JPRS ID: 10280 TRANSLATION OPERATOR PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY IN MAN-MACHINE SYSTEMS BY K.A. IVANOV-MUROMSKIY, ET AL.

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JPRS L/ 10280
25 January 1982
Translation
OPERaTOR PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY IN. MAN-MACH;NE SYSTEMS
By
K.A. Ivanov-Muromskiy, et al.
9
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I
CPERATQR PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY
. IN MAN-MACHINE SYSTEMS
JPRS L/10280
25 January 1982
Kiev PSIKHOFIZ?GLOGIYA OPERATORA V SISTEMAKH CHELOVEK-NIASHINA in
Russian 1980 (signed to press 23 Nov 79) pp 2-342
[Book "Operator Psychophysiology in Man-Machine Systems" by Kirill
Aleksandrovich Ivanov-Muromskiy, Oksana Nikolayevna Luk'yanova,
Valentin Aleksandrovich Chernomorets, Konstantin Vladimirovich
Lyudvichek, Vladimir Yevgen'yevich Alekseyev, and Dmitriy Ivanovich
Chus', Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences and Order of Lenin Institute
of Cybernetics, Izdatel'stvo "Naukova Dumka", 2,350 copies, 344 pages]
CONTENTS
Anno t at ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter l. Labor and the Laboring Peison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1. ThE Origin and Development of SOL [Scientific Organi:.ation
- of Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2. Classifications of the Types of Human Labor Activity 11
- 1.3. Scientific Organization of the Schedule cf I,abor and Rest . 13
1.4. Vocational Guidance, Vocational Selection, and Vocational
Suitability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Chapter 2. Investigating the Psychophysiological Characteristics
and Social Orientation of the Individual . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter 3. Some Aspects of Evaluating the Activity of the Human
Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
= 3.1. Psychophyeiological Prerequisites for the Quality of Human
Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2. Human Functions in Ergatic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3. Objective Methods of Evaluating Operator Work Capability 52
3.4. Description of Operator Activity and Evaluation of
Its Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
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~ Ctiapter 4. State of tlie Urganism and Operator Activity in a Stress
Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
~ 4.1. Changes in the Organism During Stress . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2. Laboratory Model of the Stress Situation . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3. Studying Operator Reliability in a Real Situation 120
Chapter 5. Modeling Operator Activity and Some Aspects of Its
Practical Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.1.
Classification of Models of Operator Activity
157
5.2.
Synthesizing Mathematical Models cf Operator Activi`y
162
5.3.
Situational Physical Models of Operator Activity
193
5.4.
The Use of Models of Operator Activity for Expert
Ergonomic Evaluation of Ergatic Systems . . . . . . . . .
199
5.5.
The Use of Models of Operator Activity To Predict
the Professional Success of ASU Operators
207
Chapter
6. Methods of Processing Physiological Data on the State
of the
Human Operator in Specialized Technical Units
211
6.1.
Brief Analysis of the Physiological Parameters and
Characteristics of the 5tate of a Person
212
- 6.2.
Methods of Processing Electrograms in Technical
Diagnosis Systems . ; � � � � � � � ' ' '
219
6.3.
Some Questions of PreliminaryProcessing of Electrograms
223
6.4.
Sequential-Parallel Analysis of the Shape of a Curve
Based on Expansion According to Base Functions
227
6.5.
Encoding Time Functions by Artificial Neuron Nets
Accdrding to Their Informative Signs . . . . . . � � � � �
239
6.6:
Neuron Analyzer of OpeYator Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . .
247
Chapter 7. The Fundamentals of Buildin$ Complex Bioelectronic
. . . . .
253
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
- Appendix
1. Program of the Simulation Psychophysiological Model
of Operator Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � � � . � � �
268
Appendix
2. Program of the Simulation Information Model of
Opera
tor Group Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
284
- Appendix
3. Symbols of Variables in Information Simulation
Model
of Group Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
288
Bibliogr
aphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 89
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_ [Text] Annotation
Research in recent years has graphically demonstrated the need to give spec;al
. attention to the problem of raising the reliability of the "human factor" in
control systems of varying complexity and purpose. Man-machine systems are much
less efficient if the operators do not perform the duties assigned to them.
This monograph presents results from monitoring the condit'Lon of the operator
under experimental conditions, modifiee physical experimento, and tn the human
work situation in production. These findings were obtained ttirough the combined
efforts of physiologists, engineers, and mathemeticians.
The book is intended for specialists working in the fields of ergonomica,
human factors engineering, and differential psychophysiology.
The book has 81 illustrationa, 10 tables, and a Fiibliography that runs from
page 314 to 343. .
Foreword
Research in the field of neurobionics has become one of the most timely challenges
of contemporary science and technology as the result of numerous factors: the
accelerating pace of scientific-technical progress, tbe extensive development
and introduction of general and enterprise automated control systems and tfie
resultiing need to improve the reliability of the man-macfiine system by ins-u:^ing
the reliability of the "human factor," the fight against nerve and psychol')gical
illnesses caused by the steadily tncreasing stresses on the human nervous aystem,
1
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and the search for possihilities of using the "concealed reserves" of the human
brain.
The achievements of scientific-technical progress contrast starkly aritfi the capa-
- bility of human beings to control tfi e functions of the human Tirain, in particular
- such complex functions as emotions, me?nory, and tfiinking. Tfie reason for this
is that we have insufficient information on the mechanisms of brain activity and
- do not have effective and adequate techniques for exercising a controlled influ-
ence on the nervous system as a whole and on the brain in particular.
Study of the role of the "human factor" in man-uachine systems has become par-
ticularly important in recent years. This is related both to the fundamental
aspect of the problem and to purely applied nuestions. With respect to the
general anproach to solving the problem, "the conception of full automation of
information processing, which arose in the exrly daya of the development of
cybernetics and computer technology, has not wittistood the test of time chiefly
in connection with creative problems.i1 (This does not mean we agree that
complet.e automation 1,7 i.mpossible in general. But at the present time, the only
way to set up qualitatively complex information procESSing systems is by de-
vising man-machine systems.)
The problem of the artificial intellect occupies a significant place in pure
- research and development. Neurobionicists here are interested cfiiefly in the
system and structural foundationsof the organization of the activity of the
natsral intellect.
~
On the level of working out the biological foundations of the artificial in-
tellect our collective has attempted tto study and model fiuman befiavior in the
process of decision-making and learn about human ps;chopitysiology in conditions
- where the distinctive features of self-regulation of higher nervous activity
resulting from genotypic and sociological factors ar2 most vividly manifested,
- in particular under conditions of stres=
- In working out the foundations of the artificial inteilect it is important to
insure optimal interarition of the huroan being and thc machine so that, as V. M.
Glushkov observed, "each side gets room to use its own best talents."
In the applied sense the "human factor," as a term tfiat appeared in the very
beginning of the development of ergonomics and human factors engineering, has
recently been formulated as follows: "Human factors are integral character-
- istics of the link between the human being and the machine which manifest
themselves in concrete conditions of intPraction &etween them during the func-
tioning of a man-macfiine system related to achievement of a concrete goal. But
the characteristics and properties that are embraced by the concept of human
1Glushkov, V. M. et al, "Chelovek i Vycfiislitel'naya Tekhnika" [The Human
Being and the Computer], Kiev, "Naukova Dumka", 1971, 272 pages.
_1
2.
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factora are not diatinct, separate qualitiea of the components of the man-
- machine system, but rather ite aggregate, apstem qualities."2 "Human factors,
underatood as the key integral characteriatics of the man-macfiine system, thus
represent a certai.n superposition of the initial indicators, and correspondingly
also represent fixed or dynamic functional links amo.ng components of.tfie man-
machine spstem.r3
If the term "human facror" is tranBlated into.the language of objective statis-
tics, we o6tain some very impresaive figures. Thus, onlp 8-16 percent of the
persons employed in the different sectore of production meet the occupatia:.al
requirements with reapect to psycfiopfiysiological characterietics. This factor is
responsible for more than 40 percent of the higfiaraq accidents, 65 percent of the
' industrial injuries and accidenbs in deep underground coal mtning, and 80-90
percent of the violations of operating conditi:ons at thermal power plantg.4 An
analysis of 545 aviatton disasters in the United States (based on information
in the foreign press) shDwed th$t 50 percent of these disasters occuired because
the aircraft design did not correspond to the psychophysioZogical capabilitiea
of human beings, the pilot had inadequate flying skill, the func2ional state of
the organism was disturbed, or the level of psycFiological readYness fur flying
was low. According to information from the United Nations, 72-80 percent of
highway accidents, which kill 250,000 pereone a year and iiLjure 7 million,
occur through human fault. In 63.3 percent of the cases wfiere shipe collide and
aink human error is also at fault.
It is for precisely thie reason that we have concentrated our attenrion on the
questiona of human work in extreme coaditions of the man-macFiine system, in 6io-
technical systema, on modeling the activity of the liuman operator, and on
developing a system-structural approach to atudying the reliability of human oper-
ators which envisions an evaluation oE their actions from the aociological,
psychological, and phyeiological standpotnts. During tfiis we consider predicting
~ human acti.ons based on evaluations of the individual's personality traits and
current states. At the same time we attempted to automate the processing of lata
- from psychophysiological and seminatural experiments and the results of study of
' human activity under work condittons.
All of thpse studi,~s are the basis for the next atage of our development work:
using neuroelectronic systems for learning and practical purposes.
The lst International Conference "Bionics-75" recognized the creation of bio-
technical systems, in particular neuroelectronic systems, as one of the princi:pal
areas of development of bionics. Reaearch is being done in this area on
2 Munipov, V. M., "The Cuzrent State and Developmental Trenda of Ergonomice and
Human Factors Engineering," VOPROSY PSIKHOLOGII 1978, p 60.
3 Ibid., p 61.
4 See, for example, V. A. Buzunov et al, "Phystological and Psycholagical Crtteria
for Occupational Selection in Occupations That Make Special Demands on the Organ-
ism," in "Tez. Dokl. 10-go S"yezda Ukr. Fiziol. 0-va" [Abstracts of Reports at
the lOth Congress of the Ukrainian Physiology Society], Kiev, 1977, pp 1-42.
~
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different planes and the results desexve our attention.s The systems tfiat en-
vision active influence by physical and cfismical factors directly on the sufi--
atructures of the Firain fiave even more interesttng prospects.
Our studies fit into the area of such disciplines as fiuman factors engineering
and psychological bionics, about wfiich V. V. Parin, F. P. KosnolinEkiy, and B. A.
Dushkov nave very accurately said; "One of the significant problems of fiuman
factors engineering is devising reliaFile gys.tems of self-control and self- .
regulation for machines wfiile the Tiuman operator continues to perform monitoring
functions; this requires study and description of tfiQ mental processes in order to
reproduce (model) them in tecfinical devices and thereby transfer a number of
functions to the machine."6 These problems are matters for us tn study later, al-
though there is every reason to fiope for significant results.
~ The present monograph is a summary of research done by physiologists, engineers,
and mathematicians. The first two chapters and section one of cTiapter four were
written by 0. N. Luk'yanova and are devoted to labor, methods of identifying
psychophysiological properties, the social orientation o� the individual, and
describing the state of operator activtty in a stress situation. The third chap-
_ ter, written by V. A. qhernomorets, deacribes the problem of increasing the
efficiency of operator activity. The fourth chapter presents findings
obtained from work under the direction of the author of these lines (K. A. Ivanov-
Muromskiy) by the collective of the division of neurobionics of the Institute of
- Cybernetics of the Ultrainian SSR Academy of Sciences under both experimental and
actual working conditions. The fifth chapter contains results from tlie work of
K. V. Lyudvichek and V. Ye. Alekseyev on modeling operator activity. Tlie model
of group activity by operators is, eapecially interesting tn this part of the book.
~ Working in close contact with the bionics laboratory of KWIAU [possiFly Kiev
Higher Military Aviation Engineering School], we considered it uaeful for the
book to include findings obtained by D. I. Chus', a member of this coliective
(in chapter six).
The final chapter, written by K. A. Ivanov--Muromskiy with the help of Yu. V.
Paramonov, is devoted to the future prospects of our activity, to the use of
neuroelectronic systems wiiose principles our collECtive has been developing since
1967.
5 See, fc.r example, K. A. Ivanov--Muromakiy and Yu. V. Paramonov, "Ways to
Realize Complex Siotechnical Systems," VISN. AN URSR, 1472, Vyp 11, pp 33-40;
K. A. Ivanov-Muromskiy, "Elektromagnitnaya Siologiya" [Electromagnetic
Biology], Kiev, "Naukova Dumka", 1477; N. V. Cfiernigovskaya, A. S. Putskerman,
and S. Patolichchio, "Features of Dtrected Regulation of the Human Alpha Rfiythm
with the Use of Feedback," ZHURN. VYSSHEY NERVNOY DEYATELtNOSTI 1978, No 3,
pp 547-556.
6"Kosmicheskaya Biologiya i Meditsina" jSpace Stology and Medicine], Moscow,
"Prosveshcheniye", 1970, p 143.
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The authors express their gratitude to assoctates in the division of neuxohionics
at the Institute of CyFiernetics of tTis Ukrainian SSR Academy oi Sciences who took
part in designing the data processing systems, discusstng and plaiuttng the ex-
periments, and mathematical processing of tfieir results: E. T. Golovant, Yu. V.
Paramonov, I. D. Ponomareva, T. A. Berezanets, T. M. Semik, L. T. Shumilina, M. D.
- Lobkova, T. M. Zyuganova, B. F. Sinel'nik, N. Ye, Afanasenko, and P. A. Petrenko,
and also to A. N. Yanina for help in tecfinical preparation of tfie-manuscript.
Professor R. A. Ivanov-Muromskiy
5,
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Chapter 1. Labor and the Laboring Person
Labor and labor activities have been with humanity from the fieginning. Lafior is
the great calling and means of self--expression of each individual person. People
labor all their conscious livQS in some field of social activity, attempting to
reveal their talents as fully as possible. If a balance is found between indi-
vidual capacities and the requirements of everyday activity, tfie person receives
maximum satisfaction from the chosen form of la6or. Tfiis is a rule for any person,
for any occupation. It is in precisely thts form of activity tbat a person can
attain the heights of perfection.
Labor is always "functions of the human organism, and eacfi.sucfi function, no
matter what form and content it may fiave, is essenttally an expenditure of the
human brain, nerves, muacles, sense organs, and the like." [1]
Human heings carry on the procesa of labor using different technical devices which
have ranged historically from the stone axe to tfie contemporary computer. Re-
finement of the forme of interaction between the human Being and the technology
has altered the requirements which the labor process makes of the human 6eing.
Whereas the initial labor procese demanded that a person expend energy in tfie
form of muscular force, at the present time people perform cfiief ly information
functions, monitoring, programming, and controlling them. The refiaement of the
labor procesa has hrought about a lowering of the pfiysical requirements of the
human organism and increased the importance of the psychophysiological traits of
the individual. For this reason, studying tfie activity of the human operator is
highly relevant today. .
Considering the human being aa a labortng individual K. K. Platonov [5] singlea
out four aspects: life experience, vocational trgtning, forms of inental re-
flection, and biological and natural traits. We single out tfiree aspects: the
social (species and individual experience, training), the psycliological (traita
of reflection and thinking) , and the biological (characteristics of tfie func-
tional systems of tfie organism).
At tfie present time the problem of interaction fietween human fieings and technical
devices in the labor process is studied by varioua types of specialists, while
the problem itself has become part of the eub3ect matter of various ecientific
disciplines; psycfiology, labor physiology and hygiene, human factors engineering,
vocational psychology, differential psychophysiology, and cybernetics.
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Thus, we may draw the following conclusion: labor, which in K. Marx',s ex-
pression [1, p 1811 is a form of regulating tYe exchange of matter between
human beings and nature, is thus the natural function of the human betng and de--
fines a person's full human essence. In turn, the liuman esaence is revealed
during labor activity. The spectfic labor process makes spectfic demands of
the social and psychophyaiological cfiaracteristics of tTiQ individual; the indi-
vidual, depending on his or her inherent traits, puts an individual imprint on
_ the occupation and creates what ia called an indtvidual style. Tn otfier words,
- we have a closed system: laboring person # labor, in wtiich are may tdentify
hierarchical levels that differ in complexity.
The tectiniques of investigating human labor acttvttiea and human interaction
with technical devicea can be claseified on the baeie of vartous factore:
what aspect of the indivi3ua1 they help to study - sociological, psychological,
and physiological; how the technique ie accompliehed -subjective and objective;
how the degree of approximation to a real situation is achieved questioning,
laboratory modeling, sctual activitiea; how active a role the investigator takes -
observation and experiment; and finally, the degree o.f complexity study of
documents, questioning, observation, the labor method, experimentation, and
testing.
Research uaually begine with a atudy of documenta. In this case the inveati-
gator becomes familiar with the autobiographical data of the teat subject and
studiea the technology of the labor procees, descriptian of the equipment, and
official records of the course of the labor proress, accidents, injuries, and
the like.
The next form of familiarization with the labor process and the laboring person
is asking questions. This can be done in variaus forma, for example talking with
~ the employees or with his-or her fellow workers, chief, or manager. Tfie cenver-
sation follows a prearranged plan. Answera to queatiAna that are of iriterest
- may also be obtained by having a apecially developed queettonnaire ftlled out.
Questionnaires are usually uaed for large-scale surveys. Under the questioning
technique we should also include the many standardized test-questionnaires that
aim at identifying (by behavioral reactions) certain personality traits. The
best known of them are the Minnesota Multtpfiaeic and the Cattel and Taylor tests
- [6, 7, 81. The shortcoming in the questioning tecitniques is the subjectivene3s
of the information that the investigator recetves.
A deeper study of the labor proceas, the requirements it imposes on human psycho-
physiological traits, and the dynamica of the condition of tha ororking person
is achieved in the stage of observation. Observation resulta can be r�-?re-
sented in the form of a stenograpliic or other reports, motion picturea and
photographs, time-and-motion studies, and the like. It is particularly
important during observation to record the physiological indicators of the
- state of the subject being studied. In arder to obtain more complete informa-
tion on the state of the operator an effort should be made to record indicators
of the activity of the primary functional systems of the organtsm: cardio-
vascular system (electrocardiogram, measurements of arterial pressure and blood
volume per minute), central nervous system (electroencephalogram, rheogram),
7,
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the respiratory system (pneumogram), the muscular s.ystem (electromXogram), aad
the involuntary nervous aystem (skin galvanic reflex). Additional information
can be obtained by the labor tecfinique that was tiroadly propagated and em-
ployed by Sovtet vocational psyc:hologists of the 1920''s- [5, 9]. In this
technique the researchers themselves master the occupations tfiey are studying.
The next stage in the study of human labor activities is the expPriment, which
enables the investigator to test a Iiypothesis that is formulated on the basis of
observation, identify the essential operator characteristics in situations of
varying complexity, and so on. Two types of experiments are distinguished:
= laboratory and natural.
The laboratory experiment may involve aimulating actual activity (the synthetic
experiment using trainers) or a particular operation (the analytic experiment with
psychophysiological modeling). A laboratory experiment may also be done by
mathematical modeling techniques where the investigator expressea the activities
of the operator by means of formulas, equations, and the like derived on the
- basis of the findings of specialized writings or preliminary experimente. By
solving these formulas and equatiens the investigator is, so to epeak, studying
human activities under particular.condiCiona. By comparing the results ob-
tained with actuat events the investtgator can determine the extent to which
the ffiathematical model corresponde to reality. The laboratory eAperiment also
encompasses tests made to identify or determine the meaeure of a particular psycriophysiological trait of the operator ("achievement tes*_s"). Tests are
_ "brief, standardized psychophysiological examinations to establish, for practical
purpoaes, interpersonal differences in intellect and ao-called special capa-
1.__4-ties ["sposobnosti"], expressPd in comparable quantities"[37]. The test
subject must perfcrm the action writh an assigned precision witbin a set time.
The tests are given in open form (the "paper and pencil" test) and in the form of an assignment using specialized equipment [10]. The advantage of the labora-
tory experiment lies in the possibility of receiving more accurate measurements
- of the parameters that intereat�us; the weakness is that it is not conducted in a
real situation.
The natural experiment presupposes studies made right at the work positian,
which makes this a.full-fledged method [5, 11]. T~ao types of experiments are
distinguished depending on the purpose of the investigation. The first type
contemplatea an investi.gation of. the behavior of the test suTi,ject when the
investigator (unnoticed by the worker) causes some deviation from the usual
- course of the tndustrial process, some unforeseen situation, and the like; this
- is called the verifying experiment. The second kind, the formation experiment,
investigates the formation or transfer of skills when mastering an occupation
- or undergoing retraining in connection witfi the introduction of some refine-
ment, change in pu*pose, and the like. The verifying experiment enables the
investigator to evaluatp the sigrzificance of a particular property A'or operator
_ activity in different conditions; the formation experiment enables him to form
, ,judgements about the mechanism or formation of labor skills and the possiliility
of one personal trait compensating for another in the process of mastering an
occupation.
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= The invPetigator most frequently usee the scheme of tecTini.ques sfiown in
Figure 1 to study labor activitp- and operator cfiaracteristics.
ei uccne o nnua
u COou[m onenomene
N
Kuno;
i
v bece~a oc:
^)Qr,rc?mo ~5~
j~melmerOnDOfnu~u
Ftgure 1. Methoda of Studying Operator Activity and Charac'
teriatics
- Key: (1) Methods of Studying Operator Activity and Cfiaractert.stics;
(2) Study of Documents; (3) Observation - 1. Time-and Motion Studies, Motion Pictures,
and Photographs; 2. Recording Pliysiological Parameters;
(4) Experiment - 1. Lafioratory Experiment: a. Modeling, b. Achieve-
ment Tests and Machine Tests; 2. Natural: a. Verifying,
b. Formation;
(5) Questioning - 1. Conversation, 2. Questionnaire, 3. Survey Tests;
. (6) ' Labor Technique. ,
All these techniques. are used for the. purpose of better adapting the Iatior
process and implements of labor to human capacities and also to search.for the
optimal combination of peraonal characteristics to master an occupation and meet
its requirements. Four problems are singled out depending on the aspect of
study: (1) ratianal organtzatton of the schedule� of latior anfl rest; (2) voca-
tional guidance and se lection; (3) organization of training; (4)* reconciling
- human capacities and machine requirements (human factors engtneering). All of
- these questions are included in the problem of scientif3c organization of la6or
(SOL) in the broad sense (in the narrow aense SOL appltes to rational organi-
zation of the schedule of labor and rest). 1. The Origin and Development of SOL [Scientific Organizat3on of Lafior]
The. origins of scientific organtzation of laBor go tiack to the period of the
birth and development of the capitalist metfiod of production, wfien the question
of raising 'Latior productivity became. timely. It is customary to consider
Frederick Winsiow Taylor the founder of gcientific organization of Iabor. In
1882 Taylor made studies of working mations 112, 13.]. Tfie purpose of fiis studies
was to raise laTior productivity. Tfiis was attempted Tp differential wages for
workers and standardt zation and rationalizatton of particular labor operations.
But Taylor and fiis followers ("Taylorism") did not take account of the indi-
vidual qualities of the worker and did not strive for a scientifically
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_ substantiated organization of tfis scfiadule of labor and rest. In tfis pursuit
- of maximum profit the system whicfi tfiey proposed squeezed every fiit of
strength out of the worker.
- V. I. Lenin, wTiile calling for us to "borrow everything valuable� from this
school, exposed the predatory essence of Taylorism and called it Ksubtle
savagery" [3, 41.
Scientific organization of labor began to be emploqed mucfi later in.Russia, even
= though the foundations for itw successful development fiad been laid in the late
19th century by the work of I. M. Sechenov [14, 15].
The issues of scientific organization of labor received furtfi.er development in
the works of the vocational psychologists (a term introduced liy the German
scientist Stern). Tao per.iods'must be distinguished in the development of voca-
tional psychology. The first was the pre-personality period wfien the investi-
_ gators working on the prablems of scientific organization of labor did not take
account of the individual characteristics of the suFiject, which made thts de-
velopment similar to Taylorism. The German vocational psychologist Muensterberg
was the major representative of this period. The second period is represented
by the works on wfiose basis scientific trends sucfi as vocational tppology and
psychological classification of occupations began to develog. The most striking
representative of the ideas of this period uras 0. Lipman [16). In fiis work
"On the Psychology of Occupatioris," fie reviews the requirements which different
occupations make of a person and the relationship between occupattonal style
and the person's individual characteristics.
The-school of Soviet vocational psychologists took shape in the 1920ts and 1930's.
Its founders were S. G. Gellershteyn, S. L. RuTainsfiteyn, and I. ~N. Shpil''reyn.
_ Permanent psychological offices and laboratories were opened at many enterpr.ises
through the efforts of the vocational psychologists. Tfie labor tecfinique that
has already been mentioned appeared durtng these years. An all-Union congress
of vocational psychologists and the 12th International Conference of Vocational
Psychologists were held in Moscow in 1931. In later years, however, work on
vocational psychology was stopped in the USSR. Tli.ere were two reasons for this:
first, the USSR was experiencing an acute shortage of laTaor in connection with
rapid development of its industrial potenttal (and for a time vocational selec-
tion was not a paramount task), and secondly, the fundamentals of vocational
psychology diverged from the fundamentals of general psychology, whicfi found
expression in undestrable turns and scientifically unsound me~~fiodological ap-
proachea. Large-scale work on scientific organizatton of labor began again
after the 1957 conference on questions of labor psycliology, wfiicfi censured the
- shortcomtngs of vocational psycfiology, and particularly after the 1967 all--
Union conference on labor organization. At the latter meeting, in connection
with the dtrectives of the 23rd CPSU Congress, practical recommendations were
- developed to intensify scientific research on the pfiysiolagy, psychology, and
hygiene of labor. The 2nd All-Union Congress of the Society of Psycfiologists
in 1963 already had a working section on fiuman factors engineering, and at the
- 3rd All-Union Congress of Psychologists in 1968 there were sections on labor
psychology 1nd human factors engineering. Many fundamental works were published
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on reconciling the aubjective and ohjectt.ve factors in production, a charac-
teristic profilem of human factors engineering 117-211. During tfiese qeara a
number of major works on the pfiysiologtcal, psycFiopTiyaiological, and psycho-
logical aspects of labor organtzation appeared 123, 28--321.
The first all-Union conference on "TTie Human Being and the Automaton" was held
in 1963. It marked the beginning of a broad range of domestic works on the
- problem of the man-macfiine system (MS). Tfiis line of studp is cfiaracterized
by development of the systems approacfi under the influence of cybernetics in
considering the interaction of fiuman beings and technical devices [22, 23-27].
A new stage in the development of SOL took shape aflroad also [33].
All the areae of SOL are developing auccessfully today; vocational selection;
vocational training; scientific organization of the scfiEdule of labor and rest;
and, human factors engineering.
2. Classifications of the Types of Human Labor Activitiy
The specific features of the tasks, metiiods, meana, and measurea of SOL depend
on the type of labor activity for which it is being developed. . We fiave already
observed above that labor acttvities in their htstorical aspect fiave changed
from labor processes that required physical characteristics of a person
- (strength, agility, and endurance) in the firat stage to primarily operator
- types of labor today, a time of universal introduction of �ull mechanization
and automation of production (tracking, monitoring, programming, and control).
The human functions have also changed in this connection, from energy functtons
to information functions.
We still lceep the division of lahor into phyaical and mental labor today
[34, 35], but fewer and fewer production proceases require pfiyaical labor, and
it is usually not in direct form. These two large classes of labor activity
_ impose demands on different functional systems of the human Tieing and are
described depending on this as nluscular and nervous activitX or pfiysical and
mental labor (see Figure 2 below). The criteria of difficultyfor the particu-
lar types of activi.ty can be a physieal measure of labor for the first class of
labor operations and intenaity for the second class [35]. The pTiysical measures
of lataor are expreased in ktlogram--metera of work done or in gigacalories of
energy expended. For example, jobs that requtre more ttian 4.17 gigacalories
per minute are put in the middle category of heavy physical work.
The intensity of lahor is usually determined by the density of various types
- of information whtch the operator muat receive durtng a oaorking day-. WEien evalu-
ating intensity it is essential a].so to evaluate the rate and evenness witfi
whicfi information arrives, the ratio between primary and secondary information,
and so on. The aecond class of human labor activity can iie broken down into
subclasses which :iave their own speciftc features. For example, in fier work,
- V. P. Solov'yeva [36] studies the following subclasses: (1) mental labor
without nervous-emotional stress (the labor of a proof reader); (2) labor with
nervous tension but without mental stress (a sub.way engine driver); (3) mental
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_ _ _ -
(1) 8udc~ mpyda
- i I--1 ( Z)Aynrruuu vennOeHa
( 3 irynKUU010nonaa
ZmeMQ peanu3QCUlL
Owuwec.YUri
7 Ycm0er,nslri
-
( 5 ) 'y�pzemuveurue
un"'opuauuoopan~rur)o'e
( g) (anepam
6 nepGna-
~ ~ MWUl~4MOA
4ft77/JQADM0A MepCMOq
cucmeMQ
Figure.
Types of
Labor
Key: (1)
Types of Labor;
(6)
Nerve-Muscular;
(2)
Human Functions;
(7)
Mental;
(3)
Functional Systems Used;
(8)
Information (Operator);
(4)
Physical; .
(9)
Central Nervous System,
(5)
Energy;
labor with nervous-emotional stress (a dispatcher at the console); (4) crea-
tive mental labor with differing degrees of nervous-emotional stress '(junior
and senior scientific associates, graduate students).
K. M. Gurevich [37] classifies occupations by the intensity of labor (intense
at all times, at certain times, and at indefinite timea) and by the presence
of strain on the emotions and the will,
- All of these classifications are constructed depending on which sphere of ac-
tivity and whicFi human functional system receives tfie primary burden. In
addition, attempts have been made to classify occupations according to the
potential and characteriatica which a working person must have to succesafully
perform the labor process. Thus, Lipman, who waa one of the most prominent
representativea of the personality stage of vocational psychology, had already
divided all occupation's into two categories [16]:
1. The higher or "intelleczual"occupati:ons, cfiaracterized
by the lack of a standard style of performance. A person who fias masCered a fitgfier occupatton shapes tfiis
- occupation to some extent depending on fiis or her own
individual cfiaracteristics. Examples are doctors,
artists, and the like;
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2. The lower occupations, which require elementary,
standard qualities for their performance. Examples
might lie work on a conveyor line, sorting, and tfis
lii.e.
In addition to the psychological classification of occupations, Lipman also
worked out an occupational typology. Iie asserted tfiat ttLe pfilegmatic was more
interested in learning, while the sanguine was more attractQd to doing.
~ K. M. Gurevich 137] divides occupations into two types depending on the cate-
gories of requirements whicfi the occupation makes of individual fiumar cfiarac-
terisrics: (1) occupations that absolutelp require some anthropometric or
psychophysiological characteristics (for example, reaction speed for ajet
pilot, strength for handling a sledgehanner); (2) occupationa that make com-
pensible requirements for individiial characteristica. For example, people wfio
differ in the speed of their thinking processes can successfully masr.er the
same occupation. Some will handle the job quickly and easily because tfieir
_ thinking proceases are very fast; others who spend more time on the thinking
process also do the job well tfianks to tfieir diligent care.
3. Scientific Organization of the SchQdule of Labor and Rest
- When working out the foundations anl concrete steps of the scientific arganixa-
tion of the schedule of labor and :est, the investigator identifies first tlioae
factors which directly or indirectly influence the production indtcators of the
worker and how he or she feels, There are some 2,000-3,000 such factors, but
theq can be clasaified by groups. A. I. Prokhorov 138], for example, identifies
seven groups of factors: 1- the type, character, and complexity of the task;
2- the character and characteristics of the pereon; 3- organization of the
work position; 4-- organization of production activity; 5-- conditions of ac-
tivity; 6- motivation for activity; 7- objective conditions of the setting
of the activity. These are fairly broad groups and any factor can be reflected
in them. Other investigatore propose a division of influential factors tfiat
differs from this one by using narrower and more concrete groups. For example,
- A. I. Samoyolova [39] feels that SOL measures should be concentrated on the
following factors: the pace and rhythm of the production process, the equipping
of the work position and work posture, the schedule of laFior and rest, the micro-
climate, the air environment and illumination of the utork position, special work
clothing and environmental esthetics, and organization of a rational diet.
In the work of A. A. Adamovicfi-Ge.rasimov and otfiers [40], the factors whicfi.must
be taken into account in studies of SOL are broken down into physiological,
psychological, sanitary-fiygienic, sociological, and technical-economic.
N. D. Levitov 141] identified three groups of factors on wfiich succpss in master-
ing an occupation and attaining higfi production indicators depends: motiva--
tional components (the status.of the occupation in society, wages and worktng
condittons); qualifications components (the level of tratning and natural
capacities), and the individual psychophqsiological cfiaracteriatics.
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- K. K. Platonov [5] believes tFtat scientific organization of labor should look
first at the i:mpact of the environment, in particular the working collective,
- as well as the presence of factors that fiave a negative tmpact on the worker's
healtli, the development of occupational fatigue, and cfiaracteristics of the
mental processes and emotional spfiere of the worker. Tfie work of V. G. Zfinkov
_ and R. I. Ignat tyev [35] assigns the prima.ry role to the sanitary--hygienic
conditions of labor (condition of the work position), the schedule of labor and
rest, the equipping and mecfiar.ization of jobs, and taking account of cfianges in
work capability during the day and the week.
It seems to us that the factors whicfi.are reflected in the labor productivity,
work capabilitq, and physical and mental feelings of the worker can be classified
in four groups.
1. The specific characteristtcs of the assignment: requirements of the occupa-
tion; complexity, type, and character of the task; degree of responsibility.
2. The potential of the peraon performing the assignment: experience of life,
motivation, and interest; psycfiophysiological characteristics, sex, age,
physical measurements, state of health, and tiefiavior in ordinary and emergency
situations;-vocational training and qualifications.
3. Organfzation of the lahor process: scientiftc-technical advances in the par-
_ ticular sector of labor, furnishinga and technical equipment of the particular
production area, organization of the work position; pace, rhyttim, and sequence
of-operations, rest periods, and industrial calisthen.ics; relations within the
collective, the necessity of interactton with other mem5ers of the collective
in the production process; meeting sanitarq-fiygienic and pfiysiological require-
ments, the presence of harmful factors; esthetics, special work clothing,
organization of the diet, and availability of rest areas.
4. Changes in functional state and work capability: during the working day;
- during the work week; related to the person's biorhythms.
After selecting a particular production area or type of activity for study,, the
; first thing the investigator must do is write up a so-called "professiogramma,"
which contains a description of the occupation, the place of the occupation
in the technological sequence, the principal working operations, the work posi-
tion and sanitary-hygienic conditions, the required level of education, and the
psychophysiolagical requirements impoaed on the worker [42]. Tfien the list of
indicatora of activity is comptled 1431. Thus, the work of an operator in charge
of several weaving machines consists of orientatiun (surveillance of the ma-
chines) and actuating activity; the latter ts divided, in turn into preventive
and urgent (special) operations. The list of indicators of activity also includes
the walking movements of the weaving machine operator to inspect the vacfiines,
do preventive work, and perform special operations.
- The time of the labor process is divided, in conformtty with the purpose of the
work being done, into primary time (used for special jobs) and auxiliary time
(preventive work and inspection); taken together they determine the operattonal
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time of the working day. The working dap of aoork time consists of operational
time (primary and auxiliary) and breaks for rest,meals, industrial cates-
thenics, natural needs, and enforced idleness related to incorrect labor or-
ganization.
The list of occupational requirements aritfi respect to the characteriatics aad
qualities of the worker is a mandatory element tn the description of the par-
ticular type of labor activity. Tfiis list is compiled on the basis of the
~ findinga of the specialized ltterature, personal acquaintancs witfi the produc-
- tion area, and consulting witfi experte. Bp evaluating each requirement in
- connection with its aignificance for successful performance of the assign-
- ment the investigator receives a table, graph, or diagram of the distributiori
- of the significance of the occupational requirements 15, 44J. Then the invea-
tigator determines the workload which the worker experiences during the work-
ing day. It is measured, as already mentioned above, in physical terms for
physical labor and by tntensitp for mental labor. Sut the workload of dif-
ferent types of jobs cannot always be defined unambiguously 6y one of these
criteria.
The workload is usually a multidimensional indicator. It depende above all on
the pace of performance of the work or receipt of informatton, on the evenness
- of distribution of the workload, the required precision in performance of the
A aseignment, the aeriousness of consequences in case the worker makes mistakes,
the degree of responsibility, the complexitp of the algoritfim of activity,
and so on.
The nexC indicator of the person"s activity, the producttvity or efficiency
of labor, is also multidimensional. EacTi form of labor activity has ite owa
specific components. Thus, the efficiency of 1aBor of a locomotive eagineer
[44] may be evaluated by three criteria: (1) reliability (accident-free
work throughout the entire career; (2) skill rating; (3) conservation of
electricity.
Techniques of recording the acti.vity of different syatems of the organism and
functional tests are used to study cfiange in the functional atate of the
worker, to determine indicators of functianal atate that correlate with.
changes in work capability, and to identify the moment of onset of worker
fatigue. For example, the etate of the central nervous system is determined
~ by recording the biopotentials of tFie brain electroencephalogram). An enor-
mous amountof experimental material fias now been accumulated on correlating
changes in the electroencepfialogram and the level of alertness, attention,
emotional and operational strain, fatigue, and the ltke. Therefore, the
electroencephalogram is a valuable diagnostic technique. The i:nvestigato.r
may receive additional information about the state of the central nervous
system by using various functional tests, in particular analyzing sensory-
~ motor reaction time, recording the critical frequency at whicF flashes of
light or discrete sounds merge, reacting to a moving object, picking up the
rhythm of flashes of light or discrete sounds, tracking reacttons, and other
such tests.
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The state of the invoiuntary nervous system (which often plays the main part in
a change in functional state or increase in the workload on the worker) is
studied by recording the frequency of the heart beat, arterial pressure, blood
volume per minute, frequency of breatfiing, the ratio of infialing to exhaling, the
electrical resistance of potential of the skin (skin-galvanic reflex), body tem-
perature and otfier sucfi quantities.
Indicators of the activity of the.muscular system depend on the functional state
and the state of work cgpability. Therefore the electromyogram is studied and
dynamic measurements are performed.
It is natural that the state of emotional and operational strain and fatigue are
- also reflected in higher mental functions. From tfiis standpoint the indicators
of the proof reading test have dtagnostic value , as do otfier tecfiniques: inter-
twi.ned lines; the Schulte technique; adding numbers orith carrying; and, repro-
duction of an image seen on a screen (shown for a minimum exposure of 0.05-0.15
seconda). These tecfiniques can be used to form judgements on intensity, switch-
ing, attention span, and operational memory.
The spectral composition of operator apeech "reacta" verq aubtly to changes in
psychophystolo.gical state. This enables the inveatigator to use the apoken
answer as an additional indicator. Biochemical tests (change of sodium content
in the saliva, sugar in the blood, urine composition, and the like) can also
provide valuable information.
Recording indicators of the activity of different systems of the organism and es-
tablishing the laboz productiviCy and work capabtlitp of the obligator enables
the investigator to follow changes in theee quanttties during the working day,
work week, and.work year:
Early in the 20th.Century E. Krepelin described the classtc work curve. Ye. A.
Derevyanko modernized this curve (see Figure 3 beloW). He showed how maximum
capacities, the productivtty of activity, emotional tenston, and the state of
fatigue change at different points in the working day. Tfie periods of labor
activity in the couYSe of the day differ bq time boundaries and quantitative
expressions depending on the type of labor activtty, years of experience, age,
sex, and characteristics of the operator, But tfiey are governed bq the pattern
described.
For practicaL purposes a less refined division of worTcing time into three
periods is usually used: 1- period of 6eginning woxk and moving into a work
rtiythm, characterized by a gradual increase in work capa5ility; 2-- period of
stable maintenance of the level of work capability attatned; 3-- period of de-
cline in work capability, fatigue. This sequence of periods during work time
is repeated twice, at the start of the working day and after the mealtime
break [35]. Investigators note a similar progression in the mork week [40].
And investigators studying change in the operator's work capability muat consider
not only the pattern described above, but also the influence of various factora
(years of experience, age, sex, and personal traits) on it. In addition, the
changes in work capability depend on Btorhytfims, in particular the 24-hour
(daily) rhythm. It fias been established 142] tfiat cfianges in Work capability
and functional states are greater and the time required to get into a work
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Figure 3. Work Curve (by Ye. A.
Derevyanko, 1959):
Key: (I)
CrT}
Cnr?

(1)
C2)
0 )
(4 )
C5).
(6)
Level of Maximum Capacities;
Level of Productivity of
Acttvity;
Level of Emotional Teneion;
Level of Fatigue;
Period of SettZing Into Work;
Period of Opttmal Work Capa-
fiilitp; � Period of Full Compensation;
Period of Unstable Compen-
sation;
Final Spurt;
Progresaive Decrease in
Productivitq.
rhythm ia longer for tfie second shift, artzile cfianges in biorhythms*at the end of
the ahift are greater in amplttude.
Researchers have given apeciai attention to studqing the process of fa'tigue,
which develops aa the result of intense or prolonged work. Developing fatigue
can be compensated for to some degree by motivational factors, efforts of will,
and emotional factors. The following types of Iocal fatigue are distinguished
depending on the sphere of activity: pfiyaical, mental, and emotional. Fatigue
may also be general in nature. The forms of manifestation of fatigue may vary
depending on its-type. Thus, V. P. Solov'yeva has demonstrated [36] that mental
fatigue shows itself in the form of protective inhibition in the central nervous
system (decl-ine ir.i the magnitudE and speed of reflex reactions, reduction in
the mobility of nerve processes, and increase in tfie inertia of the inhibitory
procesa). Emotional fattgue is characterized cfiiefly by unFavorable changes in
the cardiovascular system and biocfiemical reactions. Fatigue caused by mental
activity with emotfonal stress shows itself in the form of changes iti the cen-
tral nervous syatem and the autonomoua nervoua system. Fatigue may be promoted
by a diseased state, mental upset, and otiier indirect factors.
Prolonged fatigue that is not compensated for may lead to a transition from func-
tional changes tn the organism to organic ones. The nervous and cardiovaecular
systems suffer particularly in this case.
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- Measures for scientific organization of lahor are woxked out to preserve a high
� level of work capa6ility and prevent fatigue in the worker. These measures,
~ based on study of changes in the work capability and functional staCe of tTiQ
- worker in the course of the working day, aim at shortenTng and easing the period
_ r,f getting into a work rhythm (initial exercises, remo-~; L of distracting factors,
rhythmic music), prolonging the pertod of stable work capability (rational or-
ganization of the labor process and work positton), and eliminating the firat
si.gns of fatigue (industrial cal isthenics, instttuting additional rest hreaks,
and consumption of vitamins).
Researchers have been particularly interested in the possibility of maintaining
' high work capahility and a good general state tiy instituting sfiort pauses, addi-
tional breaks of a few minutes (in addition to the 5asic mealtime break). It
- is mast efficient to introduce 2-3 breaks of 5-10 minutes [35, 45]. In this
period of time it is posaible to reatore functtona without losing the work
_ rhythm that has been achieved. The need for additional rest is determined by
- the magnitude of functional changes at a certain moment in time [35].
' One of the ways to combat the development of fatigue is active rest, that is,
industrial calisthenics or changing the work operations and emotional conditions.
From the pfiysiological standpoint these measures should lead to a change in the
focus of stimulation in the brain. TTie new focus of stimulation restores the
initial state that functioned earlier Fiy inducing inhi5itton of neighboring
zones [5, 30, 46].
Monotonous work makes special demanda for SOL measures. By causing a decline
in the level of alertness it may lead to acctdents. Tfiis is especially dan-
gerous in those cases where accidents may tnvolve a danger to fiuman life (for
example, the engineer of a locomotive). Tfie simplest steps to combat monotony
are introducing outside stimulants, periodicallq cfianging rhythm and operations,
- and consolidating routine, monotonous siraple operations into more complex and
diverse ones [28].
The following factors may serve as indicators of a correctly organized schedule
of labor and rest, that is, indicators of the effectiveness of SOL measures:
1. Productivity and economic efficiency of labor;
2. Satisfaction with work, mobili.ty of personnel;
3. Level of work cap ability and general state during the working
- day, reatoration of a normal state after work;
4. Number and duration of cases of temporary inabtlity to work,
injury, and chrontc illness.
Thus, we can identify the following stages in the work of an investigator studying
scientific organization of labor [139]:
- 1. Study of existing pTiysiological-fiygienic conditions of labor
, and organization of the la6or process;
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2. Characterization of work capafiilitp and tfie state of
psychopfiysiological functions during work;
3. Analysis of the state of fiealtfi (zaking into account
years of experience,' age, sex, occupation, and social-
domestic conditions);
4. Development of SOL measures;
5. Testing the effectiveness of SDLmeasuree..
4. Vocational Guidance, Vocational Selection, and Voestional Suitability
A^ occupation (vucation) is a specific group of labor duties that fias existed for
lozg time and took shape on the basis of division of laFior. The specific group
of labor duties requires that a person ehaw qualities and cfiaracteristics that
are specific to the particular occupation. Thus, K. Marx wrote long ago: "Dif-
ferent operations performed in turn by the producer 4f a good and merging into a
single whole unit in the process of his labor make dffferent demands of him. In
one case he must develop greater strengtfi, in anotTier greater dexterity, in a
third greater attentiveneas, and so on" [2]. He continues, But one and the
same individual doea not have all these qualitieg in equal measure "[2]. It
follows from this that different people will perform the aame workdifferently
in qualitative and quantitative terms, using different amounts of strength and
energy for this. The necessity of matching tfie capabilities (socialt mental,
and biological) of the working individual and the requirements of the occupation
is the problem of vocational guidance and vocational selection.
The presence of the easential group of social and pspchophysiological qualities
and traits insurea tliat the working individual wtll Fie snccessful tn mastering
the occupation, achieve highly productive labor, and Be satisfied arith the labor
activity. These factors are the criteria for the occupational suitability of a
working individual for a particular type of labor. But the tasks of vocational
guidance and vocatienal selectton are not limited to questioas of occupational
auitability. This is just one aspect of tfie matter, the humaniptic side. Voca-
tional guidance aZso considers tfie economic and social aspects of tfie question:
the market for possible application of tfie laTaor and the social oreight of the
occupation in the given society. Figure 4 below shows the "vocational guidance
triangle" and its forms [5]. Conflicts often ariae between the humanistic and
economic aspects. For example, in the first years of industrialization of our
country when an enormous influx of labor wae required for industry, work on the
study of labor psychology, which had beet ^onducted succeasfully by tfia voca-.
tional psychologists of the 1920's and 1930`_ aas stopped.
Therefore, a researcher heginning work on tfie proulems of vocational guidance,
selection, and suitability with appli.cation to a certain sphere of babor ac-
tivity must first of all study the following questions:
1. The economic or social need for tfie particular occupation;
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~
nQ oe
/
Figure 4. The "Vocational Guidance Triangle" and Its Forms
(according to K. K. Platonov, 1970)
Key: (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
. (6)
(7)
(8)
Vocational Education;
Vocational Propaganda; Vocations (Their Requirements);
Market for Potential Labor;
The Individual (His or Her CapaFiilities);
Vocatioaal Consultation;
Vocational Selection.
2. The class of occupations involving the particular type
of activity;
3. The social and psychophyaiological demands of the occu-
pation on the working individual;
4. The characteristics which a person must fiave to succesa-
fully master the occupation, achteve higfi arork tndicators,
and receive moral satisfaction from tlie chosen tppe of
activtty.
Approaches to and views of the problem of the potential and capabilities of the
working indtvidual are not uniform. Thus, tfiere have Fieen different estima-
tions of the importance of natural and acquired cfiaracterigtics and of the
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manifestation of capahilitiea in different sphexes of -social activity. Some
students of the question Fielieve tfiat a person is born with certain already
established capabilities and tfiat no education and training can replace them
if they are absent. Otfiers feel tfiat a pereon ig born with equrl inclinatione
for all capabilities aud that any capability can be perfected bq education.
In their works F. R. Dunayevskiy, A. K. Gastev, and otiiers deny that there ar2
persiatent natural differences [48, 49]. Tbep beliQVe that a person can de-
velop any qualitp througfi Iong, fiard work.
It is apparent that an orthodox defense Qf either the first or second point of
view leads to incorrect conclusfons. A third point of view on the development
of capabilities ts given in the worke of I. P. Pavlov and was formulated well
by K. K. Platonov [5]: "Capabilities are afairly stable structure, but of
course they also change under the influence of education and the fndividual
psychoiogical ciiaracteristics of the personality." This point of view takzs ac-
count of the importance of Fioth the inborn biologfcal principle and the ac-
quj.red, social princip le.
We have considered viecas concerning human capabilities with respect to mastering
a particular sphere of activity. Views also differ as to the categorical nature
of the requirements which an occupation imposes on a person. Thus, some re-
searchers feel tfiat in principle any pereon can master any occupation, alth:.::gh
the peraon may not always have all the characteristica needed for the particular
occupation in the necessary degree [43, 50]. Tfiis occurs tfirougfi compensation
for some characteristics by otfier cfiaracterietics. Thus, high indicators in
any type of activity can be achieved by workers with the moat diverse paycho-
physiological structure, by means of different personality traits that are re-
flected in the individual atiyle of work. Therefore, occupational selection is
not.decisive. Primary rttention afiould be focused on constructfng adequate
training programs that can develop the essential characteristic or a compen-
sating one in order to meet the.occupational requirements.
K. M. Gurevich elaborates a different point of view [37]� He believed that
there are two types of occupations. Tfie first type makes demands on the
individual for which no compensation is possible. In tTiis case there must be
ab$olute vocational suitability, which requires careful vocational selection.
The second type of occupation makes demands on the working individual which can
be compensated for by different characteristics. Tfie common occupations belong
to this type. For them vocational selection is not so important and primary
attention is given to correctly organiztng training programs and methods. But
even for the aecond type of occupations, despite the posaibtlity of compensating
for lack of some characteristics with otfiers, not all persons who have mastered
the occupation can attain the fiighest levels of ekill. In tfiis case, therefore,
the compensatory potential is lfmited and vocational selection is desirable [51].
This conclusion is confirmed by the fact that a fiigh percentage (up to 25 per-
cent) of healthy people cannot master various occupations that differ by
complexity because their nervous and cardiovascular systems become overloaded
[52]. Thus, in vocattonal selection it is necessary to consider not only the
existence of characteristics that insure vocational skill and the poeaibility
of compensation for them, when lacking, but also the load on the organism in
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mastering the occupation and carrying on dailp activity in the cfiosen sghere
of labor.
The partial or complete unsuitability of a morking individual for a particular
type of activity may sfiow up in different stages of acquiring vocational skills
and in different situatians when performing occupational duties. Thus, in the
training process people wTiose characteristics are mast in accord with the re-
quirements of the future occupation master the vocational skills faster and
more Pasily than people who do not fiave the optimal set of cfiaracteristics for
- the particular occupation. Tfie latter may also master the occupational skills
- (compensation by other characteristics if it is possible, or persistent, cor-
rECtly organized training of the essential cfiaracteristics), but tfiey spend
much more effort and time doing so.
Thus, a significant spread is observed between the first and second groups in
the beginning, followed by a convergence of tndividual indicators of activity
because the second group is raised to the standards of the occupation by com-
pensatory individual characteristics 1511. Under ordinary working conditions
in the second type of occupations (according to K. M. Gurevich),the difference
in characteristics will not lead to a sharp divergence in indicators of labor
activity. But the difference in psychophysiological cfiaracteristics shows
clearly in unusual, stress situations. Tfie stress may be the result [53] of
the difficulty of the assignment (high requirements for precision and speed of
performance, work when time is short, work under conditions of information
overloads, and complexity of the assignments), wiien an emergencq is highly
likely or exiating, when there are distracting factors, when an unforeseen
change occurs in the ordinary course of the labor process, and so on. Failure
to match the optimal set of characteristic$ also fosters exceasive nervous
tension in the worker; which may result in serious cfironic illneas.
These factora (taking economic and social need into account, of course)
demonstrate the necessity and usefulness of vocational guidance and vocational
- selection.
Vocational selection is done as follows. First the researcher becomes familiar
with the occ+zpatton and establishes its classification, place in the economy,
- distribution, and future prospects. Tne "polytecfinic" quality of an occupation
is important to study, because this makes it possible in part to apgly the re-
sults obtained to other areas of activity. Next a list ia made of the operations
that make up the occupational activity. Tfie operations must be broken down into
basic (ones on which performance of the assignment as a wFioie directly depends)
and subaidiary (preparatory and propfiylactic) operations. It is desirable to
rank the operations by time spent and difficulty of performance. The investi-
gator can uae any of the methods descri6ed above for this purpose.
In conformity with the occupational description obtained in this manner, the
researcher should make a list of the requirements tTiat the occupation imposes
on the working individual. For example, the following list of requirements is
uaed for vocational selection of locomotive engineers [44]: perception, atten-
= tiotY, memory, ability to make decisione under time pressure, and emotional
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stahility. The queationnaire compoaed fiy Lipman ia usually uaed to identify
psychophystologtcal requirementa; ordinarily it is adapted in advance to the
occupation under study [5]. TTien the investigator, beginning with knowledge
that has lieen accumulated in the special literature, personal experience, and
the findings of preliminary experiments, 3etermines the cfiaracteristics whi.ch
a person must have to master the occupation and perform tts operations. After
- this vocational selection proper is done. Tfiis usually begins witli a medical
examination and ends witfi identification of the social orientation and determi-
nation of the psychophysiological characteristics of the individual, his or
her compensatory potential, and the need to develop and drill vocational capa-
bilities.
- Training is a key element in the preparation of workers for occupations. The
training program must take into account compensatory potential and the need to
develop and train occup at ional capahilities.
The specific features and significance of the occupation determine the degree
of strictness in vocational selectione whether it is done according to the
upper or lower boundary of the criteria used.
Thus, vocational guidance and selection should include tYree basic stages:
compiling an occupational description and list of psycliopfiysiological requirements
of the occupation, identification of the essential capa5ilities, and working out
ways to develop these capabilities. Figure 5 below d�agrams how the criteria of
mastering an occupation depend on the potenttal of the person and how the atrict-
= ness of the occupational requirements depends on the type of occupationa.
~ 1Kpume9UU 'RPIKOGfIb OFf4P.YUfl �
(If~d~npuzcOnocnu . y0a0nemCopennocma y~ (2)
~
om[umCmduP nPOPnanOar,.?,-.q
~ -
-
!)couuoncHMQ ocnexm'
^curu4ie: ruu acne,rm
aOemnoa yt.^o0uar
;;0 3KCmae.Nanono~r ucnu4up~
3J6u.no' L'�P:,YUU arenm
I) o,Tcymtm0ue Oa~Monrnot,nu ,+o
ntnt0uuu COot7Cm0 (17p0;0m0a�)
rre:m.roc'ne (6 ~
( S ) z; Jo3Mo,wnocmo Keune.4cauuu
np6�vr10J'10nud
,.ovc,n0 (17po~700yyer.ue)
Chapter 5. Criterion of Vocational Suitafiility
Key: (1)
(2)
~ (3)
(4)
Criteria of Vo cational
Suitability;
EAae of Training, Labor
Ac;iievements , Satiefaction,
Lack of Excess ive Stress;
The Person - 1. Social Aapects,
2. Mental Aspects, 3, $iologi-
cal Aspects;
Labor - 1. In Ordinary Condi-
ti.ons, 2. In Extreme Conditions;
(S) 1. Lack of Possibtlity of
Compensating for Characteristics
(Vocational Selection), 2. Pos-
sibility of Compeneating for
Characteriatica (Vocational
Training);
(6) Strictnese of Vocational Re-
quirements.
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Chapter 2. Investigating the Paychophysiological Cfiaracteristics and Social
Orientation of the Individual
- The methods used by tfie investigator in vocational selectton must be (as in any
investigation) adequate and informative, tfiat is, tfiey must directly identify the
characteristic under study and describe it as fully as possible. Various methodo-
logical procedures can be used to study the individual person: interrngation,
observation of behavior (in ordinary life, on the job, and in the training
process), and tests (paper and equipment teste).
It is customary to consider Taylor, wEifl in tfie 1880's used testing as a tech-
nique for vocational selection in order to raise labor productivity, the founder
of testology. Later teating was used as a method for determining the mental capa-
bilities of school children (54), and during World War I as a metfiod for assigning
soldiers to particular branches of tfie military. Tests administered using fill-
in blank forms are a fast tecfinique of investigation suitable for large numbera,
butfor the most part they do not ideatify inborn cfiaracteristics (individual
inclinations), fiut rather acquired knowledge and expertence. This is especially
typical of verhal teste which immediatelq asstgn a semtliterate person to the
lowest level of the evaluation scale, even when the peraon may possibly have good
natural gifts. Therefore, in the hands of raciats and advocates of class dif-
ferences verbal tests became a diecriminatory weapon and in this way discredited
the idea of testology. Tests which uae pictures are to some degree without
this shortcoming.
Therefore, tests can be used primarily to determine tfie level of general human
and vocational sophistication acquired at a given moment in time and are much
less useful to identify inborn capabilities, intellect, and distinctive features
of a person's thinking.
_ Equipment tests iavolve technical devices which chiefly investigate tfie charac-
teristics of the central nervous syetem, higfier nervous acttvity, the autonomous
_ nervous system, and otfier functional aystems of tfie organism.
Now let us consider the most widely used specific techniques of studying the in-
dividual personality for the purpose of identifying its individual traits and
- the cfiaracteristics of its organization.
_ The social aspect of the individual personality tncludes character traits (ad-
herence to principle, honeaty, initiative, activism, organization, optimiam,
pliancy), social consciouaness (patriotism, progresaivism, moral makeup,
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collectivism, atheism, and attitudE toarard oneself, other people, and laborl,
capabilities (psychomotor, artistic, tecFiaical, matfiematical, nusical, literary,
scientific, organizational, and so on), eaperience o# life, general level of
sophistication, upbringing, and vocattonal training (qualifications, time of
service). The motives tfiat insptre activity fiy tfiQ working indivtdual and the
person's interests occupy a special place in the soctal aspect.
The investigator obtains informatton on tfiese matters by studying referencea,
autobiographies, personal records and otfier documents, applications, and ques-
tionnaires filled out both by the subjects themselves and by persons around
them. The investigator also learns about the person in the process of personal
interviews and interrogation.
Each sociological investigation is a new creative process, and its auccess de-
pends on the inventivenesa, knoGrledge, and practical skills of the inveatigator.
Therefore, the experimental method [55, 56] ie the principal method in socio-
logical research.
The psychological aspect of the personality ie deacrihed in terms of the char-
acteristics of inental forms of perceiving and reflecting the world: attention,
emotions and feelings, memory, and thinking. Wfien considering the emotional
- sphere of a person aud describing i.t, it is also essential to inveatigate the
peraon's volitional (will) capacities because the behavior of a person in emo-
- tive situations depends on the characteristics of this purely fiuman quality
(degree of fearlessnese, decisiveness, persistence, self-control, purpoaefulness,
- and discipline).
The correction test method is used to determine the stability, distribution, and
concentration of attention [5, 57, 58, 591. The test suTject is given a blank
witTi a series of letters on it and told to cross out a certain letter. In a
second variation the subject is told to cros-s out one letter and underline an-
other letter. The test lasts a few minutes (usually up to five mtnutes), and
on a signal from the experimentor the test subject marks the form after definite
time intervals (30 seconds). A table with Landolt rings can be uaed instead of
a form wfth letters [60, 61]. The degree of stability of concentrated attention
can be established by the intertwined lines technique. Several lines (10-25)
are intersected a number of timea on the blank. They all start and end in boxes
on the right and left.sides of the paper. Their ordinal numhers are placed on
one side of the sheet. The subject must visually trace the line along its en-
tire length and put its number in the appropriate 6ox on the opposite side of
the sheet [5, 62].
Switching attention can be analyzed bp the metTiod of adding numbers with switch-
ing [5]. The test is done in two waps. The first way is as follows: two one-
- digit numbera are given in fraction form; tfiey must be added and the total
entered in the numerator in the second row on the righ.t, wfiile the numerator of
the first proposed row is put in the denominator of the second row, and so on.
In this case, if the total is more than 10 only the the one's digit is written.
4, 69 0 6 6, 2, 89 and so on.
2 4 6 0 6 6 2
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When the s.econd method is. used, the total of the numerator and denominator of
the first row is put in the denominator of the second row-while the numerator
of the second row becomes the denominator of the first row. Tfie methods are
alternated by instructions every 30-60 seconds. Switching of attention (which
evidently is accomplisfied chiefly fiy the speed of inental processes and the
ease of formation and modification of the mental Tialiit) can be considered
- easy if a sub3ect is atale to perform 20 or more additions in a minutn. Switch-
ing is difficult if the subject performed 10 or fewer additions.
The volume and distribution of attention can be investigated by the Schulte
method, It goes as follows. The suFiject must quickly find and point out a
natural series of numbers of a given lengtfi in a table consisting of an appro-
priate number of boxes in which numbers are written witfiout order. The test
_ can he made more difficult tiy introducing different number types and sizes in
- addition to the random arrangement of numbers [62].
^ K. K. Plantonov [S] progosed a modification of this technique (called the
Schulte-Platonov method) whtch makes it possible to test the volume, distri-
bution, and switching of attention. Numbers from 1 to 25 are wr'L~.tten without
any order in two colors in a table. Tfie test subject must quickly name and
point out the numbers in order, beginning one colored Eeries from the largest
(in descending order), and the other from the smallest (in ascending order).
The different colored numbers are found in alternation (for example, red 25,
blue 1, red 24, blue 2, and so on). Attention volume can also he studied by
the method which K. K. Platonov [5] described as controlled display of a
card with 16 boxes on a tachistoecope (exposure time varies from 0.05 to 0.15
seconds). Some (2-8) of the boxes contain dots. Tfie subject must lie able'to
remember ttiem and write them in on a bl.ank form. Memory volume is determined
by the number of dots accuratelyreproduced on several cards. The accuracy of
perception is the average percentage of correctly reproduced dots on all the
cards, and depends on the time of exposure, the complexity of the carde, and of
course, on the characteristics of the test subject.
Operational (short-term) memory is an important quality for the operator in
many production processes.
At the Institute of Hygiene and Occupational Zllnesa (Ukrainian SSR) this kind
of inemory is investigated by a technique which involves direct memorization of
geometric shapes and subsequently recognizing and selecting them. The test
subject is given an asaignment card to memorize. It repreaents six equivalent
triangular shapea with different internal fiatchures. In additton to the assign-
ment cards, a file case containing 24 figures, including the ones Xepresented on
the assignment cards, is also used. Tlie time allowed to memorize one card is 10
_ seconds. Then, in the file case, the sub,ject must find the figures that were
- diaplayed. One minute is allotted far recognition and selection. The num5er of
figures correctly recognized and selected is the indicator of short-term memory.
Many types of activity make special requirements on characteristics of a person's
thinking. Thought is that mental activity (at the level of the secondary signal
system) which aims at knowledge of objective reality by identifying linkages and
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- relationahips between the ohjects and pfienomena under conaideration. Charac-
_ teristics of thinking include the capacity of the working tndividual to make
optimal dectsions in time, to diagnose the state of the entire labor proceas
by particular manifestations, and to monitor correct performance of particular
operations. The cfiaractaristics of a person's thinking determine the ability
to plan strategy and tactics, the creative approacfi, and inventiveneas.
The speed of thinking processes is especially important. It can be measured,
- for example, with the set of teste proposed bp the Englisfi paychologist
Eysenek' [63]. ITi the author's opinion, tfiese tests measure a coefficient of
intellect [Russian ahbreviation "KI," possiblq EnglisTi "IQ"], wfiicfi correlates
significantly (but not exhauatively) with speed of tfitnking operations.
Thirty minutes are. given to perform eacfi test. Tfie number of problems correctly
solved in thi; time is the index of the coefficient of intellect. EYsenek be-
lieves that the coefficient of intellect reflects two aspects of intellectual
development: the genetic, inborn foundation - the speed of thinking procesaes,
and the social-psychological experienGe of the particular social group. The
tests which he proposes have the same sfiortcomings as other ftll-in blank tests.
When evaluating this method it is essential to consider that tfiese tests reflect
socioeconomic status more than the inborn foundation of intellectual development
~ [64].
To reduce the contrihution of the social factors to the evaluation of capabilities
some psychologists propose that the indes of intellectual aapabilities be con-
sidered not the absolute number of problems solved fiy the sub3ect, but rather
the rate of increase in this number when tfiree or four succeseive tests are - given. There are also several otfier methods of testing intellect [6].
The emotions and feelings of a person are one more form of inental processes
which make an imprint on the person's behavior and labor activity [65]. Emo-
tions are the si-mplest form of reflection (at the level of the primary eignal
system) and reveal relationshiprj between environmental influences and the bio-
logical needs of the organism. The limbic syatem is the morphological eubstrate
of the emotional processes.
- The feelings are the most complex form of reflection, charaeteristic only of
human beings. They occur following the pattern of the conditioned reflex and
- must involve participation of the cerebral cortex. The feelings reflect rela-
tions between the external world and a person's social needs.
The emotions are generated directly by the perception process, whereas feelinga
_ arise indirectly through comprehension of wfiat fias been perceived. The difference
in the morphofunctional substrate of these two forms of reflection also gives rise
to different possihilities of sfiaping and coatrolling these processes. Thus,
feelings can be effectively influenced by word stimulants, while a particular
emotion can moet easily be supplanted by a atronger emotion.
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Each person has his or her own quality and tntensity of emotional manifestations.
Depending'on the nature of their emotional spheres, different people behave
differently in the very same dangerous situation [5]. A distinction is made
- ambng the asthenic reaction or the passively defensive reaction (becoming numb,
purposelessness of actions, and immobilization), the sthenic reaction which fol-
lows the type of the actively defensive reflex (panicky behavior), and the
athenic reaction that expresses itself in militant excitatinn. The first two
- types of reaction are unconditioned reflexes, occur with participation of the
primary signal system, and are classtfied with the negative emotional manifes-
tation. The third type is one of the conditioned reflexes and results from the
operation of the secondary signal system. At the present time tfiere are vir-
- tually no methods that allow an objective evaluatton of the quality and intensity
of a peson's effiottonal makeup. But work in this dtrection is underway, in par-
ticular at the Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology (Moscow) under the
direction of A. Ye. 01'shannikova [66]. A number of tecfintques have been de-
veloped which use interrogation'to establish the sign and modality of the emo-
tions typical of an individual in different life sttuations and to analyze their
dynamic parameters (intensity, duration, and lability).
A. Ye. O1'shannikova also attempted to establish a relationship between the sign
of the dominant emotions and the background EEG [67]. She sfiowed that test sub-
jects in whom the positive emotions typtcally predomtnate have lower values for
the energy indexes of the Delta; Theta, and Beta rhytfims.
The volitional (will) qualities oF the tndtvidual are very important for emotional-
type reactions. They can suppress fear of real, existing danger and even evoke
postttve emotions.
Attempta have now been made to evaluate volitional qualities characteristic
of a particular tndivtdual in quantitative terms. The InsCitute of Psychology
in Kiev [9], for example, has develuped a spectal instrument called a volunto--
graph. The device consists of two dyramometers whicTi the test subjPcc must
squeeze with the right and left hands. The subject's volitional effort is m,ea-
sured by the number of correctly performed assignmeat cycles or the amount of
~ work which the subject does on the condition of maintaining an assigned level
of effort for the maximum possible time. S. V. Korzfi [68] proposes measuring
volitional efforts by the maximum time subjects can deliberately hold tfieir
breath:
In these cases the volitional.effort will, of course, be closely related tb the
individual's specific physi_cal development. But according to experimental
studies this does not always correlate with intellectual volttional effort [69].
The latter is better studied, for example, by the Thornton test. Tfie essential
feature of this test is that the subject must "restore" a specially garbled text.
Koos cube problems are suitablA for this purpose. The subject is told to com-
pose several figurea from cube pieces, and the last assignment is insoluble.
In this case the volitional efforts are determined by the time the subject spends
trying to compose the required figure.
The inborn characteristics of the nervous system are the third aspect of the per-
sonality and constitute the object of study for a large branch of pfiysiology,
differential psychophysiology.
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The foundational development of the problem of individual differences in the ner-
vous system came in the work of I. P. Pavlov and his achool. I. P. Pavolv formu-
- lated the principle of the fundamental characteriatics of the nervous system
(strength, equilibrium, and mobility of nerve processea), whicfi is the corner-
stone of the hypothesis of four typea of fiigfier nervous activity [70].
Further studies done in the laboratories of S. M. Teplov, B. G. Anantyev, V. S.
Merlin, and V. D. Nebylitayn led'to ela6oration of the ideas developed by I. P.
Pavlov and raising them to a qualitatively nevr level. They sfiowed that the en-
tire dtverstty of psychophysiologtcal fiuman tqpes cannot be reduced to four vari-
at{Qns. They formulated the conception of basic characterietica of the nervous
system, "which assumes as its leading premise the proposition tbat a highly or-
- ganized ne7-vous system has a number of characteristics that describe the course
of nerve procesaes of stimulation and inhtbition in it and, in tTieir combina-
tions, make up the neurophysiological foundation of the varied psychological
manifestations with their individual variatione." [71, 72].
The following scheme of nervous system characteristtcs was compiled by B. M.-
Teplov and his students, and with particular clarity by V. D. Nebylitsyn [73].
I. Particular characterisLics of the nerve processes of atimulation and in-
hibition of the nerve substrate whicfi receives prtmarp sensory information (that
is, the analyzer):
a. primary particular characteristics: strengtfi the ahility of
nerve cells to endure prolonged, concentrated stimulation with-
out switching to a state of beyond-tTie=limit inhibition ;
mobility - speed'of alternation of stimulation and inhibition
and vice versa; dynami,am - ease with wtiich the nervous syatem
generates the processes of ettmulation and inTiiiiition,, in par--
ticular during the formation of temporary linkages; lability -
speed of the activity of the nervous system, wTiich is deter-
mined chiefly by the apeed of extinguishing the aftereffects
from a atimulation pulse, that is, speed of replacement of one
cycle of stimulation Fiy anotfier wfien stimuli are fed in series.
The primary characteristics describe cfianges tn the fundamental
nerve processes, stimulation and inhibition , respectively;
b. secondary particular characteristics: balance or equilibrium
of nerve processes - stimulation and inhibition for each
of the primary characteristics (strengtTi, mobility, dynamism,
and lability).
It should be observed that sharplp expressed differences among analyzers of
primary and secondary characteristics are seen in 20-25 percent of the people
(therefore, the particular analyzer for which the cfiaracteriatic was deter-
mined should always be pointed out). The particular characteristics give
partial information on the role of neurophysiological parameter-s in the dynamics
of inental function, so consideration of the particular characteristics alone
results in an incomplete picture of the neurophysiological foundations of indi-
vidual differences.
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It is necessary to study.the general characteriatics of the nervous system, the
determinants of individual features of behavior and its most general manifesta-
tions, to explain individual differences not only in those domains of the psyche
directly related to the function of the sense organs, but also those domains
which relate to the personality generally.
II. The general characteristics are reflected in the physiological parameters of
the processes of stimulation and infiibitton of complexes of brain structures not
directly related to receiving primary sensorp informatton. These include the
parameters of the nerve organization of brain regulatory formations. V. D.
Nebylitsyn [73] considered two general characteristics: general activitq and
emotionality. These characteristics may be similar to extrovertism/tntrovertism
and neuroticiem in Eysenak's typological scheme [74]:
a. general activism according to Nebylitsyn this refers to the
personal qualities that engender the individual's internal need
and tendency to effectively master the real world and find self-
expression relative to the outer world. This need may find ex-
pression on the mental, motor, or social planea.
By extrovertism/introvertism Eysenek means the features of an individual's inter-
action with the external environment, in particular with the surrounding eocial
sphere, in other words sociability. Extroverte are drawn to society and follow
events around them carefully. The source of their interest and enthusiasms is
events in the objective world. They adapt quickly to the surrounding situation
and to new people, and are so absorbed in what ia happening around them that they
often "forget themselves." Introverts are people at the opposite pole. Tfieir
interests and enthusiasms are directed to a subjective world. They are withdrawn
and inclined to self-analysis and solitude. They have difficulty enduring changes
in the environment and adapt poorly in a new collective. x'he morphophysical sub-
strate of this characteristic is the properties of the frontal rettcular complex,
which supports extended circulation of stimulation by circular channels. In this
case the reticular formation of the brain is the generator and the frontal cortex
is the modulator of general activism. This complex assigns the energy, rate,
_ volume, and diversity of an individual's actions.
b. emotionality according to Nebylitsyn - this is the set of
qualities that descrtbes the dynamics of the occurrence,
course, and cessation of different emotional states. This
interpretation of the general characteristic makes it re-
semble neuroticiam according to Eysenek [74] or anxiety
according to J. Taylor [75], which are defined by a
heightened feeling of personal danger, heightened sensi-
tivity to personal failures and mistakes, dissatisfaction
~ with one's self, attributing mistakea to one's personal
qualities, and internal unrest. The substrate of this char-
acteristic is the frontolimbic system. In this --ase the
limbic system is the generator and the frontal cortex is the
modulator of the stimulation, which circulates in the circular
channels of this system.
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In the current phase, we helieve, the number of general characteris.tice
should be broadened to at least four, including emotional and regulatory sta-
bility, two manifestations of human activity and BeTiavtor that have just begun
_ to be studied. Emotional stability is defined as an integrated personal char-
acteristic that is described Tiy the interaction of emotional, volitional, in-
tellectual, and motivational components of individual mental activity to ac-
complish a goal in a complex emotive situatton [76], constancy of inental and motor
functions under conditions of emotional influences 177], and the ratio between the
results of an individual's activity in a calm state and in an emotional state [78].
We define emotional stability as the optimal versi.on of adaptational biochemical,
psychological, and physio?ogical changes taking place imde!' extreme emotional
conditions to keep the purposefulnese of the tndividual's behavior and a,ctivity
at a high level.
The emotional atate is purpoaeful adaptive behavior tha.t occurs as the result of
reflection of surrounding reality [79-81]. But when we consider varioue case.Q of
the influence of emotions on a person's state and activity, we are forced to ob-
serve not only the positive regulating role of emotions but also cases of confu-
sion and unpurposeful behavior related to the development of emotional strese.
This usually occurs in difficult situations with a aignificant intensification
of emotional stimulation [76, 82]. The well-known Yerkes and Dodson curve re-
flecta the relationship of the influence of the strength of emotional stimulation
on activity.
The next general characteristic arises from features of the organism~s regulatian
of reactions. This characteristic reflecta individual speed, amplitude, and
duration of reactions in response to a particular influence, whicfi ultimately de-
termines the possibility of preserving optimal ronditions for organism func-
tioning under changing living conditiona. Viewing the organism as a-complex self-
regulating system [83] and using the terminology of sutomatic regulation theo'ry
we can call this charact.eristic regulatory stability. It determines the typo--
logical featurea of adaptation mechanisms 134, 85].
Each morphofunctional system that determines the particular and general charac-
teristics of an individual's nervous syatem (the syatem of analyzers and aystem
of regulatory complexes) has two levels of aelf-regulation of behavior: 1-- the
lower, genetically conditioned, automatically regulated level (supported Sy the
neuron level of interrelationships); 2-- the higher level, cansciously regulated
by speech-oriented thinking or speech and auliject to educational and environmental
influences (supported by the interrelationships of the complex of nerve forma-
tions). Each morphofunctional aystem, and even more each level of a morpho-
functional system, can have ita own diatinetive atrength, dynamism, lability,
mobility, and equilibrium of the processes of stimulatton and inhibition. This
is the reason for the difficulty of diagnosie and the large number of combinations
of these characteristics, which in turn givea the individual personality ita
uniqueness.
Let us now consider methods of analyzing the following characteristics of the
nervous system.
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Ilynamism of the process of atimulation (referent indicator - speed of formation
of a posittve temporary linkage). Measuring the index of the Alpfia rhythm in
the EEG is an adequate metTiod of analyzing this characteristic. Tlie studies of
V. D. Nebylitsyn point to a significant correlation between this quantity and
the characteri:stic being analyzed [71]. L. B. Yermolayeva-Tomina [86, 871 has proposed techniques to analyze dynamism
by the nature of changes in the skin galvanic reaction [SGR]. She establisfied a
positive correlation between the height of the amplitude of tfie SGR as a com-
ponent of the orientation reactton to the first application of a new stimulus
and the dynamism of stimulation. In people with fiigh dynamism of stimulatton
the SGR is extinguished more slocrly as tfie new stimulus is repeated. Ttits same
characteristic can 6e analyzed in an experiment to develop a conditioned SGR
(the conditioned signal is a flash of light, and the unconditioned reinforcement
is pressing on a reaction button). The presence of tFie reaction.is tested in at.
least three isolated tests of the light flash as tfie numher of combinations is
~ increased. The indicator of speed of development of this reaction (numFier of
combinations hefore the appearance of tfie first conditioned reflex SGR) cor-
responds to the dynamism of the stimulati.on process. Study of tfie assimtlation
of the rhythm of light signals in the EEG at frequencies 11-20 Hz gives an idea
of the dynamism of stimulation: the lower the percentage of assimilation,
the greater the dynamism of the stimulation process (the correlation is at the
boundaries of significance) [71].
The dynamism of the process of inhibition (referent indicator - speed and ease
of formation of different forms of internal inhifiition). Investigation of tfie
characteristics of the SGR as a component of tfie orientation reaction to a new
stimulus and the speed of extinguishing a conditioned SGR 187, 88], as well as
the features of the EEG and the EEG-reaction of rhythm asstmilation 171, 881 are
adequate methode of analyzing this characteristic.
A high dynamism of the process of inhibition corresponds to a low amplitude of
the SGR and rapid extinguishing of it as the new stimulus is repeated. Low
frequency, a high index, and a high total energy of the Alpha rhythm and a high
- percentage of assimilation of the Cheta and Alpha rhythms (to 10 Hz) correlate
positively with dynamism of inhibition.
The strength of the nervous system in relation to inhibition (referent indicator -
caffeine test). The existence of a high correlation between this property and
the threshold of sensory aensations (sensitivity), the type of the spontaneous
and induced electrical activity of the cerebral cortex, and the endurance and
"noise suppression quality" of the nervous system are uaed to analyze this chax-
acteristic.
The worka of B. M. Teplov and his associates eatablished experimentally that a
higher threshold of sensory sensations corresponds to a stronger nervous system
in relation to stimulation [89, 90]. The existence of this dependence led to the
development of a whole series of specific techniques for analyzing tfie strength of
the nervous system: by the threshold of the ortentation and reaction to a new
stimulus (the stronger the nervous system the higher the threshold will be [71]);
and, by changing the threahold of sensory sensitivity during the orientatton
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reaction (a larger increase in the tfireshold corresponds to a strong nervous
system [91, 92]) and after it is extinguisTied in response to an additional
etimulus (decrease in the threshold for a strong nervous apstem [92]). Tfie re-
action to stimuli of growing tntensity is very instructive for analyzing the
- strength of the nervous system [71, 90]. Regardless of the type of reaction
(reaction time to a sound or light srimulus, critical frequency of inerging of
flickera with electric.al atimulation of the eye, induction of rhythm tn the
EEG for a flickering light atimulus), in all cases we encounter the saate rela-
tionship: the weak nervous system has a larger initial effect and approaches
the limit of the particular function more rapidly. The behavior of the strong
nervous syatem is the oppoaite.
The "gradient of force" techniqtle accoxding to Nebylitsyn is used extensively
in practice [71, 78, 93, 94, 95].
The level of strength is determined by the ratio of the average time of the
motor reaction (presaing the button) in response to a weak sound stimulus
(20-40 db) to the average reaction time to a strong stimulus (90-120 db).
More often the sound is taken at a height of 1,000 Hz and reaction time is
totalled for 15 stimulations. The evaluations may be done by the angle of in-
clination of the curve of the relationship of reaction time to intensitp of
the atimulation (the angle o� inclination is greater for a strong nervou&
system).
As indicated above, the atrength_of the nervous system may b.e analyzed also by
the type of spontaneous EEG and EEG-reaction of rTiythm assimtlation. It fias
been established that a Iower total energy of Delta rhythm [96, 97], low induc-
tion of the Delta rhythm [96, 97], and a low effect of total induction of
rhythm [96-99] correspond to a stronger nervous system. A promising method has
been developed by V. S. Klyagin [100], who established a dtrect significant
correlation between the strength of the nervous system and the average values
of dispersion of the Alpha rhythm (right hemisphere). In people with 8-strong
- nervous system the Alpha rhythm is generally well expressed, variable, and Iias a
high amplitutde.
Attempts have been made to analyze the strength.of the nervous system by the time
characteristics of a nonspecifiC slow evoked potential taken from the motor zone
- of the cortex [101]. It has been established tfiat a test subject with a large
time segment between the A and C semiwaves has a stronger nervous system.
The laboratory of V. S. Merlin [102-105] has developed a technique that is widely
used at the present time for determining the strength of the nervous system.
This technique is based on identifying the degree of endurance of the nervous
system. The experiment in this case consists of the following. The subject is
told to press a button quickly following a signal, wfi icfi may be, for example, a
sound stimulus (45-90 db). The sound is repeated 75-100 times. The interval be-
tween stimuli is 5-15 seconds (the time necessary to restore normal neuron ac-
tivity after the preceding stimulation). The level of strength is determined by
the percentage relationahip between the average reaction time of the last 15-20
stimulations and 15-20 stimulationa at the start of the experiment (the ftrst
five times the button is pressed are not conaidered Iiecause they are still
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influenced by the subject's orientatipn reaction). If the average reactian
time to the lasC stimulations.if 15-20 percent greater, it means tfiat the sub-
ject has a weak nervous system.
V. S. Merlin also developed the method of analyzing strength by the-skin gal-
vanic reaction (SGR) [102]. This is the method of extinguishing witfi.reinforce-
ment of a conditioned adaptive*SGR. It ie based on the ability of nerve cells
to endure prolonged concentrated stimulation created by numerous repetitions of
a conditioned stimulus. The experiment consists of the following. A sound
(conditioned) stimulation (50 dTi) is given to the test subject. The sound oper-
_ ates in isolation for 10 seconds, and then (after the researcher gives the
instruction "Press the button!") for another seven seconds against a reinforce-
ment background (the subject presses the button until the command "Enoughl").
Thirty sound atimuli are fed at intervals of 1-1.5 minutes. The SGR is taken
from the hand which is not occupied working the button. The strengtfi/weakness
indicator based on stimulation is the percentage relationship of the logartthms
- of the average amplitude of the three SGR's (in millimeters) at the beginning
and end of the experiment (lg M1/lg M2)� 100 (tfie first five SGRts are disregarded
to preclude the influence of the orientation reaction). Where the nervous system
is stronger the value of this coefficient will be higher. This method is a
modification of a method proposed earlier by V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya [106]. She
_ evaluated not the amplitude of the SGR, but ratb.er the conditioned reflex ef-
fect on the first and many subsequent repetftions of the conditioned signal with
reinforcement. V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya [107] also worked out the induction
method of analyzing the strength of a nervous system. It is based on facts
that are widely known in the Pavlov school. In the first place, a weak stimulus
causes irradiation of stimulation, while a medium atimulus causes concentration
and a strong one again causes irradiation. In the second place, caffeine has
" practically ao effect on the focus of atimulation in persons with strong nervous
systems, wfiile it greatly intenaifies this focus in persons with weak nervous
- systems.
V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya observed the influence of a supplementary ligbt point
stimulus on the threshold of anotfier point testing light stimulus before and
after the administration of small and large doses of caffeine. Witfi subjects
who have strong nervous systems the administration of both small and medium
doses of caffeine changes the shape of the background curves of the influence
of the supplementary stimulus on the threshold of the test sub3ecr insignifi-
cantly. In the case of a weak nervous system a distortion of the influence of
the supplementary stimulus is observed under the influence of inedium doses of
caffeine. Thus, a weak supplementary sttmulus (in the initial state causing a
lowering of the threshold for the stimulus being tested as the result of irradi-
- ation of stimulation from a weak center of sttmulation) now evokes an inhibitory
effect (as the result of intensification of the focus of stimulation and induc-
tion of inhibition to surrouhding zones). As the result of an incresse in the
sensitivity of nerve tissue after administration of the caffeine the average
- supplementary stimulus acquires the properties of a strong stimulus and as a re-
sult the concentration of stimulation (inhibitory effect to the stimulus being
tested) is replaced by irradiation (heiglitening of sensitivity to the test
stimulus).
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_ The etrength of the nervous spstem in relation to stimulation may fie ana-
lyzed as the possibility of witfistanding the distracting effect of an outside
stimulus (tfie "external ir_hibition" metfiod) [108]. Tive indicator of strengtfi
is the relationship of the average times for 15 simple motor reactions to a
sound stimulus where there is an outside signal to the average time of 15 reac-
tions where tfiere is no such signal. The sound stimulus (4-5 seconds long) is
given every 5-6 seconds, which is about six times a minute. The greater the
strength of the nervous system, the lower this ratio will be,
The strength of the nervous syatem in relation to inhibition. At the present
time the adequate methods of analqzing this cfiaracteriatic in human beings fiave
a limited arsenal of ineans. In 1963 V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya proposed measuring
the effect of lengthening and multiple repetttion of a differentiattng stimulus
on absolute light senaitivity (by analogy with animal experiments) [109].
When the differentiating stimulus is extended or repeated a number of times for
people with weak nervous systeme in relation to infiibttion, the stimulus loses
its inhibitory effect and begina to operate like a poeitive stimulus. But in
people with a strong nervoua system in relation to inhibition the dtfferenti-
ating stimulus continues to act as an inhibitory etimulua in both cases.
The mobility of nerve procesaea is the speed of replacement of nerve pr4cesses
- (stimulation and inhibition). There are various adequate techniques of ana-
lyzing this characteristic: finding the speed of delaying and following con-
ditioned reflexea [110, 111], the dynamics of the aftereffect (subsequent
irradiation and induction) of the stimulus [43, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117];
and, urgent alteration of the signs of inhibitory and positive stimuli after
preliminary production of the corresponding conditioned reflexes [43, 110, 118,
119]. However, these methoda are not monometric indicators of moFiility. Thus,
the speed and ease of production of delaytng and following reflexes depends not
only on mobility but also on the strength of the nervous spstem and the dynamism
of nerve processes [120]. The aftereffects of the stimulus and alteration of
the signs of stimuli also depend on the mobilitp and strength of the nervous
system: the weaker the nervous system is, the deeper and longer the after-
effect of the stimulus will be [112, 114, 115]; the stronger the nervous system
is, the quicker and more eaeily the aignB of stimuli are altered [110, 118, 119].
The method proposed by N. S. Leytes can serve as an example of analyzing the
mobility of nerve processes by the aftereffect of a atimulus [113]. The sub-
,ject is shown a series of letters on a screen in raptd sequence (rougfily one
every second). The test subject knows from the tnstructions tfiat there are
three types of lettera: positive (after whicfi, for example, a Button is to be
pressed), negative (after these letters a poaitive letter afiould be perceived
- by the subject without pushing the button, that is, negative + positive letters -
"conditioned inhibition"), and indifferent letters. They are sfiown in random
order. By measuring reaction time to a poeitive signal comtng in the immediate
vicinity of an inhibitory one (after one, two, or tTiree intervals) and in the
background (after at least four intervals) it was established tfiat for people
' with high mobility of nerve processes the reaction time against the background
is very important, while the reaction to a positive signal coming one or two
intervals after an inhibitory signal does not reflect the inhibitory effect of
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the earliEr stimulus. People with low mobility of nerve processes show a
5horter reaction time against the background; after the inhibitory stimulus
reaction time to a positive stimulus coming one, two, or even three intervals
later is significantly greater. When measurements are repeated a number of
times during one test adaptation may occur (a shortening of reaction time, ap-
proaching the background level).~
_ The modification of the above-described method devised by Ye. A. Klimov [43]
can serve as an example of analy-zing mobility by a special alteration of the
stereotype. He substituted colored flashes for the letters. The subject pro-
duced a motor reaction only to the red light (R), and was not supposed to react
to the blue light (B).
Standard signals were alternated at intervale of five seconds using a scheme of
RBBR 15-second pause - RBBR - 15-second pause - RBBR, and so on (20 times).
After the stereotype was reinforced, an alteration of it was undertaken: the
subject was supposed to press the button for the blue light and not.press the
button for the red light (signals continued to be fed in the same pattern).
F'or subjects with high mobility of nerve processes reaction time decreases quickly
during formation of the new habit, but continues to be variable during the tests;
with "inert" subjects reaction time decreases slowly, but the degree of variation
decreases rapidly. The number of mistakes is also indicative. L. M. Abolin [781
used the percentage relationship of the average latent time of the six reactions
after alteration of the stereotype and before it as an indicator of the mobtlity
of nerve processes. A lower value for this ratio corresponds to greater mobility.
Labilitv of nerve processes - aveed of occurrence and cessation of a nerve
process. The independence of this charactertstic ts hypothetical; tt may pos--
sibly coincide with mobility [89, 121]. A number of indicatore have tieen pro-
posed to analyze the speed parameters of the work of the nervous system [71, 115,
122, 123]: (1) critical frequency of flickers with an intensity of flashes 15
times greater than the individual threshold; (2) speed of restoration of ligfit
sensitivity after "lighting up" [possibly, exposure to strong, direct light];
(3) ratio between the thresholds of appearance and disappearance of a spot of
light when measuring light senaitivity; (4) adequate optical chronaxie.
It has been established experimentally [124] that these indicators, which ini-
tially were adopted on a hypothetical basis as an indicator of the higfi-speed
processes of nervous activity (lability), produce a significant correlation with
those characteristics of inducing rhythms in the EEG which many authora believe
correspond to the level of lability of the cortical cells of the cerebral cortex
[125-127]. This proved the actual exiatence of labtlity as an inalienalile char-
acteristic of the nervous system.
Work done under the direction of E. A. GoluBeva [96] has demonetrated that the
lability of nerve processes may be meaeured by indicators of the total energy of
Beta rhythms (the greater the energy, the greater the lability) and assimilation
of rhythms in the Beta frequency range (the greater the assimilation, the higher
the level of lability).
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At the present tttne many s.tudies propose different EEG indicatora as indicatora
- of lability. For example, a significant negative correlatton has been estab-
lished between asymmetry in the lengths of the ascending and descending phases
of the EEG at rest and the indicators of induction of fitgh frequencies of stimu-
lation (that ta, lability) [128]. The ratios of the energies of the Alpfia
rhythm witfi eyes opened and closed and the energy of the Alpha rhythm in the 10-
14 Hz range with eyes closed to the eame wfien an Asfiner test is conducted have
. also been proposed a$ measures of lability [129]. We should also note the deter-
mination of lability by the technique of registering the aftereffect in the
myogram developed by A. Ya. Kolodnaya and modified tiy M. K. Akimova [130].
There are two types of self-regulatton for the above-listed, so-called primary
characteristics of the nervoue system: lower, and higher, consciously r egulated
by speech-oriented thinking. Both levels can have characteristics that dis-
tinguish each of them from the primary cfiaracteristics and therefore, tfiey re-
~ quire independent study. The methode we have considered deal chiefly wi th the
lower-level primary characteristics.
At the present time a great deal of attention is being devoted to working out
methods that analyze higher-level primary characteristica. The speed charac-
teristica of nerve processes atthe higher level (speed of thinking procesaes)
- can be analyzed using the above-described Eysenck technique [63], as well as
the method developed in the laboratory of K. M. Gurevich and V. T. Kozlova [131].
In the latter method the subject~ develops a thought-speech;stereotype (for
example, the experimenter names animals and plants and the subject muet say
_ "Nyet" ["No" ] to every third animal name) ; then the stereotype is altered (for
example, the subj ect must say "Nyet" to every ftfth animal name). The s ame
characteristic can be studied by having the subject make numerical sesociations
- in random order within the first 10 numbers. The subject musC multiply even
numbers by two. Then it can be suggested that this operation be performed with
odd numbers. The time which it takes for the subject to make the change and the
number of mistakes that the subject makes serve as indicators of the mob ility
of nerve proce3ses. Similar tests can be made by the technique described by 0. N.
Luk'yanova and co-authors [52].
ThP lability of thinking-speech activity can be analyzed hy means of the "per-
formance of instructions" and "code" methods [132]. Ustng the first method the
investigator gives the subject instructions: listen,to the assignment care-
fully (the assignment is repeated once, and no questions can be asked), begin
performance of the assignment only after the command �tBegin," and stop after
the command "Stop." The subject works with a set of cards, each of whicTi fias a
specific assignment. A certain time ia allocated for performance of the asaign-
ment on each card. At the end of the experiment the number of assignmen ts not
completed and done incorrectly is counted, and thts is the measure of labiltty.
' The "code" test uses a set of cards with different variations of standar d symbols.
A number between one and 10 corresponds to eacfi symbol and the subject has a de-
coding table to use during the experiment. The goal of the subject ia to assign
the appropriate number to the standard symbol as qutckly as possible without mak-
ing mistakes. Sutijects who have fitgher levels of latiility do better with tfiis
task.
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The speed characteristics of thinking-speech activity can also be studied
using the A. Ye. Khil'chenko method [132).
Research is underway today on the speed characteristics of speci.f ic forms of
thinktng. The work of Ye. A. Rushkevich and I. D. Golova [133], for example,
studies the speed of formation of conditioned reflexes for complex groups of
symboltc stimuli taken from mathematical logic. TEiis makes it possible to'ana-
lyze the characteristics (in particular dynamism) of abstract thinking necessary
for successful assimilation of mathematics and ma'thematical logic.
Thus, we have reviewed some methods that allow study of the characteristics of
the nervous system at the highest hierarchical level, at the level of analytic-
synthetic activity which characterizes the features of thinking. Following V. D.
Nebylitsyn's classificat.on we have reviewed the particular primary character-
istics of the nervous s!;jtem. The particular aecondary characteristics are
equilibrium (balance), :hat is, the ratio of each of the above-listed charac-
teristics related to stimulation and inhibitions: 6alance for strength of
nerve processes in relation to stimulation and inhibition, balance for mob'ility,
dynamism, and lability. In principle two types of ratios are possihle: inde-
pendent variation of characteristics where any level of the particular cha.rac-
teristic relative to the process of stimulation may correspond to any level of
the same characteristic relative to inhi5ition (type A),or dependent variation
of characteristics where the values of any characteristic for stimulation cor-
respond strictly to a certain value of this characteristi.c for inhibitton (type B,
which in turn can be broken down into B1 - positive dependence, and B2 nez3-
tive dependence).
It has been demonstrated experimentally that an intermediate type of dependence
- (semi-independence) is possible where one level of a certain cfiaracteristic re-
lated to stimulatibn correlates with the same characteXistic for infiiiiition for
type A, while another level correlates with type B1 or B2.
Analysis of the secondary characteristics is more complex, and there are only a
few methodological procedures available today for rapid and precise analysis of
them.
Inveatigation of the balance of nerve processes for dynamism revealed the
existence-of both type A and type B2 dependence and semi-independence [71].
- The authors of this work believe tfiat the interrelationship of nerve processes
for dynamism is accompliahed according to type A. In tfieir opinion, the
- referent indicator of the predominance of the dynamism of the stimulation
- process over the dynamism of the inhibition process is low values for the Alpha
index (no higher than 65 percent)j88], low total energy of the Alpha rhythm [96],
and high values for assimilation of frequencies in the 1.5-7 Hz range in compari-
son with assimilatton in other ranges I134].
The opinion concqrning the type of relationsfiip among nerve processes according
- to strength is mora clear-cut: any level of strength of the intiifiition process
may correspond t--� any level of strength of the inhtFaition process. Tfiis is
vividly demonstrated in the study by Ye. F. Melikhova [110], who processed an
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enormous amouat of experimental material �rom the literature. Works devoted to
studying balance for mobility describe relationehips of type A[135], B1 [136],
and semi-tndependence [137].
= Thus, we have constdered the parEicular cfiaracteristics tfiat describe the work
of those branches of the nervous eystem tfiat are directly involved in recetving
primary sensory information, that is, the work of the analyzer eystems. It
ahould be remembered that the resulte of ineasurement of the particular primary
- and secondary characteristics for one analyzer may not coincide with the same
measured far a different analyzer. In this respect the manifestation of char-
acteristics of the nervous system ia partial.
The general characteristics of the nervous system are an integrating indicator
of a set of personality traita (not related to direct reception of primary
sensory information) which constitute the basts of different tqpes of perception
of the world by a person and behavior in different life situations. In addition
to working out direct experiments to analyze a particular general.charactieristic,
the investigator aearches for correlations between tfiis cfiaracteristic and the
particular characteristics, and with the physiological parameters of various
functional syatems. At the beginning of this chapCer we cited the classifica-
tion of general characteristics accordiag to Nebylitsyn. The firat of them,
general activism (extrovertism/introvertism according to Eysenck.r primarily re-
flects the type of activity of the frontal-reticular complex: to wfiat extent
the activism of the reticular formation is expressed, what particular'division
of it, and how strong are the regulating in�luences of the cortex. General
activism unquestionably depends also on the nature of the primary aad aecondary
particular characteristics of the analyzer systems,
Eyesenck tried to find correlates of ext rover t ism/ int rover tism among the particu-
lar characteriatics of the nervous system by experiment. The findinge of fiis
studies were treated in the monograph by V. M. Bleykher and L. S. Burlacliuk [138].
There is reason to believe that extrovertie= ia positively related to the
strength of the process of stimulation and to the mobility of nerve processes.
General activiem can be analyzed using the Eyesenck questionnaire and modifica-
tions of it [74, 139, 140] based on the correlation between this characteristic
and the type of behavfor in different eituations (tFe questtons were written
relative to the character of behavior). A modification of the Eqesenck ques-
tionnaire could be the L. D. Gissen queationnaire [139], which contains 57
questions: 24 questions determine the Ievel of extrovertism/introvertiam, 24
questions analyze the level of neuroticism, and the remaining questions define
the degree of authenticity of the answers. The aubject's answer must Fie un-
equivocal: "yes" or "no."
General activism ie related to the tndividual pace of motor activity, the indi-
- vidual's inclination toward diversity of actions, and the need for activity;
it correlates with the expression of the Beta rhythm in the 21-30 Hz range
when an EEG is taken from the fxontal region [73]. Tfiis reflects the ascending
influences of the reticular formation. Because of tfieir cfiaracteristics extro-
- verts do better with work tfiat requires maximum activism and intensity.
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Introverts work hetter under monotonous conditions�, b,ut in such.a si.tuation
extroverts develop reactive inhibition.
The second general cfiaracteristic is emotionaltty, anxiety, and neuroticism.
This characteristic describes features of tfie emotional background of the indi-
vidual and is analyzed by means of tfie questionnaires compiled by Eysenck and
Taylor, as well as various modifications of tfiem [I41-144]. The indicators of
the EEG are used in addition to questionnaires to measure the level of neuroti-
cism. It has been proven experimentally that tliere is a direct correlation
dependence between the expresston of tfiis cFaracteristic and Beta activism [145,
146]. A low Alpha index, a high frequency and low amplitude of the Alpfia
rhythm [147-149], and the existence of periods of desynchronization against a
background of a low-amplitude and higfi-frequency alpha rhythm [150] correspond
to a high level of neuroticism.
The relationship between the level of anxiety and indicators of a person's ac-
tivity and behavior is not always unambiguous. In ordinary situations a
- heightened level o� anxiety promotes more attentive, circumspect, and scrupulous
performance of the assigned task [151]. It is customary to consider [144] tfiat
in extreme conditions a heightened level of anxiety reduces the effectiveness of
action,-introducing disorganization into performance of assignment and the pur-
posefulness of behavior. But L. D. Gissen f139, 141] and L. M. Abolin [78] have
shown that this dependence is observed only for an extraordinarily higfi level of
anxiety. In other cases a high level of anxiety, as an indicator of positive
adaptational mechanisms, strengthens emotional stability and helps acfiteve good
results of activity in extreme situations. Thus, the dependence of the results
of activity on the level of anxiety is probably described by the Yerkes Dodson
curve.
The third general characteristic, which is also an integration of a number of
personality traits, is emotional stability 19, 76, 77, 78, 152-1551. Tfiis is
also a multidimensional parameter, and at the present time researcfiera are trytng
to find its physiological, mental, and behavioral correlates (for example, see
[78]). Emotional sta6ility is determined by u:any qualities of the individual.
It is influenced by both the social and psychophyaiological characteristics of
the person. Thus, people who have roughly the same level of emotional reac-
tivity reveal differences in emotional stability depending on the level of
motivation [76]. Emotional stability also depends on mental characteristics
such as the ability to orient oneself quickly and to distribute or concentrate
attention, as well as on the speed of tfiinlcing. The emotional makeup of tfie in-
dividual, that is, the character (sign and modality) and intensity (depth and
duration) of the emotional manifestations typical of a particular person in
different situations, exercises a special influence on emotional stability.
L. M. Abolin [78] has established a significant pos.itive'correlation fietween tfie
emotional stability of soccer players and posttive intensive emotions. Tfie
- players who are characterized by tntensive negative emotions have loar emottonal
stabi3.ity tn important games (emotionogenic situations).
Emotional stahility also depends on such a general cfiaracteristic of the person-
ality as anxiety. According to L. M. Abolin [78], a fairly high level of anxiety
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combines wirh high emottonal stability. ThQ same kind of positive correlation
exists between tfiis general property and general activism (or extrovertism).
It is apparent that a fairly fitgfl level of general activiem and anxiety is-
an expression of the broad capabilities of adaptational mecfianisms and promotes
emotional stability [78, 139]. Tfiis relationship continues to a certain point~
after which a rise in the level of these qualities lowers the emottonal sta-
bility of the individual.
Many studies have found that particular characteristics, of the nervous system in-
fluence changes in state and activities in extreme situations [36, 37, 78, 95,
156-161]. It has been established that in difftcult situattons created by the
conditions of work themselves (high pace, information overloads) or Tiy acct.dents,
such properties of the nervous system as its etrength in relation to stimulation,
the balance of nerve processes, lability, and mobility become very important.
The relationship between emotional stability and different charactertatics of
the nervous system is not always unambiguous or significant and depends not only
on occupational requirements, but also qualificationa and age. L. M. Aboltn [78]
showed that the emotional stability of young soccer players correlates signifi-
cantly with the atrength of the nervous system relative to stimulation. Tfiis
dependence is not found in older, more experienced players, but they show a sig-
nificant correlation between emotional stahility and the qualtty of regulation.
This subject is considered in more 3etail below.
A persistent search is now undenray for the phyatological correlates of indt-
vidual emotional stability. The work of Z. P. Turovskaya [161] gives findings
that testtfy to a positive correlation between emotional stability and equilibrtum
of nerve proceases and present an EEG characterization of a balanced indivtdual
who is resistant to stress. In the background EEG of such a person, the Alpfia
and Theta rhythms are usually well exgressed, and under stress the indicators of
the Alpha and Theta rhythms decrease while the indicators of the Delta rhytTim
~ increase slightly. A person who is not reaistant to stress (untialanced) shows- a
- low content for the Alpha and Theta rfiythms in the background EEG, and under
stress shows an increase in Theta and, especially, Delta activity against a
_ background of reduced Alpha activity.
Various laboratory models of emotional states have been developed to analyze the
level of emotional stability. For example, there is the well-known conjugate
methodology technique proposed by A. R. Luriya and modified by K. K. Platonov
and L. M. Rozet [32]. The tectinique goes as follows. Tfie test suFi3ect must
perform a certain action (squeezing a Mareyev capsule witfi the tfiumb) under
ordinary conditions and in an emotive aituation (falling forward onto a soft
mat from a"standing" or "kneeling" position on the command "Ready, go!").
Emotional-motor stability is determined b.y the relationship betoieen results of
~ performing the assignment in an ordinary situation and in a stress situation.
The experimental findings almost (85 percent) coincide witli.a real situation.
The ratio of reaction time in a calm state to the time for the same reacCion
under threatening conditions may lie an indicator of emotional staliiltty 178].
Some works give physiological descriptions of the state of test sufijects during
the period of waiting for unpleasant influences. Tfiese correlate with poor
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, 42.
~~d)
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Figure 6. Subject
Card
Key:
(a) Demographic Data,
State of Health;
(b) Subject Card;
(c) Experience of
Life, Upbringing,
Cultural Level;
(d) Occupational
Experience;
(e) Social Aspect;
(f) Capabilities;
(g) Social Conscious-
ness;
(h) Time in Service;
(i) Qualifications;
(j) Attitude toward
Labor, People,
the Collective;
(k) Motives, Inter-
eStB;
(1) Character
Traits;
(m) Morality;
(n) Progressive Ide-
ology, Patriotism;
(o) Mental Aspect;
(p) Will;
(q) Emotions;
(r) Intensiveness;
(s) Speed of Think-
ing Processes;
(t) Attention;
(u) Sign;
(v) Mpdality;
(w) Memory;
(x) Operational;
(gg) Stimulation (Strength, Mobility,
Lability, Dynamism);
(hh) Inhibition (Strength, Mobility,
Lability, Dynamism);
(ii) Balance (by Strength, Mobjlity,
Lability, and Dynamism);
(,jj) Quality.
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stability under stress (for example, see [162]). Among these correlates are
a state of confusion, bradycardia, retardation of EEG frequencies, general
hyperhydrosis, arterial hypotension, and a decrease in venous tension.
- The fourth general characteristic is regulatory stability. Like the otfier
characteristics, it can be considered on different fiierarchtcal levels. This
characteristic can be evaluated at the central nervous system level [84, 85, 163,
1641 by analyzing the EEG and evoked potentials. It is clear that this param-
eter reflects characteristics of the interaction between specific and nonspe-
cific systems of the brain in the perception of deviation in the environment.
This quality should also be considered on a different functional level: with the
example of change in the parameters of various autonomous reactions. Individual
differences in autonomous reactions to any stimulus can fie reduced to two types:
plastic and inert, areactive and reactive, with low and high autonomous reactivity,
or with different levels of emotional reactivity [78, 85, and others]. Such a
division reflects the typological characteristics of regulation of autonomous
functions, whose highest center is tfie hypothalamus.
The features of regulatory stability in the sphere of higher nervous activity
manifest themselves in regulating one's own actions and behavior i;, evaluating
a given situation [87, 165, 166].
The indicators of the regulatory stability of different hierarchical levels and
morphofunctional systems do not necessarily correlate among themselves, of course.
Thus, we have grouped all the many characteristics of the social worldview and
thinking and living processes (usually studied separately) in three aspects of
manifestation of the human essence: the social, mental, and biological. Figure 6
(previous page) presents a chart of individual characteristics dratian on the
basis of studies of these aspects.
The time has now come when we need a generalization of the conceptions of per-
sonal characteristics proposed by various researchers. We have proposed our
version, which may be far from perfection. Similar attempts are being made by
other authors [16].
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Chapter 3. Some Aspects of Evaluating tfie Activity of the Human Operator
Through the entire history of the development of technology and aluast to the
= present day the mutual relations of human beings and machines have been one-
sided, involving human adaptation to the macfiine. During tfie development of
technology machines increasingly look over human motor functions, broadentng the
human capability for processing matter, while the human being performed prepara-
tory and repair work. The limited range of jobs done in systems of this type,
the low speed, and the simplicity of control promoted rapid develaptaent of dy-
namic stereotypes of movements in human beings. W[ien these systems were em-
ployed, the primary workload fell to human muscular sqstems, while psyciw-
physiological characteriatics were conBidered secondary and the designers of
machinery did not have to consider them.
The continuing increase in the capacities of machinery and the growing com--
plexity of control processes caused a shift in tfie human workload to the mental
sphere, making increasingly higher demands on such human characteristics as
speed and precision of thinking,'quicknesa of reactions, and the like. Finally,
in some areas of technology these requirements came very close to the limits of
_ human capabilities under the given conditions. For thia reason questiona arose
concerning matching human and machine characteristics, mutually adapting them.
_ For the human part this meant selection by special criteria, a higfi level of vo-
cational training for work in a limited clasg of systems, and so an. For the
machine part, it involved refining techniques of repreaenting information appli-
cable to human analyzers, coordinating the input devices of the machine with
human effector systems that perform control acttons, taking account of human
anthropological characteristics, and others [73]. Moreover, it became necessary
' to transfer a number of human functions to faster and more reliable automatic
devices, and at the present time the growing trend is to assign human beings only
those technically complex functions involved with selecting system strategies,
monitoring the work capability of the syetem, and the like. Under tliese condi-
tions the environment, with which human beings had direct contact during labor
activity in earlier times, is replaced by a certain information model of the
environment [97]. Thus, the most important issues today are no longer fiuman
_ interaction wtth some particular macfiine, but rather the more general problems
of the interaction of the human being and a certatn arttficial environment [107].
Until recently, concrete problems of interaction between fiuman heings and machines
were solved by separate study of human and macfiine characteristics [26], whereas
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the very concept of the "man--machine� s.ystem (M--MS) presupposes that it is in-
correct, in the general case, to analyze and syntfiesize such systems on the basie
of findings from separate study of the characteristics of the human being and the
machine. From tfiis comes the problem of evaluating the work of the M-MS as A
whol.e, despite the qualitative differences among processes taking place in the
machizLe and the accompanying human mental activity. But from the standpoint of
systems analysis, wfiicfi presupposes an adequate breakdown of a complex system
into simpler subsystems, the problem of studying human cfiaracteristics does not
lose its timeliness; on the contrary, it becomes even more signiftcant and mean-
_ ingful. Representing the operator as a functional element of the M-MS assumes
from the standpoint of the eystems approach tfiat exfiaustive descriptions muet be
given of all the "inputs" and "outputs" that exist for the work of the given sys-
tem. Furthermore, this description must be done on the same level (and in the
same language) as the description of the entire M-MS. In addition, because this
. element has memory, its output signals are determined by a function whose inde-
pendent variables are not merely the input signal, but also a state. In this
case memory means both the ability to accumulate informatton and the inertia of
psychophysiological processes.
The sections that follow present a hrief aurvey of work in the field of studying
the characteristics of human Iieings and M-MS's. Proceeding on the Basts of our
ideas, we will consider in order a des:.ription of fiuman activtty, a description
of the human psychophysiological state, and the evaluation of resulta of ac-
tivity.
1. Psychophystological Prerequisites for the Quality of Human Lafior Activity
The methodological foundation for understanding the interrelationsfiip hetween
human activity in a system and the accompanying mental processes is the principle
of the unity of the psyche and activity, according to wfiicFi there exiats a epe-
cial psychophysiological mechanism between the environment and fiuman behavior
[i4i, iss).
From the many approaches that analyze the interdependence of the goal and strategy
of human behavior we may single out the following: the "tiieory of the functional
system" [8]; the "physiolof;y of activity of the living organism" [21]; "feedback
for forecasting" [1061; the "conception of the set" [219]; the "model of the
future" [237]; "plan" [161]; the "nerve structure of the stimulus" [200]; and,
the "image" [19].
It is possible to generalize these approaches in an interpretation of anp ac-
tivity from the standpoint of self-regulation of one's own behavior not only at
the level of the conscious, but also enlisting otfier mechanisms [239].
M. D. Mesarovich and co-authors [256] introduce the princtple of "satisfactoriness"
to explain the nature of interaction among systems in the organistn. "Satisfac-
toriness" is in*_erpreted as follows: "Being subjected to the influence of unde-
sirable disturbances, the organism changes its control so that the Fiasic vital
characteristics of its systems remain in a certain satisfactory range as long
as the disturbance continues, and any control tfiat brtngs about this state is
preferable for the organism in the giveii condittons."
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- Work [125] considers a possible model of the process of self-regulation of be-
havior by the operator. In the authoris opinion, self-regulation tnvolves re-
distribution by the operator of stress to the performance of particular stages
of the activity in conformity with an assessment of the degree of the significance
of performing particular stages in the overall structure of the activity. The
- diagram of self-regulation can be represented in the form of two components con-
nected in series. The first of tfiem relates to heigfitened energy expenditures
to activate the appropriate systems of the organtsm and includes feedback ac-
cording to the probability of not achieving the goal. During tfiinking activity
based on past experience images of a higher level of generalization are gener-
ated and increase the probability of achieving the goal. Thus, in the first
case a more complex task is compensated for by increasing energy expenditures,
while in the second case this is accomplished by an intensification of informa--
tion activity. It may be supposed [170] that self-regulation of b.ehavior by a
person involves an empirical determination of the tenaion of the organism's
physio?ogical syatems adPquate to achieve the resulta of the activity and meet
the required quality criterion.
' Work [238] shows that in its interaction with the environment the organism
strives to stabilize the parameters of the particular physiological systems in
a certain range of their states. The tension of the physiological systems
corresponding to this state makes it possible to use the different resources of
the organism more economically taking into account the specific features of the
activity.
On this level learning can be viewed as the process of acquiring special ha6its
that enable operators to perform their functions with minimum stress.
As a result of the ability to forecast the time of action of stimuli and tfieir
properties, the operator can optimize the distribution of stress in different
phases of the activity. The characteristtcs of human forecasting of time and
structural characteristics of signals are closely linked to the individual
characteristics of rhythmic processes in the organism. For example, the over-
estimation and underestimation of the same time sequences made by people with
heart rates up to 86-102 and 58-64 beats per minute were commensurate with
these heart rates [144]. People witli a normal pulse rate may deviate in either
direction. No relationship has been discovered between the basic rhythmic
processes, the frequency of the Alpha rhythm, the rate of heart activity, and
frequency of breathing. Variation in signal processing time is linked to the
strength of nerve processes. But this condition is ina3equate for rliytfimic
activity [119]. In addition to it the constancy of reactions is influenced tiy
the ongoing functional state and degree of automatiam of the activity 6eing
ca.rried out, that is, adaptation. The operator's adaptational capabilitfes can
be assessed iiy a quantitative description of the sensomotor reaction constructed
with due regard for the number of signals in a training series [124].
Adaptation to the activity being performed is accompanied by changes in the
parameters of physiological indicators. TC1eae changes are proportional to the
activity being performed. The impossibility of adaptation shows itself in a
significant deviation of physiological indicators from background indicators
[110]. Brief nerve disturbances related to abrupt cfianges in the nature of
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' activity are defined as a"state of prostra-tion" I1531 which. ia accompanied
by a sharp drop in the effectiveness of activitp, all the utay- to cessation
of it. Despite the individual character of tFiese reactions, thQy are accom-
panied hy relatively singular physiological reactions of different degxees df
expression. There is a sfiarp increase in the variation of cardiac cycles in
the direction of retardation (from 84 to 66 beats a minute), followed Fy a
- sharp increase in the rate. The amplitude of the slcin galvanic reflex grows and
high-amplitude slow waves appear in the EEG. The action of nonstationary sig-
nals that the operator does not expect causes a state of emotional unstaFiiltty,
which sharply increases the spread of indicators of the quality of activtty
[184). Complete operator adaptation takes place in two stages. First the indi-
cators of sensomotor activity stali.ilize, tfien the indicators of autonomous func-
- tions stabilize. Quantitative evaluations of tFia processes of restructuring the
functioning of the organism applicable to ongoing tasks can tie determined by
the charactertstics of the EKG [34].
Work [206] investigated the adaptation characteristics of the brain in the
process of information overload. The metfiodology of intensive foreign language
study was used. Two types of change were observed in the restructuring of the
_ bioelectric activity of the brain in different stages of learning. These stages
were clearly linked to the nature of the basic activity of the test subjects.
It may be supposed that multiple repetitions of the conditians of appearance of a
signal and performance of a sertes of actions would not lead to the elimination
of thinking operations through the development of "automatism" but ratfier to de-
veloping a higher-level program of actiona taking.into account the statistical
structure of the learning sequence.
Evaluation of the leve.l of training can be constructed taking into account the
amount of information which the operator processes in a unit of time 180, 203].
For the case where the number of possible answers Fiy an untrained operator may
be large and the probability af selecting alternatives in work is not identical
[83], an integrated criterion is obtained by computing the number of cases of
correct behavior in response to an indefinite signal and relating this sum to
the total number of operator actions for each of the habits being formed.
Work [114] considers the case where operators do not receive. information on the
quality of their activity. In such conditions as the number of signals in an
array that the operator processes increased, the average sfgnal processing time
for this array approached a certain range charactartstic of the particular oper-
ator and signal parameters. The degree of adaptation was determined Tiy the
Frobability of finding procesatng time in the range of these values.
- Work [203] established that there are two components in the structure of a
habit: level of training in the procedures and technique of the particular type
of activity and operator adaptation to the concrete conditions. The levels of
development of these components are measured by different statistical parameters
of the initial set of realizations of the process:
1. the mode defines the actual level of training in the habit;
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2. the median evaluates tfie actual fiahit taking background
into account;
3. the arithmetic mean evaluates the effectiveness of tfie
practical action.
A.s the tests are repeated asymmetry decreases, and therefare it is proposed that
this phenomenon be explained on the 5asis of the follocaing functional relatton-
- ship:
bias = level of training adaptation x distractahility.
2. Human Functions in Ergatic Systems
- There are many different forms of interaction fietween human beings and technical
devices in man-machine systems. The operator can perform a brc,ad range of tasks
to support the work capability and operation of sucfi a system. Accordingly,
operator activity can be analyzed fram different standpoints. In the literature
devoted to the problem of the human operator we can identify the following basic
areas today: classification of man-machine systems; physiological aspects; and,
human interactions with technical devices and development of special mathe-
- matical apparatus oriented to describing the functioning of systems of this class.
In work [182] the systems that require human presence (ergatic spstems) are
classified by a functional characteriatic defined by the degree of hiiman partici-
pation in the work of the system. Two boundary cla$ses are identified: deter-
ministic systems and probabilistic syateme. In deterministic systems tfie oper-
ator can estimate the values of parameters in tfie future at any time according to
a known law of change. In these systems the operator's functions involve servic-
ing various program units. The operator performs preparatory work: repair,
adjustment, preparation of programs, and the like. In nondeterministic systems
the values of system parameters may be predicted with a certain probability.
Therefore, human presence in all stages of its activity is extremely essential.
This is owing to the purely human capabtlities which determine successful oper-
ator acrivity as a part of the control contour [98]. It is proposed tfiat inter-
mediate classes be ranked by levels of the hierarchy, dpnamic properties, form
_ of data representation, and other such features. Work [216], in classifying
ergatic systems, uses the following factors as determining: number of pereons
_ working in the system; degree of operator participation in the work of tfie
syatem (in systems of the firat type the operator performs the tasks of monitor-
ing, analyzing malfunctions, evaluating work capabiltty and tfie like; in syatems
of the second type the operator is directly engaged in control in a tracking
mode).
The works of A. I. Gubinskiy (for example, see [157]) classify systems of this
type by the following features.
1. By mode of functioning. Depending on the degree of tfi,eir use at tfie moment
under consideration systems may be in the standfiy mode, mode of preparation for
functioning, and functioning mode. Moreover, there may be one-time preparation
and functioning or repeated preparation and functioning.
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2. By the role of the human being in tfiem. Sqstems of the first txpe are sys-
tems in which the aperator performs the functions of monitoring and restoring
work capa6ility. In systems of the second tqpe the operator works togetFier with
the technical units. In systems of the third type the operator works onlp after
a machine mal�unction, performtng its functions. In systems of the fourtfi type
the operator handles requesta only when the machine i.s loaded wftFi prior re-
quests.
The comprehenstve approach, which includes two inseparably linked areas, the
static and the dynamic, is usedto e7aluate the functioning of an ergatic system.
Work [181] gives a general descriptton of these areas. In the opinion of the
authors, the atatic component of system state is a set of parametera that describe
the propertiea of the system, while the dynamic component is a set of values of
the parametera that describe the procesaea which take place in the system at cer-
tain momenta in time. The syatem-structural approach is used to describe the
essential activities performed by the Qperator [160]. The distinctive features
of this approach are clarification of the specific activities of the operator,
determining the concrete difficulties tfiat arise during the process of mastering
this type of labor activity, the effect of individual cfiaracteristics on work
indicators, and the like. Realization of the system-structural approacfi with ap-
plication to operator tasks involves deacrtbing the general structure of oper-
_ ator activity in order to establish the psycfiological and causal relattonsTitps
that determine the reliability and efficiency of operator labor [75, 142, 145].
A generalization of psychological findinga from the study of operator acttvity in
different branches of industry made it possitile to identify the following 6asic
groups'of operator-type workers [159]:
1. the techzologist-operator, who performs the functiona
of observation, monitoring, and regulating industrial
processes to maintain them witfitn assigned limits;
2. the supe.rvisor-operator, who performa traffic organiza--
tion tasks;
3. the operator who performa remote control of a mobile or
imanobile object; .
4. the operator who directly controls a moliile object.
A number of researchers try to classify the mental activity of an operatpr in
performing various control tasks. For example, work [79] proposes tfiat oper-
ator mental activity be broken into three types: sensory, sensomotor, and logical.
Sensory-type mental activity covers operators who receive information on one
channel and transmit it, without conversion, on several channels. The typical
example of this type. of activity is the work of a person in a communications
system. Sensomotor-type mental activity involves processing directive information
and outputting results in standard form for the particular process. Tfiis type of
activity is typical for drivers, pilots, dispatchers, and operators oP industrtal
systems, among others. For the most part, the motor form of laBor involves the
operator's performance of sequential actions in response to a dtrective atgnal or
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a change in the situation in the system. Tfiis type of activity is typical for
several stages of pilot activity, for adjustment or preparatory jobs done by an
operator, and in other such situations.
During logical-type mental activity operator functions involve receiving and
processing information, making decisions, ared issuing control actions to the
appropriate units of the system. In tfiis case the operator experiences- the prtn-
cipal workload during information processing and decision-making. Witfi a limited
number of problems to solve operator actions take on features of automatism and
this type of activity can be.classifie.d with one of the above listed groups. In
actual situations all three types of activity by an operator occur. Therefore,
~ the ratios among the different types witfiin the limits of a selected time inter-
val can be the basis for describing operator activity according to the selected
characteristfcs.
According to work 1131], operator functions in an ergatic system can be repre-
_ sented as the realization of three modes of activity. The monitoring mode is
- characterized by the operator's receiving information on the work of the system.
In this case the number of parameters being monitored, their features, the
periodicity of monitoring, economic and paycfiophystological indicators, and other
such factora may be taken into account. The regulaKion mode presupposes periodic
operator intervention in the activity of the machine part to maintain certain
parameters or for purpoaeful change in these parameters according to an assigned
program in conformity with control olijectives. The control mode involves direct
intervention by the operator in the activity of the macfiine part of the system
- for the purpose of controlling system parameters. This approach to some_ extent
echoes the ideas presented in work [12] relative to levels of control in a liv-
' ing organism. '
At the present time many authors are inclined to interpret man-rmacfitne systems
as single-channel data processing systems (for example, see [98, 179]).. Ac-
cording to thie idea operator activity can be represented in the form of a
sequence of elementary control cycles consisting of distinct, completed stages.
The following stages are identified as the principal ones: recetpt of informa-
tion, processing and decision-making, and isauing control actions. Where
necessary theae stages can be broken down into more detailed components. For
example, work [166] breaks the control cycle down into the following parts:
1. receipt of information - isolating the signal from the
information background and determining the message which
the signal carries;
2. processing and decision-making extracting the algoritfim
for processing tfiis signal from memory, processing witFi
due regard for computation and logical conclusions, and
formulating the result (formation of information-instructions);
3. carrying out control actions searching for a means to
realize information-instructiona, and realization of the
result: issuing information-instructions.
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- The control cycle is considered to begin at the moment that the operator re-
. ceives information on a change in the parameters o� the processbeing moni-
tored, and the basis for execution of all stages is the point wliere these
parameters reach or approach the boundaries of pexmissitile values. The total
time of realization of the control cycle, including the time of cfiange in con--
trolled parameters, is defined by the signal delay caused bp the fiuman being
and the hardware.
The quality of operator performance of functions tn di.fferent phases of signal
- processing differs. According to figures given in work 1222] the largest number
_ of errors (81 percent) made by a pilot comes in the pfiase of receiving informa-
tion. The process of vtsual perception is broken down into aeveral more de--
tailed phases: perception, recognition, and classification [7, 228]. Tfie ftnal
goal of tfiis process is to assign the spectfic object to a certain category [57].
Investigation of the stage of information receiving is based on the dual function
of the signal. On the one hand, it ie a carrier of information that elictts a
certain reaction in the sensory system; on the o ther hand it is an indtcator of
the characteristics of the state of the environment or technical unita gnd has
a certain meaning to the operator. Tnerefore, the principal areas of research
in this field today involve identifying methods af opti.mal c:oding of informa-
tion by display means [149], study of the psychophysiological characteristics of
perception of tnformation by the visual analyzer [187], study of errors occurring
when the operator ts performing the tasks of d i scrimination and identification,
and investigating the relative sensitivity of different analpzer systems [88].
Because the vieual analyzer of the operator of a contemporary control system is
heavily loaded, the possibility of converting p art of the flow of information
for receipt by other analyzers such as the tactile analyzer is under inveati-~
gation [235].
Another approach to the investigation of these operator functions involves esti-
mating the influence of internal factors on the quality of irLformation receiving
- by the operator. The individual topological characteristics of the operator's
nervous system, ongoing characteristics of func tional state, motivation, and
' level of training are considered the principal ones [229].
Work [79] showed that the signal classified in the stage of information receining
determines the nature of subsequent operator a ctions. In the opinion of the
author, the operator works out a control strategy in the form of operations to
make decision9 on the situation in the system and necessary techniques to influ-
- ence it. According to [96], the operator in thia case uses a conceptual image
model of the situation.
The selection of the necessary signul processing algorithms Tap tfi.e operator is
largely determined by the operator's abtl{ty to extrapolate future situations.
This capability has been studied by many resear chers (for example, see 155, 180]).
Extensive findings have tieen made on processin g discrete signals 1122]. It is
observed that the results of predicting depend on many factors related to the
probabilistic structure of arrays of signals, motivation, the presence of feed-
back, and the like. All decisions made by the operator in the pro cess of
activity are divided tnto groups. One of the groups is based on logical
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deductions that follow from an evaluation of the situation, while the other is
conftned to selecting decisions worked out earlier. It is not possible to draw
a clear boundary line between tfiese groups of decisions because they involve
close interaction by tfie primary and secondary signal systems 1108]. Based on
the results in work [78], A. A. Krylov [131] supposes that most reactions are
transitional between reactiona of tfie first and second types.
A special scale that includes different categories of decisions has been pro-
posed to evaluate the intellectual 1eve1 of difficulty of a decision.
The stage of operator realizatton of control acti.one is carried out today in the
form of motor or speech reactions. The basic requirements for the corresponding
devices were considered in work [73]. Attempts are being made to use bio-
electric signals that arise in the nerve-muscular tissue for these purposes [6].
- Raising the efficiency of realization of this stage is closely linked to con-
sideration of the anthropological characteristics of the person [45] and formu-
lating rational methods of coding signal informatton on the results of activity
[40].
3. Objective Methods of Evaluating Operator Work Capahi..lity
Evaluating the Quality of Operator Performance in the Stage
of Receiving Information
Lvaluating the quality of information receiving involves analysis of a number of
informative indicators which.adequately reflect the influence of "internal
- factors" on this process [18]. Because most of tfie information in operator ac-
tivity comes to the visual analyzer, aperational monitoring of its work capa-
bility is an important component part of the general problem of monitoring the
efficiency of operator activity. The muscle balance of the eyes, the size of the
- pupil opening, the length of sequential images, the "stability of clear vision,"
- the frequency of eyeblinks, the critical frequency of image merging, the
threshol.ds df electrical stimulatability, reaction ttme, and other qualities
change under the effer_t of fatigue [28, 99, 127, 183].
_ Work [118] reviews methods of evaluating the visual work capability of a person.
Two, classes of criteria for evaluating this type of activity are identified:
a priori, and empirical. The class of a priori crtteria include criteria in
which visual work capability is evaluated indirectly:
1. the optico-phyaiological criterion (qualitative and quanti-
tative evaluations of visual functions sfiarpness of vision,
binocularity, and the like);
2, information criterion (carrying capacity of the visual ana-
lyzer worktng under different conditions)..
The empirical criteria include the criteria according to which visual work caga-
bility ts evaluated by the results of performance of a particular type of ac-
tivity: _ 52 .
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1. productivity of labor Cvolume. of arork in a un:Lt o#
time, number of mistakes);
2. operator fatiguabili.ty.
The a priori crtteria, despite tfieir fiigh prognoatic value, in.volve interven-
tion in operator activity, whicii signtficantlp limits tfie posaiTility of using
them for the problems under consideration [207].
With reapect to the general problem of evaluating operator work capabilitp to
evaluate the quality of information receiving tt is necessarq:to analyze a
number of informative indicatora that reflect ongoing psychophysiological char-
acteristics of the senaory system. Many investigators fiave sftDwn that cfiange in
the activation of the sensory systems is reflected in the parameters of tfie
EEG, the EKG, the EOG (electrooculogram), the EMG, pulse, and respiration (for
example, see [2301).
Work [229] singles out ahifta in the indicators of the EEG, EOG, and SGR (skin
galvanic reaction) caused by the detection of signals as the activation complex
which characterizes the functional state of the operator during signal receiv-
ing. It notes the individual quality in selective distribution of activation of
those systems which occurs wTien a signal appears. It is believed that this fac-
tor may serve as an indicator of rational expenditure of psychophysiological
reserves of the o.rgahism in the process of performing this tppe of activity.
V. I. Myasnikov and I. P. Lebedeva 1162J recorded EEG's, EKGts, and EMGts of
the muscles of the deep flexor of the fingers of the rigfit fiand in CTi.e process
of information receiving by the operator and identified a direct correlation between the latent period of the response reaction and tTis expressed orieatatton
reflex. '
t
Work [13] established differences in the proceas of fatigue of the visual ana-
lyzer when worki.-g with a mandatory rate of perception and a random rate.
Tfie electrooculogxam (EOG) and the biopotentials of the eye movement muecles
are an important indicator of the state of the visual analpaer and tn large
part meet the requirements made for monitored parameters.- Recording the EOG
makes it possible to obtain manp important characteristics of the process of
operator receipt and processtng of vieual information practically without inter-
ference to the operator. Tfie main types of eye movements and,their phyeical
characteriatics are given in [59]. Tfie work of the eye movement apparatus is
closely linked to certain functions of operational memory-, which.determines the
preservation of traces �rom earlier ftxationa 187]. In tfiis sense eye movement
. activity tn the process of the "information searcIi" is instr!�-*ive 196]. The
essential feature is active identification and conversion of elements of the
_ information field relevant to the proTilem being solved. In certain stagee the.
information search may be viewed as an independent type of activitp that in-
cludea ordering objects, identifying useful information bp assigned criteria
and sorting, recalculation and nonselective retrieval of ob,jects, and so on.
These tasks are performed by means of perceptive'and mtmicking actions which 53
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~ manifest themselves in prolonged fixation of the eyes on particular elements-of
the information field. Attempts to divide time expenditures into perceptive
- actions and intellectual acttons.proper are extremely complicated because work
ig done in tfiis case with a conceptual image model of the situation formed during
the familiarization process [41, 60].
Dependtng on the nature of tracTcing movements, eye movement activity is suti-
divided into three levels [197]. Tfie lowest level reflects imprecise tracking
movements, whtle the middle level is the second tppe of imprecise tracking move-
ments, and the htgfiest level is precise tracking movements. L. D. CTiaynova
[230] identifies tfiree levels of activation of the sensorp spstems depending on
the effectiveness of performance of visual activity: the most complex regime,
the optimal regime, and the preferable regime. Indicators of the activity and
certain objective indicators of the information search process (number of steps,
length of fixations, and the EEG and EKG) are used as quantitative cfiaracteris-
tics of the regimes.
The frequency of blinking movements is an important characteristic of the reli-
ability of the visual analyzer of an operator. An increase in the frequency of
blinking movements may occur as the result of various irritants in the air, ab-
normal lighting, and the effect of otfier physical factors [127]. During oper-
ator activity this charactertstic of the visual analyzer changes mainly as the
result of fatigue. According to ftndings given in work [103], the number of
mistaken actions by the operator increases synclironouslp with increase in the
frequency of eyeblinks. A study made by the autfiors of this book on the fre-
quency of eyeblinks for an operator performing the operation of feeding.data to a
computer under time deficit conditions showed that the number of mistakes grows
-as the volume of information proceased tincreases. Wfien the density of the in-
formation flow reachtng the visual analyzer increases, the area of the EEG
- decreases, the frequency of the Alpha rfiytfim rises., and it becomes desynchron-
ized. In this case the energy expenditures in the eye movement system decrease,
pulse frequency increases, and slow Fiigh-amplitude osctllations occur tn the
SGR [230]. K. K. Ioseliani and co-authors [112] recorded EEG's (integral ac-
tivity for five seconds), EOG's (vertical and horizontal components), EKG's,
SGR's (amplitude and length of reactions), EMG's (flexors of the fingers of
the right hand), electrotensograms, and spoken answers during the process of
the operator`a search for and recognition of cartograpfiic objects. Tfie results
of activity were evaluated by these criteria: recognition ttme, accuracy and de-
gree of confidence (according to the latent period of the spoken response). The
experiments showed that the most sensitive indicators of the complexity of an
information search.are the ocuologram and its baeic characteristtcs: time of
eye movement activtty, number of steps, and average length of fixations. In the
EEG during intensive activity the Tfieta rhythm dominated when difficulties ap-
_ peared and the Beta rhythm dominated wfien work was done efficiently.
The conditions of activity have a large influence on the visual work capaFiility
of the operator. The resolutton capaTiility of the eyes declines with an in-
crease in the frequency of'vibration. Tfie resonance frequencies 4--5 Hz are
_ particularly sensitive for an operator [58]. P. M. Suvorov [209], who studied
the effect of accelerattons on the work capaFiility of an operator, oTiserved an
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v
intenstfication of Beta activity in this peri.od without aigni.ficant ehifts in
the spectra of the other rhytfims; tTiis intensification continues when visual
impairments appear. The appearance of a"gray" or "black" sliroud in the `ield
of vision is preceded (5y 3-10 seconds) bp the disappearance of pulse from the
vessels of the floor of the auricle or a decline in pressure tfiere to 40 mm merc
col. Indicators svch as the EEG, EKG, respiratton, and the spstolic indicator
do not change significantly; some indicators also remain uncfianged during the
period of loss of consciousness.
The parameters of the EEG, which are simple in a computational.sense, are uaed
for purposes of diagnosing and monttoring the state of the visual analyzer.
Attempts to relate the average values of EEG amplitude and the value of the
Alpha index to sensomotor characteristics fiave produced some results [245].
More promising findings have been obtained bq investigating the interrela-
tionshfp of the form of oscillation witfi the speed of information proceseing in
the visual-motor system [50].
In work [51] a calculation of the mutual correlation of the average level of
asymmetry and average period of the spontaneous EEG and various indicators of
sensomotor activity showed that the average pe.riod of oscillation is not re-
lated to these characterietics. According to the findings of this work the
number of mistakes made during a correction test witfi rings correlates well
with the average level of asymm~.,try of the EEG, But also depends strongly on the
motivation of the test subjects.
Another approach to evaluating the visual work capability presupposes the ex-
ietence of a relationship between oscillationa in the pulsation of central
neurons and mental processes taking place in microintervals of ttme [143].
A theoretical ca?culation of some patterns of visual perception by frequency
characteristics of the EEG revealed a direct relationship between the frequency
composition of the oscillations of brain structures and typical features of
visual images, in particular the tnformatton capacity of the images. After
_ working out a frequency model of the neuron, the authors [136-139] obtained a
good coincidence of calculated results with experimental results for the time
of the sensomotor reaction in a choice situation, for the time limits of per-
ception of a sequence of viaual signals, for the minimum time from the moment of
the visual effect to the moment of maximum operator readiness to receive subse-
quent visual stimuli, and for various other characteristics. In our opinion,
- the experiments confirm the hypothesized reZationship tietween the frequency
composition of the EEG and the."spatial frequency" of elements in v3:sua1
images. This made it posaible to use the results of processing evotced poten-
tials to determine accurately which stimuli were perceived by the operator.
Analogous resulta were obtained by B. Berns, who used a different approach [20]. The patterns detected cannot yet be used to monitor the state of the
systems of the operator organism related to receiving information, but there is
no doubt of the promise of this approacfi for tfiese problems,
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Evaluating the Quality of Information Processing
Recording and analyzing the EKG is an essential part of monitoring the state of
the operator. This is related to the.fiigfi.informational value of the cardiac
rhythm for these problems and the methodological simpltcity of recording 1175,
176]. Work [79] establisfies the existence of an almost linear dependence of
pulse rate on the amount of tnformation coming to the operator. A number of
works have shown change in the variability of the heart rfiythm in different
stages of inental activity. Tfius, work 1135] ofiserves that the phases of getting
_ into the work rhythm and active work are accompanied by a decline in the vari-
ability of the heart rhythm. Wtien work capability decreases slow waves appear in
the.EKG and may be used to forecast the work capalitlity of the operator [84].
Findings on oscillatory components of the EKG during prolonged mental activity
are given in work [135]. When the intensity of activity grows there is an abrupt
increase in the frequency of heart contractions and their varialiility [30, 195].
Work [247] contains data on the exisCence of a correlation between the varia-
bility of the frequency of the heart rhythm and the number of mistakes made by
the operator.
The mathematical expectation and coefficient of variation of pulse frequency
were used as the most informative indicators to evaluate psycfiophysiological ten-
sion in work [25]. Maximum-efficiency of activity was observed for minimum de-
- creases in the coefficient of variation,
V. A. Dushkov and co-authors [78] recorded the average numher of heart contrac-
, *_ions and the instantaneous values occurring at each contraction in order to
evaluate the effect of inental tension on change in the functional state. They
established that the correlation coefficients between time of performance of
the assignmant and change in pulse were statistically signi.ficant, but these
indicators are not well protected against individual differences related to
motivation, level of training, characteristics of compensatory mechanisms, and
the like.
The authors of [44] used a set of eight indicators of the ca;:diovascular system,
including pulse rate, tachooscillographic adrenalin values, and data from phase
analysis of the cardiac cycle and stroke volume to distinguish the state of rest
and emotional tension caused by waiting for stroke loading. They evaluated in-
formational value by the linear discriminative functiona method according to
Fisher. Pulse frequency and average adrenalin proved most informative.
According to the results presented in work [236], the average values of the
amplitude of the EKG and RR intervals taken at one-minute intervals do not have
a reliable correlation. Under pfiystcal loading the periods of existence and
absence of a correlatinn during'the transitional process occur in regular order
which reflects individual characteristtcs and is preserved regardless of tfi e
number of tests.
A generalized indicator cfiaracterized By the ratio of the averaged frequency
of the background EEG to average amplttude was proposed to evaiuate the current
functional state of the central nervous system.
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A. V. Cfiu6arov and V. V. Petelina 1231] efiowed tfiat it is most convenient to
use an tnverse relationsfiip to aimplify tfis apparatus in tfiis case. Tfiis in--
dicator reflects- operator activity in the addttion mode very orell.
A number of works have noted tfia tendencp for errors to appear arTien operators
wfio have spent more time on computation multtply pairs of two-digtt numbers.
In this case the test subjectg who normally fiad a loar amplitude for the Alpha
rhythm or transformation of the EEG in tFi.e unfavorafile direction (irregular
acute. and Theta waves, and low-frequency Alpfia rTiqthm transforming into Th.eta
oscillations of 7 Hz) allowed concealed malfunctions (errors) more frequently.
The Alpfia index, the amplitude nf the A1pTia rhptFim of both fiemispfieres, asym-
metry of oscillations, and difference fletvreen *tfie ascending and descending
wave phases are considered to Fie psycfiological indicators tfiat determine the
productivity of operator activity. The indicators of asymmetry, amplitude,
and frequency of the Alpha rhythm correlate significantly among tTiemselves.
Work [214] notes the existence of a relationahip between dispersion of the re--
action time to directive signals and the coefficient of opening and closing
the eqes (the ra.tio of the rate of aynchronizatton of biopotentials of the
brain to the rate of desynchronization). Tt ts also emphasized that there is
an extreme value of this indicator where the efftciencp of operator acti.vi.ty
is maximal (for the accepted time criterion). Its numerical values are not
constant, even for one subject, in different experiments and varp within tfie
limits of a certain range af values. Tfie intensitq of a person's activity is ,
reflected by change in certain parameters of the EEG. Thus, it was observed
earlier [248] that as tension related to concentration of attention increases,
desynchronization (depreasion),of the Alpba rhytIim occurs. In addition, a de-
crease in the number of spontaneoua depressione of the Alpha rfiytfim fias been
observed when the probability of the appearance of an expected signal in- J creases. A number of works, hqwever, fiave also described the onpoette phe-
nomenon during mental tenaion: a rise in the Alpha rfiythm. According to the
findings of work [198], moderate tension is accompanted bp a rise in the in-
- tegrated capactty of the Alpha rhythm, Fiut a furtIier increase in tension leads
to its depression. Investigators attempt to interpret ttiese contradictory-
findings by considering depression to be the result of directed tfiinking,
while exaltation is viewed as the result of generaltzed tFiinking.
Direct differentiation of a peraon's states hy the parametera of tfis EEG wae
first presented in work [49]. During analysis of the interrelationsfiips of
three EEG readings (from just below the crown, from tTiQ back of the head, and
from the temple), the author found statistically reliable differences for
different types of inental activi.ty. He used the average level of asymmetry of
the oscillations of spontaneous activtty as the indicator. In later studies
using this indtcator several types of inental activity-were consistently class�t-
fied, despite individual differences. In certatn cases the correct classifi-
cation of arithmetic counting, squeezing the left wrist, and reproduction was
85, 88, and 70 percent respectively 150]. A simi].ar studp witfi otFi,er EEG indi-
cators was done tn work [2601 to clasgify five different mental states. In
this case the average amplttude of the Alpha rhytfim in the crown-back of the
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head region, the average period a.n the crown region, coherence in the zone be-
tween the back of the head and the crown, and cofierence in the zone fietareen the
crown and a biopstpital reading sensor selected from a group of 15 indicators
were recorded in advance. The average results of classification of states were
correct in 62-69 percent of the cases. In the work of A. A. Genkin 151] two
- types of activity were correctly dtstinguisfied by the coefficients of interac-
tion of pfiase lengtfi and correlation of the period and amplitude in 91 percent
of the cases.
Recording the EEG during a correction test witil circles revealed a significant
decline in the average level of aspmmetry during periods of skips. In additton,
~ the dispersion of slow oscillations of secondary values of asymmetrq in the
back-of-the-head and forehead readings increases at the moment of an error.
A number of authors [147, 227] consider the dispersion and mathematical expec-
tation of integrated activity in the zone of the Alpha rhythm to be the most
informative pRrameters in the EEG. The coefficients to distinguisFi these
stages have been established based on the parameters of the distribution lams of
the Alpha rhythm for operational rest and in a state of heightened attention.
Change in the nature of the distribution law of the background EEG with a change
ir.. the person's functional state is also noted in work [169].
Work [65] proposes a method of obtaining a"current index of activitp" of the
EEG based on computation of the ratio of the low-frequency index to the higfi-
frequency index.
Evaluating Operator Work Capability bq Data from Multi-
channel Recording of Phqsiologic Indicators
Under actual conditions different.types of difficulties may face tTiQ operator
_ in different stages of the funct,ioning of an ergatic system, and for this rea-
son the load on the physiological systems o� the operator's organism may vary.
Therefore, monitoring of the current state of the organism involves all systems
related to the performance of operator functions. Evaluation of the current
state by analysis of one physiological aystem is not a reliable tecfinique for
this purpose in many cases.
According to work [79], the basic reasona for the need to monitor multtple
- parameters of state are the following:
a. the significant spread of individual characteristics of
operators;
b. the presence in the organism of possibilities of compen-
sattng for disrupt3on of the function of one pfiysiological
- system hy means of other systems;
c. the multiple elements of a"functional system" responsible
for performance oF a particular type of activity, whicfi cre-
ates the problem of determining the weakest element in the
- system at the particular moment;
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d. the requirements of predictafiility of monitoriag pre-
suppose an evaluation of reserve arork capability. TEzia
evaluation can be oTitained on tfie 5asis of an analpsis' of the characteristics of specialized structures by
preferential processing of information and energy sup--
port for the vital activittes of the organiam.
V. I. Myasntkov and I. P. Lebedeva were amoag.the first to investigate the pos-
sibilities of semieffector analysie of tfie operator*s state during tTie proc-
essing of visual information [1~2], .
Work [71] propoaes identifying leadtng aad secondary parameters in the set of
symptoms that characterizes a certain functional state of the operator. They
suggest using weighted ratios of parameters as the basis for autQmattc diag-
nosis.
The suthors of work [168] recoroed EEG's, EKG's, SGR's, and reapiration. They
found that a rise in the emotional tension of the operator manifested t.taelf in
an increase in the amplitude of high-frequency rhythms, the amplitude of the
- SGR, and increases in the frequency of the EKG and reapiration. V. A. Bordov
[27] recorded pulse rate, reapiiation, akin temperature, local perepiration, and
a number of biochemical indicators while tension was created by various means.
He observes that the most significant changea tn all the indicators monitored
were observed when performing discontinuous counting at a aet pace, dts-
tinguishing tonal signals under ttme deficit condittons, in.the case of infor-
mation redundancy, and with an increasing flow of information. In work [791
- while the test subjects performed assignments at a given rate using accounting
methodology thcir EEG's, monopolar right and left frontal-readings, ERG's, SGR's,
and EMG's were recorded. T4 resul.ts of the experimenta showed that during the
period of block work in the EEG a maximum frequency shtft is ofiserved-in the
direction of the high-frequency rhythms. A change in the objective indicatora
of state was noted only for those mietakes of which the operator became aware
. during moments of complications in the work. The most informative indicators,
aignaling the approach of a breakdown in work, were the EMG and SGR. The peak '
valuea of the EMG for nonworking muscles differed by 300-400 percent from ini--
tial values, while for the EKG the difference was 20 percent. Proceeding Prom
this, the authors [79] concluded that there is not an unambiguous correlation
between the character of breakdowns in the work of t$e fiuman operator and their
functional nat+�--�. Indicators of the dynamics of functional state wfiicfi precede
or accompany the time of an error deacribed a physiological situation fraugfit
with the danger of all kinds of error. The suthors of work [90], analqzing the
~ very same experimental material, think tbat the physiological indicators re-
flect not tfie quality of activtty, but rather a subjective characterization,
- tension. .
Work [64], investigattng the sens.omotor reaction wi.th.cfioice under conditions of
uncertninty and Grtth a warning signal, recorded a num&er of ph.psiological tndi-
- cators simultaneous-ly. In addition, Before and after the experiment tfiey measured
arterial.pressure, analyzed the lilood for content of sugar and adrenalin'lfke
_ substances, and analyzed the urine for corticosteroid content: Tfie greatest
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changes were found in the SGR, EKG, and biochemical indicators in experiments
with uncertainty.
V. S. Genes and V. A. Mako tchenko [53] compared the information capacitp of 10
different indicators of the adrenal cortex and peripfieral lilood with carriage
- of inercury (witliout signs of intoxication) and witfi mild mercurp intoxication.
The most informative tndicators tested were those related to the functional
test. The results of comprehensive processing made it possible to establish
thar the information value of the complex is no greater tiian the information
value of the best indicator inclnded in the complex.
Work [213] proposes that the distinct physiological indtcators of the dynamics
of operator state be joined in groups. Its author believes that change in the
intensity of aperator activity is reflected above all in change in relations
within the groups.
,
- The requirements for parameters subject to monitoring are presented in work
[90]. The suthors believe that the opttmal operator state is zonal tn nature,
so the work capability of all the systems of the operator's organism cannot be
evaluated by separate indicatora.
In the*opinion of V. V. Kopayev and co-authora [123], the overall effect of the
_ influence of all physiological systems can be represented, when evaluating
functional state, in the form of a certain "pnysiological index." Tliey suggest
that for identifying the existence of correlations among parttcular pliystological
indicators considering that quantitatively equal components of a physiological
index are not alwaya physiologically equivalent, tlie particular physiological
reactions should be integrated into a single expression based on the principle of
- central nervous regulation of work activity. The authors of [123] tielieve that
a precise evaluation of functional state presupposes the use of crtteria for the
information value of the p articular physiological indtcators and sets of symptoms.
Studies of operator activity under real conditions, on trainers, and in labora-
tory experiments have shown that a uniform qualitative structure of physiologtcal
shifts is observed in all ca$es.
According to the findings. of [201], changes in the physi_ological indicators of
operator-type workers (proofreaders, subway engineers, power system supervisors,
and air traffic controllers) depends on the volume of information.received by the
operator, the level of its complexity, and accountability for decisions made. The
greatest changes in the EKG (increase in the pulse rate to 130 bits per minute)
occur in pereona in whom high-frequency rhythms predominate in the EEG.
Work [2] givea a comparative description of phyaiological changes that occur in
operators during monotonous work and tension-filled work. Tfie autfior sfiows that
the indicators of Yability of the visual analyzer and tfie memory and attention
functions decline toward tfie end of the working shift for an operator engaged in
monotonous activities. No deviattons on the part of autonomous functions were
identified. But during tense acttvtties disruptions occur in the visceral and
autonomous spherea [113].
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In work [35] the EKG and EMG of the right forearm and SGR vere taken for ptlote.
Growth in the frequency of heart contractions relative to a atate of rest, the
mathematical expectation, mean quadrattc deviations, and envelope of the EMG, and
the area of the SGR were used as indicators. Linear diecriminant functiona vere
calculated to evaluate information quality. Tfiis made it possiTale to express
differences between classes of oBservations witfi due regard for linear connections
among variables. It was establisfied that the tnformativeness of particular indi-
cators depends on the type of activitp, but the Tiighest information value oc-
curred for evalLStton 5ased on it set of indicators.
The authora of work j85J believe that the degree of psychopliysiological tension of
a pilot is well reflected in the effort of randomly gripping the control.wheel.
From the reaults of investigations of fligfit activitp on trainers tfieq determined
that in thia case the most informative parameters are the SGR, length of cardtac
intervals during moments of activation of the SGR, ratio of the length of infiala-
tion to exhalation, and involuntary delays in respirattan. Work [86) suggests
that pulse frequency, the amount of the pilotts reserve attention, the volume of
lung ventilation, and the grip on the control levers should be considered tfi e
most informative indicators or a pilot's level of training. An integrated indi-
cator of the quality of flight activity is introduced to evaluate tIis quality of
flying with due regard for psychophysiological reactiona. V. G. Denisov and co-
authors [74] also propose an indicator of the quality of flight activity tfiat
takes into account the criterion function of psychological tension.
Studies using laboratory models under different conditions of activity considered
the tndicators of the person's state and the quality of activity being performed
[133]. The generalized criterion of human functioning took into account the in-
dicators of the quality of activity by specific criteria and change in the func-
tional state of the operator. The EKG, FVD [expansion unknown], skin temperature,
adrenalin, EEG, pulse rate, SGR, EOG, and a number of other indicators oTitained
- by special techniques were used for an obJective evaluation of state. Among
these other indicators were pzoblem-solving by vieual observation, evaluation of
operational memory, decision-making, types of motor reactions, and solving prob-
lems involving maintaining an operational linlc. In construction of the general-
ized criterion of efficiency it was presuppoeed that the nature of the relation-
ship between the quality criterion and indicators of functional state does not
- change throughout the entire range of changes in conditions of activity. Tfie
ongoing values of the quality indicator are determined not tiy the nature of the
relationship, but rather by change in state. For each type of acttvi.ty, the
quality indicator was represented in the form of a polynomial of a certain fixed
degree from corresponding values of selected psychophysi.ological indicators. The
mathematical apparatus employed was based on the least squares technique and al-
lowed evaluation of the informativeness of selected psychophysiological indi-
cators. Based on the findings obtained the authors of tfiis work conclude tfiat
indicators related to evaluation of the quality of activity and indtcators of
the variability of parameters are most informative. But the information value
of the particular physiological indicators is not the same for each type of
operator activttq.
Work [258] presents a possible approach to evaluating the informativeness of
physiological indicators hased on the techniques of dispersion analysis.
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The contradictory character of shifts in parameters of physiological indicators
of operator states, especially when the operator's activity becomes more complex,
is noted by many authors j4, 37, 1671. Tn work I1171, the EKG, respiration, time
= of the pilot's spoken reaction, and flight parameters were recorded in an emer-
gency situation artificially created when the plane was approaching the runaway
for a landing. Trwo types of pi1Qt reactions were found in similar situations.
The first type is- characterized.by an increase in the parameters of all pfiysio-
logical tndicators at the moment that the emergency signal is expected and rapid
restoration wfien the problem is removed; the second is characterized by a de-
cline in all indicators at the moment of expectation and more prolonged restora-
tion. Work [210] hypotfiesizes that such manifestations of indivtdual charac-
teristics are caused by the prevalence of sympattietic or parasympathetic regula-
tion. Work [42] considers operator fatigue during tense activity to be the re-
sult of additional mobilization of the organism's internal resources. In con-
nection witfi this it proposes that the stages of fatigue be classified by certain
indicators of the sensomotor reaction.
A number of devices have been proposed to automatically monitor the values of
physiological indicators. As standard values they use data on mean statistical
norms of these indicators or their background values [71].
The vast biomedical findings received from experimental work are not always sub-
ject to adequate mathematical processing. This is primarily because of the
lack of sufficiently correct methods of describing. a complex obj ectlike.the human
organism. In addition, study of operator activity under real conditions-is made
more complex by the lack of necessary apparatus for taking and recording many
- potentially highly informative indicators of work capability� Tfierefore, the
traditional psychophysiological metliods wfiich successfully haridle the problems
of vocational selection are poorly suited in practice for evaluating actual oper-
ator work capability.
PsychophysiologicaT Aapects of Operator Reliability
The reliability of performance of functions by an operator is broken down into
three types [67]:
1. psychological reliahility reliability in relation to ir-
regular failures (errore) because particular actions are
done incorrectly or at the wrong time;
2. physiological reliability reliahility in relation to
temporary, regular failures owing to shortage of time or
the development of,fatigue, injury, streas, and the like;
_ 3. demographic reliability reliability in relation to ul-
, timate failure (aging, in,jury witfi disability, and death).
Work [163] considers operator reliaLility together with the operator's individual
characteristics in light of -the doctrine of types of higher nerve activity.
From the wark characteristics the author singles out those which are based on in-
born properties of the operator's nervous system: long-to-rm endurance, endurance
in relation to extreme tension, resistance to interference, ability to ~ Ltch,
and the like.
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This view has fieen confirmed i.n numerous later ororks (for e,xaffiple, see 169, 152]).
According to the findings of Ye. A. Mileryan I154], psytTiclogical studp-of the
structure of operator activity makes it possible to identify several regimes of
operator activity in which.reliafiilitp tndicators differ subatantiallp. Tfie
optimal and extreme regtmes are considered basic. Tfie gradation of regtmes is
done by indicators of operator activity, and so the questtons of operator reli-
ability in tfiese regimea are discussed. A number of autfiors j53, 95, 2021 note
the great impact of the individual operatorts volitional qualities on reliability,
indicators. E. V. Bondarev and co-autTiors [29] believe tfist operator activity in
extreme conditions te characterized 5p selective redistribution of functional
capabiltties. In thts case the primarp activity is done with maximum efficiency,
whtle other functions are performed with gradually decreasing results as peycfio-
physiological resources are exhausted. Some works (for example 1251]) cite data
to the effect that paychological tests do not reflect change in the psychophqst-
ological capabilities of the operator under tfieae conditions.
Operator activity in extreme conditiona caused by various faetors is analyzed in
works [1, 101, 199, 211, 233, 242, 2501. Work 1128] atudied operator activity
during prolonged waiting for a signal (2-10 minutes). For an objective evalua'
tion.of the operator's state they recorded the time of the simple sensomotor
reaction, reaction time and number of mistakes in differentiating two ligfit
stimuli, time required to solve-thinking problems, the monopolar EEG from the
back af the head., the SGR, the EKG, the vertical component of the EOG, the RMG
[expansion unknown], and eye movementa. A relationship between the probability
of error when solving thinking pro}ilems and clianges in physiologtcal indicators
was experimentally established. Thus, a decrease of 20-30 percent in fre-
quency of the EEG relative to the background EEG before an assignment is given
increasea the probability-of error. Tfie best results for the sensomotor reac-
tion were obtained against a Iiackground of diffuse alertness: a stable Alpfia
rhythm in the EEG, a constant EKG frequencp for the particular operator, a
large number of eye movements, and maximum observed value of the SGR. Errors in-
volving skipping signals occurred against a background of a sligfi.t decltne in
the level of alertness: appearance of the Tfieta rTiytfim, decline in the frequency
of the EKG, lack of the EOG of reactions, and a minimal EKG. Tfie character of
errors in operator activity is an fmportant source of tnformation to the oper-
ator. Operators correct their activities by the qualitattve diatribution of
such errors. In this case operator motivation has an importazt tnfluence on
ahaping the tactics of subsequent befiavior [164]. Many works note tfiat regard-
less of the degree of zmotional stability, tn all cases operators cfiange tfieir
tactics depending on the magnitude and nature of deviations in results received.
But according to the findings of 12321 during the stages of training and getting
into the work rhythm, increasing the completeness of information on the qualtty
of work done does not always fiave a positive effect on the formation of the
required habtts. This is because tfiere are two categories of information
moving in the feedback channels: (1) informatfon which does not fiinder operator
adaptation; (2) information wfiich does fiinder operator adaptation. Tfie second
type is typical for cases when the operator's sensomotor habits are inadequately
developed and feedback increases the activation of the corresponding nerve
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4. Description of Operator Activity and Evaluation of Its R?s.ults
Numerous autfiors use logical probafiilistic methods to descriIae operator activity
[56, 471. In this case the algoritfim of operator activitp is considered as a
, set of elementary operations to process information and the selected logical
conditions tfiat define the order of their performance in performing control tasks.
Performance of elementary operations is cfiaracterized bq average time of execu-
tion and prooability of errors. Tfie logical conditions map be deterministic and
probabilistic; they can also fi e considered as distinct operations. TCie time of
the logical transition and the probability of error--free performance of the
logical transition are used to evaluate these conditions.
In work [92] G. M. Zarakovskiy introduces the coefficients of logical couiplexity
- and assignment stereotyping to evaluate concrete operator activity. T'his ap-
proach to describing operator activity is based on the assumption that time expen-
ditures to carry out particular operations in the algorithm of activity fiave ade-
quately stable statistical features. Work [157] systematizes known data on time
expenditures for particular elementary operations (such as reading information
from various types of display media, processing time, decision-making, pressing
- buttons, and the like).
The structural method of describing operator activity [157] involves represent-
ing operator functions as distinct completed operations that are joined together
depending on concrete conditions into blocks of operations from which the algo-
rithm of operator activity is formed. The advantage of this method is that it
= permits a preliminary assessment of system reliability because statistical data
on the time and quality indicators of performance of particular operations are
used. But its significant drawback for practical application is that tfiese
data are obtained without reference to the impact of constraints on time of
performance of the corresponding operations, which must be taken into account
when using logical-probabilistic models.
Information theory methods are somewhat more free of this proTilem. The first
works in this field gave a substantiation of Hick's law [2531. Tt appeared
- later, however, tFat the linear relationship between the amount of information
in the stimulus and reaction time is preserved within a limited range of experi-
- mental conditions, but the amount of information whtch a pexson can process
varies widely depending on conditions of activity, age, criteria.for evaluation
of the quality of activity, and so on [32, 67, 72, 132, 179].
Work [46] showed that in the process of training a person forms an internal model
- of the environment and conditions of activity and optimizes befiavior tn con--
formity with this model. Applicable to the problems of information retrieval,
at first the operator groups elements, tfien devises an internal sequence for
processing 'them, and carries out the required action.
0. K. Tikhomirov and co-authors [217] present findings to the effect tfiat when
solving problems of classifying objects the operator first uses fieuristic solu-
rion techniques, and then gradually makes up more informative tests. In this
case operator activity is reduced and may coincide with the optimal algoritfim
for the given conditions. Otlier authors also note the increase in the operator's
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carrying capacity during the process of increaeing akills [80, 81, 1321, This
process is linked to change in the signtficance of the information recei.ved.
Two approacfies are tieing worked out today to evaluate tTiis indicator. One of
them involves determintng the significance of the tnformation received; tfie
extent to which it promotes acfiievement of the goal 181]. According to the
- second approacli [126], the significance of the information will be greater
when it testiftea to a lower probaFility of achieving the goal. A. Ye.
01'shannikova [167], studying the acttvitp of higfily qualified operatArs, es-
tablished that where they worked by the criterion of avoiding all errors in
action, reaction time to stimuli of different intens:ity hardly d^?ended on level
of training at all. Her explanation was tliat the operators monitor their activ-
- ity extensively.
According to the findinga of work [70], the use of pilot monitoring instruments
to give the pilot the most ajgnificant information on fliglit parameters does not
promote an increase in the pilot'g time reserves. The authors believe that the
pilot prefers to operate with an internal model of the significance of the in-
formation being received. ; .
Work [80] proposes that ongoing reserves of carrying capacity be evaluated iiy the
amount of additional information which the operator is cap able of procesaing
- while performing the primary activity. Work [166] gives summary findinga on
operator carrying capacity while performing diff erent operatians, but the condi-
tions to which these operations correspond are not stipulated. Works [16, 83]
. also review probabilistic-information methods of evaluating operator activity.
V. 'N. Trofimov [218] uses the intensity of the flow of information, an.indicator
of the speed of creation of "diversity," as the measure nf the efficiency of an
ergatic syatem for the tracking regime. In ttiis case the criteria of efficiency
_ are the intenaity of the informatioA flow and rnatching errars.
- The following requirements, presented in work (179),may be considered general
constraints for information theory techniques: '
a, constancy of conditions in which assignments are given;
- b. constancy of operator characteristics; ~
c. the ueriod a� signal tracking must be greater than the re-
fractory p eriod of operator reactions; - d, assignments should be similar in complexity, type, and sig-
nificance.
Work [76] also considers the number of conditions, number of possible solutions,
_ character of the decision algori.thm, level of assimilati.nn of the algorithm;
and existence or nonexistence of feedfiack on result of activity as limitattons
- on the operator`s carrying capacity wlien processing information and making deci-
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Despite the he.uristic character of human tfiinking activity, many operator
characteristics can be obtained tTirough probatiilisttc information models of
operator activity in the form of mass service systems. In this case the human
operator is considered as the service apparatus and the time reQuired to
servtce a request is a random quantity [10, 155]. Tn tfiis case "requests"
_ mean signals tfiat come from tecfintcal units to the operator. Tfie floar of re-
quests is broken down into classes Whose cliaracteristics may iie regularity- of
arrival, requirements for precision and reltaFiltty of execution (service),
. priority (order of processing),.and so on.
The distrib.ution of request arrival time is found fr.om the algorithm of the
system's functioning. The law of distribution of time of request handling is
determined experimentally or on a model. The workload on the operator and its
boundaries are characterized by the average queue length, waiting time for ser-
vice, and intensity of service. In this the indicators of the quality of
operator activity are the probability of failure and the extent to wfiich results
obtained from processing particular signals correspond to the given criteria for
processing them.
One possible approach to the application of masa service theory in problems of
evaluating operator activity is given in work [115]. In this case the ergatic
system is viewed as a mass service syatem with an input flow con:cisting of
fail.urea of the ohject. The normal regime for this system's functioning is
- where the failure is handled immediately after it is reported. The mathe-
matical axpression obtained. for time of servicing requests and probability of
the occurrence of d queue may be used as a preliminary evaluation of the relia-
bility of a conttol system.
The works of B. A. Smirnov propose that all types of complex human operator ac-
tivity be represented as sums of particular elementary operations according to
procedure, information processing, and implementation of control actions on ap-
= propriate units of the machinery. Time expenditures to solve any complex problem
without experiment are calculated by means of the hypothesis of the independence
or parallel-sequential execution o.f particular elementary actions witfi known
time expenditures for these operations. A good correspondence between calculated
and experimental findings has been shown for the sensomotor reaction. Work [196a]
considers the operator as a single-channel mass service system witfi.waittng.
The index of the reliability of its functioning is the proFiability of errors,
which includes the following factors:
Pail, Pi Pomr,
where P1 is the probahility of overfilltng operati.onal memorp; P2 is the proba-
bility of occurrence of a time sliortage (where operattonal memory is not over-
filled); P3 is the probability of information overload; and PoWli is the condi-
tional probability of occurrence of an error duri:ng the pracessing of algorit:im i.
_ In the opinion of the author of tfiis work, giuen an exponential law of service
with parameter M and an elementary input flow witfi parameter T, the probability
of the existence of queue Pr in the system can lie computed bp the .formula
_ P. - C ~1 jr X (I
/
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When developing various control systems tfiat presuppose the presence of a fiuman
_ operator, a precise quantitative consi3erati.on of its characteristtcs in dif-
ferent regimes of functioning of tfiis class of system is necessary. Tfie appar--
atus of graph theory [56], sensitivity tfieorq 1104], and others 11891 may also
be used to determine the quantitattve cliaractertsttcs of operator work. From an
engineering point of view, the most convenient way to describe operator func-
tioning is the method of equivalent transfer functions [186]. The transfer
functions of the human operator may be used to analyze the statitlity of manual
control systems and to determine the constraints imposed by the dynamic range
of operator characteristics on the corresponding characteristics of the control
object. In the process of designing control systems these c3ata make tt possible
to evaluate the controllability of the object when it is tmpossilile to use full-
scale modeling. In addition, this offer s an opportunity to reproduce factors
whicti affect the quality of oper4tor act ivity but are difficult to evaluate under
real conditions.
The essential feature oL this technique is that the characteristics of the opera-
tor performing the role of a link in the control system are described by a certain
linear transfer function. The part of operator reactions that does not correspond
to this transfer function is represented in the form of interference applted at
the same point as the operator output. If the interference is commensurate with
the magnitude of the usable signal corre sponding to the transfer function, the
function is subject to further adjustmen t. In the general case, the transfer
function of the operator has this form
- K 1'~l (S)
i~~p (S) = v (S) e-St,
where KP is the coefficient of intensif i cation; T is the delay time of the reac-
tion (0.13-0.2 seconds); M(S) and N(S.1 a re polynomials wiiose coefficients are
determined by the concrete conditions of the problems lieing solved.
In the elementary case when interpreting this class of systems in the form of a
single-contour tracking system, the operator receives an error stgnal and produces
- the control actions, attempting to nullify the matching error. The dependence of
the parameters of the transfer function on the form, spectrum, and range of control
signals and the dynamics of the cantrol elements is investtgated in work [244]. It
is an important result to estahlish the fact that the type of operator tranefer
functions obtained in concrete systems is applicable to a restricted class of sys-
tems. Operator transfer functions, whil e meeting the requirements of preliminary
investigation of ergatic systems, fiave 1 imited capabilities in tfiose cases where
precise evaluation ia required.
The limitations presented in work 1240] can be conaidered the principal sfiortcomings
of models in this class. In the opinion of the author, the most significant short-
comings are the fullowing:
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l. Linear analog models cannot have at the output frequencies
which are not przsent in the input signal;
2. These models cannot interpret experimental facts wfiicfi
testify that the operator in many cases acts discretelp;
3. Tfiep do not consider the ability of operators to adjust
their behavior in conformity with an evaluation of the
probabilistic structure of the arrays of incoming signals.
Work [259] has proposed a pulsed model of the operator to eliminate the sfiort-
comings of linear analog models. This model includes a linear continuous part
and a pulsed element in the form of a periodically operating key. The linear
part of the model consists of a corrected linear transfer function and a shaping
circuit which is an extrapolator that constructs the function of the input stgnal
in time based on information obtained at the moment that the key is closed.
This type of model describes operator actions very well using transfer functions.
But it is poorly suited for describing multichannel systems. As a rule, operator
actions are linked to the results of processing information that arrives by dif-
ferent channels. These may be scalar instruments, dfgital indicators, sound and
optical signal devices, and the like. A model of this type is based on the as-
sumption that the operator is for the most part a single-channel regulator who
switches among different controlled contours. Tfie model permits evaluation of
many important operator parameters related to reading information. Senders
[259] used this model to predict the rate at which an operator would read instru-
ment readings and obtained a good correspondence. The basic ideas realized in
his model have been confirmed in many works by other authors [125]. Situations
are possible in operator activtty where the operator acts as several regulators,
controlling several variables [113]. In tfiis case each parameter has its own
contour of regulation. Preferabic conditions for the use of types of models to
describe operator activity in a multichannel system still need careful investi-
gation.
Work [172] proposes that instead of conventional operator transfer functions gen-
eralized work characteristics that give functional descriptions of the param-
eters of the input signal and prpcessing algorithms be used.
Discrete models o2' the human operator give an adequate representation to fre-
quencies of 2 Hz (analog 1 Hz). The spectrum of output quantities of discrete
models of the human operator correaponds better witIi experimental data [174].
Adaptive models of the human operator are presently in the development stage.
But certain successes have already been achieved in this area [15].
The general drawback of the purely tecfinical approach to descriliing the func-
tioning of the operator is that it does not adequately consider the unique.
character of information processing by a human tietng. Such features of the func--
tioning of the human element as the effect of motivational aspects on indicators
of activity, the use of personal experience, and the existence of vast compen-
satory capabilities raise the challenge of working out a special matfiematical
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apparatue to evaluate the reliability and efficiencp of composite.man-machine
- systems.
Comprehensive Methods of Describing Operator Activity
Methods of this type attempt to combine a stri.ct formalized descrtption of pur-
poseful activities by a person 61ving various applied problems witfi natural
science data on the human being as a uiological system with an indivtdual prior
history, individual characteristics, and an individual current etate, The indi-
cators of operator activity are vi.ewed as a result of a certain "integrated"
state of the man-machine system [43, 165, 221].
The simulation modeling technique ts most higblp developed at the present time
[94]. To obtain preliminary evaluations of the reliability of complex human-
machinery systems the authors of thts work uae the techniquea and data of reli-
ability theory, mass service theory and human factors engineering. The simula-
, tion modeling technique, which considers the technical apecifications of the
devices used, the structure of operator activity, the parameters of the internal
states of operators, and their impact on the quality of activity, makes it
possible to obtain average characterization of system efftciency with due re-
gard for psychosocial factors (emotional state of operators, motivation, team-
work in crews, and the like) in the stage of system design. The drawback of the
method is the averaged character of the resulting descriptions, which makes it
difficult to consider the tmpact of individual data on tTi.e quality of group ac-
tivity. In addition, the psychological etructure of tlie group of operators
(leadera, follQwers, theoreticians, and tTie like) ia not adequately tpLken iilto
account.
The operations psychology method [47] is based on a consideration of data on the
contentual aspect of psychophysiologtcal processes realtzed in acttons and psy-
chological operations. It is based on the following proposttions:
a. The breakdown of activity is done By dividing the struc-
ture of operator activity into standard actions for whi'ch
initial values of time and reliability of performance are.
obtained;
b. When synthesizing the structure of activity consideretion
is given to the influence of parttcular types of tenston
- on the integrated indicators of activitp and to the mutual
influence of particular actions;
c. When calculating the reliabili.ty of performance of particul.ar
operations and groups of them it is assumed that human
beings can monitor their actions with more tfian the afferent
system. In thts case, self-monitoring of reaults oFatained
is specific in nature.
The method developed tn the works of V. V. Pavlov is a promising approach.to
describing the characteristics of ergatic svstems. In tFii.s case tfi,e man-macfiine
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complex ia viewed as an "ergatic orQanism" which has the following basic fea-
tures:
_ a. functional hnmeostasis, directed to solving the pro,
foundly technological problems of self--preservation;
b. the principle of minimum interaction, which means tliat
operators in all cases try to organtze tfieir work to
obtain the maximum efftciency of the entire system witfi
minimum tension;
c. the principle of functional compatihility, according to
which the functional capabilities of the operator included
in a certain way in a closed system must permit purposeful
actions by the entire system. The mer'-nd af nenlinear in-
variance and autonomism proposed Ty the author of work [170]
is used as the mathematical apparatus. The calculation of
a space "ergatic organism" done by this method in work [171]
shows that the method already has vast potential in its con-
temporary level of development.
The integrated approach to evaluating the efficiency of ergatic systems is elab-
orated in [172, 181]. The authora of these works consider the integrated states
of man-machine system and conclude that in the parttcular.case interaction of the
human operator and technical devices is so strongly, manifested tfiat it is prac-
tically impossible to evaluate them separately. Therefore, they poae.tfie problem
of developing a branch of reliability theory applicable to the evaluatidn of
such systems.
_ Numerous investigators try to perform factQr analysis of the influence of dif-
ferent environmental parameters on indicators of the functional state of the
operator.
Work [255] describes a model of operator stress. The input parameters of the
model are temperature, acceleration, vibration, motivation, training, and com-
plexity of the task; the output parameters are time constants, dispersion of'tfie
noi'se of the motor reaction, and dispersion of the noise of observations. The
identification of the model according to expertmental data was done on the basis
of the principle of maximum probability relative to the vector of state.
Development of integrated methods of deacribing operator activity is one of the
problems of the awiftly developing science of ergonomics. Tfie first results ob-
tained in this area synthesize data from the natural sciences with an ade-
quately correct use of mathematical metfiods to analyze them. This makes it pos-
sible to suppose that analpsis of all elements of an ergatic system from a uni-
form standpoint is the most promising approach.
Tension of Operator Activity
The concept of "tension" [napryazhennost'], which'is used as one of the evalu-
ators of operator activity, does not have a clearcut unambtguous definttion to-
day.
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A. Sidzhel and Dzh. Vol`f [191] draw a parallel fietxeen tension aa an indicator
of the psychophysiological state of the operator and the time resources tfiat
the operator has. In their interpretation tension is the emott.onal state of the
operator before solving subproblem i, whicli is computed according to the formula
:ti1= T E >l' �
where M is the indicator of tension; Ti is the average time available to per-
form all remaining significant and tnsignificant tasks on the assumption that
the operator makes no mistakes; PY is the total time used to solve preceding
problems; T is the total ttme allocated fqr problem-solving. .
It is easy to see that the average time of problem-solving, wfien used to evaluate
tension, does not reflect the actual psychophysiological state of the operator,
in other words, the actual level of tension reached at the moment tfiat signal iis processed.
In works [215, 216] the term tension of the ergatic system is used for a state
charactertzed 1ay identification of the processes ctrculating in it under the in^
fluence of external factors. The authors diatinguish two types of tension: Q-
tension, which ts the state of a system to whicfi it switches under the influence
of physical factors (vibration, noiae,, illumination, and the like). Tlie opera-
tion of tfiese factors disturbs the interaction of parttcular macliine untts and
increases the probability of failure, which increases the load on the operator.
The second type ta S-tension, wfiich is the state of the syrstem caused bq human
reaction to the occurrence of a time shortage. The quantitative measure of
the second type of tension is determined by the formula given above.
Many authors describe the measure of difficulty of conversions done by the oper-
ator with a signal in terms of the time during wfiicFi,the operatdr performs func-
tions with a given level of accuracp. The quantity-inverse to' tfie matliematical
expectation of time of trouhle-free operator work tn an erggtic system is defined
in this case as tension. It is considered expedient to represent tfiis quantity
in two componenta, deterministic and random, wfiich refer respectively to the
mathematical expectation and dispersion of this indicator. The dependence of
tension on precision of performance of the algoritfim of signal processing and
their complexity is rionlinear in nature, and several ext-remes of tenaion are ob-
served for different combinati-ons of tfiese parameters.
V. V. Pavlov [171] believes that tension ts a measure.of difficulty in operator
performance of functional conversions on a signal, quantitattvely equal to the
average time of exiatence of the quasistable staCe of the system.
The authora of work 123] believe that the degree of operator tension may Be da-
fined as thg ratio between the number of unfulfilled assignments and the time
remaining to tulfill them. Some investigators try to evaluate tfiq tension of
operator activity by the results of processing psycRophysiological indtcators
of operator state and the results of operator activi,ty (for example, see [101]).
- - 71,
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In work [47] the types of tension are sufidi.vided into speci.fic, nonapecific, and
specific pace tension. The coefficients of the influence of tfiese types of ten-
sion on the qualttity-time indtcators of activt.ty presented by the autfiors were
_ obtained on the basis of tfieir own findings and data in the literature ustng a
point scale and converting the potnts to percentages.
Works [74, 257] find the numerical values of psychophysiological tension from a
criterion function determined Fiy the deviation of selected phpsiological indi-
cators relative to background value taking into account the weigfits of the par-
ticular indicators.
The authors of works [116, 208].!tnterpret growth.in tension as a copmensatory
intensification of "autonomous support" agatnst abackground of declining capaci--
ties for higher nerve activity. With this approach tension is constdered a mea-
sure of human energy expenditures in the process of labor acttvity.
B. A. Smirnov [196a] gives an evaluation of operator tension taking into account
conditions of operator activity. He believes tliat the primarp factors t~iat pro-
mote growth in tension are the load on the operator, overfilling the operator's
operational memory, the existence of a service queue and a time sfiortage.
. It seems to us that the approaches considered above try to invest the concept of
"tension" with hoth the meaning of an indicator of the economic characteristics
of operator activity (precision, time, reliaTiility, and the like) and at the same
time indicators of the measure of difficulty of the activitp for the particular
persons. It seems to us that for convenience in analyzing operator activity a
distinction should be made between tension j"napryazhennost"`] as an indicator of
the complexity of the activity and stress ["napryazhenipe"] as an indicator
- of the changes in the functioning of the physiological systems of the operator
organism that occur in this case.
State of the Operator
Because the organism represents a complex hierarchical system, there is good rea-
son to use the apparatus of systems theory to describe its functioning. But the
concept in systems theory that interests us does not fiave a clearcut, unambiguous
definition. Thus, work [5] uses the term "state of the system" to refer to a set
of existing characteristics wfiiafi the system has at the moment under considera-
tion. In work [36] state is defined as an ordered set of coordinates of the
system in*a configured space whose dimensionality coincides witfi the numTier of
its degrees of freedom.. Numerous authorB [151, 156] consider the state of a
system to be a certatn instruction for converston of input signals to ontput
signals that meets definite requ{rements. In other scfences whicfi use tliis con-
cept, for example physics, the metiiod of its definition depends on the level of
consideration of a dynamic system. Tb.emacroscopic level makes it possiFile to
analyze integrated characteristics ofan object which are �ormed By the param-
eters of the particular components of whicfi the given oTiject is composed. Tn
this case the state of the ob.ject means the current value of_ these integrated
characteristics. At the microscopic level state is defined.as a description of
these components which depends, in turn, on the nature of tFieir interaction
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wirhin the limits of the volume under consideratton. In both cases the texm
"state" describes the tnstantaneous values of the parametera of the object under
considexation 1134]. -
We intuittvely understand the concept of tfiQ state of a Tiuman being to be some
kind of charactr:rization of the processes taking place in tfis person's organism.
A precise definttton of the psycTiophysiological state of a person involves
numerous difficulties. Tfie matn ones result from the lack of techniquea for a
clearcut definition of the levels of functioning of the pfiysiological systems
of the organism [226]. The divergence of opinions on tfiis issue relates chiefly
to defining the norm for an organism. Some investtgators assert tfiat it is not
possible in principle to give an exact definition of the concept of the "norm"
becauae it is a purely abstract concept without physiological meaning.
Work [79] proposes that the norm be defined as the range of changes in physio-
logical indicators within which the organtsm maintains optimal vital activity
for the given conditions. In the opinion of its author, in relation to oper-
ator activity the norm restricta the range of the organism's compensatory capa-
bilities which defines the optimal functi.onal state for the given activity.
Many authors take the texm "psychophysiological state" of the operator to refer
to a certain variable that depends on the values of the indicators of function-
ing of the physiological syatems' of the person's organism. TTius, in work 11481
the current psychophysiological state is interpreted as a multidimensional vec-
tor for which the values of a set of phyaiological indicators are taken as
coordinates. In work [52] the state of the operator is considered a function dependtng on
neurophysiological phenomena in the organism and on external factors that influ-
ence the organism. The state itself is characterized by a certain range af ,
stable values of the multidimenaional vector; the axes of its coordinates corre-
spond to the selected indicators. The authors of tfiis work believe tfiat it ts
most expedient to use the apparatus of image xecognition theorq to diagnose the
state of the operator. They mention the following factora wizich make this
task significantly more complex:
a. the vasiahility of the responding reaction even with
the same suti j ect;
b. the similarity of the reaction with.significantly dif-
ferent states.;
c. the variability of the reaction among different persons;
d. the relationship hetween characteristics of tha reaction
and the pfiase of oscillatory processes :Cn ph.ysiological
systems.
V. G. Denisov and co-authors [74] deftne the current functional state of the oper-
ator on the basis of an analysis of the modified function of the cardiac rhythm,
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which is a Euclidian norm of the int.tial level and a deriwative of the fre--
quency of heart contractions. They believe tfiat the influence of the organ--
ization of activity on indicators of operator effi.ciency can fie evaluated by
tfiese parameters of the cardiac rfiytfim.
Such contradictory definitions of the state of the operator are a result, in our
opinion, of the formalistic application of the tecfiniques of inedical diagnosis
to the problems of operator activity. Hut witfi the contemporary level of our
knowledge on the nature of inental processes we cannot consider a cfiange in the
parameters of the indicators of the functioning of pfiysiological systems of the
operator's organism isolated from the essential features of the activity being
performed by the operator. This is because various deviations in the state of
the operator are primarily the result of adapttve reactions to situations in .
the system of which the operator is an element. The flow of inf.ormation re-
- ceived by the operator becomes unobserved from the moment it enters the human
sensory systems. Therefore, when conaidering its impact on operator cFiarac-
teristics the observer must be guided entirely by signals circulating outside
the operator and by certain objective indicators of the operator"s state.
Thus, the "state of the operator" may be viewed as an integrated description of
operator stress and the tension of operator activity.
Optimal Working Stress on the Operator
Evaluation of the efficiency of operator activity on the psychophysiological
- plane involves a determination of the optiffial stress on the physiological systems
of the human organism while performing operator functions [89]. This prolilem
was first considered by Yerkes and Dodson (1908). They noted that a person must
maintain a definite function of the physiological systEms in order to attain the
- best results in any form of activity.
The concep,t of the "op.timum of a phqsiological process" was proposed by N. Ye.
Vvedenskiy [39], but he referred to the strength of the stimulus, not to the physi-
ological process itself.
_ Works by contemporary authors contain information on particular propertiea of op-
timal physiological processes obtained on isolated fibers, in the study of the
secretory and motor systema of humans and animals [226], and in study of the full
organism�. But available findings are inadequate to solve the practical problems
of evaluating the integrated efficiency of operator activity.
In reality, these questions today are decided by means of searching for empirical
relationshipa among working conditions, individual characteristics., and indi-
cators of the person's activity [109]. The activity of the human operator in
processing signals arriving at certain time intervals has been most fully inves-
tigated in thts respect. In thie case the indicators of activity are usually de-
termined by criteria of the precision and length of the process of processing in-
coming assignments [157]. The lasti criterion can be gtven in the form of a
= period of tracking assignments within which the operator distributes time expen-
dutures independently for particular operations in the processing algoritfims.
Accordingly, the activity of the operator can be considered as fulfillment of aa-
signments at the natural pace and at a forced pace [146]. Based on tfiis monoto-
nocity is divided into two types [11, 100].
,74,.
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l. Operator activity in an unchanging situatinn with.passtve
observation of the process; :
2. Operator activity at a high pace witfi.repetition of the
- same actions.
In the first case the main factor of tension ts related to the need to maintain
at all times a higher level of acttvity wttTiout the tontng effect of afferent
stimuli; in the second the main factor is the Fiigh level of the local load.
Work [42] gives data on resulta of observations of change in work capability for
different types of iccupational activities. In jobs with low stress and short
duration working procedurea are carried out on the basis of dqnamtc production
stereotypes. Later, as teuston grows, rontinuation of the work is possible nnly
by additional mobilization of internal resourcea.
Opinions differ on the usefulness of assigntng a certain type of time criterion.
Some authors prefer work at a forced pace, while othera consider tt advieable to
organize people's activities so that the}r themselves set the pace. Ar_cording to
the findings given in work [I46], apecial experiments that modeled acttvity tn
both regimes identified a significant decltne in operator stress when awitching
from an assigned pace to one they could regulate themselveg. After a certain
time of acti.vity under these condttions 95 percent of the test subjects showed
a desire to step up the pace.
_ S. T. Sosnovskaya [204] investtgated operator activity, including 26 motor opera--
tions (throwing switches on and off, pressing buttons and the like) and infor-
mation retrieval and tracking at different asstgned paces. The fiighest quality
indicators were achieved for work at an average pace.
It has been ahown that the maximum possible pace of a person's activity is de-
termined by adding the latent period to the response time. Systematic errora
begin to appear when this quantity exceeds the period of signal tracking.
Applied to the complex reaction of choosing at a forced pace, work [3] has es--
tabli:shed that there is a positive relationship between tnittal and final.re-
sults. If the quality crtterion of activity ts given in the form of acfiieving
a uniform pace, the activity of the slower aperators (according to initial tests)
in the final phase is characterized by a eharp increase in the numl5er of mis-
taken actions and a refusal to continue the activity. McNemar 1254) noted tfiat
drill does not lessen the genetic tnfluence on the speed potential of a peraon.
To select the optimal load for work on a conveyor it has been pr.oposed 11981 to
compute the load at the ratio of the averaged least time of performance of the
operation bas.ed on stopwatch results to the average ariicfimetic time. In tFit$
case the variants with the lvwest values ofteri coincide atitfi thQ mtnimum values
obtained in special tests.
When processing dfscrete aignals one of the tndtcators of completion of the proc-
ess of training and adaptation to the given type of activity is rfiythmic reaction
to incoming signals [121, 234]. ; .75; .
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According to the findings of [135], when rfiythm is dis,rupted erroneous actions re-
lated to uneven distribution of stress occur. Gtith rhythmic action if errors are
made, they are highly stahle in time and frequency.
Work [251] established that when signals come to the operator at di.fferent periods,
the processing a.nd tracking time �or them are inversely related. Ttiis relation--
ship is disrupted only through tfie action of interference that causes competition
between stimuli. The stability of processing time ror rtiythmic signals may occur
_ through compensation for the functions of a weak element by means of other sys-
tems [81].
A. V. Levshinova [140] gives experimental results on modeling typical visual and
motor functions of a dispatcher, carried out with a steady increase in the pace
of activity. The physiological indicators (EEG from the back of the head, in-
ternal speech - taking an ENG in the upper lip region, the EOG horizontal and
vertical components, and EMG's of the general extensor, the general flexor, and
the extensor of the right thumb) had the same high cross-correlation given func-
tional comfort and in other regimes, but in the opinion of the author this corre-
- sponded to different leve].s of activity for the systema tested.
Eff iciency of the Human Operatorts Activity
The contemporary interpretation of the efficiency of operator activity is pre-
sented mast thoroughly in work [181], where the conclusion is drawn ttiat
"'efficiency of operator activity' should be taken to mean the ability to per-
form assigned tasks iit a timely and precise manner within the assigned time (re--
liably) and wi.th minimum expenditures of efforts, energy, and materials."
: �
With this approach the concept of the efficiency of human activity in s control
system has two components: efficient performance of asstgned tasks and effi-
cient use of reserves, which encompasses tioth material-energy reserves of tfie
system and the psychophysiologtcal reserves of operators themselves.
At the present time operator activity is 6eing studied in several closely re-
lated fields concerned chiefly with evaluating one of the components of "inte-
grated efficiency."
Natural science techniques that study human labor activi.ty are being enlisted to
evaluate the efficiency of use of the psychophysiologtcal reserves of tfie oper-
ator's organism [92]. To evaluate the quality indicators of operator activity
as an element of the control system, well--developed methods for evaluating anala--
- gous characteristics in technical devices are emploqed.
Despite the qualitative difference hetween pracesses taking place in a machine
that is processing information and in fiuman mental activitp, many indtcators
of their functioning can be defined from the same standpoint 168]. Secause the
operator is viewed as an element of the control system, tfiere is every reason to
use the methods of formalized description of dynamic oTijects applied in the cor-
responding fields of engineering to evaluate operator functioning.
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The term efficiency of a technical system" ordinarily means a quantitative evalu-
ation of the results of its use under concrete condi.ttons 191. TTie dif�erent
schools of analysis of the efficiencp of tecfinical systems are basicaliy linked
to evaluating their techntcal or economic indicators j38, 190]. Tfie concept of
"reliabiltty" is used to evaluate the tecfinical state of a system and its work
capability in every possible st2te. A generalized tndicator of the tecfinical effi-
ciency of a system can be obtained from this expression 148]
n
E E;P;,
~
where Ei is a particular indicator of efficiency; Pi is the relia6iltty of the sys-
tem in each possible working state; n is the number of possible working states.
With a purely technical approach to the evaluation of aperator acttvity, its efft-
ciency is characterized by operator productivity in different regimes of syatem
work. Thus, work [92] defines the effictency of human operators bp the AL1IIIbpT' of
operationa which they can perform according to a definite algorithm, in a unit of
= time, under given working conditions.
A. I. Gubinskiy and co-authors [66-68] have propoaed, by analogy witli tecfinical
systems, that a distinction he made between ideal and actual operator effictency.
Real efficiency is measured by multiplying ideal efficiency times the probaTiility
of trouble-free work.
Work [224] reviAws the influence of the specifi.c features of functioning of the
human element on actual.efficiency. Its author believes that the indicator of
real operator efficienc:y should include an evaluation of the operator''s heuristic
capabilities, the paramei.ers of the environment and technical units, the length
of time in which the operator performs functions, and so on.
Work [66] has investigated the effect of failurea on the indicators of the effi-
- ciency of receiving and rrncessing information and issuing control actions.
Some features of the functioning of the human element in a system, related to the
influence of motivational aspects on indicators of activity, the use of personal
experience, and the existence of vast compensatoxy-capatailities in Fiuman beings,
impose certain limitations on the range of use of technical methods for evalli-
ating and forecasting operator activity.
Indicatore of the Quality of Operator Activity
According to work [18], any human activity in a gystem may he reduced to these
- four stages:
~ 1. search for and decoding of information;
2, evaluation of information and identification of informative
features;
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3, forming a conceptual model ar.d naking a decision;
4. practical realization of the decision tfiat azas made,
In the general case, considering the accepted definition of efficiency of ogerator
activity, we may consider two crtteria systems of quality indicators of the per-
formance of their functions by operators. Tfie ftrst system is a set of time,
precision, and reliability cTiaracteristics, while tfia second considers the effi'
ciency with which the available psychophysiologtcal reserves of the organism are
used [155].
A number of works [33, 120, 157] include the following fiasic components in evalu-
ations of the quality of activity:
1. indicators of precision, specifically;
a. current error;
b. average error;
c. integral error;
2. time indicators:
a. latent per�iod; ,
b. mAtox reaction time;
c. time signal isheld at given level;
d. full time for processing incoming information;
3. information indicators:
a. amoiint of information processed;
b. quality of information processing.
A number of authors think that a generali.zed quality criterion for activity can be
formulated by combining particular criteria witfi different weight factors that take
account of the distinctive characteristics of the particular type of operator ac-
tivity [228].
- To evaluate the efficiency of activity investigators use data on the output charac-
teristics of the system, for example economic indicators, and data on the func-
tioning of the physiological systems of the operator's organism during the per-
formance of.the assignments. The indicators of bioelectric activity of different
physiological systems or the results of solving test problems axe used to evalu-
= ate the psychophysiological reserves of the organism jlll].
The indicators of quality of operator performance of f unctions are usually evalu-
ated on the basis of a classification ef the particular type of activity. Tiie
evaluation uses concrete critEria adopted for the particular type of system. In
special cases wliere difficulties arise with evaluation of the predominant type
of activity, it is sugges*.ed tfiat efficiency be evaluated hy the most complex
algorithm of activity encauntered in the particular system 118].
Work [139] reviews the criteria,for evaluating the quality of operator activity
in controlling a spacecraft. It stngles uut particular criteria that alloar
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consideration of different types of mietakQS made during flying, and identifiea
the main criterion as the area qf the inte.rsection of the particular and aup'
lemmentary indicators.
- Despite si.gnificant differences among the many, tecfini.cal criteria used to evalu-
ate particular cases of operator activity, most of them can fie reduced to two
types: preciston indtcators and Rpeed indicators. In some cases the criterion
of maximum speed is not specially stipulated, but can be an implicit part of
- the precision criterion. This is espectally typical for work under condittons of
limited information processing time.
Work [157] analyzed the relattonshtp hetween tfiese cri.teria. It establIshed ex-
_ istence of an analytic dependence between indicators of operator activity re-
ceived according to the criteria of precision and speed. Work 1205] presents
- averaged figures on indicators of prectsion of operator performance of particu-
lar opeLacinns and combined indicators of precision and speed.
Generalized qua?.ity criteria are usually oriented to evaluation of concrete ac-
tivity. Various indicators may be us.ed fiere dependtng on the purpose of the
investigation. For example, the number of error-free read-outs in a unit of
time was used in work (68] to evaluate the efficiency of information receiving.
V. N. Trofimov proposed that functional efficiency be used to evaluate activity
when an operator is working in tracking regimes. By funetional eff iciency he
~ means the ability oF an ergatic system to achieve its goal by the most rational
_ means [218j. Work [311 propoaed a criterion for evaluating the eff ect of train-
ing on indicators of activity. Works [62, 129] also used tlieir own criteria.
Evaluating the Reliability of the Human Operator
- Reliability characterizes the capab ility of a system or element to perform its
functions in a given time. Changes in the system tliat cause.partial or complete
loss of work capabiliry are defined as failures 114, 105].
- Work [67] proposes that the criterid for evaluating the relisiiility of techriical
= equipment which may be used with application to the problems of fiuman factors
_ engineering be put into three groups:
l. criteria of no-failure operation;
2. criteria of restorability;
3. readiness criterta.
These criteria include the Eollowing basic indicators:
_ - prooability of no -failure operation;
- average time of no-failure operation;
- frequency of failure;
~ - average restoration time;
- readiness factor.
Quantitatively, reliability is expreased as the numerical value of the proba--
bility of no-failure operator work under definite conditions for a given period
of time [45]. With respect to human operators failure is considered as
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complete or partial loss of work capability as the result of which the operator
can no longer meet one of the given efficiency criteria 1154.].
Technical methods of evaluating the reliability of control spstems presuppose a
determination of the quantitative indicators of static reliability (tFis ability
of the system to maintain adequacy to assigned goals for a given time) and dy-
namic reliability (ability to maintain quality of functioning afiove an assigned
level) [48].
The apparatus of reliahility tlieory is well-developed applicable to determining
static reliability. Attempts to use it to evaluate operator reliability have
demonstrated that it has limited potential in relation to diagnosing stable
failures because it does not take account of the specifics of the person's work
capability. Therefore, a number of authors have proposed their own tecfiniques
for determining the reliability of ergatic systems taking operator error into
account. In particular, A. Sueyn [160] introduced the metFiad of forecasting
system reliability by evaluating the probaliility of an error during performance
of elementary operations in the algorithm of operator activity.
R. Kaufman [160] showed that simple empirical formulas may be used for prac-
tical calculations of reliability. In this case the number uf operator errors
is defined as a function of the product of the cost of equipment, its weight,
and its volume. Other methods of calculating operator reliability are given in
work [160].
The most highly developed calculation method of determining operator reliability
tuday is the structural method [157], wfiicfi is based on the following prin-
ciples:
- evaluation of system reliability based on analysis of the
structure of operator activity;
- a hierarchical structure of levels of description of the
activity.
Assuming that operator activity can lie regresented in the form of distinct ele-
mentary operations, the author proposed evaluattng the results of activity by no-
failure operation and speed of performance of eacfi structural function. In this
case the reliability indicators can be determined on the basis of experimental
findings or data in the literature. Tfie author believes tfiat operator relia-
bility when performing the particular actions that make up the algorithm of ac-
tivity comprises program, parametric, and time reliability. Program reliabs.?_ity
is determined by the probability of error-free or erroneous perfornnance of par-
ticular operations, while parametric reliability is an indicator of the proba-
bility of precise or imprecise performance of operations and time reliaTaility
means the probability that the operation will tie done on time.
The method presented in [62] is based on searching for a certain functional of the
indicator of the goal of control. Operator reliaTaility during control of an
actual system is determined on the basis of modeling the environment
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that influences the system. It is proposed tfiat the probabi.lity of system
failure owing to operator failure be determined fi.y modifying its impact witfiin
the working range of the sygtem and assigning we.igfited coefficients.
Types of Failures Permitted By tfia Operator
A. I. Gubinskiy and G. V. Sukhodol'skiy 167] have propos;ed a classification of
failures taking account of human psychophpsiological cfiaracteristics. They-con-
- sider a failure to be an action performed b.y the operator etther mistaTcenly or
at the wrong time. Work. [68] gives an example of designing a"system to monitor
- the human being."
_ All mistakes made by the human being can be arbitrarily broken into three groups:
- 1. mistakes in time of performance of action;
; 2. mistakes in the actions themselves;
3. groas blunders.
Gross blunders involve sub.stituting one action for another. Accordtng to the
. findings in work 1131] this most often occurs as the result.of operator fatigue,
- poor health, or lack of training. But gross 5lunders ma.y also be made by
experienced operators when the activity is we1Z-organized. In work [24] oper-
ator failures are classtfied into predictable and random. Tfie predi.ctable
failures include errors which may be identified 5y the research process and
eliminated when creating optimal conditions for the activity, wfiile random
failures involve errors caused by the stochasttc nature of fiuman behavior. More-
over, the latter type of errors cannot, in the autFeDr~s opinion, be identified or
studied because its nature is unknown.
When performing a series of arithmetic operations the true answer, according to
the findtngs of work [212], can only be ohtained after numerous repetttions of
the process of computation,.which is improbable for actual.conditions. Tiiere-
fore, it is praposed that a modal value of the answer he used as the correct re-
sult of calculations. According to the fi.ndings of tfits suthor; the distrtbution
of precision of responses can be represented in the form of two parts: a trun-
cated symmetric,! part that is close to normal, and the remainders on the left and
right resulting from gross blunders (misreading, carrying mistakes, and the like).
The estimated probability of these responses is� 0.2. Tfi.e answers, whose devia-
tions are not more than 1.5 times from the modal, make up a symmetrical distrihu--
tion. Despite the random character of the results, the probabi].ity of receiving
the correct answer grows witfi an increase in the professional training of the
petson doing the calculation.
Works [66-68] distinguish types of failures hy fio,,7 tfiey are eliminated:
- temporary, unstable failure - a failure wh.oae cause is
- self-eliminating;
- si,
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- operational failure caused by fa:~lure to acfiieve the goal
owing to shortage of time;
- te*_aporary, stable failure, which is eliminated hy creating
special conditions;
- terrninal failure, wfiicfi cannot be eliminated or is eliminated
only after replacement nf tfie spstem.
A special feature of the functioning of an ergatic system is that its reliability
depends on the amount of time allowed fo r the operator to carrp out the algoritfim.
In tfii.s case, even though the tecnical equtpment and operator are in working con-
dition, failures related to inadequate t ime to perform the series of operations
within the algorithm occur [191].
A decline in operator reliability in the time area may occur not only as the re-
sult of a time shortage, but also because the operatorTs operational memory is
overloaded. This type of mistake is qui te thorougfily analyzea in work [196a].
The author there believes that it is mo st convenient to analyze the probability
of errors related to information overlo ad as the reault of time shortage or over-
_ loading the operator's operational memo ry by the methods of mass service theory.
Numerous authors [17, 631 distinguisfi errors made by an operator into those re-
sulting from inadequate qualifications and those determined by the cfiaracteristics
of the individual person. The information given above is far from complete. Rather it illustrates the multi-
plicity of problems that arise in studying the rules and patterns of fiuman labor
activity, which are thoroughly illumina rpd ti,y advances made in this field. None-
- theless, on the level of ineeting the cfia llenges of diagnosing and forecasting
human work capability in cantrol systems we may consider the following fact to be
established: the,-e is a definite relat ionship between the results of operator
activity and the dynamics of the peychophystological indicators of the operator's
- state, and this relationship is in some way linked to internal (tndividual char-
acteristics, the person's previous history) and external (content of the activity)
factors.
The methods used toJ,ay to identify this relationship were developod for solving
similar prolilems in relation to technical devices. Adaptation of tfiese tech-
niques to the new problems requires a more flexible consideration of the nature
- of work capability in the object under study, in particular, the special features
of purposeful human hehavior.
We know that in the process of activjty to achieve an assigned result the operator
chooses the necessary sequence of actions with due regard for the tecfinical capa--
bilities of the system, the magnitude of existing disturFiances, an,qlysis of
~ analogous sttuations in the past, and. s o on. Investigators F elieve tfiat in this
case a certain "functional system" oriented to acfiieving the concrete result is
formed within the operator's organism. The material foundation of the "functional
system" and the carrier of the essentia 1 sequence of control operations will be
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the psychophysiological systems of the organism, Fietareen which linkages are es-
tablished for the peri.od of working toward the result. Tn other words, thE
farmation of the "functional system" is accompanied Tip a change in intersystem
interaction witfiin the organiam, which must inevitaHlp Fie reflected in the dy-
namics of the psychophysiological indicators of the operator"s state rhat are
recorded.
In addition, the physiological syatems (carri.ers of the program of action selected
~ by the operator) perform functions related to the vital acttvity of the organtsm.
Therefore, the "functional system" formed on tlieir Fiasis performs at least two
tasks: support for the functioning of the operator as an element of the control
system, and support for the functioning of the operator''s organism as a bi9-
logical object. It is difficult to dtfferentiate the features of the impact of
the information flows related to these taska on the character of intersystem
interaction within the organiem because signals on the "internal sphere" of the
organism cannot be observed. Tfiis may mean that even in similar situations (from
_ the standpoint of conditions of activtty), the cfiaracter of the relationahip be-
tween the results of activity and the parameters of psychophysiological indi-
cators will be unique, that is,corresponding only to the given interval of obser-
vations. This is prob.ably why extsting models of operator activity fiave limited
spheres of appltcation.
Because these featlires of descrih.tng operator activity apply to the analysis of
purposeful tiehavior by biosystems in general, thep can be summarized in the form
of a principle of adequacy of description of tiehavior, wfiicfi we will state as
follows.
When describing purposeful behavior b.y liiosystems, the form of the relationship
between indicators of the process of pursui^_g the goal, tTiQ cfiaracteristtcs of
signals on the process, and change in indicators of the functioning of informa-
tion processing and vital systems is preserved only while tfiere exists a con-
crete "functional system" formed to acfiieve th{s goal.
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Chapter 4. State of the Organism and Operator Activity in a Stress Situatiun
1. Changes in the Organism During Stress
The contemporary phase of development of human society has an exceptionally in-
tensive rhythm of life. This rhytfim is dictated by the conditions of higfily in-
tensified production processes and the need to process an enormous amount of
every possible kind of information daily and to participate actively in different
areas of human activities. This situ:.*_ionis an (,rganic consequence of contem-
- porary social transformations and scientific-technical progress which (consider-
ing the significance, speed, and extent of the transformations) may be called a
second scientific-technical revolution.
- I.n the given stage of technical development the principal structural unit of
production is the automated "man-automaton" complex. Therefore, the problem
of human beings in automated control systems fias become a pressing one, in par-
ticular preserving the efficiency of activity of the human operator and the oper-
ator's functional state within optimal ranges. The state of operators and their
work capability must be monitored constantly to prevent emergency situations.
' Many investigators [1, 2, and others] have demonstrated that operator activity
has a nonmonotonic dependence on the degree of the physical and mental loads that
accompany the particular production process. Tbe efficiency o� activity in-
creases with growth in the intensity of the labor process; it is as if the oper-
ator's potential were stimulated. However, this relationsfiip lasts only to a
certain point. Further growth in the intensity of the production process leads
to a decline in the quality of work all the way to a complete refusal to work.
The capability for steadily maintaining optimal working parameters (work capa-
bility, "vigilance," noise resistance, and so on) during assigned time intervals
and with every possible complication of the situation determines the operational
reliabflity of the worker [3].
There are many different ways to improve the efficiency of operator work and re-
duce the number of emergency situations caused Fiy the human factor in automated
systems. Among these ways are vocational selection, training, and turning oper-
ator functions over to automatic machinery. But it seems to us tfiat these
methods will not 'ie adequately founded until we have learned to relialily analyze
the srate of maximum exertion of the operatorts mental and physical strengtfi,
- which precedes an emergency situation. It is also important to define tfiis state
because prolonged tension may have a bad effect on the person's healtti.
-1
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Cardiovascular problems, in particular iiypertonia, ulcexs, neuroses, and psy-
choses, may result from excessive nervous tenston.
The problem of stress, of inental tension , is a multifaceted one. It can be
viewed from a general biologtcal standpotnt as a system of adaptive acts tfiat
was developed and refined in tfie process of evolution. In its pTiysiological
aspect stress involves mechantsms to regulate tfie activity of various func-
tional systems of the organism.. Tbe psychological congideration of stress looks
at its influence on variuus aspects of inental acttvity: perception, memory,
attention, mental operations, lihks to personality traits, cfiaracter, and ex-
perience, adaptation to different types of stress, questions of preventive psy-
chological training, and tha role of the psycfie tn post-stress recovery [4].
- The social aspect of stress involves fiefiavior in a collective, biological com-
patibility in atress situations, and the influence of tTie collective atmoaphere
on change in the functional state of a person. If stress as considered from
a medical point of view the main interest is disruptions of the normal activity
of various functional systems, organs, and the psyche as the result of long-
operating or especially harmful stress stimuli and working out recommendations
for treatment based on subtle knowledge of tfie mechanism of stress-related
changes in the organism. We will consider the problem of stress in greater de-
tail in the physiological aspect.
Stress may be referred to as a multifaceted problem in another respect as well,
which is to speak of the integrated (overall) activity of tTie organism, including
biochemical changes and changes in pfiysiological indi.cators, befiavtor, and mental
_ functions. When studying this problem one must not overlootc any of these facets.
Thjs is especially important because many scfiools of physiologtsts assign the
principal role in the course of a state of stress to FiiocfiQmical clianges, con-
sidering them the primary correlates of the state. But experience demonstrates
that biochemical changes during stress are well ek-pressed in acute periods but
poorly expressed durin; prolonged chronic strain. Where there is mild strain
practically no changes at all will be detected because the mechanisms of fiomeo-
static regulation nullify the chznges almost immediately. In addition, there are
individual differences whicfi produce a great spread in the quality and magnitude
of biochemical changes. In view of ttiese factors, biocfiemical cfianges cannot
be considered preeminent among the correlating changes.
Hased on material that has now heen accumulated, we may say that bi.ocfiemical
changes are the background against which different mental and physiologtcal
changes occur. flut no one physiological parameter, nor biochemical cfiange,.can
be a reliable indicator of the state of tension. This ta graphically illustrated
by cases described in the literature wfiere arterial pressure is invariant in stress
situations because the increas.e in the systolic volume of the heart is-compensated
for by a decline in pressure in the pexipheral vessels. Somatic changes are more
or less subject to artiitrary regulation. The mental categories, unfortunately,
are difficult to subject to direct objective monitorfng, whil.e tha indirect tecfi--
niques used in these cases introduce an element of sufijectivity and do not take
account of the possibility of random influences. Tfie forms of befiavior tfiat re-
flect internal changes in the organism axe also to some degree subject to random
regulation. Thus, we may acknowledge tfiat we do not have an adequately reliable
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correlate for tension. The only way to make diagnosis of the state of tension
better is to increase the number of indicators of this state.
The term "stress"(in Russian "napryazlieniye") is borrowed from pfiysics (deriva--
tive of force and resistance) and in translation to iiiological language signifies
the impairment and defensive reactions of the organism CtfiQ action wfiicfi leads to
the changes is called stress). The biological concept of stress aas formulated
some 40 years ago by the Canadian scientist Selye, who�said that stress ts
"excessive strain," "a state that occurs under the influence of.some particular
stressor and is found in the form of a specific syndrome which includes all the
changes nonspecifically reproduced in the biological system" [5]. He called the
full set of reactions in a state of stress the adaptation syndrome, because it
is the basis of adaptive behavior.
Therefore, stress is a set of adaptive and defensive reactions hy tha organism
to all influences which have a tendency to disturb the dynamic equilibrtum of
various processes in the organism. As we will see later, the set of adaptive
and defensive reactions is a neuroendocrine cycle of great complexity whtch
causes changes in literally all manifestations of vital activtty of the or-
ganism.
A number of works use the term "stress" not to mean general stress, but rather its
highest point, when organic changes take place in the organism. Pre-stress states
are vi.ewed as various types of emotional statps [6]. But tfiis division does not
- cover a whole number of states which are unquestionably states of heightened
tension and fiave virtually no emotioizal coloring (for exan?le, solving "indif-
ferent" probler.,s that require great self-control and intenaity of tfiought).
After analyzing information available in the specialized literature, we made an
attempt to classify the different states of extreme stress and the methodological
procedures necessary to create it (see Table 1, next page).
Systematic study of the atate of stress hegan in the 19th Century. Tfie famous
French physiologist Bernard (1813-1878) stated the proposition tIiat the funda-
mental feature of all living beings Is their aliility to maintain constant I,n-
ternal environment despite changes in the external environment. Any change in
the environment that matters to the organism elicits defensive reactions by the
organism to restore the disturbed balance. Tfiis occurs tfirough special regu-
~ latory mechanisms that monitor the constancy of different parameters of the
internal environm(nt [7].
The American physiologist W. B. Cannon (1871-1945) introduced a special term,
homeostasis, for the ability of the organism to maintain a constant internal
environment [8]. Any influences leading to disturbance of homeostasis lead, the
scientists believe, to vegetative and fiormonal changes that can Fie viewed as a
manifes.tation of the organism's mobilization of energy-to avert the danger:
readiness for resistance or fligfit.
Such changes in parameters of the internal environment from tfieir ini.tial level
are reversible if they lie within the range of capabilities of the homeostatic
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Tafile 1.
Streasars Emqtional Coloring
Imagi- Posi- Nega-- Methodological
Classification nary Real tive tive Procedures
EMOTIONAL
Physical
Stressors that cause un- - + - + Physical injury, irri-
pleasant or patnful sen--
sations
_ Stressors of unexpected- -
neas
Stressors of failure
Stressors that cause a
feeling of fear
Emotionally colored
materials
Pharmacological aub-
stancea that cause
emotional states
Stressors of pace and
speed
Complexity of problem-
solving
+
+
+
+ -
Mental
+ -
+ +
- + +
OFERATIONAL
- +
+ + -
tants that exceed the
background, discomfort,
hypokinesia,,and so on
+ New unexpe.cted stimulus
+ kecalling past failur.ea,
fmagining failure
+ Emergency, darkness, ex-
pectation of criticism
or evaluation, threat of
punishment, and the like
+ Showing a film or picture,
the presence -of an enemy,,vr
friend, playi.r.g out vari-
ous aituations in the
mind
+ Piperoxane, adrenalin,
and so on
Time.shortage, informa-
tion overload
- Canflict situations,
merging of two similar
mental processes (black-
red tables), a difiicult
mental problem, and in-
solufiility
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mechanisms and irreversible if the magnitudes of the deviations are signifi-
cantly greater than the range within which the.fiomeostatic mecfianisms can
function normally. In the latter case the organissa dies.
Russian and Soviet scientists made major contrt5utions to formulation of the
theory of stress long before Selye. I. P. Pavlov wrote many ti~mes tfiat harmful
influences on the organism elicit local reactions and reflex-nerve-humeral changes
which are a"phpsiological measure" of the organism"s defense. L. A. Orbeli [9]
and his students made detailed investigations of the adaptattonal role of tfie
coordinated acttvity of the cerebral cortex, spmpatfiQtic nervous system,
pituitary body, and adrenal glands.
At the present time the concept of stress is an established concept and it is
most commonly defined as the attempt to rQstore the disrupted homeostasis of
~ mental, physiological, and biocfiemical processes in the organism. Stresses are
, caused by any conditions that disrupt fiomeostasis 110, 111.
What are the regulatory mechanisms that guard the well-Fieing of the organism?
All attempts to explain the adaptive reactions of the living organism can be
schematically classified as follows j121:
1. the hume. theory,of inedicine, which goes back thou-
sands oi -irs; '
2. the theory c. neurism, wfiich has develcp�d in the last
-150 years;
3. the "cellular" theory of Virkbov;
4. the neohumeral theory, wfiose founder can be considered
At the present r.ime the neurism theory and Selye's. neohumeral theory are gen-
erally accepted, and we will deal with them in greater detail. Selye's theory
considers the endocrine-btochemical aspect of stress in detail j13-161.
Any adequately strong and unusual influence of exogenic or endogenic origin
(sound or light, infectious disease, and so on) on the organism, except for an
effect specific tothe given agent (for example, vibration of the tympanic
membrane to sound) evokes a whole complex of nonspecific reactions. These rki'
actions aim at better adapta:ion of the organism tothe unexpectedly changed ILtv-
ing conditions and, ae already mentioned, were called the adaptive syndrome by
Selier, while the state of mobili:.ation of defensive.forces itself wss called
streas.
Selier distingu:.shes between the generalized adaptational syndrome (GAS) and the
local adaptational syndrome (LAS) or adaptive reactions in the limited part of
the bo3y which is directly affected by the stimulation. Tfie generalized syndrome
is a response reaction by the entire organism wfiich goes througfi.three successive
stages when the action of the str2ssor is sufficiently long (see Figure 7 below).
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LII
Level of Resis- S
tance in Initial
State
Figure 7. Stages of the Generalized Adaptation Spndrome
~ During the first stage - alarm - the initial level of organism stability and
resistance at first declines slightly (sTiock), and then returns to the norm
(countershock). Selye called tfits stage the "call to arms of the organism's
defensive forces." If a very strong or harmful agent acts on the organism, it
may perish during the alarm period. But if the effect is moderate, the alarm
stage is followed by adaptation to the inf luence, the stage of resistance.
The level of organism stability in this stage exceeds the initial level [14, 151.
Reactions in the alarm and resistance stages are opposite. When the harmful
agent is active for an extended period, the resistance stage may be followed by
the third stage, exhaustion and death of the organism. The symptoms of the
third stage recall the symptoms oi the first stage, but now they are irreversible.
But what happens in the ozganism during stress and allows its resistance to vary
within quite broad limits? During the first stage (shock or alarm) a number of
phenomena are observed in the organ'am: hemoconcentration, fiypochloremia, hyper-
calcemta, generalized tissue damage wrlth predominantly dissimilation phenomena
(catabolism), hypothermia, lowe'ring of blood pressure, vascular and muscular
- hypotonia, leukopenia, eosinopenia, and heightened permeability of the serous
membranes of the capillaries. In the second stage there are changes in the oppo-
site direction, specifically thinning of the blood, hyperchloremia, anabolism of
- tissues with return to normal weight, alkalosis, and so on. The reactions of
the exhaustion phase resemble the alarm phase.
During the developnent of stress a nurber of morphological changes are also ob-
served. The most expressed changes are "nvolutton of the thymico-lymphatic
apparatus and enlargement of the adrenal cortex with signs of intensification
of secretion. It has now been established [17, 18, 19] that changes are ob-
served during stress in other organs and tissues as well: pituitary body,
epiphysis, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, pancreas, sex organs, liver, myo-
cardium, kidneys, membrane of the stomach and intestines, and cells of the brain.
In each of these organs histologists find two groups of phenomena: damage and
defense [18]. In the first stage two groups of reactions are ohserved, while in
the second defensive.phenomena predominate and in the third damage phenomena are
dominant. In a n-.imber of his works Selye tries to represent the intimate
mechanism flf changes that lie at the foundation of the generalized adaptation
syndrome on the basis of vast experimental material (see Figure 8 below).
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Figure 8. Mechanism of Cfianges
-
Taking Place in tfie Organism
~
During Stress
aa rup ay AX1r2
(
Key: (1) Somatotrophic Iiormone;
~3)
(2) Pituitary Hody, adreno-~
corticotrophic fiormone;
OEotn
~r~~rnondUnpac~o
(3) Adrenal Gland;
"Do`~~�~�~mux0u0 ~4)
(4) Anti-Inflammatory Corti--
~
coid;
(6)
_...MUrutnc< <
7)
(S) Inflammatory Corticoid;
~
(6) Target;
(7) Field;
(8) Stressor.
In some way (which Selye does not explain)
tfie stressor causes stimulatton
of the hypothalamus, which produces a certai
n adrenocorticotrophic liberating
factor. Th.is stimulates the pituitary body
and causes it (the front part) to
secrete adrenalcorticotrophic ho'rmones, whic
fi stimulate the secretion of hormones
of the adrenal cortex. The adrenal cortex h
ormones are divided into two groups:
the anti-inflammatory hormanes or glucocorticoi
ds (of the cortisone type) and the
inflammatory hor-iones or mineral corticoids
(such as desoxycorticosterone and
aldosterone).
The anti-inflammatory hnrmones affect carbohydrate metabolism (whicfi is the source
- of their second name, glucocorticoids), enfiancing glycogenesis throt�,,h proteins,
which increases the sugar in tfie blood and intensifies tfie precipitatian of gly-
cogen in the liver. They intensify tfie breakdown of proteins, which promotes
catabolic processes and is detected by an increase of nitrogen in tfie urine.
_ They retard the development of the basic substance of connective tissue by reduc-
ing the number of mast cells that produce hyaluronic acid, whicfi lowers the in-
flar.w3tion potential of the organism, thus increasing orgarism sensitivity to
infection,' retarding the processes of healing of wounds, and diminis:iing allergic
reactions. They repress lymphatic tissue and cause involution of the thymus,
which is accompanied by a decrease in the quantity of lymphocytes and eosinophils.
The inflammatory hormones are to some degree tfie antagonists of tfie glucocorti-
coids. They promote an incre3se in inflammatory potential of the organism
(resistance to infections and rapid healing of wounds), increase protein syn-
' thesis, and have little effect on carbofiydrate metabolism iaut a sigrificant eff ect
on water-salt metabolism (therefore they are also caused mineral cor;:icoids) by
retaining sodium in the organism and removing potassium. During stress more anti-
inflammatory hormones than inflammatory hormones are usually secreted. It is in
precisely this element of the organism's response reactions to the effect of a
stressor that the meaning of tfie term "stress" as an integrated response bp the
organism, including elements of damage and defense, is very graphically
demonstrated.
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- It should be noted that the front portion of the pitui.tary b.ody affected by
, stimuli from the hypothalamus secretes not only adrenocorticotrophic fiormones,
but also somatotropliic hormones, which affect overall growth of tfie organism
and cause enlargement of the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and liver and hypet-
- trophy of the adrenal cortex, while increasing sensittvity to corticoids. Thie
hormone is similar to the mineral corticoid in its effect on tfie internal
sphere. The fiormones of the front part of the pituitary body and adrenal cortex
are customarily called the adaptive hormones.
In addition to the general reaction of the organism which follows the "law" of
the GAS, a local inflammatory reaction, the local adaptation syndrome (LAS),
appears at the point of the damage. This reaction has the same stagea as the
GAS: shock during which a certain necrosis of cells and connective tissue
fibers and an acute inflammatory process are observed; resistance during which
different types of cells form (defensive granulation barrier). If the influence
is especially harmful and long-lasting, the third stage ensues: necrotic dis-
integration of tissues. The LAS and GAS not only share common features in their
courses, but are closely interrelated [15]. Any agent which causes a local in-
flammatory process also produces ageneral effect because pulses from the damaged
area reach the hypothalamus and set the mechanism of the GAS in action. Then
~ the corticoids, having been secieted in a certain stage of the organism's general
reaction, affect all tissues of the organism and thus influence the local center
of damage.
In a number of works Selye acknowledges that not everything occurring in the
organism fits perfectly within the proposed scheme. For example, it cannot 'oe
said that the adreizal cortex-pituitary body system is the only system responsible
for the rull range of GAS reactions. It is the main one, yes, but not the only
one. The reactions observed with the GAS can occur partially when stressors
act on animals whose pituitary bodies and adrenal glands have been removed. It
is thought that the reactions observed in this case are the result of the ac-
tion of hormones from the thyroid gland [14, 20, 21]. The liver probably also
plays a significant part in adaptation processes, and it is where steroid hor-
mones ar.e broken down [21]. Works have been written on the role of the pancreas
in the GAS (20].
The conception presented by is interesting for its abundance of experi-
mental material.. Lt has received wide distribution in domestic literature
[4, 10, 11, 13 1 19, 21-26, and others]. But Soviet specialists take a critical
approach to Selye's conception, correctly noting that it has a number of
~ shortcomings. Above all this refers to the one-sidedness of the conception:
attention is directed exclusively to humeral-endocrine reactions. Tfie role of
- the central nervous system and cerebral cortex in regulating the activity of
the internal secretion glands is overlooked. The author makes only incidental
mention in some works of the fact that he is not denying the significance of
the nervous system in shaping the GAS , It is possible that an unclear under-
standing of the leading position of the central nervous system and the
_ organism's systemic reactions to maintain its optimal state was the liasis for
Selye's idealistic philosophical views. Attemgting to construct a general
theory of inedicine, he declares himself an advocate of the teleological prin-
ciple in biology and medicine [11, 27]. Thus, Selye`s conception represents
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only a partial manifestation of total vital activity, one link (the fiumeral) of
the long and complex chain of processes which unfold in the organism in response
to an extraordinary stimulus.
Leading scientists of the past and our contemporaries today, especially Soviet
physiologists-, have developed the materialistic direction defined by I. P. Pavlov
as "nervism," which recognizes the decisive importance of the higher sections of
the central nervous system for all vital manifestations of the organism, and
particularly for adaptive behavior. The foundation of "nervism" as a scientific
school was laid by S. P. Botkin and I. M. Sechenov, who proved that the nervous
system influenced the very diverse processes in the organism.
The works of V. M. Bekhterev convincingly demonstrated the dependence of the ac-
tivity of internal organs and internal secretion glands on influences from the
cerF,hral cortex. The conditioned reflex method of I. P. Pavlov and his school
�~1
O 41
~ �rl
D
0 �rl
O u
�rl U
41 ro
cd
a
6 0
cn o0
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the operator transfer functinns are syntfiesized by the techniques of automatic
regulation theory.
The sign-mathematical models are matfiematical symbolic sqstems tfiat homo-
morphically represent a system of ergonomic indicators. Tfie models of psyclio-
physiological acttvity based on analysis of nonstochastic algoritfims [4] where
ergonomic indicators are homomorphically represented in algorithmic structures
- (logical-matnematical models according to the classification in Table 3) are an
example of the sign-mathematical models.
The cybernetic models are mathematical symholic systems and definite computer
structures that homomorphically represent a system of ergonomic indicators.
The cybernetic models simulate the basic patterns of operator activity using a
computer.
Regardless of the class of mathematical models, the process of mathematical
modeling of operator activity can be broken down into fbur stages.
The first stage is study of particular aspects of operator activity (ergonomic
- indicators) and forming qualitative representations of the links among ergo-
nomic indicators in mathematical terms. For example, after analysis of the
psychophysiological structure of operator activity in work [5], a multifactoral
mathematical model of the folldwing type was synthesized
X = QZ + U, (5.2)
where X is the matrix of origirial factor space, Z is the factor matrix, Q is the
matrix of loads of the common factors on the signs being investigated, and U
is the matrix of resic3ual factors.
The second stage is analysis of the model using the chosen mathematical appar-
atus and computer technology. This produces the output data (values of ergo-
nomic indicators). In the examples cited the mathematical apparatus is multi-
dimensional statistical analysis, and a computer is used for computation.
The third stage is evaluating the adequacy of the model, that is, evaluating the
- degree of correspondence between the reaults of operator activity and the
theoretical consequences of the model.
The fourth stage is subsequent analysis and updating of the model, because in the
_ process of the development of ergonomics new findinga on ergonomic indicators ac-
cumulate and there comes a time when in light of these findings the originally
proposed mathematical model is outdated.
Physical Models of Operator Activity
Considering the definition of a physical model (5.1), physical modeling of oper-
ator activity involves representing the set of normalized ergonomic indicators
Y in set MQ of models of arbitrary physical nature, that is, f: Y; M4.
Physical modeling of opesator activity is based on the physical resemblance of
ergonomic indicators and the model, that is, at simtlar moments in time the
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values of the ergonomic indicators should b.e adequate to their values for the
model. The existence of adequacy makes it possible to compare escperimental data
obtained for the model with real operator activity.
The work of an aperator on a simulation trainer that models the dynamics of the
controlled object is an example of piiysical modeling of operator activity. This
means that each element of information model a k A can be mutually and uniquely
matched with an element of the real equipment b E B; each operation Fa of a cer-
tain class of ope.rations which transforms element al.;_: A into a2 4-: A, Fa(al) _
a2, can be mutually and uniquely matched with operation Fb, which transforms ele-
ment bl E B into b2E B, Fb(bi) = b2, that is Fa Fb. In other words, operator
activity on the trainer is a reflection of the structure of the real activity.
2. S.ynthesizing Mathematical Kodels of Operator Activity
Analysis of Mathematical Models of Operator Activity from the
Point of View of Practical Application
Considering the classes of mathematical models of operator activity proposed (see
Table 3 above), we can state that from the standpoint of practical application
the analog models have the greatest limitation.
- Because ergonomic indicators depend on many factors, creation of an adequate
mathematical model of operator activity using the apparatus of automatic regu-
lation theory is a very complex problem" [7]. Therefore, the usual procedure
is to devise mathematical models that consider some one characteristic of tfie
human operator that predominates in a particular type of activity. This makes
- it necessary to formulate a new transfer function in each particular case and
to test the adequacy of the model under conditions of the very rigid constraints
imposed on ergonomic indicators.
Sign-mathematical models of operator activity have received the widest applica-
tion at the present time. Their indisputable advantage is formalization, which
makes it possible to represent particular components of activity and relation-
ships among them in the form of symbols. This makes it possible to manipulate
them in conformity with rules established by such formal sciences as logic and
mathematics. Work [7] describes certain multidimensional statistical models and
nontrivial ways to apply them in practice.
In otir opinion, simulation modeling of operator activity is most promising. This
is because human behavior is distinguished by great complexity and is described
by a system of erganomic indicators, only some of which can be formalized without
serious limitations. In these cases simulation modeling makes it possible to ob-
tain quantitative values of ergonomic indicators with adequate computer memory
and available machine time.
It should be noted that logical-mathematical models of operator activity, in par-
- ticular algorithmic models, are often an essential attribute of simulation
modeling.
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Simulation Psychological Model of Operator Activity
Tfie construction of a simulation model of group activity is based on the prin-
cILples set fortfi.in works 18, 9]. The model simulates tfie activity of two
_ operators interacting in tfie.process of running a technical system, as well as
the work of thfis system. An essential condition for modeling is the availa-
bility of a known aequence of actions by both operators, that is, an algoritfim
- of operator activity. Tiius, the algorithmic model obtained by analyzittg the
- algoritfim of operator activity is a const:Ltuent part of the simulation model.
The algoritfim of operator activity was constructed by the mLchodology of G: M.
Zarakovskiy [4). But the special features of simulation modeling necessitated a
certain modernization of the graphic representation af the algorithms. In constructing the algorithm of operator activity a word algorithm (presented in
oper.ating instructions) that desFribes the functicning of the ergatic system is
t3ken as the basis. The algorithm being analyzed is usually represented in
tabular form where the operations (actions, instructions, and the lilce) carried
ou~ concurrently are written on one line. The table also notes fixed moments in
time before which the operator does not have the right to begin work.
- After further analysis the algorithm is broken down into line-subzasks, each of
. which belongs to one of the following types:
1. joint, if operations performed by several operators are
written on one line of the table;
_ 2. machine, if only equipment work is written on the given
line;
3. individual, if operations performed by one aperator are
written on the given line.
For each subtask the degree of importance is established, that is, an evaluation
is made of the impact of successful performance of the given subtask on suc-
cessful execution of the entire algorithm.
A line entry of the algorithm of ogerator activity is written, for example:
Ei ~ Da iri T 1 i Ds z, (5.3)
where E, D, and I are machine, individual, and joint subtasks respectively; V is
the index of significant sub*ask; N is the index of insignificarit subtask; E1,
12, and 14 are subtasks 1, 2, and 4 respectively; Dg 1 is. subtask 3 performed by
by operator 1; D52 is subtask 5 performed by operator 2; and the arrows fJ~ indi-
cate the further order af performance of subtasks if the subtask preceding the
arrow pointing upward bas not been performed.
The construction of algorithms of operator activity is an important stage of
: modPling, because the fi.nal efficiPncy of the investigation dep ends on con-
structing the algoritnm carrectly (an over-detailed algorithm leads to an un-
- justified increase in ttie volume of work and machine time, while an aver-
simplified algorithm reduces the precision and reliability of results).
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The line entry of the algorithm of operator activi.ty (5.3) is not sufficiently
graphic, which makes it difficult to use it during analysis. Therefore, it is
useful to represent the algori.thm in graphic form. Figure 27 Uelow gives an
exgmple of writing an algorithm of operator activity. Tfie diagram represents thp
work of just one operator performing monitoring and control actions.
Figure 27. Example of Writing an Algorithm of Operator Activity
In the figure the following symbols are employed:
an elementary statement pressing and/or releasing a but-
.y ton, throwing a switch on or off, and so on. The numbers
~ inside the circle represent the conventional number of the
control organ (if the number is underlined the button is
pressed; if it is overlined the button is released; if there
is no line the button is pressed and released);
1 a logical :.ondition (lighting up a transparency) ; the number
(12 1 is a branch which work takes if the logical condition is
~ fulfilled, that is, if the transparency is lighted; the num-
ber 0 is the branch which work takes if the condition is not
met, that is, if the transparency is not lighted;
_ f - logical condition (extinguishing of the tiansparency); the
number 1 means the Cransparency is extinguished; the number
0 means it is lighted up;
-~i - the symbol + is ajump from one element of the algorithm to
_ another;
~ - expectation of a certain moment in time before whicli.tfie op-
eration must not be performed; 1.8 seconds is the moment in
p time from the beginning of performancQ of the particular
algortthm;
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- signal for equipment malfunction.
The basic parameter of the model is the time of operator performance of the par-
ticular action (subtask), and as a.result the time of performance.of tfie entire
joli (task). The time of performance of the subtask is determined stochastically
according to normal distribution by the Monte Carlo method. The average time of
performance of subtask -fij (average time necessary for operator j to perform sub-
task i) for typical subtasks can tie obtained by calculation from the relationships
and tables given in work [9]. Where there are special control and monitoring or-
gans for which reference figures are not availaliYe, experiments are made with 30-
40 operators as the result of wYiich it is possible to obtain the value tij and
mean quadratic deviation cs ij .
The mean probability of succesa in performance of subtask Fij (the probability that
operator j wilZ successfully perform subtask i) is an important parameter of the
model. The quantity Pij can be obtained from the tables given in work [ZO].
The time of performance of subtasks and the probability of success depend on the
- level of tension and speed of the operators.
Simulation of operator activity involves sequential computation of the values of
the variables for each subtask. The task is considered completed when both oper-
ators have successfully performed all subtasks in the allotted time.
The work of the modeling program begins with feeding the parameters and initial
conditions of simulation to the main computer memory (see Figure 28 below). In
- this case the control punchcard contains the following quantities: Ti - maximum
time of performance of tfie assignment by operator j; Np - assigned number of
iterations in the run; Non- number of operators; Ni - number of subtasks in the
algorithm.
The input values nm and N i are used to determine the dimensions of the matrix of
raw data, after which the logical structure of the algorithm is fed to tfie main
computer memory: iJ� and ii r are the numbers of the subtasks performed by operators
j and j ' ; dij are the numbers of the &ubtasks performed by operator j after per-
formance of subtask i; Ii is the code of subtask type (Ii = 1 is a joint subtask;
Ii = 0 is an individual subtask; Ii = 3 is an equipment subtask) ; Ei is the code
of significance of the subtask (Ei = 0 is an insignificant subtask; Ei = 1 is a
significant subtask).
- In addition to logical quantities, each subtask uses the following parameters:
- tij - average time of performance of subtask i by operator j; 6 ij - mean quad-
ratic deviation of time of performance of subtask i tiy operator j; Pij - average
probability of success in performance of subtask i; Iij early moment of comple-
tion of subtask i by operator J.
Then the operator characteristics are introduced: Mj - tension threshold af
operator j; Fj - indicator of individual speed of operator j; Gj - level of
demands of operator j.
165
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BboD novano
Gnpedenenu�
oa3.Neoed
y0ad noeuvec�
nQU ~mpy�my
BOod
napaMempoC
noi.~ ycx0uf:
NUmouuu
~
M;,ccu0od
ut,rodnaa
por antapumMa
nod3oBav ~
.
.
T N,n N
dannau
v
=
i~,ij~.d~~,I,E
ti6i�Pi�Ii
P.;
n
av' i
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
BOod
9cmano0 enue
/flP01pOMMD/ O
ycmanoDnenue
npo2pax.wa d
~oe
0~ pam
OO2BfNlfDIX
donnmx
ucxodnaedna
navana oveped
ucxo0nae Ona
noyanaave~e0- �
o
0
nau umepauuu
0avu
ne0 no0~a
(,M
, G/~J
c, Fp
NR�N�-1
Ni =Ni-1
u
3
- Figure 28. Feeding Parameters
and Initi
al Conditions of Simu-
lation.
Key: (1) Input of Initial Conditions of Simulation;
(2) Determination of Dimensions of Arrays of Raw Data;
(3) Input of Logical Structure of Algorithm;
(4) Input of Subtask Parameters;
. (S) Input of Operator Parameters;
(6) Printing of Data Fed;
(7) Setting Program at Starting Point for Beginning of Next Iteration.
The parameters fed and the initial conditions are printed out to monitor correct
comgilation of data, and then the program is set in the initial state for the be-
ginning of the next iteration and simulation of the subtask.
Selection of the operator is done in the first stage of modeling (see Figure 29
- below). This is done by comparing times Tij and TIIjr used by operators j and j'
by the moment of simulation of the particular subtask. The operator who has
spent the least time is selected, and if the times are equal the operator with
the lower number, that is operator j, is selected. If the operator selected must
wait for the partner (this is determined by the logic of the algorithm, in other
words by the value dijl), the actions of the other operator are simulated in ad-
vance. If thia is not the case, a determinatian is made whether the operator
must wait for the arrival of moments in time Iii to perform the next subtask i.
If time T= Iij has not yet arrived, then Tij is set equal to Iij and the operator
whose actions are to be simulated is determined again. Next it is established
whether subtask i is one of the joint type (Ii = 1). In this case the full time
of the operator who worked longer is taken as the-time of the slower operator.
For the operator finally selected, a computation is made of the urgency of situ-
ations, tension, and the cohesion of the group during performance of the particu-
lar subtask (see Figure 30 below). First the time TocT left available to the
operator to perform the entire task is determined, and the urgency of the situa-
tion is analyzed. If there is enough time remaining to complete all subsequent
subtasks, the situation is considered nonurgent and the operator is not under ten-
sion, in other words tension is taken equal to one (sij = 1).
166
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_ Figure 29. Operator Selection and Spnchronization of Working
Time.
Key: [ Qct - Yes;
- Nem- No. ]
Figure 30. Computation of Urgency, Tensian, and Cohesian
Key : [ Au - Yes ;
Nem- No. ]
In the case where the time remaining is aufficient only to complete the significant
subtasks, the Frugram ignorea insignificant subtasks, considering tension sij = 1.
But if the time remaining is less than is needed to perform r.he remaining signifi-
cant subtasks, operator tension is computed by tIie formula

_ _ Nij
T' TE
;
s;j (5.4)
= y ~
Tj - TV
- ~ 167'
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rtJx Vrrll,tAl. uJC. U1vLY
where y~~TE is the sum of average times of performance of remaining significant
J
~
subtasks; Nij is the number of significant sutatasks in the tasks; Tj is the time of
performance of an assignment (determined by initial modeling data); and, Tvi is the
time spent for performance of preceding subtasks.
In the model group cohesion is a variable whoae magnitude rangea from 0 to 1, and is
a function of tension. The coheaion coefficient, which permits an assessment of the
condition of the group, is determined for performance of each subtask by tfie formula
C`j (5.5)
waere Cij is the indicator of group cohesion; sij is the tension of the operator per-
forming subtask i; sij is the tension of the partner; Mj and Mjv are tfie tension
thresholds of the operator and partner heing simulated in the particular subtask
(tha tension threshald is the tension value at w'~tch activity is disrupted and the
number of mistakes and time of performance of sucn tasks increase sharply).
Next the time of performance of subtask i by the operator is determined (see
Figure 31 below). The pseudorandom quantity Kij formed by generator 1 according to
Figure 31. Determining Time of Performance of Suhtask i.
Ke,: (1) Generator;
f iR ct - Yes;
}Ae m No. ]
(Kij = 0; Q K= 1.0) is selected for this. The quantity Kij is used to calculate
the intermediate quantity Uij , which takes account of the initial parameters of the
sub task
V{j = t;; + h+jQ,;.
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When calculating the time of performance of subtaeks it is neceseary to use the
magnitude of total tension, which is equal to
_ slj = A ij -F- s;;, - - (5.6)
where Aij is the magaitude of tension arisin8 in the operator when the partner ia
under tension. It is taken as equal to zero if the partner feels no tension, that
is, sij i = 1. Where sij > Mj+. and Aij = 1, in the remaining situations it is de-
termined by the farmula `
~ i
f~~�
A,,
For the case where total operator tengion is lesa than the threahold value
(sij < Mj), the time of performance of the subtaek is computed in the following
sequence:
(1) The standardized value of total operator tension
is determined r=~
- (2) The coefficient of distortion of time of performance
of the subtaek under tens.ion is calculated
'
7iij = Q2'n j7xn-1 + . . . -f- cx d, (5.7)
where a, b, and c axe polynomial coefficients; n is
the indicator of the power of the independent variable;
and, d is the intersection;
(3) The time of performance of subtask i is determined
taking into account the operator's individual speed
(Fj) tj' - F'vl,Z'' (5.8)
In the case where sij > Mi + 1, the time of performance .
of subtask i is determined from the expression
Q{; = 3Vii - i,;, ,
where Qi is the time of performance of the subtask with-
out consi3ering individual operator apeed. Finally, we
receive
_ t{j = QiiFI. (5.9)
In the remaining cases, the following order ia employed to determine tij:
(1) The intermediate quantities are computed
Hij _ ?Sti -I- 1 -2A1 j; (Dij ~ HijVj; Lij -mj) ttj;
(2) The time of performance of the subtask is calculated
by tfie formula _
-
t{j _ Pii L,ti) Fi� (5.10)
~ 169
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The quantityUtij determined by one of the expressions (5.8)-(5.10) is added to
total time Tij used by the operator from the beginning of the iteration. Then
comes the next stage of modeling, determining success and failure in performance
of the current subtask (see Figure 32 below).
Figure 32. Determining Success and Failure.
Key: (1) Generatar;
[ Au - Yes;
Hern - No. ]
Analysis of success and failure hegina with selection of a pseudorandom number R
formed by generator 2 accordtng to a uniform law of distribution in a unit inter-
val. This number is used to compute the criterial quantity ei. There are three
variations for determining ei (depending on the value of current operator tension).
In the case where sij< Mj., these intermediate quantities are found
Ei = (ILI, -1 1) R - '11; st�
and they are then used to compute the criterial value
e' + i (5.11)
E{ - �
e;
wheie si3 > Mi + 1, the following expression is used
R i
g{ - 2 .
rvx vrrn,iwL u,L ViVLIc
(5.12)
In the remaining situations, inteXmediate quantities are determined by these
f ormulas -
ei=s;;-ll1;-}-B; et=s;-Df;-f-1,
after which we finally find

ei
et = - .
ei
(5.13)
The value of the criterial quantity ej, obtained from one of the expressiona
(5.11)-(5.13) is used for comparison with a given probability of success in per-
formance of subtask i:
f{
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In this case fi > 0 sign3fies successful completion of the subtask; other cases
are continued failures. The success or failure is registered by a success or
failure register, and then the subtask wfiich must be performed in the next step is
determined.
The modeling sequence {ncludes an evaluation of the level of operator demands,
which takes the operator's purposefulness into account (see Figure 33 below).
Key: (1) Generator;
(2) End of Computations;
(3) Printing of Results;
[ Q U - Yes;
Nem - No. ]
To analyze the influence of thie characteristic the degree of divergence between
the operator's goals and the results of the operator's labor are computed for each
subtask:
171
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Figure 33. Evaluation of the Level of Demands and Completion
of Computation.

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rvn vrra~.ini. voc vi%l,�
iv
r tv
B_G;- ia' I (5.14)
j
E tj
i;=i
where B is the degree of divergence in goals; Gi is the level. af demands of oper-
_ iy
ator j: 1{E~yis the number of subtasks successfully performed by the operator;
,
11; is the total number of subtasks performed by operator J.
After this one of five situations may arise with using the quantity B to correct
operator activity.
If B>+0.02, then two cases are poasihle:
(1) where sij > M�, the value of the probability of successful
performance oi the next subtask hy operator J is lowered:
- P;+j.; = IPi; [1 - O,OSB];
_ (2) where sij < M, the value of the probahility of successful
performance oi the suhtask by the operator increases
P{+is = Pi1(1 + 0,088).
If the divergence in goals is within the range -0.02 < B 0,
L4 (Z~ = i~l ~ ~1
n (6.10)
~ f or: V 0{.x; 6 Q~
i=1
where -0 (t) is the frequency of pulse generation.at the output of the neuron; ai
is the magnitude of synaptic coeff icient i; xi is the numerical value of the input
action; 0 is the neuron threshold; k is the steepness of the input--output cfiarac-
teristic of the neuron; and, n is the r.umber of inputs of the neuron.
A comparison of expreasion (6.9) and (6.10) makee it obvtous tfiat tfia neuron
realizes a hyperplane in the space of the input stgnals and is a decislon ele-
ment. When the vector-image X{xl, x2, xn} is presented to the neuron, it
may be either excited or not excited. If the neuron is not excited, this means
that the linear function y= Xt'A - 0 is less than zero at the point represented
\ by set*{x}, and the end of the vector is o3tside the hyperplane (on one of the
sides of the space). In this case A= ai, a2, an is the vector of wetght
coefficients. If the neuron is excited, the linear function assumes a value
greater than zero and the end of the vector is located in another area relative
to the hyperplane. Therefore, the neuron assigns every set of input signals to
one of the semispaces, Zand this division is accomplished hy means of the linear
function y= Xt A 0.
_ Thus, the.neuronal structure can realize a large numher of hyperplanes and evalu-
ate the location of the point that depicts input information. 'By cbanging the
weight of particular "synapses" and the value of tbreshold 0, we obtain dividing
- hyperplanes yl, y2, yn, whose slope can be changed in the proceas of train-
ing or adjustment..
It is clear from the above that devices that model the primary characteristics
of the neuron can be used for the purpose of shaping the dividing situation of a
- surface, and will simplify the classifier in thie case.
, A large number of various devices have been developed today that model the pri-
. 'mary functional capabilities of the biological prototype (29, 30). A number of
glgorithms have been written for adjusting the weight coefficients and
ttireshold according to the aet of situations presented in order to optimize the
quality of situation recognition. Most of the training algorithms proposed for
linear adaptive situation recognition devicea are systems that search for the
vector of weight coefficients and neuron thresfiolds and minimize a preassigned
error function. The gradient metfiod is most Widely used [31].
The neuronal clasatfication structures obtained By changing the training pro-
cedure are mucfi simpler than classifications on digital computets. Some
variations of them are considered 5elow. 238
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5. Encoding Time Functiona by Artificial Neuron Ne.ts According to Their
Informative Signs.
Let us constder one more mettiod of encoding complex ttme functionsp fiaered on
using the princtples of processilig data in the sensorp- systems o� fii.ologtcal
systems.
Researcfi done by Eccles, Mattfiews, H. I. Katets, P. G. Kostyuk, and others on
- stimulation of nerve-muscular structures has identified tfie baeic principles
of neuron processing of time signals 128, 32]. Tfiey sfioared tTiat the reaction of
nerve tissue is deacribed by the expression

~ T
_ TV = f v ct,, ~ U ct> dt ,
a ~
t
where U(t) is the amplitude of the signal; T is ite length; and, fU (t)dt
ie the er_ergy component of the atimulus signal. Thanks to tfie action of the
adaptation mechanism, the excitability of nerve tissue depends signif icantly on
the firat and aecond derivatives of the stimulating stgnal. Therefore, its
' reaction is expressed by the functton
dU (t) d2 L' (t)
+
f U (t), `U (t) dt, dt , CU2
0
whose independent variabZes are the primary componente of the signal. Eacb of
these componenta has ita own weight (a, Y, d) so control of excitability in
general form can be represented linearly;
uU (t) 1- ~ d.--~ y`r U(t) dt d d'~,(t) = 1.
I
0
The mecfianism of adaptation, which influenceg the procesa of encoding stgnala,
is linked to the interaction of the processes of stimulation ar~d inhiBition in
the membrane of the neuron and, dynamically, to the characteristics of'the
neuron. -Analysie of processes on the memhrane permits us to hypotheaize that
the passing stimulation signal triggers a simultaneous inhibiting process
which develops exponentially and compensates for tfie stimulating procesa after
interval T. .
The process of conversion of information in the synaptic cell and eummator of the
neuron leads to the atructural diagram ahown in Figure 67 below. Link 1 of the
diagram is proportional to the input signal. Link 2 with the transfer function
of the aperiodic link developa reactive inhibitian. The transfer function of
the summator is represented by aperiodic link 3. Tlie transfer function of this
segment of the neuron model is descrtbed by tfie expreseion
tti~o ~P) _ [ki TiP -F- (kt - k.)]
(T iP + 1) (TxP -i- 1) .
2 39
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~ I
~ I
~(t! ~ ~ ~ Modens 9m~o93)
3 cOnr.cto rer
izp�1 ~ wuno,Ye~-aon~
2 ht ~
~ rIP�
~ I
I CunartmuaecKaa averiKV 4- cyM,wamopoM (2)
- L---------------------
Figure 67. F1owcTiart of a Neuron Model.
Key: (1) Input; (2) Synaptic Cell with Summator;
(3) Output;
(4) Model of Axon Hillock ["Kholmik"] of Neuron.
Because T1 � T2, delay in tfie s.ummator may 6e ignored. The transfer function
assumes the form
j'vo~ ~P~ = k1T 1P -I - (kt - k2) . ' -
TiP +1
On the condition that kl = k2 (inhi5ition completely compensates for stfmulation),
it ia converted into the transfer function of the differentiating link
W o9 (P) = kiT iP ~
TiP -f- 1 .
Investigations of neurona of different modali.ties lead to the conclusion that
the neuron is the differentiating element of the nervous system. Neuron-type
"on," "off," and "on-off" reactiona also testify to this [28-30].
The potential that developa according to the transfer function acts on tfie
threshold generator of standard pulses 4. As a result, the output signal of the
neuron ia described by the expression
-------r- n -
y ~t = kL-' j W R (P) \1 aix, (P)} - 0,
where L'1 is an inverse Laplace transform, and k is tfie coefficieat of amplifi-
cation of the converaion characteristic of the neuron. The neuron or neuron
ensemble realizea a certain transfer function only on tfie condition that
J aixi (t) 7 U.
2 40
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Combining the positive and negattve rigid and flexihle feedbacks, it ie possible
to receive a number of essenttal tranefer functiona of neuron structures. Thus,
in Figure 68 below part a shouzs a structure with_ a transfer function WH(p) = kTp
(differentiattng link or neuron witfi.rapid adaptation), arhiYe part b shows a
structure with a transfer function WH(p) = k/2T x 1/p (integrating link). '
Figure 68. Functional Model of' (;a) Dtf-
ferentiating Neuron, and (b) Integrating
Neuron.
0,G 0.0
h
x2 4k
e�o
w�fp!�kTp h~o 1
Q T . T 1
k
w"O`2T P
b
These characteristic s of the neuron model were used to encode the informative
points of the ahape of the curve of electrograme. The ability of neurons and en-
semblea of neurons to single out the informative componente of time functions
was investi&ated on technical models of neurons including synaptic cells and a
model of a neuron wi th summator. The basic synaptic cell is an operational
amplifier that works in the regime of an aperiodic filter with time constant T
depending on the parameters of the circuit.
When it is stimulated the threshold of the neuron increases exponentially
Ug = U'CT exp (-t/T), where U'CT is the amplitude of the stimulus. Change in the
atimulating postsynaptic potential is described by the expression
.
- i
Uisucn = - U(,r - U� = - UoT (1 - c t .
where U g~cTr is the amplitude of the stimulating poetaynaptic potentisl. Figure
69 below showa change in Un and UB,rcn. An "on't reaction or adaptatton is ob-
tained at the output of the neuron model depending on the value of T selected.
t

. /
Un - j,/'-_
/
U~m - - -
�encn
Figure 69. Change Over Time in Total
Stgnal at Input of Neuron Model.
241
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I I
(2)
(1)
~ I I~~~
(3) ~
II I~~ i I
(5)
Ftgure 70. Example of Neuron Coding:
(4 f'
Key: (1) Minimums of Time Signal;
(2) Maximums of Time Signal;
(3) Positive and�Negattve Derivatives of Input Signal;
(4) Points of Signal Passage Through Conventional Zero;
(5) Maximums and Minimums of Time Signal.
To obtain a code that is invariant to the magnitude of the amplitude of the signal
being analyzed, it is enough. to feed it to the input of the neuron structure shown
in Figure 71 below. Work [33] considers the mechanisms of identification of tte
informative components of a signal in greater detail.
It can be seen from the above that differentiatiag neurons and ensemTiles.of tfiem in- efficiently convert continous functions afdnang tTheetask of
formation to a digital computer or classi yig neuronal structure
the latter maYrcodeewith standardgintervals intervals
points of the time
this process.
Measurement of the timvwithinwtfie esta6lishedsclearances can tieodoneiby of
the signal when it is located
means of a neuron ensemble (see Figure 72).
It is possible to identify a Firoad class of informative components of the time
signal by means of individual neurons and elementary neuron ensembles by changing
their thresholds and the parameters of the synaptic cells included in the stimu-
- lating and inhibiting inputs of tfie neuron (see Figure 70 below). Tfiis ensemble
242
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Eigure 71. Neuron "Normtngn Structure.
T, t
T
Tz
2
~Tr) f=(T< 72
)
3
f3(l FO THEN 200
_ lA'J LET FO a F(XI
- 200 NEXT X
300 LET T9 m 1/FO
810 [F 20T9 ] TO THEN 1300
320 FO R X- 1 TO M
330 LET TJXI - !/FIX)
340 LET S[XI = R(XVT(XI
342 IF SfXl > 1 THEN 350
344 LET SIX) _ 1
350 IF S(X) < M[X] THEN 380
360 LET D[X) m 2
~ 870 GOTO 430
380 LET 0[X) m(S[X) - f)/(M[X]
985 LET N8 - O[X)
390 LET D[X) e K[f + K[21�0[X)
- 400 FOR J~ 3 TO I
405 LET N8 s N600(X]
410 LET D[X) = D(XI + K[Jj*NB
420 NEXT 7
430 LET V[XJ - T9/T(X)
440 LET C[XJ ~ CIXI + VlXJ - 1
450 IF CIXI < f THEN 480
460 LET V(X] - VfXJ C[X)
470 LET CIXI - CIXI - INT(C(XJ)
480 LET V[X) m INT(V(X))
530 NEXT X
540 LET Ri 0 0
550FORX- ITOM
560 LET Lm L+ V(X]
570 LET L[X) - L(XI V(X) ,575 LET N5 m V[X)
580 FOR Y~ i TO N5 590LETR0m 0
800 FOR Z9 - i TO 48
- 810 LET AO m RO RND(0)
820 N E X T 29
830 LET RO - GIX1'R0/2 (AIXJ 12*GlXI)
640 LET RO m RO�DIX)
850 IF RO ) T(XJ THEN 870
~
[Continued, next page]
2 85
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FOR OFF(C1AL USE ON[.Y
880 IF (P[XJ - RND(0)) ] 0 THEN 690
670 LET NIX) m N[X] f
880 GOTO 710
890 LET W[XJ = W[X] i
700 LET SO = 50 f
7!0 NEXT Y
712 IF W[X] # U THEN 720
714 LET C5 = C5 + 1
720 LET R! - Rf + W[X]/L[XJ
730 NEXT X
750 LET ZO o !
780 FOR X- f TO M
762 IF C5 - 0 THEN 770
784 LET B[Xi - f/M
735 IF Ri = n fiHEN 790
788 GOTO ?80
787 IF WIX] s 0 THEN 790
770 LET A[XI _ (1V(Xj/L(XJ)/R1
780 LET ZO = ZO�B[XI
785 LET U[X) - U[Xj S[X)
790 NEXT X
795 Ls-T C5 m 0
800 LET ZO a Zn�(Ai - bf)
810LETZf=Zf+ ZO .
820 LET C2 = C2 -i- f
830 LET EO = F/F1
840 LET E1 = Ef EO
850 LET Qt = SO/L
880 LET Tt ~ Tt T9
890 LET TO = T- Tt
900 LET Ii0 ~ H- SO
910IFT0