel, find a way for reduction or unification with
other agencies, and also must analyze the location and sequence of dis-
tribution of control points. There is a constant need for more accurate
and concrete definitions, taking into consideration new conditions, of
the rights and obligations of commanders, staffs, and chiefs of arms
and services in the control of troops, their interrelationship, degree
of centralization of leadership and other questions which might also
constitute an, important division of the theory of the control of troops.
All the inferred theoretical conclusions and recommendations in this
area must, without fail, be carefully checked 3.n a number of studies.
Only after such thorough theoretical research a:.0 practical experiment
can a start be made toward the reorganization of egencies and points of
troop control, and toward bringing them into conformity with the char-
acter of modern combat operations.
A subsequent important division of the theory of the control of
troops can be the development of operational-tactical requirements for
the technical means of control. Presently not one commander or staff
can successfully lead troops without using various. technical means of
control: ;jeans of reconnaissance, communications, processing of infor-
mation, computer equipment, means of documenting and reflecting the
situation, and various command and staff vehicles.
These means constitute characteristic material bases of modern
control. They are called -apon to assure rapid troop notification of a
combat alert, maintenance of uninterrupted control of troops on the
march and during conduct of highly maneuverable combat operations in
any complex situation and especially during enemy n>clear attacks on
control points, or when the latter are in movement and being subjected
to strong enemy radio interference.
Technical means of control play the most important role in the
fast collection and processing c,: information about the situation, in
the production, in short periods of time, of complex operational and
tactical calculations, in the formulation of the commander's decision
and in the transmittal of assignments to those carrying them out.
Command and staff vehicles should guarantee high mobility of control
points, protection of control agency personnel from, enemy fire and
penetrating radiation, and also working comfort and normal rest for
officers.
It is not accidental that such great attention is currently being
devoted in all the leading armies to the improvement of, existing and thr:
creation of principally new technical means of control, especially spe-
cial electronic computers.
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 PYRGHT
AFpr?YiRrq R l -121MO/o81A i:01A OMT,0087-$RO }a:00.09001,18t7n cart
e aanou. table f'oi? awe in a combut ci tu:.a" t': n, e: coial. l.,y I r
hr. l r clc .
vet opment wan based c:,nly on the prenont condi.t.t.ot i or combat cqu:i point;
and adopted mcthoclcr of waging combat c~rerat,i.onn :a Ii' thr.r?o ara., i.rasu:Cl'i-
cl.ent connlderatLen of the pronpoct:o of :further tievel.op111erit of the lat-
ter. Also not excluded in deciding the quest;ion of tiiu r i.e or mun and
technology in the troop control ayrt;c+m are crror . r;ueh an the cxcccrirrive,
urge to replace the thinking of the commando), and ::tiff o rr i.rer wit.h
electronic machines. Therefore, the neccnoiity con:rtontl.y a7'ir;cro for
implementing the development, of operca.t L~~I~:a1..-t act. ica,l realuircmcntr, for
Yneans of control, on the basis of r: lcllicv:;;ncrjtn of mryclf,,?n ne.i.onec and
technology (radi.oelectroni.cc, cybernetics, matharn.atic,n? rh'c:tcn, ' hem-
istry,, etc) and the prospects of their devu1opmc:..L',,.
The control of troops also depends grca1:,ly on the mct?.hcdo and the
style of work of commanders and staffs in the leadership of troops. Now
conditions of conducting highly maneuverable combat operat:ton, with the
use by both sides of nuclear weapons requires an exceptionally h'i.gh de-
gree of effectiveness,, a '^'iracy and a scientific approach in that work,
especially in implementing such control measures an the collection and
analysis of data about the si.tuat;.ion, malcing a dec?I sion and planning an
operation or battle, assigning combat missions to troop.-, and organizing
their coordination and comprehensive support;., For the .attainment of
this theory of troop control there mast be prov:.ded a thorough analysis
of everything new and progress:I.?,re which has been developed in. the many
years .;f experience of our comahanders and staffs during the Great Patri-
otic War and in postwar tr. airAr:g exercises and on this basis recommenda-
tions made for the most expedient and scientifically based operating
methods for modern conditions.
In the development., of these recommendations great rassistance can
be provided by the theory 3f analysis of operations and by military sta-
tistics which, it seems to us, should be c ncerned with the detailed
analysis, rather the;; the s...rrrple registration, of processes of control.,
and on that basis to elicit the most optimal methods of solving practi..
cal problems of control,, regulate flow of information, and determine
scientifically based standards of management work as well as the possi-
bility and expediency of the automation of control processes, etc. The
methods of such analysis shou.l.d constantly be perfected taking into
consideration not only the experience of our army, but also that of the
armies of other countries
An especially wide field of activity in. this area is opened to our
military historians and authors of military memoirs . It would not be
superfluous to remind, them once again that in their works they are de-
voting inadmissible little attention to questions on the control of
troops. At best they point; out In the.':.r descriptions of the various
operations where the control pc,in'ts of an operation were located and how
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 ronuA rp rgt FC'ilelbhsd,2(X41/0 09(trG i
i6 (UP. 85rTQ.097., QaQQMW1R-7
.
(~HT,a,cs -hey do not givo a clear answer on rsuch errpceiui.ly important ques-
II Li
ons un the type method used by comrrvindn or commander,;, stuffs and
chiefs of combat arms and ricrvi_cer; in the implementhtion of various meas-
ures for the contra. of troops, why in a particular operation they made
one opr_ci:Cic decision and not another, how they encountered difficulties
dealing, with morale ant psycholo1W and how they Ovn.'camc them. An a rep.
atilt of thin the most valuable expcr:t.cnco of hignly trained commands,
commanders and personnel of control agencies remains "ruitlesn and can-
not be used for the training of young officers.
An important division of the theory of troop control should be the
method of educating the officer corps :.nd training them in problems of
control. Here also there should be no stopping with already ac},-Cevcd
results . Progressive tra:ning c.cpericnce r.rpecificolly indicates that
the working out of problems of control. should not be limited to only "in-
cidental work" along with the col.utiors of problems in the combat appli-
cation of arm' and special troops, because this inevitably lead, to super-
ficid]. and fragmentary knowledge end skills of officers. Experience shows
the expediency of having a special course on the control. of troops in the-
system of command training both in troop schools and in military educa-
tional institution.,. The subject matter of this course can include the
same problems considered in the theory of troop control. The method de-
scribed below can be used as a guide for thr donduct or development of
such a course.
In conformity with the program of the course on operational art and
tactics officers can study general laws and principles of armed combat
and problems of the combat employment in an operation or battle of vari-
ous combat arms and special troop:: their purpose, composition., organi-
zation, combat capabilities, missions, combat formations, methods of
operation, etc.
Simultaneously or parallel with this there is developed a course on
the control of troops encompassigg the previously stated general theoret-
ical bases of control and the structure of control points and agencies -
and agencies acquire elementary practical skills in the accomplishment
of concrete measures in the control of a given type of operation or bat-
tle and in various conditions of a situation. Following this at group
exercises, briefings, military games, command-staff and troop training
exercises officers completely work out both. courses, taking them individ-
ually as as interrelated units; that is, they acquire skills both in the
combat application of arms and special troops and in the practical work
of the corresponding commanders, staff officers and chiefs of combat arms
and services in a specific combat situation.
In such a method of training there is the greatest possible obser-
vation of the principle of transition from the simple to the complex and
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 PYRGHT
A~~Pi v6 P `R i 5 OO O81O8crC4A4WAOS?15R OOQ00980:it ?rr3 are
creased u.nd improved more effectively; and there is a broader use of
various technical means of control which are used not only during field
exercises., but also in the conduct of classroom exercises. In conjunc..
tion with this there is the possibility of conducting the training in a
more instructive manner than in the past when instructors and pupils sat
behind bare desks and worked on mops which were the only itmes used for
working out problem n in the control of troops . In addition, situation
data or problems suite frce,,ue:ntiy were presented not, as they occurs in
actual combat, but extemporaneously, on a huge plotted chart or map, or
in the form of a voluminous written documents etc. The activites of
students during exercises involving; reports of the situation, assi(rn.-
ment of missions to subordinates, informing neighboring uriLts, at-.c,
were also fro' uently reduced tea normal conversations about such activi...
ties with the instructor. Such a me ,'hod of training has become outdated .
It does not conform to the elementary requirements of teaching and es..
pecially to the requirements of the principle of unity of theory and
practice. It inevitably c eater in the students a, false notion about
time factors and other conditl.ons of leadership of troops in a battle or
operation involving the use of nuclear weapons.
Experience demanded that the majority of practical exercises con-
ducted before going out into the field be transferred from unequipped
classrooms to laboratories equipped with various technical means of
control. These laboratories, in the m>al.n, are a type of training ape-
pAratus or models of corresponding control points. Calculations show
that expenditures for their equipment are repaid with interest. In ad-
dition, there is a considerable saving of resources since, in this case,
there is no longer a requirement for working out each problem in the
field several. times.
A new organization of the method of giving officers oral examina-
tions and tests on problems Jr. the control of troops would also be
highly expedient. At. these examinations and tests officers should not
only answer theoretical questions, but also complete various practical
assignments.- receive data on the situation from various sources using
communications equipment; plot the situation on a map; report conclusions
based on the evaluation of the situation; make operational and tactical
calculations usin,~ computer equi.pmerrt; assign missions to troops using
various methods; etc. Such a method promotes the consolidation of the-
oreti.cal knowledge and the development of sound practical skills in the
control of troops. Together with this it places a greater demand can of-
ficers to devote attention to systematic independent work on self-improve-
ment in perfecting skills in control by means of training work in lab-
oratories without limiting themselves to working out problems of control
only during planned classes and training exerciser.
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2.3
 AFb?o 9 R )eW e20 /0#/bQ1': 04gi-%OWP80T00&75MOO30009o -fig
office a in the area of control should also occupy itself wi,,,h the pre-
sented'theory of the control of troops.
Finally, problems of military administration can consitute a rather
important division of the theory of the control of troops. Their scien-
tific resolution makes it possible to improve the selection and placement
T of military personnel, the organization of troo)ps, the completion of ad-
ministrative work, and the solution of other prn;A.ema. From the fore-,
going it is evident that the theory of the control of troops does not ap-
pear to us to be something abstract, isolated, cut off from reality. It
is a highly concrete, extensive and important area for special research.
In military art it is an integral part or branch of strategy, operational
art and tactics, closely connected with st~.1l another part - the appli-
cation in an operation or battle of branches of the armed forces, combat
arms and special troops, and also with other sciences. Marxism-Leninism
serves as its basis.
Thus, the subject matter and the object of investigation in the the-
ory of the control of troops can be: the essence of control and the de-
mands made against it; philosophical, psychological and legal bases of
control; the structure of control points and agencies and their techni-
cal equipment; theoretical bases, principles, tactical methods and the
style of work of commanders and control agencies in the leadership of
troops both in peacetime and wartime; the method of training commanders
and control agencies in the accomplishment of their functional obliga-
tions in the leadership of troops; and problems of military administra-
tion.
The centers for the development of the bases of such a theory are
our'leading military academies and all officers of the Armed Forces can
participate in this work. The latest decisions of the CPSU Central Com-
mittee have opened up for them a well marked road in the development of
science and hive established conditions for creative work.
Supported on the stable foundation of Marxism-Leninsim, the exper-
ience of the CPSU Central Committee and the Soviet Government in the
leadership of the national economy, the combat experience of past wars
and postwar training exercises, and also taking into account modern
achievements and the prospects of the further development of military
and other sciences, they have every possibility for the successful solu-
tion of the problems under consideration.
The basic means for the development and establishment of a new
theory of control, from our viewpoint, will be the conduct of the follow-
ing: thorough theoretical investigations in the area of control based
on analysis of experience; accomplishment of experimental work in lab-
oratories and with officers during training exercises; verification of.
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 CPYRGH
pops ~e ?rct lei 120D~/08/09~ CI~A~:F n~~ 58000 OQ O~ 8~~1d ea.,
pecially troop training exercises conducted under the most varied condid.
tions and approximating those of combat, to the maximum extent; extensive
discussion and definitive correlation of results of investigations; de-
velopment and publication of fundamental scientific works, textbooks,
training manuals, regulations, instructions, guides, articles, etc.; and
also drawing up practical recommendations for the improvement of systems
of control points and agencies and their technical equipment.
Thus, purposeful and thorough scientific investigation in the area
of control and the detailed development of the general system of the mile
itary science of the theory of control constitute one of the most impor-
tant condit:Y ons for the ' atta:t nment of a genuine scientific leadership of
troops, and for bringing that control into complete conformity with the
present methods and' means of armed combat; and with the prospects of fu-
ture development
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