JPRS ID: 10593 USSR REPORT TRANSPORTATION

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• Sequence Number: 39
• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/ 1 U593
17 June 1982
USSR Re ort
_ p
TRAN~PORTATION
(FOUO 4/~2)
Fg~$ FOREIGN BROADCAST lNFORMATION SERVICE
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JPRS L/10593
y 17 June 1982
USSR REPORT
TRANSPORTATI t~N
(~wo 4/s2~
- CONTENTS
MOTOR VEHICLE
Motor Foads in Far North
(AVTOMOBIL'NYYE DOROGI SEVERAy 11 Nov 80) 1
RAILROAD
New Handbook on Electricity Supply to Railroads--Vol I
(K. G. Ma.rkvardt; SPRAVOGHNIK PO ELEKTROSHABZHENIYU
ZHELEZNYKH DOROG, 20 Oct 80) 5
- New Handbook on F.lectricity Supply to Railroads--Vol II
(K. G. Markvardt; SPRAVOCHNIK PO ELEICTROSNABZHENIYU
ZHELEZNXKH DOROG, 3 Mar 81) 19
� MISCELLANEQUS
Planning, Organizational Problems in Reducing Transportation Costs
(A. Mitaishvili; VaPROSY EKONOMIKI, Mar 82) 25
- a - [III = USSR - 38d FOUO]
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MOTOR VEHICLE
MOTOR ROADS IN FAR NOR~H
Moscow AVTOMOBIL'NYYE L~D~uI SEVERA in Russian 1981 (signed to press
11 Nov 80) pp 1-6, 247-248
[Annotation, introduction and table of contei~:tsj
~ [Text] The basic principles of the design, construction, maintenance and
repair of motor roads with different pavement types in the northern construc-
tion-climate zone are presen~.ed. Empnasis i:s placed on road susceptibility
to drifting snow and on roadbed construction on the marshlands which are so
common in the north. Some questions of surface ice formation and the meassres
used to protect against ~urface ice are examined. The book is inter.ded for
engineering and technical personnel involved with the design, construction,
repair and maintenance of motor roads and may be of interest to the transpor-
tation institute students.
Introduction. The expansion of mineral extraction and processing in the aorth-
ern regions of western and eastern Siberia and in the far north requires the
develupment in these regions in the next few years of large economic complexes
and the introduction into continuous operation of the Baikal-Amur railway
: [BAt4] .
E~:tensive road construction in these regions will make it possible to markedly
~ increase the extraction of oil and gas in western Siberia and organize the
successful construction of several large industrial complexes.
General-use paved roads are being built along the BAM to aid in the construc-
tion of this rail line.
In the design and construction of roads in the subject regions it is necessary
to consider carefully the peculiarities of the natural and climatic conditions.
The primary natural characteristics of the severe climate regionsl inclu3e the
- following: extrenely varied lithological and temperature characteristics of
1. SNiP [Construction Norms and Reguiations] II- A.6-72: "Construction Climatol-
ogy and Geophysics" identifies in the Soviet Union the nor;.hern construction-
- climate zone, including not only the regions of the north but also a large part
of the territory of eastern Siberia and the Far East. Because of the variety
of natural ccnditions three subzones are identified which are further broken
down into four subregions. Highway climate zoning, defined in accordance with
SNiP II-D.~-72 and other normative doctunents and examined in detail later ~n
in the present volume, is used for the design of motor roads.
1 1
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soil di~tribution; unfavorable nature of the active-13ver soils from the view-
point of road construction (primarily frost-susceptible silty-sandy loams and
- clayey loams with poor load-carrying ability upon thawing); the presence in
many cases of subsurface ice near the upper Edge of the permaf rost formation,
exposure of which leads to thermokarst phenomena in the roadbed area�, exten-
sive boggy ?reas ('marshes); large number of ciays with blizzards and snowstorms
(up to ~2-15 days a~nonth in the winter in the far north); considerable inten-
.~ity of snow migration and snowdrif~ blocking of the roads; presence in many
areas of surface ice formations; extensive soil heav~ng and the appearance of
frost heave mounds.
In the subject regions the connection between the design solutions ar~d the
technology and organization of operations taxes on particular importance.
The principles used in the design of the road structures (for example, reten-
= tion of the moss and vegetative cover in the fi11 subgrade) must be imple-
mented by the technological schemes used, othe~aise there will inevitably be
deformat~on and sometimes even failure of the road structures.
An important factor in rcad design ic the necessity for carrying out thermo-
techni.cal ca~culations of the thawing and settling processes in order to ,justi-
fy fill heightG and the depth of replacement of unfavorable subgrade soils. In
those areas where the subsurface ice lias at a shallow depth the design must
ensure the presence above this ice of a frozen soil layer at least half a
meter deep in ~rder to prevent thawing of the ice during ope~ation of the road.
When designing a roadbed using local cohesive soils it is necessary to predict
- any possible soil modulus of deformation (elasticity) increase and pavement
, heaving in order to ensure the specified operational characteristics.
Experience in road constrLCtion shows that the specific nature of manifestation
of the natural peculiarities of the subject regions requires strict adherence
to the following basic principles of road construction: construction of the
roadbed for the most part in f ills (the relative length of the cuts should not
exceed 3-4 percent), use in most cases of free-draining materials for constru~-
tion of the roadbed, and giving the roadbed a form which minimizes snow drift-
~ ing problems; replacement of the silty ice-saturated soils with free-draining
soils when making cuts and in neutral areas; use of thermal insulating layers
in the subgrade of fills and cuts and on slopes with close-by fossil ice;
stabilization of the slopes of fills, side uitches and cuts in the case of
unfavorable properties of their constituEnt soils; use of ineasures to stabil-
ize fills on sloping ground; construction of ti~ls from macrof ragmental
materials in areas of surface ice formation; retention of the moss and vegeta-
tive cover in the subgrade cf the road structures; use of pavements for which
nonuniform heave mounds ~re l,.~s critical (low-type and light-duty high-type
pavements).
lluring the polar night the construrti_on site~ should be lighted and operation
of individual crews and small grnups away from the primary operating units is
forbidden. Heated faci:~_ities for short-term personnel relaxation, for eating
and to provide assistance to acci3ent and frostbite victims must be provided
at all the primary work sites; these facilities should be equipped at all times
~ ~
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with food supplies, warm clothing, medical supplies and hot water. Heated
tents or mobile homes on sled-type trailers can be used as warming stations.
- During preparation for operations under arctic conditions the work units
operating at locations remote from the pern~anently occupied stations should
be provided with special cluthing and footwear, mobile homes, thermos units
and hea~ing equipment, fuel and food. The efforts of the medical personnel
are directed toward carrying out prophylactic measures to prevent frostbite
- and providing medical assistance to frostbite victims. During planning and
organization of the operations we determine the work schedule and the allowable
time of personnel stay in the open air, particularly at low temperatures and
with strong winds. With account for the weather conditions we establish the
machinery productivity norms and the production capabilities of the work teams.
Vehicle drivers and the personnel of units working far from the housing facili-
ties are furnished sleeping bags. Transport vehicles should travel in convoys
whenever possible. The convoys should incl_ude repair vehicles and vehicles
with heated bodies. In the course of road construction constant communication
should be maintained with the weather service and the work crews should be pro-
vided with informat~on on any possible weather changes. The width o~ timber
clearings is limited and clearing should be accomplished by sawing down the
trees without removing the stumps. w'hen constructing roads in the southern
regions of the northern construction-climate zone the forest clearings should
be wider (preferably accomplished a year before the construction of the road-
~ bed), the moss and vegetative cover should be removed, the stinnps pulled out,
and floor:ings and coverings of timbers laid down i,1 the subgrade of fills being
erected in marsh areas. The "push away" f ill principle is widely used iii road-
bed construction in order to retain the moss and vegetative cover in the limits
of the roadway. Road operations are carried out on a broad front with the
objective of the fastest possible joining up of the completed segments and
protection of the subgrade soils against deep thawing. Equipment is delivered
- to the work sites primarily during the winter, when the "roadability" of the
ground (particularly in the far north) is better, and also by river in the
ice-free period. In the winter the burrow pits are protected against snow and
in the spring against water from the melting snow. Winter motor roads are
u~ed extensively for construction vehicle movement. The machinPS are selected
with account for the time ofyear and the natural and climatic pecul~arities of
the region (machines with improved flotation are required for spring and su~uer
operations, vehicles with improved frost resistance of the basic components
, and with heated cabs, i.e., winterized vehicles, are required for winter
operations).
All the road and bridge construction equipment should be prepared well ahead
of time for operation at low temperatures, with strong winds and in the polar
night: the cabs and the battery and engine compartments should be sealed and
tieated, the vehicle fleets should be provided with devices for group preheat-
ing of the engines, and the bodies of trucks intended for personnel transpor-
tatioii should be heated; outside parking areas and te~porary vehicle parking
~zreas sliould be protecred against :'rifting snow. Cold-resistant rubber should
be used on the wheeled vehicles when the air temperature reaches -40�C or
~ lower.
'The highway scientific-research i:istitutes and many colleges and design, con-
struction and operational organi~ations have recently done much to improve the
3
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quality of motor road construction in these regions. Thus, on the basis of
- study of the experience in pavement construction in the northern regions
there have been developed the principles followed in the specification of re-
gional pavement types. On the basis of correlation of the experience in com-
batting surf ace ice on the railroads and motor roads there have been developed
the fundamentals of surface ice formation forecasting, and the designs of the
devices used in combatting surface ice and the methods of tYceir analysis have
been impr.oved.
With account for field experience and the scientific and engineering develop-
ments of the last few years, in the corresponding divisions of this volume we
present coordinated and field-proven recommen3ations, supplementing and expand-
- ing the normative documents relating to the survey, design and construction of
motor roads in these regions.
Tab le of Contents ~ag~
Introduction 3
Chapter 1. Road surveying ~
l. Survey objectives and organization � ~
2. Road layout 9
3. Permaf rost and soil studies in road surveying 11 ,
,
Chapter 2. Roadbed design 20
4. Highway-climate zoning 20
5. Roadbed design principles 26
6. Typical roadbed designs and soil requirements 28
, 7. Detailed design of the roadbed 36
8. Characteristics of the roadbed hydraulic and thermal regime ;
and strength design of flexible road structures 54
9. Design of roadbed to avoid drifting snow problems 66
~ Chapter 3. Roadbed construction 72
10. Organization and technology of roadbe~ construction
using free-draining soils 72
11. Technology of roadbed construction using clay soils 76
- Chapter 4. Design and construction of roadbeds on marshlands ~3
12. Construction of roadbeds on marshlands and soi? requirements 83
13. Calculation of stability and settling o� roadbeds with
peat in th~. subgrade and in the lower part of the f ill 91
14. Calculation of stability of roads on through-frozen
peat subgrades 100
15. Organization and technology of roadbed construction on
marshlands 110
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Chapter 5. Design and construction of pavements 119
16. Design of pavements 119
17. Canstruction of asphalt-concrete pavaments 122
_ 18. Construction of monolithic and sectional cement-concrete
pavements and subgrades 128
Chapter 6. Surface ice formation on roads 132
19. Surf ace ice classification 132
20. Primary surface ice formacion factors 143
21. Predicting surface ice formation on roads 152
Chapter 7. Combatting surface ice on roads 155
22. Antisurf ace-ice measures, structures and devices 155
23. Fills in surface ice susceptible areas 173
24. Design of small bridges and culverts in areas susceptible
to surf ace ice formation 176
25. Evaluating road reliability under surface ice formation
conditions 183
Chapter 8. Small engineered structures 189
26. Small bridges and culverts 189
27. Calculation of installation depth and settling of '
- piping foundations 196
Chapter 9. Motor road operation in the far north 200
28. Operational characteristics 200
29. Snow control and snow protection 202
30. Organization of motor road inspections 213
Chapter 10. Winterized motor roads 219
31. Winterized motor road structures 219
32. Construction an.d operation of winterized motor roads 230
� Conclusion 240
References 242
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Transport", 1981
- 9576
CSO: 1829/194
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RAILROAD
UDC 621.331:621.311(031)
NEW HANDBOOK ON ELECTRIC~TY SUPPI,Y TO RAILROADS--VOL I
Moscow SPRAVOCHDiIK PO ELEKTROSHABZflENIYU ZHELEZNYKH DOROG in Russian, Vol 1,
- 1980 (signed to press 20 Oct 80? pp 1--8, 255-256
[Title page, annotation, foreword, and table of contents from book "Handbook on
Electricity Supply to Railroads'~, edited by Professor K. G. Markuardt, doctor
of technical sciences, Izdatel'stvo "Transport", 11,000 copies, 255 pages]
(Text] Title Page
Title: "Spravochnik po Elektroshabzheniyu Zheleznykh Dorog v Dvuk~i Tomakh"
[Handbook on Electricity Supply to Railroads, in two volumes]
Editor: Professor K. G. Markvardt, doctor of technical sciences .
Place and Date of Publication: Moscow, 1980
Publisher: Izdatel'stvo "Trans.port"
I
Annotation
Volume one of the handbook collects and summarizes. material on designing elec-
tricity supply devices, calculating their parameters, feeder and suTistation
currents, voltage in the traction system, and energy and power losses. It gives
information on reguYating and compensating devices, presents materials on over-
_ loads and stray currents and protecting against them, and considers the influ- ,
ence of electrified railroads on adjacent lines, power supply to stationary non-
traction consumers, and questions of station illumination and safety precautions. i
The Rules of Technical Operation of Railroads and technical specifications~
~ instructions, and orders from the Ministry of Railroads were used in compiling
the handbook. It is intended for engineering--technical workers in railroad
~ transportatio:., and may also be useful to students at higher educational insti-
tutions and tekhnikums.
The book has 211 illustrations, 111 tables, and a bifiliography with 126 entries.
- The book was written by the following persons: Foreword P. M. Shilkin;
Chapter 1-- B. Ye. Geronimus and I. B. Mostinskiy; Cfiapters 2--5, section 6.2,
and Chapter 7-- G. G. Markvardt and E. S. Brzfiozovskiy; sections 6.6, 9.1-9.3,
and 9.6 - G. G. Markvardt; section 6.1 G. G. Markvardt, K. G. Markvardt, and
- E. V. Ter-Oganov; section 6.3 Yu. M. Nikitin; section 8.2 - V. P. I1'yasfienko;
6
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section 8.1 G. G. Markvardt and T. V. Poly~akova; sectyons 6.4 and 6.5
L. A. German; sections 6.7 and 10.4 y. A. Kislyakov; sections 9.4 and 9.5
M. I. Veksler; sections 10.1--1Q.3 -r R. M. Horodulin; Cfiapter 11 V. D.
Radchenko and Xe. N. Dagayev; sections 12.1-1,2.3 N. ~ergeyev; sections
12.4-12,9 A. V, Koteltnikov; Cfiapter 13 G. A. rIin~n, I, V. Pavlov, and
_ V. P. Semencfiuk; sections 14.1--14-4 and 14.6 - A. N. Poplavskiy; section 14,5
Ye. A. Mogilevskiy; Cfiapter 15 N. N. F~rsanov; Cfiapter 16 Ya. A.
Zel'vyuskiy, B. I. Kosarev, and M. V. Kfilopkov.
Ttie editorial board was composed of: V. A. Kislvakov, G. G. Markvardt, A. S.
Markov, V. N. Pupynin, N. D. Sukfioprudskiy, Yu. V. Flink, M. V. Kfilopkov,
P. M. Shilkin, and lL. I. Shukhatovich.
The reviewers were: Sfi. S. Logua, B. E. T.evlev, G. S. Akopyan, K. Ye. Glebin,
V. I. Gvdkov, V. I. Ivanova, V. N. Pupynin, K. A. Lpubimov, A. , Mikhin, V. 0.
Degtyarev, and M. P. Ratner.
Fo rewo rd
Electrification of tfie railroads is an important element of technical progress
in transportation. It allows a significant incrE~�se in the carrying and traf-
fic capacities of the railroads, tfie efficiency of sfiipping work, and labor
productivity. It makes it possi5le to improve working conditions and reduce
consumption of fuel and energy resources. Electrif ication of trunk railroads
promotes electrification of the entire national economy because the traction
substations that feed the distribution networks are not used only for the needs
of electrical traction, but also supply electric power to industrial enterprises,
kolkhozes, and sovkhozes in near.by regions.
The ri.se in production of electricity in the ccuntry (see Table 1 below) and the
development of electrical grids nromoted electrification of the national economy,
including railroad transportatian.
Table 1. Development of the Electric Power in the USSR
Installed Capacity, Electricity Production,,
millions of kw billions of kw h
All Hydro Atomic All Hydro Atomic
Year Plants Plants Plants P3.ants Plants Plants
1913 1.1 2 . 0 - -
1935 6.9 0.9 - 26.3 3.7 -
1945 11.2 1.55 48.3 5.1 -
1900 66.7 14.8 - 292.3 50.9 -
19h5 115.0 22.2 - 506.7 81.4 -
1970 166.15 31.4 0.9 740.~ 124.4 3.7
1975 217.5 40.5 4.9 1,038.6 126.~J 20.2
1979 255.28 50 10.2 1,238.2 172 54.8
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The figures in Table 2 below illustrate growtfi_ in the lengtfi of electrified
lines and the volume. of work don~ ~iy tFiem.
= Tab.le 2. Lengtfi of Electrified Lines and ~olume of Work Done by Them
Lengtfi of Elec- LengtFi of AC L~ngtfi of Elec-- Work Done by
trified Lines Lines, trified Lines Electric Trac-
as ~ of Total tfiousands as % of Total tion as % of
_ Year System LenQth of km Svstem Lenf~tfi All Rail Shippinp,
1930 0.52 - 0.2 0.3
1935 1.03 - 0.9 1.0
1940 1.9 - 1.8 2.0
1945 2.0 - 2.0 2.4
1950 3.1 - 2.6 3.2
1955 5.4 Q.1 4.4 8.4
1960 13.8 1.43 11.0 21.8
1965 24.4 7.95 14.0 39.5
1970 33.9 12.5 25.0 48.7 j
i
1975 38.9 14.8 28.2 51.7
1979 42.4 16.~ 30.1 53.6
The principal stages in electrification of our country's railroads are given in
Table 3 below, while Tahle 4 sho~s the characteristics of electricity supply sys-
tems . '
_ Table 3. Principal Stages in Electrification
Name of Stage Length,
Years or Section km Remarks
1912 St. Petersburg - - Work begun on electrification of tfie sector;
Oraniyenbaum stopped in connection with the beginning of
World War I
1926 First list of - Ti~ Council of Lafior and Def ense, in conformity
railroads being with the Goelro plan, ratified the first lists
electrified of lines to fie ele.ctri~ied liefore 1930; tfieir
total lengtfi was: 372 km.
1926 Baku - Sabunchi 15 First sufiurban traffic sector, electrified with
Surakhany 1.2 kv direct current
1929 Moscow - Mytishchi 17.7 Suburban traf�ic sector electrified on 1.5 kv
direct current
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[Table 3 continued]
Name of Stage Length,
Years or S~ection k*n Remarks
1932 Zestafani 61.5 First sector for frefght and passenger trafftc,
KhasTiuri electrified on 3 kv direct current
1926- Electrification 1,880 1,880 km of railroad were electrified, including
1941 of USSR rail- 479 lan in sectors with suburtian traffic. The
roads in the main electrified s~ectors were: Samtredia
years of tite Z~stafoni, Kfiasfiuri Tbilisi, Kizel -
- first five- Chusovskaya Goroblagodatskaya - Sverdlovsk,
year plans Kandalaksfia Murmansk, Zaporozh'ye -
DolgintseW , Belovo - Novokuznetsk; suburban
sectors in Moscow, Leningrad, and from
Mineral'nyye Vody to Kislovodsk
1941- Electrification 446 The railroads switched to P?ectric traction
1945 of USSR rail- were chiefly in the Urals. Of 629 kilometers
roads during of rail lines dismantled in ;onnection witfi
tfie Great Patri- the temporarp occupation of par,t of Soviet
otic War territory, 339 kilometers were restored as the
territory was liberated from the enemy.
1946- Electrification 3,331 Restoration of rail sectors dismantled during
1955 of USSR rail- the war years was completed. The total lengtfi
roads in the of electrified lines at tfie end of 1955 was
postwar years 5,400 kilometers. The most important electri-
fied sectors were the following: Zlatoust -
Berdyaush - Kropachevo - Dema; Kizil
Yayava Solikamsk; Goroblagodatskaya
Nadezhdinsk - Bogoslovsk; Novosibirsk -
Inskaya - Chulymskaya; Barabinsk
Tatartskaya-Moskovka; Omsk - Isil'--Kul', and
Saku - Baladzhary - Khurdalan; sub~srban
sectors in Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, Riga, and
Baku.
1956- Electrification 8,437 The length.of electrifi.ed USSR railroads at
1960 of USSR railroads tTie end o� 1960 was 13,800 kilometers. Tfie
in the Sixth Five- following important sectors were switcfied to
Year Plan electric traction: Irkutsk Slyudyanka;
Zima Mariinsk; Kurgan Mak~sshino; Omsk
Nazyvayevskaya; Solotanya Tayga; Kinel~
Poklivistnevo Atidulin~; Kuybysfiev Syzran' ;
_ Cfielyabinsk Sfiumikha; Klin Kalinin;
~ Serpukhov Tula - Skuratovo; Orel Kursk;
_ Ilovayskoye Slavyansk Lozovaya; ~ocfii -
Veseloye Gudauta.
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H~UIt Ui~'N'1(;IAL ~JJ~ UNLY
[Tahle 3 co~tinued]
- Name of Stage Length,
Years or Section km Remarks
1936 OzFierel~ye 137 Electrification of an experimental sector us-
Pavelets ing 22 kv alternating current was completed.
1959 Cfiernorecfi.enskaya - 241 The beginning of extensive electrification
Krasnoyarsk - of railroads using tfie single-phase current
Klyukvenaya (Uyar~ system witfi a voltage of 25 kv industrial
frequencp. In 1960-1461 electrification of
tl~e 1,222 km sector from Mariinsk to Zima
using alternating current was completed.
1961- Electrification of 10,812 Ti~e length of electrified railroads at the end
1965 USSR railroads in of 1965 reached 24,900 km. T6e most im-
tfie Seventfi Five- portant sectors switched to electric traction
Year Plan were: Sfialqa K�,ingur Perm~ -
Vereshchabino; Ilovayskoye - Rostov -
Armavir Belorechenskaya; Novokuznetsk -
Cherepanovo - Barnaul; Pyatikhatki -
Miron~vkz Fastov; Yaroslavl' - Danilov;
Lavochne - Stryy; Malaya Visfiera Kalinin;
Abakan - Tayshet; Kirov Balezino;
Tselinograd Karaganda; Sukhinicfii -
Bryansk; Penza - Povorino.
1961 Moscow - Baikal 5,500 The sector from Makushino to Isil'-Kul' was
= put into operation, completing electrifica-
tion of the world~s longest trunk line (in
1973 the line was extended to Karymskaya,
making the total lengtt~ 6,300 km).
1962 Leningrad 3,500 With the launching of the sectors from Malaya
Leninakan Vishera to Kalinin and Kavkazskaya to
Belorechenskaya, electrification of this trunk
line was completed (it was later extended to
Yerevan, and then on to Sevan, increasing its
total lengtfi_to 3,611 km).
1964 ;~Ioscow - Gor`kiy - 1,748 1'aTitli launching of the Kirov Balezino sec-
Sverdlovsk tor, electrification of the trunI~ line from
MoscoGr tfirough Gor~kiy to Sverdlovsk was com-
pleted,
- 1966- Electrification 8,547 At tize end o~ 147Q tFie lengtI~ of electrified
1970 of USSR ra.ilroad~ railroads ~ras 33,40.a km. The most important
in tfie Eigl~tTi Five- sectors switc:hsd to electric traction were th.e
Year Plan following: Slpudnpanka Ulan-~Jde -
Petrovskiy Zavod; Tselinograd - Asilbasar -
To6o1; L~vov - Sambor - Cfiop; Bryansk - Kiev;
[Table 3 continued, next page]
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[Table 3 continued]
Name of Stage Lengtti,
Years or Section km Remarks
Georgiu-Dezh Valuyki; Danilov Buy
Svecfia; ~ogdanovich Smycfika;
Krasnoarmeyskoye Smychka; Krasnoarmeyskoqe -
Dneprodzerzhinsk; Baku Udzhary, Yurga -
Topki Leninsk-Kuznetskiy, Minsk rail center.
1967 Moscow Kiev 1,712 Electrification of this inteLnationally impor-
L`vov Chop tant trunk line was comgleted. It is connected
. to electrified railroads in Czechoslovakia and
Poland.
1971- E2.ectrification 4,797 At the end of 1975 the total length of elec-
1975 of USSR railroads trified railroads was 38,900 km. The most
in tfie Ninth Five- importantsectors electrified during these
~ Yeax Plan years were tfie following: Kurgan
Sverdlovsk; Sverdlovsk Bogdanovicfi
Kandry; Petrovskiy Zavod Chita
Karymskaya; Kandalaksha - Loukhi;
Borodino - Vyaz'ma; Sevan Shorzha Zod;
Beloretsk - Karlaman; and, suburban sectors
in Kazan`, Tashkent, and Vilnius.
1976- Electrification of 4,500 After the Kazatin - Vinnitsa sector was
1980 USSR railroads in (Plan) switched to electric traction ahead of
the Tenth Five- schedule, the total length of electrified
Year Plan lines by the 60th anniversary of the Great
October Socialist Revolution reacfied 40,000
- km. The most important electrified lines
w~re: Srednesibirskaya Irtyshskoye
Omsk; Prokhladuaya - Makhachkala - Derbent;
Vyaz'ma - Orsha; Khabarovsk - Bira;
Tselinograd - Ekibastuz; Bogdanovich -
Tyumen~; and, Kazatir~ Zhmerinka
On 1 January 1980 the total length of elec-
trified railroads was 42,400 km.
During the first years of electri~ication of U~SR railroads a direct current sys-
tem iising voltages of 1.5 and 3 ktlovolts was employed. In 1947 tfie decision was
made to stop electrification using 1.5 kilovolts~and switch lines electrified
earlier io 3 kilovolts. Thi.s switch was completed iri iS57..
- Beginning in 1959 tfie 25-lcilovolt al.ternating current system began to be used ex-
tensively along wi:th the 3~kilovolt direct current system (see Table 4 below). xn
- 1979 a sector ~rom Vyaz~ma to Orsfia (295 kilometers~ was put into esperimental oper-
ation using a power sup~ly system of 2 X 25 kil.ovolts of alternating current.
11
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Table 4. Characteristics of the Electricity Supply Systems
of Electric Railroads
A B C D E F
,
:':movnuKtt~ntp- r-----~
:su �CCntc ~1~L
; : septocucmtn
i~tOEue E~unp,t�
DireCt nume~en~i� (2 ]g-q0 440-560 I1,5
Curren nodcmonuuu 3,0
KOr.,7+uK~r~ ~
C[~776
~C/1iC0~N- -
I ~lCIf104HflK(l 7NC - r----, , '
turt u cemc ~1~ L J
~neptatucmtn
Alter-� TnroB~~e mpcnc- � 140 7,5
po0namopMaa ~5 ~~-50
nat3ltg~ nodcmQN~u f5
_ Current xoMmcx ~ ~
~am~
'Pen~tvsurr n m
Tpunc~opnamop nodtmcnuu:r d_~fKn
RoNmaRmn r
cc .n
m
h
~ N
Alter- , g,~
t ~ c 2 X 25 i0-~ 260
nating' ~ ~ ~
Current ~
umabruua
pp p /lI[NGllHblC
' ~8~ admampaNC~npna-
mop~~ ,
- Key: (A) Electric Traction Systems;
- (B) Schematic Diagram;
(C) Nominal Voltage, kv;
(D) Distance Between Traction Substations., km;
(E) Cross-Section of Wires of Catenary System of One Line, mm2;
- (F) Expenditure of Nonferrous Metals per Kilometer of Operating Double-
Track Line, tons;
(1) Energy Sources and Power Sys~tem Grids;
- (2) Traction Rectifier Substations;
(3) Catenary System;
(4) Track; (7) Rails;
(5) Traction Transformer 5ubstations; (8) Feed Wire;
(6) Substation Transformer; (9) Ltne Autotransformers.
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The transportation energy system has developed at a~ast rate along wi.th the
transition of railroads to electric traction~ Until 1950 railroads F~uilt their
own small electric power plants. Ln sub~equent years tF~ese unprofitable power
plants would clos~e and railroad consumers were connected in to state power sys~tems.
Table S below gives figures on con~umption of electrtcity (witfiout electric trac-
tion} by the railroads. Electricity is transferred to nontransportation users lo-
cated in regions adjacent to the railroad through the distribution networks (see
Table 6 below) and traction substations of the Ministry of Railroads. Electricity
consumption for train traction is growing steadily. Table 7 below gives data on
this for the period between 1955 and 1979.
Table 5. Electricity Consumption by Nontraction Railroad Consumers
Energy Use by Railroad Percentage of Elec- Number of Railroad
Consumers, millions tricity Received from Power Plants
Years of kwt-hrs General-Use Power Plants (operating)
1913 52 10 180
_ 1925 71 20 431
1935 710 40 484
1940 853 50 1,277
1950 1,414 52 1,529
_ 1960 3,338 59 1,244
1970 6,240 92 122
1975 7,704 95 54
1979 10,168 99.4 38
Table 6. Development of Distrihution Grids
Length of High-Voltage 6, Length of Low
10, and 35 kv Lines, Voltage Electric Grids, Number of Transformer
Years km km Substations
1955 6,700 20,800 2,300
1960 14,600 35,400 6,500 ~
1965 58,~00 50,500 10,700
1970 99,600 57,000 48,200
1975 125,000 60.,40Q 75,800
1979 161,800 66,4Q0 111,300
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Tahle 7. Total Electri.city~Consumption (Including for E?ec-
_ tric Traction~.
Indicators 1955 196Q 1965 197Q 1975 1979
Consumption of Electricity tiy Rail- 6.Q 13.7 26.7 38,Q 48.I 55.85
road Transportation, billi:ons of
kwt-hrs
Included in Aliove, 3.05 10.4 22.2 32.0 41.5 45.7
Electric Traction
Production of Electricity hp Ministry 1,528.5 1,387 969 541.2 415.2 3:its.8
of Railroads' Qwn Power Plants,
millions of kwt-hrs
_ Electricity Transferred to Nontrans- 0.7 2.03 5.9 11.7 20.0 24,9
portation Consumers Through
Distribution Grids and Traction
Substations of Ministry of
Railroads, Fiillions of kwt-hrs
Included in Above, for 0.08 0.3 1.15 3.7 7.0 8.3
Agriculture
Specific Consumption of Electricity 620 74~ 470 480 1,050 1,110
for Train Traction, thousands
of kwt-hrs/km
Many years of experience with operating electric traction have demonstrated its
great technical and economic aavantages not only over steam traction, but also over
diesel traction.
~ The development of the transportation electrical power system fostered widespread
introduction of automatic blocking, centralized dispatching, electrical centraliza-
tion of switches, and automaticsn of crossings. In addition to increasing traffic
_ and carrying capacity, this led to growth in labor productivity, significantly im-
proved train traffic safety, and facilitated a rise in the professional and tech-
nical level of railroad workers.
The electric traction power supply units and the transportation energy system are
an important branch of railroad transportation. The basi.c line of future develop-
a~ent for it will lae raising the technical level and operating reliaT~ility by using
more sophisticzted equipment and modern materials, extensive employment of various
regulating devices:, introduction uf automation and remote control, improvements in
protectiae means, development and construction of d~agnostic uni:ts to monitor the
condition of structures and equipm~nt, and xaistng the level of inecfianization for
repair and operations work.
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Tahle of Contents Page
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . ~ . . . . . 3
Chapter 1. General Questions of Des.igning Electricity Supply
1.1. Normative and Guideline Materials, Composition of tFie Project 9
1.2. TecTinologp of Design Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3. Technical-Er.onomic Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4. Proce~.ure for Reconciling, Ratifying, and Re~Ratifying Designs.
Author~s Superv~sion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1~,
1.5. Purpose a.nd Scope of Design ~iiork. on Electrical Calculations.
Inttial ~1a~.a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6. System of Desi~;n Calculations and Use of Results 14
1.7. Supplying Electrified Railroads from a Power System 17
1.8. The Effect of the Traction Load on tTie Qualitp of Voltage and
Its Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Standard Designations Used in Chapters 2-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Chapter 2. Basic Parameters of the Electricity Supply Devices of Elec-
trified Railroads
2.1. Resistance of the Direct Current Traction System 25
2.2. Resistance of the Alternating Current Traction System 26
2.3. Calculated Resist3nces and Conductivities of the External
E1QCtricity Supply System and Traction Substations 30
2.4. Criteria far Selecting Parameters and Calculated Regimes of
Electricity Supply Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Chapter 3. Calculating Feeder and Sulistation Currents
3.1. Calculating Loads on Direct Current Sectors with a G~ven
Arrangement of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2. Calculating Loads on Alternating Current Sectors wtth a Given
Arrangement of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3. Calculating the 2 x 25 Kilovolt Electricity Supply System 37
3.4. Calculating Average and Efficient (Mean Quadratic) Currents
by Techniques of Dissecting the Traffic Schedule 40
3.5. Calculating Average and E.ffective Currents on Direct Current
Sectors for Given Traffic Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6. Calculating Average and Efficient Currents of Feeder Arms and
Feeders (.Not Considering Internal Substation Resistance) 43
Bililiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter 4. Calculating Voltage in the Tractior~ System o~ a Train
4.1. Calculating Voltage of a Train in Direct Current Sectors 46
4.2. Calculating Voltages of a Train in Alternating Current Sectors . 47
4.3. Reliatiility of Insuring a Given Voltage Level 49
4.4. 'The Effect of tfie Voltage Regi:me on Current Surges of the
~ Locomotive and Train Movement on an Inertial Grade 50
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
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Chapter 5~. Calculating Energy and Poc~tex Losses. Page
5.1. Calculating Energy~Losses in tfie.Traction System and at
Sulistations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . 52
5.2. Calculating Av~~rage Power Losses in Po~rer Transmission Lines
Tliat Feed Traction Substations witfi.Alte:rnating Current 53
Chapter 6. Calculating the Parameters of Electricity Supply Devices
6.1. Calculating tTie Power Output of Traction Substation Transformers. 55
6.2. Selecting the Number of Rectifiers and the Cross--Section of
Catenary System Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.3. Selecting Settings of Voltage Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.4. Selecting the Power Output and Versions of Arranging Trans-
verse Compensation Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.5. Calculating Longitudinal Capacity Compensation . . . . . . . . . 66
6.6. Calculating Asymmetry of Currents and Voltages Created by
Traction Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.7. Determining the Parameters of Volt-Additive Devices 68
Bitiliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
_ Chapter 7. Calculating the Electricity Supply System for Regenerative
Braking on e. p. s. [expansion unknown]
7.1. Calculating Substation Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.2. Statistical Linearization of the Characteristics of Traction
Sulistations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.3. Selecting the Number and Power Output of Receivers of
Surplus Regeneration Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
- 7.4. Calculating Su-plus Regeneration Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . � 77
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Chapter 8. The Use of Computer Equipment To Calculate Electricity Supply
for Electrified Railroads
8.1. Integrated Calculation of an Electricity Supply System 79
8.2. Program for Calculating the Average Rate of Thermal Wear of
t!~e Insulation of Transformer Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Chapter 9. Calculating Protection Against Short Circuit Currents in the
Catenary System
9.1. Types of Protection and Calculating Their Settings 84
9.2. Calculating Steady Short Circuit Currents in a Direct Current
Catenary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.3. Calculating Maximum Currents and Increments of Feeder Currents . 86
9.4. Calculating Protection of the Traction System by Switches
with Inductive Shunts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.5. Calculating Protection of the Feeders of the Catenary System 89
9.6. Calculating Protection Against Short Ci.rcui.t Currents in an
an Alternating Current Catenary Spstem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
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Page
Chapter 1Q. ReLulating and Compensating Devi^_es
1Q.1. Transformers with Voltage Regulation Under Load 95
- 10.2. Devices for Transve~se Capacity Compensation . . . . . . . . . . 96
10.3. Devices for Longitudinal Capacity Compensation . . . . . . . � � 99
10.4. Volt-Additive Devices . . . . . . � . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Chapter 11. Overloads and Protecting Electricity Supply Units Against Them
11.1. Overloads . . . . . . . . . . � � � . � . � . . . . . . . . . . . 104
11.2. The Principle of Coordinating Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
11.3. Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.4. Protection Against Overloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.5. Dischargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Chapter 12. Stray Currents of Electrified Railroads and Protection Against
Electrochemical Corrosion
12.1. General Patterns for Stray Currents of Electrified Railroads 121
12.2. Potentials and Currents of the Rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
12.3. Electrical Field of Stray Currents. Potentials and Currents . 124
of Underground Structures . � � � � � � � � � � � �
12.4. Criteria of Corrosion Danger.and.Level.of Protection Against
Stray Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.5. Classification of Protective�Measures and Areas of Their
Application . . . . . . . � � � � � � � � � � . 130
12.6. Limiting Leakage.of Traction�Currents from the.Rails�into 131
the Ground �
12.7. Protecting Reinforced Concrete Transportation Elements , 135
Against Electrical Corrosion . . . � � � � � � � � � � ~ �
12.8. Measurement Techniques for Checking Norms on Limiting Current
Leakage . . . . . . . � � . . � . � . . . . 139
12.9. Protecting.Against.Spark�Formation in Structures with Easily
Ignited and Combustible Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Standard Designations of Quantities in Chapter 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Chapter 13. The Eff.ect of Electrified Railroads on Adjacent Lines , 146
13.1. Basic Concepts and Definitions . � � � � � � � ' ' ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 147
13.2. Norm-Controlled Quantities . . . � � � � � � � ' ' ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 148
13.3. Calculating Dangerous Effects . . . � � � � � � � ' ' ' ~ ~ ~ ~ , 150
13.4. Analyzing Influencing Currents in a Forced Regime
13.5. Analyzing Influencing Currents in a Short Circuit Regime 152
13.6. Calculating Interfering Influences . . . . . . . . � � � � � �
13.7. Spectral Composition of Currents and Voltages of Different . 154
Influencing Sources of Harmonic Components . . . . . . . . . .
13.8. Data for Calculattng Aangerous and Interfering Voltages 157
Bililiograpfiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
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Chapter 14. Energy Supp1X to Permanent ~Nontraction~ Consumers
14.1. Basic Consumers of Electrici.ty . . . . � � . � . � . . . � . . . 170
14.2. Structure of Installed Capacity of Electricity Receivers.

~ Load of Principal Consumers . . . . . . . . . . � . . . . . . . . 170
- , 14.3. Operating Energy Cfiaracterist~cs . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . 172
14.4. Electricity Supply to a Railroad Center and Line Consumers 179
14.5. Transformer Substation . . . . . . . � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 1$7
14.6. Keeping Track of Electrici.ty Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
_ Chapter 15. Station Illumination
15.1. Purpose and Norms of Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
15.2. Sources of Light . . . . . . . . . . . � � � � � � � � � . . . . . 198
15.3. Illumination Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � . . . . . . 198
15.4. Methods of Calculating Illumination and Indicators of
Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
15.5. Methods of Illuminating Stations and Passenger.Platforms 2~8
15.6. Control of Exte~~�nal Lighting at Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Standard Designations of Quantities in Chapter 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Chapter 16. Safety Precautions
16.1. General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . � . � � � � . . . . . . 216
16.2. The Effect of Electrical Current on tlie z:uman Organism.
Criteria of Electrical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
16.3. Conditions of Occurrence of Electrical Injury. Protective
Measures and Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
16.4. Protective Grounding and Zeroing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
16.5. Calculation and Layout of Complex Artifici.al Grounding Devices 226
16.6. Grounding Transformer Substations Fed from a"Tt~io Aire Rails"
System . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
16.7. Grounding Manmade Structures on Which�Lights Are Installed or
Alternating Current Wires Pass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
16.8. Grounding Mobile Power Plants and Substations . . . . . . . . . . 234
16.9. Heat Resistance and Mecfianical Strength of Grounding Devices.. 235
16.10. Installation of Grounding Devices . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . 236
16.11. Measuring the Resistance of Grounding Devices . . . . . . . . . . 236
16.12. Protective Disconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � � � 23~
16.13. The Inductive Effect of an Alternating Current Catenary System 237
16.14. Approach Distances to Dangerous Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
16.15. Principai Organizational-Tecfinical Measures for Safety 247
16.16. Evaluating the Electrical Safety of the Support Devices of the
Catenary System . . . . . . . . . � . � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 249
Bi6liograpfiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Alphabetized Subject Index . . . . . , . . . � � � � � � � � � � � � . � . . . 251
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Transport", 1980
11,176
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RAILFt~AD
_ UDC 621.331:621.311(031)
NEW HANDBOOK ON ELECTRICITY SUPPLY TO RAILROADS--VOL II
- Moscow SPRAVOCHNIK PO ELEKTROSNABZHENIYU ZHELEZNYKH DOROG in Russian, Vol 2,
1981 (signed to press 3 Mar 81) pp 1-2, 389-392
[Title page, annotation, and table of contents from book "Handbook on Electricity
Supply to Railroads", edited by Professor K. G. Markvardt, doctor of technical
sciences, Izdatel'stvo "Transport", 11,000 copies, 392 pages]
[Text] Title Page
Title: "Spravochnik po Elektroshabzheniyu Zheleznykh Dorog v Dvukh Tomakh"
[Handliook on Electricity Supply to Railroads, in two volumes]
Editor: Professor K. G. Markvardt, doctor of technical sciences
Place and Date of Publication: Moscow, 1981
Publisher: Izdatel'stvo "Transport"
Anr~o ta tion
Volume two of the handbook presents materials on the layout, design, and diagrams
of traction substations, and the selection and arrangement of electrical equip-
ment. It summarizes the practical specifications of automation, remote control,
and relay protection devices, and gives materials on calculations and installa-
tions of the catenary system. The material on installation and operation of
electricity supply devices is singled out in separate chapters.
The handbook is intended for engineering-technical workers in railroad transpor-
tation who are involved with the operation, installation, and design of railroad
electricity supply devices. It may also be useful to students at higher educa-
tional insti:tutions and tekhnikums. The l~ook has 225 illustrations, 261 tatiles,
and 27 bibliographi:c entries.
The book was wrttten as follows: Chapter 17 Yu. N. Makas, Cliapter 18 and
sections 19.5, 19.9-19.12, 20.3, 20.7, 21,1,, and 21.2 V. M. Erlikfi; section
20.4 - V. M. Erlikh and I. B. Mos.tinskiy; sections 19.1-19.4, 19.6-19.8, 20.1,
and 20.2 - I. K. Davydova; section 20.5 - L. I. Shukfiatovich; section 20.6
V. A. Zimakov, L. I, Shukhatovich, and V, M. Erlikh; sections 21.3-21.5 - N. D.
Sukhoprudskiy, V. Ya. Ovlasyuk, and G. M. Korsakov; sections 22.1, 22.4, and
26.4 - Yu. I. Goroshkov; sections 22.2 and 23.5 Yu. V. Flink; section 22.3 -
Yu. V. Kazantsev; sections 22.5, 23.1-23.5, and Cfiapter 24 - K. G. Markvardt;
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sections 25.1, 25.2, and 25.3 I, A. Aelyaye~; se.ctions 23.6, 23.7, 25.4, and
25.5 - A. V. Frayfel'd; section 25.4 R. Sfi.. Kalandadze; section 25.6 -
V. A. Vologin; sections 26.1--26.3 and 26.5 Ye. A.. Haranov; sections 27.1--27.5,
27.7-27.9 - G. N. Brod; section 27.6 - G. G. Engelis; Cfiapter 28 - A. N.
Shemyakin; CTiap ter 29 - P. M. Stiilkin; Cfiap ter 30 N. A. Bondarev; chapters
31, 32, and 33 L. S. Panfil~; sections 34.1, 34,2, and 34.7-34.14 A. S.
Markov; sPCtions 34.3~34.6 - V. P. Luppov; Cfiapter 35 L. D. Radosel*skiy.
The editorial board was composed of: V. A. Kislyakov, G. G. Markvardt, A. S.
Markov, V. N. Pupynin, N. D. Sukhoprudskiy, Yu. V. Flink, M. V. Khlopkov,
P. M. Shilkin, and L. I. Shukhatovich.
The reviewers were: V. P. Shurygin, V. A. Zorin, L. I. Belov, A. I. Zaytsev,
V. 0. Degtyarev, V. N. Pupynin, V. S. Popov, V. S. Sukharev, Yu. Ye. Kuptsov,
G. N. Brod, and A. A. Portselan.
Table of ContEnts Page
Chapter 17. Diagrams of the Principal Electrical Connections, Layout
and Design of Traction Substations
17.1. Classification of Substations, Construction Costs 3
17.2. Diagrams of the Principal Electrical Connections of Traction
Substations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
17.3. Requirements for Arrangement, Layout, and Design of the
SuTistation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
17.4. Buildings of the General Substation Control Post 14
17.5. Layout and Design of Distribution Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
17.6. Composite Distribution Devi.ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
17.7. Control and Protection Shields and Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Chapter 18. Moliile Traction Electrical Units, Sectioning Posts, and
Parallel Connection Points
18.1. Mobile Traction Electrical Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
18.2. Sectioning Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
18.3. Parallel Connection Points of the Catenary System 44
Chapter 19. Electrical Equipment of Traction Substations and Sectioning
P~sts
19.1. Alternating Current High-Voltage Switches and Leads to Them 46
19.2. Power Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
19.3. Semiconductor Transformer Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
19.4. Conversion Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
19. S. High-Voltage Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
19.6. Higfi-Speed Direct Current S~itches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
19.7. Disconnectors, Load Switches, Separators, and Short Circuitors . 79
19.8. Reactors and High-Frequency Stoppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
19.9. High-Voltage Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
19.10. Measurement Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
19.11. ~Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
19.12. Electrical Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
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Page
Chapter 2Q. Circuits for Internal Needs, Control, Signaling, and
Protection
20.1. Supply Sources for Internal Needs . . . . . . . . . . . � . . . . 101
20.2. Storage Sattery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
20.3. Circuits-for Control, Signaling,.and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . 107
- 20.4. Low
Voltage (Voltage to 1,OQ0 Volts~ Apparatus for Protection,
Internal Needs, and O;,erational Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
20.5. Secondary Circuits of Measurement Transformers . . . . . . . . . 113
20.6. Relay Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
20.7. Ground Protection of a 3.3 Kilovolt Distribution Device 140
20.8. nemote Blocking Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Chapter 21. Automation and Remote Control
21.1. Automation Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � � � � � � � . . 142
21.2. Elements of Automatian and Remote Control Devices 150
21.3. General-Purpose Series DTL-62 and SEYMA Diode-Transistor
- Logical and Functional Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
21.4. Remote Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � . . . . 158
Z1.5. Communications Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Letter Designations of the Main Quantities Used in the Formulas in Chapters
22-25. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Chapter 22. Catenary Systems and Overhead Lines
22.1. Types of Catenary Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
_ 22.2. Overhead Lines on Support Towers of the Catenary System 165
- 22.3. Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
22.4. Insulators and Insulating Inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 .
- 22.5. Climatic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . � � � � . . � . . . 176
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Chapter 23. Calculating Circuitry Suspensions
23.1. Tfie Problems of the Calculation . . . � . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
23.2. Determining the Loads on Suspension Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
23.3. Calculating Semicompensated Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
23.4. Calculating Compensated Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lti3
23.5. Calculating a Spring-Type Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
23.6. Determining Maximum Wind-Caused Deflections of Catenary
Wires and Span Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
23.7. Determining the Lengths of Anchor Sections . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Cl~apter 24. Raising the Catenary Wire Under Force
24.1. Simple Suspension and Chain Suspension with.Support Strings 190
24.2. Chain Suspension witli.Spring--Type Cahle or Mixed Strings 190
24.3. The Effect of the String Span on Raising tFie Wire 193
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
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Page
Chapte.r 25. Cur~ent Receivera and Cur~ent Collection
- 25.1. Tfie Layout of Current Receivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
25.2. Cfiaracteristics of Current Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
25.3. Higfi-Speed e.p.s. [expansion unknown] Current Receivers 199
25.4. Calculations of the Interaction of Catenary Suspensions and
Current Receivers . . . . . . . . . � � � . � . . . . . . . . 200
25.5. Indicators To Evaluate the Quality of Current Collection 2~8
_ 25.6. The Effectof tfie Parameters of Current Receivers and
Catenary Suspensions on the Quality of Current Collection 208 ~
Bibliograpfiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
. �
Chapter 26. Diagrams of Power Supply and Sectioning
26.1. General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
26.2. Schematic Diagrams of Power Supply and Sectioning 213
26.3. Sectioning Devices . . . . . . . . . . � . . . . . . � . . . . 216
26.4. Sect~on Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . � � � � � � � � � � � 218
26.5. Power Supply and Sectioning of the Catenary System of Junction
Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Chapter 27. Support and Reinforcement Design Elements
27.1. Classification of Support Structures. . . . � � � � � � � � � . 223
27.2. Reinforced Concrete Supports and Their Foundations 223
27.3. Metal Supports and Their Fo~*~dations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
27.4. Rigid Cross-Pieces . . . . . . . � . � . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
27 . S. Consoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
. .
27.6. Flexible Cross-Pieces . . . . . . . . � � . � � . . . . . � . � 239
27.7. Clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~43
27.8. Design Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � 243
27.9. Basic Principles of Calculating Design Elements 247
Bililiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Chapter 28. Compiling Plans of the Catenary System
28.1. Dimensions of the Units of the Catenary System and Overhead
Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
28.2. Passage of the Catenary System and bverhead Lines in
Manmade Structures . . . . . . . . � . � � � � � � � � � � ' � 249
28.3. Principles of Developing Plans of the Catenax'y System 252
28.4. Standard Designations in Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Chapter 29. Organization of the Operation of Power Supply and Production
Units 254
29.1. Structure of Operational-Technical Management . � � � � ' ' ' � 254
29.2. The Electrification and Energy Service . � � � � ' ' ' ' � � � 256
29.3. Tfie Energy Supply Sector and Its Subdivisions 260
29.4. Energy Dispatcfiing Management . . . � � � � � � � � � � � � �
29.5. Technical Equipment of the Electrification and Energy ~ystem . 260
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Page
Chapter 30.. Operation of tfie. Devi.ces- of tfie. Catenary S'ystem
~ 30.1. Sections of the Catenary Sys~tem. Numerical Norms. . .
Planning Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
30.2. Teclinical Maintenance and Repai.r S~ystem . . . . . . � . . . . . 265
~ 30.3. Evaluation of tfie Condition of tfie Catenary System Tiy Points- . 275
30.4. Organization of Cfiecks on Wear on tfie Catenary Wires 277
- 30.5. Methods of Servicing and Repairing the Catenary ~ystem 278
30.6. Organizing Restoration of a Catenary System . . . . . . . . . . 279
Chapter 31. Operation of Traction Substations, Sectioning Posts, and
- Parallel Connection Points
31.1. Description of Scheduled Preventive Repair Work 282
31.2. TecFinical Maintenance and Repair System . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
31.3. Cliaracteristics of tfie Use of Transformer Oil and Oil-Filled
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
31.4. Cfiaracteristics of the Operation of Mobile Traction Suli-
statfons, Sectioning Posts, and Parallel Connection Points 299
Chapter 32. Operating the Devices To Supply Electricity to Nontraction
Consumers
32.1. Description of Scfieduled Repair Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
32.2. Teclinical Maintenance and Repair System . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
32.3. Cfiaracteristics of Electricity Supply to Signaling,
Centralization, and Blocking Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Chapter 33. Reliaiiility of Electricity Supply Devices
33.1. Basic Concepts and Terminology of Reliability 309
33.2. Collecting, Transmitting, and Initial Processing of Data 311
33.3. Ways To Improve the Relialiility of Flectricity Supply Devices . 313
Chapter 34. Construction of Electricf:ty Supply Devices
34.1. Construction Work To Build the Catenary System and Traction
Substations . . . . . . . . . . � � . � � � � � � � � � � � � � 315
34.2. Composition and Organization of Installation Work in Building
the Catenary System and Traction Substations . . . . . . . . . 318
34.3. Machinery and Equipment Used To Build Electricity Supply
Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
34.4. Adaptations of ~mall Power Tools and Specific Tools 326
34.5. Installing tfie Equipment of Traction Substations 330
34.6. Construction of Sectioning Posts and Otfier Electricit}�
Supplq Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . � . � � � � � � 337
34.7. Installation of the Support Units of the Catenary Sysrem 339
34.8. Methods of Installing Chain Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
34.9. Installing tlie Main Assemblies of Chain Suspension 346
34.10. Longitudinal Adjustment of Cfiain Suspension and Installation
of Linkages of Ancfior Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
34.11. Installation of ~ection Insulators and Disconnectors,
Discfiargers, and Grounding Devices of the Catenary Sy~~tem 359
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Page
34.12. Installation of Amplifying, Po~er ~upply~, and Other [~ixes 359
Arranged on tfie S~upports of tfie Catenary Sys~tem
34.13. Cfiaracteristics of Installation ~iork..Near an Operating
Catenary System and Wfien Electrifying Segment Tracks 361
34.14. Accepting Units Built Fltien Electrifying a Railroad and
Putting Tliem into Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Chapter 35. Ins~tallation of Electricity System Units
35.1. Installation of Calile Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
35.2. Couplings and Ends for Caliles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
35.3. Installation of Overhead Power Transmission Lines 379
35.4. Installation of Composite Transformer Substations 385
Alpfiabetized Suliject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
COPYRIGHT Izdatel'stvo "Transport", 1980
, 11,176
CSO: 1829/192
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MISCELLANEOUS
PLANNING, ORGANIZATIONAL PRdBLEMS IN REDUCING TRANSPORTATION COSTS
- ~ Moscow VOPROSY EKONOMIKI in Russian No 3, Mar 82 pp 42-53
[Article liy A. Mitaishvili: "Trans.portation Co~ts of the National Economy"]
[Text] The document Basic Directions of Economic and Social Development of the
' USSR for 1981-1985 and the Period Until 1990" contemplates a decline in specific
- transportation costs and expenditure of resources to convey freight and passengers.
_ Solving this problem is very important for the national economy. Transportation
costs constitute a significant part of total production and consumption costs and
- are one of the significant factors affecting production efficiency.
Reducing specific transportation costs in the value of final output makes produc-
tion less dependent on sources of raw material and fuel; it allows more rational
- location of production throughout the territory of the country and broader intro-
duction of progressive forms of large-scale mass production. High specific
transportation costs per unit of output retard growth in the level of specializa-
tion and cooperation, while by contrast when freight shipping is less expensive
there are broader opportunities for production specialization and interregional
cooperation.
K. Marx, analyzing capitalist production and circulation, observed that "transpor-
tation costs play too important a rolei1 in the circulation of capital, that ab-
solute transportation costs, where other conditions are equal, increase the cost
of the commodity by an amount directly proportional to the distance that the com-
modity is moved. In this situation the relative amount of the given cost is also
directly proportional to the volume and weight of the commodity.
Under contemporary conditions reducing specific transportation expenditures is
becoming increasingly important in connection with the large scale of our economy
and the growing distances between extracting and manufacturing sectors. This is
causing a rapid rise in the volume of shipping and freight turnover, and there-
fore also in transportation costs. The freight turnover of transportation in the
USSR grew rapidly in the 1960's and 1970's. It reached 6.7 trillion ton-
- kilometers in 1980, 3.9 times the volume of freight turnover in 1960 and 1.7 times
the 1970 figure. The freight turnover of USSR transportation is 35 percent greater
1 K. Marx and F. Engels, "Soch." [Works], Vol 24, p 169
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than the freight turnover of U. S~. transportation.. This can he explained by the
territorial features of the country and Fio~ production and distrihution are or-
ganized. .
In the llth Five-Year Plan tlie volume of shipping work by transportation will in-
crease 22 percent over 1980, reacfiing more t~ian 8.2 trillion ton-kilometers in
1985. The territorial location of production and consumption ~ias a decisive ef-
fect on the volume of freight turnover by transportation. The development and
economic circulation of natural resources, in particular fuel and energy re-
sources, in tfie eastern and northern regions of the country and the enlargement
of production chiefly by reconstruction and expansion of existing enterpris~es are
linked to an enlargement of the distribution (shipping) zone of the output pro-
duced, deepening economic ties among enterprises and regions of the country, and
growth in shipping distance. This way of increasing production leads to growth
in freight turnover and transportation cost and is economically justified if a
decline in aggregate specific expenditures for production and circulation is se-
cured.
Consideration of the transportation factor in siting, concentrating, and special-
izing production requires knowledge of actual transportation costs and mastery
of the methods of calculating them in the future. Unfortunately, we do not at
the present time have a scientifically substantiated and clearcut system of
planning and recording actual transportation costs in tfie national economy. De-
termination of national economic transportation costs and singling out their
role in the country's economy is made more difficult because certain methodo-
logical and organizational questions have not been solved. This is related to
the fact that the current system of managing transportation and planning and re-
cording transportation costs does not fully correspond to the economic nature of
transportation as a sector of material production. It should be noted that
economists do not disagree that freight transportation is an independent sector
of material production and continues the process of production in the sphere of
circulation and for the circulation sphere. In our opinion, however, the ques-
tions of delimiting the sphere of production and transportation as a sector of
material production need greater clarification.
Transportation costs in the broad sense are the costs of national economic sec-
tors related to moving articles both in the immediate process of production at
enterprises (from the warehouse to the shop, within and among shops, and from
the.shop to the finished output warehouse) as well as among enterprises which are
spatially remote from one another, which is the circulation sphere. K. Marx
wrote that "movement of the object of labor and the means of labor and work force
necessary to do this play an important role in any production process. For ex-
ample, cotton is moved from the carding division to the spinning division and
coal is lifted up out of the mine. The same phenomenon is observed on a larger
scale when finished output is moved in the form of finished commodities from the
independent place of production to another, spatially remote place. "Following
transportation of products from the production site to another place there is
also transportation of finished products from the production sphere to tlie con-
sumption sphere."2
2lbid., p 170.
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Speaking of transportation as supporting spatial links.~ K. Marx po~nted out that
the circulation of commodities in space amounts to transporting them, a~t~ tlie
transportation industry which carries on tfiis. circulation is an inde~penden sec-
tor of production, differing in that it is a continuation of the production \
process in tfie sphere of circulation and for tfie circulation process.
The conveyance process in the circulation sphere consists of a series of oper-
ations: preparation of the freight for shipping, receiving it for shipping,
loading it into means of transportation, taking it to tfie main line of the com-
munications routes; movement itself, shipping along the line from the departure
point to the destination; transshipping the freight from one type of ineans of
transportation to another when it travels in mixed transportation involving two
or more types of transportation; unloading at the destination point; and finally,
delivering the fr~ight to the customer's commodity warehouse. These operations
in shipping finished output are transportation operations in the circulation
sphere. Transportation costs consist of expetiditures involved in the full cycle
of the process of shipping freight from the finished output warehouse of tfie
supplier to the customer's warehouse.
_ Transportation expenditures to move loads within an enterprise (industrial ship-
ping) and in the circulation sphere (that is, between manufacturing enterprises
and consumers) differ significantly in their economic nature. In the first case
they are an element of the production process of the particular enterprise and
support the production process. In this situation the enterprise's means of
transportation are a part of the industrial process of production and take part
in creating the physical product of labo~r. By their economic nature, the~efore,
the costs of industrial transportation belong with production costs and are in-
cluded in them. But means of transportation that support the external spatial
links of the enterprise continue the process of production in the circulation
~ sphere and for circulation, regardless of whether they are legally independenr.
The production functioning of transportation does not create physical products
of labor, although their cost goes up. Transportation costs as an independent
sector belong to circulation costs, not to production costs. In practice, how-
ever, there is no such clearcut delineation between the costs of internal trans-
portation and the costs of transportation as a sector of material production.
The transportation expenditures of the national economy are significantly under-
stated, while production costs are substantiaZly over~tated.
The present system of planning and recording transportstion costs of the national
economy violates the economic principle of delimiting the sphere of immediate
production from circulation. To some extent the structure of transportation
management leads to this. In organizational terms., USSR transportation is di-
vided into general-use transportation and departmental transportation.
The functions of general-use transportation as a sector of material production
that combines the transportation mf:nistries of tfie USSR into a sys~tem include
only part of the industrial process of shipping, moving freight along tlie main
transportation lines. The most labor-intensive initial and final operations of
shipping - loading general-purpose means of transportation, hauling freight to
the station (port) of the trunk communication line, unloading at thF~ arrival
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point, and delivery of the freight to the customer's. warehouse are related
to the circu~lation sphere and per�ormed by departmental nongenexal-use industrial
transportat"ion. Expenditures for these operations. are included in producti:on
costs, wfii:ch distorts tfie true figure for transportation costs. of tlie national
economy. Expenditures for these transportation operations are not planned and
are not recorded in a separate expenditure sub-~ieading.
It seems to us that the category transportation costs of the national economy

~ should include expenditures for performance of all the operations of tfie shipping
process, tieginning with loading the means of transportation and ending witfi un-
loading it. This necessitates transferring what is called external industrial
transportation to the ministries in charge of general-use transportation. Pipe-
line transportation should also be included with general-use transportation serv-
ing the circulation sphere. Production enterprises and organizations must be
left the essential means of transportation to perform internal industrial ship-
ping. Expenditures involved in this kind of shipping should be included in pro-
duction expenditures.
Calculations made at the Institute of Compz�ehensive Transportation Problems cover-
ing all the operations of the shipping proct~ss showed that the present system of
planning and recording fails to cover about 25-30 percent of national economic
transportation costs.
The figures given in Table 1 Uelow characteri.ze tfie relationships of growth in
gross public product, freight turnover, and transportation costs calculated on
the basis of the above-mentioned principle of delimiting the spheres of production
and circulation.
i
Table l. Growth in Gross Social Product, Freight Turnover, and
Transportation Costs of the National Economy
1980
1970 1975 1980 % of 1970
Gross Social Product, billions of rubles 643 862 1,072 166.7
Freight Turnover of All Types of Transportation,
billions of ton-kilometers 3,955 5,482 6,772 171.2
Transportation Costs Related to Circulation
Costs, in billions of rubles 28 41 55 196.3
Tncluded in Above, General-Use Trans,por~
tation, billions of rubles 19.2 26.9 33.5 174.4
Specific Transportation Costs, kopecks per
ruble of gross social product 4.35 4.76 5.1 117.2
Included in Above, General~Use Transpor-
tation, kopecks per ruble of gross social
product 2.98 3.10 3.12 104.4 -
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Total calculated transportation costs of the n~tional e,conomy in 1480 were 55
billion rubles, almost four times: greater than in 196Q and 1.96 times tfie.1970
figure. The growtFi rate of national economi.c transpo~tation costs in ttie 1970
figure exceeded tlie growtfi rate of gros s public product and freigFit turnover.
In 1980 when gross social product had increased 1.68 times over 1970 and freight
turnover 1.71 times, ir?nsportation costs were up 1.96 times.. Specific trans-
portation costs- per ruble of gross social product produced increased. Specific
transportation costs per ruble of gross social product were about 5.1 kopecks in
1980 compared to 4.35 in 1970. If we consider that during this time the structure
of produc.tion changed significantly with an increase in the proportion of output
with high costs, the growth and transportation expenditures per unit in physical
terms would lie even higher.
There are various reasons for the faster growth of transportatioa costs. The
level of national economic transportation costs and their specific level depend
first of all on the location of production and consumption, on the degree of
concentration, sgecialization, and cooperation in production. Secondly, they de-
pend on the system of the material-technical supply and m~.rketing and the effi-
ciency of transportation-economic links. In the third place, they depend on the
structure of the transportation system itself and the distribution of shipping
among different forms of transportation. Finally, they depend on the costs oi
transportation enterprises, which determine the level of shipping rates, and
price formati~n policy for transportation services.
During the period under consideration there has been a significant change in the
location of production, particularly the extracting sectors, and this has in-
creased shipping distances. Most (about 90 percent) of fuel and energy resources
are concentrated in Siberia, Kazakhstan, Central Asia, and the Far East, while the
fuel consuming sectors are located chiefly in the European part of the country
and the Urals. These regions have about 82 percent of the manufacturing sectors
- in national production. Their needs for fuel and energy resources are supplied
by import from the ea~tcLU ~.arts of t~e count1~.
In 1980 the average economic distance of shipments for the transportation system
as a whole rose to 740 kilometers compared to 595 in 1970 and 460 in 1960. The
greatest distances in internal shipping were in pipeline and rail transportation
where the figures in 1980 were, respectively, 1,900 and 923 kilometers. If the
savings on production and distribution costs covers the increase in transporta-
tion costs, then the increase in shipping distance and the growth in transporta-
, tion costs that it causes cannot be considered a negative phenomenon.
F. Engels wrote that a society which has been litierated from the bonds of capital-
ist production, "having raised a new generation of comprehensively developed
producers who understand the scientific foundations of all industrial production
and have studied a whole range of production sectors in practice from start to
finish, will create a new production force whicfi will more than outweigh the labor
of shipping raw materials and fuel from more remote points."3 Cutting transpor-
tation expenditures is not a goal in itself. For example, wtien planning tFie
3 Ibid., Vol Z0, p 308.
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location of petroleum refineries the question reviewed was selecting the opti-
mal type of enterprise. Technical-economic calculations. were made taking ac-
count of all elements of e~xpenditures for botfi. production and sales~. Ttie optimal
variation was one witfi a large volume of refining wliere transportation costs in~
creased more tlian 2.5 times. In the other alternative refining capacity was
scarcely fialf as~ great, wfiile the shipping distances for petroleum were 920 and ~
400 kilometers respectively. But tfiis does not mean that we shou~d not try to
reduce economical.ly unsound shipping when deciding questions of production siting,
specialization, and cooperation. Establisfiing rational transportation-economic
ties and reducing too-long, counter, and repeated shipments in planning the pro-
duction and delivery of output is one of the important steps to reduce ~specific
transportation costs and expenditure of resources for shipping.
There were.also changes in the very szructure of transportation in the 1970's
and this influenced the level of costs. The share of railroad transportation in
total freight turnover of tlie transportation system dropped from 63.1 percent in
1970 to 50.7 percent in 1980, as did the shares of maritime transportation (from
16.6 to 12.3 percent) and river transportation (from 4.4 to 3.6 percent). The
share of pipeline and motar vehicle transportation in total freigfit turnover in-
creased. These changes were ref lected in the level of transportation costs be-
cause each type of transportation has its own characteristic level of prime cost
of shipping and an average earning rate corresponding to it. The earning rates
in motor vehicle and air transportation are much higher than in rail, water, and
pipeline transportation. The earning rate in air transportation is about 190
kopecks per 10 ton-kilometers and 85 k~pecks in motor vehicle transportation;
- for railroad transportation the figure is four kopecks, and in maritime trans-
portation it is about five kopecks. The changes that took place in the structure
of transportation, in particular the increase in the proportion of the most ex-
pensive type of transportation (motor vehicles) and a decline in tfie share of
_ the ~east expensive forms (rail and water) led to tfie faster growth of transpor-
tation costs. It should be noted here that motor vehicle transportation ac-
- counted for about 45 percent of transportation costs in 1980 while its share of
total freight turnover was about seven percent; the corresponding figures for
the share of the railroads were 36 and 50 percent.
Optimizing the structure of the country's transportation system and rational dis-
tribution of freight shipments among different types of transportation are im-
portant reserves for reducing transportation costs in the national economy. Ac-
celerated development of pipeline transportation for pumping petroleum products
is very important. At the present time, however, the bulk of shipments of
petroleum products continue to go hy rail transportation, even though pumping
petroleum through pipelines is much cheaper. Water transportation must also be
used intensively for shipping liulk cargo. The use of motor vehicle freight trans-
portation should be limited primarily to shipping within regions and ctties.
Moreover, new forms of transportation s:ucfi as. pneumatic container, pulp-pipeline,
and conveyor transportation should be us:ed extensively for sucli shipments in
place of latior-intensive and fuel-intensive motor vehicle transportation. Motor
vehicle transportation should tie consolidated (.at~ove all in the cities~) in uni-~
fied general-use vehicle transportation enterprises.
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A~ tt~e present time 85 percent of the total truck ~leet in tfie country is de--
partmental transportation (industry, construction, and agriculture). Industrial,
construction, and agricultural enterprises and organizations use a significant
share of tfie vefiicles belonging to them for intercity shipping. In 1980 tfie
total freigfit turnover of motor vehicle transportation in the national economy
was 432 billion ton-k.ilometers, wfiich included lOQ billion ton-kilome~ters for
intercity shipping (witfi a prime cost of shipping of 60 kopecks per 10 ton-
kilometers). Ttie prime cost of intercity shipping in gen~eral-use vefiicle trans-
portation is about 38 kopecks for 10 ton-kilometers, whicfi is 36 percent lower
than the prime cost of such sfiipment by departmental transportation. If all
intercity (tfiat is, non-production) shipping done in 1980 by departmental vehicle
transportation had been done by general-use vehicle transportation enterprises
the national economy would have saved atiout 2.5 billion rubles.
The comparatively high level of transportation costs in the national economy is
also linked, in addition to growth in shipping distance, to the structure of
means of production consumed, material-intensiveness, and the quality of prepar-
ation for shipping. In 1980 transportation costs represented the following per-
centages of the cost of output in the extracting sectors: mineral building
materials - 39.6 percent; products of petroleum extraction - 29.4 percent;
logging products - 23.0 percent; ferrous metal ores and nonore raw material -
20.0; coal - 18.1 percent; products of the mining chemical industry - 17.2
percent; peat - 15 percent.
Transportation-intensive physical raw materials predominate in the composition
of consumable means of production; they account for more than 70 percent of the
total volume of natural resources put into production circulation. This is re-
lated not only to the growth in industrial refining of mineral products, but
chiefly to the worsening quality of raw material being extracted. In 1980 ferrous
metallurgy plants~received 34 percent of commodity output from an extraction
figure of about 500 million tons of raw iron ore, whereas in 1965 the figure was
40.8 percent. The iron content in commodity ore presented to transportation for
shipping was 58.5 percent after enrichment. In 1980 24 percent of the coal mined
at underground mines was worthless rock compared to 21 percent in 1965. The level
of concentration of coal extracted in 1980 did not txceed 55 percent. Shipment of
round timber over long distances from the North and East to the European part of
the country for milling increases the volume of transportation work b~ 30-35 per-
cent in comparison with shipping crosscut wood. A significant part of mineral
building materials are not dressed in advance at the extraction point. This
process has been transferred to tfie places where they are put to production use,
and as a result ttie volume of transportation work and transportation costs in-
creased more than 9-10 percent.
Shipment of raw material without preliminary process.ing requires additional means
of transportation: railroad cars, ships, and motor vehi.cles. The rolling stock
requirement of the railroads for shipping unprepared coal and ore increases 35-
40 percent, while for round timber (instead of sawtimber) it is 30~35 percent
higher, for unstacked scrap metal it is almost three times as fiigli, and for
simple superphosphate it more than doubles. This leads to an increase in tioth
current operating costs of transportation and capital investment.
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The material-intensity of production slso influences the level of transporta-
tion costs-. In recent years our country has. stepped up tfie campaign for
economica? us:e of fuel-energy resources, metal, ~.uilding materials-, lumber, and
products of the chemical industry. B"ut expenditure o~ the principal types of
primary materials and fuel in tfie USSR is still mucfi tuglier than in the indus-
trially developed capitalist countries. Calculations show ttiat reducing tiie
material-intensiveness of production and construction in our country to the level
achieved tiy industrially developed foreign countries would have enabled us to
reduce the: volume of transportation work and transportation costs in 1980 by
about 18-20 percen~. Thus, improving the quality of materials and fuel being
shipped by preparing them and reducing the material-intensiveness of production
is an important way to reduce the transportation costsof the national economy.
Planning stiipping and economic links and eliminating irrational shipping has a
special role to play in reducing transportation costs. The questions of improv-
ing the planning of freight shipment must be resolved not as intrasectorial
transportation problems, but as parts of the overall national economic problem.
In this case planning national economic needs for shipping must be based on
- material-technical supply plans and delivery plans worked out 6y the appropri-
ate agencies. In turn, material-technical supply agencies shoul~d have terri-
torial balances of production and consumption whose development was contemplated
by the July 1979 decree of the CPSU Central Committee and USSR Council of
Ministers on improving the economic mechanism. But these balances are not being
produced yet. Development of territorial balances of production and consumption
is necessary not only to insure integrated development of transportation, but also
for rational siting of productive forces in the country. The need for freight
shipping should not be determined on the basis of the requests from freigfit ship-
ping ministries and departments, as is the case today, but rather on the tiasis
of a plan that assigns suppliers to customers. The time has come to assign
material-technical supply and marketing agencies to present transportation
ministries and their local organizations with freight shipping demands indi-
cating the loading point (shipping station or port) and unloading point (destina-
tion station or port) with a distribution of shipments by sliippers and receivers.
On the basis of these papers the transportation ministries must compile plans
for the freight to travel from the supplier to the consumer directly or in
mixed transportation involving two or several types of transportation. The
choice of the shipping plan should be based on minimum social transportation
expenditures. Material-technical supply and marketing agencies must be ma-
terially accountable to transportation for performance of shipping demands, just
as transportation must be responsible for delivery of freight at a certain time
in ttie required volume.
Economic links for delivery of output are estalilished by material-technical
supply agencies, and tiansportation carries out delivery plans and carries
freight to the consumers according to tfieir schedule-orders. Therefore, ship-
pin~; costs should be normed and planned by material-technical supply agencies,
not by freight shippers or receivers. With the current system of franking (pre-
payment) of prices the freight receiver cannot influence the choice of supplier
enterprise, type of transportation, and route of travel of the freigfit because
tliis is the function of material-technical supply and marketing agencies. The
freigtit receiver pays the actual transportation costs, whose Zevel is determineci
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depending on prepayment of prfces by thE freight shipper or b.y material-
technical supply and marketing agencies. Hut material-tethnical supply agencies
and freiglit stiippers do not fiave an econom~c interest in cutting transportation
costs becaus~e e~xpendi:tures~ for s:hipping are fully repaid liy tfie receiver of ttie
shipment.
At tfie pres-ent time ministries do not plan and record transportation costs of
production associations and organizations as an independent indicator. Under the
current system of costing industrial output transportation expenditures for de-
livery of material resources are included in the cost of the raw and processed
materials and fuel being purchased, while expenditures incident to the sale of
the finished output are recorded ir. general marketing expenditures. Tliis kind of
planning and accounting makes it more difficult to monitor the use of resources
for freight ship~nent and diminishes the possibility of analyzing, identifying, and
using existing reserves to cut transportation costs. The present system does not
allow us to determine the true magnitude and dynamics of aggregate transporta--
tion costs of the national economy.
In our opinion, it wc,c.ald be wise to single out transportation costs as an inde-
pendent expenditure subheading in planning, accounting for, and reporting circu-
lation costs. Norms should be established for them by production sectors.
Appropriate changes must also be made in existing methodological instructions and
basic statutes on planning and recording the prime cost of output. The methodo-
logical instructions must envision differentiation of transportation costs ac-
cording to a number of characteristics, above all the economic characteristic.
Material resources that are brouglit to the enterprise and sale of finished output
(including all elements of expenditures related to delivering the freight from
the supplier's warehouse to the consumer and with loading-unloading work) must
be classified as circulation costs. In this case expenditures for internal in-
dustrial shipping should be put in a special sub-heading and related to produc-
tion expenditures.
The level of. national economic transportation expenditures is directly dependent
on expenditure of material resources for shipping freight. In 1980 expenditures
of material resources in general-use transportation were 55.2 percent of tfi e
prime cost of shipping freight (including depreciation deductions) in rail trans-
portation, 84 percent in maritime, 62.3 percent in river, 49 percent in motor
vehicle, and 80.9 percent in petroleum pipeline transportation. In view of the
high proportion of resource expenditures for shipping freight, transportation
management bodies face the problem of searching for ways and means of reducing
expenditures of material resources as much as possilile. This was contemplated
by the 1980 decree of the CPSU Central Committee and USSR Council of Ministers
entitled "Intensification of Work on Economic and Rational Use of Raw Material,
Fuel-Energy, and Other Material Res.ources." This is even more essential because
during tiie lOtfi Five-Year Plan the specific proportions of materia]_ expenditures
in the prime cost of freight shipping grew.
The increase in expenditure of resources for s:hipping results ahove all from
shortcomings in the work of transportation. On the railroads this i~ seen in
poor organization of the shipping process, rel~ation of production and labor
discipline, poor monitoring of adherence to train traffic schedules, and tfie
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imprecise work of all elements of the zailroad s.ystem. All these things have
led to a~ignificant decline in the principal indicators of use of rolling stock.
In 1980 the technical and sector speed of freight trains declined compared to
the level attained in 1970, the daily run of freiglit cars decreased, and down-
time increased. As a result, the turnaround time for a freigfit car increased a
22 percent in the same 10 years. Ttiis is equivalent to a decrease of 725 ~
billion ton-kilometers in the carrying capacity of the railroads, which is 21 per-
cent of the volume of freight turnover performed in 1980. The freight capacity
- of the rolling stock is not being fully used either. According to figures from
the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Railroad Transportation, one-
quarter of tlie cars were underloaded by an average of two tons. The degree of
loading of rolling stock is an indicator of its use and influences tfie level of
expenditures tfiat make up both the prime cost of shipping and national economic
transportation costs. Raising the use coefficient of the freight capacity of
rolling stock reduces transportation costs. Under the existing car tariff
system when loading is increased the tariff payment per ton of freight decreases.
Underloading of rolling stock accounts for about 200 million rubles of addi-
tional national economic transportation costs a year.
The indicators of use of the resources of maritime and river transportation have
also declined. Productivity per ton of load capacity per day of operation in
ton-miles in 1980 was 24 percent lower than in 1970. Tliis is related to an in-
crease in unproductive downtime in ports, a decrease in ship sailing speeds,
and incomplete use of their load capacities. The situation is similar in river
and motor vehicle transportation. The productivity of traction vessels in river
transportation declined by 24.6 percent between 1970 and 1980, while for trucks
(per average vehicle) the figure was 7.3 percent. Al1 these things had a nega-
tive effect on the indicator of efficiency of use of fixed production capital,
above all rolling stock. As Table 2 below shows, during the Tenth Five-Year
Plan the output-capital ratio compared to the Ninth Five-Year Plan declined for
all forms of transportation except pipelines.
Table 2. Output-Capital Ratio in Freight Shipping (ton-kilom-
eters per ruble, in comparable prices)
1975 1980
as % of as % of
1970 1~75 1980 1970 1975
All General-Use Transportation* 72,94 73.76 64,62 101.1 87.6 ,
Included in above
Railroad 71.85 79.27 69.44 110.3 87.6
Water 121.41 ~5.06 72.02 78.3 75.8
Motor Vehicle* 21,18 22,10 21.96 104.3 99.4
Pipeline 60.C14 64.25 64.6Q 107.0 100.5
* Witfiout considering the cost of fiighways.
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- ~s the figures in tfie.tab.le show, water trans.portation has tfie fiighest output-
capital ratio. Tfii~ indi~cator for motor velii.cle transportation i:s afiout one--
third of the average value for the transportation System as a wi~ole~ The
figures in Tab.le 2 illustrate that tfie output-capi.tal ratio rose for all forms
of transportation except water tra.nsportation in tlie Ninth Five Year Plan. In
the Tenth Five Year Plan tfie output--capital ratio dropped appreciably in rail
and water transportation. In motor vehicle and pipeline transportation in 1980
this indicator remained at aliout the 1975 level. In connection with structural
changes in tlie transportation system as a whole for freigfit shipping, the output-
capital ratio declined 12.4 percent in the Tenth Five-Year Plan. The worsening
technical condition of rolling stock and the fleet has a significant impact on
the decline in output-capital ratio. During the Tenth Five-Year Plan tfie value
of the inoperatile fleet in railroad transportation increased 1.8 times, while in
river transportation it increased 1.6 times. The worsening of these indicators
is also linked to disproportions that have taken shape in the development of the
material-technical base of transportation. The essential reinforcement of the
capacities of the existing railroad system, whicfi was working at great i.ntensity,
. was not accomplished. During this time the introduction of double-track and
electrified lines decreased. The use of ineans of transportation is also tieing
held tiack by inadequate development of the network of railroad stations, maritime
and river ports, vehicle roads, and the repair liase.
The significant growth in the cost of transportati _i facilities lieing built in
the northern and eastern regions of the country, tfie rise in the capital-
intensiveness of structures, and the increasingly rigid social and ecological
requirements also have a significant influence on the output-capital ratio.
In the Tentfi Five-Year Plan capital investment per kilometer of new railroad line,
second tracks, vehicle roads, and for construction of maritime and river ports
and trunk pipelines was 1.3-1.6 times more than similar costs in the Ninth Five-
, Year Plan.
Table 3. Specific Capital Inves.tment in Construction of
Transportation Facilities
Rate
1971-1975 1976--1980 Change
New Railroad Lines, rubles/km 433,100 686,000 158.4
Second Tracks, rubles/km 263,SQ0 376,000 142.7
Electrification of Railroads, rul~les/km 136,500 139,~00 101,5
Transshipment Complexes at Seaports, 66,60Q 101,400 152, 3
rubles/run. m
Docks at River Por~s, rubles/run. m 43,5Q0 7.60Q 163.5
Motor Vehicle ~toads., rubles:/km:
National 430,000 560,000 130.2
Republic 163,000 212,000 130.1
Oblast and Local 70,000 107,000 152.9
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In 1980 titie cost of fixed productive capi.tal (witfiout rolling stock.) per ki.lom-
eter of lengtfi. of ttie. railroads increased 11.2 percent over 1975, whi:le the
specific cost of fiard--surface. vehicle roads- rvs~e. 16 percent.
Impbrtant: steps to reduce transportation costs are working out measures- to im'
prove tfie system of tfie shi~ping process and making better use of tlie fixed
productive capital.of transportation togetfier witfi raising tfie efficiency of use
of all fts res~ources.
Economical use of fuel and energy resources i:.s a critical issue. Transportation
is a major consumer of these resources,.accounting for about 10 percent of total
. consumption of energy resources in tfie country. Technical re-equipping of trans-
portation, replacement of steam traction wtth diesel traction on railroads and
in water transportation, and the development of motor veliicle transportation led
to a sharp increase in the use of light petroleum products, from 35 million to
130 million tons or more than 3.7 times between 1960 and 1980. In the postwar
five-~year plans transportation has attained relatively high efficiencX of fuel
use. The specific expenditure of standard fuel in U5SR railroad transportation
is considerably lower than in the Uni:ted States, West Germany, France, and other
industrially developed countries. In 1980 tliis figure for USSR railroads was
8.55 kilograms of standard fuel per thousand gross ton-kilometers, compared to
11.5 in the United States and 15.1 in West Germany.
The shortcomings noted above in use of rolling stock caused a certain decline in
= the indicators of fuel use in the lOth Five-Year Plan compared to tfie Ninth Five-
Year Plan. On tlie country's raiiroads the specific expenditure of energy re-
sources for electric traction increased from 124.0 kilowatt-hours per.104 gross
ton-kilometers in 1970 to 127.2 in 1980; the corresponding figures for diesel
traction were 48.4 kilograms of standard fuel per 104 gross ton-kilometers in
1970 to 53 in 1980. For shipment by diesel freighters in river transportation
the specific norm of expenditures of standard fuel rose from 9.8 kilograms in
1973 to 12.5 kilograms in 1980. Refining the operations systems and improving
the indicators of use of rolling stock by reducing downtime are major reserves
for lowering actual specific expenditures of fuel-energy resources by transpor-
tation. The use of diesel-powered motor vehicles is a major reserve for lowering
consumption of petroleum products. Diesels with efficiency rates that reach
38 percent consume 35-40 percent less fuel than standard engines. Calculations
show that gasoline consumption could lie reduced to approximately 30 million tons
by full use of diesel motor vehicle transportation.4 Reducing cons.umption of
liquid fuel and preservation of the ecological balance demand that we step up
work on the development of electric vehicles and swi:tch to the use of liquefied
- gas. A number of industrially developed capitalist countries are planning to
move from experimental production to large-series production of electric vehicles
for passengers and freight shipping.
Improving the technical condition of tiigfiways is a sagni.ficant factor in cutting
fuel consumption. At tlie end of 1980 only 37 percent of the total sys:tem of
``See N. A. Balychev, "Reserves for Reducing Consumption of Fuel-Energy Resources
in Transportation," TRUDY IKTP, Vyp 82, 1980, p 29.
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1,340,000 kilome.ter~ of motor vehicle roads had improved surfaces; this was
510,000 k~lometers�. The low tectini.cal level o~ thQ roads causes an increase
in fuel expenditures and in specif i.c transportation costs of tfie national
economy. Sliipping on fiigliways wi.th. aspFialt and concrete surfaces req~uires 20~30
percent less fuel tTian shipping on unimproved roads. The prime. cost of fretgfiC
sfiipping on roads with asptialt and concrete surfaces is ~ust t~ao--fiftfis of tfie
figure for roads witti rock surfaces, and expenditures for road repair and main-
tenance are barely one-sixth as much.
National economic transportation costs are fiigh Faecause of losses and spoilage of
freiglit during tfie transportation process. This figure reaches an impres~sive
size. For example, coal losses are almost three percent (equivalent to losses of
2 million tons of coal), while for glass it is 10 percent (23 million square
meters of glass), for bricks 13 percent (more than 2.7 billion bricks), for ore
up to four percent (15-16 million tons of ferrous and nonferrous metal), and sc�
on. Because delivery time of freight to customers increased in 1980, there was
a rise in frozen material resources. The rise in national economic costs for
this reason is more than 4 billion rubles. Unrecorded transportation costs re-
sulting from losses and spoilage of freight in the transportation process and
the lowered delivery speed run into billions of rubles. But plans~ do not en-
vision indicators of the quality of shipping and transportation work and no sucfi
indicators are considered in evaluating the activities of transportation enter-
prises.
Solving a number of inethodological and organizational questions for improving
transportation cost planning and accounting and achieving savings of material
resource expenditures for freight shipment by transpor.tation are very important
to reduce specific transportation costs of the national economy.
COPY~tIGHT: Izdatel~stvo "Pravda", "Voprosy ekonomiki", 1482
11,176
CSO: 1829/203 E~
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