JPRS ID: 10257 TRANSLATION INDUSTRIAL ERGONOMICS ED. BY S.I. GORSHKOV

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JPRS L/ 10257
15 January 1982
Translation
INDUSTRIAL ERGONOMICS
Ec9. by
S.I. Gorshkov
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Hou oHFtCi.aL usE oN1.Y
JPRS L/10257
15 January 1982
INDUSTRIAL ERGONOMICS
Nloscow PROIZVODSTVENNAYA ERGONOMIF.A in Russian 1979 (sigried to press
- 26 Jun 79) pp 2-209, 298-312
[Annotation, introduction, chapters I-IV, VI and table of contents
_ F-rom book "Industrial ErgonomicG" edited by S.T. Gorshkov, USSR
Acac'emy oF Mediral Sciences, Izditel'stvo "Meditsina", 6,700 copies,
3)_2 pages]
CONTENTS
Annotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Iritroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
I. Oriuin and Essence of Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
II. blethods of Studying an Ergonomic Systein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
_ tII. Eiygienic Criteria .,f Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Tv. Psyciiophysiological Criteria of Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
VI. Tne Contribution of Ergonomics to Research on Labor Hygiene,
Piiysiology and Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15::
Eiib].i.ocjt-anliy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
i,onLc:iiCs [or.iginal] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
- a- [1- - USSR - C FOUO]
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ANNOTATION ' �
Successful development of ergonomics has been basFd, to a large degree, on its inte-
grated approach to the study af the "man-machine-industrial environmen-e'syst:em, an
approach calli�..g for analysis of the many factors characterizing this system .in action.
The purpose of integrated analysis in industry is to reveal undesirable factors and
to brin:a them in line with the re4uirements of ergonomics.
The book "Industrial Ergonomics" reflects the fundamental staqes in the development
of the mutual relationships between man and technology, the tasks of ergonomics and
the methods used in ergonomic studies. The hygienic and psychophysiological criteria
that must be accounted f.or when planning industrial equipment and organizing work-
_ places are analyzed.
As distinct from other monographs concerned with ergonomic solutions to questions of
purely operator forms of labor, this book focuses on the eomLatibility of industrial
equipment design with human anatomical, physiological and psychological capabilities
in different industrial sectors: machine building, tube rolling, textile industry
conveyor lines, leather production and haberdashery and organization of the labor
of computer operators.
This monograph is intended for hygienists, occupational pathologists, physiologists
and labor psychologists.
The book contains 39 tables, 85 figures and a bibliography of 91 rez"erences,
INTRODUCTION
Scientific-technical progress, growing automation und mechanization of industrial
i,rocesses and introduction of new equipment into enterprises have altared the nature
of labor and the nature of the mutual relationships between man and technology. As
' a result ergonomic resesrch having the objective of integrated analysis of working
conditions and improvement of mutual relationships in the "man-machine-industrial
eiivironment" system is acquiring increasingly greater significance with every year.
- L. I. srezhnPV noted in a speech to the I6th Congress of Trade Unions that the party
~ views reequipment of industry as the decisive means for improving working conditions
and trailsforming all production operations into onss that are safe and comfortable
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to man. These are precisely the conditions that must be guaranteed to the working
man in socialist society.
The ma.in pvrpose of ergonomics is to create an objective environment providing conc.i-
- tions which would permit the process of social labor to proceed, speaking in the words
of Marx, with the least expenditure of energy (by the producers), and in conditions
that are most worthy of their human nature and are adequate to it.
_ This objective could be reached only on the condition that we create man's ob;ective
environment--that is, the technology supporting i:im--with reliance upoi: thn. entire
system of knowledge of man and w=th full account of his anatomical, physiological
and psychological features. This means that the objective of ergonomics is to opti-
mize man's position in the "man-machine-industrial er.vironment" system, to humanize
technology while achieving correspondence between the design of industrial equipment
and wor.kplace organization on ane hand and man's anatomical, physiologicaZ and psycho-
logical features on the other. Consequently the principle of "correspondence," which
is implied by ttie unity of subject (man) and object (nature, technology) in labor,
is the fundamental principle of ergonomics. ~ In the USSR, ergonomics is now developing in predominantly three nirections--technical
est.heti.cs,engineering psychology and industrial ergonomics. Technical estnetics
has enjoyed the greatest development in our country. Tts objectives are artistic
design of equipment and industrial esthetics. The main objective of engineering
- psychology is to study the relationship between the design of control consoles supplied
- t:o the most important national economic facilities (atomic, hydroelectric and thermal
electric power plants, airports, power supply systems and so on) and the particular
features of information percepti.on and processing by operators. Tine objective of in-
dustrial ergonomics is to implement the principle of correspondence between the design
of production equipment contained in factories, plants, r.iines and other enterprises
and man's anatomical, physiological and psychological featur~s. The process of
gradually replacing man's production functions by technological resources has achieved
sp;;,r_;-,1 significance in the modern scientific-technical r.evolution. However, the
succa:.-3 of scientific-technical progress, in addition to making labor less toil-
some and eliminating manual labor, often creates conditions that can lead to violation
of the "correspondence" principle. The reason for this lies in the difficult} of
accounting for man's anatomical, physiological and psychological features in the
design of complex ttiodern equipment, which imposes high requirements upon man's psycho-
physiological characteristics. In a number of cases this is promoted by our insurfi-
_ cient knowledge of man's features--of his anthropoznetric characteristics--in applica-
tion to khe problems of ergonomics, his power and speed potentials, the unique
features of afferent synthesis, and the laws governing information perception and
processing. What we consequently observe among individuals servicing many forms of
equipment is an uncomfortable working posture, exertion of too much effort, the
necessity of lerforming a large quantity of operations and a higher volume of infor-
mation to be processed. Conditions for, the arisal of monotony and hypokinesia are
often created. Z'he design of industrial equipment may be brought into correspondence
with human features only if we know what these features are--that is, if we account
for the "human factor" in the planning and design stages.
_ In the long range, ergonomics will be an important means for raising the reliability,
effectiveness anc3 economy of production. However, there are still many difficuities
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in the path of its development, especially ones of methodological nature. They are
basically associated to a great extent not with anthropometric problems of organizing
the workplace but with the problems of informational interaction between man and
modern complex equipment, which are also discussed in this monograph.
The materials presented in this book were obtained by colleagues of the division of
labor physiology and ergonomics of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences Sca.entific
Research Institute of Labor Hygiene a.nd Occupational Diseases in integrated physio-
_ logical--ergonomic research on the appropriate enterprises. Some of the material
was also obtained from experiments conducted when it was found necessary to simulate
a particular production situation. .
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: I. ORIGIN AND ESSENCE OF ERGONOMICS
- Scientific-Technical Progress and the Origin of Ergonomics
= Within 60 years, the Soviet Union has completed a tremendous technological revolu-
ti,,n and implemented a broad program of the national economy's reequipment.
Today as never before, the progress of science and technology is most intimately
associated with social progress: They interact with one another, acceleratinq mar.-
kind's movement toward communism.
Science is playing a contiriually increasing role in the life of society, transforming
production, administration and the life of the individual. It is transforming more
- and more into a direct productive force; it is becoming embodied within new equipment
and production processes, and in our knowledge of man an3 of his work cap hilities
and skills.
Before our eyes, entire industrial sectors and new forms of material production have
been born of the womb of science. The reequipment of all sectors of the national
economy, which is proceeding on the basis of modern scientific achievements, is
accomganied by growth in the productivity and culture of labor.
Scientific labor is penetrating more and more into the sphere of material production,
which is now requiring the participation of, besides laborers, a large number of
scientists and specialists. We are witnessing the merger af science and pro3uction,
of scieritific and productive labor, which is acceierating the rate of scientific-
technical progress.
Stimulating progress in engineering and technology, science has promoted introduction
of ever-larger amounts of new, highly sophisticated machines and mechanisms into
production. It would be sufficient to point out that just in 1977 alone, 4,000
models of new types of machines, equipment, apparatus and instruments were created
' in the USSR, as compared to 3,600 in 1976; moreover the USSR.produced 236,000 machine
tools, 569,000 tractors, 734,000 trucks, 41,500 excavators and mucli other equipment.
Scientific-technical progress has led to formation of a number of new industrial
szctors such as petrochemical, electronics, atomic energy and production of ultrahard,
polymeric and other materials. Fu11 astomation and mechanization of production is
a general direction of technical progress. There are now more than 60,000 mechanized
flow and automatic lines, more than 15,000 fully mechanized shops and more than
- 3,000 fully mechanized enterprises in industry, and each year more than 6,000 flow
and automated lines are being placed into uperation.
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One of the most iinportant objectives of our science is to solve the theoretical
problems and develop the concrete means and resources of improving control of equip-
ment and of productian, economic and social processes.
- The Pxtremely swift development of science and technological progress are transforming
man's life, his leisure and, what is especially important, his labor. Introduction of
the achievements of science and technology into production through mechanization and
automation of production processes and through the use of programmed devices, calcu-
lating and problem-solving machines, electronic computers and automated controZ
- systems (A8U's) in production are altering the conditions and nature of man's labor.
A:: a consequence, modern science and technology are raising a new social and philo-
sophical problem--the relationship between "man and technology."
In addition to social and philosophical aspects, this problem also has the important
biomedical aspect, which permits us to examine this problem from its narrower, bio-
medical aspect, namely as a"man-machine-environment" problern. In this statement of
- the prcblem, the broader concept "technology" is substituted by the narrcwer "machine"
and, moreover, the concept "environment," which is closely associated with man and
machine, is added. Thus this problem assumes a position equal with those of anthro-
. pology, physiology and lalicr hygiene. Here, "machine" is understood to imply
"machine design," and when put together wiiyh man and environment, the resulting
concegt signifies working conditions, the convenience of servicing and controlling
a machine. In other words the social-philsophical problem "man-technology" has now
become one of optimizing the relationship between man and techn.ology, or one of
humanizing technology. This problem has acquired the special name of ergonomics.
The Greek roots of the term "ergonomics" are "ergon"--work, and "nomos"--law. V. M.
Munipov (1970) explains this -term as follows: Ergonomics is a science studying man's
functional possibilities in labor with the purpose of creating optimum working condi-
tions for him--that is, conditions which, while making labor highly productive and
reliable, would at the same time ensure the necessary comfort to man and preserve
his strength, health and efficiency. The Polish scholar Jan Rpsner offers a some-
what different but similar definition: Erqonomics is an applied science having the
purpose of adapting labor to man's phYsical and mental possibilities in order to
ensure the most effective work--work which would not be hazardous to human health
and which would be performed with a minimum outlay of biological resources (73).
What these and a number of other definitions of ergonomics basically boil ciown to is
that.the purpose of ergonomics is to humanize labor by accounting for man's functional
possibilities. In this century of scientific-technical revolution, it is no longer
enough to study some single aspects of labor. The entire labor process--that is,
tlie entire "man-machine-environment" production system--must be evaluated i.ntegrally,
turning special attention to its main link--man. B. F. Lomov (1966) notes: "It is
only on the condition that the characteristics of the machine and the environment
are made cor_sistent with man's characteristics that we can count on high effectiveness
and reliability in the labor process, and consequently, on high labor productivity.
fiumanization of technology and the working environment--this is the noble principle
_ which ergonomics has proclaimed."
If we accept the basic premise of ergonomics--adapting the objective environment
(the implemenLs of labor) and the surrounding conditions to the anatomical, physio-
logical and psychological possibilities of man, then we could assert that the roots
of ergonomics extend deep into the past. E. R. Tichauer notes: "Ergonomics is
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probably just as old as man himself." It could be said that when man Y;::gan using
stone tools, adapting them to the shape of his hand, sgontaxieous development of
ergonomics began. In 1473 Ellenbog noted in his treatise that chemical substances
and improperly designed equipment have an undesirable effect un human health. In
the 17th century Ramazzini focused on the undesirable influence a strained work
posture has on persons in many occupations. At the beginning of the 20th centry,
in 1911, Gilbreth noted that as with the health of a laborer, the economic success
of an enterprise depends on man's interaction with the environment.
- Ergonomics began taking on the clearer outlines of a modern science during World
War I, but the most tangibla need for broadening research in ergonomics arose during
World War II in connection with intense technological development. It was discovered
during that period that military technology often exceeded man's psychcphysiological
possibilities, as a result of which it could nct be utilized effectively, it t.znded
to break down, and accidents occurred.
An integrated approach must be taken toward the entire "man-machine-environment"
system with the purpose of ensuring optimum working conditions. Such an appraach
requires contact between the technical sciences and the science of man and his labor.
In connection with this need's arisal, in 1949-a group of scientists in England repre-
senting different specialties made it their goal to study the "human factor" in the
working environment, at production. Somewhat later the "ergonomic research society"
was created.' In the USA at that time, this problem was mainly within the province
of psychology. A society to study the "human factor," which came to be called "human
engineering," arose in 1957 in the USA.
- The concept "ergonomics" was first suggested by the Polish natural historian V.
Yastshembovskiy, who published the work "The Traits of Ergonomics--That Is, the
Science of Labor" in 1857 in the weekly PRIR/JDA I PROMYSHLENNOST'. In our country,
- during the 1920's, when a rather conside.rable amount of attention was devoted to studying man's activity in an industrial situation, V. N. Myasishchev proposed iso-
lating the study of labor as a special scientific discipline--ergology (the teaching
on work). V. M. Bekhterev proposed calling.this discipline ergonology. But i:his
scientific direction 3id not enjoy adequate development in those years. Following
the war, in the late 1950's, introduction of automat3on connected with swift develop-
= ment of science and technology made ergonomic research necessary. This research
began developing on a new scientific foundation.
Presently ergonomic research is being conducted systematically in manp of the
world's countries. The bulk of it is being carried on by European countries (England,
Bulgaria, Hungary, GDR, the Netherlands, Italy, Poland, Itpmania, FRG, France,
Czechoslovakia, Switzerland, Sweden, Yugoslavia).
Ergonomics views the "man-machine-environment" system as a single whole, within which
- it would be inadequate to study just some one link, since all of the links interact
with one another. What is needed is integrated research, conducted by different
scientific disciplines. Because this system functions in specific production condi-
' tions, these conditions must be studied, all the more so because, as we know, the
conditions of the production environment are determined to a significant extent by
the work of machines. For example factors of the production environment such as noise
at the workplace, dust and gas contaminants in the environment, and frequently the
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thermal factor depend on the work of machinery. If these factors exceed maximum
permissible limits, they may have an undesirable influence on the body of the worker.
Hence arises the need for conducting hygienic research with the purpose of eliminating
this influence.
Ergonomics includes anthropometric research. Sucli research is necessary to ensure
correspondence between the parameters of the workplace and production equipment
undergoing planning on one hand and man's an�hropometric ar.d biochemical character-
istics on the other. It must ensure proper design axid arrangement of controls on
equipment, and so on.
When planning and designing control consoles and, in particular, information displa1s,
we must not only ensure their sensible arrangement, but we must also account for
the absolute a-d differential sensation thresholds of the visual, auditory and other
- analyzers, and their capacity. All of this is necessary so that the operator would
react correctly and promptly to work signals, so that the flow of incoming signals
would not exceed man�s psychophysiological possibilities. This problem is being
worked on by specialists in engineering psychology.
- The relationship between ergonomics and labor physiology is of major concern in
crgonomics. There are many tasks for labor physiology to complete--evaluating the
irifluence exerted upon workers by the correctness of workplace organization, the
convenience of equipment maintenance and the effort applied to manipulate equipment
controls, and determining the sensibility of work movements, the size of the physical
_ load and the degree of nervous tension.
Artistic design, which follows ergonomic analysis of an industrial article, has
-mportant significance. The artist-designer must consider the comments and recommen-
dations resulting from ergonomic research. The main task of artistic design is to
create a machine or a machine tool which would correspond to esthetic requirements,
produce positive emctions and create a good mood. And as we know, a good rnood has
a positive influence upon the individual's performance.
Examining some methodological problems in the development of ergonomics, V. P.
Zinchenko, A. N. Leont'yev, B. F. Lomov and V. M. Munipov (1972) note that its
arisal was a natural process in the development of scientific knowledge, in the
course of which the sciences are undergoing not only differentiation but also inte-
gration, mutual penetration. Anthropology, physiology, psychology, labor hygiene
and the technical sciences all interact in ergonomic researc:h to soive the problems
of optimizing human labor in modern production. Because so many sciences are in-
volved, some aiithors (90; Roger, 1959) call ergonomics a multidisciplinary or inter-
disciplinary science.
Lrgonomic analysis of labor does not mean duplication of individual physiological,
psychological and hygienic studies. Ergonomics relies upon these sciences, it
accounts for the degree of their importance in each concrete case, and it pursues
its objective--ensuring optimum effectiveness in the function of the "man-machine-
eiivironment" system--ori an integrated basis.
Now that a certain amount of experience has been accumulated in ergonomic research,
certain qualitative changes can be discerned in the objective of ergonomics. Today,
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c_rqonomics is corrective in nature. The task of corrective ergonomics is a practical
orie--providing an ergonomic evaluation to some concrete "man-machine-environment"
system with the purpose of raising its effectiveness. However, ergonomi.cs is also
_ beginning to participate .in planning: It is subjecting human labor to multifactorial,
integrated study with the purpose of developing integral optimum criteria to be used
as a basis for planning effective "man-machine-e.nvironment" systems and ensuring the
system's high productivity, precision and reliability, its correspondence to man's
anatomical, physiological and psychological possi.bilities, the individual's minimum
exertion and tiring, and a positive emotional influence upan him.
Ergonomics is presently enjoying extensive development. Conferences and symposiums
on ergonomics are being conducted in our country as well as in other countries.
International cooperation in ergonomics is developing effectively among socialist
countries. The first International Conference of CEMA and Yugoslav Scientists and
Specialists on the Problems of Ergonomi.cs was held in Moscow in 1972. The second
conference. was held in 1975 in Burgas (Bulgaria), and the third was held in 1978 in
' Budapest.
The all-union conference "Designing Machines, Mechanisms and Equipment With Regard to
the Physiological and Hygienic .Criteria of Ergonomics," held in November 1969 under
the sponsorship of the Council of Ministers State Comnittee for Science and Technology
and the AUCCTU, promote d establishment of a correct understanding of the essence of
ergonomics and its mutual relationships with other sciences. The resolution adopted
by this conference states: "...planning and design institutes do not always consider
the influence of physiological, hygienic and psychological factors when designing
new machines and mechanisms. At the sanie time, experience shows that solution of the
problems of ergonomics, which relies upon integrated research in labor hygiene,
physiology and psychology, the theory of machine design and the requirements of
labor safetX and technical esthetics, in many ways promotes improvement of labor
conditions in industry, easier labor and its greater productivity."
Technical progress and its economic impact will become inereusingly more dependent
on development of different sciences, including ergonomics, and on the pace and scale
of introduction of its achievements into all sectors of the national economy.
Z'he Mutual Relationships of Man and Technology--the Fundamental Problem of Ergonomics.
Main Stages in the Development of These Mutual Relationships. The Tasks of Ergonomics.
It was noted above that ergonomics is usually taken to mean the mutual relationships
between man and technology from the standpoint of the correspondence of the design
of technical devices with man's anatomical, physiological features. From this stand-
point ergonomics is a particular case of the mutual relationship between man and
technoloqy.
The mutual relationships of man and technology (from the'political, economic,
- ergonomic and other points of view) are subordinated to the basic laws of Marxist-
Leninist Yhilosophy. These include, first of all, the law of constant development
of these mutual relationships, the law of development of the subject (man) and the
object (nature, technology) in the labor process, and the law of objectivization of
the personality (the subject) in the result af labor--that is, "transformation of
- the ideal into the real," and subjectivization of the result of labor in the person-
- ality (in the subject)--that is, the law of change of the personaliL-y (the subject)
itself in the process of labor.
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It was mentioned above that.from the standpoint of these laws, the main objective of
ergonomics is to create an objective environment in which the process of social labor
would proceed, using �Marx' words, "with the least expenditure of energy (by the
producers), and in conditions that are most worthy of their human nature and are
adequate to it."*
Marx' directive could be fulfilled only on the condition that we create man's objec-
tive environment--that is, the supporting technology--with reliance upon the entire
system of knowledge of man, and with full censideration of his anatomical, physio-
- logical and psychological =eatures. This means that the task of ergonomics is to
= optimize man's position in the "man-machine-environment" system, to humanize
technology, to achieve correspondence of the design af production equipment and the
- organization of workplaces with man's anatomical, physiological and psychological
� features. Consequentiy the principle of "correspondence," which is implied by the
unity of the subject (man) and the object (nature, technology) in labor is the
fundamental principle of ergonomics.
Ergonomics is presently developing in USSR in thrse directions--technical esthetics,
engineering psychology and ergonomics specifically, or industrial ergonomics.
That part of ergonomics which is concerned with the grounds for hygienic, physio-
logical and psychological requirements on the design of industrial equipment--that is,
industrial ergonomics--had still not enjoyed brQad development in our country. Iri
light of the decisions of the 25th CPSU Congress, which foresee creation of r..ew,
progressive fechnology, the role of industrial ergonomics must grow. It is the task
of industrial ergonomics to implement the principle of correspondence of the design
- of industrial equipment ir_ factories, plants, mines and other enterprises with man's
anatomical, physiological and psychological features.
Although ergonomics itself formed as a new scientific direction just 20-25 years ago,
the mutual relationships between man and technology have a long history from the
standpeint of the fundamental principle of ergonomics--the principle of "correspon-
dence."
The diverse implements of labor used by man in his work, beginning with the rough
- stone implements of primitive people and ending with modern machinery, represent the
implements of production which, jointly with t'Lie objects of labor--that is, ;ointly
with that toward which man"s labor is directed, malce up a most important socioeconomic
category--the resources of production.
- Together with the people placing them in motion in the produczion of material
blessings, the resources of production make up the productive forces. Productive
forces are the most important motive and revolutionary element of production. Develop-
ment of production begins with changes in pro3uctive forces, and mainly with change
and development of the implements of labar. Development of the implements of labor,
' meanwhile, is intimately associated with develoPment of man.
*Marks, K., "Kapital" (Capital], Vo)_ 3, Moscow, Politizdat, 1955, p 833.
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N'UK urric.iwi, uSr. uNLv
- Man's origins lie somewhere in the beginning of the present Quaternary Period of the
earth's history. The transition from fossilized humanoid monkeys to man proceeded
through a number of intermediate beings combining 11--he traits of monkeys and man--
- man-moniceys, or Pithecanthropes. Manufacture and use of the first implements of
labar are associated with the Pithecanthropes, which lived, according to difforent
sources, 2-10 million years ago. Primitive stone scrapers and drills have been found
in the same strata as the banes of the Pithecanthropes. Since that time man's
ancestors developed an erect posture and, as data collected by anthropologists show,
it was precisely from this time that tool-using became a cause of man's swift trans-
formation, particularly of his skull and brain structure. Thus arisal of labor was
a powerful impetus to development of the brain of the first people.
Complete skeletons of adults and children of other human ancestors--the Neanderthals--
were discovered in the lowest strata of cave deposits in Europe, Asia and Africa.
The Neanderthals, who lived 300,000-500,000 years ago, possessed stone and bone tools.
They apparently also had wooden tools.
The first modern people are the Cro-Magnons, who lived 100,000-150,000 years ago.
Their implements of labor, made from horn, bone and flint, were very diverse, and they
bore carved ornamentation. The techniques used to manufacture tools and household
objects were more sophisticated than those of the Neanderthals. Cro-Magnons knew
how to grind and drill, and they were acquainted with pottery. They domesticated
animals, and they made the first step toward farming. They lived in a tribal
society. Cro-Magnans and modern man make up the apecies Homo sap2ens--intelligent
man. .
The advent of man was one of the greatest turning points in ;:he development of nature.
- This turning point occurred when man's ancestors began making tools. Man began to .
differ fundamentally from animals only when he began to manufacture tools, even the
most simple. Some animals, monkeys for example, often use sticks to knock fruits
down from trees and to defend themselves against attack. But no animal has ever
- made even the most unsophisticated implement of labor. The conditions of day-to-day
life encouraged man's ancestors to manufacture tools. They were able to dedure from
experience that sharpened stones could be used for defense or to hunt animals. The
process of placing the spontaneous forces of nature under control proceeded extremely
slowly in those ancient times, since the implements of labor were primitive. The
first implements of labor were in a sense an artificial extension of human organs:
- The stone was a fist, and the stick was an outstretched axm.
As man underwent physical and mental development he was able to create more-
- sophisticated tools. Sticks with sharpened ends were used in hunting. Then stone
tips began to be attached to the sticks. Axes, stone-tipped spears, and stone
_ scrapers and knives appeared. These tools made the hunting of large animals and
development of fishing possible.
Stone continued to be the principal tool making material for a very lonq time. The
era dominated by stone tools, which lasted hundreds of millennia, is called the
Stone Age. It was not until later that man learned to make tools from naturally
occurring metals, beginning with copper. Being a soft metal, however, copper did
not enjoy broad use in tool making. Consequently tools began to be made of bronze
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(an alloy of copper and tin) and, finally, iron. In correspondence with this, the
Stone Age was followed by the Bronze Age, and then the Iron Age. The earliest signs
of pro-Asian copper smelting have been traced back to the 5th-4th millennium B.C.
' Copper smelting appeared in South and Central Europe in about the 3d-2d millennium
B.C. The oldest traces of bronze, which were found in Mesopotamia, date back to the
4th miliennium B.C. The earliest traces of iron smelting were discovered in Egypt:
They date back prior to 1500 B.C. The Iron Age began in West Europe c-ibout 1000 B.C.
The transition from stone to metal tools significantly broadened the limits of human
labor. Invention of the blaclcsmith's bellows made manufacture of iron tools of
unprecented strength possible. The iron axe made it possible to clear trees and
brush from farmla.,.d. 'I'he wooden plow with an iron plowshare permitted development
cf relatively large areas of land. All of this promoted arisal of social division
= of labor, separation of the craftsman from the farmer, which brought about production
+ directly for the gurposes of barter.
Man's first tools were a simple "extension" of human hands. Many tools used today
are also an "extension" of natural human organs. From tYiis standpoint these tools
fully satisfy the principle of "correspondence." However, as the transition pro-
ceeded from individual creation of tools for personal use to mass production of
tools for barter, the possibility for making tools correspond to individual human
features dwindled more and more. A fundamenta]ly new factor came into being in the
mutua.l relationships between man and technology following transformation of hand
tools into machines. The most important unique feature of the latter is that they
are less an "extension" of natural human organs and more a substitute for them.
Marx said: "Invention of a swivel support marked creation of a mechanical device
which replaced not some particular tool but man's hand itself."* This substitution
of the hand by a machine represents objectivization of the subject's natural powers;
at the same time, penetration of the object into the environment of the subject in
a sense comes to completion in the machine. Transition to mechanical i_ndustry
marked a complete technological revolution in production.
The propulsive power of the first machines was man himself or working animals; then
appeared machines which were brought into motion by a water engine. The mechanical
loom was invented in '785, fully displacing hand weaving by the middle of the 19th
century. The first textile factories were built on the barilcs of rivers, dnd the
machines were placed into motion by water,wheels. After the steam Engine was
developed, ways to apply it in transportation were found. The first steam locomotive
was created in the USA in 1807, and the first railroad was built in England in 1825.
By this time mechanical hammers, presses and machine tools--lathes, milling machines,
drills--were invented. New industrial sectors came inta being--machine building
- and metallurgy. Steam turbines were created in the 1880's. A new type of engine
was invented--the inteYnal combustion engine, first the gas engine (1887) and then
- one using liquid fuel--the diesel engine (1�393). A new powerful force came into
- being in the late 19fh century--electricity. Machines meant mechanization of labor.
Use of machines facilitated tremendous growth of labor productivity and reduction
ofthe cost of goods. Processing an identical quantity of cotton into yarn with a
spinning machine required 180 times less working time in the 19th century than did
hand spinning.
= tMarks, K., "Kapital," Vol 1, Moscow, Politizdat, 1955, p 391.
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The process of gradual substitution of natural human functions by technological resources
attained special significance in the present scientific-technical revolution. In-
troduction of control consoles during the scientific-technical revolution has im-
parted a new quality to the mutual relationships between man and technology--the
possi.bility for separating production control from production processes and replacing
direct observation of a production process by observation of warning systems on a
control console. When computers are used, it is also unnecessary to-observe warning
devices, because the computer can analyze the incoming signals and transmit the
appropriate instructions to working organs. Such separation of the operator from
the real course of a production process, its substitution by a system of co3es,
means that the operator acts, in the opinion of psychologists, concurrently in a
real world and in an artificial world--one of signs, codes, models and symbols. He
is deprived of the possibility for directly perceiving the objects under his control,
inasmuch as they are separated from him in space or their direct observation is
hazardous. Z'he operator senses fully real responsibility and undergoes fully real
emotional experiences, but his states are the product not of the real world, acting
directly upon the operator, but rather a certain information model of this world.
Every model, especially a meager, simple one created with the assistance of various
resources of expression--form, color, symbolism, possesses some degree of uncertain-
ty. In the end, an operator working on a orie-to-one basis with an information model
adapts himself to the model and ceases to perceive it-objectively--that is, as a
model of the real world, and he begins to perceive it as the object of his activity.
Sometimes this may result in substitution of real motivation by feigned motivation,
in loss of alertness, and in apathy.
As a result the activity of an operator in modern automated control systems
cannot satisfy the efficiency and precision requirements. The main reason for this
- is that information models are structured on the basis of the logic of the
realities they reflect, and not on the basis of the sort of activity the operator
- engages in with these realities--that is, to put it another way, not in correspondence
with his physiology and psychology. All of this creates new problems in adapting the labor of an operator.
Moreover computer functions are now beginning to penetra.te into the subjective
domain--the human domain, the domain of the physiological processes of higher ner-
vous activity. In other words the computer objectivizes certain "mechanisms" of
human thinking, such that it is becoming capable of replacing, and is already
successfully replacing, some of the former's manifestations.
A most important conclusion connected with this is that if information models are
to satisfy this highly important requirement of the "correspondence" principle,
research will have to be conducted on the objective structure of operator activity--
research that must be placed at the basis of the design of information models.
The grounds for subsequent development of ergonomics are substantiated in decisions.
of the 24th and 25th CPSU congresses, which have posed the task of creating and
introducing fundamentally new tools, materials and technical processes superior in
their technical-economic indicators to the best Soviet and world models, and the
task of replacing manual labor by machines on a broad scale. In terms of labor
specifically, the task is to improve working conc;itions further. Because the docu-
ments of the 24th and 25th CPSU congresses link acceleration of the rate of
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technc~log.ical progre.,:sa i n al l sectors of the national economy with improvement of
work.ituJ conc3itions, we will havc- to expand research aimed at optimizing man's position
in the "man-machine" system in application to the conditions in different industrial
sectors, and primarily in metallurgy, chemistry, mining industry, power engineering,
machine building and so on.
The proceedings of the all-union conference "Designing Machines, Mechanisms and
Equipment With Regard to the Physiological and Hygienic Criteria of Ergonomics"
develored these guidelines further by formulating the following basic requirements
on industrial ergonomics.*
1. Machines and industrial equipment must be designed in such a way that they
would not be a source of unfavorable sanitary-hygienic working conditions--that is,
their design must correspond to the hygienic requirements in terms of maintaining
- the sanitary-hygienic working conditions of the workplace at the level of the
standards established by public health legislation.
= 2. .bchines and industrialequipment must be designed in such a way that they would
pexmit maintenance in comfortable work postures, and ensure that the efforts
exerted aii3 the trajectories, speeds and quantities of joint movements would be
within physiologically permissible limits. 'I'he requirements of industrial ergonomics
also include those stemming from normal operation of human senses--for example,
physiologicall_y substantiated angles of vision, levels of signal intensity and
~ volumes of perceived and processed production information. What this means con-
cretely is that equipment 3esign must correspond to the anatomical, physiolt:.jical
and psychological features of the structure and function of man's organs and body.
These are the prPmises that have been placed at the basis of research conducted
by industrial ergonomics in various sectors of industry, and at the basis of the
accu,-nulation of scientific data to be used to form the content of industrial
- ergonomics.
The "Ergonomic System" Concept. Classification of Intrasystemic Relationships.
It was shown in the previous section that the mutual relationships between man and
technology have bEen so closely related and interdependent with allstages of histori-
cal development that they now form a single system which, from the standpoint of
necessary correspondence of industrial equipment and the design concepts it embodies
with man's anatomical, physiological and psychological features, may be referred
to as an "ergonomic system." The concept "ergonomic system" means that man, using
a particular implement of labor or servicing a particular piece of industrial
equipment, becomes a link in a"man-tool" or "man-machine" system, or of a"man-
technology" system in general.
The inseparability and unity of this syatem stem from the fact that withput man,
no tools and na production equipment would be possible, that tools arose simultane-
ously with man, and developed together with him.
*Scientific Council on the Problem "Labor Protection" under the USSR Council of
Ministers State Committee for Science and Technology and the AUCCTU. 1971.
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Thus tlie cr.gonomic system is one of the most important concepts (principles) of
ergonomics.
- Constant development of the ergonomic system, which we traced in the previous section
and which is, moreover, not simply constant development but constant and accelerat-
ing development, is the second most important property of the ergonomic system and
of ergonomics as a whole. 7."he Stone Age,which was typified by the m�-)st primitive
anc' the roughest ir,plements u: labor, lasted about a mxllion years, auring which
time ordinary chunks of stone were transfonned into nothing more than polished
chunks of stone, which were then secured to sticks to make stone axes.
The Bronze Age lasted about 3,000-4,000 years, and during this ti.me axes, knives
and spears did not change in riature, remaining as they had been in their stony form,
becoming only more beautiful in their ornamentation.
The Bronze Age quickly gave way to the Iron Age. In 3,000 years, the assortment of
tools was basically enlarged only by the addition of farming tools--the plowshare
and the sickle; nevertheless this was enough to r.aise the successfulness of farming
dramatically. Much was added to the assortment of household utensils and military
gear in the Iron Age. The 18th century--the century of the industrial revolution--
provided the people of our planet with the loom, the spinning machine and the water
wheel. The 19th century--the century of industrial mechanization--gave us the
steam engine, the internal cornbustion engine, the electric mntor and a number of
machine tools intended for mechanical metalworking.
In just its first three-fourths, the 20t1i century--the century of the scientific-
technical revolution--gave man radio, television, aviation, rocket technology,
- nuclear technology, the electronic computer, the control console, automatic lines,
the conquest of --pace, and much, much else.
This examination truly does confinn the notion-that the ergonomic system is charac-
terized not by simple constant development, but mainly by constan,tly accelerating
development, which is very important to an understanding of the unique features of
the ergonomic system that are typical af this period of scientific-technical
revolution.
The third main characteristic of the ergonomic system, mentioned in the previous
section, is the principle of "correspondence" between the design features of pro-
duction equipment and man's anatomical, physiological and psychological features.
_ This was the principal feature in the characteristics of the ergonomic system
tliroughout all stages of development of the mutual relationships between man and
technology, but it acquired extremely important significance in the time of accel-
erated technical progress, when machine designers first addressed requirements
which could not be satisfied without an exact knowledge of man's features--that is,
when ergonomic requirements developed by specialists--physiologists, psychologists
and hygienicists--became necessary.
An example of the need for precisely this approach can be found in the difficulties
that arose in development of jet aviation. The speeds that were achieved were so
great that were pilots to orient themselves on the basis ot their own senses during
- flight, they would constantly be late in performing the needed control reactions
- due to the limited speed of nervous reactions.
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Having defined the basic characteristics of the ergonomic system, we must now
- consider its cantent. An ergonomic system's content is defined as the list of
units it contains for production purposes.
To determine the content of the ergonAiaic system, we must once again proceed from
the historical standpoint--that is, with a consideration for the stages through
which the .:iutual relationships between man and technology have passed. Most authors
examining this question answer it from the point of view of the typical mutual re-
lationships that have evolved in our times. In this connection N. P. Benevolenskaya
(1972) points out that a number of authors (B. F. Lomov, N. V. Onopkin, M. F. Frolov,
J. Rosner and others) view the ergonomic system as a two-unit system--"man-machine"
or "man-technology." Many authors believe it consists of three units--"man-
technology=environment" (K. K. Platonov, B. F. Lomov, V. F. Venda). N. T.
Prikhod'ko introduces a fourth unit into the ergonomic system--the collective.
Benevolenskaya believes the ergonomic system to consist of four units: "man--
machine--environment--object of labor," or even five: "man--machine--object of
labor--environment--persons involved with the system besides the operator or present
within the machine's zone of action."
The correct answer to the question as to the content of an ergonomic system may be
found by considering the history of the ergonomic system itself.
Considering the developmental stages which the mutual relationships between man and
_ technology have undergone, we may presume that the content of the ergonomic system
would never be established once and for all, but rather that it would change in
keeping with the stages of development of the mutual relationships between man and
technology. For a million years of man's existence these mutual relationships
were limited to orily two units--man and simple implements of labor--that is, the
scraper, the axe and the spear. In this "man-tool" ergonomic system the working
conditions were predetermined by the natural conditions of the habitat, and they
did not depend on the quality of the tools. But even at this stage the nature of
man's mutual relationships with tools depended in some respects on the properties of
the object of labor--that is, on what the particular tool was applied to. Even at
this stage the heaviness of the tool and the power generated by the individual de-
pended on the sort of tree that had to be chopped down with the axe, the sort of
soil that had to be worked with the primitive wooden plow, and so on. Therefore it
would be more proper to include man, the implement of labor and the object of labor
within the content of the ergonomic system in this early stage.
Benevolenskaya justifies the need for including the object of labor within the
= ergonomic system under modern coriditions in the following way: The object of labor--
that which we refer to as worked articles and earth,transported cargoes and so on--
significantly influences the intensity and nature of factors arising in work with
a;nachine, and in a number of cases it may itself be a source of these factors. As
an example the properties of a block being riveted (the object of labor) may change
- the vibration level at the grip of a riveting hamcr+er by 20 db. When coal in a seam
is moistened, the amount of pressure a worker must maintain on a pneumatic drill
decreases by 5-7 kg. Higher firmness of coal means not only an increase in the vi-
bration levels and the pressure that must be applied, but also longer exposure to
vibration and noise and a higher physical load. While a person working softer coal
introduces the tip of his drill into it for a period of 3-4 seconds and then rests
for 1-2 seconds, a person working with firmer coal alternates such 1-2 second rests
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- with a drill working time of 15-20 seconds, which dramatically alters the structure
of the operator's working time. Consequently when we subject machines to ergonomic
evaluation, we must consider what the objcct of labor-does to change the character-
istics of the machine, and possibly to injure the operator.
' Following creation of the metal smelting furnace, which was the source of high
temperature, radiant heat, various sorts of gases and dust, besides man, the imple-
ments of labor and the object of labor, the ergonomic system came to include the
"environment" as well--that is, the sum total of the conditions which are created ry
the system's operation and which may enter into interaction with its links, and
mainly man.
In later stages of the mutual relationships between ma.n and technology, the surround-
ing environment became the most important link of the ergonomic system. Regulating
the state of the environment, as an inherent part of the ergonomic system, became a
tremendously significant problem. Much significance was attached in such regulation
to setting hygienic standards--that is, the permissible levels of environmental
conditions, and to developing measures that would keep these levels within the
standards.
Benevolenskaya explains inclusion of a fifth term in the ergonomic system--persons
drawn into the system or present within its working zone--in the following way:
"Persons drawn into the system indicated above but not connected with the control,
use or maintenance of the machine represent a special group in this system. 7.'his
group is divided into four levels: machine-microcollective, machine-macrocollective,
machine-region, machine-population, at each of which unique mutual relationships,
associations and tasks exist. As a ruie the number of persons involved in this way
significantly exceeds the number of operators. Research has shown that a special
danger arises at the first level, where persons drawn into the system may be sub-
_ jected to more-intense influence from 'machine factors' than the operator, receiving
no compensation for the possible deterioration of health." We can agree completely
with Benevolenskaya's ideas. Let us illustrate this with some examples. Weavers
and spinners are assigned to specific looms and spinning machines in modern weaving
and spinning shops. Besides the weavers and spinners, all other workers of the
shop--foremen, auxiliary workers, strippers, loaders, removers--are exposed to loom
and machine factors (noise, vibration). This happens because the looms and spinning
machines, being firmly cemented to the shop floor, form a single oscillating and
= resonating system together with it. And while a weaver or a spinner experiences
vibration due to direct contact with the parts of the loom or machine, all of the
other shop personnel experience vibration due to contact with the floor. In chemi-
cal industry en*_erprises, all leaks in the joints of equipment, being sources of
- contaminants that spread through the air of the entire shop, also influence all of
the shop personnel, and not just the opeators; in cases where these contaminants are
discharged by the shop's stack into the atmosphere, the surrounding population is
affected as well.
Thus we arrive at the conclusion that the ergonomic system is a complex concept.
It includes man, machine, object of labor, surrounding environment, and persons
drawn into the system. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the ergonomic system as defined
by Benevolenskaya.
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Key:
~
(C(2
(F>,Y~~~~ / >N
/ U3 Y
ineNC I usiN`,
ie r.na3 awu+n >
c: Iliuu~n~~ /
~CMCIl:MUII/
/

4)
Figure 1. Associations.in a"Man--Machine--Object of Labor--Environment"
System ,
1.
Environment
4.
Object of labor
2.
Man (operator)
5.
Persons within machine's working zone
3.
Machine, machines
6.
Effects not associated with this system
When the content of the ergonomic system is defined in this way, it is very important
to correctly classify the associations within this system. Such classification is
necessary so that we could understand the internal organization of the system, deter-
mine its vulnerable links and predict its behavior in different operating conditions.
In keeping with the content of the ergonomic system, three main characteristics
should be laid at the basis of this classification: the operator's associations
with the machine and the object of labor, and his interaction with the working condi-
tions.
When we study the operator's associations with the machine, we must keep in mind that
these associations are maintained primarily through .informational interaction between
the operator and the machine. In this case, infor:national interaction itself accounts
for the particular features of the input functions upon which transmission of infor-
mation to the human senses depends, for the particular features of the control func-
tions performed by the central nervous system and dependent upon its state, and for
the particular features of the output functions, which in most cases are realized
by means of man's sensomotor organs and muscular system and ahich also depend on
the.ir functional state. Jan Rosner distinguishes three stages of informational interaction.
1. Perception of information either by direct observation of the production process�
or by observation of the readings of monitoring and measuring instruments reflecting
the parameters of the production process. Perception is achieved by means of sense
organs, which transmit obtained information to the individual's central nervous system.
This phase of the labor process (perception of information and its transmission to
the central nervous system) is within the sphere of action of physiological and
psychological laws.
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_ 2. Processing (transformation) of the obtained information occurs in the central
nervous system and leads to adoption of a particular decision. Little is known yet
about the decision making mechanism. Not only the information entering from without
_ (from the machine, from the environment) but also internal information influences the
nature of the decision, its correctness and the swiftness with which it is adopted.
Internal information comes from the memory, which stores information and instructions
received previously. In addition to information contained in the ind.ividual's memary,
intuition, which influences decision making, also plays a great role:.
"Stress" situations, or states of nervous tension that reflect the body's reaction to
injury and shock, and psychological difficulties such as fear, a state of intense
arousa:L and so on, play a role in inforntation processing and decision making.
3. Thi~ last stage of the labor process is transmission of the adopted decision to
operat~.ng organs and implementation of this decision. This last stage is called con-
trol, and in a"man-machine" system it is achieved by exerting an influence on the
machine's controls with the purpose of making the necessar.y changes in the process
occurring within the system. In this case the output is represented by man's opera-
ting orgEtns, and the input is represented by the machine's controls.
Thus perception, decision making and implementation of the decision form a closed
structure of interaction between man and machine in the ergonomic 5ystem. Interaction
between these two basic elements of the system--machine and man--essentially consists
of information transmission and control on the basis of the feedback principle.
In addition to informational interaction between operator and machine, there are
other types of interaction characterized by the working posture of the operator
servicing the machine, the effort expended and the speed, trajectory and quantity of
movements required, as will be discussed in detail below.
A classification of intrasystemic associations must also include the associations
between the operator and the object of labor and the associations between persons
drawn into the system, and especially the conditions created within the system.
As far as associations between the operator and the object of labor are concerned,
they are achieved through the machine, and they basically 'have an influence on the
degree to-which informational interaction is expressEtd or on the hardness and intensity
of the work of the operators.
Before we can classify intrasystemic associations subjectively, we must analyze them
correctly. Such analysis begi.ns with description of the system and subsequent appli-
cation of hygienic, phsyiological, psychological and special ergonomic methods of
analysis. 2'his will be discussed in greater detail in the course of the material's
presentation.
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II. METHODS OF STUDYING AN. TFtGONOMIC SYSTEM
_ As follows fram our analysis of the content of an ergonomic system and the classifi-
cation of intrasystemic associations, the methods of ergonomic analysis must be
_ aimed at establishing how man is influenced by the factors arising within the
" ergonomic system, such that recommendations aimed at optimizing man's position in
the system could be de veloped. Specifically, the analysis methods must be aimed at:
studying the working conditions and revealing the design shortcomings of the produc-
tiun equipment that worsen the working conditions, such that by their elimination
- the working conditions could be improved; evaluating workplace organization from the
standpoint of ensuring a normal work posture and permissible speeds, trajectories and
quantities of movements and efforts necessary to service the production equipment;
studyii?g informational interaction between the operator and machine.
2'hus the methods of s tudying ergonomic sys::ems include hygienic methods concerned
with the working conditions, physiological methods used to study physiological state,
anthropometric methods to determine the body's anatomical dimensions and special
ergonomic methods to study the design features of serviced equipment.
Hygienic methods used in ergonomics are essentially the same used in conventional
hygienic research.
Physiological methods, which are used to study physiological state, are also the same
ones employed in research on labor physiology,, the one difference being that in
ergonomic research, more attention must be devoted to ~,rocedures for evaluating the
state of the motor apparatus, the nervous system and the sense organs. In this
conilection hy;ienic and physiological methods will not be described in this section.
Anthropometric Methods of Analysis
Special instruments are used with anthropometric methods of analysis--Martin�s
anthropometer and an angle gage. Many tables of anthropometric data axe available.
They contain more than 300 different indicators pertaining to different ar.atomical
~ dimensions of the human body. In practical ergonomic research, however, only a small
part of the existing anthropometric data are used to evaluate the correspondence of
workplace dimensions and working instruments to the dimensions of the human body.
Standard 22315 was proposed in the GDR for this purpose. It includes 12 anthropo-
metric indicators, namely body height, shoulder height, thigh length, knee height,
thigh height, upper arm length, forearm length, width at the shoulders, seated body
height, seated eye level, seated shoulder height and standing eye level.
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rvn Vrri%.iMi, vzr, voua.r
Having critically evaluated this standard, the ergonomics laboratory of the USSR
Academy of Medical Sciences Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases
developed its own proposais for a standard on anthropometric indicators used in
ergonomics. Z"hese proposals are represented in tables 1-3 and in figures 2 and 3.
Table 1. Anthropometric
Dimensions
Used in Ergonomics,
in Centimeters
USSR
GDR
Measured
Men
Women Men
Women
Posture Dimensions
NLc7
NL6 M
M Use in Ergonomics
Standing Body length
167.8�5.8
156.7�5.7 171.5
159.8 To determine tool
(height)
height for work
while standing,
and the height of
the work space
Body length
213.8�8.4
198. L+7.6 -
- To determine verti-
with up-
�
cal reach with the
stretched
purpose of locating
arm
controls
Deltoid
44.6�2.2
41.8�2.4 -
- To determine work-
shoulder
place dimensions
width
Length of
64.2�3.3
59.3�3.1 -
- To determine forward
arnl
re ach
stretched
forward*
Length of
arm
stretched
to the
side*
Shoulder
length
62.2�3.3 56.8�3.0
of
32.7�1.7 30.2�1.6 35.5 32.7 To determine height
of controls and
height of work
surface
Leg length
90.1�4.3 83.5�4.1 92.8
85.8
"
Thigh
- - 44.4
43.0
"
length
'
Standing
155.9�5.8 145.8�5.5 159.8
149.1
To determine height
eye level
.
of work surface
and location of
displays, and the
field of view
Shoulder
137.3�5.5 128.1�5.2 141.7
132.1
To determine height
point
of work surface
height
'
and height of con-
trols
*With hand clenched into a fist (grasping position).
20
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Palm point
height
Sitting Body length
Height of
eyes above
floor
Height of
shoulder
above floor
Height of
elbow above
floor
Knee height
Body length
above seat
51.8 3.5 48.3 3.6 -
130.9 4.3 121.1 4.5 -
118.0 4.3 109.5 4.2 -
100.8 4.2 92.9 4.1 -
65.4 3.3 605. 3.5 -
- To det: rmine
grasping zone
- For machine oper-
ation and other
jobs, selection
of cab height in
machines, combines,
tractors, etc.
- To determine height
of work surface
and locations of
warning signals
and displays
- To determine height
of work surface
and lever control
zone
Height of
eyes above
seat
Height of
shoulder
above seat
Height of
elbow
above seat
Length of
forearm*
50.6
2.4
46.7 2.4
-
-
To determine height
of work chair
88.7
3.1
84.1
3.0
88.4
84.3
To determine height
of machine tools,
controls, dis-
plays
76.9
3.0
72.5
2.8
772.
73.6
To locate controls
and displays, to
determine height
of work surface
58.6
2.7
56.0
2.7
59.1
56.6
To locate control.s,
to determine height
of woric surface
23.2
2.5
23.5
2.5
-
-
To locate elbow
rests, to deter-
mine workplace
height
36.4
2.0
33.4
1.8
35.5
32.0
To determine for-
ward reach and
workplace dimen-
sions
1
Length of 104.2 4.8 98.3 4.7 - - To locate manua
outstretch- controls
ed arm
Thigh length 59.0 2.7 56.8 2.8 - - To determine seat
dimensions
*With hand clenched into a fist (grasping position).
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Table 2. Basic Dimensions of Human Harid
a)
I107MCp, CM
(2)
Tu
11:1 I
tilic. s
"
1101160nbuwn(3)
1(42i)CnIIIIn
I(5) 11nil+enmun,n
q
2(1
18.5
17

9
8,2
7,fi
l1
12,1
11,2
9,9
7,8
7,3
6,8
: l
. 7,3
(i,G
5,8
12,1
11.2
9'9
Note: When protective gloves are worn, the width
and thickness of the hand are increased by 1-1.5 cm.
Key:
l. Points on Figure 3 4. Average
2. Dimension, cm 5. Least
3. Greatest
Table 3. Basic Dimensions of the Human Head
P03N!{1, CM
Tovntt us
pHC. 3
~3~unn6onbumil
k
t~)cpcAnutl
-
(5)enaMem:uitfi
A
23,3
21,8
18,5
I'i
16,5
14,8
13,1
l;
20.2
18,8
1 ti,8
I'
- -
11.2

Il
1:4 'q
12
9,7
I I
13
I(),8
8,2
K
6,5 --G,8

JI
7,6
G,:I
4,9
DI
- -
I'l,5

11
13,4
I i"l
lU
Key:
1. Points on Figure 3
2. Dimension, cm
3. Greatest
4. Average
5. Least
22 '
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n~
is I
I
Figure 2. Human Body Dimensions Needed in Ergonomics (See Table 1)
~ G - - Il
i
` -7-

~
' rut 1� ~ ali, Q - ' ~ .
i-
-
~
,
- i.
- n - - - - o--.~
124 n -
i ; _

~~,1 ` o ~ ~ ~ . �
' glove ~ 1~ - i -
I ~
Figure 3. Basic Dimensions of the Head and Hand (See Tables 2 and 3)
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~ r'uK 0H1-11LIAt, uaE uNLtr
As we can see from these data, use of
six for the hands and 10 for t.he head
- seen for the purposes of ergonomics.
for the torso are stated in Table 1.
28 anthropometric indicators for the torso,
(44 anthropometric indicators in all) is fore-
Concrete uses of each anthropometric indicator
_ Every anthropometric characteristic is known to be a random variable having a normal
- distribution represented by the gaussian curve. Knowing the probability distribution
and the average of a characteristic (M) and the standard deviAtion (Q), we can deter-
mine the percentage of people for whom that anthropometric characteristic fits
within in a given interval.
For example 99.7 percent of all characteristics having a normal distribution, or to
put the same thing in another way, 99.7 percent of all people fall within the
NL 3Q interval. The following relationships are valid for a normal distribution:
The interval NL 26 corresponds to 95%
" NL1.656 " 90%
- " NL1.156 " 75%
It M�la " 68%
" M�0.676 " 50%
" NL0.32cy " 25%
- Using these data, in each case we could calculate the percentage of people having
dimensions in keeping wiih a particular structure (a seat, a cab, a console, etc.).
The methods of special ergonomic analysis may be subdivided into different forms
depending on their purpose. It should be kept in mind, however, that special ergo-
nomic methods of analysis are still in their developmental stage. The greatest diffi-
_ culties lie in evaluating the workplaces of machines such as tractors and combines,
and cabs housing control consoles. The difficulties encountered here by ergonomists
will be discussed below.
The dimensions of equipment are given as metric and angular measurements to permit
assessment of their correspondence with the anatomical dimensions of the human body.
This is easily done for a simple office desk or chair. However, ergonomics has yet
to scientifically siabstantiate the choice of inethods for determining the linear and
angular parameters pertaining to the location of controls and the work seat, and the
dimensions and shape of levers, pedals and so on, for example in tractar cabs.
Methods of Determining the Quantity of Nbvements, Their Speeds and Trajec*_ories
There are considerable difficulties in evaluating the speeds, trajectories and
nvmbers of movements made by the arms or legs when servicing a particular piece of
production equipment. What we use here are tensometric (recording force and time
characteristics) and potentiometric sensors (recording' biomechanical parameters and
movements of controls), requiring employment of special amplifi_ers and recorders.
We can describe as an example a system for mechanical time-and-motion studies pro-
posed by P. I. Gumener. It uses a rheostat sensor, contained within a bridge circuit,
and a recorder (Figure 4A). The sensor consists of a variable resistor (470 ohms)
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one strip secured to its shaft and another to the main body of the resistor. One of
the sensor strips, along which wires are secured, is fastened to the operator's
shoulder, and the other is fastened to the forearm in such a way that the shaft of
the variable resistor would be in line witn the axis of the elbow joint (Figure 4B).
Three multistranded conductors are braided into a single cable 2�meters long having
a plug at its end. When the operator must be disconnected from the instrument for a
short period of time, rather than removing the sensor the operator need only remove
the plug from its socket. This is especially convenient when we study not all of an
operator's work but only individual moments of it. The conductors leading from the
sensor to the recording instrument may be of any length (20-30 meters and more). A
recording N-370 or N-375 ampere voltmeter is used as the recording instrument. This
instrument is simple, and it may be assembled in the laboratory.from readily avail-
- able components. Figure 5 shows an example of recordings made of different work
operations.
V I
I I x-
~ I
, _ 4 R:i
~ ~-w- I - - m A --o (Z Z
I I
I ~ a_~
I L~-
I-- - - -
D
13
vz
A
Figure 4. Circuit of an Instrumen'. Used for
Mechanical Time-and-Motion Studies:
A: R1--variable resistor (470 ohms)
of the mechanographic sensor; R2--
variable resistor (470 ohms) used to
balance the bridge; R3--variable re-
sistor used to set nominal voltage;
B--battery, mA--N-370 AM recording
milliampere voltmeter; D--mechano-
graphic sensor; V1, V2--voltmeter
terminals; B: position of sensor
for recording movement mechanograms
- Wli(:n necessary, a multichannel system for group mechanical time-and-:notion studies
may casily bu assembled from such single-channel systems. Such a system (Figure 6)
cari be used to simultaneously study several opeXators or record the work of several
joints. A multichannel system consists of 8-14 rheostat sensors and an N-102 or
N-700 loop osciloyrapYi, which can be connected to terminals I-II, III and so on
- (see Figure 6). An exampie of a recordinq made during a group mechanical time-and-
= motion study is shown in Figure 7. '2n this variant of the instrument the
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~ u
- ki Mv
a
.
b
C
d
c
e'
f e
Figure 5. Mechanical Time-and-Motion Study of Work Operations in a
Mechanic's Shop (I) and a Carpentry Shop (II) : I--principal
operations: a--filing; b,e--cutting; d--working tin with a
mallet; auxiliary operations; e--tightening a vice; f--
- taking measurements. II--principal operations: a--planing;
b--sawing; c--filing; auxiliary opexations: d--sandpapering;
- e--taking measurements
mechanochronograms must be processed by hand. However, Gumener also descri.bed an
- instrument ir.tended for automatic mechanochronogram recording (1967).
A tensomyographic method for determining muscle tension when working with various
controls, developed by V. I. Golovan' (1972), can be used successfully to record the
movements of joints and to keep track of muscles performing a movement. In this
method muscle tension accompanying a natural work process is recorded by tensoresistor
sensors securAd to the subject's skin over the target muscles with adhesive strips.
The sensors are secured firmly enough so that they would not slip over the surface
af the skin, but not so firmly that they would constrain the joint's movement or
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[
~ r
,
Figure 6. Diagram of the "GM-1" Instrument for Group Mechanical Time-
Time-and-Motion Studies
~
;
c t~vvWlivv~''u',
e
i
,Figure 7. Group Mechanical Time-and-Motion Study: a--metal cutting;
b--chopping; c--sawing wood; d--planing; e--measuring parts
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disturb circulation in the musc].e. A light cable up to 25 meters long with a plug
at its end is secured to the subject's belt to permit free movement around the machine.
A TA-5 amplifier is used to amplify the electric signal picked up from the strain
gages. Change in voltage picked up by the strain gages is recorded by a multiCOmpo-
nent K-12-21 oscillograph, which is a general-purpose electromagnetic instrument
capable of optical recording on photographic tape. The tensomyographic method 'Zan
be used to obtain data characterizing the tension of different muscle groups and
the extent of their participation in work movements, the quantity of the work done,
the rhythm of movements and the dynamics uf fatigue development.
_ Researchers making biomechanical observations on an individual in the course of
ergonomic research often need to know the number of arm movements. N. A. Kokhanova
and G. I. Barkhash (1972) used an ordinary pedometer for this purpose. As we know,
pedometers are used to count the number of steps an individual takes. They record
vertical jolts occurring while walking. Kokhanova and Barkhash adapted pedometers
to record the number of arm movements in both the vertical and horizontal directions.
To record horizontal movements, the pedometer's spring was removed from its post
(Figure 8Aa), as a result of whicn its weight (Figure 8Ab) could make a horizontal
movement which would actuate a counter. Two pedometers are fastened to thz individual
when the distal division of the right and left forearms must be studied. One of them
is located on the backside of the forearm, and it records horizontal movements,
while the other is fastened perpendicularly to the first in order to record vertical
arm movement. To make it easier to secure the pedometers to the arms, they are in-
serted into a special holder with their reset knobs facing each other (Figure 8B).
'I'he authors used this method to record the number of arm movements made by two groups
of grinders performing circular and slot grinding. The research showed that in
circular grinding, the number of vertical movements made by both arms during a shift
averaged 6,260 and the number of horizontal movements averaged 6,058, while with
slot grinding the number of vertical movements averaged 4,063 and horizontal move-
ments averaged 5,110. The temporal dynamics of these data are shown in Figure 8C.
The results provide additional objective information on the activity of the human motor
apparatus during work in the course of a shift..
Cyclography*
Cyclography permits a more-accur.ate biomechanical evaluation of the movements of "
different body joints in ergonomic research. Cyclography affords a possibility for
determining all of the main biomechanical indicators of joint movement--trajectory,
speed, acceleration and muscle force. ,
The cyclographic method essentially entails registration of point images of the move-
ment trajectory. For this purpose lamps (from a pocket flashlight) are secured to the
points of the body to be analyzed. The light of these lamgs is periodically interrupt-
ed by a special device--an obturator. When motion picture photography is employed,
successively taken frames assume the obturation function.
Rubber straps with sockets are the most convenient for securing the lamps to the
subject's body (Figure 9). Lamps are located above the centers of the joints between
*This description is borrowed from the book "Praktikum po fiziologii truda" [Hand-
- book on Labor Physiology] (K. S. Tochilov, Editor), Izd-vo LGU, 1970.
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. C..

r i~n
4 411
It IU I'J 14 IG IH?U
~
4 40 I{p~�MU 1~4t1
I~ h11
fl 11~1 /
111 I1111
Figure 12. Parametric Graph of the First Differences and Speeds in Relation
to Component y (A). Parametric Graph of Second Differences
-uidAccelerations in Relation to Component y(B)
Key:
1. Meters/sec
2. Time, 1/40 sec
6. Calculate the speeds in relation to components x and y. For this purpose find
the differences between the coordinates o.f the points (the so-called first differ-
ences--A'). The first differences are calculated for an interval of four points--
that is, the coordinate of point 0 is subtracted from the coordinate of point 4,
and the result is written, together with its sign, opposite the coordinate of point 2;
next the data ior point 1 are subtracted from the coordinate of point 5, and this
result is written opposite point 3, and so on until completion. In this case it
would be convenient to use a template (see Figure 12A). The data are entered into
a table, and then on a graph of the first differences in relation to the movement
component (x and y).
The first differences (A') are converted to soeed in relation to, for example,
component y (Vy ) using the following formula:
v A'1 )i)o m/sec,
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where P, --interval betwec:n poiit coordinates (4 in our case) ; y--number of points
in 1 sec (40 in our case); 1,000--for conversion of millimeters into meters.
Example: If the first difference (A?) is 20 mm, then the speed
in relation to movement component y at the given moment would be:
,10
1/y ' q2x IIHH) 0,2 m/sec.
Similar caZculations are made for component x, and the results are graphed.
The speeds need not be calculated for each point of a trajectory. It would be suffi-
cient to apply, to the graph of first differences, an additional scale of speed values
at the intervals calculated by the formula and corresponding to the values of the
first differences.
7. Calculate accelerations. Acceleration (W) --that is, the rate of change of
movement speed--may be interpreted as the speed of change in speed. Therefore every-
thing said about speeds may be applie.i to acceleration, in which case we introduce
the coricept of second differences (Al') on analogy with the concept of first differ-
ences.
The first differences are the raw data used to calculate the second differences.
The second differences are also calculated for every fourth point, though on the
basis of the first differences and not the photographic measuring template. The
obtained values are entered into the table.
Second differences are converted to acceleration values (W) using the following
formula:
f V - !Ky 1, m/sec2.
y 51X Itl()1
A graph of the second differences (Figure 12B) is set up similarly as the graph of
first differences, and an additional scale for the acceleration values calculated
with the formula is applied on it (in m/sec2). '
This ends the kinematic description of the movement.
8. Calculate the dynamic characteristics--the muscle power required to surmount
inertia and gravity.
Inertia (F1) is equal to the mass of the segment (m), which is itself equal to the
weight of the segment (gm) divided by gravitational acceleration (981 cm/sec2).
Inertia opposes both components of movement--x and y(forward and upward).
Muscle force (F) is expressed in kilograms. In the case of surmounting gravity,
p X IVy,
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where p--segment weight, kg; [ly--acceleration achieved during movement in relation
- to component y. This formula can be used to calculate forces corresponding to
accelarations. Muscle force to surmount inertia (F1) must be applied to both
movement components--x and y. It also is expressed in kilograms.
Fi = I'i., -I- Fly.
In this case
/`X : : ntWx / y m Ivy,
where m--mass of the segment and rod; Wx and Wy --acceleration achieved duri.ng move-
ment in relation to components x and y.
Thus the total force in relation to component y is equal tothe sum of forces Fp + F1,
while only F1 is applicable to component
We limit. the description of muscle forcz only to movement component y because the
kinematic characteristics of speed and acceleration are also analyzed only in rela-
tion to component y. The absolute values of the variables indicated above are ob-
tained using known formulas. For speed for example, at each point we have
I/ V ~'xz __-Vyr-~ for acceleration we have I% tY/XZ 1- lt!y'~ �
9'. The dynamic r.haracteristic of movement is expressed by the muscle forces applied
to the segment's center of gravity (in our example, to the center of gravity of the
hand and rod). This indicator may be calculated on the basis of cyclographic data
if the movement is opposed only by gravity and inertia (as in the case of lifting the
rod).
Gravity is equal to the weight of the segment, and it is directed vertically downward.
Consequently the muscle force required to surmount it must be applied upward in the
direction of movement component y.
- The technique described above for planar cyclophotography is intended for recording
individual movements, or their phases, out of a series of repeating movements (other-
wise the movements would superimpose over one another). If a successive series of
movements must be analyzed, they would have to be photographed on moving film with a
motion picture camera (naturally, this method can also be used to record individual
movements or their phases). With motion picture photography, the number of frames
taken per second must be known. The photographic measuring template is obtained by
plotting successive points of the trajectory of movement on graph paper,
Yrojecting tYie film frame by frame onto the exact same place on the graph paper.
This work must be done with special care so that subsequent calculations would come
out correctly.
The advantage of motion picture photography is that in addition to permitting micro-
ar:alysis of movements, a possibility is created for observing the progress of a move-
ment in slow motion (using a high frame frequency), which is especially important to
studying work procedures.
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Using Motion Picture Photography to Study Movements
Motion picture photography is used in labor research to detextnine the time of indi-
vidual procedures and work movementsand to evaluate the efficiency of work movements,
procedures and postures. The duration of individual procedures is determined from
tlie number of frames on the movie film. If the work procedure is represented on
240 frames and the shooting speed is 24 frames per second, the duration of the proce-
dure can be determined by calculation:
Procedure duration = Number offrames for procedure _ 240 _ 10 sec.
Filming Speed 24
To evaluate the efficieiicy of work procedures and postures we lay a sheet of graph
paper over the screen of an editing table, and the starting positions of both hands
are marked on the paper. Then the film is advanced two or three frames, the new
position of the hands is marked, and so on. The direction of movements and pauses
- in them are indicated concurrently. After the procedure is recorded in this way,
~ the points representing movement of the hands are joined together: a broken line for
the left hand and a continuous line for the right. Thus we obtain a cyclogram of
the movements. Following this we use a curvimeter to measure the relative length
of the movement paths. Figure 13 shows a cyclogram of two spinners, one less ex-
nerienced (Figure 13A) and one more experienced (Figure 13B). A curvimeter would
show that the lenath of the movement path of the less experienced spinner mending a
broken thread is 130 percent of the path length of the more experienced spinner.
Correspondingly the mending time is 13.1 percent longer for the less experienced than
the more experienced spinner.

~
i
i

~
~
A t> .
Figure 13. Cyclogram of the Hand Movements of a Less Experienced (A) and
- More Experienced (B) Spinner Mending a Broken Thread: Continuous
].ine--movement of the right hand; broken line--left hand
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- In this way, we can also casily determine the effectiveness of teaching the best
work procedures. Thus after being taught efficient procedures, the path lenqth of
the hand movements of a furrier decreased from 6 to 4.5 meters.
Because movie film can be viewed more than once, we can study and make work procedures
and hand movements more efficient; by viewing a motion picture film, we can reveal
and pin down unnecessary, extra procedures and movements, and thus get r:.d of them.
S. Zhunda, the author of this modification of the me thod, believes that by using an
intermittently switched-on movie camera we can also apply the "instantaneous obser-
vation" method. ,
Measurement of Forces
Measurement of the forces exerted by an operator while he is servicing equipment is
often a necessity in ergonomic research. However, the methods of taking these
measurements are still unsophisticated. '1"he importance and need of such research
- stem both from the fact that physiological research has indicated a direct dependence
between the amount of muscle force applied during work and functional changes in the
body, and the fact that a measure of the forces required for control of equipment
may serve as a basis for developing recommendations on their limitation. Of interest
in this connection is a method for recording forces applied to production equipment
developed by M. M. Speranskiy (1972). It entails recording the amount of force
applied (by the palm and fingers) during the use of a control lever using several
flat miniature sensors secured to the palm side of a special glove (Figure 14). In
this case the object to which the force is applied may vary--the handle of a hand
tool, a control, an article being worked, an article of athletic gear and so on.
The sensitive eleznent of the sensor consists of conductive rubber possessing the
property of being able to decrease its resistance when compressed in volume. In
- this connection the sensor is designed in such a way that the tensometric element
would be compressed by a force perpendicular to the surface of the sensor. Changes
in the resistance of sensors joined together into bridge circuits elicit voltage
changes in the latter which are amplified by a dire ct current multichannel transis-
torized amplifier and recorded by a high-speed multichannel recorder. 7.'he sensor's
design protects the recording system from artifacts that may arise due to movement
- of the hand and fingers. Within a certain range, the voltage (current) at the
amplifier output grows in proportion to the force applied to the sensor. The
resulting dynainograms are subjected to quantitative evaluation (in kg) on the basis
of the calibration of the recording system.
'I'his method can also be used successfully to evaluate the quality of seats. The
quality of a seat depends on how uniformly pressure is distributed over the surface
of the gluteus muscles. The nature of this pressure's distribution can be determined
by distributing a large quantity of Speranskiy sensometric sensors over the surface
of the seat and subsequently recording the pressure applied to different parts of
the seat surface. The shape of the seat surface may be altered in correspondence
with this pressure distribution, so as to achieve more-uniform distribution of
loads on different surfaces of the gluteus muscle s.
In a number of cases conventional dynamometers can be used to determine the forces
exerted on used equipment. Thus for example, dynamometers are used successfully
to evaluate forces applied when manipulating control sticks, steering wheels and
so on; a particular example is the spring dynamometer used by the State Motor Vehicle
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FnR OFHI('IAL USF. ONI.Y
- ~
s
p � �
�
~U � `
4- \ ~ � \
~ � ~ \ ~ O
\ �
_ ~ a �
.._.i .
Figure 14. Distribution of Tensometric Sensors Over the Surface of
the Palm in M..M. Speranskiy's Method
Inspection to measure the force necessary to turn the steering wheel of a motor
vehicle. This spring dynamometer is secured to the rim of the steering wheel. The
force generated when turning the wheel is shown on a scale marked on bushings on
which the dynamometer rests. Preserace of two springs permits measurement of forces
in ranges from 0.9 to 2 and from 2 to 10 kg.
Yu. G. Shirokav and V. P. Silant'yev proposed a method for quantitative evaluation
of loads experienced by the hands. They designed a tensometric device that could
differentiate the points of application of forces, in kg, reveal the loads with
regard to the time of their action upon the muscle (indicator I, equal to the product
of force P, kg and the time of its action t: I= PXt kg�sec) and evaluate tYte loads
simultaneously experienced by many muscle groups of the arm.
By determining indicator I, kg�sec, we can describe the loads both on individual
muscles of the hand and on entire muscle groups during work.
Figure 15A shows a diagram of the device used to conduct myotensometric research.
This method is based on measuring forces by means of tensometric converters--tenso-
me te rs .
The device consists of a sensitive element--a glove (Figure 15B), to which thin
metallic plates with o_lued-on tensometric resistors are secured within tha zone of
- the muscles to be analyzed.
The leads of all of the tensometers are located on the back sicte of the glove, and
they are connected by a long cable and plug connection to a bridge block, in which
each tensometer is the leg of a correspondi_ng bridge.
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C1) (l)
ilia- ~~iniai (l~~ra-19iritai
1 iuH o , iiHtl- 3,4 ne ,2U
12 2 1
- - - i
( I
~ I
L---
WP25E M1 N92 Ns~10
(3)
q it ~taT`M1SaM
. (4)
B
- Figure 15. Tensometric Sensor Connection Circuit: A--bridge block;
B--tensometric glove; 1-10--tensometric sensors
Key:
1. Power 3. ShR25
2. Signal 4. To sensors
Type PKB sensors without hysteresis and with resistance R depending insignificantly
on temperature t, �C, may be used.
'Phe essence of the method is as follows: As a result of forces experienced by
different regions of the hand in the course of physical work, electric bridge un-
balance signals are fed separately to the inputs of a direct current multichannel
amplifier--a UPT, from the output of which the signals are fed to a recording block
- (a cat}xode-ray oscillograph or recorder).
Before recording begins, a special device is used to "calibrate" the sensometers
which are subjected to a previously'known force PeaZ kg�
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The analysis of the myotensogram may be both qualitative and quantitative.
- Tabular Method for Evaluating Workplace Organization
Among the methods for evaluating the organization of workplaces at which production
equipment is serviced, tabular analysis of the correctness with which handles,
buttons and other fixtures are located on a control console has great significance.
The chief problem usually solved by the method of tabular analysis is that of clari-
fying when and in what sequence the operator manipulates different controls. In
other words it is used to deternnine the number and sequence of the operator's con-
tacts with different controls. In this method, controls are coded by means af
certain symbols, and these symbols are entered across the tap and down the left
- column of a table (Table 4). Then the work of an operator is observed, in the course
of which all of the operator's contacts with the controls are recorded in
succession. After the observations are all made, the total number of the operator's
coiitacts with different controls and the sequence of these contacts are
determined at the bottom of the table.
Table 4. 7'able of Contacts
` . Opranw ynpann- enui)
IA I11 ~ C! IJ ~L I,: I G [I[ I I I J I K 1 1.
n - s 4 2 io 9 s- 7 s
_ ll 3-- 1 'l - 5- 7- 14 10 -
4 I - 4 20 12 - 15 3 4- 15
U 2 2 4- 7 lfi - 10 - 5 9-
I: 10 20 7 - 7 6 17 21 10 12 -
. r 9 5 12 IG 7- 8- 13 20
G 8 - 6 8 - 3 8 20 9
11 - 7 15 lU 17 - 3-- - 18 4 -
I 7- 3 21 13 $ S
J - 14 4 5 10 - 20 18 5--- -
K - lU - 9 12 - 9 a - - -
3 - 15 - - 20 - - - - -
(2flncno
CDA3Cfi 96 42 78 55 110 90 62 74 57 76 44 38
Key:
1. Controls
2. Number of contacts
We can see from tY2e example of tabular analysis shown in Table 4 that the operator
made the largest number of contacts with the control with the code letter E. In
Lorms of their sequence, they are usually combined into successive control manipu-
lations--[,I, L�'C and so on. Hence we can conclude that control E must be located
in tlie most optimum zone, and the controls which the operator manipulates most fre-
N. VIVLY
.
N-4
Fiqure 20. Location of a Person and Equipment Undergoing Testing to
Determine Basic Permissible Conditions: 1--pneumatic
drill; 2--pressure gage recording applied pressure;
- 3--measuring platform; 4--pressure gage recording
- compressed air pressure; 5--compressed air pressure
regulator; 6--friction absorber; 7--tool simulator;
8--contact ring
The biomechanical conditions of maintaining an asymmetrical posture can be described
by the amount the body's center of gravity is displaced to the right and by the
amount muscle static tension is increased due to inadequate visi.bility. A posture
would be undesirable from the biomechanical standpoint if the spine is tilted in
relation to the horizontal plane (a), if the shoulder girdle and pelvis are tilted
laterally in relation to horizontal, and if compensatory scoliosis of the spine arises
in the cervical and lumbar divisions.
N. P. Benevolenskaya (1972) 'studied pulsed--action mining equipment (rivetinq,
chopping and pneumatic hammers).with testing units at the USSR Academy of Sciences
Institute of Mining (Figure 20).
A mock-up of a grinder was developed at the ergonamics laboratory of the USSR Academy
of Medical Sciences institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases (38). This
mock-up simulates the work of a g.rinder with the purpose of establishing the optimum
- location of the grinder's controls,and the forces exerted by the operator (Figure 21).
Method of Evaluating Informational Interaction.*
The methods of ergonomic evaluation of informational interaction between and operator
and a machine are an important but little-studied area. An operator's work involves
*Described in "Prakti;;um po fiziologii truda" [Handbook of Labor Physiology], edited
by K. S. Tochilov, LGU, 1970. �
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a E G
� ,
Figure 21. A Study Performed to Optimize a Machine Tool Operator's
Work Posture by Changing Locations of the Principal Controls
on a Mock-Up: 1--mock-up: a--existing work posture,
b--improved work posture, c--optimum work posture; 2--electro-
myograph
- recognition of displayed signals; therefore we must know the rate at which his
sense organs, and the visual analyzer in particular, perceive and process information.
The recorded time of a choice reaction to a certain visual stimulus consists of the
time required to receive the information in the visual system, the time to form a
motor reaction in response to the obtained information and the time required for
the signal to travel efferent pathways to acting organs--that is, the measurement
of the choice reaction time does not differentiate between information processing
time in the visual and motor areas. The temporal characteristics of the work of the
visual system itself may be studied by presenting a visual image for a certain length
of time and determining the quantity of information obtained by the observer during
this time. This procedure is what is used in psychophysiology to measure the rate of
visual perception.
A tachistoscopic method can be used to measure the rate of visual perception.
Tachistoscopy is short-term presentation of images. A tachistoscope is an instrument
displaying an image for any desired length of time.
Because man's visual system includes a working memory that retains an image of an
- ob;ect for more than 250 msec following its disappearance from the field of view,
- when images are presented by means of conventional tachistocopes without an attendant
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n
~
(1)
1. /lM Cll
,
. . _
IU Jnu:
~2~ Q/ (3)
Y0
r1a�/j '
..%`xx---xx
~ 5 ~uic
x
?.O x
�
~ 40-00D

~ ~ p 3 p~~c

x �
O
t.i1 ~ x
o
~ �
0/
ou
/6Q
10 'lll Y(1 40 50 liU 70 (lU 90
(4)
B
Figure 22. Diagram Showing Presentation of Test and "Attendant" Images (A):
t--test image exposure time. See text for explanation. Depen-
dence of Average Quantity of Information (I) Received by the
Observer on Image Presentation Time (t) (B)a Sets of three,
five and ten images had to be identified (V. D. Glezer, A. A.
Nevskaya, 1964)
Key:
1. Binary units
2. Binary units/sec
3. Figures
4. Msec
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image, the time allowed for their identification is not really limi-ted. If following
presentation of a given image, called a"test" image, the subject were to be shown
another called an"attendant" image, the first '("test'�) image could be "erased" from
the working memory, thus switching the visual system to solution of a new task. Z'he
exposure time of this image would reflect the time required by the visual system to
process information about it.
S. S. Siklari was the first to propose a method for determining the time required by
the visual system to identify an image. He used television apparatus to present
images. This method was later improved. Then A. A. Nevskaya designed an optical
device permitting smooth change in exposure time from 3 to 700 msec, something the
television apparatus could not do. Observation is monocular in tYLis case. The
Leningrad University laboratory of labor physiology developed a s~:milar binocular
observation device permitting presentation of an iinage for from 6 to 200 msec. The
image is projecte d onto a screen by two general purpose projectors.
A slide is secured in a convergent beam of light directly behind the last lens of the
condenser, near the focal plane of the projector's lens. This sl.ide is projected onto
the screen by the projector lens. At the same point the light be:am is interrupted by
a curtain secured to a relay. When a pulse of one duration or ariother is fed to the
relay the "test" image comes on and the "attendant" image goes o:Ef; after this time
expires the "attendant" image is flashed back on. The exposure time is set by means
of an ELS-1 electrostimulaLOr. The device's principle of operation is shown in
Figure 22A. While the "test" image is being presented the "attendant" image is
shut off, and vice versa. An attachment permitting measurement Df the latent period
(LP) of the combined sensory-speech reaction has been made.
Different sets of images can be presented to an observer for aparticular amount of
time by means of this method. The object of the observer is to determine and name
the presented image. Following this, a formula is used to determine the average
quantity of information obtained by the observer in a given pre:aentation time. When
the presentation time is long, no mistakes are made in identification and the quantit1
of received information corresponds to the quantity given. If time'is short, the
observer is unable to receive all of the necessary information, and he gives wrong
answers.
Here is an example of calculating the average quantity of information received by an
_ observer in an experiment with a test object presentation time of 56 msec. Four
lines of different lengths were presented: 1, 2, 3 and 4 angu].ar degrees. All
images (x) were equiprobable. A table describing the distribution of responses in
relation to the given presentation time was compiled on the basis of the obtained
responses (y) (see below).
The averagc quantity of information recaived by the observer during this presentation
_ time can be calculated using Shannon's formula:
l=1/x-}-lly- //X,yo
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(1) Orncri.t (Y)
(3)
x
-

T~GTI
B"r u
2 3
4
ai1C
1
10
0 0
0
`l
12
2
O
II 0
Q
I
12
- 3
0
0 11
I
U
12
- 4
0
0 0 ,
12
U
12
13ccr0 ...(3)
IU
II 11
13
3
48
Key :
1. Responses 3. Total
2. "Don' t know"
where 1 iC --~1'X I()921'1 --entropy of the probability distribution of the presented
iwges*; lly=---ZI'y I0f;1 1'y --entropy of the probability distribution of the subject's
responses; 1(z,y= -~~~'.,y 10f,lz !'X,y --entropy of the joint probability distribution of
arisal of image x and response y. Because all four images are equiprobable in the
� expe riment,
- !/x Iog;4= 2 binary units (bits)
11
fly ~ I l0g'~ h
8 . . . _f - 48 1092 8) 2,20 bits
' /(x y=-EpX, y 1092 Px, y
IQ ll) 2 2 � 12
lo~,r,, 4g- I- , log~ 49- "I- . . . 7F logz
12 - 2,37 bits
Thus the average quantity of iiiformation in this case would be 2+2. 20-2. 37 = 1.83 bits
per presentation. In other words in 5.6 msec the subject receives only 1.83 bits
- of information out of the signal's total information of 2 bits.
The calctzlations are similar with other presentation times.
- The obtained data are used to plot the dependence of the average quantity of informa-
tion received by the subject on the image presentation time. Figure 22B shows the
results of experiments with different sets of images. 2'he quantity of information
_ tlie human visual system is capable of processing and transmitting in a unit of time
_ *The P log P values needed for the entropy calculations may be taken from the tables
in the book "Veroyatnost' i informatsiya" [Probability and Information] by A. M.
Yaglam and A. I. Yaglom (Moscow, Fizmatgiz, 1960).
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- is its capacity. Channel capacity (C) can be determined by the formula:
C =I .
t
- where I--average quantity of infoz;aation, bits; t--time, in seconds, during which
this information is received. For example we can see from Figure 21B that 2 bits
were obtained in 41 msec; hence C= 4Q bits/sec; or if 2.7 bits are received in 55 msec,
C= 49 bits/sec. The slope of the curve reflects the capacity of the visual system
in binary units per second.
The image identification time and the capacity of the visual system can vary within
certain limits depending on the dimensions of the images presented, differences in the
brightness of the visual field, the thickness of lines on the images and so on.
Therefore depending on the factor under analysis, care must be taken to keep all
experimental conditions as constant as possible.
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III. HYGIENIC CRITERIA OF ERGONOMICS
Physiological Basis of the Biological Action of Factors in the Production Environment
Ons of the most important: objectives of ergonomics is to come up with requirements
. on production equipmerit clesign and workplace organization which, when satisfied,
would ensure optimum liygienic worki.ng conditions in industry. These requirements
are founded on physiological data describing the particular biological effects of
hygienic factors upori the human body, and the hygienic standards based on these
data. Among the problems associated with the biological action of hygienic factors,
the most important include the laws of the body's reactions, reflecting the informa-
tiveness of the operating factors, the laws gover:ing the strength and time of their
influence, the particular dynamics of the body's reactions to the influence of certain
hygienic factors and the laws of the body's adaptation to operating factors on the
basis of information received by functional integration systems. A knowledge of these
- aspects of biological action is what would pernut us to confidently approach evaluation
of production equipment design and workplace organization in industry. Let us succes-
_ sively examine these most general laws of the body's reactions to the influence of
factors in the production environment.
Biological Action of Hygienic.Factors Depending On Their Informativeness
The mutual relationships between living organisms and the environment have great
significance to the vital activities of such self-regulating systems. These mutual
relationships are structured upon perception of effects coming from the environment,
their transformation and coding into nerve impulses, transmission of the latter through
diverse nerve pathways and formation of responding reactions. It is believed in this .
case that environmental effects introduce certain infonnation i.nto the body, the
content of which determines the response. ~ There are presently believec] to be three possible means of information transmission:
transfer of information together with an information carrier, the matrix form of
information transmission and transmission of information via special communication
channels.
All of these information transmission methods are said to occur in living organisms
when they interact with environmental factors. We will see below how these methods
of information transmission manifest themselves in the organism in the course of
formation of responses to the effects of hygienic factors.
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As Shalyutin pointed out (68), if we are to determine the quantity of information con-
tained in a given effect, we must know the quantity of qualities characterizing this
effect, for example the energy it brings with it, its dose, concentration, repetition
- rate, duration etc. These qualities are what determine the modality of the effect.
Next we need to know the number of possible gradations or steps in each quality.
Shannon's fonnula, which accounts for these data and has its origins in information
~ theory, can be used to calculate the amount of information contained in each effect.
~ The formula has the form I= n1092m, where n is the number of qualities possessed by
o an effect, m is the number of gradients of each of its qualities, and log is the base
2 natural log ari-thm.
Effects bearing the same information may also differ in reZetion ta their code--that
is, the relationship between n and M. Thus at n= 3, m= 2 information would equal 3:
I= 310922 = 3. However, at n= 1 and m =8 information would also be equal to 3 units
of infonnation (bits) : I= llog28 = 3.
Using these data and knowing the particular features of a given effect, we can calcu-
late information contained in a given hygienic factor. Thus Shannon's formula allows
us to calculate the quantitative value of information introduced by a particular
effect into the body.
Given the enormous significance of the possibilities for quantitatively accounting for
information using Shannon's formula, it shou].d nevertheless be pointed out that many
features of hygienic factors are ignored when their biological action is evaluated
in this way. Thus for example, when we consider the energy (intensity, dose, concen-
tration) of a given effect, we ignore its possible signaling significance. If the
appropriate conclitional associations are developed, a signal having a negligible
energy level or negligible dose and concentration may elicit an unusually violent
response. In precisely the same way, stress reactions elicited by particular effects
do not adhere to specific energy and intensity (dose, concentration) relationships.
On the other hand purely mathematical representation of information cannot account
for possible changes in formation of responses due to changes in the initial funetional
state of the body, for example changes in attention level, presence of dominants,
tiring and so on. All of this indicates that a purely mathematical approach to
= studying the biological action of hygienic factors without accounting for physio-
logical data cannot ensure a correct understanding of the relationship of a given
effect to a particular response. In this connection we will attempt to demonstrate
_ the dominant role played by the physiological approach to understanding the informa-
tiveness of hygienic factors.
- Much research is presently being carried out on differences in the informativeness
of the continuous and int:rmittent action of many industrial and environmental
factors on the body. An example would be the stable and discontinuous (intermittent)
action of production noise.
Although we know from experience that the intermittent, flickering action of noise,
light, heat and so on is subjectively perceived by man as a stronger and more un-
ploasant influence, scientific research on this problem has not yet led researchers
to any firmly established explanations for this uifference. But at
the same time physiological science possesses a numbe.r of established facts which
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ruK urriLInL unM urvLx
_ allow us to approach, from a scientific standpoint, the question as to why inter-
- mittent action is more informative.
\
We ehould first of all point out the fact that as long ago as in 1843, the well
_ known physiologist E. De Bois-Reymond established in research on the action of direct
current on a nerve that the latter is stimulated not so much by the intensity or the
' power flux density of direct current as'by the rate of their change. In other words
136 years ago Du Bois-Reymond formulated the law of infomativeness of the action
of direct current not as I= kF�t--that is, not as a proportion between the informa-
tiveness of direct current of intensity (F) and the time of its action (t), but rather
in the form I =kdF/dt--that is, as a proportion between the informativeness of the
action of direct current multiplied by the intensity of the operating current, and
the time of its action. We can see from a mathematical standpoint that in the second
case an effect may achieve greater informativeness not only by increasing the intensity
= of action but also by varying the rate of its change in time. Thus the data of Du Bois-
Reymond and mathematicians suggest to us a direction of research in which reliable
ideas on the greater informativeness of intermittentll acting factors may be obtained.
Du Bois-Reymond's law, however, says nothinq about the role played by the frequency
with which certain effects are interrupted in relation to their informativeness.
Nevertheless such data do exist in physiology, among which N. Ye. Vvedenskiy's data
on parabiosis and on the optimum and pessimum levels of stimulation should receive
priority attention. Effects wYiich are interrupted at a frequency lying within opti-
mum limits have -the greatest force of action, and therefo.re the greatest informative-
ness to the organism. This premise is fully valid in relation to effects such as
- constant current and the like--that is, nonoscillating effects. Another criterion
is used by physiologists wishing to evaluate differences in the informativeriess of
oscillatory effects such as, for example, sound and light, operating continuously
and intermittently. This criterion is the critical flicker fusion frequency. We
know that intermittent light ceases to be perceived as flickering light at a flicker
frequency varying within 25-50 light flashes per second, depending on the individual
features of the organism's state. 2'his cr.itical flicker fusion frequency is said
to be an indicator of the lability of the visual analyzer. The critical fusion
frequency for sound is 40-100 interruptions of sound per second, while according
to some other data it is within 90-140 interruptions per second.
It becomes obvious from these data that differences in the informativeness of con-
tinuous and intermittent effects may be discovered by interrupting the factor under
analysis wzthin the limits of its critical flicke.r fusiori frequency, since a stimulus
with a highE:r frequency would be perceived as continuous--that is, as stabie, with
its informativeness equal to that of a continuous effect. Evidence that inter-
mittent action is capable of increasing the informativeness of a factor under analysis
may be fouzd in experiments performed by S. I. Gorshkov and Ye. A. Guseva back in
1932. As had been hypothesized, when a nerve in a neur.omuscular preparation with
its circulation iYitact was stimulated by a frequency of 200 oscillations per second,
the muscle reacted with minimum contraction. However, when this minimum stimulus
was interrupted 20 times per second, during these breaks in stimulation the muscle
reacted with a contraction having an intensity that was, judging from the myogram,
50-100 times greater than in response to the initial stimulus; consider this in light
of the fact that following the interruptions, the frequency of the stimulatory pulses
remained equal to 100 pulses per second--that is, also at the minimum level (Figure 23).
r.
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Figure 23. Results of Stimulating a IJerve in a Neuromuscular Preparation
at a Frequency of 200 Pulses Per Second, and by 20 Pulse
Traiiis Per Second With Five Stimuli in Each Train: Dramatic
intensification of muscle contraction can be seen
Key:
1. 200 in 20 trains
e f
�
n
4
1'iguro 24. irradiation of an Assimilated Rhythm in the Rabbit Brain (EEG
Recorded in the 40th Minute Following the 5tart of Stimulation
of the Right Sciatic Nerve): 1--1 second time marks; 2-3--EEG's
- of the anterofrontal and posterofrontal cortical regions;
4--respiratory center potentials; 5--pneumogram, stimulation
marks
Ptlysi.ological data provide a way for narrowing down the frequency of interruptions
at which the biological action of intermittent stimulation is greater than that of
continuous stimulation. Other features of the central nervous system's reaction
must be considered here, particularly its ability to assimilate a rhythm.
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Assimilation of the rhythm of external effects was first described as a phenomenon
by A. A. Ukhtomskiy at the Third A31-Union Congress of Physiologists in 1928 in his
report "Rhythm Assimilation in Connection With the Teaching on Parabiosis:"
Ukhtomskiy demonstrated that the functional mobility of nerve centers, receptors,
muscles and other excitable formations may be altered by rhythmical stimulation, and
that rhythm assimilation has important coordinating significance to the activity of
the central nervous system and the integral organism. Later on, iJkhtomskiy's students
and colleagues showed that an activity rhythm may be imposed upon anyorgan by exter-
nal rhythmical stimuli (Figure 24). Thus a rhythm of bioelectric activity may be
imposed upon the cerebral cortex by rhythmical light and acoustic stimuli; this
method is now being used extensively as a means for evaluating the functional state
of the cerebral cortex. Rhythmical effects can be used to change cardiac and respira-
tory rhythm, blood pressure and motor activity in man. Everyone has experienced
assimilation of the rhythm of march music, or has observed involuntary.motor acts
within himself during a concert.
- Electroencephalographic research has shown that if a rhythmical light or sound
stimulus is turned on at the time an EEG is being recorded, some of these stimulation
frequencies that are close to the frequencies of the EEG are assimilated and can be
revealed in the recording. As a rule those frequencies of light and sound stimuli
which correspond to the levcl of the subject's functional state are assimilated best.
At the same time, light and sound stimuli can be used to impose a stimulation rhythm
upon the subject's central nervous system and thus shift his functional state in one
direction or another. Slow d- and 0-rhythms (1.5-3 and 4-7 oscillations per second)
are known to correspond to a decline in functional state of thE central nervous
system, the a-rhythm (8-13 oscillations per second) corresponds to a resting central
nervous system, and the S-rhythm (14-35) and y-rhythm (up to 90 oscillations per
second) correspond to heightened activity of the central nervous system. Hence impo-
sition of an external stimulus having a certain rhythm may promote establishment of
a particular level of the organism's state. Consequently the significance of inter-
- mittent stimuli may depend on the rhythm with which they are interrupted, and on
whether or not this rhythm coincides with a certain rhythm of bioelectric activity
in the cerebral cortex, typical of the current state of the organism.
These physiological facts allow us to approach, with valid scientific grounds,
organization of research on intermittent and continuous effects and analysis of the
obtained results:
Thus the physiological effects demonstrate that the frequency of pulsations in exter-
nal effects has informative significance, as a rhythm assinulation factor, basically
within the limits of the critical flicker fusion frequency, and that the most pro-
nounced biological action is observed at frequencies assimilated by the oi�ganism's
excitable formations, and particularly when the external rhythms correspond to the
rhythms of the bioelectric activity in the cerebral cortex.
While rhythm assimilation phenomena may be enormously significant to detexmining the
informativeness of factors in the surrounding and work environment, work on this
problem has only just begun. There are-absolutely no scientific data in the litera-
ture on the particular ways rhythm is assimilated or on the particular features of
the pulsating action of chemical, thermal, tactile and other effects. As was shown,
however, these problems have a direct bearing on the informativeness of their
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) (2)
,rrf~~M~t.C) Af;
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biological action, particularly when we consider that these and other effects are
Crequent sources of information from the surrounding and work environment, owing to
wliich they should become an object of special investigation.
It must be pointed out specifically in regard to the biological action of noise that
the present information on noise has to do only with the biological action it exerts
when adequately perceived by the hearing organ. However, as we can see from Figure 25,
noise acts not only through the hearing organ but also, when it attains a certain
intensity, through the entire body surface, as is shown in the upper part of the
figure. According to experimental data published by S. I. Gorshkov and R. M.
Nikol'skaya (1978), the threshold for perception of 2,000 Hz acoustic oscillations
through the body surface when the organ of Corti is damaged is 120 db, while the
threshold for 10,000 Hz is 110 db. In this case, as we can see from Table 6, percep-
tion of noise through the surface of the body, without the ear's participation, pro-
duces manifestations of its biological action upon the state of the organism which
differ fundamentally from the changes caused in the state of the organism by percep- .
- tion of noise through the hearing organ.
10
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102 `\A
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cA u) o 0 0 0 0 o O 0
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110
90
70
50
30
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Figure 25. Sensitivity of the Human Ear to Different Frequencies of
Airborne Oscillations ((Vegel'-Gil'demeyster) Curve, From
_ A. A. Ukhtomskiy): See text for explanation.
Key:
l. ergs/(cm2�sec) 4. Pressure sensation threshold
2, db 5. Audihility threshold
_ 3. Hz
While changes in the state of the nervous system occwrring in response to supra-
threshold, one-time, 1-hour ac:equate noise with a frequency of 2 or 10 kHz
elicited a one-time lengthening of the latent time of the reaction to painful
electrocutaneous or clevator* stirnulation only on the day of
*"Elevator" stimulation is defined as stimulation of the vestibular apparatus by a
sudden fall.
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Table 6. Comparative Data on the Particular Features of the Biological Action of
_ Acoustic Stimuli Perceived Adequately (by the Ear) and Inadequately (by
Other Than the Ear) .
Physiological
Indicator
Latent time of re-
action to electro-
cutaneous stimula-
tion
Latent time of
"elevator" re-
action
Pulse frequency
Respiration ire-
quency
Bioelectric
activity:
Cortical regions
Reticular
formation
Means of Perception of Acoustic Effects
Adequate Inadequate
Monophasal lengthening of
latent time oh :the day
of exposure
BipYiasal lengthening of
latent time: lst phase--
on the day of exposure,
2d phase--on the 33-6th
days after exposure
Decrease
Usually an increase
Activation
No change
Increase
Decrease
Inhibition on 3d-4th
days
PronounCed activation
on the 3d-4th days
exposure to it, suprathreshold, one-timE, 1-hour inadequate exposure of the body
surface to this noise (the organs of Corti of the experimental animals were destroyed)
elicited biphasal lengthening of the latent time of the reaction to thP same stimulus,
with the first phase occurring on the day of sound exposure and the'secoi:3 phase
occurring on the 3d-6th days after exposure, which in the opinion of the authors
is a consequence of a transition of the response from the analyzer level to the level
of physicochemical chain reaction. We can also see from Table 6 that while the pulse
frequency decreases in response to adequate noise stimulation, it increases in re-
sponse to inadequate stimulation. We can also see distinct differences in the respira-
tory frequency and in the EEG's recorded from cortical regions in the reticular forma-
tion. The authors point out that depending on differences in the means of perception
of sounds and the pathways of their propagation within the organism, the nature of
their action upon body functions changes. On the whole, the nature of the action of
inadequately perceived acoustic stimuli is similar to the previously studied nature of
action of low frequency ultrasound perceived by man, rats and rabbits through the
entire body surface without participation of the hearing organ. This action has two
phases, with the second phase falling on the 4th day after exposure. The second phase,
which coincides in time with biochemical changes, is obviously associated with
development of chain reactions. As far as the parta.cular ways inadequate acoustic
stimuli and ultrasound influence autonomic functions, particularly the pulse frequency,
are concerned, they are associated with differences in the pathways of prop agation of
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s(-nsory efft,c:t:,, and wiUi absence of ephaptic* influences on the nucleus of the vagus
nerve when acoustic and ultrasonic oscillations are inadequately perceived.
Attention should also be turned to the fact that these data actually extend the
Vegel'-Gil'demeyster curve (see Figure 25) in the direction of greater frequencies,
such that we can determine the location of point A at which auditory sensitivity,
which decreases as the oscillation frequency increases, intersects the curve for in-
adequate sensitivity to acoustic stimuli. An important property of this point is that
within its vicinity, adequate and inadequate sensitivity are quantitatively equal, and
a stimulus located at this point has a double effect upon the body--adequate and in-
adequate. Beginning at this point, adequate sensitivity becomes less inadequate.
This point is also apparently the starting point for reading ultrasound values on the
Vegel'-Gil'demeyster curve. Another point on the Vegel'-Gil'demeyster curve is
point Z, at which the two branches of the curve intersect on the left, in the low fre-
quency range. Infrasonic oscillations obviously begin left of this point. Stimuli
corresponding to this point are also of considerable interest to physiologists and
ergonomists because they would affect both adequate and inadequate sensitivity simul-
taneously. Beginning with this point, and to the left of it along the trend of the
Vegel'-Gil'demeyster curve, sensitivity to inadequate infrasonic stimulation becomes
grcater than sensitivity to adequate auditory stimulation.
Significance of the Intensity and Time of Action of Hygienic Factors to
Formation of Responding Reactions
Going on to tiieproblems associated with the intensity and time of action of hygienic
factors upon the boc'y and foi-mation of responses to these effects, we must keep in mind
- that the overall quantitative evaluation of this interaction must account for three
types of quantitative dependencies: intensity-effect, time-effect and intensity-time-
effect.. Investigation of these dependencies showed that the intensity-effect associ-
ation may manifest itself in different ways. In some cases a response to the action
of a hygienic factor increases in proportion to growth of intensity (concentration,
dose), which is graphically represented by a straight line. In other cases the in-
tensity-effect dependence manifests itself more intricately: Slight changes in in-
tensity may elicit greater changes in the response, and vice versa. At the same time
the curve describing the intensity-effect dependence may have an S shape in many
cases (Figure 26). As far as the time-effect dependence is concerned, it has the
same form as the intensity-effect dependence, since on the whole the time of action
of any hygienic factor is proportional to the intensity of action, which was demon-
- strated quite well in conditioned reflex experiments performed by I. P. Pavlov's
colleagues. Intensity-effect and time-effect dependencies of this sort may be inter-
preted as a manifestation of the laws of optimum and pessimum stimulation (as
defined by N. Ye. Vvedenskiy). The case in which the expressiveness of a response
to a hygienic factor grows as intensity or time of action increases is nothing more
than the preliminary stage of parabiosis, which is in fact typified by growth in a
- responding reaction as the intensity or time of stimulation grows. In this case the
operating hygienic factor remains at a weak stimulation level as the intensity (dose,
*Ephaptic influences are those which arise owing to the proximity of excited formations.
- In this case an ephaptic influence would arise owing to the proximity of the centers
of the vagus and auditory nerves to the medulla oblongata.
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concentration) or time of its action increases. If the nature of the reaction is
described by a sigmoid curve, the response subsequently achieves the balanced stage
- of Vvedenskiy's parabiosis, and as the strength and time of action of the hygienic
factor increase, the expressiveness of the response does not change; then the sigmoid
curve reaches a plateau. Of course, it is much more difficult to reveal Vvedenskiyts
laws in the intact organism than in an isolated nerve or a neuromuscular preparation
owing to mutual superimposition of responses occurring simultaneously at different
levels; nevertheless the sigmoid curve is obviously nothing other than an expression
of the optimum and pessimum.
Figure 26. Sigmoid Dependence of a Response on the Intensity of an
Effect: Area A----yraw:h in response; B--gradual decrease of
the response's increment during growth in intensity, and
transition of the response to the balanced phase; ordinate--
expressiveness of the response; abscissa--inteiisity (dose)
of the operating factor
Because of mutual superimposition of reactions occurring at different levels of
integr.ation, the paradoxical phase of Vvedenskiy's parabiosis cannot be revealed
- in the intact organism in response to the action of hygienic factors, though in many
cases the paradoxical phase can be revealed by measuring the latent time of reflex
reactions or the intensity of responding reactions. It is always observed in rela-
' tion to these indicators in research on the dynamics of conditioned reflex development
in experimental animals subjected to the most diverse factors. We can cite as an
example M. N. Konovalov's data (1965) from.research on the biological action of low
- frequency ultrasound, and S. M. Pavlenko's data (1976) from research on the effects
of chemical factors.
Thus we can conclude that although the intensity-effect and time-effect laws are
masked by mutual superimposition of reactions occurring at different levels of inte-
gration, nevertheless detailed analysis can reveal their subordination to the general
laws of the stimulation optimum and pesZirnl_un.
Iii regard to the relationship between the intensity and time of action of hygienic
factors required for attainment of a certain response, for example a threshold response,
a lethal outcome or some toxic effect manifesting itself as the beginning of illness
- or as certain changes in the state of certain body functions or systems, in all of
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tliese cases detailed analysis of the phenomena would show that they follow a hyper-
bolic law, usually expressed by the equation
a
i = j- - 1- G,
where i--intensity of action; t--time of action; a and b--constants.
Presence c,f constants a and A, vrhich differ fer different cases of the hyperbolic
law's application and for different forms o= effects, means that extensive research
must be performed before the law can be established. However, the strictly mathe-
matical form of the intensity-time-effect law permitted the French physiologist
(L. Lapik) (1909) to develop a method that significantly simplifies dete nnination of
a concrete form of the hyperbolic law. As a strict mathematical curve, the hyperbola
can be plotted on the basis of two points. Lapik found a method for determining
these two points to be used in plotting a hyperbola. These points are the well known
rheobase and chronaxie. The r_heobase is defined as the threshold intensity of a
long-acting factor of the surrounding or work environment, and chronaxie is defined
as this factor's minimum time of action for achieving a threshold (or some other)
effect at an intensity of action equal to double the rheobase. Braces in Figizre 27
show the rheobase and chronaxie values. Using these points, we can plot an intensity-
time curve for any effect and for any excitable formation. As we can see, Lapik's
_ suggestion of the r}ieobase and chronoxie is nothing other than a means of mathematical
simulation of the intricate process of determining the intensity-time-effect law, and
the intensity-time-effect curve itself allows us to discern the relationship between
development of a response to a certain effect and the particular features of the
_ operating factor, and to predict, at any time, the reaction that forms in response
to a certain effect. After the intensity-time-effect curve is established, we can
use it in particular to predict the consequences of possible efforts to improve
working conditions, and thus ensure their high usefulness, as had been donein relation
to predicting the consequences of protective measures against radioactive effects.
In the latter case this involved establishing the 50 percent lethal dose of ionizing
radiation. It is, as we know, 500 r for general irradiation. Doses at which certain
symptoms of radiation sickness arise have been established. Now a personal dosimeter
keeping an exact record of the irradiation dose is furnished to all workers in a11
institutions in which exposure to ionizing radiation is possible. In these cases
the intensity-time-effect law has enjoyed full application.
There are indications that hygienists are closa to establishing a maximum load, beyond
which a transfer to other work is mandatory, in relation to another hygienic factor--
silicosis. In this case a relationship has been established between accumulation of
a dangerous quantity of stone dust in the lungs on one hand and the dose of this dust
- in the atmosphere and the time of working under these conditions on the other.
Establiskiment of this relationship has made it possible to determine the safe time
of work in a work zone subjected to stone dust; this is done by keeping a record of
the dose and the time of presence within its zone of action.
It follows from the above i;hat by keeping track of the intensity and time of action of
factors in the work and surrounding environment and by establishing the intensity-
time-effect curve, we can create new and important prospects for studying their bio-
logical action and the basic principles of hygienic prediction of the corisequences
of preventive and, in particular, ergonomic measures.
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lo
9
8
7
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J '
- 4-
3
2 .
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
(3)
f Hnepoona no ypaeneiiHio
i1=t0
a=(0
0=0
~'1)
XponaitcHe
Poo6a3a (2)
I 2 3 A 5 67 �3 9 10 1
- Figure 27. The Hyperbolic Law
Key :
1. Chronaxie 3. Hyperbola for it = 10, a= 10, b =0
2. Rheobase
Biological science has established another form of nonspecific interacticn between
the organism and hygienic factors, namely the general adaptation syndrome discovered
by Selye. This syndrome is a stress reaction, and according to-Selye himself, it
may be defined as the sum total of the qeneral features of the reactions of living
organisms to all stimuli that have a tendency to disturb the dynamic homeostasis of
psychological, biochemical and physiological processes. If stress factors operate
intensively and for a long period o.f time, they.will elicit a large number of re-
actions which Selye referred to as the general adaptation syndrome. These reactions
fall into three phases: the alarm reaction, the resistance phase, and exhaustion.
Particular Dynamics of the Body's Reaction to Hygienic Factors
The first thing that should be pointed out here is that formation of responses to
nroduction factors requires a certain amount of tizne. Z'his time, which extends from
the start of action of a particular effect to the moment a response to it arises,
has come to be called the latent time. It may vary frow fractions of a second to
many hours and even days, depending on the nature of the effect and of the body's
response. Because it is during the laterit period that all aspects of the body's
response are formed, this latent time is believed to be'one of the most impor�ant
physiological indicators of response formation. In the intact organism, a short
time is typical for formation of responses to effects perceived by exteroreceptors
J (eye, ear., receptors of pain, touch, heat and cold, olfactory and vestibular
analyzers and so on). The latent time of these reactions (Table 7) is within the
limits of the duration of responses associated with control"ling production equipment.
As we can see from Table 7, visual and auditory receptors react the fastest, the
vestibular analyzer reacts more slowly, the temperature analyzer reacts even more
slowly, and the slowest reaction is exhibited by the olfactory analyzer. Concurrent-
ly the slowest reactions arise in response to radiated heat and cold. The receptors
for these effects are in subcutaneous veins.
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'tablc 7. Latent Timc for Different Sensomotor Reactions
Latent
Reflex Reactions Time, msec
Tendon reflexes
Hancl extensor
Knee-jerk reflex
Achilles reflex
Biceps relfex
To painful electrocutaneous
stimulation
To auditory stimulation
To light stimulation
Central part of retina
Periphery of retina
To auditory and light stimula-
tion, with a choice (differ-
~ entiation)
- To painful thermal stimulation
To thermal contact stimulation
To cold contact stimulation
To thermal radiant stimu-
lation
To cold radiant stimula-
tion
Vestibulomotor reactions
To positive angular acceleration
To L-he right
To the left
To negative angular acceleration
- To the right
- To thc left
~ To positive linear acceleration
To negative linear acceleration
To olfactory stimulation by
vapor from:
- (Relin)
Linol2um
Wood chip panels
65-70
70-100
120-190
140-160
100-120
140-160
160-180
180-220
220-340
360-400
500-80Q
350-450
Authors
S. I. Gorshkov,
Ye. G. Zhakhmetov
S. I. Gorshkov
S. I. Gorshkov,
N. A. Kokhanova
1000-1400
2-5 min
260-270
260-270
270-280
250-260
270-280
360-380
320-340
S. I. Gorshkov
A. V. Kolesnikova
G. A. Antropov
900-1000
700-800
900-1000
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S. I. Gorshkov,
G. A. Pronin
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Responses by skeletal nluscles are fast. As a counterweight to this, we can cite
tYie �act that responses by the heart taking the form of change in pulse frequency,
the size of the vessel lumen, blood pressure, skin temperature and sweating--that
is, responses controlled by the autonomic nervous system--are slower. Their latent
times are in the seconds. These data, shown in Table 8, were compiled from material
in a candidate dissertation written by Yu. F. Khvorov for the Ivanov Medical Institute
(1973).
Table 8. Latent Times of Some Autonomic Reflexes
Latent Latent
Tndicator Analyzed Time, Sec I ndicator Analyzed Time, Sec
Latent time of the
cardio-ocular
reflex in responsn
to change in
pulse frequency
5. 2� 0. 3 Latent time of
vessel lumen dila-
tion reaction in
response to dosed
physical load
1.2 � 0.1 Latent time of
vessel lumen con-
striction reaction
in response to
dosed physical
load
7.8 � 1.0
Latent time of
change in pulse
frequency in
response to
dosed physical
load
Latent time of
sweating reac-
tion in response
to dosed physi-
cal load
4.3 � 0.2
8.9 t 0.9
Format?.on of responses to the effects of facto rs perceived by other than the sense
organs proceeds even more slowly, as can be de duced from the time of arisal of
E)ar�ticular responses in different body systemso In this case the intensity of the
oE)eratiilg factor also plays an important role in the rate of formation of the response.
As we can see from Figure 28, which is based on R. M. Nikol' skaya' s data (1978) and
which shows the dynamics behind the concentration of hexuronic acid in the aorta of
albino rats poisoned by inhalation of dimethyldioxane (as percentages of control),
when the dose is large (0.35 mg/liter) a significant increase in hexuronic acid does
not occur until the 19th day after poisoning, while with a smaller dose (0.04 mg/
liter) a significant increase in hexuronic acid is not observed until the 91st day
Eollowing the start of poisoning. This figure also shows the phasal nature of the
ctiange--the difference ~.n the direction of changes occurring in response to different
cioses of the operating factor. This is an indicatian tha.t phases of compensation
and toxic action follow one another.
Eiowever, the phasal nature of certain changes may also be the result of transition
of formation of a response from one functiz)ning system to another. Such a transition
occurs, for example, in response to radioactive emissions. Immediately following
irradiation, a response arises in pronounced form at the level of the central nervous
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~
120
Ilo
100
90
no
Key:
Figure 28. Dynamics of the Concentration of Hexuronic Acid in the Aorta
of Rats Inhaling Dimethyldioxide (Percent of Control)
1. Control
2. Mg/liter
3. Days of poisoning
4. Recovery
system, as may be de duced from the dynamics of the latent time of the reflex reac-
_ ti-ons. However, following a latent period of 2-3 weeks these changes in the state
ot the central nervous system give way to other manifestations of radiation sickness,
ones manifesting themselves in the particuZar dynamics of changes in blood composition.
The transition of the response's formation from the level of the central nervous
_ system to the level of physicochemical reactions is also observed in relation to
the biological action of low frequency ultrasound and other hygienic factors. .
We can see from the a.bove that tlze dynamics behind formation of the body's responses
to factors in the work and surrounding environment are extremely crucial to an under-
- standing of their b iological action, and thus their hygienic standardization, which
is at the basis of any protective measures, including ergonomic., that may be developed.
Laws of the Body's Adaptation to Hygienic Factors Based on Our ldeas About
thc Body's Functional Systems
Some laws governing formation of the body's responses to factors in the work and
_ surrounding environment were presented above. However, if we look at these depen-
_ dencies of the body's reactions, taken separately, we are unable to discern the path-
way for Which integration and interaction of different systems and organs in their
responses to an effe ct. This process has been viewed differently in different
stages of the development of biological and medical science. There was a time when
our understanding of this process was based on the idea that individual organ systems
- act independently during formation of a response to an effect. Z'his is the well known
theory of cellular pathology created by R. Virchow. Starting with a false interpreta-
= tion of the cellular theory, from the very beginning Virchow rejected the organism's
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- integrity and its unity with the environment, and he asserted that a complex
organism is a set of cells reacting independently to environmental factors. Owing
to the efforts of, especially, Soviet physiologists, pathophysiologists, clinicists
and hygienists, this idea gradually gave way to growing acceptance of the notion that
ttLe organism is in unity with the environment, that the organism's reactions are
integrated. The reflex principle of integration was founded on this idea.
F
The theory of functional systems developed by P. K. Anokhin is a further development
of the idea that the organism's reactions to environmental factors are integrated,
and of the reflex principle of integration. 1'he essence.of this theory is that any
compensation of the body's disturbed functions--that is, recov~n_� of its homeostasis--
can be achieved only by mobilization or integration of a signiiicant number of physio-
logical components, located in different parts of the central nervous system and the
working per'.Fhery but always united functionally on the basis of the final adaptive
effect needeci at the given moment of interaction with factors of the sttrrounding and
work environment.
This vast functional association of variously located structures and processes,
existing with the~purpose of producing an adaptive effect, is what Anokhin called the
"functional system." Functional systems may be inborn (species-specific), acquired
in the course of individual development and created for one-time reactioii to some
single effect, a stress factor for example. Inborn functional systems include those
supporting the organism's vitally important functions--respiration, circulation,
digestion, reproduction and many others, while acquired functional systems are those
which support the habits of the organism and which are developed through training
and learning. An association of many body systems may be created in extreme situations
_ in response to stress factors. Functional systems may occur at different levels of
intey~r.ation: the population, the organism, the system, the organ, the tissue, the
cell and the molecule. 'Phe population level of integration occurs whenever the
effect of a factor of the surrounding and work environment directly affects the
population of an entire region and when responses are genE.cated simultaneously in
many organisms within this region. An example of such reactions would be adaptation
- by people moving to northern regions tor a long period of time. Reactions at the
level of the organism include changes in its performance and its health, for example
in response to recent acceleration. The systemic level may be represented by adaptive
_ chaciges in a certain isolated system or simultaneously in a number of functions--
for example the cardiovascular system and the thermoregulatory system. Understanding
the cellular levE:l of integration raises no difficulties. In this case we have in
mind the responses of cellular structures, mitochonclria for example. Research at the
molecular level. is presently the main achievement of biological and medical science.
Memory processes and transmission of hereditary information are associated with the
molecular mechanisms of nucleic acids.
We can see from this section that adaptation to the effects of factors in the work
scid surrounding environment occur in the organism with a consideration for the in-
formativeness of the operating factors, the laws governing the intensity and time of
their action, the particular dynamics behind formation of responses and the mechanism
of integration of the manifestations of all particular aspects of the studied factors.
By considering all of these general characteristica of the organism's reactions to
- hygienic factors, we can scientifically substantiate standards for such factors and
develop ergonomic recommendations concerned with the design of production equipment
and the organization of workplaces.
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Ttie Ergonomic Approach .to Standardizing Factors in the Work Environment
One of the principal requirements of industrial ergonomics is the premise foreseeing
that the design of machines and production equipment must not be a source of undesir-
able sanitary and hygienic working conditions. What this means concretely is that
equipment design must correspond with hygienic requirements in regard to maintaining
the sanitary and hygienic conditions of the workplace at the level of the standards
established by public health legislation (So I. Gorshkov, 1971).
In accordance with this premise, an ergonomic approach to standardizing the factors
of the work en-vironment must regard the following: In the case conditions deviating
from the established standards are discovered in a particular production operation,
steps must be taken to improve the design of the production equipment, such that
the standards for the involved hygienic indicators would be met.
' According to GOST [All-Union State Standard] 12.0.003-74, hazardous and harmful
production factors affecting a worker at his workplace are subdivided into the
Eollowing groups depending on their nature of action: physical, chemical, biological
and psychophysiological.
Physical factors are in turn subdivided into the following subgroups: the temperature
oF equipment and materia.'11. surfaces; air temperature, humidity and circulation, its
_ ionization, and its dust and gas content; levels of noise, vibration, infrasonic
oscillations, ultrasound, static electricity, electromaqnetic emissions, and the
intensity of electric and magnetic fields; a dangerous amount of voltage carried by
_ an electric circuit tr.at may come in contact with the human body; natural and artifi-
cial lighting; brigtitness of light; direct and reflected glare; pulsations in light
flux; contrast; level of ultraviolet and -Lnfrared radiation.
The chemical fa^torc group is subdivided into the following depending on the nature
of the effect on the human body: general toxic, irritant, sensitizing, carcinogenic,
mutagenic and influencing the reproductive function; these factors are also subdivided
in relation to the means by which they enter the human body: through the respiratory
tract, the digestive system or the skin.
The biological factors group includes biological objects which cause injury to workers
- or make them ill: microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, RZC1CettsZCl, spirochetes, fungi,
protozoans) and macroorganisms (plants and animals).
The psychophysiological factors group is subdivided into the following subgroups in
terms of ttieir nature of action: physical overloads (static, dynamic), hypodynamia,
},sychotic:ural overloads (mental overexertion, overexertion of analyzers, monotony of
labor, emotional overloacis).
Many of these factors, especially biological and psychophysiological factors, do not
have clear maximally permissible levels of expression, while the norms of some others
require clearer definition.
Data on hygienic indicators associated most often witli the workplace are presented
below. If a given factor is not dependent upon equipment design, its indicators at
the workplace must be within optimum limits.
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Air in the Work Zone
This section is based on SN [Construction Norm] 245-71 and GOST 12.1.005-76, which
contain the general sanitary and hygienic requirements on the microclimate and on
the concentration of toxic substances in the air of the work zone.
The microclimate is represented by a complex of physical characteristics imparted
to an enclosed space by meteorological factors; these physical characteristics pre�-
determine thermal exchange between the body and the environment of the workplace,
and they include the temperature of the air, its humidity and circulation, and the
temperature of surrounding objects (equipment and structures within the room). Micro-
climate standards are closely associated with the heaviness of labor.
In accordance with the existing classification, all jobs done at enterprises are
subdivided into three heaviness categories.
Light physical work (category I) is representec.l by jobs perforined while sitting or
standing, or jobs associated with walking but not requiring systematic physical
exertion, or the lifting and carrying of heavy loads; energy expenditures have a
maYimum of 150 kcal/hr (172 j/sec).
Moderately heavy physical work (category II) is represented by jobs involving forms
of activity requiring energy expenditure from 150 to 200 kcal/hr (172-232 j/sec)--
category Ila,and from 200 to 250 kcal/hr (232-250 j/sec)--category IIb� Category
contains jobs requiring constant walking, and jobs performed standing or sitting but
not requiring movement of heavy loads. . Category IIb contains jobs associated with
walking and with carrying small loads (up to 10 kg).
Heavy physical work (category III) is represented by jobs associated with systematic
physical exertion, and particularly with continual movement and transport of sizeable
loads (over 10 kg); the energy expenditures are greater than 250 kcal/hr (293 j/sec).
Optimum microclimatic indicators for the workplace are shown in Table 9.
Workplace requirements that need to be considered include the temperature of heated
surfaces, equipment and enclosures, which must not exceed 450C; for equipment having
an internal temperature of 100�C or lower, the surface temperature must aot exceed
35�C.
If for technical reasons it is impossible to meet these temperature requirements
near the sources of significant radiant and convective heat (heating and melting
units, molten and red-hot metal and so on), measures to protect workers from possible
overheating must be foreseen: water-air showers, screening, highly dispersed
spraying of water on irradiated surfaces, radiator-cooled cabs or surfaces, break
rooms and so on.
Air showers must be foreseen at permanent workplaces at which workers ::re subjected
to radiant heat totaling 300 kcal/m2�hr and more.
Hand warmers must be foreseen at workplaces involving continual contact wi.th wet and
cold objects (for example frozen meat cutting and fish dressing).
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Table 9. Optimum Norms for Temperature, Relative Humidity and Rate of Movement of
Air in the Work Zone of Production Buildings (GOST 12.1.005-76)
Season of the Year
Cold and transitory
periods of the year
(outside air temper-
ztture below +10' C)
Warm part of the year
(outside air temper-
ak"ure +10�C and
~ higher)
Work
Category
Light- I
Moderately
heavy--Ila
Moderately
heavy- IIb
Heavy--III
Light--I
Moderately
heavy--IIa
Moderately
heavy--Ilb
Heavy--III
Relative
Tempera-
FIumidity,
ture, �C
%
20-23
60-40
18-20
60-40
17-19
60-40
16-18
60-40
22-25
60-40
21-23
20-22
60-40
60-40
18-21
Fi0-40
Air Movement
P,a�te, m/sec
Not More 'I'han
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
As Zinchenko et al. (32) validiy note on the basis of published data, a dynamic
climate typified by certain variations in its indicators that train the body's
thermoregulator apparatus and imp.rove the tone of the nervous system should be -
created in production. It has been established that "mild, comfortable temperatures"
and "hothouse conditions" may oper-ate as amonotonous stimulus, eliciting an inhibi-
tory state. However, the differen.ce between the air temperature at the floor surface
and the temperature at head level must not be more than 5�C.
A discussion of microclimate requires mention of an ergonomic indicator: On the
average, a 1�C deviation of air temperature from the standards corresponds to a
1 percent decrease in labor productivity (19).
The group of chemical factors encountered in the air of a work zone is represented
by toxic substances and aerosols of predominantly fibrogenic action. Hygienists
of recently developed maximally pe nnissible concentrations for 646 toxic substances
and 57 aerosols. In view of the large numbers of substances contained in these
two groups, we will not list them here, instead referring the reader to the GOST
cited above.
We do believe it necessary, however, to turn the reader's attention to the approach
which must be taken when several toxic substances exhibiting like action are simul-
taneously present in the air of the work zone. In this case the sum of the ratios
between the actual concentrations of each of them (C1, C2, C,n) in the air of
the work space and their PDK's [maximtun permissible concentrations] (PDK1, PDK2,
PDKn) must not exceed unity:
PDIC + p~ + . . . + PDK ` 1.
i 2 n
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As a rule, toxic substances of like action have similar chemical structure and nature
of biological action upon the human body (B. D. Karpov, 1976).
When several toxic substances of unlike action are simultaneously present in the air
of the work zone, the PDK's are treated in the same way as if they were acting indi-
vidually.
Illumination
This section is based on standards SNiP II-A.8-72 and SNiP II-A.9-71, and papers
written by F. M. Chernilovskaya (1971, 1976). In this case we deliberately limited
our standard lighting indicators to visual work classes I-VI, which are encountered
most frequently at stationary workplaces.
2`he productivity of each worker is directly dependent on the efficiency of the
particular form of lighting and its intensity at the workplace, since these are
factors governing the effectiveness with which the visual and motor systems function,
and tlie state of the certral nervous system.
Three fo-rms of lighting are used in production buildings: natural, artificial and
combined.
The action of natural light upon the human body is typified by diversity of form
and level: We encounter biological action, which is a product of phylogenesis and
ontogenesis, psychological action responsible for the direct visual relationship to
the environment, and the effect of natural light on production, dependent on the
uniformity of illumination.
Natural lighting is achieved in production buildings through lateral light openings,
1,rindows (lateral lighting) and through overhead light openings and lanterns (over-
head lighting). Combined lighting is used in multiple-bay buildings: Lateral
lighting is provided to places in a building with overhead lighting located farthest
from the lanterns.
Combined lighting is employed in buildings that do not provide enough natural light
for visual work--that is, inadequate natural lighting is always supplemented by
artificial lighting.
Tne level of natural illumination at workplaces is defined by the coefficient of
natural illumination (e), and it indicates what proportion diffuse light from the
sky contributes to illumination at a point of evaluation within a room. As with
illumination in general, this coefficient is standardized primarily depending on the
nature of the visual work done (Tab1e.10).
Artificial lighting is subdivided into general, local and combined. General light-
ing is intended to illuminate the entire room; it may be uniform (when jobs of
the same kind are performed throughout the entire area of the room and when the
density of workplaces is high) or localized (when bulky shadow-casting equipment
is present and when directional light is required). Local lighting is intended to
illuminate only the work surfaces. Combined lighting consists of general and local.
Its best use is with high precision jobs, and when fixed or variable directional
lighting is reaiiired.
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Table 10. Values of e for Production Rnoms in Keeping With the "Work Surface
Conditions" (SNiP II-A.8-72)
Characteristics of
Visual Work
Least Dimension
of Object to be Visual Work
Distinguished, mm Class
Value of e in Presence
of Natural Illumination
Overhead and
Combined Lateral
Work done:
Highest preci-
sion
Very high pre-
cision
High precision
Moderate pre-
cision
Low precision
Rough
Less than 0.15 I
0.15-0.3 II
0.3-0.5 III
0.5-1 IV
1-5 V
More than 5 VI
10 3.5
7 2.5
5 2
4 1.5
3 1
2 0.5
Luminescent lighting is becoming universally accepted in modern production to
illuminate workplaces, no matter what the method for ensuring standard illumination
in the work zone. This problem is solved uniquely in each concrete case. An example
of such a solut'ion can be found in Chapter V of this collection--development of a new
workplace for a sewing machine operator.
Luminescent lamps are low-pressure gas-discharge mercury lamps, the inside surface
of which is coated with a layer of phosphor. When the lamp is turned on, electric
energy in the mercury vapor is converted to the energy of shortwave ultraviolet
emissions with 254 and 185 nm wavelengths. Phosphor transforms ultraviolet radiation
into visible light, the spectral characteristics of which depend on the composition
and method of preparation of the phosphor. High economy is an advantage of luminescent
lamps: Their light output is 324 times greater than that of incandescent lamps.
Moreover luminescent lamps have many hygienic advantages over incandescent lamps.
Their glowing surface area is larger, meaning that they provide more-uniform light
within the field of view of the workers. They produce little radiant heat. Their
emission spectrum is close to that of natural daylight (for LYe and LDTs lamps),
and hence they praduce an almost-natural color. Luminescent lamps create favorable
conditions for illumination of the visual organs as well as the human body as a
who1i. Luminescent lighting helps to reduce eye fatigue, to improve the functional
st, of the central nervous system, to raise labo.r productivity and to improve
pr, �ict quality.
There has been interest shown in recommendations by F. M. Chernilovskaya (1971) to
vary the intensity of illuminatior in a production room during the day, as a reflex
factor improving the general performance of the individual, delaying the onset oF
fatigue and relieving it if it is already developing. These recommendations now
await ttieir technical development.
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Different types of luminescent lamps distinguished by the spectral distribution of
the light flux are now being produced.
1. Daylight lamps (LD) are close in the spectral characterstics of their emissions
to those of diffuse daylight.
2. Daylight lamps with improved color reproduction (LDTs) are closer to natural
light in the spectral composition of their emissions.
3. Type LYe luminescent lar.ips are closest to the spectrum of natural sunlight.
4. White lamps (LB) produce emissions with a lower concentration of blue-violet
rays than daylight lamps.
5. Tt1e emission spectrum of cool-white lamps (LKhB) occupies an intermediate posi-
tion between those of LB and LD lamps.
6. Warm-white lamps (LTB) produce a light with a pinkish white hue.
7. DRL lamps (mercury arc luminescent) ar.e high-pressure lamps with corrected
chromaticity intended for rooms with a ceiling height greater than 12-14 meters;
their use would be unsuitable in rooms less than 6 meters high.
8. DRI lamps are high-pressure mercury iamps to which metal iodides have been
added. They were developed out of DRL lamps, the chromaticity of their emissions
is improved, and they are one of the most economical sources of general-purpose
light.
LLuninescent lamps are used predominantly in multiple light fixtures. This makes
special wiring patterns which reduce pulsation of the light flux possible.
Table 11 shows the norms for the intensities of artificial illumination at workplaces,
in correspondence with the visual work class and the contrast of the object of
discrimination in relation to its background.
As a rule, gas-discharge lamps (luminescent lamps, DRI and DRL lamps) should be
used in a general lighting system for production rooms in which class I-V jobs are
done.
A conbiried lighting system should be used with class I'IV, Va and Vb work.
A general lighting system can be used when it is technically impossible or unfeasible
to install local lighting.
As a rule, gas-discharge lamps should be used zn general lighting within a combined
lighting system, irrespeative of the type of light source employed for local
lighting.
The illumination provided to work surfaces by general light fixtures in a combined
syatem must be 10 percent of the standard for combined lighting, but not less than
150 lux when gas-discharge lamps are used.
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Local lighting requires light fixtures with opaque reflectors with a shielding
angle not less than 30 degrees.
Reflectors with a shielding angle of 10--30 degrees may be used in light fixtures
if they are located below the worker's eye level.
Noise
Noise is a factor that accompanies almost all production operations today, and its
presence remains a reality despite the efforts by designers and developers to
eliminate or at least limit it.
There is an extensive Soviet and foreign literature on the effects of noise on the
human body. The pattern of its influence is distinguished by high polymorphism:
from its primary influence upon the central nervous system and *..he accompanying
broad spectrum of asthenic sLates and action upon almost all body systems, to organic
injury of the auditory nerve.
According to published data, noise can reduce labor productivity by 60 and even 40
percent.
- The genPral requirements on safe noise levels are spelled out in GOST 12.1.003-76.
This standard establishes the classi.fication of different noises, the permissible
noise levels at workplaces and the general requirements associated with the noise
characteristics of machines, mechanisms, transportation resources and other equipment
(referred to in the subsequent discussion as machines) and with noise protection.
Noise is subdivided in relation to its spectrum into wideband, having a continuous
spectrum with a range of more than one octave,and tonal, with audible discrete
tones in i_ts spectrum. Noise is said to be tonal if the intensity of one tiiird-
octave frequency band is not less than 10 db greater than that of the adjacent
bands. , .
Noise is subdivided in relation to its temporal characteristics into constant,
for which the acoustic intensity does not vary by more than 5 db�A during an 8-hour
work day, and variable, for which the acoustic intensity varies by not less than
5 db�A in the course of an 8-hour work day.
Variable noise is subdieided in turn into: continuously fluctuating in time;
intermittent, with acoustic intensity dropping sharply to the level of background
noise, and with intervals of 1 second and more ir. which the noise intensity remains
constant and above the level of background noise; Pulsed, consisting of one or several
acoustic signals, each with a duration less than 1 sec and with their acoustic in-
- tensities differing bv not less than 10 db.
'rne equivalent (in terms of energy) acoustic intensity, in db-A, as defined by
GOST 20445-75, character.izes variable noise at workplaces.
Wideband noise is characterized by permissible levels of acoustic pressure in octave
frequency bands, acoustic intensities and equivalent acoustic intensities in db�A
at the workplaces (Table 12).
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Table 12. Permissible Acoustic Pressure Levels and Acoustic Intensities at
Pzrmanent Workplaces in Industrial Enterprises (GOST 12.1.003-76)
Acoustic Inten-
Acoustic Pressure Levels, db, in Octave Bands sities and Equiv-
With Following Mean Geometric Frequencies, Hz alent Acoustic
Workplaces 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 Intensities,db�A
The rooms of 71 61 54 49 45 42 40 38 50
design offi-
ces, account-
ants, compu-
- ter program-
mers, labora-
tories for
theoretical
work and for
processing
experimental .
data, patient
admission
rooms in med-
ical centers Administrative 79 70 68 58 55 52 50 49 60
rooms, offi-
ces
Observation
and remote
control
- rooms:
- Without vocal 94 87 82 78 74 73 71 70 80
telephone
communication
With vocal 83 74 68 63 60 57 55 54 65
telephone �
cocimunication
Precision 83 74 68 63 60 57 55 54 65
assembly
rooms and
sections;
tYping ,
of fices
L.aboratories 94 87 82 78 75 73 71 70 80
intended for
- experimental
work, rooms
containi.nq
noisy com-
puter units
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Pcrmanent work- 99 92
i>laces and
work zones in
production
rooms and on
the enterprise
territory
Permitted until 103
1 December
1979 in con-
ditions typi-
fied by high
noise levels
and rec;uiring
implemE: ta-
tion of
special
noise re-
duction
measures
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86 83 80 78 76 74
96 91 88 85 83 81 80
$5
90
Technical noise control resources can be applied with the purpose of reducing noise
at the workplace to a pernlissible level: reduction of the sources af noise in machines,
application of production processes satisfying the maximum peYmissible level require-
ments, structural soundproofing measures, remote control of naisy machines, manda-
tory use of personal protective resources by workers when the noise level at the work-
place is greater than 85 db�A; organizational measures (sensible work-rest schedule,
limitativn of time workers are exposed to noise).
Vibration
Being a factor of the production environment, vibration is enc:ountered in most in-
dustr.ial sectors: as a means of transferring energy to and ac:ting upon a processed
object (compaction, molding, pressing, drilling, loosening, transpor.tation etc.),
and as an accompanying factor of movable and permanently instELlled mechanisms making
rutary or reciprocal motions. Oscillatory movement is createcl by oscillations of
interacting equipment parts, the article being worked and othc:r elements. In this
conriection thc resulting oscillatory movement is aperiodic, arid it often has a pul-
- sating or jerky nature. Vibration is subdivided cepending on the nature of contact
between the worker's body and vibration into local, transmitted through the worker's
hands, and general, transmitted through a supporting surface to the standing or
sitt-ing worker. Certain jobs may cause a worker to be exposecl to combined vibration,
with .local or general vibration dominating.
Vibration has an unfavorable mechanical influence upon the body at 3-30 Hz in connec-
tion with the presence of resonance peaks related to both the entire body as a whole
and individual parts of it; it is also connected with the posit:i.on of the worker during
work. As the oscillati_on frequency rises (above 30 Hz), mechani.cal transmission of
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vibration over the human body weakens. in this connection local nervous and reflex
disturbances begin to dominate (vascular, neuromuscular, skeleto-articular and
other disturbances).
Wtiile local low intensity vibration has a favorable action upon the human body and
is employed in medicine, intensive and prolonged exposure to vibration in production
:-onditions leads in a number or cases to development of occupational pathology--
v: hration disease.
When a worker is subjected to general vibration of varying parameters, pronounced
changes occur in his central and autonomic nervous systems, cardiovascular system,
metabolic processes and vestibular apparatus.
Restric ;iotis on vibration at the workplace can be found in the following guidelines:
local--C.,OST 17770-72 and others, general--SN 245-71, 1102-73 (tables 13 and 14). In
addition there are now a number of narruw-profile public health norms applicable
to agricultural and motor transport mechanisms, to seagoing and river vessels, to
railroad transport and so on.
Table 13. Permissible Vibration Levels for Hand-Operated Machines (GOST 17770-72)
_
T5j--
i'pauiviiiuc 11a::TOr1.1
AOllyCillNUfl NOlll'GBTI'114WIH
/1\
OHTaI1111J% IIOJIOC, fll
CNOPOCTL
, Cpeiuine ru

Me1p11'1ecKUe
(6)
ypouwi
,iac10rw aK�
(3)
~4)
Jteficr-
suun1~ix no�
Aeflcreyautne 311a�
nya-
noc. Ilt
mi�ame
ecpxiwe
veuxe. n+/c
uuix
sueve-
M�n. nr,
81 5,6
:1,2
5,00� 10-2
120
7  G 11.2
22,4
5,00 � 10-2
120
31,5 22,4
45
3,50 0-'
117'
63 45
90
2,50 � 10-2
114
125 90
180
1,80�,10' 2
111
?SU ISQ
355
1,20�10'-2
108
.500 355
710
0,90 � 10-2
105
11100 710
1400
0,63�iu--2
102
- 2000 1400
2800
0,45� lU-2
99
lIn the octave
band with
a mean geometric
. frequency of 8
Hz, only
the oscillatory
speed of hand-
operated machines with a
turning or cyc
ling rate
less than 11.2
per second is
considered.
. 1. Mcan qeometric frequencies
c, E octave bands, Hz
Liiniting frequencies of
- octavc bands, EIz
- 3. Lowcr
4. Ilp[)er
5. Permissible oscillating speed
6. Virtual values, m/sec
7. Intensities of virtual values, db
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Table 14. Permissible Values for Workplace Vibration Parameters (SN 245-71)
U
j(nH rep+olwvecKnx x
OCKOALKIIMIt I'BpNOHfPIBCKNMN I
- 111111 RO1iC60Ili1n C
nonnrapMOin+vecKUx KO-
COCT3tllIAlOtI(NMII NAH CIIlIO[1fI1NM CfIGKTPON
~ 6~ nC68i11111
( G%
exuc~ioAcTpiric�
e
CPCllltl'K08Ap8T11RCCKOC 9118-
9CIIIIC NOJIC6d7CJILilOA CKO-
(7)
p
~ellll'1111AC
NSIC n f
(3)
po
cTx
4ECT0�
aMnnuTyne (mi-
{
C
(If CKO6N0%) 4aCTOTW

ypoouu (IIC)
Te, r~l
NOOUr snanenuc)
`
- UKT001iWX IIOAUC, Clj
BO~p~j~~~L1,
MM/C
I
OTIIOCIITCIIb-
Il0 nopora(
~
II(CIIIIA, MM
fll�PCMI
6 � IO-6 MMIC
2 11,2
' 107 13 3,1100
1,6 2,2200
2,0 1,2800
2,5 0,7300
2,8 0,6100
3,2 0,4400
4 . 5,0
100 4,0 0,2800
(2,8 - 5,G)
5,0 0,1600
5,6 0,1300
_ 8 2,0
92 6,3 0,0900
(5.6 - 11,2)
8,0 0,0560
10,0 0,0450
11,2 0,0410
- 16 2,0
92 12,5 0,0360
(11,2 - 22,4)
16,0 0,0280
20,0 0,0'l25
22,4 0,0200
, 25,0 0,0180
31,5 2,0

92 31,5 0,0140
(22,4-15)
40,0 0,0113
45,0 0,0102
50,0 0,0090
63 2,0
92 63,0 0,0072
(~Ci 90)
80,0 0,0056
90,0 U,0050
Key:
1. I'or oscillations with several
5. Intensity (db) relative to a threshold
harmonic components or with a
of 5�10-5 mm/sec
continuous spectrum
6. For harmonic and polyharmonic
_ 2. Mean geometric and limiting
oscillations
(in parelitheses) frequencies
7. Frequency, Hz
of octave barids, fIz
B. Movement amplitude (peak value) , mm
- 3. Mcan squarc aalue of
oscillating spced
4. Virtual value, mm/sec
t,
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Preventive measures aimed at reducing the effects of vibration upon the worker's
body should primarily include replacement of production processes characterized by
dangerous vibrations with safe processes, and eliminating the worker's contact with
vibration ar its influence upon him. There is a boundless range of possibilities
for inventiveness in this area. Effective ways to reduce vibration include developing
tools producing lower vibration and requiring less muscle force for their operation,
using various shock-absorbing devices and subjecting existing equipment to planned
preventive maintenance. Special emphasis should be laid on hygienic preventive measures
that call for specific work-rest schedules dependii,q on the intensity of vibration and
the nature of the work, and on thPrapeutic and preventive measures aimed at raising
the body's protective capabilities and performance.
Concluding this section on the ergonomic approach to standardizing factors in the
production environment at workplaces, we should once again emphasize that the existing
standards are being made stiffer as biological facts are accumulated. Evidence of
this can be seen in the relative swiftness with which GOST's are superseded (5 years)--
that is, the man--machine--production environment" ergonomic system is undergoing
CUI1t1I1llOllS optimization. industrial workers no longer need to be persuaded that
failure to comply with the hygienic requirements of ergonomics meanspoorer working
conditions, lower efficiency and labor productivity,.and occupational pathology.
_ Z
~
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IV. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL CRITERIA OF ERGONflMICS
Dimensional Considerations at the Workplace
Correspondence of production equipment design and workplace organization with
anthropometric data and man's physiological and psychological possibilities is an
important prerequisite of optimizing interaction between man and equipment in a
"man-machine" system. Assurance of this correspondence promotes better individual
- performance and higher effectiveness in fulfilling a production assignment.
It would be interesting to note that the design of production equipment in application
to the "human factor" had been the focus of attention as far back as in the 15th
century. Thus in 1473 Ellenbog noted that improperly designed equipment has an
undesirable effect on human health (cited in (90)).
- Today, owing to growing technical complexity of machines and mechanisms and the
increase in their operating speeds, ergonomi.c requirements on equipment design and
workplace organization are rising.
_ Physiological studies have shown that failure to comply with these requirements means
work in an uncomfortable posture, arisal of undesirable physiological changes and
earlier development of fatigue.
The principal work nostures are sitting and standing. For a number of jobs the
sitting-standing postu.re is the most suitable. When planning for a particular work
posture, the designer should base himself on the size of the muscle forces applied,
the precision and speed required of movements, the nature of the work being done,
t}ie minimum energy expenditure and the maximum productivity of movements.
Preference in the choice of the principal work posture should be given to aitting
- over standing. A sitting posture is less tirina, since owing to alower center of
gravity over the supporting area, the body's stability is higher; this decreases the
muscle tension needed to maintain the posture, hydrostatic pressure and the load
imposed on the cardiovascular system. Work movements are more precise when the
work is done while sitting. The amount of weight lifted during seated work must not
exceed 5 kg.
Work standing up is found to be preferable when the operator must move about freely
in the course of a shift, when the work involves production equipment such as grinders,
- mill.ing machines, looms, heavy presses and sa or, or when the work consists mainly of
tuning or adjustment. When standing, the individual enjoys maximum field of view and
mAximtun possibilities for locomotion; hP c2n perform movements of greater amplitude,
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and he can generate larger forces (more than 10 kg). When a workplace is organized
For work in standing position, controls and various indicators may be located along
a broader front.
It snould be kept in mind, however, that work in standing position increases the load
on the muscles of the lower limbs and on circulatory organs, and it raises the pulse
rate. Figure 29 shows the levels of muscle bioelectric activity in a relaxed standing
position. Activity levels are designated, in decreasing order, by solid shading,
- cross-hatching, dots and crosses. As we can see from the figure, *_he muscles in the
vicinity of the ankle joint exhibit the greatest activity: t.he tibialis interior,
the peronius longus and especially the gastrocnemius. Muscle bioelectric activity
is less pronounced in the vicinity of the knee joint, and even less so about the hip
joint. Although the size of the recorded biopotentials is 50a1l incomparison with
that at maximum possible tension, the tension of the muscles is nevertheless greater
in standing posture owing to the high center of gravity and the small supporting
area. As a result the enerqy expenditure associated with a standing posture is
6-10 percent greater than that of a sitting posture.
I

.
� . .
~ + �
. ~
q E3
Fiyurc 29. Muscle Bioelectric Activity During Relaxed Standing (26):
A--front; B--back
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During work, the posture is varied depending on the nature of the work movements
associated with the particular production operaticn, and its physiological cost
varies correspondingly. If the individual must work with his hands stretched forward,
to maintain this posture he must raise the tension of muscles of the pectoral girdle
and torso. Standing erect with hands stretched fozward increases the tone of the
biceps by 25 percent over that when the arms are lowered. Tone increases by 70 percent
when a 2 kg weight is held in the han8 (V. S. Farfel', 1956). When the body is
slightly tilted the energy expenditures iiicrease by 20 percent, while when it is
tilted significantly thc1 increase by 45 percent in comparison with a relaxed erect
posture (0. H. Nemtsova, 1940~.
Remaining in the same posture for a long period of time may be tiring to the body
due to the constant static load imposed on certain muscle groups; this is especially
manifested in an uncomfortable work posture (27; S. I. Gorshkov, N. A. Kokhanova,
O. M. Mal'tseva, 1970; N. A. Kokhanova, A. A. Abdikulov, 1978; Yelizarova,V. V., 1979).
Iit seated work, static tension is experienced mainly by the neck, pectoral and back
muscle groups. Stooped shoulders, traumatic radiculitis, spondylosis and other
problems may arise in response to extended work in a forced posture (48, 87, etc.).
Static muscle tension disturbs normal circulation in the muscles, causes stagnation
of blood, deforms the locomotor-bearing apparatus and so on. Extensive work while
standing can lead to varicose veins, flat feet and so on.
In many cases a workplace permitting work in a sitting-standing posture may be more
sensible. Under these conditions the worker can voluntarily change his posture, as
a result of which the loads on different muscle groups are redistributed, and circula-
tion is improved in those portions of the body in which it had.been inadequate owing
to static tension of muscles helping to maintain the needed pcsture. Changes in
posture introduce a certain amount of diversity in the performance of monotonous
- work.
In order that work can be done in a comfortable, correct posture, anthropometric
data must be accounted for when planning production equipment and workplaces; it
should be kept in mind in this case that these data differ for the populatians of
different countries, and they may even differ for people of the same nationality but
residing in different regions of a country.
Ttie limits of workplace zcnes have been established on the basis of anthropometric
data and researcn oci ttie laws of the locomotor system's work. Different authors
divide work zones into several zones-�-from two to seven, giving different names to
tliem. But all au,:hors agree ori the main zones--the optimum zone aiLd the reachable
zone. Work within the limits of these zones ensures an optimum work posture--that is,
a tree and relaxed posture, one in which the torso is not tilted to the side. The
worker's body stays vertical in this case, or tilted foxward slightly, up to 10-15�.
[t should be noted, however, that lengthy work within the reachable zone involving
frequent arm movements is tiring, because this raises the tension of muscles ia the
pectoral qirdle and the shoulder and increases tne energy expenditures. Moreover
rnvemenLs made by outstretched hands are not distinguished by high precision and
r;Ew.,d. Work movements in which the lzmb is maximally flexed or extended are energet-
- i.cally and neurologically unprofitable because when a limb is moved to one of its
limiti.rig positions the lever arm of certain muscles increases, as a result of which
tli~~se muscl.es must exert greater force to surmount the resistance of 3I1tdCJUTllst
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muscles. In this connection there must be an optimum, most comfortable zone in
each workplace, within which work may be performed throughout the entire shift wit;:out
significant tensing of muscles (M. I. Vinogradov, 1969).
Because incompatibility of the parameters of a workplace to anthropometric data
- manifests itself in the body's physiological reactions, which often indicate stressing
of functions and development of fatique, the basic workplace parameters must have a
physiological basis. After they are afforded the proper physiological grou.zds, they
may be introduced into practice confidently.
The physiological grounds of some work zone parameters may be determined.through
investigation of workplace models.
Laboratory research has been conducted using specially developed experimental testing
units permitting simulation of a workplace intended for a sitting or a standing
gosture (V. V. Yelezarova, N. A. Kokhanova, E. F. Shardakova, 1978).
Testing units with horizontal work zones were located at a height optimum for easy
work while sitting (750 mm) or standing (1100 mm). The workplace for seated work was
supplied with a chair having an adjustable seat and back and a footrest. The work
zone was simulated in the vertical plane by means of a collapsible experimental
testing unit (38).
The experimental testing units were divided ynte three zones, within which the work
movemeats were planned depending on the precision of the work being done, the fre-
quer.cy with which production operations were repeated, the sizes of the applied
forces, the importance of the controls employed and so on.
Tlie efficiency of the movements performed and oF the locations of controls in the
horizontal plane were determined by the time it took for the hand to reach simulated
controls located in different sectors of the zones. In their initial position the
hands of the subjects were at the edge of the work surface, 7-8 cm apart.
Because controls are sometimes switched by the worker in production conditions without
visual monitoring, the precision of hand movements made without visual participation
was studied depending on the location of controls. This research was conducted using
ttie procedure suggested by Kekcheyev and Pvzdnova (cited in (60)).
Iii a study of the efficiency with which controls were located in the vertical plane,
tyic subject responded to an arbitrary signal by raising his hand as fast as possible
irom its initial position to a control located at a particular height. The biopoten-
tials of muscles taking part in the hand movements were recorded in this case. It was established from simulation of the zones of seated work in the horizontal
plane that the riqht and left hands reached controls locat.ed within zones I and II,
aiid especially within zone I, the fastest (Figure 30A,B,C). When hands were moved
from their initial position to controls located in zone III the time required to
complete thc assignment increased significantly in relation to all sectors within ~
that zone. This time increased to the greatest extent when the control was located
beyond the zero line (point 6). When the hands are moved in this direction, the
subject turns his body to a certain extent in the same direction. In this case the
Y
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tlle movement time was 234.5 �6.7 msec for the right hand and 245.5 � 4.5 msec for
tlie left. Calculation of the average speed of hand movement showed that as the control
is moved farther away from the margin of the work surface, the speed of the movement
rises.
- Hand movements within zone I were the most precise. They were least precise wheri
the target points were located in zone III, especially if they were behind the zero
line. In this case the right hand mi.ssed by an average of 27.9 � l.l mm, while for
the left hand the figure was 32.4 � 1.3 mm. The amount the hands missed the target
- points in zones I and II differed significantly from the errors recorded for points in
zone III (p
40 ~
I '
r
A
ot
~

~
Figure 44. Manual Controls: A--levers; B--hand wheels
As with other controls, hand wheels that are used especially often should be located
within the optimum work zone.
In addition to manual controls, foot-operated controls can be made to place various
mechanisms and production eguipment into operation and to make adjustments. Pedals
are the principal form of foot controls. They are used when sizeable muscle forces
are required (more L-han 9-13 kg), to reduce the load on the arms, and to achieve
economy of control time when a large number of controls must be manipulated and when
the work does not require considerable adjustment precisxon.
A designer planning pedals and locating them at the workplace must consider that the
force generated by the leg depends on its position. A seated operator exe:rts the
greatest force when his leg is extended forward with an obtuse angle at the knee.
If the seated individual is able to force his body against the back of his seat, he
can significantly increase the pushing force of his leg. The force developed de-
creases as the angle at the knee decreases. Maximum force can be developed when the
pedal is located not more than 100 mm from the midline of the operator's body. The'
pressure the leg can apply decreases as we move farther from the midline (Figure 45).
0 io 20 :10 40 50 60' 70 uc> oo ioo no kg
-~--~17'~---1
10'

0,

~ ia�
Figure 45. Change in Pushing Force of Leg With Growth in Distance From
Midline
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I
30'
~
Figure 46. Basic Types of Pedals
Pedals would best be located symmetrically. Each leg can control not more than two
pedals. A pedal may be depressed by the entire Poot, by its middle part or by the
, toes (Figure 46).
~ The design of a foot pedal should account for the fact that the ankle should not be
turned more than 30� in working position. The optimum ampl-i:ndo or ankle motions is
~ within 10-20� above the horizontal and 20-300 below; in this case the pedal stroke
must not exceed 130-150 mm in seated work and 300 mm in standing work.
Avoiding pedal control in standing position is recommended, since in this case the
_ weight of the body would have to be shifted to one leg as the pedal is being pressed.
Maintenance of a stable position would require additional muscle effort. As a result
the muscles of the legs and body tire more quickly.
- If pedal control in stand.ing position cannot be avoided, the height of the pedal above
the floor must not exceed 150 mm. At the end of its strc,ke, the pedal should be level
with the floor.
The optimum force applied to a pedal by a standing operator is 10-15 kg. This force
is decreased to 8-3 kg during seated work depending on which part of the foot is
- used to depress the pedal.
The pedal width must correspond to the width of the sole (not less than 90 mm). The
minimum length of a pedal used for short periods of time is 60-75 mm. If a pedal must
be kept depressed for a long period of time, its 1F;ngth may be 280-300 mm. 2'he shape
of the pedal may be square, rectangular or oval; in all cases the pedal surface must
_ make qood contact with the sole. Impartinq a rippled surface to its surface is
recommended. A special rim is made on its surface to keep the foot from slipping
off of the peaal when considerable force is exeri_ed.
Some Characteristics of Ergonomic Requirements on the Design of Equipment to be
_ Operated by Women
Physiological requirements on the design of production equipment are governed by
- the characterstics of its use, and they inclv.de the comfortableness of the work
posture, the amount of effort exerted, the speed and trajectory of work movements
their number per unit time and the character.�istics of information interactions.
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'chese requirments are basicallv common to male and female operators, but ones such
as comfortabl.eness o� the work posture, the proportiona of workplace dimensions and
forces necessary to perform production operations depend on the anatomical and physio-
logical features peculiar to the sex of the operator. Thus the proportions of work-
place dimensions would differ for men and women depending on anthropomorphic indica-
tors.
According to anthropological data the height of inen and women in the USSR differs
by 11.1 cm (men (M)--167.8, women (W)--156.7), body length with an upstretclled arm
differs by 15.7 cm (M--213.8, W--198.1), the length of the arm stretched to the side
' differs by 6.2 cm (M--72.3, W--66.1), the length of the arm stretched forward differs
by 5.7 cm (M--74:3, W--68.6), leg length differs by 6.6 cm (M--90.1, W--83.5), eye
leve? 3irfers by 10.1 cm (M--155.9, W--145.8) and so on. 'I'hese rather noticeable
~ differences would also mean pronounced differences in the proportions of the dimen-
sions of a workplace intended for work while standing.
The same sort of differences between men and women apply to seated work. Body length
differs by 9.8 cm (M--130.9, W--121.1), eye level above the seat differs by 4.4 cm
(M--76.9, W--72.5) and so on, which has a bearing on the organization of a workplace
for seated work and on determination of the reachable zone and the clearances re-
_ quired.
According to S. I. Gorshkov's data, cited below, the brakes on wool spinning machines
used to stop the spindle with the purpose of inending broken strands of yarn are
].ocated just 4-6 cm above the knee. However, this sl.ight excess is quite enough to
make it necessary for spinners to raise their knee to this height in order to depress
the brake and mend a broken yarn strand while standing uncomfortably on one leg.
Because the spindle tie rod on spinning machines used to process cotton yarn is
located 5-10 cm below hand level, the standing spinner must incline her body to an
uncomfortab].e position 60� below the horizontal in order to mendbroken strands.
In cotton production this operation is performed 2000-2500 times in a shift, which
means a siqnificant static load on muscles of the spinner's torso.
, The amount of effort exerted by particular muscle groups during use of equipment
must be determined on the basis of dynamometric data. However, these are different
for men and wo;len as well.
- The gripping force of the right hand differs for men aid women by 16.4 kg (M--38.6,
W--22.2), the strength of the right iliceps differs by 14.3 (M--27.9, W--13.6), the
flexing force of the right hand differs by 6.2 kg (M--27.9, W--21.7), the flexing
force of the right thumb differs by 2.9 kg (M--11.9, W--9.0), standing force differs
= by 62.1 kg (M--123.1, W--71.0) and so on. Differences in the one-time weight lifting
limit and in the amount cf weight that can be handled within a shift are associated
- with these differences in the strength of the muscle groups of inen and women. Thus
whil.e tr,e recommended one-time lifting limit for men is 20-30 kg and the shift norm
~ for wcigtit handling at the level of the work surface is 10-15 tons and at the floor
leve1 is 4-6 tons, the figures for women working under the same conditions aze not
- mc,re than 40 percent of the figures for men.
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'1'he,e anci o0iur dil fexciices between men and women must be accounted for when design-
ing Production equipment, since otherwise the physiological requirements on the
proportions of workplace dimensions and on work effort would not be met, resultirng
in uncomfortable work postures and in the need for women to exert effort that is too
tir�inq. Some otner characteristics of the ergonomic requirements or~ the desigh of
production equipment intended for use by women must also be considered.
`1'hese differences between the male and female body are being considered now in the
planning of the "Volzhanka" tractor intended to be driven by women. The dimensions
of this tractor's cab and the wo rkplace, the locations of the levers and the amo;ant
of force required to operate them, and the zones of visibility are being planned
with a consideration for the indicated characteristics of the female body. These
differences should obviously be considered in the design of many other forms of
equipment as well.
Number of Operations Required in the Use of Production Equipment
The number of operations perfornned during the use of production equipment is the
most important ergonomic characteristic of the mutual relationships between man and
equipment, and it is an indicato r of the heaviness and intensity of the work. How-
ever, therc are no substantiate d standards applicable to this area today. Nor has
an approach been found ta dete rmination of the principle upon which standardization
of this ergonomic indicator should be based. The "Unified Requirements on Scientific
Organization of La.bor" compiled by the Scientific Rssearch Institute of Labor (1967)
contain recommendations indicating that the maximum physiologically grounded repeti-
tion of operations is 180 per hour. In this case an operation frequency from 181 to
300 times per hour is said to be high, a frequency from 301 to 600 is said
to be above average, and a frequency more than 600 times
pe r hour is called very high. An excessive frequency of ydentical production opera-
tions makes the work monotonous, consequently leading to development of inhibition
in the central nervous system, a decrease in the speed of work movements and a drop
in labor productivity. But the se recommendations are in very considerable conflict
with facts concerninq the numbe r of operations performed durinq the use of different
tvpes of production eQuipment. Inspection of firmly established facts concerning
the number of operations perfo rmed in different production conditions would show
that winders perform 500 operations per hour while servicing winding machines, while
cotton yarn spinners may perform up to 300 or more operations per hour if the fre-
quency of strand breaking is h:A -Th. Bulldozer and excavator drivers also perform an
enorznous quantity of operations. The operator of an excavator surplied with a larae
tiumber of control levers moves the latter 12-16 times in a single work cycle (20
seconds), and more than 15,000 times in a shift, which is equivalent to about 2000
operations in 1 hour of work. According to V. N. Kozlov's data the number of work
mc.vements made by a Lractoroperator in 1 hour of shift time while plowing exceeds
the ~E: commendations of the Scientific Research Institute of Labor.
Despite the fact that production operations proceed in a strict sequence, the con-
trol consoles of a number of machines are still designed in such a way that each
operation must be controlled separately by the operator. This is so even at modern
automated enterprises, for examp le in automatic tube rolling mills. In such shops,
an operator working the control console of an annual furnace moves levers on the
coiitrol console 12 times to fee d one billet into a piercing mill. This succession
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of movements is repeated with each of 250 billets processe3 in 1 hour ot work. Thus
- the operator of such a console makes a total of up to 3000 repetitive lever move-
ments in 1 hour while simultaneously performing other production operations that
will be discussed in greater detail below. Operators working on wine bettling lines
perform up to 2000-3000 reaetitive manual operations per hour. In addition to these
- instances in which the actual number of performed operations greatly exceeds the
recommended standards based on the "Unified Requirements on Scientific Organization
of Labor," cases are known in which it is very difficult to perform much fewer
operations than the number suqgested by these recommendations. Thus weavers mend
_ warp strands 50-60 times per hour with great difficulty, even though not more than
35-40 mendings per Y:our was adopted as the maximum permissible quantity back in 1961
at the First Conference on the Problems of Labor Hygiene and Physiology in Textile
Industry, held in ivanovo.
Table 18 [missing from this translation] provides a detailed summary of ttie actual
iiumbers of repetitive operations associated with differerit types of production equip-
ment. This great diversity of the actual numbers of operations performed in tYie
- course of different production procedures and their great deviation in both direc-
tions from the standards contained in the "Unified Requirements on Scientific Organi-
zation of Labor" indicate the need for studying this question and, in particular, the
need for examining the physiological ideas about rate and rhythm typical of an indi-
vidual. performing repetitive actions, about the significance of the rate at which
- different neural reflex reactions proceed, about the differences in the complexity
and time of different operations encountered in production and about the significance
of these data to determini.ng the permissible number of such operations during the
use of production equipment.
I, MM
~
(i
^
7
' _
I
1, msec
I'igure 47. Isotonic Contraction of the S;-~rtorius Muscle in Response
to Different Loads: Numbers above the curves indicate
the load, Ip = 27 mm, temperature 00. Ordinate--contraction
magnitude; abscissa--time after application of a single
stimulus (28)
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I I
11
i~
i~
1 `
I ~
I 1
I \
'11 \
'I
4.0
~l) I 3.0
~ 2.0
.-L~_ ~

i~ iu :io 50
-
.
_`L)
Figure 48. Rate of Tetariic Contraction as a Function of Load (Given
Equal Initiz.l Length): Ordinate--contraction rate; abscissa--
load (Hill, 1938)
Key:
1. cm/sec
2. gm
Let us first of all examine some of the physiological characteristics of muscl.e
activity. We should turn our attention first of all to the fact that the duration
of a single muscle contraction is not constant, depending instead primarily on the
size of the load imposed on the muscle (28). We can see from Figure 47 that the
larger the load, the greater is the time between the moment a single stimulus is
applied and the beginning of its isotonic contraction. An increase in the time
between the moment of stimulus application and the beginning of muscle contraction
does not mean an inc7_ease in the latent period of the muscle's contraction; instead,
it indicates that.tr,e time required to develop tension in the muscle necessary to
surmount the load applied to the muscle is added to the latent period. The greater
the load, the greater is the time, as Figure 47 shows. i4hile at a load of 0.95 gm this
time is about 20 msec, at a load of 12 gm it reaches as much as 200 msec--that is,
' a magnitude which becomes a significant factor in the rate of muscle contraction.
The rate of muscle contraction also depends on the siz2 of the load. As we can see
from Figure 48 the rate of tetanic muscle contraction decreases as the load increases.
- According to calculations made by A. V. Hill (1938) this dependence is hyperbolic
and is described by the formula.
(P-1-a) (V-1-L) =-G(/'o+n) =cotst,
where V--rate of muscle contraction in the presence of load P; Pp--weight at the
limit of the muscle's lifting strength; a and b--asymptates toward which the branches
of the hyperbola tend.
For.the case of the curve shown in Figure 48: a= 14.35 gm (357 gm/cm2); b= 1.03
_ cm/sec (0.27 Ip/sec); Pp = 66 gm (here, Ip is the resting length of the muscle)..
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Physialogical data concerning the optimum rnythm of muscle contracti.on and its
dependencF on the size of the load are of considerable interest. As we know, this
question was studied by Hill. It is presented here as amplified by A. A. Ukhtomskiy
, (1954) .
Studying initial heat formation, Hill came across the fact that under otherwise
equal experimental conditions the most widely diverse muscles, when stimulated by
different methods, exhibit constancy in the relationshi,p between heat formation and
_ the product of the length of muscle fibers and their maximum tension. 2`his constancy
is expressed by the formula
1I = GLc,
where H--heat formation; b--proportionality factor; L--length of muscle fibers;
c--maximum isometric tension.
- Because the product LT represent a muscle's energy of elastic tension--that is, its
mechanical potential, we can write tne equation
1VO b,l_t,
where bl--proportionality factor; Wp--muscle's mechanical potential.
Compariiig these two expressions, we may conclude that heat formation in a muscle
serves as a measure of not its dynamic work but rather its elastic tension--that is,
its mechanical potential. The energy of a muscle's dynamic work (isotonic contrac-
tion), meaiiwhile, is a certain fraction of its mechanical potential. Theoretically,
all 100 percent of a muscle's mechanical potential may be used for mechanical work.
For practical purposes, however, part of the mechanical potential is expended to
surmount the muscle's internal friction--that is, its toughness. This fraction
is transformed into heat, and the greater the toughness in the muscle and the
faster the muscle contracts, the greater is this fraction. One can be persuaded by
passive stretching of a muscle that the smaller tl is--that is, the shorter the
muscle deformation time, the greater is the amount of heat liberated due to stretching.
Representing the coefficient of muscle toughness by we get the following expression
for the actual amount of energy realized in the forru oi mechanical work:
lr~ lr~o � ~ .
Elence we can see that W approaches Wp as: first, muscle deformation decreases--
- tliat is, as opposition to contraction rises; second, as the toughness coef-ficient,
- Wt11Ct1 is actually capable of decreasing in response to massage and exercisi1ig of
muscles, decreases; third, as the rate of muscle contraction decr.eases.
We can derive a larqe amount of new information from these data on the physiological
- properties of muscles, and mainly on muscle efficiency. To calculate this efficiency,
w42 would need to know the total amount of energy released in the muscle in the
period of initial heat formation in response to stimulation. This total should
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consist of: 1) mechanical potential Wp, to which the constant quantity of heat
released by the muscle upon release of tension corresponds; 2) the amount of heat re-
quired ta maintain tension .for time t, associ.ated with liberat.ion of lactic acid.
(Khartri) and Hill followed the course of total heat formation depending on time of
teiision t. It is expressed (Figure 49) as almost linear growtih of heat formation
in response to growth in t; the higher the mu-crle temperature, the faster heat forma-
tion grows, but no matter what the temperature of the muscle, heat formation begins
at the sam~~ constant value corresponding to the lowest t. This constant, shown in
Figure 49; equals
1.S
~1 - 6 .
y
O
Figure 49. Magnitude of Initial Heat Formation and the Dependence of
Heat Formation on Muscle Temperature
Keeping in mind that potential energy developed in a muscle owing to stimulation
exhibits an identical dependence on Lt, and namely Wp = LT/6, Hill believes it possible
to physically interpret the constant point of the ordinate's intersection (see
Figure 49) as corresponding to the thermal equivalent of muscle mechanical potential
- at maximum tension.
As far as the slope of the liiie representing the dependence of heat formation on
growth in time t is concerned (see Figure 49), it clearly implies that for every
muscle temperature there is a unique proportion between heat formation associated
with accumulation of lactic acid and the time of this accumulation. Let us call
this proportion (or in this case the slope of the conditional lines drawn) b. Then
the general trend of total initial heat formation would be expressed as a function
- of stimulation time in the form of a simple equation for a line passing the
ordinate at point Wp arxd slope b, which is constant for each temperature:
G~ Wo I-Gt.
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It would not be difficu'Lt to determine b from the amount of oxygen consumed during
maximum isonietric contraction.
Delayed heat formation, which implicates an entirely different chemical process than
that of initial heat formation, is appraximately equal to the latter in a stretchecl
muscle. Consequently total heat formation in a muscle during stimulation would be:
(1--2 (tY/o-I-GI).
- Tnen the ratio of realized energy W to total heat formation G would be:
k
IV IV0 - t .
- 2(1C/, -I- Gt )
Certain conclusions can be made from this expression. Obviously as time t decreases
the numerator on the right side decreases, and when Wp = k/t, it becomes zero. On
the other hand as t increases the denominator grows, tending toward infinity. This
means that there must a maximum productivity for each t--that is, for each rate of
work, such that slower work, and faster work even more so, would inevitably cause a
declirie in productivity. Hill determined the factors for man in special experiments:
W= 11.18 kg/mm, k(toughness coefficient) = 2.7 and b= 5. Then for man, W/G takes the
form of the equation
2.7
W 11,1A- i
U 2(I1,18 -f 51)
w
u
o 1%

/
Ff-r-
F'iqure 50. Muscle Efficiency and the Dependence di the Optimum on the
Rate of Contraction and the Size of the Muscle Force: See
text for explanation
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'I'lu:ri- arc, Lwc, varial,lcs in this ccluation, W/G and G. We plut W/(.' on tlic urciinatc
- and t in the form of a curve (Figure 50) having a critical point with coordinates
1,1/4. The branches of the curve drop downward asymmetrically to either side of
this point, very steeply in the direction of decreasing values of t(that is, in-
creasing speeds) and gently in the direction of increasing values (that is, decreasing
speeds). The coordinates of the critical point (1,1/4) tell us that maximum muscle
productivity corresponds to development of an active process within the muscle once
per second; optimum productivity, meanwhile, is 1/4, or 25 percent. These calcula-
tions, made by Hill, were confirmed by data obtained by Benedict and Cathcart indi-
cating that an inuividual does the most productive work on a bicycle when he pushes
the pedals 60-70 times a minute; maximum prod,uctivity, in the seiise of inechanical work,
has been estimated for man at about 25 percent by former and recent researchers.
Important ccnclusions can be derived about the role of forces in the work of muscles
from the expression for W/G. We know that when maximum force is exerted, the working
muscle develops tension in all of its fibers, while at submaximum force only a certain
fraction of the fibers contained within the muscles are tensed. Let n be a certain
fraction of muscle fibers, tlie total being 1. Obviously the mechanical potential for
n active fibers would be nWp; let heat formation be G= 2n(Wp+bt); let the loss due
to muscle toughness remain as k/t; that part of the tension energy utilized in the
form of inechanical work would be W= nWp-k/t. Hence productivity would be
w nlVo- ~ nl~n-- n(Wo- )
G" 2n(lK/a hl) `ln( Wji 4!) - 2~t~t)
k
lVo - nt
2( Wo+bt) .
If for this last equation we plot curves (as we did above) for different n, we would
get Figure 50--a series of curves with continually decreasing amplitudes and critical
points, and aisplaced more and more in the direction of greater values of t(in the
direction of slower work) as n--that is, the force applied--decreases. Tliis means
that if lower force is applied in work, the latter is always less productive as well.
As the forces applied decrease, the productivity optimum decreases to slower rates
of work. As forces increase, the productivity optimum rises to higher rates of work.
But even here the most advantageous frequency of a( _ive states in a musc3.e at maximum
force is once per second.
Such are the physiological principles rehind our ideas about the most.optimum condi-
tions of muscle work, at least in terms of muscle processes taken in isolation.
But because muscles are only one of the elements of man's complex motor apparatus,
there are some unique c;iaracteristics in human motor activity, which.will be examined
below.
The discussion thus far has shown that processes that may influence the rate at which
production operations are performed and the frequency of their repetition occur in
the muscles themselves. Characteristics of nervous system functions have an even
greater influence.
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Every work action is an act involving the participation of a z2flex arc. Therefore
the characteristics oL an excitation's propagation through a reflex arc would reveal
_ tYiemselves in the temporal parameters of work-associated actions. The most important
furictional c;haracteristic of the reflex arc is the existence of a latent period be-
tween the moment of arisal of a stimulus and the beginning of the responding motor
- reaction. The duration of the latent period of motor responses is mainly a factor of
. the response rate.
According to S. I. Gorshkov's data (1963) the duration of the latent period depends
on the analyzer responsible for the qiven motor reaction, on the composition of
- neurons participating in the reflex arc and on the properties of the conducting
pathwa: s .
The more distally the muscle group which is the target of a response is located, the
greater is the latent pPriod of the 1-esponse, for example to a visual stimulus. In
tliis case the increase in the latent period woula correspond to the increase in the
length of the motor nerve that transmits the signal to the muscles; this increase
would be precisely proportional to the rate of propagation of the excitation along
-the nerve. Thus the latent time of a response by the leg to a light stimulus is
20-30 msec longer than that for a response by the arm. The difference in si;ce of
the latent period is more pronounced in relation to different points of application
of the signal stimulus. Thus the latent period of a reaction to a thermal contact
stimulus applied i.o the wrist would be 200-300 msec longer than that for a thermal
contact stimulus applied to the shoulder. The difference in latent time of a painful
stimulus applied to the wrist and shoulder would be 50-100 msec, In both cases the
latent time increases due an increase in the distance the afferent impulse is trans-
mitted from the place of stimulus application to the appropriate ceiiters in the brain.
The greatest lengthening of the latent period is observed in a choice reaction, where
the subject must determine which stimulus he must react to. In this case the in-
crease in the latent period is 100-300 msec.
In addition, faster responses are also possible. A decrease in thP latent period is
observed in the response to a stimulus preceded by a warning siqnal, and to a stimulus
that had previously been tracked--for example the moving pointer of an instrument or
- a light spot, with the reaction beyinning when the moving pointer or light spot
reaches a certain position. In both cases the response i.s faster by about 100 msec.
Thus response time can vary within l;road limits degending on the analyzer responsible
for the response on the length of the sensory and motor pathways, on the nature ef
the signal, on the need for signal choice, on presence of a warning sigr.,l and on
some other features of the situation within which the response occurs.
We havc been discussing muscular and reflex mechar.isms of change in response rate.
It should be kept in mind, however, that tiring, arousal or inhibition and presence
of external influences may also have a noticeable effect on human responses. This
will be discussed specifically in our analysis of concrete occupational qituations.
The time of a response also depends on the action within which this response ex-
prosses itself and ori the portion of the body participating in the response. These
data are SrIOWII in Table 19.
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The trajectories of motor reactions also play a great role in their duration (Table
20).
Table 19. Dependence of the Length of a Response on Its Nature
NLinimum Response
Nature of Response Time, msec
Pressing down with the palm 330
Moving the fingers 170
Pressing with the r-iand 720
Flexing and extending:
- Arms 720
- L-egs 1,330
Pressing a pedal 720
Turning, bending the body 2,000
Walking (taking a step) 700-1,400
Table 20. Time Spent on Motions Depending on Trajectory Length
Time Spent,
Type of Motion
msec
Extending arm, mm
25
70
50
140
More than 300
210
Placing an object
Not in a precise spot
360
Forcefully, not in a precise spot
720
With great force
1,800
In a precise spot
550
Forcefully in a precise spot
900 .
With great force
2,300
Moving an object more than 180�
210
Pressing on an object
720
y Compressing an object with the fingers
720
Taking an object that is
Light and easy to grasp
70
Light but hard to grasp
140
Light but from among other objects (depending
on dimensions)
300-800
Wrapping fingers around an object
200
- Transferring from one hand to the other
200
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Taking apart
Effortlessly
180
With slight foroe
360
With significant force
1,100
Pressing
Witi*. the toe
360
With the foot
720
Taking a step sideways without turning
700-1,400
Turning the body
While sitting
720
W.ith a step to the side
700-1,400
Bending over
1,000
Unbending
1,000
Sittin5 down
1,400
Standing up
-1,800
Taking a step 75-80 cm long ~
600
Note: The time indicated in all of these
- include the latent period of the reaction;
spent on the motion itself is considered.
examples does not
only the time
These data can be supplemented by the results of special experiments performed at
the ergonomics laboratory of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences Institute of Labor
_ Hygiene and Occupational Diseases by S. I. Gorshkov, G. I. Barkhash and E. F.
Shardakova. The dependence between the duration of movements and the number of
- joints participating in the movements was studied in these experiments. The experi-
ments are di .agrammed in Figure 51. In Figure 51A, the di.agram labeled 1 shows the
joints of the human arm labeled as follows: a--index finger, b--hand,.c--forearm,
d--upper arm, e--torso. This figure also shows the starting position of the arm for
determining initial latent time. The latter was determined for a subject responding
� to a light or sound stimulus by depressing the key of a reflexometer with his index
finger with barely noticeable force. Position 2 in Figure 51A shows that in this
- case the initial position for dete_-mining the reaction time was with the index finger
raised as high as possible above the surface of the reflexometer's key. In position 3
the entire hand was initially raised as high as possible, in position 4 the entire
forearm was raised as high as possible, in position 5 the entire arm as far as the
_ shoulder joint was raised to the maximum, and in position 6 the entire arm was raised
at the shoulder joint as high as possible with the entire body tilted back. In all
cases the subject had to quickly depress the reflexometer key with his index finger.
In Figure 51B the diagram labeled 1 shows the joints of the human leg, labeled as
_ follows: .a--big toe, b--foot, c--lower leg, d--thigh, e--torso. The initial latent
time of the reaction to light and sound was determined in position 1 with the subject
depressing the reflexometer key with his big toe with barely noticeable pressure.
In position 2 the starting position for determining reaction time was with the big
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+a 6 6 6 d 6
6
Figure 51. Experiments Conducted to Study the Dependence of Latent Time
on Distance Traveled by Joints: See text for explanation of
positions 1-6. Broken curves show motion trajectories (A-B)
toe raised as high up as possible above the key, in position 3 the entire foot was
raised to the maximum, in position 4 the lower leg was raised as high as possible,
in position 5 the thigh was raised to the maximum, and in position 6 the entire leg
was raised as high as possible at the hip joint with the torso tilted back. The
results are shown in Table 21.
As we can see from these data, the time of the motar reaction increases as the
number of joints participating in the movement increases. Z'hus for example, if
the index finger is raised the reaction time to light is raised by 36 msec, the
reaction time to sound is raised by 29 msec, and the time of the choice reaction is
raised by 29 msec--that is, it takes 29-36 msec to move the raised index finger down
124
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020026-6

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500020026-6
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONY.Y
_ Table 21. Dependence of Motor Reaction Time (msec) on the Nature of the Motor
Component
Key:
~1) (2) PeaKquu
nD]NIkIIN
(c M. 118 CDl'T (J) 113 7ByK (4) O1.160pa (rj)
(111C. 61)
Mtm ( p Mtm I p Mtm I p
(6) PyKa
1. 186't-9
(7)
168fG
225t6
2. 222i5
(;p. 1�--2
197f3
Cp. 1-2
254f9
Cp. 1-2