JPRS ID: 10445 USSR REPORT MILITARY AFFAIRS

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• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/ 10445 ~
9 April 1982 ~
USSR Re ort
p
~
~ MILITARY AFFAIRS
. (FOUO 4/82) .
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JPRS L/10445
9 April 1982
USSR REPORT ~
MILITARY AFFAIRS
(FOUO ~/82)
CONTENTS
AIR llE:FENSE FORCES
Article on Air Defense Forces From 'KALENDAR' VuINA'
(KALEI~TUA~t' VOINA 1Va, various c~ates ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
From ly$G Calendar
P'rom 198i Calendar
From 1982 ~alendar .
CIVIL DE~'ENSE
Excerpt5 From Book on Civil Defense for the Population
(GRAZHI1AlVSKAYA GBORGNA, 1981) 8
Excerpts ~rom Book on Def'ense Work of Local Soviets
( O~iURONNAYA IiABOTA NIESTNYKH SGVErOV , 1980 ) ~+3
Book Excerpts: Civil Defense in Radioatitie FnvironmPn.t
(LIi{'IIDATSTY.~. POSLEDSTIV:LY. R.4~TCAKTIVNI)(.'r0 ZARYAZHT;NIYA,
1980} 53
- z, - [ II I- USSR - 4 FOUO]
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AIR DEFENSE FORCES
ARTICLES ON AIR DEFENSE FORCES FROM 'KALENDAR' VOINA'
From 1980 Calendar .
Moscow KALENDAR'VOINA NA 1980 GOD in Russian 1979 (signed to pr:ess 23 Aug 79)
pp 121-124
[Unatt~:�?buted article: "Guarding the Homeland's Sky"]
[Text] National Air Defense Forces Day (Den' Voysk protivovozdushnoy
oborony strany) on 13 April is a notable hoiiday for interceptor pilots, mis-
silemen, radar operators, communicators and other specialists who stand vigi-
lantly on guard over the homeland's sky, for scientists and designers, and for
defense industry workers.
The National Air Defense Forces have a grand heroic history, the beginning of.
which came in the menacing days of the Great October. It was then that the
first antiaircraf t batteries and fighter aviation detachments were f ormed at
V. I. Lenin's personal instructions to defend Red Piter. They imm?ediately
departed for forward positions and entered the fight against White Guard
bands and foreign invaders.
The first air defense subunits screened Petrograd, Moscow, Tula, Astrakhan',
Kronshtadt, Baku, other induQ~rial and administrative centers, military
installations and Red Army troop groupings against enemy air attack. They
courageously and selflessly performed combst asste.r~mznts to defeat ths enemy
both in the air and on tha ground. For example, the 2d Railroad Rntiaircraft
Battery shot down eight British and Ameri.can aircraf t and killed hundreds of
interventionists. For this exploit it was awarded the VTsIK [All-Russian
Central Executive Cammittee] Honorary Revolutiionary Red Banner. The very same
awards were conferred on the 3d Separate Light Antiaircraft Battery in the
Northern Front.
Thanks to concerns of the Communist Party and Soviet government i.n the ye~rs of
the prewar five-year plans, the National Air Defense Forces as we.Ll as otner
branches of the Armed Forces were considerably rearmed with new equipment and
were strengthened organizationally. Trocp personnel were trained to perform
missions of screening installations against enemy air attacks both in .*_he
border zone and in the depth o~ the country. This was conf irmed by the very
firsr fighting of the Great Patriotic War. Air Defense Troops withstood
powerful strikes by fascist Germany's Luftwaff e and managed to safeguard very
large industrial, administrative and cultural centers and hundreds of the
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rvtc vrri~.n?. v.~r vivi.r
country's cities and populated points against disastrous air strikes and sup-
port the uninterrupted operation of industry and transport. By their actions
they helped maintain high morale in the populace. In the final account the
f ascist air forces were not able to overcome our air defense system and inf.lict
substantial damage on the economy of the socialist state as a whole. At the
same time, enemy aircraft suff ered heavy losses.
And not just the aircraft. When necessary the Air Def ense personnel would
destroy enemy tanks, self-progelled guns and infantry by direct fire. Suffice
it to say that during the years of the Great Patriotic War the National Air
Defense Forces shot down more than 7,300 aircraft and destroyed over 1,000
tanks, some 1,500 guns and mortars, much other equipment and many enemy person-
nel. On the approaches to Moscow al~ne over 1,300 Hitlerite aircraft were
destroyed by the famed defenders of the capital's skies and 1,560 divebombers
were shot down in the sky over Leningrad.
'Phe.famous exploits Qf Air Def ense personnel were recognized by Y~igh govern-
mental awards. Three combined units and 26 units became guards units. Many
corps, divisions and regiments received honorary designations and were pre-
- sented orders. Over 80,000 privates, NCO's, officer~ and generals were recog-
nized by the Moti~erland with orders and medals, 92 soldiers were honored with
the high title of Hero of the Soviet Union, and test pilot A. T. Karpov
received this ~itle twice. The present generation of defenders of the Mother-
land's air borders sacredly reveres the heroic exploits of the frontlinesmen
and is Tcultiplying their glory.
The present-day National Air Def ense Forces differ fundamentally from what
they t~ad been not only in th-~ past war but even in the 195C's. They now have
highly effective surface-to-air missile systems, s~upersonic all-weather
fighter-interceptors, reliable radar facilities, diverse electronics, automated
control systems and high-speed communications equipment. All ti~is permits the
timely detection and destruction of any targets at various altitudes day or
night in any weather.
But the people, the soldiers, are the chief force capable of making the formi-
c~:.ble weapons victorious. The Nationai Air Defense Forces have 95 percent of
service~aen with a class rating and some 70 percent ~f them are specialists of
a high class. National Air Def ense Forces personnel consist of 90 percent
- party or Komsomol members, who are the leaders of all good deeds and who set
the tone in combat and political training.
E~ren in peaceti~�e the Nationa}. Air Defense Forces are in operational readiness,
which is performance of a combat mission of state importance. In a single com-
bat formation with personnel of other branches of the Soviet Armeci Forces and
f raternal armies of Warsaw Pact nations, they stand vigilantly on guard over
the achievements of socialism and in defense of the peaceful creative labor of
their people, builders of the communist society.
*National Air Defense Forces Day was established by USSR Supreme Soviet Pre-
sidium Dec~ee dated 20 February 1975 and is celebrated annually on the second
Sunday of April.
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*The USSR air border consists of over 60,000 km with missilemen, interceptor
pilots and radar operators vigilantly performing operational readinsss duty for
- its entire extent. They resolutely cut short attempts by imperialist states to
probe reliability of our air borders' security.
*OI1 1 May 1960 a surface-to-air missile battalion commanded by Ma~ M. R.
~i Voronov shot down the American U-2 spy plane piloted by the aviator Powers
with the very f irst missile. ~ao months later, on 1 July 1960, Capt A. A.
Polyakov, commander of an air flight, shot down an American RB-47 reconnais-
� sance aircraft over Soviet territorial waters in the Barents Sea east of Cape
Svyatoy Nos.
*Socialist competition is widespread in the Nationa]. Air Defense Forces under
the motros: "Hit targets with Che first missile," "~ecu:~d class in the first
year of service," "Fight for 3-4 emblpms of soldier valor" and others. During
this competition the personnel strive f or outstanding performance of opera-
tional readiness duty and full interchangeability in the teams, and they are
significantly bettering the norms of combat work.
*Thuusands of Air Def ense perscnnel have been awarded orders and medals in the
postwar period for succe3s achieved in combat and political training and for
vigilant performance of operational readiness duty. The Moscow Air De�ense
District was awarded the Order of Lenin and the Baku Air Defense District the
Order of Red Banner for a great contribution to strengthening the def ensive
might of the Soviet state and its armed protection, and for successes in combat
and political training.
COPYRIGHT: Voyenizdat, 1979
From 1981 Calendar
Moscow KALENDAR'VOINA NA 1981 GOD in Russian 1980 (signed to press 30 Sep 80)
pp 106-109
[Unattributed article: "Sentries of the Homeland's Sky"]
[Text] National Ail Defense Forces Day (Den' Voysk protivovozdushnoy oborony
strany) is a not~,ble holiday f or the vigilant sentries of the Soviet sky. It
was est~.blislied by USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium Decree dated 20 February 1975
and is celebrated annually on the second Sunday of April.
Af ter the victory of th=~ Great October the p~rty of Bolsheviks and V. I. Lenin
devoted much attention to problems of national air defense. In November 1917,
when forces of the counterrevolution were moving on Petrograd, Vladimir Il'ich
Lenin visited the Putilovo Plant to learn how work was going to manufacture
armored railway mountings with antiaircraft guns. An armored train left for
the front on the following day. That was the beginning of activation of the
Putilovo Steel Artillery Battalion--the first air defense subunit of the Soviet
Republic. By the spring of 1918 the Red .Army already had over 200 antiaircraft
(air defense) batteries and 12 fighter aviation detachments.
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r~x ~rr~~~H~, wa ui~i.Y
During the years of the Civil War and foreign intervention air defense person-
nel fought selflessly at many f ronts where the destiny of the young Republic of
Soviets was being decided. At that time the 2d and 3d antiaircraft batteries
distinguished themselves in particular among air defense units, and they ~~ere
awarded the VTsIK [All-Russian Central Executive Committee] Honorary Revolu-
tionary Red Banners.
The work of improving air defense in the years of the prewar five-year plans
was carried on at rapid rates. New artillery systems, high-speed fighter air-
craft and antiaircraft directors were created and entered the troop inventory.
In technical specifications they conceded nothing to tne best foreign models
and surpassed them in a number of indicators.
The Air Defense Forces made a worthy contribution to ~he defeat of fascist
_ German invaders during the Great Patriotic War. It was their chief mission to
defend major administrative-political and industrial centers of the Soviet
Union from the air. Combat deeds of the defenders of the Moscow sky were
marked with high heroism. They destroyed over 1,300 enemy aircraft.
Many air defense pilots would use the weapon of the bold--the ram--at a cri.ti-
cal moment in combat. For example, on 7 August 1941 Jr Lt V. Talalikhin, a
pilot in the 177th Fighter Regiment, rammed an enemy bomber at night without
searchlight illumination for the first time in the history of aviation. He
was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. Lt A. Katrich was the
f irst in the history of aviation to knock down a Hitlerite aircraft by a high-
altitude ram while managing to preserve his own combat craft. He also was
awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union.
Personnel of air defense of Leningrad, Odessa, Sevastopol', Kiev, Novorossiysk,
Kerch' and many other cities f ought the enemy valorously. In so doing models
of courage and valor were set by air defense pilots ~aice HSU Capt A. Karpov,
HSU's majors P. Kalyuzhnyy and F. Fedorov, captains V. Bashkirov, K. Titenkov,
M. Yevteyev and S. Litavrin, Sr Lt V. Kharitonov, ~unior lieutenants M. Zhukov,
S. Zdorovtsev, A. Sevast'yanov and many others.
During the Great Patriotic War the National Air Def ense Forces dealt a heavy
loss on the ground enemy, destroying over 7,000 enemy aircraft, more than
1,000 tanks and armored vehicles, some 1,500 guns and mortars and much more
combat Pntii~mon,t, and enemy personnel.
The famous exploits of our fighting men and commanders have been recognized
with high governmental. awards. Over 80,000 privates, NCO's, officers and
generals of the National Air Defense Forces were decorated with orders and
medals, 92 persons received the title Hero of the Soviet Union, and 34 of them
are listed eternally on tne ro11s of military units. Three combined units and
~ 26 units of the National Air Defense Forces became guards units.
Today's generation of def enders of the homeland's sky is sacredly following
the heroic traditions of the frontlinesmen. All the best born in the flame of
battle has been adopted. High ideals, allegiance to military duty and the
great cause of the Party of Lenin, and fiery Soviet patriotism and
internationalism--all these and other qualities needed by the air defense
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fighting man characterize today's soldiers. Following the example of their
= fathers and older brothers, they are persistently mastering the sophisticated
_ equipment a:?d weapons and strengthening discipline and eff iciency.
The National Air Defense Forces include various combat arms--surface-to-air
missile troops, fighter aviation and radiotechnical troops. They are outfitted
with the latest means of defending the national air borders through the will of
the party and people. The powerful and effective missile, aviation and radar
equipment is capable of detecting and destroying all existing and future means
of enemy air attack at various altitudes, day or night, in any weather, and with
heavy electronic countermeasures.
The people are the c::ief strength of the Air Def ense Forces as they are of the
Armed Forces as a whole, the creators of their high combat readiness. Young
people now are being called up for the National Air Defense Forces and among
them up to 70 percent are youths with a higher or secondary education. Utterly
dedicated to the party and having high moral-combat qualities, they are per-
sistently learning sophisticated equipment and vigilantly performing opera-
tional readiness duties. Among them 90 percent are party or Komsomol members.
- Seventy percent of the personnel are rated specialists and every other air
defense soldier is outstandfng in combat and political training.
Inspired by our party's resolutions, air defense personnel as well as all of
the Armed Forces are directing their knowledge, experiPnce and energy at a
further improvement of combat schooling and an increase in combat readineas.
In 1954 the National Air.Defense Forces were made an independent branch of the
Ar.med Forces. The command and contxol of them exercised by the CIC of the
National Air Defense Forces an~ Deputy Minister..of Def ense of the USSR is
strongly centralized. Since May 1954 this position has been held in succession
by Mar SU L. A. Govorov, Mar SU S. S. Biryuzov, Mar Avn V. A. Sudets and Mar SU
P. F. Batitskiy. The present CIC of the National Air Defense Forces is Mar Avn
A. I. Koldunov.
COPYRIGHT: Voyenizdat, 1980
From 1982 Calendar
Moscow KALENDAR' VOINA NA 1982 GOD in Russian 1981 (signed to press 31 Jul 81)
pp 106-108
[Unattributed article: "Always on the Alert"]
[Text] Personnel of the Air Defense Forces (Voysk PVO), who are celebrating
their annual holiday on the second Sunday of April, are worthily performing
their duty in the same combat formation with personnel of other branches of the
Armed Forces. Created by personal direction of V. I. Lenin, the Air Defense
Forces coveY�ed a grand path of development and victories. Since the end of
1917 when the Putilovo Steel Antiaircraft Battalion was activated until our
days ~hey have been and remain a reliable shield screening the homeland's sky.
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Air defense fighting men successfully defended the most important economic
centers of the young Soviet Republic from air attacks in the fiery years of
Civil War and foreign intervention.
Thanks to steadfast concern by the party and government air def ense units were
outfitted with the very latest aircraft, air defense guns and machineguns,
fire control directors and means of surveillance and communications(~or those
- times) in the period of peaceful construction.
The air defense personnel's contribution to the victory over fascist German
invaders and Japanese militarists at fronts of the Great Patriotic War is
especially signif icant. In planning the Blitzkrieg against the U5SR, Hitler's
command attached primary importance to the factor of surprise and to winning
air superiority. According to its plans the massive bombing strikes against
our country's cities, troops, airfields and line~s of communication were to
paralyze the defenders' will and provide for unhindered sdvance by the Wehr-
macht's tank and mechanized columns.
But the ene~ny erred severely. Air defense personnel together with Air Force
fighter aviation not only successfully withstood fascist aviation in the very
first days of the war, but even inflicted heavy damage on it. Pilots of the
~ 123d Figher Aviation Regiment fought selflessly on approaches to Brest. On
the morning of 22 June 1941 they shot down 30 aircraft in fighting against a
numerically superior enemy. Lt P. Ryabtsev, a deputy commander of this regi-
~ ment, rammed a f ascist buzzard, and pilot Lt I. Kalabushkin destroyed f ive
enemy aircraf t.
History has preserved many similar examples of the heroism of air def ense per-
sonney. It was no accident that the f irsC persons awarded ~he title of Hero of
the Soviet Union in those days were air defense fighter pilots S. Zdorovtsev,
M. Zhukov and P. Kharitonov.
The air defense of our Motherland's capital proved insurmountable for the
enemy. From July through December 1941 the Hitlerites undertook over 8,000
sorties again.~t Moscow. Our valorous air def ense pilots and gunners shot down
over 1,300 aircraft. Jr Lt V. Talalikhin, Lt A. Katrich and Lt V. Kovalev, who
rammed German aircraft, distin~uished themselves in fighting f or the capital.
Air defense men of the platoon commanded by G. Volnyanskiy, who knocked out 14
euemy tanks in one fight, performed an exploit for the glory of the Motherland
here.
Air defense personnel acted successfully in fighting for Leningrsd, Stalingrad,
Kiev and Odessa, in the Kursk Bulge, on the Dnepr, at Kerch' and Novorossiysk,
in the Battle of Berlin and also in defeating the Japanese militarists.
Over 80,000 air dP�ense personnel were awarded orders and medals for combat
e.xploits and 93 of them received Che title of Hero of the Soviet Union. The
~resent generation of air defense personnel sacredly preserves and augments the
grand traditions of the frontlinesmen. Air Defense Forces today are outfitted
with the most sophisticated means of combating the air enemy thanks to the con-
stant concern of the party and government for strengthening the combat might of
the Armed Forces.
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Air Defense Forces personnel are utterly devoted to the party and their peopl~
and have a high general educational and specialized training. Every third
soldier is outstanding and there are almost 70 percent of specialists with a
high rating. Party and Komsomol members, who make up 90 percent of the per-
sonnel, are in the f ront ranks of competitors for implementing resolutions of
the 26th CPSU Congress.
The importance of vigilance and constant combat rea~:iness is growing in the
present complex international situation where militant circles of imperiali~m,
and U.S. imperialism above all, are attempting to disrupt detente, build up
the arms race and interfere in the internal affairs of other countries. Air
~ Defense personnel always are on the alert and always ready to rebuff any
' aggressor.
COPYRIGHT: Voyenizdat, 1981
6904
CSO: 1801/096
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CIVIL D~rENSE
EXCERPTS FROM BOOK ON CIVIL DEFENSE FOR THE POPULATION
Mosco~a GRAZHDANSKAYA OBORONA in Russian 1981 (signed to press from matrix 23
Mar 81) pp 1-25~ 81~ 107~ 109~ 115~ 117-118~ 123~ 1?7~ 138~ 153~ 179-188~ 192
[Information on authors, annotation, table of contents, introduct:(.on, chapters
1,~2 and 9 and excerpts from chapters 3-8 from book "Civil Defense", approved by
Chief of USSR Civil Defense as a textbook for training the population, by A. P.
'Laytsev et al, edited by V. I. Korolev, Order of Labor Red Bann~r USSR Ministry
of Uefense Voyennoye izdatel'stvo, 100,000 copies, 192 pages; passages enclosed in
slantlines prin.ted in boldface]
a .[Excerpts] Author's collective: A. P. Zaytsev, A. V. Korzhavin, A. I. Korneyev,
~ A. M. Kostrov, F. G. Malanichev, D. I. Mikhaylik, Yu. A. Sipaylov, A. A.
Chugasov and A. N. Chulkin.
This textbook, intended for training the population in Civil DPfense matters, tells
in a popular science form about the principles of i;D organization, its missions, the
population's CD obligations, methods of protection against mass destruction weapons,
� at~d rules for the population's canduct in various centers of destruction and during
natural disasters. It also devotes attention to features of the protection of
children, methods of giving self-help and mutual help for in~uries of a varying
natiire, and moral-political and psychological training o~ the population.
Table of Contents
Introduction 3
Chapter I. Fram the History of Civil Defense S
Chaptcr II. Missions and Organization of Civil Defense:. Civil De�ense
Duties of the Population 11
1. Civil Defense t�tissior_s 11
2. Organizational Principles and Forces of Civil Defense 12
3. Civil Defense at a National Economic Installation 14
4. Civil Defense Duties of the Populat~on I8
Chapter III. Principles of Population Protection 24
1. Sheltering the Population in Protective Structures 25
2. Population Dispersal and Evacuation 42
3. Using Individual Protective Gear 51
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Chapter IV. Population Actions with the Threat of Enemy Attack
and in Response to Civil Defense Signals 81
1. Population Actions with the Threat of Enemy Attack 81
2. Population Actions in Response to Civil Defense Warning Signals 100
Chapter V. Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in Centers of
107
Contamination
1. Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in a Center of Nuclear
Contaminatio~ 107
2. Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in a Center of Chemical
~ontaminati~n 115
3. Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in a Center of
Bacteriological Contamination 117
4. Population Actions in Decontaminating the Working Area,
Apartments (Homes) and Food Products and in Performir.g Personal
Decontamination 123
Chapter VI. Rules of Conduct and ~opulation Actions in Natural
Disasters and Production Accidents 12~
1. Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in Earthquakes 127
2. Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in Inundations 130
3. Rules of Conduct and Population Acrions in Mudflows and Landslides 131
4. Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in Snow Accumulations 133
5. Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in Fires 135
6. Population Actions in Production When Accidents Arise 137
Chapter VII. Features of Protection of Children and Adult Duties for
Their Protection 138
Chapter VIII. Giving Medical First Aid (Self-Help and Mutual Help) to
Victims 153
1. First Aid for Traumas 156
2. Radiation Injuries, Prevention and First Aid 169
_ 3. First Aid for In~ury from Caustic Chemical Agents and
Bacteriological Agents 1~2
4. Methods for Evacuating Victims 175
- Chapter IX. Moral-Political and Psychological Preparation of the
Population l~y
Appendix. Diagram of Patterns for the PTM-1 Mask 189
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InCroductiun
The Communist Party, the Soviet state and CPSU CC G~neral Secretary, Chaj.rman
of the Presidium of Clie USSR Supreme Soviet, Comrade L. I. Brezhnev are per-
sonally waging a consistent, steadfast struggle for implementing the Peace Pro-
gram proclaimed by the 24th and 25th party congresses and developed by the 26th
CP5U Congress. There is no more important task on an international plane for
the Communist Party and Soviet state than to defend the peace. Comrade L. I.
Brezhnev emphasized at the 26th CPSU Congress: The Soviet Union and its allies
ilOW more than ever before are the main support for peace on earth."
i3~t the international situation became seriously complicated aC ttie borderline
oF the 1970's and 1980's through the fault of imperialist circles. There was
an abrupt increase in the aggressiveness of imperialism's politics, and that of
American imperialism above all. Not wishing to reckon with realities o� the
modern world, leaders of the NATO militaristic bloc headed by the United States
- set a course for changing the military balance existing in the world in their
own E1vor and to the detriment of the'Soviet Union and the socialist c~mmunity
~is a whole, and to the detriment of international detente and ttie security of
n~it ions .
Elence imperialism's line Coward intensifying the arms race, organizing provoca-
tions against socialist and other independent states, and creating centers of
tension; and hence NATO's militaristic activeness.
A rapprochement o� aggressivE circles of the West, and the United States above
all, with the Chinese leadership is occurring on ati antisoviet basi.s inimical
to the cause of peace. The partnerst~ip of imperialism and B~~ijinghegemonism
represents a new and dangerous phenomenon in world politics.
- ThE> Communist Party ot the Soviet Union is steadily continuing a course toward
- ~reserving and developing international detente. At the same time the CPSU
bc:lieves t}?at the ~ntrigues of imperialism and other enemies uf peace require
constant vigilance of Soviet citizens and a comprehensive strengthening of our
st;~te's defenses so as to disrupt imperialism's plans for ~~ttaining mil.itary
superiority and carrying out a world diktat.
~s stated in the CPSU CC Report at the 26th party congress, "the party and
st~ite t~ave not lost sight for a single day of matters of /strengthening the
ctefens:tve might o.E the country and its Armed Forces."/
Now tlie capabilities of modern strategic means of attack,which are practically
unlimited in range and which carry mass destruction weapons, bring us face to
face with the need to mobilize the country's entire population to take a most
active part in carrying out measures for its protection.
T}~e purpose of this textbook is to familiarize the population with the hi.story
oE the creation and development of USSR Civil Defense and to tell about prin-
cipl.es of. its organization, about its missions, the population's Civil Defense
cfi?ties, methods of protection against mass destruction weapons, and rules for
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conduct in various centers of contamination and during natural disasters. It
also devotes attention to features of the protection of children, methods of
giving self-help and mutual help for in~uries of a varying natuse, as well as
moral-political and psychological preparation of the p~pu~ation for actions
under difficult conditions of modern warfare.
The textbook was drawn up in conformity with Civil Defense training programs
for the population approved by the Chief of USSR Civil Defense.
Chapter I- From the History of Civil Defense
In the article entitled "The Fall of Port Arthur," written by Lenin back in
1905, he stressed that modern wars are waged not by mercenary armies, but by
peoples. Taking note of one other important feature of modern wars during the
years of civil war in our country, Lenin pointed out that."a strong, organized
rear is necessary to wage war /in a genuine manner/.i1 Consequently, in order
to undermine the capability of armed forces to conduct combat actions the
belligerents will strive to disorganize to the maximum the work of the enemy
rear.
The capability for such disorganization of the rear appeared for the first time
during the World War of 1914-1918, when combat aviation capable of delivering
strikes against populated points in the enemy rear was employed during military
actions. This circumstance made it necessary to organize the protection of
major cities against air strikes. The population began to be included in
activities intended to assure protection of the population and industrial
enterprises against air attack aiid the rapid mop-up of the aftermath of air
raids, in addition to active measures of air defense carried out by troops.
This led to the creation of local air defense systems relying on the peaceful
urban population.
The foundation of Civi1 Defense in the Soviet Union--up until 1961 it was
called Local Air Defense or MPVO--began to be laid in the very first years of
establishment of Soviet power. The first MPVO measures were carried out in
Petrograd in March 1918 following the first aerial bombardment of the ci.~,y by
German aircraft. Residents of a number of other major cities were included in
MPVO measures during the Civil War when the threat of air raids arose.
Based on Civil War experience and the growing military significance~of avia-
tion, the Soviet government issued a number of decrees, beginning in 1925,
aa.med at s~:tting up and strengthening national air defense.
In 1925 the USSR SNK [Council of People's Commissars] promulgated the decree
"On Air Defense Measures at Building Sites in the 500-Kilometer Border Zone."
Within the limits of this zone, determined by the radius of action of combat
aviation of that timef it was directed that appropriate engineering-technical
measures for protection of the population and national economic installations
be carried out in the course of new construction.
1. V. I. Lenin. "Polnoye sobraniye sochineniy" (Complete Collected [~orksJ,
XXXV, 408.
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~ The following year the USSR Council for Labor and Defense (STO) issued a decree
making it mandatory to conduct air defense measures on railroads within the
_ threatened zone. In particular shelters were to be built and special antiair
and antichemical defense formations set up at railroad stations.
In 1927 the USSR Council for Labor and Defense promulgated the decree "On
Or~~nization of Air and Chemical Defense of USSR Territory." Y.n conformity with
this decree the country's territory was divided into a border (threatened) zone
and a rear. All cities in the border zone began to be designated air defense
point cities. Overall direction of air defense measures was made the responsi-
bility of the Narkomat [People's Commissariat] for Army and Navy Affairs. That
same year the USSR STO made it mandatory for the Narkomat for Army and Navy
Affairs to set up special courses training leadership cadres of air and chemical
defense for the needs of civilian narkomat's. Sunc ~ourses were set up at
Moscow, Leningrad, Baku, Kiev and Minsk.
The first Statute on USSR Air Defense approved in 1928 by the Narkom [People's
Commissar] for Army and Navy Affairs stated that air defense had the purpose
of protecting the USSR against air attacks, using for this purpos~ personnel.
and means belonging both to the military department and to civilian departments
and corresponding military public organizations. In connection with this
statement of the issue, the need arose to set up training of the population in
protection against air and chemical attack. Osoaviakhim [Suciety for Assistance
to Defense and Aviation-Chemical Industry of the USSR and the Soviet Red Cross
were chiefly involved in performing this task. They included hundreds of
thousands of local air defense activists in the training.
Mass training of the population in air and chemical defense permitted the
creation of over 3,000 voluntary MPVO formations by 1932. Over 3.5 million
persons were provided with protective masks and 3everal thousand bomb shelters
and gas shelters were prepared for sheltering the population in the threatened
zone. Measures were taken for b].acking out cities in the threatened zone and
to create high-speed systems for warning the population about the threat of
attack.
Thus the necessary organizational and material preconditions for setting up the
unified statewide system of Local Air Defense in the country had been created
by 1932. Meanwhile the rapid increase in combat aviatj.on's capabilities to
deliver strikes against targets in the rear demanded a further improvement in
the organization of protection for the population and the national economy.
On 4 October 1932 the Council of People's Commissars approved a new Statute on
_ USSR Air Defense, under which local air defense was made an independent com-
ponent of the entire air defense system of the Soviet state. That date is con-
sidered the beginning of th.e existence of an all-union MPVO.
'rhe basic missions of MPVO.were to warn the population about the threat of air
attack and notify it when the threat was p ast; to camouflage populated points
and national economic installations against air attack (especially blackouts);
to mop up the aftermath of air attack, including an attack involving toxic
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chemical agents; to prepare bomb sheiters and ga~ shelters for the population;
to organize medical first aid and medical assistance for victims of an air
attack; to give veterinary aid to in~ured animals; tu maintain public order and
~ ensure observance of the regime established by organs of authority and MPVO in
the threatened areas. All these missions were to be accomplished by forces and
means of local organs of authority and national economic installations, which
thus determined the designation of that system of air defense.
MPVO staffs, services and formations were formed only in those cities and at
those industrial installations which might be within the radius of action of
enemy aircraft. Air defense and chemical protection measure~ were performed to
the full extent in ~uch cities and at such installations.
The MPVO organizational structure was determined by its miasions. Inasmuch as
it was a component of the overall national air defense system, overall direc-
- tion of MPVO in the country was carried out by the Narkomat for Army and Navy
Affairs (from 1934 by the USSR Narkomat of Defense) and, within the limits of
military districts, by the district command element.
Cities and the largest enterprises were air defense points and installations
respective�ly. The chief of an air defen.se point was appointed by the USSR
Narkom for Defense from among officers and generals, and the chief of an air
defense installation was the enterprise director. Staffs were set up in air
defense point cities, and they were control entities of the air defense point chief.
Appropriate forces were organizecl to accomplish MPVO missions: MPVO military
units, subordinated to the military district command elements; and voluntary
MPVO formations--sector teams in city rayons, installation teams at enter-
prises, and self-defense groups under house managements. MPVO formatione were
put together based on a figure of 15 persons per 100-300 workers and employees
at enterprises and establishments and per 200-500 residents under house manage-
ments. Sector teams consisted of various specialized formations and the self-
defense groups usually consistad of six subunits: medical, emergency restora-
~i.on, fire protection, protection of order and lookout, decontamination, and
shelter services. Sector teams and self-defense groups were subordinate to
the chief of a militia office.
Training of MPVO cadres was accomplished at special MPVO courses, and population
training was accomplished through a training network of public defense organi-
zations.
Beginning in 1935 training of the population in air defense and chemical pro-
tection assumed even broader scope with establishment of test norms for the
"Iteady Eor PVKhO (Air and Chemical Uefense)" badge. Population training was
improved in voluntary MPVO formations. By decree of the USSR VKP(b) [All-
Union Communist Party (Bolshevik)] CC and SNK dated 8 August 1935, preparation
o� the population for passing the norms for the "Ready for PVKhO" badge and
organization of I�iPVO formations were announced as missions for Osoaviakhim.
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Norms for the "Ready for Medical Defense (GSO)" complex for adults and the "Be
Ready for Medical Defense (BGSO)" complex for schoolchildren were introduced
for the purpose of improving forms used for disseminating medical and defense
knowledge and skills. Responsibility for introducing these norms was placed on
committees of the Union of Societies of the Red Cross and Red Crescent (SOKK i
KP).
The USSR SNK decree dated 20 June 1937 entitled "On Local (Civil) Air Defense
of Moscow, Leningrad, Baku and Kiev," was an importaitt milestone on the path of
strengthening MPVO. It outlined a number of new steps for strengthening local
air defense in these cities. In particular, direct management of MPVO in these
cities was made the responsibility of local organs of authority, tihe soviets ~f
workers' deputies, and the positions of deputy chairmen for MPVO of ispolkoms
of soviet~ df workers' deputies were established as part of the ispol.koms of
city soviets of these cities.

~~7
The creation and training of various MPVO services were completed not long
before the beginning of the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945, the services
being: warning and communications, medical-sanitary, protection of order and
_ safety, shelters, transportation, trade and public nourishment, water supply
and sewers, reconstruction c~f buildings, roads and bridges, and :L'tght disci-
pline. Services were formed on the basis of corresponding enterprises and .
organizations of urban entities of authority. A wide range of specialists who
had considerable supplies and technical resources at their disposal partici-
pated in their work. By this same ~ime all city enterprises in the threatened
zone were local air defense installations, and T/0&E positions of deputy ent~r-
prise directors for MPVO had been instituted at especially important installa-
tions.
And so by the beginning of the Great Patriotic War much work had been done to
prepare the population and cities of the threatened (border) zone for air
defense and chemical protection. Suffice it to say that the entire population
of tlie threatened zone had an idea about methods of proteczion against means o�
ai.r attack, and a large number of protective masks had been stockpiled for
city residents.
In connection with the local character of the work of MPVO entities and forces
and the need to ..oncentrate the efforts of the USSR Narkomat for Defense on
preparing the Armed Forces for the war approaching the USSR's borders, USSR
SNK decree dated 7 October 1940 transferred direction of MPVO to the USSR
Narkomat of Internal Affairs, wiChin which the Main Administration of MPVO was
formed.
Un 22 June 1941 all MPVO staffs, services and forces were placed in combat
readiness. The very first days of the war convincingly demonstrated the high
r.eadiness of the MPVO system and simultaneously uncovered certain deficiencies
which were quickly remedied.
The USSR SNK Decree dated 2 July 1941 entitled "On Universal Compulsory Train-
ing of the Population for Air Defense" played an important part in mobilizing
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MPVO for successful accomplishmen* of tasks wh'_:.�h arose in c~nnection with
Eascist Germany's attack on the Soviet Union. In conformity with this decree,
all. Soviet citizens from ages 16 to 60 were to master requisite kno*~riedge in
NPi V0. In addition, men from ages 16 to 60 and women from 18 ta 50 were
oh?igated to b~ in self-defense groups. I. V. Stalin's program speech of
3 July 1941, which pointed out the need for immediate ad~ustment of local air
defense, played no less important a role in activating MPVO. Carryin g out
party and government demands, the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs approved
- the Statute on Self-Defense Groups of Residences, Establishments and Enter-
prises on 's July 1941.
MPVO swiftly gathered strength during the war years. Its formations n~umbered
over six i~?::llion persons, sector formations were reorganized into city mili-
tary units of MPVO, and the number of engineer-chemical defense military
units increased considerably.
The measures accomplished by the party and government for strengthening MPVO
fully proved themselve~. MPVO forces successfully coped with their mission in
the war years. They mopped up the aftermath of over 30,000 fascist air raids,
prevented over 32,000 serious accidents at national economic installations in
cities, and disarmed 430,000 aerial bombs and almost 2.5 million artillery and
mortar rounds. The efforts oF MPVO formations and units put out 90,000 objects
which caught fire or conflagratior~. In short, in coordination with Armed
rorces units, MPVO made a substantial contribution during the war to the ~ob
of. protecting the population and national economy against fascist air raids
and in a number of. instances its forces also took part in repulsing attacks by
enemy ground units against cities.
MI'VO steadily continued to improve in the postwar period based on the exten-
sive experience of the Great Patriotic War. A new Statute on Local Air
Defense was adopted which reflected all positive experience of preceding MPVO
work. MPVU missions and organizational structure were updated.
The appearance of nuclear weapons in the arsenal of the U.S. Armed Forces and .
rapid build-up of nuclear stockpiles forced another revision of MPVO organiza-
tion in 1956. For the first time MPVO was designated as a system of statewide
measures carried out for purposes of protecting the population against modern
means of destruction, for creating conditions ensuring reliable operation of
national economic installations in an enemy air attack, and for performing
rescue and urgent emergency restoration work. Although nuclear weapons were
not mentioned, the main efforts of the system of MPVO measures were aimed at
- organizing protection specifically against them.
MI'VO was given the responsibility for organizing training for the country's
entire population in air, atomic, chemical and bacteriological defense. The
USSR Minister of Internal Affairs remained the Chief of MPVO. MPVO chiefs in
union and autonomous republics were the ministers of internal affairs, but
overall direction of MPVO activities was made the responsibility of councils
of ministers of union and autonomous republics and, in oblasts, krays, cities,
rayons, ministries and departments, the responsibility of ispolkoms of soviets
of workers' deputies, the ministries and the departments.
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_ _
Formations of republic, kray, oblast and rayon MPVO services--detachments,
brigades, teams and so on--became the most massive MPVO forces. Creation of
self-defense groups was envisaged in housing areas of cities and settlements.
Methods for protection of the population and national economic insta~lations
also were revised.
The adventuristic politics of the United States and NATO countries, the forced
development of strategic nuclear missile forces of the United States and other
imperiali.st powers, as well as the increased capabilities of ineans for deliver.y
oi' nuclear weapons made the further improvement nct only of the Armed Forces,
but also of the system of ineasures for protection of the population and
national economy necessary in the late 1960's. In July 1961 MPVO was trans-
formed into Civil Defense. The organizational structure of USSR Civil Defense
approved that same year began to meet the heightened demands on organizing
protection of the country's rear to the greatest extent.
, Under present-day conditions, when the country's rear has become one of the
primary targets of armed attack, Civil Defense becomes an important factor
assuring the state's defensive capability.
Chapter II - Missions and Organization of Civil Defense. Civil Defense
Duties of the Population
USSR Civil Defense is a component part of the system of statewide de�ense
measures taken in peace and wartime for protecting the country's population
and national econorny against enemy mass destruction weapons and other modern
means~of attack, and for performing rescue and urgent emergency restoration
work in stricken areas and zones of catastrophic flooding.
Civil Defense is called upon to perform its mission together with the USSR
Armed Forces. In accomplishing defensive measures, Civil Defense must ensure
maximum reduction in the effect of enemy weapons when they are employed
against cities, enterprises, railroad junctions and other. importan~ installa-
tions.
Chief of USSR Civil Defense and Deputy Minister of Defense of the USSR Arm
Gen A. T. Altunin states: "We have very convincing and extensive facts indi-
cating that with a good arrangement of civil defense and capable accomplish-
ment of the entire complex of statewide measures for protection of the popula-
tion and economy, it is possible to achieve a considerable reduction in the
disastrous consequences of the employment o� means of mass destruction.i1
USSR Civil Defense is organized so that practical accomplishment of its
measures is possible in all necessary instances, immediately and to the full
extent corresponding to the situation.
1. A. T. Altunin, "Civil Defense Today," in the collection "Lyudi i dela
grazhdanskoy oborony" [Ci~ il Defense People and Affairs], Moscow,
Voyenizdat, 1974.
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1. Civil Defense Missions
The chief Civil Defense mission is protection of the population.
People represent the supreme value of our socialist state and assuring the
- safety of Soviet citizens is the most important purpose of all our defense
activities. Success in accomplishing all other missions both of civil defense
- and the state's det'ense in general depends wholly on successful accomplishment
of the task of protecting the population.
Population protection and preservation of people's lives represent the most
humane goal of USSR Civil Defenae, which meets the workers' fundamental inter-
ests.
"Everything created by the people must be protected reliably." This familiar
thesis written in CPSU resolutions determines the following civil defense mis-
si~n: ensuring stable operation of installations and sectors of the national
economy under wartime conditions.
Stable operation of installationa and sectors of the national economy is taken
to mean maintaining thei.r capabil~ity to manufacture established products in
the volumes and products lists p*.~scribed by appropriate plans (or, for
installations and sectors not producing physical asaets--transportation,
communications and so on--maintaining their capabil.ity of performing their
functions) during war.
One other important civil defense mission--performing rescue and urgent
emergency restoration work (SNAVR) in stricken areas and zones of catastrophic
flooding--is most closely linked with the missions indicated above.
The main purpose of SNAVR is to rescue the population stricken during enemy
attacks and to give victims necessary assistance. Without successful per-
formance of such work it is impossible to adjust the work of installations
and sectors of the national economy sub3ected to enemy attacks and it will be
impossible to create normal conditions for vital activities of the population
of stricken cities and rayons.
Rescue and urgent emergency restoration work usually includes reconnaissance
of stricken areas; the search for and rescue of the stricken population and
giving the population necessary assistance; fighting fires; localization and
m~pping up after accidents in national economic installations; personal decon-
- tamination of the people; decontamination of grounds, strucCures, equipment,
Eood, clothing and footwear when contaminated by radioactive, toxic chemical
or bacteriological substances.
2. Organizational Principles and Forces of Civil Defense
The leading role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in carrying out
all measures connected with the protection of our socialist Motherland against
imperialist aggression is a fundamental principle in organizing civil defense
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r~tc vrr~~,~r~a, u~c wv~,Y
- in our country. The CPSU Central Committee and Soviet government constantly
give unremitting attention to the development of civil defense and they deter-
mine the basic principles of its organizational development and the character
and extent of its activities. As stated in Article 14 of the Law on the USSR
Council of Ministers adopted by the 9th Session of the USSR Supreme Soviet,
9th Convocation, the USSR Council of Ministers exercises overall direction of
USSR Civil Defense.
The organizational structure of civil defense in the country is determined by
the system of statewide structure, the structure of entities of state author-
ity and state control, and the entire tenor of our soci.al ].ife. Civil defense
is organized to assure the most favorable use of human and physical resources
and provides for successful acconiplishment of its missions with least separa-
tion of people from their daily production activities.
Civil defense is organized on a territorial-production principle. This means
that the planning and conduct of all its activities i~ accomplished both
through channels of soviets of people's deputies and through the departments
and establishments which manage production and economic activities.
Civil defense is directed by republic, kray and oblast soviets of people's
deputies in union and autonomous republics, in krays and in oblasts. With
respect to kray and oblast soviets, for example, this is mentioned in Article
21 of the Law on Basic Powers of Kray and Oblast Soviets of People's Deputies
adopted by the 3d Session of the USSR Supreme Soviet, lOth Convocation.
Rayon and city soviets of people's deputies bear responsibility for the status
of civil defense on the territory o� rayons and cities in conformity with the
USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium Ukase daCed 19 March 1971, "On Basic Rights and
Duties of Rayon and City Soviets of Workers' Deputies (and of Rayon Soviets in
- Cities)." This responsibility of local soviets of people's deputies also is
f ixed in the USSR Constitution (Basic Law). Article 146 of the Constitution
states that they "assist in strengthening national defenses."
Chairmen of ispolkoms of soviets of people's deputies exercise direct leader-
- ship of civil defense in cities, settlements and rural soviets. These persons
are civil defense chiefs and bear responsibility for carrying out measures f.or
protection of the population and national economic installations against mass
destruction weapons to an appropriate extent and within established time
periods.
The fact that executive entities of Soviet power head civil defense beginning
witl~ its local elements gives civil defense an exceptionally goal-oriented,
authoritative and effective character.
All practical defense work in union and autonomous republics and in krays,
oblasts, rayons, cities and the rural area are accomplished under the direct
leadership of party entities.
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Nunparamilitary formations comprise the main civil defense forces.
There are two kinds of nonparamilitary civil defense formations--general pur-
pose formations and services. The former are intended for independent conduct
of rescue and urgent emergency restoration work and the latter for performing
~ special missions and reinforcing general purpose formations. In addition,
there may be installation and territorial formations. The installation forma-
tions usually perform SNAVR at their own installations and territorial forma-
tions are intended for performing work at the most important installations
(independently or jointly with installation formations).
In addirion to performing rescue and emergency restoration work in stricken
areas and zones of catastrophic flooding, civil defense forces may be used to
combat massive forest fires and for mopping up the aftermath of natural
disasters and ma~or accidents.
3. Civil Defense at a National Economic Installation
National economic installations--industrial and other enterprises, various
organizations, establishments and educational institutions, kolkhozes, sov-
khozes and other agricultural production installations--have an important role
to play in organization of civil defense.
National economic installationa are the basic link in the civil defense sys-
tem. The bases of all civil defense activities are laid down here, with an
entire complex of ineasures carried out for protectior.~ o.':` work~ers and employees,
for ensuring stability of installation operationa in war.time, and for training .
forces to perform re~,cue and urgent emergency restorati.on work.
A block diagram of civil defense organizations at a national economic installa-
tion is given in Fig. 1.
Responsibility for the organization and status of civil defense at a national
economic installation rests with its director, and in conformity with a party
and government zesolution he is the installation's civil defense chief. His
orders and instructions on performing civil defense measures are mandatory for
all installation officials.
At the present time our country essentially has not one national economic
installation where civil defense is not organized. If a plant or factory,
establishment or educational institution, kolkhoz or sovkhoz is headed by a
director who is very knowledgeable both in his production area and in the
other vitally important matters and is able to take a state approach to any
matter, civil defense tasks also are accomplished there confidently and
correctly.
A deputy is appointed to assist the installation civil defense chief (several
deputies may be appointed at ma~or installations).
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Civil Defense
CD Staff Chief CD Services
General Purpose Formations
Composite Rescue Service Formations
Reconnaissance Radiation and C emi-
cal Protection
~ ~ Communications Refuge and Shelter
~ ~ Services
o � Medical Maintenance of Public
A H c.~7 A N C~7
Order
Firefighting Public Nourishment
and Trade
Composite
Emergency Other Necessary
1 Technical Formations
~
~
U
. ~ ~ ,
1J cd
N N
A E+
Work Mechanization
Fig. 1. Block diagram of civil defense organization in national
economic installation.
General purpose formations are formed in a differentiated manner:
All indicated detachments may be set up at major installations;
at other installations there may be some of the detachments and
teams or groups also may be formed.
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The CD chief's group also usually includes the party committee secretary
(director of the party organization), local committee chairman (director of
the trade union organization), and Komsomol committee secretary (director of
the Komsomol organization) at the installation.
This composition of the installation's civil defense leadership (command ele-
ment) gives it great authority and competency. The fact that the installation
~ civil defense chief relies on the assistance of party and public--trade union
and Komsomol--organizations in managing civil defense makes it easier to
accomplish civil defense missions and permits the more qualified and efficient
implementation of its measures.
A CD staff is set up under the installation CD chief. This is the control
entity of the CD chief and organizer of all practical activities in c;vil
defense matters at the installation. Depending on the size and importance of
the installation it is manned by T/0&E civil defense workers and from among
appointed persons who are not relieved of their main duties. The staff organ-
izes and performs its work on the basis of decisions by the installation CD
chief.
The CD chief of staff is the installation CD chief's deputy, or the first
deputy in the presence of other deputies. He is given the right to issue
orders and instructions on civil defense matters at the installation in the
name of the CD chief.
The following CD services also are set up at national economic installations:
warning and communications, medical, firefighting, emergency technical, radia-
tion and chemical defense, refuges and shelters, power supply, light disci-
pline,maintenance of public order, transportation, and logistics. Other serv-
ices also may be set up where necessary and with the presence of an appropri-
ate facility. In addition a service for protection of agricultural animals
and plants is set up at agricultural installations. The purpose of these
services is to prepare necessary personnel and means for performing SNAVR and
to direct these forces in their performance of the work indicated. Services
are headed by the directors of corresponding divisions, shop s, brigades and
other installation subunits on which their activation is based.
CD staffs and services may not be set up at small installations, with their
function in carrying out necessary activities performed by structural control
entities of these installations.
Cll forces of national economic installations are nonparamilitary CD forma-
tions. All able-bodied persons--workers, kolkhoz members and employees--may
be made a part of such formations in conformity with existing law.
Formations are staffed according to the production principle by shops, divi-
sions, departments, brigades and other sectors of production. Consideration
is given to the specific featares of production, work skills of workers,
employees and kolkhoz members, as well as the capability of outfitting forma-
tions with equipment and gear used in production. Formations usu;ally are set
~
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ruK urr~~~w~ u~r, uNLv
up in production sectors where there are the most workers (employees, kolkhoz
members) and in such a manner that the work shift or brigade is an independent
formation or a subunit thereof.
The majority of installations staff rescue detachments, teams or groups con-
sisting of teams, groups and sections respectively, and also consisting of
medical aid teams. These formations are given the responsibility of searching
for victims, moving them from under debris, from demolished bu~ldings and
collapsed protective structures, evacuating the injured and giving them medi-
cal first aid. Formations are outfitted with equipment necessary for the
rescuers to clear obstructions, open up collapsed structures and perform other
work involving the rescue of people, and the formations also may be reinforced
with such equipment from other formations.
Large inclustrial enterprises additionally may set up composite detachments
(teams, groups) and composite work mechanization detachments (teams). In addi-
tion to rescu~ing people, these formations are called upon to perform urgent
emergency restoration work, extinguish fires, and decontaminate sectors of
terrain, transportation and various .b~ects, for which they are outfitted witli
appropriate equipment.
Composite detachments (teams, groups) are the most mo~ite and well equipped
formations of enterprises. They are intended for accomplishing missions both
in wartime and peacetime and always must be ready to perform SNAVR in stricken
areas and to mop up the aftermath of natural disasr2rs and major accidents.
In addition to these general purpose formations, the following service forma-
tions are set up at installations: reconnaissance groups (sections), radiation
and chemical observation posts, communications groups (sections), medical aid
team detachments (medical aid teams) and medical statio^~, firefighting teams
(squads, sections), emergency technical teams, radiation and chemical defense
teams (points, stations), refuge and shelter service sections, public order
maintenance teams (groups), public nourishment and trade subunits, and others.
In establishments, organizations and educational institutions the formations
are set up basically to carry out measures for rescue of people at their own
installations. Higher educational institutions additionally may set up rescue
formations, reconnaissance groups (sections), public order maintenance teams
(groups) and other specialized formations b~sed on the kind of educational
institution, and formations for employment un~ier city and rayon CD plans. Res-
cue.teams (groups), radiation and chemical observation posts, and medical aid
stations may be formed from students of secondary educational institutions.
Schoolgirls of the 9th and lOth grades of secondary schools may be used as
medical aid team members for attending patients in medical establishments.
Nonparamilitary formations--primarily emergency technical groups (sections),
radiation and chemical observation posts, shelter and refuge service sections,
and public order maintenance groups (sections)--also may be set up in residen-
tial sectors of cities and in workers' settlements, and under ZhEK's [housing
and housing-maintenance office] and housing managements.
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Composite teams (groups) and medical aid teams intended both for rescue work
at their own installations in case they are stricken and for giving assistance
- to cities subjected to enemy nuclear strikes are set up at kolkhozes, sov-
khozes and other agricultural production installations. Teams (brigad~as) for
protection of agricultural animals and teams (brigades) for protection ,~f
agricultural plants (on the basis of farms and brigades) also are forme.d
, there. The detachments (teams) formed from schoolchildren may take ar~ active
part in preparations for ;~rotection of stock raising farms and in fighting
various pests of agricultural plants. Other formations may be set up oi. the
basis of agricultural installations as well, such as reconnaissance and fire-
fighting formations, for use in the interests both of the installations them-
selves and of stricken cities.
Agricultural production installations, primarily those located in suburban
zones, also will have to accomplish such tasks as the accommodation of enter-
~ prises and establishments and nonparamilitary formations evacuated from
cities, accommodation of the dispersed and evacuated population, as well as
the acceptance, a~:commodation, assistance and treatment of victims evacuated
from stricken area.s. To this end such installations draw up measures
involving acceptance of persons being evacuated to their areas and adaption of
spaces as hospitals and other medical establishment$.
Reserve medical first aid detachments and medical aid teams intended for
giving medical assistance in stricken areas may be set up in hospitals and
other medical establishments of rural areas.
4. Civil Defense Duties of the Population
Civil defense is a matter cor all the peoples. All Soviet citizens are vitally
interested in successful u~complishment of its tasks at enterprises, establish-
ments, organizations, kolkhozes and sovkhozes. Every citizen of our Motherland
is obligated to take an active part in perfo:ming civil defense activities.
Population training for accomplishing CD miss;ions is formed from an entire com-
plex of activities. The most important of them, aimed directly at population
protection, consists of training the population in measures of protection and
giving self-help and mutual help, and conducting rescue and urgent emergency
restoration work in stricken areas. Although these activities hardly exhaust
all civil defense activities in timely preparation for protection against mass
destruction weapons, they comprise its basic co~~.itent.
What are the population's civil defense duties?
/First of all, the population must have the requisite knowledge of protection.
- against mass destruction weapons./ The minimum amount of such knowledge is
defined by programs for training the population in methods of protection
against mass destruction weapons.
The population's training in protection against modern weapons always was ~
given an important place in the complex of civil defense activities, and even
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now there is no deviatian from this rule. 'I'he program for the universal man-
datory minimum of the population's knowled6e in protection against mass
destruction weapons orienrs one on a fur*_her qualitative improvement in uni-
versal training.
In training the population in protection against mass destruction weapons,
special attention is given to practices and to training by the method of
acquiring, reinforcing and improving requisite practical skills. This largely
' is faci.litated bythepopulation's participation in integrated installation exer-
cises.
The experience of the Soviet Union�s Great Patriotic War confirmed with all
persuasiveness that practical training is the best method for training the
population in measures of protection and rules of conduct under conditions of
an enemy attack. Soviet citizens who underwent training in prewar years in
air defense circles and as part of MPVO formations successfully mopped up the
- aftermath of enemy bombings: They extinguisY~ed incendiary aerial bombs and
Fires, rescued victims, gave them medical first aid, disarmed unexploded
aerial bombs, and restored demolished buildings and structures. The residents
of Moscow, Leningrad, Stalingrad, Kiev, Odessa, Sevastopol' and a number of
other cities, who selflessly mopped up the aftermath of enemy attack, can
serve as an example of this.
Here is one of the examples. On 8 September 1941 enemy aircraft conducted a
massive raid on Leningrad, dropping 6,327 incendiary bombs. There were 178
fires which broke out in the city. There appeared to be no force which could
put out the resulting sea of flame, but the f irefighting detachments, self-
defense groups and thousands of workers joined in the fight against the fiery
elements after recovering from the first minutes of confusion and conquered
them.
The situation may be even more difficult should the imperialists unleash a
nuclear missile war. Protection against mass destruction weapons will require
each person to know the entire complex of civil defense measures and be able
to c~irry them out in practice. And it is here that those skil].s which each
~ person will acquire in classes and practices and when tested in the norms pre-
scribed by programs for population training in methods of protection against
mass destruction weapons will come in handy.
Ther~:fore the quality of population training, i.e., the degree of its readi-
ness for proper and capable actions under special conditions, acquires special
importance under present-day conditions. Since the deinand on quality of
civil defense training is growing, there naturally also is an increase in the
role of organized training, since it is this form of training which provides
the best results.
We must not limit ourselves only to organized classes. We must deepen and
expand our knowledge continuously on our own as well in protection against
mass destruction weapons. A large number of aids are being published at the
present time and special posters, training films and slide films are being put
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out for this purpose. For example, the instruction booklet for the population
entitled "Everyone Must Know and Be Capable of This," and the aids "Radiation
Shelters in the Rural Area," "Building Rapidly Fabricate~3 Refuges and Radia-
tion Shelters," "The Simplest Protective Gear," "Civil Defense Formations in
the Fight Against Natural Disasters" and others came out in a mass printing.
It is an important task of the population to study these and similar aids.
It is also very useful to attend talks and practical classes on civil defense
at CD training points, to view f ilms and television broadcasts on civil
defense, and to participate in various exercises. All this will deepen and
broaden knowledge in protection against mass destruction weapons.
Not only adults, but children as well must master skills in protection against
mass destruction weapons.
/Secondly, the population must follow rules for protection against mass
destruction weapons./
Great Patriotic War experience indicates that losses among the population
occurred chiefly as a result of an ignorance or violation of rules of protec-
tion. Children especially suffered in the first days of the war: Remaining
at home unsupervised, they did not go to refuges and shelters at the "Air
Alert" signal and died from fragments of shells and bombs or in the basements
of demolished buildings.
It was impossible to be reconciled with this. Urgent steps were required,
aimed at reducing losses among the population. The USSR SNK Decree dated
2 July 1941 entitled "On Universal Compulsory Air Defense Training of the
Population" played a large part here. This decree required immediate train-
ing of the country's entire population in protective measures, beginning with
eight-year-olds, and strict fulfillment of these steps. Training results
began to tell rapidly and the number of losses from bombings dropped con-
' siderably.
Residents ~f Moscow, Leningrad and other cities set examples in following
rules for protection during enemy air raids.
"The Germans made the f irst raid on Moscow on 22 July 1941. At 2207 hours the
'Air. Alert' signal was given around the city. The population assembled in
refuges and shelters in 25-30 minutes. People remained only in lookout towers
and ground observation posts, on the roofs of buildings and at building
entrances.l
l. K. G. Kotlukov et al, "Grazhdanska~~a oborona vchera i segodnya" [Civil
Defense Yesterday and Today], Mos~:~w, Atomizdat, 1975, p 34.
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The city of Lenin came under especially fierce bombings and bombardments.
"Beginning on 10 September daily attacks were made against Leningrad from the
air. Their duration sometimes reached uine or more hours. On some days the
~aids were repeated iip to 11 times. The 'Air Alert' signal was sounded 251
times in Leningrad in September, October and December 1941. Such an intensity
of raids exhausted the people...i1 "And the alert was declared in all cases
regardless of the number of aircraft which appeared. People would take cover
in basements or especially dug slit trenches and remain there until the
all clear sounded."2
But the possible losses in a modern nuclear missile war cannot be compared
with any losses among the population in previous wars if the population does
not firmly know and follow rules of protection against mass destruction weap-
ons. Everyone is familiar with the terrible result of the first uses of
atomic bombs in mankind's history at Hiroshima and Nagasaki--tens of thousands
of dead and hundreds of thousands of injured. Even r,iany years later the
horrible consequences of atomic bomb~ngs have an effect: People irradiated
during the explosions die and children whose parents survive the bombing are
born cripp led, Had the population of these cities known the means and methods
of protection against nuclear weapons and had the "Air Alert" signal been
given in the cities prior to the bombings and the people had taken cover in
refuges and shelters, the number of victims naturally would have been consid-
erably fewer.
/Thirdly, the population is obligated to participate in civil defense activ-
ities./ ~
It is the duty of every worker, kolkhoz member and employee, of every person,
to act capably and precisely in response to civj.l defense signals, to partici-
- pate in the work of pr~tecting people, national economic installations,
animals, food products and water against the effects of mass destruction
weapons, to build protective structures, to adapt buried spaces as shelters,
and to carry out light discipline--in short, to take an active part in all
civil defense activities. It is impossible to conduct protective measures
quickly and with proper quality without the mass participation of the entire
population of the country.
It is no less important that a significant part of the population be trained
in capable actions as part of nonparamilitary civil defense formations.
A. S. Chuyanov, first secretary of the Stalingradskaya Oblast Party Committee
in the war years, writes as follows: "There was no family in the city which
did not have a member participating in cne of the MPVO subunits. In the days
of enemy air raids people in helmets and with protective masks stood like sol-
diers at their posts on the roofs of houses, shops and enterprises. Their
combat post was here, although shovels, picks, buckets, water barrels and
sand boxes served as their weapons. The entire population took part in build-
ing shelters. Earthen slit trenches were dug and dugouts built everywhere,
1. See K. G. Kotlukov, p 37.
2. D. V. Pavlov, "Leningrad v blokade" [Leningrad in the Blockade], Moscow,
1967, p 50.
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on all streets without exception, in courtyards, in city gardens and parks, at
streetcar stops and on the grounds of enterprises. Reliable basements were
organized as bomb shelters. A roomy bomb shelter was built in the slope of a
steep bank of the Tsaritsa River. By early August 1942 '174,000 running
meters of slit trenches in which at least 350,000 persons could take shelter
had been dug in Stalingrad."1
During the Great Patriotic War MPVO formati~ans performed ma~or tasks of pro-
tecting the population and national economic installations, giving assistance
to victims and restoring a devastated economy.
In Leningrad "over 60,000 men and women from self-defense groups stood duty on
the rooftops every night. They assisted the city's MPVO units in warning the
population about danger which threatened and found time to train in putting
out incendiary bombs by various methods. Not only the adults, but teenagers
as well quickly mastered the technique of handling them, and they eliminated
thousands of incendiary bombs before the bombs burst into flames. The peo-
ple's massive, timely training for neutralizing the bombs was of exceptionally
great importance in defe~se of the city, as confirmed by the following data:
- On 13 October enemy aircraft dropped over 12,000 incendiary bombs on the city,
or almost twice as many as on 8 September, the day of the largest raid, but
they caused only 40 fires, i.e., a little over four times less.than on 8
September, and those fires were quickly localized. Active military defense
was effectively supplemented by civil defense."2
We are proud of the work of MPVO, but can in no way compare the scale of its
actions with that of civil defense actions in a future war should it be
unleashed by imperialists. During that period missions basically reduced to
building bomb shelters, providing warning within the limits of one's city,
~erforming light discipline, and conducting rescue operations in individual
buildings and structures. Of course in those years there was no need to
organize protection of,the population of every city and national economic
installation on the territory of the entire country, i.e., to accomplish mis-
sions of protecting the population on a statewide scale. Such a need has
arisen in our time with the appearance of nuclear missiles.
All citizens who are part of formations are obligated to take a very active
part in their work, the more so as many of the formations can be used in
peacetime for fighting massive forest fires and mopping up the aftermath of
natural disasters and major accidents.
/Fourthly, a very important duty of the population is to.develop high moral-
political and psychological qualities in oneself and comrades./
1. A. S. Chuyanov, "Na stremnine veka" [In the Rapids of the Era], Moscow,
Politizdat, 1977, p 144.
- Pavlov, pp 51-52.
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People must be steadfast and courageous, set examples of efficiency and disci-
pline and cut short false rumors and panic under the most difficult conditions.
Soviet citizens demonstrated many examples of courage, steadfastness an~.~. hero-
ism in the Great Patriotic War. For example, T. I. Sukenik, member of an MPVO
team in Stalingrad, turned out to be in the very center of a bombing attack by
Lascist German divebombers during duty at a lookout tower located on a rooftop.
Dozens of divebombers were bombing the Stalingrad-1 Station and the adjoining
housing area. Bombs were bursting all about. The "Inturist" Hotel was trans-
formed into ruins before Sukenik's eyes, fires broke out and smoke hindered
observation, but the fighting man did not leave his post and continued to
report the situation at hand to the rayon headquarters.
In Leningrad Nevskiy Rayon MPVO member Natal'ya Popova saw during he= duty at
a lookout tower that an artillery round had fallen in a house where her fami].y
was located at the time. A firE broke out, but Popova did not leave her post
and continued to perform service.
"On the night of 22/23 April 1942 fascist aircraft conducted a massive raid on
Stalingrad in groups of 9-15 bombers. The raid lasted three hour5. Although
the AAA barrage fire was very dense, over 1,500 incendiary bombs and many high-
explosive bombs fell on the tractor plant's housing area. Nineteen centers of
fire broke out. Tractor plant personnel beat off the air onslaught in a con-
certed manner. Young people acted beyond a11 praise and everywhere they were
first to move in to put out fires. MPVO member nurse L. I. Kostina threw
several incendiary bombs from the roof at the risk of her life and while burn-
ing her hands. She saved a hospital where 300 patients lay."1
Should a nuclear missile war be unleashed by the imperialists, it will be an
even more serious test, and of man's moral forces above all. It will require
high awareness and enormous courage and steadfastness of everyone. Effective-
ness in performing missions facing civil defense will d~pend to a significant
extent on development of high moral-political and psychological qualities by
Soviet citizens. .
Tlie task is to develop in oneself and other people confidence in the ~ffective-
ness of civil defense measures and a readiness to perform one's duties in the
most difficult situation both in stricken areas and in areas of natural .
disasters while maintaining high efficiency and discipline in conducting any
civil defense activities.
Adults' attitude toward protection of children serves as one of the most impor-
tant inclicators of the population's high moral qualities. The fact is that by
protecting children, people are defendinb the country's future. Although
schoolchildren are familiarized with fundamentals of protPCtion against mass
destruction weapons during school classes, this does not relieve adults of
- duties in the matter of protecting the children.
l. Chuyanov, p 103.
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Earlier only the population's basic civil defense duties were enumerated.
Citizens' steadfast and precise perfcrmance of these and other duties will
contribute to the strengthening of civil defense and consequently the defen-
- sive might of the Soviet state.
Chapter III - Principles of Population Protection
Protection of the population aga~nst enemy mass destruction weapons and other
modern attack means is achieved through maximum accomplishment of all civil
defense protective measures and by optimum use of all methods and meana of
protection.
The basic methods of population protection against mass destruction weapons
are:
--Shelter of the population in protective structures;
--Dispersal in a suburban zone of workera and employees of enterprises, estab-
lishments and organizations continuing their work in cities, as well as evacu-
ation of all the remaining population from these cities;
--The population's use of individual protective gear.
In~addition to this, the following is accomplished for assuring protection of
the population against mass destruction weapons: universal compulsory training
of the population in methods of protection; organization of timely warning of
the threat of enenry attack and about his use of mass destruction weapons; pro-
tection of food, water, agricultural animals and plants against contamination~
h}~ radi.oactive, tcxic chemical A*+~1 ha~tPriological substancea; organization of
radiation, chemical and bacteriological reconnaissance as well as of dosi-
metric and laboratory (chemical and bacteriological) monitoring; performance
of fire prevention, anti-epidemic and medical-hygienic measures; observance of
work regimes at national economic installationa and the population's conduct
in zones of radioactive, chemical and bacteriological contamination; organiza-
tion and conduct of rescue and urgent emergency restoration work in stricken
areas; and the conduct of pers onal decontamination of people, special proc-
essing of. equipment, clothing and footwear, and decontamination of grounds and
facilities.
This chapter examines basic methods of population protection against mass
destruction weapons. Other measures will be covered during presentation of
the remaining material.
Chapter IV - Population Actions with the Threat of Enemy Attack and in Response
to Civil Defense Signals
Successful protection against mass destruction weapons depends largely on the
population's conduct and its capable, correct actions under threat of an enemy
attack and in response to civil defense warning signals.
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Chapter V- Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in Centers of
Destruction
1. Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in a Center of Nuclear
Destruction
A center of nuclear destruction is taken to mean territory with populated
points, industrial, agricultural and other installations which has been sub-
~ected to the direct effects of an enemy nuclear weapon.
The population's conduct and action in a center of nuclear destruction
depends largely on where it is located at the moment of the nu~lear burst--in
or out of refuges (shelters).
As was shown previously, refuges (shelters) are the most effective means of
pratection against all injurious factors of nuclear weapons (Fig. 37 [figure
not reproduced]) and against consequences stemming fxom use of these weapons.
One must only follow carefully the rules for staying in them and strictly ful-
fill requirements of commandants (persons in charge) and other persons respon-
sible for maintaining order in protective structures. Gear for individual
protection of respiratory organs while in refuges (shelters) must be con-
stantly in readi.ness for immediate use.
The length of people's stay in refuges (shelters) depends on the extent of ~
radioactive contamination of the terrain where the protective structures are
located. If the refuge (shelter) is in a contaminated zone with radiation
- levels of from 8 to 80 roentgens per hour one hour~following a nuclear burst,
the time sheltered people remain there will be from several hours to one day;
lh~ peuple's stay in the protective structure will increase to three days in a
contaminated zone with radiation levels of from 80 to 240 roentgens per hour;
and this time will be three or more days in a contaminated zone with a radia-
tion level of 240 roentgens per hour or more.
At the end of the indicated time periods one can move from the refuges
(shelters) into living areas. During the next 1-4 days (depending on radia-
_ tion levels in contaminated zones) it is possible to go outside of such living
areas periodically, but for no more than 3-4 hours in a 24-hour period. During
dry and windy weather conditions where dust formation is possible one should
use gear for individual protection of respiratory organs when emerging from
the living areas.
The requirement to have stores of food products (for at least two days), pota-
ble water (3 liters per person per day) as well as drugs and basic necessities
becomes understandable with the indicated time periods for remaining in
refuges (shelters).
2. Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in a Center of Chemical
Contamination
Territory subjected to the effects of toxic chemical agents (OV) as a result
of which in~uries have appeared or might appear to people, animals or plants,
is a center of chemical contamination.
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Modern toxic chemical agents possess extremely high toxicity. Therefore prompt
actions of the population aimed at preventing in~ury from OV largely will
depend on a knowledge of revealing signs of the enemy's use of chemical weapons
or presence in the air of strong toxic chemical agents (SDYaV) which appeared,
let's assume, as a result of an accident at a national economic installation.
3. Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in a Center of Bacteriological
Contamination
A center of bacteriological contamination consists of cities, other populated
points, national economic installations and territories contaminated by bac-
teriological agents and which are a source for the spread of infectious
diseases. The enemy may create such a center by using numerous causative
agents of various infectiot~ diseases.
The promptiiess and effectiveness of steps talcen for protection against bac-
teriological agents, which comprise the basis of the injurious effects of bac-
teriological weapons, will be determined largely by how well the revealing
signs of an enemy bacteriological attack have been learned. With some keen-
ness of observation it is possible to note the presence of drops of liquid or
powderlike substances on the soil, on vegetation and on various ob~ects in
locations where bacteriological weapons have detonated, or the formation of a
light cloud of smoke (fog) when the weapon explodes; the appearance of a dark
band which gradually settles and disperses behind an aircraft flying over; an
accumulation of insects and rodents, the most dangerous carriers of bacterio-
logical agents, not common to a given area and for a given season of the year;
the appearance of mass illnesses among people and agricultural animals as well
as a mass loss of livestock.
On detecting ~ust one of the signs of the enemy's employment of bacteriologi-
cal weapons one must immediately put on the protective mask (respirator, anti-
dust cloth mask or cotton-gauze bandage) and if possible means of skin protec-
tion, and report this to the nearest CD control entity or medical establish-
ment. Then, depending on the situation, one can take cover in a protective
structure (refuge, radiation shelter or very simple shelter). The prompt and
correct use of individual protective gear and protective structures will safe-
guard a person from getting bacterial agents in respiratory organs, on the
skin or on the clothing.
Successful protection against bacteriological weapona also depends largely on
the extent of the population's immunity to iniectious diseases and the effects
oE toxins. Immunity can be achieved above all by overall strengthening of the
body by regular conditioning and physical culture and sports activities. Con-
duct of these activities must be the rule for the entire population even in
peacetime. Immunity also is achieved by conducting specific prophylaxis,
wiiich is performed ahead of time through in3ection of dead and live vaccines,
serums and the various use of other special preparations.
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4. Population Actions in Decontaminating the Working Area, Apartments (Homes)
and Food Products and in Performing Personal Decontamination
The first thing which must be assimilated firmly and followed strictly in per-
forming work of decontaminating a working space, apartment (house) and other
installations in case they are contaminated with radioactive substances or
toxic chemical and bacterial agents is to perform this work on a mandatory
basis wearing individual protective gear. One should use not only gear for
protecting respiratory organs, but also for the protection of skin--rubberized
aprons, rubber boots and rubber gloves.
Chapter VI - Rules of Conduct and Population Actions in Natural Disasters and
Production Accidents
Nar,ural disasters are taken to mean various phenomena of nature causing sudden
disruptions in the population's normal vital activities as well as the devas-
= tation and destruction of physical assets. Natural disasters often have nega-
tive effects on the surrounding natural environment.
Natural disasters may be of a geophysical or metearological origin. In some
cases they arise through the fault of man, as a result of his production or
other activities~without considerationfor the existing ecological balance in
_ nature .
Earthquakes, floods, mudflows, landslides, snow accumulations, volcanic erup-
tions and droughts usually are included among natural disasters. Fires,
especially massive forest and peat fires, also can be included among such
disasters in a number of cases.
Production accidents also are dangerous disasters. Accidents at enterprises
of the petroleum, natural gas and chemical industries represent a special
danger.
Natural disastera, fires, accidents... They can be met in different ways. In
a confused, even doomed manner, as people for centuries greeted various
disasters, or calmly, with unbending faith in one's abilities and with the
hope of taming them. But only those who, armed with knowledge on how to act
in a particular situation, will make the only correct decision can take up the
challenge of disasters with confidence: They will save themselvea, give
assistance to others, and prevent,insofar as they are capable of doing, the
devastating effect of elemental forces.
Chapter VII - Features of Protection of Children and Adult Duties for Their
Protection
Concern for children is the law of our socialist state.
Even in the most difficult war years the Communist Party of th e Soviet Union
and Soviet government took every possible step to save the lives and he.alth
of children. Children were first to be evacuated to the deep rear, they above
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all were provided with housing, food products and medicines, and an extensive
network of children's homes, kindergartens and nurseries were maintained for
them. On 2 July 1941 the USSR Council of People's Commissars passed a spe-
cial decree which introduced universal compulsory training of the population
of the country in using individual protective gear, and children were trained
in this from the age of eight.
The USSR Constitution states: "USSR citizens are obligated to see to the
upbringing of children, prepare them for socially useful labor and raise
worthy members of a socialist society."
Those measures envisaged in the civil defense system also can be viewed as a
natural continuation of concern for the future of children.
Chapter VIII - Giving Medical First Aid (Self-Help and Mutual Help) to
Victims
Soviet public health performs a most noble task in showing constant concern
for the population's health and at the same time not remaining aloof in carry-
ing out civil defense measurea aimed at protection of the country's population
in case of enemy attack.
Public health agencies set up and train the civil defense medical service,
which organizes special training of inedical personnel and creates and trains
special formations and establishments for accomplishing a complex of inedical-
prophylactic and sanitation-epidemic control measures. First aid detachments
(OPM) which are to give medical assistance to victims coming directly from
sites of rescue operations and prepare them for evacuation to surviving hos-
pitals are set up on the basis of existing medical establishments. In addi-
tion the medical service organizes a number of other special formations and
establishments and ensures their constant readiness for actions to give medi-
cal assistance to the population. ~
Chapter IX - Moral-Political and Psychological Preparation of the Population
Marxism-Leninism teaches that the course and outcome of war.depends on a
number of factors both social-poli.tical, economic and scientific-technical as
well as strictly military. The most important part in winning victory belongs
to the moral forces of the people and the army in the dialectical unity and
interrelationship of these factors. .
V. I. Lenin wrote that "in any war victory is determined.in the final account
by the state of spirit of those masses who are shedding their blood on the
battlefield.i1 This classic formula and other propositions of Lenin's reveal
the deciding role of the morale of the warring masses and formulates one of
the laws of warfare reflecting the dependence of victory in armed conflict on
the state of morale of the warring masses and the army.
1. Lenin, XLI, 121.
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'The moral factor is the most active aspect of society's spiritual forces,
moral potential in action, the aggregate of spiritual qualities of the popular
masses, the degree of people's understanding of those goals and missions for
the sake of which they are acting, and the masses' readiness to put out for
the sake of victory of the cause for which they are fighting.
As applied to the military sphere the moral factor consists of ideological and
psychological components of society's spiritual forces set in motion for vic-
tory over the enemy.
The moral factor is not neutral toward matters of national defense even itt
peacetime. The Soviet people's high moral-political sentiment and the party's
many-sided work of ideological-political indoctrination of the masses and
their mobilization for performing tasks of building communism--all this con-
tributes to a build-up in efforts to increase our Motherland's economic and
military might.~ USSR Minister of Defense Mar SU D. F. Ustinov said that "by
their selfless labor in all sectors of the building of co~nunism Soviet citi-
zens are strengthening and developing national economic and consequently
defense might and creating social-pol~tical and spiritual preconditions for a
steadfast increase in the Armed Forces'combat might."1
Moral forces represent a profoundly social, class, cancrete-historical phe-
nomenon. In all ages the moral forces of the army and people have depended on
the social order, goals and ideals of struggle and degree of their proximity
to the interests of the working classes and toiling masses. It is the
advanced social order and ~ust character of wars in defense of the socialist
homeland that cement the unity of the Soviet people and their Armed Forces and
give rise to mass heroism of the homeland's defenders at the front and in the
rear. The exploit for the sake of the Motherland is the standard of conduct
for Soviet citizens.
Stressing the enormous importance of the moral factor, Marxism-Leninism at the
same time refutes assertions of "leftist" revisionists that victory or defeat
in war are automatically predetermined by its character and not by the rela-
tive strength of material and spiritual forces of the belligerents. V. I.
Lenin wrote that "the very best army and people most dedicated to the cause of
revolution will be annihilated by the enemy immediately if they are not suffi-
ciently armed, provided with food and trained.i2
The role and importance of the moral factor is steadily growing in public life
and in modern wars.
Scientific-technical progress and the tasks of increasing work effectiveness
and quality require a shift of labor efforts to the mental-psychological
sphere and an increase in the role of people's social awareness and social
~ activeness. Mental and psychological development is becoming a most important
reserve for accomplishing tasks of building communism, including tasks of
defending the achievements of socialism.
1. D. F. Ustinov, "Sixty Years Guarding the Achievements of the Great Octo-
ber," PRAVDA, 23 February 1978.
2. Lenin, XXXV, 408.
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Should the imperialists succeed in unleashing a world thermonuclear war, it
will bear an acute class and uncompromising character. Not only groupings of
armed forces and individual rear installations will be sub~ect to it, as was the case
in past wars, but the entire rear of the country to its entire depth. Such a
war can cause unprecedented devastation to entire countries and can annihilate
entire peoples.
Such a war will require high morale and paychological stability not only of
Army and Navy personnel, but also of Civil Defense personnel and the country's
entire population. The effectiveness of the entire system of statewide meas-
ures comprising civil defense will depend to a decisive extent on the moral
steadfastness, self-control and courage of millions of people who are not
wearing a military uniform.
The CPSU always has given and is giving unremitting attention to developing in
Soviet citizens the high spiritual qualities of fighters for communism.
"Establishing in the minds of workers, and the young generation above all,
ideas of Soviet patriotism, socialist internationalism, pride for the Land of
Soviets and for our Motherland, and a readiness to come to the defense of
achievements of socialism has been and remains one of the most important party
tasks,"1 stated L. I. Brezhnev at the 25th CPSU Congress.
There are diverse forms and methods for developing high moral-political and
psychological qualities in Soviet citizens. They are shaped by the entire
course of affairs in society and by persistent ideological indoctrination work
of the party and all its organizations. The organizational and political work
performed in the civil defense system under the direction of party entities
also contributes to this.
Experience indicates that people who have received moral-political and psycho-
l.ogical training in civil defense classes, practices and exerci~zs have a
deeper understanding of the class-political sources of modern wars and
ir~perialism's aggressive ~ssence and they evaluate with clearer understanding
the real threat of war on i.:T~erialism's part and possibility of its employment
of mass destruction weapons. ~hey take a more responsible attj'.tude toward
performing their patriotic duty of strengthening the Soviet Motherland's
defenses and in particular toward performing their own civil defense duties.
Moral-political training is taken to mean the development of scientiFic,
Marxist-Leninist persuas3ons and profound communist moral principles :tn the
population. This arms Soviet citizens with communist ideology and a t~orough
understanding of party and government policy and the essence and goals of war
in deEense of the socialist homeland. This forms the ideals which become the
motives in their activity and it permits each citizen of the Land of Sovi~ts
to perceive state interests and goals as his own.
"Materialy XXV s"yezda KPSS" [Materials of the 25th CPSU Congress],
Moscow, Politizdat, 1976, p 75.
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Psychological training assumes the development of those psychological qual-
ities in people which make them capable of acting in the dangerous, stress-
filled conditions of modern warfare, performing tasks in complete conformity
with their communist convictions and moral principles of conduct, courageously
enduring the most severe military ordeals and a11 moral and physical stresses,
displaying self-control, courage and valor at difficult and critical moments,
and acting vigorously and skillfully in a diffic~~lt situation.
In explaining the thesis of what it means to endure all burdens of war and
display high moral qualities in fighting the enemy, V. I. Lenin wrote: "To
hold out in the moral sense means not to allow oneself to become demoralized
or disorganized, to retain a sober estimate of the situation and to preserve
cheerfulness and firmness of spirit."1
Moral-political and psychological training are closely connected and mutually
determined. This is a unified process of developing Soviet citizens'
communist outlook and high moral-psychological qualities. A leading place in
the unity of ideological and psychological aspects of man's spiritual train-
ing belongs to the ideological aspect.
Communist ideals and persuasions serve as a spiritual foundation of man's
psychological preparedness and given social direction to his feelings. This
is the strongest weapon of our society and despite the fact that combat
equipment is becoming more and more sophisticated and formidable, the deciding
force in war has been and remains man--ideologically persuaded, expertly
handling his entrusted weapons, and morally prepared to endure all trials for
the sake of winning victory.
The foundation of Soviet citizens' communist conviction and readiness to
defend the Motherland is a thorough understanding of the ideas of Marxism-
Leninism, the world historic socialist achievements accomplished in our coun-
try, the tasks of building communism, Lenin's precepts on defending the
socialist homeland, theses of party congresses, the CYSU Program and the USSR
Constitution on the need for a comprehensive strengthening of our Motherland's
defense might, and party.~and government requirements on improving civil
defense. Realization of the grandeur of our work and of the real threat to
October's achievements on the part of imperialism inspires Soviet citizens to
high political vigilance and new efforts aimed at increasing national
defenses, and it increases their moral-psychological steadfastness. In the
baok "Malaya Zemlya" L. I. Brezhnev writes: "There is some line, some instant
when the soldier-patriot's awareness of his duty to the Motherland muffles the
feeling of fear, the pain, and thoughts about death. That means an exploit is
not an unconscious action, but conviction as to the correctness and grandeur
of the cause for which a person con~ciously gives his life."
Faith in the invincibility of our Armed Forces is one of the conditions for
maintaining high morale in military personnel, the personnel of CD formations
and the population and for maintaining their steadfastness, endurance and
courage under the most difficult ordeals of modern warfare. It is important
1. Lenin, XLIV, 229.
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ior CD personnel and the population to have a thorough understanding of the
increased role of ;7SSR Civil Defense in supporting the state's vital activ-
ities in wartime and conviction as to the effectiveness of its measures and
the availability of real, rel iab le means of protection against modern weap-
ons.
Mass destruction weapons possess enormous destructive force and carelessness
in questions of protection against them is fraught with serious consequences.
The Communist Party and Soviet government are not relaxing eff::~ts to
strengthen national defenses. They are taking neceasary steps to prepare the
population for protection against any means of destruction. It is important
to ensure that the population has firm knowledge that there are real capabil-
ities for protection against modern weapons. Knowledge of these capabilities
and conviction as to their effectiveness help a person learn to master him-
self under difficult circumstances and put down fear by an effort of will.
It is very important also to understand thoroughly the humane character of
goals and missions of our civil defense. Imperialist circles attempt to dis-
tort its true goals and regardless of the actual facts they distort matters to
appear as if it bears some potential danger for countries of the West and
"threatens to destabilize the strategic correlation of forces." But it is no
secret to anyone that the main mission of our country's civil defense is pro-
tection of citizens against an aggressor's weapons. .
What could be more humane or important? Performance of this mission inspires
Soviet patriots to steadfastness and determination. Persuasive evidence of
this is the heroic exploits by MPVO personnel in the Great Patriotic War and
- the courage and valor shown by civil defense personnel in peaceful days in
fighting natural disasters.
Active propaganda of the revolutionary, combat and labor traditions of the
Soviet people and the heroics of the present-day life of the USSR Armed Forces
and Civil Defense helps develop our citizens' pride in their people and readi-
ness to follow the example of their best representatives.
Bo�r~;eois propagandists stop at nothing to weaken the enormous indoctrina-
tion~il force of the Soviet people's exploits in the name of the Great Octo-
ber's ideals. Writer Grigoriy Konovalov expressed this thought comprehen-
sive7y and figuratively: "The old world has such a desire that its bones ache
that not eagles, but sparrows hatch in the eagles' nests of our fathers."
- But c~ff.orts of the world of capit:~i are in vain. Our Soviet youth are worthy
r.epl~icements for veterans af ~;te revolution, war and labor. Fascist aviation
dropF~ed~millions of high explosive and incendiary bombs on our land in the
war years. Tens of thousands of MYVO personnel worked courageously to disarm
them. The fighting died away, but the bomb disposal experts of C ivil D~fense
subunits continue the unbelievably dangerous labor, sometimes at the border-
line of risk. Officer Ivan Kryuk was awarded the Order of Red Star and a
Komsomol CC Honor Badge for clearing ammunition left from wartime. His
youn~;er brother Aleksey Kryuk has over 15,000 deactivated bombs, artillery and
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uu>rtar rounds and land mines to his credit. How many times he risked his own
life for the lives of Soviet citizens! And this is not a solitary example. ~
Over 700 civil defense boil~b disposal experts have been awarded USSR orders and
medals for courage and valor shown in deactivating explosive ob~ects left from
the Creat Patriotic War.
Existing experience indicates that the high ideological-theoretical level of
civil defense classes, vigorous propaganda of CD matters at courses and train-
ing points and through the press, radio, television and movies, and the con-
duct of CD days, weeks and months permit accomplishing the tasks of military-
patriotic indoctrination and contribute to development of a communist outlook
in the population.
With regard to a pPrson's psychological qualities, of primary importance here
is special training for actions under difficult, oftentimes dangerous condi-
tions approximating an actual combat situation to the maximum. For, as V. I.
Lenin remarked: "The element of war is danger. There is not a single minute
in war when you are not surrounded by dangers."~ In modern warfare danger is
not decreased, but increased.
People react to dangers in a war in different ways, but one thing is indis-
putable: A well prepared and well trained person is more steadfast in the
moral-psychological sense. He acts confidently and boldly. And to the con-
trary, a poorly trained person shows uncertainty and doubt, is subject to
negative emotions, orients himself poorly in a situation, may be subject to
panic and may himself become a victim of this panic.
People unversed in the effects of radiation on a person display particular
psychological instability. Radioactive contamination is not perceived
directly by the sense organs and a person is inclined to exaggerate the
danger. People who have received knowledge and skills in performing rescue
- and urgent eniergency restoration work turn out to be more stable in the psy-
chological sense in all instances of real danger.
~ The most effective method of civil defense training is to practice the norms,
techniques and methods of protection against mass destruction weapons. The
drills, practice of techniques and methods of action, and development of
practical skills help a person adapt to various conditions of existence and a
varied situation, i.e., to adapt themselves.
A person's adaptation to difficult conditions occurs faster the more vigor-
ously he acts. During the Great Patriotic War M. I. Kalinin said that stead-
fastness is developed above all by combat and active combat actions.2
Tasks of moral-poli.tical and psychological training of civil defense personnel
and the population are accomplished most successfully in integrated inst-alla-
tion exercises. Here the knowledge, skills and abilities and the moral-
psychological qualities acquired in the training process are displayed and
1. Lenin, XLIV, 210.
2. See M. I. Kalinin, "0 vospitanii sovetskikh voinov" [On the Indoctrination
of Soviet Soldiers], Moscow, Voyenizdat, 1975, p 220.
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developed to the full extent. They shape labor collectives into a force capa-
ble of accomplishing missions under difficult conditions.
Best results are achieved in those exercises where the planned activities are
worked fully and there is a struggle against indulgences and oversimplifica-
tion. The extensive organizational and political work performed in civil
defense exercises not only assures the workers' active participation in the
exercises, but also is a reliable means for the people's spirited mood and
their moral-political and psychological preparation for actions under diffi-
cult conditions.
And to the contrary, exercises conducted in an oversimplified situation and on
poorly prepared fu11-scale sectors and ranges do not provide the proper effect
in the moral-psychological plane. Exercises in which the work sometimes does
not reach the most difficult stage--performance of SNAVR--and the instructors
themselves show no desire to leave the office and classroom to go to the field,
, the full-scale sector or the national economic installation,are of no benefit.
Practices in occupying protective structurea and staying in them, and timely
training in dispersal and evacuation have a positive influence on people's
minds. Sucn practices unquestionably will reduce considerably people's ner-
vousness and confusion at a time when the question of protecting the popula-
tion against enemy mass destruction weapons becomes a practical necessity.
Many valuable qualities--fearlessness, composure, adroitness, physical
endurance and others needed in performing SNAVR--can be developed and rein-
- forced during classes on special obstacle courses, which are a component ele-
inent of training compounds.
Moral-political and psychological training of the personnel of nonparamili-
tary formations is an important task. The foundation for accomplishing this
- task is laid down by ideological indoctrination work in labor collectives.
The interests of high readiness demand that every formation be a cohesive,
easily controlled body capable of performing its assigned missions success-
_ fu.lly. Consequently there is an increase in the need for psychological cohe-
sion of formations. This is a broad, many-sided problem which can be resolved
successfully only with combined, planned, thoroughly conceived and purposeful
influence on all aspects of the life and work of formation personnel.
Such influence begins from the very moment a person ~oins the formation and is
told his missions and duties. Subsequently moral-political and psychological
training must be performed continuously in classes and exercises, while
mopping up the aftermath of natural disasters and production accidents, and
cluring people's continuous labor activities.
The personal example of commanders and narty and Komsomol members is important
in developing high moral-political and psychological qualities in trainees.
Decisiveness in their actions, self-control and confidence help the personnel
display self-control and couxage under diffi~ult conditions and reinforce
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~f~cir sense of duty. The sensations and perceptions arising under the effect
of the commander's wor.d and courageous conduct activate ideological motives
and have a strong influence on the personnel's awareness, will and feelings.
A positLve psychological effect is produced in exercises and classes with
nonparamilitary formations by implementati.on of a very important principle of
psychological conditioning such as introducing tolerable elements of stress,
danger and risk into people's actions. Stress is achieved by increasing
. physical and neuropsychol.ogical loads on the personnel through creation of a
psychological model of a combat situation and by surprise (the sudden declara-
ta.c~n of a combaC alert, surprise use of ineans of simulation, a rapid change in
si.tuation narratives, "disabling" of some of the personnel and equipment, and
so on). Elements of stress and danger introduced into the training process
gradually accustom people to overcome the very highest psychological stress
and perform their mission vigorously and productively in a difficult and
stress-f.illed situation.
In addition to the overall moral-psychological qualities which each memter of
the nonparamilitary CD formation needs, he also needs specific qualities
determined by the specialty. For example machine operators need confidence in
equipment and the ability to react quickly to a change in the situation and in
this connection change the location and work mode of his machine or as~embly;
scouts need boldness, initiative and keenness of observation; chemical spe-
= cialists need confidence in the correctness of their actions, and steadfast-
ness and physical endurance connected with the wearing of individual protec-
tive gear.
Machine operators and personnel of the emergency teclinical teams have to
withstand great physical and psychological stresses in performing their
assigned missions. Good results in their training are provided by regular
- practices in which contests are held in performing duties wearing protective
gear simultaneously with taking the test of norms in the universal compulsory
minimum of knowledge. This not only reinforces the knowledge obtained, but
also conditions the trainees' minds.
Bomb disposal experts--specialists who deactivate explosive objects--are
r~qt~.ired to have great courage and self-control. These qualities can be
developed successfully in classes at specially outfitted bomb disposal com-
pounds where the bomb disposal experts learn to find, deactivate and destroy
explosive ob~ects, including those with f'uses and devices with increased
explosion risk. Such classes instil confidence in the capability of deac-
tivating any explosive ob~ect and in the reliability of Soviet instruments and
bomb disposal methods.
The lives and health of people who are victims in stzl.cken areas and during
natural disasters largely will depend on the ski11 with which they are given
first aid by medical aid teams. This circumstance determines the high exact-
ingness placed on training of inedical aid team members, including the
instilling of psychological Szability in them. It must be borne in mind that
additional factors--the suffering and disturbed minds of victims--will have ~
- negative effect on the minds of inedical aid team members.
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One of the most effective methods for developing necessary qualities in medi-
cat aid team members is the practice in treatment and prophylactic establish-
ments where they actually encounter seri~usly sick and in~ured people and give
them practical help. During such practice they not only reinforce profes-
_ sional skills, but also obtain psychological conditioning.
Tours of duty of inedical aid team members at plant medical points and city
emergency medical assistance stations are arranged on the recommendation of
the CC's of societies of the Red Cross and Red Crescent of a number of
republics. During such tours of duty medical aid team members go out along
with medical workers to give first aid to victims of traffic accidents and
other accidents (they give assistance for bleeding, serious intestinal
injuries, open chest wounds, victims in a disturbed mental state, and so on).
Participation in exercises with other nonparamilitary formations and military
subunits provides medical aid team members with tangible results in the area
of moral-psychological conditioning. During such exercises they gain a
deeper understanding of the importance of tasks assigned them and gain a more
serious perception of their responsibility for people's lives and health.
Study of the CD course in educational institutions plays an important part in
the ideological and moral-psychological conditioning of the youth. Classes
and practices help develop high citizenship and discipline in the young peo-
ple and instil confidence in them as to the reliability of inethods and means
of protection against mass destruction weapons.
Information acquires great importance in assuring the high moral-psychological
stability of civil defense personnel and the population while performing tasks
under difficult conditions. Nothing has such an oppressive effect on people's
minds as the unknown. In addition, it must be borne in mind that lack of
prompt and truthful information makes the enemy's work of misinformation
easier and can become the reason for the spread of harmful rumors. Hence the
- need to master forms and methods of information constantly..
It is especially iinportant to provide prompt information to people in protec-
tive structures, at evacuation collection points, on trains, in columns afoot
and in motor transport columns. 1'heir mood, disicpline and organization will
be determined largely by promptness of information on the situation at hand,
on decisions being made by party and soviet entitie,s and the military command,
about upcoming tasks and methods of accomplishing them.
The moral-political and psychological qualities gained by civil defense per-
sonnel and the population in the process of training and mass political work
are displayed v3vidly and are developed and reinforced while mopping up the
aftermath of natural disasters. People who have received civil defense train-
ing act selflessly, courageously and bravely in fighting forest and peat
fires, mudflows and the aftermath of earthquakes. That was the case, for
example, in putting out forest fires in Siberia and the Far East and that is
how it was when a mudflow came down on the mining settlement of Kyzyl-Kiya in
the Kirghiz SSR.
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Tlie ideological and paychological stability of CD personnel and the population
is an important component of civil defense readineas. It is the patriotic
duty of civil defense personnel and all Soviet citizens to prepare themselves
morally and psychologically for actions under the severe conditions of a
possible war.
COPYRIGHT: Voyenizdat, 1981
6904
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CIVIL DEFENSE
~
EXCERPTS FROM BOOK ON DEFENSE WORK OF LOCAL SOVIETS
Moscow OBORONNAYA RABOTA MESTNYKH SOVETOV in Russian (aigned to press 4 Jul 80)
PP 2~ 87, 3-4, 48-58 ~
[Annotation, table of contents, foreword, and Chapter 4 from book "Defense Work of
Local Soviets", by V. G. Strekozov, Yuridicheskaya literatura, 20,000 copies,~
88 pages] ~
[Text] The book examines such trends in the defens3ve work of local soviets as en-
suring the imFlementation of the 1aw on the universal military obligation, observance
of legislation on privileges for servicemen and members of their families, and direc-
tion of civil defense on the territory of the soviet. Great attention is devoted to
the organization of the military-patriotic indoctrination of the youth and teenagers.
It is for personnel of the ispolkoms of local soviets, deputies, and party and soviet
activists.
CONTENTS Page
Defense of the Fatherland--The Most Imp~rtant Function of the Soviet State
and a Matter for the Entire People 5
The Concern of Local Soviets for the Strengtl~ening of the Soviet Armed
Forces 18
Activity of Local Soviets in Observance of Legislation~on Privileges for
- Servicemen and Members of Their Familiea 34
I.ocal Soviets and Civil Defense 48
Military-Patriotic Work of Local Soviets 58
Assistance for DOSAAF Organizations 73
Footnotes 85
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.
Foreword
The Soviet state is peace-loving by its very nature. The fact that the Lenin
Decree on Peace became the firsC legislative act of the first woricers' state in the
world is profoundly sqmbolic. By the adoption of this decree Soviet power showed
to all the peoples on Earth the only correct way out of the bloody chaos of wars
into which the exploiter system plunged them. The decree of peace proclaimed a
clear and precise program for a struggle for a just, democratic, universal Peace,
for the realization of which the Soviet state tirelessly speaks out during its more
than 60-years' history. A tremendous constructive role in the matter of developing
and deepening international detente belongs to the peace program adopted by the 24th
CPSU Congress and its organic continuation--the program for the further struggle for
peace and international collaboration and for the freedom and independence of
peoples which was put forth by the 25th Congress of the Leninist Communist Party.
The peace-loving nature of our state f inds its brilliant manifestation in the stan-
dards of the Soviet constitution. In the clear provisions of Chapter 4 of the
Soviet constitution, "Foreign Policy," it says that the Soviet state consistently
conducts the Lenin peace policy and steps forth for the strengthening of the security
of peoples and broad international collaboration. The Soviet Union, the constitu-
- tion stresses, is striving to achieve universal and complete disarmament. The pro-
pag4zdizing of war in the USSR is prohibited by law. For the first time in the his-
tory of mankind our state has confirmed in its Basic Law such principles for mutual
relations with other states as the principle of sovereign equality; mutual re~ection
of the employment of force or the threat of force; the inviolability of borders; the
Cerritorial integrity of the state; the peaceful settlement of quarrels and non-
interference in internal affairs; respect for the rights of man and basic freedoms;
equality of rights and rights of peoples to master their own destiny; collaboratlon
between states; and the conscientious accomplishment of obligations which follow
from universally recognized principles and standards of international law and from
international treaties concluded by the USSR.
The history of socialist construction confirmed the truth of one of the basic theo-
retical conclusions of Marxism-Leninism that the defense of socialist achievements
against aggression is an ob~ective regular law for Che building of a new society.
The General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and Chairman of the Presidium
of the USSR Supreme Soviet, Cumrade L. I. Brezhnev, said that the aggregate ex-
perience in the development of world socialism convinces us thaC: "Socialism can
be confirmed only in the case where the power of the workers is able to defend the
revolution against any attacks of the class enemy (and such attacks are inevitable
--internally as well as, most likely, externally)."*
Activity ln the defense of the socialist fatherland has a broad content and pre-
sumes the implementation of a complex of ineasurea of ar economic, scientific-
technical, socio-political, and military nature which ensure.the country's constant
readiness and ability to repel any attempts at aggression against its integrity and
inviolability.
* Brezhnev, L. I. "Leninskim kursom" [Following the Lenin Course]. Speeches and
Articles. Vol 6, Moscow, Politizdat, 1978, p 588.
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The decree of the CPSU Central Committee of 2b April 1979, "On further improvement
~f ideological and political-indoctrinational work," requires: "Our duty is to
oppose the subversive political and ideological activity of the class enemy and his
malicious slander against socialism by the steadfast solidarity and mighty ideologi-
cal unity of its ranks, the profound conviction and political vigilance of each
Soviet person, and his readiness to defend the motherland and socialism's revolu-
tionary achievements."
The soviets of people's deputies, which comprise the political basis of the USSR,
are also making their contribution to the attainment of these goals. Therefore, in
the booklet main attention is devoted to disclosing the content of the soviets'
activity in assisting in the strengthening of the country's defensive capability;
work on realizing powers in the sphere of defending the socialist fatherland which
have been conferred on the representative organs of state authority is examined.
Local Soviets and Civil Defense
One of the most important directions in the defense work of the local soviets of
people's deputies is their direction of the organization of civil defense on their
- territory, which has found direct legislative ratification.
Civil defense is a component part of the Soviet state's activity in organizing
the defense of the socialist fatherland and the defense of the USSR. It is a system
of state measures which are conducted in peacetime as well as wartime and are di-
rected toward the def ense of the population and the national economy against weapons
of mass destruction and other means of enemy attack as well as for the conduct of
urgent rescue and damage restoration work in centers of mass destruction and areas
of natural disasters.
The main weapon in accomplishing the defense of the socialist fatherland and the
deFense of the USSR are the Soviet Armed Forces. However, their power is directly
dependent on the comprehensive preparation and clear operation of the rear area.
This is why the defense of the country's rear area is a most important state task.
To a considerable degree the solution of many problems--mobilization and preparation
of reserves, support of combat operations, and eliminatxon of the aftereffects of a
nuclear attack--also depends on the c~mpleteness of the conduct of civil defense
measures.
rteasures for the protection of the popu~lation and installations of the national
economy were widely conducted during the years of the Gr~~~ Patriot~'.c War. They
were accomplish.ed primarily to protect the population, cities, and industrial in-
stallations against enemy air attacks within the framework of local air and chemical
defense.
Wlth the start of the Great Patriotic War the USSR Council of People's Commissars
adopted the decree, "On the universal mandatory training of the population for air
defense," which established the mandatory training of the country's entire adult
~~opulation from 16 to 60 years of age in air and chemical 3efense. This decree also
required the citizens to paxticipate in self-defense groups, the material support
and equipping of which with special equipment was assigned to the ispolkoms of
city and rayon soviets.
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The experience of the Great Patriotic War showed that the Soviet citizens who re-
ceived this training and ~oined self-defense groups selflessly eliminated the after-
effects of enemy attack. They extinguished thousands of fires in the cities and at
installations, restored destroyed roads and bridges, knocked down obstructions, and
gave first aid to people who received wounds, traumas, and burns, which permitted
tens of thousands of Soviet citizens to return to labor actidity.
Civil Defense--The Common Cause of the Nation
Civil defense of the USSR as a system of state measures was created in 1961 by the
decision of the Soviet g~vernment. Its creation was caused by the appearance and
development of nucleai missiles. The equipping of modern armies with these weapons
increased immeasurably the threat of destruction of industrial and administrative-
political centers in the country's deep rear where a tremendous number of the popu-
lation resides and the main mass of industrial enterprises and material valuables
- is concentrated. The necessity to organize civil defense over the country's entire
territory arose.
The strengthening, improvement, and development of civil defense in our country is
the common cause of the nation. The more widely and actively the Soviet citizens
participate in it, the ~ore reliable and stronger it will be. The national nature
of Soviet civil defense is manifested in the active participation in its measures by
local party, soviet, and economic organs and the broadest strata of the population.
I:ach Soviet citizen is required to participate actively in the conduct of civil de-
fense measures,which follows direczly from the sacred duty to defend the socialist
fatherland which has been imposed on the c3tizens of the USSR.
Civil defense is not some narrow departmental aystem, but a state and national
matter. Its organizational structure is determined by our entire social system and
the system and~principles for the activity of the organs of Soviet state authority
and control.
The Organization of Ci~vil Defense
The civil defense of the USSR is organized according to the territorial-production
principle. This principle presumes the direct responsibility,for the state, organi-
zation, and conduct of civil defense meaures,of the organs of~state control in the
person of the Councils of Ministers of the union and autonomous republics, executive
committees of local soviets of people's deputies, ministries, an3 departments as
well as of the managers of enterpriaesf institutions, and organizations of kolkhozes
and sovkhozes.
Overall direction of civil defense on the entire territory of the country is accomp-
lished by the USSR Council of Ministers. Its direct supervision is accomplished by
the Soviet Minister of Defense.
Direction of civil defense in the krays, oblasts, cities, and rayons is accomplished
by the civil defense chiefs who, in their posts, are the chairmen of the executive
committees of the soviets of people's deputies. At installations of the national
economy (plants, factories, kolkhozes and sovkhozes, installations, educational
- institutions, and so forth) the civil defense chiefs are their managers.
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Civil defense headquarters and services--the main organs for the control of civil
defense--are created with the civil defense chiefs of all elements.
Soviet legislation assigns the duty of organizing civil defense in administrative-
territorial units to t~e local soviets of people's deputies and their ispolkoms.
The main directions of this work are determined by the tasks faeing civil defense.
They include tasks connected with:
--the direct ensuring of the population's protection against weapons of mass destruc-
tion--preparation of protective structures in good time to provide cover for th~
population, providing it with individual protective equipment, instruction in the
means and methods of protection, timely warning of the population concerning the
threat of enemy attack, o~ganization and conduct of the dispersal of people, and
svacuation of the population from cities and big populated places;
--ensurin~ the working stability of installations of the national economy and agri-
cultural production under conditiona where the enemy employs weapons of mass de-
struction;
--elimination of the aftereffects of the enemy's employment of weapone of mass de-
struction--the timely creation of groupings of civil defense forces, bringing them
to complete readiness with the emergence of a threat of enemy attack, enauring con-
stant control of these forces, and the organization and conduct of emergency rescue
and damage restoration work in stricken areas;
--the elimination of the aftereffects of natural disasters (earthquakes, floods,
conflagrations, and so forth).
The civil defense forces consist of troop unita, non-militarized formations, and
such institutions as medical, municipal, and so forth.
Non-militarized formations are created in cities, rayons, and installations of the
national economy to perform rescue and damage restoration work and other measures
in wartime. Under peacetim~a conditions these formations are used to combat forest
fires and eliminate the aftereffects of natural dieasters.
Concerning their subordinat~.ion, these formations are divided into territorial, which
are led by the chairmen of the ispolkoms of local soviets of people's deputie~, and
i.nstallation, which are led by the persons who head the enterprises, organizations,
and so forth. The composition of the non-militarized civil defense formations in-
cludes workers, kolkhoz workers, and employees in accordance with the legislation
in effect.
Non-militarized formations are a specially trained and equipped part of the civil
defense forces. Success in implementing civil defense measures, especially the
conduct of rescue and emergency damage restoration work in stricken areas and in
regions of natural disasters,will depend to a great extent on the level of training
of these formations.
The special training of the formations includes the training of the leader personnel
and the formations as a whole. This training pursuea the goal of training
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the personnel of the formation in operations in stricken areas and in regions of
natural disasters, the maintenance of coordination with other formations and sub-
units and troop units, and mastery, by the personnel of the formations, of equipment,
mechanisms, instruments, organizational property, and procedures and methods of opera-
tion whazconducting rescue and emergency damage restoration work.
The basic methods to acquire this knowledge and skills are special practical and
tactical lessons and exercises.
The leadership of the organization and the conduct of lessons and exercises are per-
formed by the civil defense chiefs who, as we have noted, are the chairmen of the
ispolkoms of local soviets of people's deputies on the territories of the correspond-
ing administrative-territorial units. Direct leader5hip of the special training of
non-militarized formatjons is accomplished and supported by the civil defense staffs
and the chiefs of its services.
The content of the special training of formations is determined by the program of
training of non-militarized civil defense formations. From 8 to 16 hours per train-
ing year are allotted for working out these problems depending on the civil defense
specialty.
The civil defense chiefs approve the plans for lessons and exercises: together with
personnel of the staff and chiefs of services, they conduct reconnaissance of the
lesson or exercise area; solve the problems ~f their support with equipment, trans-
portation, mechanisms, instruments, tools, and other authorized property; direct
' the course of the exercise;and organize a critique of the results of the l.esson or
exercise with all its participants.
In the Ukraine, Latvia, and Estonia combined exercises in civil defense are conducted
with the participation of all installations located on the territory of the soviet.
These exercises are directed by the chairmen of the soviet ispolkoms. In 1977, for
example,6 such exercises were conducted in Limbazhskiy rayon, Latvian SSR, and 14
enterprises and the entire population not occupied in production and the services
sphere took part in exercises in the Aloya village soviet. Combined exercises were
conducted successfully in the Raazikuskiy rural soviet of the Estonian SSR under the
- direction of the rural soviet chairman.
It must be noted that under the conditions of contemporary war, where the tasks of
civil defense are more significant in their volume and content, the involvement of
troop units and non-militarized formations alone will be insufficient. Actually
the entire able-bodied population of the country should participate ;n the accomp-
lishment of these tasks. Therpfore civil defense, as a component part of the over-
all activity in the defense of the socialist fr~therland, is tru]y a common cause of
the nation. The complete encompassing of the entire population with knowledge of
the principles of civil defense unquesticnably is being furthered by the introduc-
tion of mandatory instruction in 1978 for those Soviet citizens who are not en-
gaged in production and the services field. Civil defense chiefs of rayons, cities,
settlements, and rural soviets who are the chairmen of the ispolkoms of local
soviets bear responsibility for the organization of this instruction.
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The common tasks facing civil defense also determine the specific duties of Soviet
citizens in this sphere. The basic duties are:
--instruction in methods of protection against weapons of mass destruction by visit-
ing lessons, drills, and exercises which are organized by special civil defense
organs under the direct supervision of the ispolkoms of local soviets of people~s
- deputies;
--the participation of males 16-60 years of age and females 16-55 years of age in
civil defense fortnations;
--the execution of orders and instructions of civil defense officials;
--the execution of instructions of the corresponding organs on the dispersal or
evacuation of one or another category of workers and employees;
--implementation of the rules of behavior established with the giving of civil de-
fense signals "air alert," "radioactive contamination," "chemical attack," and so
forth;
--participation in the preparation of collective means of protection as well as the
preparation of one's home or apartment for defense;
--participation in the elimination of the aftereffects from the employment of
weapons of mass destruction as part of civil defense formations.
Organization of the Population's Study of the Principles of Civil Defense
The effectiveness of the conduct of civil defense measures depends greatly on the
population's knowledge of the damage-causing factors of weapons of mass destruction
and the working out of skills in employing methods of protection against them.
Instruction in the civil defense system is regulated by normative acts in which the
most important propositions and basic principles for the organization and implemen-
tation of civil defense are formulated. In addition, training programs and
methodological instructions for instruction in civil defense have been worked out
and put into operation for individual categories of the population.*
Youths of pre-draft and draft ages study the principles of civil defense within the
framework of primary military training. They learn about, the combat properties of
weapons of mass destruction and methods for protection against them, become acquaint-
ed with the operation of instruments for radiation and chemical reconnaissance and
learn to handle them, and they study methods for the conduct of reconnaissance and
resc:ue work at installations of the national economy in stricken (contaminated)
areas. Along with the acquisition of primary knowledge and skills in one of the
military-technical specialties within the framework of primary training, they learn
actions as members of its formationa.
~ See: Yegorov, P. T., Shlyakhov, I. A., and Alabin, N. I., "Grazhdanskaya oborona"
[Civil Defense], Moscow, Vysshaya shkola, 1977, p 243.
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rvn vrc�.rni. v.~c vi~i.,i
Girl students study the principles of military affairs and civil defense and undergo
training as members of voluntary aid detachments.
Youths who are not studying in daytime educational institutions receive primary civil
defense knowledge and skills together with the study of primary military training
at special training centers created at enterprises and in organizations, installa-
tions, kolkhozes, and sovkhozes.
The responsibilities assigned to the soviets of people's deputies for the state of
civil defense on their territory give this system an authoritative and effective
nature. The organization of civil defense in the country envisages the necessary
combination of centralism and the initiative of the localities.
Considerable attention is devoted to questions of the organization of civil defense
by local party and soviet organs. Thus, in November 1977, a meeting of party ac-
tivists of Moscow's Gagarinskiy rayon took place which was devoted directly to civil
defense tasks. A report by the rayon civil defense chief--the chairman of the
rayispolkom--was heard and measures were outlined to improve this important sphere
of activity.
Questions of the improvement of civil defense were a sub~ect for special considera-
tion at a session of the Sverdlovskiy rayon soviet of people's deputies of the city
o: Frunze. The report of the ispolkom chairman and rayon civil defense chief was
discussed in the course of the session, shortcomings in the organization of civil
defense instruction at enterprises of the rayon were disclosed, and measures were
outlined to eliminate these shortcomings.
Local soviets of people's deputies of Estonia actively participate in the accomplish-
ment of civil defense tasks. Questions connected with civil defense are often dis-
cussed at sessions of the republic's local soviets and sessions of ispolkoms. At-
tention is deserved by the experience of creating city and rayon universities of
military-patriotic ind~ctrination in the republic which, in their work, devote
great attention to propagandizing civil defense knowledge as well as to the moral-
political and psychological preparation of the population for possible tests of
contemporary war. The best ones a~e the "Patriot" University in the city of
Kokl7tla-Yarve an~l the university "Za Rodinu" [For the Motherland] in Narva and uni-
versities in the city of Tallin of Kalininskiy rayon, in Sillamyse, and
Kingiseppskiy and Paydeskiy rayons.
~':~e local soviets of people's deputies and their ispolkoms select cadres for their
civil defense staffs, create the necessary conditions for their normal activity,
and check the execution of the decisions of higher organs and of their own decisions
in questions of organizing civil defense.
The ispolkoms of rayon and city soviets create civil defense services and determine
their total number and number at each installation of the national economy on the
territory of the rayon or city. These,as a rule, are communication, medical,
fire-fighting, engineer, anti-radiation, anti-chemical, motor transport, municipal
engineering, technical, and a number of other services.
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These formations are created with ins~allations of the national economy for the con-
duct of protective measures and the performance of rescue and damage-restoration
work in stricken areas. Reservists who have mobilization assignments, invalids,
pregnant women, and women who have children up to 18 years of age are not enrolled
in them. Upon representation of the civil defense chiefs of staff the ispolkom of
the local soviet of people's deputies creat~s these formations on the scale of an
administrative-territorial unit.
Local soviets ensure the monitoring of the teaching of civil defense principles
, to the management personnel of enterprises, institutions, kolkhozes and sovkhozes,
and educational institutions and of the organization of the general instruction of
the population in protection against weapons of mass destruction, and they direct
the conduct of civil defense exercises on their territory.
In some rayon (city) soviets of people's deputies of our country civil defense com-
missions have been created and constantly function with the ispolkoms and they in-
clude servicemen, DOSAAF representatives, and representatives of other public or-
ganizations and labor collectives. Their basic task is monitoring the ~ccomplish-
ment of the corresponding decisions of the soviets and their ispolkoms. The com-
missions participate in the organization of civil defense measures, accumulate and
generalize leading experience, analyze the status of civil defense at installations
of the national economy, and prepare materials for consideration at the sessions of~
the soviets and the executive committees.
tlmang the basic directions in the activity of 1oca1 soviets and their ispolkoms in
the field of civil defense, it is also necessary to point to their solution of such a
difficult p.roblem as providing the population with shelters in cities ~nd large
populated places. Engineering and technical measures for their creation and equip-
ping are conducted in the interests nf protecting people and for the creation of
conditions which ensure the stable operation of industrial and transportation in-
stallations in time of war. ~
The deputies also render great assistance to the civil defense organs. 'I,'hey discuss ~
urgent civil defense problems at meetings of ispolkoms and sessions and participate
actively in checks of the course of instruction of workers and employees in measures
_ for protection against weapons of mass destruction at enterprises, institutions and
organizations, kolkhozes, and sovkhozes. The deputies render practical assistance
~to civil defense staffs in raising the quality of lessons being conducted, ensuring
the material-technical base of training centers, propagandizing civil defense know-
ledge among the workers, and so forth.
The ispolkums of local soviets of people's deputies and their chairmen, being the
civil defense chiefs on their territory, also conduct important work on the
coordination of the activity of local argans of military control, the DOSAAF
organs, organs of trade union and Komsomol organizations, and the leaders of enter-
prises, organizations, institutions, kolkhozes, and sovkhozes in the organization
of civil defense.
The Powers of the local soviets of people's deputies to divert lands for the country's
defensive needs are also closely contiguous with the accomplishment of civil defense
tasks.
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The Diversion of Lands for Defense Needs
Lands which are made available for the country's defense needs include parcels of
land: which support the activity of the Soviet Armed Forces; for organizing the
_ protectio~ of state boundaries; for the placement of enterprises, institutions, and
organizations whose activity is directly connected with ensuring the militaYy power
of the Soviet Union.
The procedure for diverting lands for defense needs is regulated by all-union as
well as republic legislation.
Soviet legislation grants oblast (kray) ispolkoms of soviets of people's deputies
the right to decide to pe.rform exploratory work on lands intended for diversion for
defense needs. Applications concerning the diversion of lands located outside
cities and city-type settlements are considered by the ispolkoms of oblast (kray)
soviets of people's deputies, and of lands located within cities and city-type
settlements--by city and settlement ispolkoms of local soviets of people's deputies.
In the case of submission of an application to the oblast (kray) ispolkom concerning
the diversion of kolkhoz lands, the local organs of state authority (rayon, rural,
~ind settlement soviets) provide a certificate on the impossibility of accomodating
the installation on state lands and on the amount of land of the given kolkhoz and
they provide a conclusion concerning the possibility of withdrawing the lands (with
the agreement of the general meeting of kolkhoz members). A special commission of
the rayon soviet's executive committee (with the participation of representatives
of the kolkhoz and Soviet Ministry of Defense} prepares a statement concerning an
estimate of expenditures and outlays connected with diversion of the lands.
A commission is created to accept the parcel of land, the composition of which must
include a representative of the local soviet of people's deputies and representatives
of the parties (for exar~ple, the kolkhoz and the troop unit). The local soviets, in
the person ~f the ispolkoms, also inciude their representatives in the commission to
determine the amounts and estimate the losses connected with the diversion of the
lands for defense needs. Disagreements on the amounts of compensation for losses
f.or individual citizens when pulling down sCructures belonging to them in populated
places in connection with the diversion of lands are finally decided by oblast and
city (in cities with rayon division) ispolkoms of ~oviets of people's deputies.
The executive committees of rayon soviets of people's deputies maintain a State Book
for the Recording of Land Use where all land including those diverted for
- deFense needs are accounted for.
Thus, the local soviets of people's deputies and their ispolkoms, in realizing the
competence which has been assigned to them in the field of directing civil defense
on their territory, and also in solving problems in the diversion of lands for de-
Eense needs, are making their contribution to the strengthening of the country's
defensive might.
COPI'RIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Yuridicheskaya literatura", 1981
6367
� CSO: 1801/114
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CIVIL DEFENSE
BOOK EXCERPTS: CIVIL DEFENSE IN RADIOACTIVE ENVIRONMENT
Moscow LIKVIDATSIYA POSLEDSTVIY RADIOAKTIVNOGO ZARYAZHENIYA in Russian 1980
(signed to press 18 April 80) pp 1, 2, 3-6, 7, 16, 29, 50-51, 72, 78-79,87-89,
98-101, 110, 117, 118-119
[Annotation, table of contents, foreword, excerpts from Chapters 1 through 9, and
table of contents from book "Overcoming the Effects of Radioactive Contamination",
by V. A. Gaydamak, Atomizdat, 50,000 copies, 120 pages] ~
[Text] The basic problems in overcoming the effects of radioactive contamination
are presented. Recommendations are provided on the u5e of equipment of the national
economy when conducting decontamination work and also on the procedure for training
personnel of non-militarized civil defense [CD] formations in overcoming the effects
' of radioactive contamination. .
For teachers of civil defense in educational institutions and CD courses and com-
manders of non-milit~cized CD formation, the book may be used by the population
which is studying CD to the extent of the general mandatory minimum of knowledge in
protection against weapons of mass destruction.
Contents Page
Foreword 3
Chapter 1. Radiation Contamination of the Environment 7
1.1. Radioactive contamination with a~urface nuclear burst 7
1.2. Characteristics of ionizing radiation 10
1.3. Effects of radioactive contamination 11
Ct~apter 2. Principles for Overcoming the Effects of Radioactive Contamination 16
2.1. Observing permissible irradiation doses 16
2.2. Decontamination of contaminated objects 19
2.3. rieasures to reduce the entry of radioactive sub~tances into the
human organism 23
2.4. Preventing radiation damage to the skin 25
2.5. Use of prophylactic equipment and the treatment of casualties......... 26
2.6. Raising the psychological stability of formation perso~nel and
the population 27
Chapter 3. Equipment Used for Decontamination 29
3.1. Decontaminating substances and materials 29
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rvn vrr~~,~.ya. V:aG V1VL1
Page
3.2. Special technical decontamination equipment 37
3.3. Machines used to clean up cities 40
3.4. Agricultural equipment 44
3.5. Road machinery 45
3.6. Machinery for construction-finishing work 47
3.7. Machines of municipal services enterprises and enterprises�for the
domestic servicing of the populatian 48
Chapter 4. Preparation and Conduct of.Decontamination Measures 50
4.1. Determination of the possible volumes of work on decontaminating
the territory and structures in cities and the sequence of its
conduct 51
4.2. Training formation personnel 56
4.3. Actions of formations in accomplishing decontamination work.......... 63
Chapter 5. Medical Processing of People 72
5.1. Partial medical processing 73
5.2. Complete medical processing at sanitation-washing posts 73
. Chapter E. Decontamination of Clothing, Footwear, and Individual Protective
Equipment 78
6.1. Partial decontamination 79
6.2. Complete decontamination at clothing decontamination stations........ 81
Chapter 7. Decontamination of Transportation Means and Equipment............ 87
7.1. Partial decontamination 89
7.2. Complete decontamination at transportation decontamination stations.. 91
Chapter 8. Decontamination of Territories and Structures 98
5.1. Decontamination of territory with.hard surface 101
- 8.2. Decontamina~ion.of territory not having�hard surface 103
= 8.3. Special features in decontaminating territory under wir.ter
conditions 106
8.4. Decontamination of structures 108
Chapter 9. Decontamination of Food and Water 110
9.1. Decontamination of food and containers 111
9.2. Decontamination of water 114
Bibliography....... 117
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Foreword
Nuclear weapons possess the greatest destructive effect in comparison with any other
known weapons of mass destruction. The damage-causing factor~ of nuclear weapons--
shock wave, thermal radiation, and initial radiation-- operate briefly; in contra~t
with them, radioactive contamination may create the threat of in3uring people on a
vast territory for a long period of time.
Thus, as a result of a test burst with a yield of about 15 MT which was conducted by
the United States in the Pacif~c Ocean near the Bikini Atoll on 1 March 1954, heavy
radioactive contamination was observed in a zone more than 530 kilometers long and
100 kilometers wide. Several islands located east of the range and the Japanese
fishing vessel "Lucky Dragon" which was located 160 kilometers from the burst posi-
tion were sub~ected to radioactive contamination. The residents of the islands re-
ceived radiation doses of from 14 to 175 R*, and radiation damage to the skin and
- changes in the composition of the blood were observed in many. As a result of the
fallout of radioactive dust on the fiehing vessel, all 23 of its crew members re-
ceived a radiation dose of about 200 R and suffered radiation sickness from which one
person died. If the crew of the vessel had not washed the radioactive dust overboard
after its fallout, the effects from the irradiation of the people could have been
even more serious.
A large quantity of nuclear weapons has been accumulated in various countries now
and their mass employment in case of the.outbreak of nuclear missile warfare will
entail the radioactive contamination of vast territories.
As one of the damage-causing factors of nuclear weapons, radioactive contamination
may cause an increase in losses among the personnel of non-militarized civil defense
(CD) formations** and the population and may create difficulties in ensuring the
steady operation of many branches of industry and agriculture in time of war.
Lt should be noted that it is also possible for radioactive matter to land.in the
environment in peacetime. The quantity of radioactive materials being employed in
various fields of science and technology is growing with each passing year. In vari-
ous countries now, thousands of scientific research institutes, nuclear power enter-
prises, and laboratories are using radioactive materials. These materials are pro-
duced, transported, used, and finally destroyed in the form of waste, and at each
steige the possibility of the emergence of an accident or emergency which can create
the danger of in~ury to the servicing personnel is not excluded.
As a r~sult of accidents, as rule, the zones of radioactive contamination which are
created are not as vast as those formed by the bursts of nuclear weapons but the
d~nger of injury to the people does not become less because of this. This danger
can be elimi.nated or reduced through the conduct of a complex of ineasures on over-
coming the effects of radioactive contamination by CD forces and equipment and by
the population. These measures include: the people's otrservance of permissible
radiation doses, decontamination of contaminated ob3ects, reduction of the entry of
raciioactive matter in the human body, prevention of radioactive in,jury to people's
* R = 2.58�10-4 C/kg.
Henceforth we will write "formation" instead of "non-militarized CD formation."
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- skin, the use of prophylactic means and the treatment of casualties, and raising
the psychological stability of the formation personnel and the population as a whole.
The implementation of these measures is envisioned in a single complex and simul-
t~neously; only then can conditions be created for the effective protection of
people who have found themselves in zones of radioactive contamination and for ensur-
ing the steady oper.ation of installations of the national economy. The combined
conduct of ineasures to overcome the effects of radioactive contamination is possible
only with the or~:njzation of the training and equipping of CD forces and means with
protective equipment, instruments, and equipment in advance. This requirement can
refer first of all to decontamin~tion measures cahich, even with their differentiated
conduct, require t?ie accomplishment of considerable volumes of work with the involve-
ment of formations and the population.
Thanks to the tremendous efforts of the Soviet government, in August 1963 the Moscow
Treaty on Prohibiting Tests of Nuclear Weapons in the Atmosphere, Outer Space, and
Beneath the Water was concluded. L~ter, treaties were concluded between the USSR
and the United States on limiting underground nuclear weapons tests and underground
nuclear explosions for peaceful purposes. All these agreements formed a good foun-
dation for the complete resolution of the problem of forbidding all nuclear weapons
tests. A specific draft for such a treaty was worked out by the Soviet Union and
introduced for consideration by the UN in 1975. The Soviet initiative on concluding
a treaty on the complete and universal outlawing of nuclear weapons tests encoun-
tered approval on the part of many states in the UN: almost 100 delegates voted
for the proposal of the USSR. The Soviet proposal, however, did not receive support
on the part of the other nuclear powers.
The Soviet Union is undertaking great efforts to eliminate the danger of employing
nuclear weapons and solve the problem of preventing the spread of these weapons.
However, thus far the problem of complete prohibition of nuclear weapons and elimina-
ti.on of supplies of these weapons which have been accumulated has not been solved
and the danger of the outbreak of nuclear war has not passed. Consequently, neither
has the threat of contamination of tremendous territories by radioactive materials
been eliminated.
Therefore now, in peacetime, we should learn to overcome the effects of radiaactive
conta~nination under conditions of a varied, at times very difficult situation which
may develop in zones of contamination. This is necessary for the specialists of the
CD services, and tor commanders and fighters of the formations, and for the popula-
tion. It is necessary that all persons who have found themselves in zones of radio-
active contamination know the most general information about the nature of contamina-
tion of various objects, the properties of radioactive substances, and practical
recommeitdations on decontamination questions so that each one, in his place, can per-
form his duties in protecting himself, his family, and production against the effects
of radioactive contamination in a qualified manner. This requirement determined
the selE~ction of materials for this book and their arrangement ~.n it.
Chapter 1 briefly examines the special features of the radioactive contamination of
objects of the environment and its consequences for man. It is kept in mind that
the acqt~aintance of the reader with these questions will help him to evaluate the
necessity for the accomplishment of an entire series of requirements which are part
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of the complex of ineasures to overcome the effects of radioactive contamination with
greater understanding.
Chapter 2 presents the principles for.overcoming the effects of radioactive contamina-
tion. It tells about the basic meaeures which must be conducted to prevent or reduce
losses in zones of radioactive contamination.
Chapter 3 is devoted to a description of decontaminating substances and solutions
and special and national-economic technical means to conduct special processing and
the decontamination of territoxy and structures. �
Chapter 4 examines questions of preparation and the conduct of decontamination ~
measures. It presents general recommendations on determining possible volumes.of
work on decontaminating territory in cities and the sequence for its conduct. It
sets forth methodological recommendations for the conduct of lessons with the per-
sonnel of the clothing decontamination station on the sub~ect, Actions of formations
for anti-radiation and anti-chemical protection when overcoming the effects of the
enemy's employment of weapons of mass destruction." The procedure for the organiza-
tion and conduct of this lesson is basically also effective for other formations foY
anti-radiation and anti-chemical protection created based on stationary institu-
tions for the domestic servicing of the pop.ulation. The procedure for the conduct of
decor.tamination work by the decontamination team at various installations in the
stricken area and outside it is indicated. .
Chapter 5 and subsequent chapters present detailed practical recommendations on the
performance of specific measures for the medical processing of people and the de-
contamination of clothing, transportation, territories, food, and water.
Chapter 1. Radioactive Contamination of the Environment
With nuclear bursts, the degree of radioactive contamination as well as the shape
and size of the regions of contamination depend on the yield and type of nuclear
burst, methodological conditions, terrain relief, the time elapsed since the burst,
and the nature of the soil and vegetation.
?leavy contamination of the terrain is observed with surface and shallow underground
' nuclear bursts. Radioactive contamination does not present a serious danger with
the other types of nuclear bursts. ~ .
c:hapter 2. Principles for Overcoming the Effects of Radioactive Contamination
Overcoming the effects of radioactive contamination envisages the conduct of a com-
ptex of ineasures directed toward the prevention or reduction of losses from radio-
active contamination and which contribute to ensuring the steady operation of in-
stallations of the national economy in vast zonES of radioactive contamination.
'Chis chapter tells about the basic measures directed toward overcoming thE effects
of radioactive contamination.
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Chapter 3. Equipment Used for Becontamination
To conduct decontamination work, use can be made of substances which permit raising
'the effectiveness of removing radioactive m~tter from various contaminated surfaces
of buildings, structures, transportation, and equipment, from clothing and individual
protective equipment, and from water. These substances include surface-active wash-
ing materials and preparations, complex-forming materials, waste products of indus-
trial enterprises (which possess washing action), organic solvents, sorbents, and
ion-forming materials. ~
Various technical means are also used for the condu~t of decontamination work. They
include special instruments and machines as well as some types of national-economic
equipment which are suitable for purposes of conducting decontamination.
Chapter 4. Preparation and Conduct of Contamination Measures
The accomplishment of the tasks on the preparation and conduct of decontamination
measures is as~igned to all CD services. Along with this, there are CD services in
cities, rayons, and at installations which have been specially created for the con-
duct of decontamination work. We can include among them the service for the medical
processing of people and decontamination of clothing, public utilities and technical
service, and others. These se_vices are created on the base of city and rayon in-
stitutions and enterprises for ccmmunal services and domestic services for the popu-
lation.
The service for the medical processing of people and the decontamination of clothing
and the public utilities and technical service ensure the conduct of ineasures for
the medical processing of people and the decontamination of clothing, footwear, and
individual protective equipment as well as the decontamination of territories and
structures.
At installations of the national economy, these tasks are accomplished by the anti-
radiation and anti-chemical service. They include installation formations for the
special processing of people, clothing, equipment, and transportation and the decon-
tamination of territory and structures: sanitation-washing posts, clothing decon-
tamination stations, transportation decontamination stations, and decontamination
teams (groups).
The involvement of other formations which have equipment for the conduct of decon-
tamination work is possible. They include, .first of all, formations of the CD
engineer and f ire-fighting services. Subunits of troop units can be drawn upon for
coordination in the conduct of decontaminat3on work.
The leaders of institutions and organizations on whose base the services are created
are designated as the chiefs of the services. A service staff or control ~eii is
- formed with the chief of a service.. The chiefs of services organize the conduct of
CD measure~ and the work of the services subordinate to them on the basis of the de-
cision of the CD chief and the instructions of higher chiefs of service. The ser-
vices coordinate their measures with the appropriate CD staff.
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The formations will accomplish the greatest volume of decontamination work in the
cities. Obviously, a radiation situation which is characterized by different radia-
tion levels may develop in each rayon of a city as a result of radioactive con-
tamination. Therefore, when planning and conducting decontamination measures it is
expedient to consider a city rayon as an independent unit.
The planning of decontamination work in a city can proceed in accordance-with the
following scheme. In city rayons, installations of the national economy and the
territory with residential and administrative buildings ad~acent to them and which
must be subjected to decontamination are noted. The tzrritory of the installation
with the residential and administrative buildings.as a whole is designated a decon-
tamination sector. The area of each sector is divided into a number of decontamina-
tion sites. Each such site receives a number. This permits ensuring the clear or-
ganization of the work and will facilitate the distribution of inen and equipment
when conducting decontamination on the sector.
,Chapter 5. Medical Processing of People
Personnel of formations and the population who have been subjected to contamination
by :~adioactive contamination undergo medical processing to prevent losses or reduce
theri to the minimum possible. Where possible, it should also be conducted where
monitoring of the degree of contamination has not.been conducted for some reasons
but people proved to be contaminated by radioactive substances as a result of a stay
in zones of contamination. It is most expedient to conduct medical processing during
the first hours after contamination.
In the course of inedical processing radioactive substances which have landed on the
skin or mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and oral cavity are removed. As decon-
taminating solutions use can be made of water as well as aqueous solutions of wash-
ing means. Here the decontamination coefficient can reach large values (radioactive
substances are virtually completely removed).
During work or the stay of people in areas of radioactive contamination the contami-
nation of their clothing, footwear, and individual protective equipment usually oc-
curs. Therefore, as a rule medical processing is accompanied by the decontamination
uf these ob~ects. ' '
Depen~ling on the situation, the nature of the contamination,and the presence of the
appropriate means the medical processing of people may be partial or complete.
_ Chaptcr 6. Decontamination of Clothing, Footwear, and Individual Protective
, Equipment
C.lothing, footwear, and individual protective equipment are usually contaminated
at the time of the fallout o~ radioactive matter from.t~e cloud of a nt~clear
l,urst or when people are condncting operations_or~ ~ontamit~ated terra~n. Heav~er
cotitan?ination of clothing and footwear is possible in the case of the fallout of
rad.ioactive matter with rain.
1'he degr.ee of contamination of clothing by radioactive dust is determined by the a-
mount of dust which may adhere to the clothing and its specific activity. The quan-
tiCy oE dust which may be on the special clothing of a worker under the conditions
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of a dusty shop reaches 100-200 grams per day; the specific activity.with global
fallout of products of nuclear bursts may reach 0.5 Cu/g.* Therefore, contaminated
clothing can represent a speeific danger for people and should be subjected to decon-
tamination.
Many means for the decontamination of clothing, footwear, and individual protective
equipment exist. However,they~are not all equivalent. In selecting the decontamination
method, we are guided not only by the general conditions (availability of time and
equipment) but we also consider the nature and degree of contamination as well as
the special features and quality of the materials from which the clothing, footwear,
or protective equipment are made.
- Decontamination of clothing, footwear, and individual protective equipment may be
partial and complete.
Chapter 7. Decontamination of Transportation Means and Equipment
The contamination of transportation means and equipment can occur during the fallout
of radioactive dust from the cloud of a nuclear burst or when they move over con-
taminated terrain.
With the same radiation levels on the terrain,the density of contamination of machine-
ry may be different depending on the type of machinery, its condition, and the con-
tamination conditions. The density of contamination on various machinery surfaces
will also differ. This is explained by the fact that radioactive dust is easily
poured together or wash'ed away by precipitation from smooth, sloping surfaces but
concentrates on oily and dirty surfaces of complex configuration. It is believed
that with the fallout of radioactive dust in dry weather transportation equipment
and means are contaminated with a density which comprises 10 percent of terrain con-
tamination density. If transportation means and equipment are contaminated through
the processes of secondary dust formation, it can be considered that the density of
its contamination is approximately 100 timea less than the terrain contamination
der_sity.
Contamination in rainy weather or during a snowfall is greater since rain and damp
snow form a film with radioactive substances on the surface of transportation means
and equipment. Contamination density also increases in connection with the adhesion
of a large quantity of contaminated dirt to the running gear.
Since a certain relationship exiats between the radiation level on contaminated ter-
rain and the terrain contamination density, by measuring the radiation level on the
terrain we can also estimate approximately the degree of contamination of the trans-
portation means and equipment located on it:
=80P,
4equip
where P is the radiation level on the terrain, R/hour.
* 1 Cu = 3.700�1010 Bq.
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One or another method of decontamination is employed depending on.the availability
of decontamination equipment, degree of contamination, and time.
One of the most accessible decontamination methods is washing away radioactive matter
by a 3et of water under pressure. It is accomplished using special machines and in-
struments as we11 as machines and instruments used in the national economy. When
washing away radioactive dust, the entire surface of the contaminated object is
washed with a strong jet of water in turn from top to bottom. The ~et is directed at
an angle of 30-60� to the surface being processed from a distance of 3 to 4 meters so
that the water runs off onto the ground and does not splash to the sides. Special
attention is paid to flushing grooves and slits. The degree of an ob~ect's contamina-
tion can be reduced 10-20-fold as a result of such processing.
Another decontamination method is the washing away of radioactive matter with water
or washing solutions with simultaneous wiping using field expedients (rags, hay,
straw, and so forth) soaked with decontaminating solutions, water, or solvents. Rag
wads or straw bundles are used to wipe contaminated surfaces from top to bottom, and
in slits and grooves~, especially thoroughly. Outer surfaces are wiped with wads (bun-
dles) abundantly soaked, and inner surfaces, with squeegees. It is recommended that
wads be changed more often (bury dirty onea in the ground). In order to achieve com-
pleteness of decontamination, contaminated surfaces are wiped two or three times and
are rubbed dry after each wiping. When sets for special processing are available,
brushes from these sets are used.
The sweeping away of radioactive dust with brooms, brushes, rags, and other field
expedients is the simplest but not very effective method which is employed primarily
to conduct partial decontamination; it ensures a reduction of contamination of two-
t.o four-fold. The sweeping of a contaminated ob~ect is begun with sections of the
surface which are on the windward side, successively moving on to sections on the
leeward side.
Under winter conditions, the processing of contaminated objects can be accomplished
by wiping tt~eir surfaces with snow two or three times. Special attention is devoted
to processing places difficult to reach.
Vacuum-cleaning is used to decontaminate dry surfaces which are not oily. The vacu-
~~ming of. the dust is accomplished with simultaneous wiping of the surface being pro-
c~ssed with brushes from top to bottom. Grooves and slits as well as parts and
:i~semhlies with which personnel must come in contact when using the equipment are
~~rocessed with special thoroughness.
l.~epending on the conditions and methods for the conduct of decontamination and the
equipment being used in so doing, decontamination of transportation means and equip-
ment is customarily divided into partial and complete.
(:hapter 8. Decontamination of Territories and Structures
W~~rk on the decontamination of territories and structures is conducted in those cases
wl~erc their contamination will represent unquestioned danger for people and where
this work provides a considerable savings in time in comparison with that which is
reqt~irecl for natural decontamination.
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- The following decontamination methods are employed when decontaminating territory:
--washing away radioactive matter from roads and areas having a hard surface with a
jet of water under pressure using street sprinklers, fire engines, special machines,
motor pumps, and other assemblies which.provide the feeding of water;
--the removal of radioactive matter by sweeping using sweepers and vacuum cleaners
and, from small terrain sectors with a hard surface--brushes and brooms;
--cutting off a layer of contaminated soil or snow using bulldozers, scrapers,
graders, and traclc layers, and removing a layer of snow using snow plows;
--plowing or digging up a contaminated surface using tractor plows or shovels;
--covering a contaminated surface with a layer (six to eight ~entimeters) of uncon-
taminated dirt, gravel, or crushed stone.
Work on decontaminating territories is organized in such a way that technical decon-
tamination equipment has a broad work front (large areas, thoroughfares, lanes).
Terrain sectors where it is inconvenient to employ machines are processed manually
using instruments which are operated manually as wel.l as shovels, wheelbarrows,
litters, and so forth.
Among the methods to decontaminate structures, the main place is allotted to proces-
sing with jets of water under pressure. The effectiveness of this method is increas-
ed if the contaminated surface is wiped simultaneously with brushes. The remaining
decontamination methods (processing with washing solutions, using industrial vacuum
cleaners at installations of the national economy, sand blasting) can be considered
as auxiliary since they are used when conducting work which is small in volume.
The selection of inethods and procedures of contamination and the order of their con-
duct depends primarily on the type, nature, and character of the contamination as
well as on the availability of necessary equipment and time.
The basic data which characterize the methods for decontaminating territories and
structures, including the productivity of the technical means for decontamination
and the effectiveness attainable with them in so doing,were presented in Table 4.1
[not reproduced]. The effectiveness of the decontamination which is estimated in
this table using the decontamination coefficient K~d depends on which radioactive
particles fall out in a given place by size.. It has been established by tests that
in decontaminating road surfaces the effectiveness of removal of dust with particles
20-75 microns in size is noticeably lower than when removing dust which contains
bigger particles. The effectiveness of decontamination of road sections contaminat-
ed with big particles and decontaminated using sweepers o~ by washing away with a jet
of water is estimated as K�d = 10, and with contamination with fine dust--K�d = 2-5�
It is believed that it is necessary to employ more improved equipment to increase
the decontamination coefficient. This circumstance must be considered when conduct-
ingthe decontami.nation of territories and structures which are located alon~ the
trail of the radioactive cloud far from the area of the nuclear burst.
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Although the effectiveness of removing.radioactive matter when sweeping is not high,
wliich is explained by the presence of various depressions, fissures, and other rough-
nesses on the areas being pz~ocessed, this method is finding wider application as a
reault of the speed of its conduct and the presence of a large number of various
types of sweepers in the national economy. The method of washing away radioactive
matter with a~et of water is effective for hard surfaces; however, when using it
it is necessary to have runoff to rQmove the contaminated water.
The method of decontamination by cutting off a layer of contaminated soil (snow) en-
sures rather high effectiveness when using road equipment (graders, bulldozers). But
the presence of a large amount of dirt which muat be removed and the long time ex-
- pended on this reduce the.overall effectiveness.of the work. The upper layer of
soil (snow) which is removed when cutting is moved to the edges of the sectors being
cleared, forming embankments which can be used to protect against radiation from
adjacent contaminated sectors. Such embankments consist of a mixture of contaminat-
ed and pure soil (snow) and, therefore, their radioactivity is significantly reduce,d.
The danger of irradiating people depends on the area of contamination. A reduction
of the radiation level within given limits can be attained by decontamination of the
very sectors where people will be located as well as of the side and end berms ad-
jacent to them which are a protective zone protecting against the effect of
radiation from terrain sectors which have not been subjected to decontamination.
Thus, the creation of protective zones along streets, roads, and thoroughfares can
reduce significantly the external irradiation of people. The dependence of the de-
contamination coefficient on the width of the strip being decontaminated is charac-
terized by the following data:
Width of decontamination strip, meters 1 10 50 100
Decontamination coefficient 3 7 20 42
Figure 8.1 [not reproduced] shows an area in the form of a rectangle on which it is
necessary to conduct decontamination. The dimensions a and b show how much the
width and length of a decontaminated sector with dimensions ap and b0 should be in-
r..reased to obtain the required decontamination coefficient (Table 8.1) through a
reduction in the radiation level at point C(irradiation conditions are more rigid