JPRS ID: 10397 USSR REPORT ENERGY

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• Sequence Number: 43
• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/1039~'
17 March 1982
IJSSR Re ort
p
_ ENERGY
CFOUO 4/82)
_ Fg~$ FOREIGN BROADCAST INF~RMATION SERVICE ~
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JPRS 'L/10397
17 March 1982
u~St~ REPORT ~
ENERGY
. CFauo 4~s2~
_ CONTENTS
ELECTRIC POWER
Expansion of Hydroelectric-Power Ind~-stry in llt;h Five-Year Plan
Described
(L. P. Mik~_aylov; IZVESTIYA VYSSHIKH UCHI~NYKH ZAVEDEIVIY-
ENERGETIKA, No 8, 1981) 1
FtJFZS
Handbook on Casing of Oil, Gas Wells Published ~
(SPRAVOCHNIK PO KREPLENIYU NEFTYANYKH I GAZOVYHIi SKVAZHIN,
1981) 12
PIPELINES ~
Increased Role of Pipeline Transport Syst~ in USSR ~ .
- (V. G. Dubinskiy; NF~'TYANAYA PROMYSHLII~TNOST' SERIYA IICONOM_T:;A
NEFTYANOY PROMYSHLII~TNOSTI, Oct 81) 18
- a - [III - USSR - 37 FOUO]
.
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ELECTRIC POWER
UDC 621.22.338.92
EXPANSION OF HYDROELECTRIC-POWER INDUSTRY IN 11TH FIVE-YEAR PLAN DESCRIBED
Moscow IZVESTIXA VYSSHIKH UCHEBNYKH ZAVEDENTY-ENERGETIIa in Russian No 8, 1981
pp 66-74
[Article by L. P. Mikhaylov, candidate of technical sciences of the Gidroproyekt
Institute imeni S. Ya. Zhuk: "Hydroelectric Construction in the llth Five-Yea~ Plan"]
- [Text] With respect to scale and the.technical level of hydroelectric-power engi-
neering and hydroelectric power plant construction, the USSR can be regarded as one
of the most developed countries in the world.
The installed capacity of operating hydroelectric stations on 1 January 1981 was
52.3 million kW. The generation of power at GES's in 1980 was 182 billion kWh.
The relati:ve contribution of hydroelectric stations to the total installed capacity
of the r_ountry's electric-power stations is equal to 20 percent. That portion of
the total power generated in the USSR contributed by GES's amounted to 14 percent
in 1980.
With respect to the amount of installed capacity at operational hydroelectric power
. plants, the USSR occupies second place ir. the world b ehind the United States. It
ranks third~behind the United States and Canada with respect to the generation of
electric power. ~
~ The major factors dete~rmining the efficiency of hydroelectric power pla~+t construc-
tion in the USSR are the low cost of electric power, the conservation of fuel, the
contribution of.these stvtions toward covering uneven l.oads on power s~~tems, the
saving of labor reserves, the creation of an inf rastructure in developing regions
and the comp~ex n~ture of water-current utilization.
The cost of energy from GES's is 4 to 6 times less than from thermal electric-power
stations. In 1980, for example, the cost of power at GES's was 0.143 kopecks per
kWh as opposed to 0.74 kopecks per kWh at therical electric-power stations.
Po~,~er generation at GES's is an important factor in the conservation of f uel and
the improvement of the country's fuel-and-power b alance. Hydr~electric stations
- in 1980 provided a savings of more than 70 million tons of conventional f uel. In
the postwar period alone, hydroelectric stations haoe conserved more than one b illion
tons ot conventional fuel for use in otr~~r sect~r~ of the economy. A signif icant
- question in the development of the power industry is the problem of covering peak
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electric loads--a problem which grows ever more acute. HydroelECtric stations are
well suited to cyclical operation, since they can r~act very rapidly to any load
fluctuation. Pumped-storage power stations [GAES's] possess particularly good maneu-
verabili,ty. During the hours of peak power-system loads, pumped-power stations work
in the turb ine mode, generating electric power. During the night, GAES's consume
electricity, freeing thermal electric-power stations from forced shutdowns.
In connection with the high degree of automation and the absence of labor expendi-
tures t~ ob tain power resources, the operation of a hydroelectric station is charac-
terized by a higher level of labor productivity in comparison with other types of
electric-power stations. The savings of labor resources provided by GES's in 1980
amounted to 360,000 men.
The construc tion of hydroelectric stations makes it possible to create an industrial
and s~,cial infrastructure, contributes to the formation of territorial production
complexes an d accelerates the growth of production forces in newly developed regions.
Hydroelectr ic power plant construction in the USSR is a leading f actor in the inte-
grated utilization of water resources. This construction is always carried o~et
based on the development of the irrigation potential, the restoration of the river-
transportation network, the reduction (or total elimination) of the threat of disas-
- treus floodi.n g and upon other water-resources management measures. It is partic-
ularly important to note that abou:.' 6 mil:lion hectares of arid land are being irri-
gated from the reservoirs that have been built. 1'his exc~eds by a considerable
margin the agricultural area flooded by the GES reservoirs.
The "Basic D irections for the Economic and Social Development of the USSR in 1981-
1985 and for the Period to 1990" proposes that we "carr; out the construction of
large-scale hydroelectric power station on the rivers of Siberia, the Far East and
Central Asia, based on the integrated utilization of hydraulic resources, as well
as the construction of pumped-storage power plants in the European sector of the
USSR." The "Basic Directions" also point out the necessity of "provid, ~.b ~or ~the
growth of electric-power production in the European spctor of the USSR, primarily
at nuclear and hydroelectric power stations."
The development of the hydroelectric power industry in the llth Five-Year Plan will
. take place in~ the gresence of a qualitative change in the stracture of the country's
fuel-and-power balance, a gradual depletion of hydraulic-power resources in the
industrially developed regions of the European sector of the USSR and the necessity
for regulating the current flow in the interests of integrated utilization of water
resources with a simultaneous increase in the severity of environmental-protection
re~uiremen t s .
T~~e development of the hydroelectric-power industry in the llth Five-Year Plan
throughout the regions of the country can be character:i.zed in the following manner:
in the European sector--maximum utilization of hydroelectric power resources to
� relieve the strain on the fuel-an4-power balance in this region and the construction
of ~~ecial maneuverable pumped-storage power stations to in.~rease the quality and
reliability of power-sys~em operation;
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in Siberia--the construction of large-scale hydroelectric stations on the Angara
and Yenisey, envisioned as a most important element in the largest fuel-and-power
base being built in the east to provide electric power not only to regions of
Siberia but also the European sector of the USSR. The utilization of the most
abundant hydroelectric power resources of Siberia is associated with the creation
of an industriai, social and institutional inf rastructure and territorial production
complexes and with the accelerated development of new regions;
-
in the Far East--the construction of GES's on the Bureya and the Kolyma f or creating
a stable power base for the development of the economy in the BAM zone and in remote
areas of the northeast;
in Central Asia and Kazakhstan--the construction of hydraulic systems of integrated
~ function which provide regiilation of river flows for the generation of electric
power and the development of irrigated f arming.
In the European sect~r the "Basic DirECtions" provide for the introduction of capa-
cities at the Chebok _rskaya and Nizhne-Kamskaya GES's.
The erection of the Cherboksarskaya GES is the concluding step in the creation of
the Volga-Kama casc~de of hydroelectric stations [1]. The following economic prob-
_ lPms will be resolved af ter the commissioning of the Cherboksarskaya GES:
- the installed capacity of electric-power stations in the Unif ied Power System in
the European sector of the USSR wi11 be increased by 1,404 MW and the average peren-
nial generation of electric power by 3.5 b illion kWh;
an annual fuel savings of 1.15 millian tons of conventional f uel due to the intro-
duction of the Cherbeksarskaya GES;
the Volga waterway from Moscow to Astrakhan wi11 be restored, and the efficiency
of river and sea transportation to the countries of Europe, North Africa and the
Near and Far East will b e improved;
- a highway bridge across the category-one Gor'kiy-Kazan' waterway will b e built
via the structures of the hydraulic system. In the absence of the hydraulic system,
it wauld be necessary to build a special bridge costing more than 80 million rubles;
the reservoir will store 8 percent of the average perennial natural flood waters
of the Volga. As a result, it wi11 be possible in the future to utilize the
Cherboksarskaya GES reservoir (effective volume of 5.6 km3) to increase the depend-
able water supply for irrigation of farmlands in the Povolzh'ye by 250,000 to
300,000 hectares. ~
The dam of the Cheboksarskaya GES raises the water 1eve1 by 15 m. An increase in
tlie waCer level will extend 340 km along the Volga to the site of the Gor'kiy GES,
150 km along the Vetluga, 190 km along the Sura, 180 km along the Oka as well as
along their tributaries. The surface area of the reservoir formed will be 218,000 ~
, hectares. The area of f looded land wi11 be 168,000 hectares, including 54,200
hectares of arable farmland.
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A compari~on of indicators f.or the Cheboksarskaya reservoir with other reservoirs
built alo~g the Volga GES cascade shows that the relative losses for flocdi:~g sre
less and the compensation greater. The flooding of arable farmland amounts to
39,000 hectares per million kW of installed capacity for the Cheboksarskoye reser-
voir, 41,Q00 for the Saratov, 43,000 for the Volgograd, 120,000 for the Kuybyshev,
etc . ~
_ The relat'ively smaller losses of agricultural lands can be explained to a great
- degree by the many protective measures.
Within the limits of the protected area, plans have been made to carry out a sequence
of reclamation operations to develop overgrown and swampy regions and intensify
agricultural production. These measures will increase the area of agricultural
lands in the protected zone by a factor of 1.5. Agricultural production will increase
by more than a factor of 2.0. Plans have additionally been made to develop, reclaim
and irrigate lands outside of the protected zone. Measures for the ~rotection, de-
velopment and intensification of production will make it possible to compensate f ully
for the agricultural losses due to flooding. The total cost of these measures will
be 150 million rubles, including 95 million rubles for engineering protection of the
flood plains.
An integrated approach is also being taken to solve the problem of transportation
development on the reservoir and in the adjacent territories. River transportation
along the line of the Cheboksarskaya hydraulic system will soon exceed 50 million
tons annually.
The reservoir will be extensively utilized for recreational purposes. New sanitoriums,
rest homes, tourist centers, holiday hotels and pioneer and youth camps are being
built on its shores, while older existing facilities are being modernizec~.
- The Cheboksarskaya GES is an economically eff icient installation. A little more than
four years will be required to recover the capital investment in this GES. Capital
investment per kW of installed capacity is 260 rubles, while the cost of po~Jer at the
GES's busbars will be 0.28 kopecks per kWh.
The Nizhne-Kamskaya GES--the fourth stage in the hydroelectric-station cascade on the
Kama River--will solve the following important p~^nomic problems:
_ improving the reliability of the power supply to the central region of the European
sector of. the USSR;
- increasing the generation of electric power within the power system by 2.71 b illion
kWh in years of average prec ipitation. This will make it possible to conserve
annually 1.2 million tons of conventional fuel and to free labor reserves on the
order of 5,200 men during operations;
cr.eating a continuous, deep-water route along the Kama River as well as increasing
the depth of the navigational channel for 200 km along the Belaya River;
improving water-supply .conditions in regions adjacent to the~ reservoir [2] .
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The reservoir floods 115,800 hectares of arable farmland. The design provides
for the protection of 20,000 hectares of farmland.
Losses of agricultural production associated with the flooding are compensated
for by the development of new lands, tne irri.gation of lands being utilized and
by a number of other reclamation measures.
Calculations which have been carried out testify to the high economic efficiency
- of the Nizhne-Kamskaya GES.
The "Basic Directions" make provisions for the construction of pumped-storage ~ower
stations in the European sector of the USSR. Two GAES's are now being builr_ in
this region--the Zagorskaya and the Kayshyador,kaya.
The potential for GAES construction is not associated with the presenca of large-
scale rivers. They require considerably less dispossession of land than river
electric-power stations. In contrast to other types of electric power stations,
GAES's are simultaneously generating sources and consuming regulators; that is,
t~ey provide for a reduction in ni~httime gaps in the electric-load schedule.
Consv~ming less than 0.3 kg of conventional fuel per kWh when drawing electric power
from thermal stations to recharge at night (when charging from nuclear power stations,
the consumption of f uel for charging is even le~s), GAES's displace maneuverable
- gas-turbine electric-power stations burning fuel oil at the rate of 0.45 to 0.5
tors per kWh in cover-?ng the load schedule. Thus, GAES`s provide for a considerable
savings of scarce fossil fuel [3] .
As an example, we will present data on the economic eff iciency of the Ka.yshyadorskaya
GliES constructed within the Unified Power System in the northwest [4].
The Kayshyadorskaya GAES with its installed capacity of 1,600 MW at~d eight reversing
units is situated near the reservoiX of the Kaunasskaya GES, which is utilized
as a lower storage basin. The estimated head is 100 m. The annual production .
of electr ic power in the generating mode is 2.4 b illion kGTh, the consumption of
electr~c power is 3.3 billion kWh annually. The effective vnlume of the upper
_ storage basin is approximately 37.5 million m3, which insures the utilization of
the total installed capacity of the C,AES five to six hours per day.
The capital investment in a GAES, minus the cost of roads, communications lines,
- repayable sums for construction equipment and local and municipal facilities, is
estimated at 270 million rubles. .
The efficiency of the Kayshyadorskaya GAES was determined in comparison with the
gas-turbine electric-power station it replaced. The expenditures cited for the
Kayshyadorskaya GAES are approximately 17 percent ?.~ass than for a.gas-turbine sta- .
tion. The period of time necessary to recoup the additiori;~capital investment in
the Kayshyadorskaya GAES is a little more than three years. The data cited point
, out its high economic ef f ic iency .
The construction of the Zagorskaya and Kayshyadorskaya GAES's is being given partic-
ular attention in connection with the fact that they should be pilot installations
for a lon; series of similar electric-power stations with heads of 100 m. The3r
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designs provide for the standardization of the concrete structures--water intakes,
conduits, GAES buil.dings, retaining walls as well as structural elements in the
dikes around the basins. The use of pre-assembled cast-in-situ structural elements
makes industrial methods of construction possible.
The "Basic Directions" as applied to the country's eastern regions spec ify: "Essen-
tially conclude the construction of the Sayano-Shushenskaya GES. Expand construction
of the Boguchanskaya GES. Continue the construction of the Bureyskaya GES and
complet~ the construction of-the K~lymskaya GES-1." - -
The Sayano-Shushenskaya GES is a hydroelectric-power structure on the Yenisey River,
unique with respect to its size and the complexity of construction. When the con-
struction on this GES is complete, it will become the basis of the developing
Sayanskiy territorial production complex [5].
The Sayano-Shushenskaya GES uses a section of the river with a drop of 200 m from
~ the city of Kyzyl in the Tuvin skaya ASSR to the c ity of Sayanogorsk (the f ormer
~ settlement of Oznachennoye).
Ten power units, each with an output of 640 MW, are being installed at the hydro-
electric station. With an installed capacity of 6..4 million kW, the station's
average perennial generation of electric power will be 23.5 billion kWh.
The connection of electr ic transmission lines running from the Sayanskaya GES to
Siberia's unif ied power system is being carriPd out using four 500--kV high-voltage
lines. Two will be direc ted toward the Kuzbass, while two lines of increased capa-
city will go to the region of the Sayanskiy territorial production complex.
With r.he construction of the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydraulic system, a reservoir
will be created, the backwaters from which will extend 312 km. The greater portion
of the rese�rvoir wi11 be situated within the Sayanskiy canyon where its width does
not exceed 3 km. Only in the Tuvinskaya basin where the reservoir will have the
form of a lake will the width of the reservoir reach 9 km in places.
The reservoir of the Sayano-Shushenskaya GES will regulate the water f low for the
water-management complex, including power production, water transportation, water
supply and the protection of population centers from flaoding.
In order for the Sayano-Shushenskaya GES to provide daily and weekly regulation of
- the current flow, provisions have been made for the construction of the Maynskaya
GES downstream. Its reservoir wi11 equalize the discharge after the Sayano-
Shushenskaya GES.
In October 1978 the bottom passages of the first stage were closed off. Filling
of the reservoir began in order to create a head which would insure the normal
operation of the first hydraulic turbogenerator unit with its repaceable impeller.
On 19 December 1978 the f irst unit of the Sayano-Shushenskaya GES was put under
industrial load.
The capacities of the Sayano-Shushenskaya GES are slated for introduction in two
phases: eight units will be commissioned at f irst. The introduction of the last
two will take place somewhat later, wh~a the necessity for additional electric
capacity develops in the Siberian unif ied power system.
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The construction of the Sayano-Shushenskaya GES provides new examples of the communist
attitude toward work. DuLing the construction of this hydroelectric sta~ion, social-
ist competition was begun by 28 Leningrad enterprises and has received the warm
support of workers in Krasnoyarskiy Kray. At the present time more than 170 enter-
prises from Leningrad, Krasnoyarskiy Kray, Belorussiya, the Ukrai.ne, Azerbaijatt
and other union republics, krays amd oblasts in the country are taking gart in
labor cooperation under the management of party organizations. The "Working Reiay"
has made it possible to accelerate the pace of construction work on the hydroelectric
station, insured high-quality work and provided a great economic impact.
The output of the Sayano-Shushenskaya GES will b e utilized to provide electric
power to the Sayanskiy territorial production complex now under construction as
well as to enterprises of the Kuzbass.
The formation of the Sayanskiy territorial production complex began during the
lOth Five-Year Plan in accordance with the resolutions of the 24th CPSU Congress.
As part of the complex, min ing and chemical industries will be developed on the
basis of phosphate rock and asbestos deposits. Also to be developed are electro-
metallurgy, railcar construction and the electrical-equipment, lumber and wood-
working industries. In Sayanogorsk will be built the Sayanskiy aluminum plant
equipped with powerful electrolyzers.
The commissioning of the Sayano-Shushenskaya GES wi'l1 create the necessary conditions
for insuring a reliable power supply to the adjacent regions,
The Bureyskiy integrated hydraulic system is iocated in Amurskaya Oblast on the
Bureya River--the left tributary of the Amur, f lowing into it below the city of
Blagoveshchensk.
This hydraulic system is designed to supply electric power to industry in the region
as part of the unif ied power system of the Far East and for combating f looding in
the lower reaches of the Bureya and the central section of the Amur. Consumption
of electric power will also increase considerably according to the f uture development
of the region. The f irst units of the Bureyskaya GES should be commissioned after
the Zeyskaya GES goes on stream.
The installed capacity of the ~3ureyskaya GES is 2,000 MW in six power units. The
generation of power is 7.16 billion kWh. Two units wi11 operate in a 220-kV circuit
and four in a S00-kV circuit. Electric pawer will be sent to Khabarovsk, Urgal-
Komsomolsk and the local region along three transmission lines.
The frequent floods cause considerable damage in everyday life. High-water regula-
tion by the Bureyskaya GES will protect about 15,000 hectares of land in the region's
farming industry from flooding and will insure the further future development of
m~re than 20,000 hectares of land in the valleya of the Bureya and the central Amur.
It will also make it possible to reduce capital investment in constructing levees
for the flood plain and population centers as well as the operationaZ outlay for
such construction.
The reservoir created will pr.ovide for slight long-term regulation of current flow.
In order to combat floods, plans have been made for the reservoir to possess an
antiflood volume. The technical and economic calculations which have been performed
point out the high economic efficiency of construction at the Bureyskaya GES.
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The Kolymskaya GES-1 is beic}g constructed under extremely complex natural condi-
tions [6]., Dense permafrost, the extremely severe climate, high degree of seismic
activity, the considerable remoteness f rom industrial centers and the diff icult
transportation system complicate considerably the construction of the hydraulic
syatem. Ttie rock-fill and earth dam is the largest in the USSR built under perma-
frost conditions.
The introduction of the Kolymskaya GES will make it possible to exploit new depasits
which previously had been considered to possess an insufficient yield because of-----------
the high cost and shortage of electric power. The electric power available to
mining enterprises will be increased sharply.
The reservoir of the Kolymskaya GES will accomplish long-term regulation of the
current flow in the interests of power production and water transport. The reser-
voir's operation provides for the organ ization of special passage during the naviga-
tional period. This will make it possible to fundamentally improve the transporta-
tion utilization of the river.
- Calculations wh ich have been carried out point out the high economic efficiency of
construction at the Kolymskaya GES.
Further hydroelectric power plant co;istruction has been propos~d in areas of the
Caucasus and Central Asia. The "Bas.ic Directions" provide for the completion a~
construction of the Zhinval'skaya hydraulic system, the continuation of construction
at the Khudonskaya GES and the beginning of construction at the Hamakhvanskaya GES
in the Caucasus. The commissionin g of the Shamkhorskaya GES has also been proposed.
In Central Asia, it is expected that the construction cf the Kurpsayskaya GES will
be concluded, the Tash-Kumyrskaya and Baypazinskaya GES's will be commissioned and
the construction of the Rogunskaya GES will be expanded.
The largest of the installations mentioned wi11 be the Rogunskaya GES.
The Rogunskiy hydraulic system will have integrated irrigation and power-generation
functions and should play an important role in the f urther development of the terri-
~torial production complex in the south of the Ta~ik SSR.
The electric power of the Rogunskaya GES will be delivered to the Central Asian
Power Syatem and will insure the f urther development of the entire Central Asian
economic region. It will make it possible to conserve about 4.8 million tons of
~ conventional fuel annually, which is equivalent to 4.0 km3 of natural gas. The
output of this hydroelectric station (3600 MW in six units) will be utilized to
cover a considerable portion of the peak loads in the Central Asian Unif ied Power
System.
The irrigation-management signif icance of the Rogunskiy hydraulic system for the
Amudar'ya is very great. The connection of the Rogunskoye reservoir to the system
will insure guaranteed irrigation of the lands in the Amudar'ya basin. Although
the level of water consunption in 1985 was provided for through seasonal regulation
at the Nurek and Tyuyamuyunskoye reservoirs, the level in 1980 can be achieved only
through the long-term regula,tion of the flow of the Amudar'ya, carried out with the
aid of the Rogunskoye reservoir.
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- Provisions have been made to plant cotton primarily in the expanded irrigated lands
in the basin of the central and lower reaches of the Amudar'ya. In this case,
about 470,000 tons of cotton will be obtained from the new lands irrigated by the
waters of the Rogunskiy reservoir [8].
The calculations which have been carried out testify to the high economic efficiency
of construction of the Rogunskiy hydraulic system.
Thus, an extensive program-oi ya=oe~ectric power plant construction is to be carried
out in the llth Five-Year Plar.. Moreover, during this period there will be a contin-
uation of the planning and surveying and scientific research studies associated
with the development of the hydroelectric-power industry in the 12th and subsequent
five-year plans.
At the November (1979) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee Comrade Leonid I1'ich
Brezhnev said: "our duty is to think in advance about the power industry of the
future, on which in many ways the economic growth of our country depends."
In examining the hydroelectric-power industry of the f uture, we must f irst of all
note the great hydroelectric-power resources of the USSR's eastern regions which
can be used to cover not only local power demands but also the growth in the demand
- in the country's European regions.
Experience in developing the hydroelectric-power resources of Siberia indicates.
that hydroelectric power-plant construction is here not only a source for electric-
power supply but also plays a pioneering role in developing the natural resources
of this region.
The most efficient structure for the development of northern Siberia is the formation
of territorial production complexes using hydroelectric power plants as a basis.
These complexes insure the highest degree of labor productivity, the greatest savings
of capital investment and a reduction in construction times.
y The utilization of the lower reaches of the Yenisey and the Lena for power-generation
purposes acquires particular significance beyond the llth Five-Year Plan. The
Turukhanskaya and Igarskaya GES's, the Osinovskiy Hydraulic Complex, as well as
the Nizhne-Leninskaya GES can also be built here. Their total installed capacity
will amount to 35 million kW, while their total power-generation will be 180 billion
kWh. The annual savings of fuel provided by these hydroelectric stations will
be equal to 65 million tons of conventional fuel or 130 million tons of Kansko-
Achinsk cc~al.
Power production in the European sector of the USSR in the upcoming decades will
be developed through the preferred construction of powerful AES's which function
most economically and reliably in base-load operation. They should organically
augment pumped-storage stations designed to carry out maneuvering functions in
the power system.
In addition to the Zagorskaya and Kayshyadorskaya pumped-storage stations mentioned
above, design work is currently underway on the Leningrad, Dnestrovskaya, Kanevskaya,
Cent~al and Zhigulevskaya pumped-storage stations. The majority of them have heads
of about 100 meters with outpurs of 1,000 to 1,600 MW. Proposals have been made to
9
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- standardize these stations, which would have a considerable ~conomic impact. Some
_ of these GAES's are designed for peak operation. Their operational zone in the
- daily load schedule wi11 be 4 to 6 hours, while some of them will be semipeak,
- capable of operatin g in a 10 to 14-hour zone.
~ On the texritory of the European sector of the country, 22 of the most promising
~ sites for locating GAES's have been selected from a number of sites previously
identified. Pumped-storage power plants with a total output of 35 million kW can
be located here. Plans have been made to switch in the future to the construction
of GAES's in mountainous regions with heads of 200 to 400 m, as we11 as GAES's
_ with underground basins having heads of 1,000 m and more. ~
- Of considerable interest is the construction of GA~S's which use the cooling reser-
voirs of nuclear power stations as storage basins.
This will make it possible not only to reduce the construction costs of such a
power-production complex by approximately 15 percent in comparison with the indivi-
- dual construction of its components, but also to reduce the number of operations
personnel by joi.ntly locating many services and structures. Planning-and-surveying
- and scientif ic research studies wi11 also be conducted on the f irst tidal electric-
power stations.
Thus, hydroelectric power plant construction in the 11th Five-Year Plan as well
as in the foreseeable future wi1~ make a worthy contribution to the construction
of communism's material-technical base.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
~ 1. Makarov, V. B., "The Cheboksarskaya GES--Concluding Stage in the Volga-Kama
Cascade," NAUCHNYYE TRUDY GIDROPROYEKTA, No 70, 1980.
2. Okorochkov, V. P., "Construction of the Nizhne-Kamskaya Hydroelectric Station,"
' GIDROTEKHNICHESKOYE STROITEL'STVO, No 12, 1978.
3. Dotsenko, T. P. and Sheyman, L. B., "Prospects for the Construction of Pumped-
Storage Power Plants in the USSR," NAUCHNYYE TRUDY GIDROPROYEKTA, No 70, 1980.
- 4. Sheyman, L. B., "Gidroakkumuliruyushchiye elektrostantsii" [Pumped-Storage
Power Plants], Moscow, Energiya, 1980.
5. Mikhaylov, L. P., Grigor'yev, Yu. A. and Sadovskiy, S. I., "Gigant energetiki
v Sayankh" [A Power-Industry Giant in the Sayany], Moscow, Energiya, 1980.
_ b. Neporozhniy, P. S., "Gidroenergetika Sibiri i Dal'nego Vostoka" [The Hydroelectric-
Power Industry in Siberia and the Far East~, Moscow Energiya, 1979.
7. Boyarskiy, V. M., Grigor'yev, Yu. A. and Teleshev, V. I., "The Bureyskiy
Hydraulic System on the Bureya River," GIDROTEKHNICHESKOYE STROITEL'STVO,
- No 1, 1977.
- ~ 10
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8. Vutsel', V. Kornakov, G. I. and Osadchiy, L. G., "An Integrated Irrigation
and Power-Production Hydraulic System--The Rogunskaya GES," N,AUCHNYYE TRUDY
GIDROPROYEKTA, No 70, 1980.
9. $aburin, B. I., Dotsenko, T. P. and Mikhaylov, L. P., "The Current State and
Future Development of Hydroelectric-Power En gineering,'' NAUCHNYYE TRUDY
GIDROPROYEKTA, No 70, 1980.
=.7 COPYRIGHi: "Izvestiya wzov SSSR-Energetika", 1981
9512
CSO: 1822/77
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FuELs
UDC 622.245,1(083)
HANDBOOK ON CASING OF OIL, GAS WELLS PUBLISHED
Moscow 5PRAVOCHNIK PO KREPLENIYU NEFTYANYKH I GAZOVYKH SKVAZHIN in Russian 1981
(signed to press 3 Jun 81) pp 1-5, 239-240
[Annotation, table of contents and introduction from book, "Handbook on Casing Oil
and Gas Wells" (2d edition, revised and supplemented), by Anatoliy Ivanovich Bula-
tov, Lazar' Borisovich Izmaylov, Viktor Ivanovich Krylov, Yevgeniy Moiseyevich Lev-
in and Aleksandr Iosifovich Ovechkin, Izdatel'stvo "Nedra," 9,300 copies, 240 pages]
[TextJ Designs for wells, methods for analyzing casing string, and the appropriate
operating processes are examined. The sequence in performing these operations, de-
pending upon the method of running and cementing the string, are cited. Methods
for monitoring the quality of well casing are described: Basic principles for the
safe conduct of the work are reflected.
~
This second edition (the first edition was dated 1977) describes new plugging ma-
terials, additives thereto and chemical reactants.
For engineers and technicians of drilling enterprises of the oil and gas industries.
The book contains 67 tables, 82 illustrations and a bibliography of 40 items.
Table of Contents Page
Introduction 3
Chapter I. Well Design (A. I. Bulatov, L. B. IzmaylQV and V. I. Krylov)..... 6
1. Basic factors that determine well design
2. Standard-practice instructions on choice of designs for oil and gas
� wells.... 8
3. An example of the choice of some casings strings and the depths to
which~they were run I2
Chapter II. Casing Pipe (L. B. Izmaylov) 13 .
1. Casing with threaded joining elements ...................o............. 13
Z. The ~reparation of casing for running into the hole 32
~ 3. Lubrication for threaded casing joints 33
Chapter III. Plugging Materials (A. I. Bulatov) 36.
_ 1. Classification 36
The organization of laboratory monitoring and methods for testing
plugging materials 44
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Page
3. The characteristics of plugging cements (per GaST [Al1-Union ~tate
Standard] 1581-78 and approved TU's [Specifications]) 59
4. Plugging cements that expand while harder_ing 60
5. Hydraulic activation of old cements 61
Chapter IV. Plugging Solutions and Reactants for Treating Them (A. I.
Bulatov) 64
1. Basic properties of cemeiit slurries and hardened cement 64
2. Oil-emulsion plugging s:iutions that have been converted.......���� 67
3. Adjustment of the properties of the cement slurry and the hardened
- cement by means of reactan~s 69
4. The dzter~r.ination of thickening time for plugging solutions......... 77
5. The determination of cement-setting time at high temperatures and
- pressures 84
Chapter V. Displacement Fluids (A. I. Bulatov) 89
1. Basic recommendations on ctio.ice of displacement fiixids 89
2. Determination of amount of displacement fluids required for cementation 90
3. Types of displacement fluids and the technologies for using them.... 92
Chapter VI. Operational Rigging of Casing Strings (A. I. Bulatov, Ye. M.
Levin and A. I. Oveohkin) 98
1. Casing shoes 98
2. Check valve for casing strings 105
3. Cementing collar for the "feet" 107
4. Centralizers 108
5. Scrapers 120
6. Turbulators .........................................4............... 12~1
7. Divided cementing plugs 122
8. Schemes for placing equipment on the casing string when casing wells.. 127
g. Couplings for stage cementing 128
10. Arrangements for casing wellswith liners and casing-string sections. 130
11. Cemen�ing heads 153
12. External packers for casing strir.gs 153
Chapter VII. Analysis of Casing Strings (L. B. Izmaylov)......�............ 161
1. Analysis of a production string 163
2. Principles of designing casing strings for various geological
conditions ].70
3. The determination of the external pressure on a casing string....... 172
Analysi5 of intermediate strings 174
5. Analysis of' the tension of casing strings 180
Chapter VIII. Analysis of the Cementing of Casing Strings (A. I. Bulatov,
V. I. Krylov and A. I. Ovechkin) 182
1. Determination of the configuration and volume of a well's bore...... 182
2. Determination of the amount of materials required for cementing
casing string and the amount of overflush fluid 1i35
3. Hydraulic analysis~of cementing 187
Chapter IX. The Tcchnology of Running Casing Strings (A. I. Bulatov, V. I.
Krylov, Ye. M. Levin and A. I. Ovechkin) 196
1. Analysis and calibration of the well bore 196
2. Kunning the casing string 198
3. ttunning liners and casin;-string sections 201
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Page
4. Connecting and joining an uncemented (removable or swiveling) section
of casing string 204
5. Determination of optimal speed for running casing string 206
6. Monitoring the condition and deterr,:ining the amount of'wear of casing... 208
7. The revolution and replacement of uncemented section of casing....... 211
8. Some peculiarities of ihe technology of slanted directional wells.... 212
Chapter X. The Technology of Cementing Casing String ~A. I. Bulatov and
- A. I. Ovechkin) 213
- i. Preparatory operations 213
2. Recommended schemes for fastening cementing equipment under field
conditions 215
- 3. The cementing of casing string in one procedure 218
4. Special methods for cementing casing string 220
5. The cementing of casing string equipped with external packers........ 223
6. Concluding operations after the cementing of casing string........... 224
Chapter XI. Complicat;ions During the Casing of Wells (A. I. Bulatov and
V. I. Krylov) 226
1. The absorption of drilling mud and plugging solutions during the
casing of wells 226
, 2. Pressure testing the well bore prior to running the casing string.... 227
3. Preventing sticking of the casing string 228
_ 4. Preventing thickening of tnixes of drilling muds and plugging solu-
tions~during cementing 229
5. Other types of complications during the casing of wells 233
6. Some recommendations for preventing complications from occurring
_ during the casing of wells 235
Bibliogr.aphy 237
Introduction .
The concept of "casing a well" includes the consecutive conduct of a number of pro-
duction operations and processes that are associated with preparing the bore, tools
and casing string, running the casing string into the well, cementing the casing,
and executing the concluding operations.
In domestic field pr~ctice, three main methods for running casing string into the
hole are used: .
in a single procedure, when the whole drilled bore of the well, from face to mouth,
will be covered by L-he casing string;
_ in several procedures,~when the bore is to be covered in part by separate sections
of casing string, carried out consecutively after completion of the full cycle
for casing each section; and
the running of casing string.in the form of a liner, which will aover only a part
04' the bore, at a previously chosen interval of the well, without remaving the
string up to the well mouth.
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T'he me;thud5 ~numerated, the schemes of which are shown in figure 1, differ in the
technology for carrying out the operations and require the use of specialized oper-
ating equipment.
Figure 1. Diagrams of Methods
for Running Casing String into a b i~ t"~~
Wells. ' ~
Key: .
Q. In one procedure (the final ' .
stage of the string). - - _ - :
a and 8. In two procedures (the _ _ _ 1- Z
final stages of the first - ~ - -
upper and lower sections of ~ ' _ ~ '
connected casing). - _ = Z - - 4 - 3
Z. Casing with a liner (final _
stage ) . - - _ - _ _
_ - S ~ ,
1. Casing strings. - _ ~ - _ - ~
2. Drill strings. k=" 3
�Z: .
3. Hardened cement. ~ _ - - - '
4. Drilling mud. ~
5. Sectional cemented plug. .
The choice and use of these methods is governed by technical and economic feasibil-
ity and by the technological level for carrying out the operations in the given re-
gion of drilling work. Minimal outlays for the conduct of well construction as a
whole and for good-quality casing of wells in particular, which can preclude addi-
tional repair and insulating work during later periods of testing and operation, ~
can be adopted as a general criterion for evaluation and choice of inethod for
running strings in.
- The set of preparatory operations for any of the methods for running casing string
_ includes: preventive maintenance and repair and preparation of the drill rig's com-
ponents.and service lines, a critical analysis (gaging and calibrating) of the bore
that has been drilled, s~zpplementary treatment of the drilling mud, pressure test-
ing, marking and stacki:o of the casing pipe, the preparation I~or operational rig-
ging of the casing string, choosing a formula for the plugging fluids, preparation
of the plugging materials, reactant, displacement fluid and cementing equipment,
and other operations.
The casing strin~ is made up, the operational rigging is selected, and the required
amount of' plugging matcrials and the units of cementing equipment are computed,
taking into account the actual geological and engineering conditions of the field
and Lhc condition ut' Lhe hole, as well as the procedures that have been adopted.
'i'hc technol.ogy f'or perf'orming the work is chosen to take into account the prerequi-
si.tes set by the physico-mechanica?. properties of the rock that makes up the well
face and sides, the values of the formation pressures and temperatures, the proper-
ties of the formation fluids,.the deviation of the bore, the degree to which it is
cavernous, and other factors.
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'Phc ~1~~:;i~;n I.hc c:utiin~; til,ring, using p.ipc with various propcrties, i.s ~ased upon
ari ~?nalysis of its strength that considers the effect of axial and rddial load-
ings on the string that can occur during the casing process and also later, during
drilling (or operation) of the well.
- The main methods for cementing casing string in wells include:
direct cementing in one procedure (in one stage), when the plugging solutions are
pumped into the casing string from the well mouth and are forced into the annular
space at the prescribed depth;
stage cementing, when the plugging fluids are forced through the casing string in
two (or more) procedures
or stages c;onsecutively,
at first through the cas- a b e� z 8
ing shoe, then through
speeial devices--the
stage cementing collars, _ _
which are installed on _ _ ~ _ _ _ - - - - - _ _
the string at a certain _ _ _ -
- distanae from the well ~ . - _ -
face; in this case, the ~ _ _ _ - - - _ _
plugging fluids accumu- _ - _ - _ -
late in the annular _ _ - ~ - ~ _
space to the height of - -
the bore, consecutive- _ _ _ _ '
1 , without a break in - - - - :
Y ~ _ _ _ _ - -
the continuity; . _
-
Figure 2. ~ Schemes for
Methods for Cementing Cas- - - . ,
ing Strings: ~
Key:
q, ~ and B. Direct ce- s ~ F
3 (t H ~
menting in one proced-
ure (the start, middle -
and concluding pro-
cess, respectively). - _ _ - _ -
2~ b and 2. Stage cement- ~-r ~ -
'r: _ .i; ; - I - ~
. ing (the first and _ _ - _ - -
second stages and eon- ~ = = - -
clusion of the pro- :c~ ' - ' -
.
cess, respectively). - - -
T
' Reverse cementing. "
_ 3, u and k. Cementing of' : _ _ ~ ~
a liner (the situation � :e
. prior to cementing and _ _
- the start and conclu- - -
; sion of the operation, : , -
respectively) ~Y�,�� - - ~
. r:::: , ~:r:~'~
= 16 ~ .
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thc cementing of liners and casing-~tring sections, when the plugging solutions
are pumped into the snace beyond the string by means of the drill-string shoe;
and
reverse cementing, under which the plugging solutions and the overflush fluid ~re
pumped from the mouth of the well into the annular space by the cementing string,
with exit of the circulation through the casing string.
Each of these cementing methods is shown schematically in figure 2.
The cementing methods mentioned can be carried out in the following variants:
cementing of a casing string that is in a state of repose at all stages of the
process;
the cementing of a string freely suspended (on a block-and-tackle system),with a
certain axial displacement thereof during OZTs f.waiting on cement] when the
loading on the hook is changed; and
cementing of the string with reciprocation or revolution while the plugging solu-
i:ions are being pumped and squeezed through.
COPYHIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nedra", 1981 .
11409
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~ PIPELINES
. .
I13CREASED ROLE OF PIPELINE TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN USSR
- Moscow NEETYANAYA PROMYSHLENNOST' SERIYA EKONOMIKA NEFTYANOY PROMYSHLENNOSTI in
Russian No 10, Oct 81 pp 30-33
[Article by V. G. Dubinskiy, Giprotruboprovod: "On Further Enhancement of the Role
of Trunk Pipelines in the USSR Unified Transport System"]
[Text] The "Basic Directians of Economic and Social Development of the USSR for
1981-1985 and the Period up to 1990" specify accelerated development of pipeline
transport of crude oil and refined petroleum products.
The CPSU Central Co~ittee and USSR Council of Ministers Decree entitled "On Im-
proving Planning and Strengtheningti~e Influence of the Economic Mechanism on Im-
proving Production Efficiency and Work Quality" calls for a radical improvement in
the organization of transport of goods as well ae increased influence of the
economic mechanism on the end results of the operations of transport enterprises
and or~anizations. ~
These tasks should always be carried out on the hasis of optimal development and
distribution o� a unified transport system as a whole and of each component mode
of transportation.
An important problem in this connection is that of further development and ex-
pansion of the area of employment of trunk pipelines for conveying a broad variety
of petroleum and other commodities.
. Freight traffic exceeding 6,000 billion ton-kilometers per year is presently being
achieved by the u~ified transport system rail, pipeline, maritime, river, motor,
and air transport. Various bulk goods are carried by these modes of transport,
other Chan pipeline: coal, coke, oil and grain, ores, mineral building materials,
mineral fertilizers, etc. They account for approximately 80 percent of total
transport of goods.
Pipeline transport today includes trunk crude oil pipelines, products lines, and
natural gas pipelines, extending a total of approximately 200,000 kilometers. Crude
oil and products lines total approximately 70,000 kilometers.
In the immediate future the transport problem in the USSR, in conditions of a rapid-
ly expanding economy and growing flows of varioue goods in all directions, should be
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solved by development of traditional and new modes of trsnsportation, by expansion
of the realm of application of existing economical and reliable modes of transpor-
tation for hauli:~g bulk goods, including trunk pipelines.
~ Pipeline transport has not yet experienced adequate development, in connection with
which refined products are not being pipeline-transported in a full volume and
- variety. As a consequence of this, up to 90 percent of light refined products are
being transported by rail, as we1Z as all residual fuel oils and lubricating oils.
Pipeline transport is not participating in developing the conveyan~e of other,
non-petroleum bulk goods.
ihe extensive technical and economic possibilities of pipeline transport as a
specialized mode, possessing advantages over ather modes of traneportation, are not
being fully utilized. And yet truuk pipelines can carry practically all types of
bulk ooods in any quantity: pipelines can be constructed in all parts of the
country, extending any distances~ along the shortest route; pipeline operation is
independent of cli~atic, environmantal and geographic conditioris, time of year or
day; goods of various types and grades can be pumped through a single trunk pipeline;
trunk pipelines provide contiinuous, uniform delivery of goods, creating conditions
for dependable, continuous operation of the enterprises they serve; full autnmation
and remote contirol of pipelining processes is possible; pipelines provide a complete
- seal~and minimal losses of conveyed goods; in most cases the technical-economic per-
_ formance indices of trunk pipelines are better than those of other modes of
transportation; it takes less time to build pipelines and bring them on-stream than ~
is the case with other modes of transportation; pipelines can convey goods directly
' from points of production to points of consumption, without unnecessary transfers
or with a minimum number of transfers.
A wisie variety of various bulk goods can be transported by trunk pipeline. Speciali-
zation of pipelines is possibla, taking into account the most economical area of
their utilization for conveying an individual type or group of goods. The technical-
economic advantagzs of specialization of trunk pipelines are evident in the example
of trunk lines which transport crude oil. Specialization of oil pipelines provides
the capability to handle flows of crude o� s~v amount and grade, directly from the
- oilfields to the refineries, in all direc~ioi~,, of crude oil flow; maximum utiliza-
tion of a pipeline's [hroughput capacity; employment of optimal pipeline parameters
and c~esign, high-output equipment, fittings, automatic control, remote control, and
control system; continuous improvement in crude oil transport equipment and tech-
nology; extensive utilization of industrial methods of conetruction; improvement of
pipeline technical-economic performance indices. Thanks to specialization, trunk
crude oil oipelines have the lowest crude oil transport cost figure of all mod~~s of
- transport employed to carry crude oil. Today oil pipelines link this country's
principal oil refining and oil prc~ducing centers and handle 90 percent of all crude
transported.
The following goods specialization of pipeline transport is possible.
All ~lows of crude oil, with the ex~eption of high-viscosity crudes and a small
quantity of high-grade crudes the physicochemical properties of which could be ad-
verse~y af�fected by sequential pumping through the same pipeline with other crude
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grades, can be assigned to trunk crude pipelines, just as at the present
time. .
Trunk products lines and terminal taps from these lines should be used more ex-
~ tensively than at the present time to deliver directly to the customer a ful].
variety and volume of refined products, namely: ~utomotive gasoline, diesel fuel,
kerosene, furnace fuel oil, bunker fuel, and petroleum lubricating oiZs. In the
- near future, with construction of the requisite network of products lines in all
parts of the country, delivery of refined products ehould be accomplished as a
rule by combined pipeline-motor transport.
Chemical products trunk pipelines can be used to transport carbonic acid, ammonia,
ethylene, a broad spectrum of light hydrocarbons and other products of the chemical,
~ oil refining, petrochemical, and gas industries.
Pipeline batch-ccntainer systems can be used to convey high-viscocity and other
crude, various types and grades of crudes, refined products and chemical products,
conveyance of which through specialized trunk lines is unprofitable, coal and coke,
grain and other agricultural products, mineral building materials, mineral
f ertilizers, mail and other goods.
Coal (specially prepared) can be conveyed by trunk coal pipelines.
Trunk pipelines designated for other products of various branches and sectors of
the ecor_omy can handle the f lows of the goods of these branches and sectors and
be approrpiately designated.
Matters of pipeline specialization shouldibe determined on the basis of technical-
economic justification.
The possibility of utilizing trunk pipelines for transporting a wide variety of
bulk goods will make appreciable changes in the area of utilization in coming years
both of pipeline transport proper and of other modes of trausport. This dictate~
the necessity of combined solution of a most important economic problem deter-
mination of future optimal paths of development and d~stribution of trunk pipeline
transport in USSR.
To accomplish this task it is advisable to drara up a specific, comprehensive
program of.devel.opment and distribution of ~runk pipeline transport in the USSR,
which should incorporate elaboration of the entire range of technical, economic,
and organizational-management pxoblems for each type of pipeline transport, as ~~ell
as rail, maritime, river, motor, air and other modes of transportation and the
unified transport system as a w~ole, taking inta account wider participation in the
conveyance of bulk goods of trunk pipelines of ~11 types and designations, as well
as other modes of transport.
Since this will be the first time such a specific comprehensive program is put to-
gether, it is necessary to pres;ent some c:onsidexataions of its composition and direc-
tion of development, while maki.ng no clai.m to completeness.
There skould be elabo~_~~ed as part of a specifir_ comprehensive program, among
other materials, a basic, un.ifc~rm procedural met:iod which is common to all mod~s of
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transportation, including method of calculating actual parameters and technical-
ecanomic indices and their objective comparison among different modes of transporta-
tion, in order to choose an optimal variant.
It is necessary to elaborate, on the basis of current scientific and technical ad~
vai-aces and nrojected future development and deepening of scientific and technologi-
cal advanc2s, rough designs of the most advanced, dependable, economical technical
means (vehicles, permanent installations, etc) for each type of pipeline transport,
as well as rail, maritime, river, motor, air and other modes of transport for carry-
ing out the transport process in coming years. These rough outline plans must
specify, applicable to the technical solutions adopted in them, the parameters and
technical-~conomic indices for each mode of transportation. They should be progres-
sive and utilized for substantiating optimal specialization and the area of employ-
ment of pipeline and other modes of transport. Preliminary designs shoi~ld serve as
- a standard for a given mode of transport and the unified transport system as a
whole for an extended period of time. The most efficient area of utilization of
each mode of transport for carrying goods in the various parts of the country
should be determined on the basis of these materials.
It is necessary to elaborate in a specific comprehensive program, on the basis of
planned balance sheets of production and consumption of all products in the USSR,
interregional exchange of these products between points of production and con-
- sumption and efficient f lows of goods in all areas and on all routes, distributing
them among the individua.l types of pipeline and other transport, taking into con-
sideration the optimal area of employment of each of these for carrying given types
of goods.
Special attention should be focused on the presently exiating elaborate network of
trunk pipelines, and care should be taken to ensure fully loading its throughput ~
capacity.
A comprehensive specific program should provide technical-economic substantiation
of the advisability of establishing reserve transport capabilities on all routes
of goods flows, especially in the main and potential future areas of their
development.
A specif ic comprehensive program shoul.d provide for 3oint construction and operation
of power generation, auxiliary, housing, cultural-services and other facilities
common to each mode of transport and other branches of industry and the economy
located in the same areas.
. A specific comprehensive program should present the required comprehensive, co-
_ ordinated development and distribution of trunk pipelines of all types and
designations, rail, river, maritime, air and motor transport for fully handling the
flows of goods distributed among them; volumes of work on construction of new and
renovation, expansion and modernization of existing transport means; technical-
economic indices; requirements in material-technical, financial and labor resources
for accompli5hing this development; tasks assigned to all other branches of industry
for prompt and expeditious support of production and construction of the specified
technical transport means.
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These me~:sures should be distributed by sequence and periods of time, with their
implementation on a priority basis in those areas and on those routes with large
flows of goods, a lack of reserve transport capacity, as well as in new areas of
development and location of productive resources.
There should be elaborated in a specific camprehensive program a rational, flexible
organizational structure of management of the USSR unified transport systam. This
pr~gram should include investigation of thP question of forming a national-level
- transportation agency, which would provide the following: coordination of the opera-
tions of each mode of transportation and the unified transport system; distribution
of flows of goods between the individual modes of transportation, proceeding from
the most economic area of utilization of each; elaboration oL ~aterials on future
development and distribution of transportation; efficient utilization of transporta-
tion; uniform technical and financi.al-economic policy in transportation and, in
particular, in distribution of com?eyance of goods among modes of transportation,
and resolution of other matters.
In view of the nature and directio~n of this work, prospects for technological ad-
vances in transportation, a realistic assessment of decisions and research
resu?.ts, need for financial,materi.al-technical, and labor resources, possib.ilities
of thE~r allocation as needed, and~ the lack of a single agency for coord3.naL-ing .
the operations of all modes of tr