CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS IN THE CHINA - SOUTHEAST ASIA BORDER AREA THROUGH 1964

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79T01049A003100030004-0
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 45
• Document Creation Date: November 16, 2016
• Document Release Date: March 7, 2000
• Sequence Number: 4
• Publication Date: April 1, 1965
• Content Type: REPORT

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NO FOREIGN DISSEM
.ISO
CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS
IN THE CHINA - SOUTHEAST ASIA BORDER AREA
THROUGH 1964
CIA/RR EP 65-27
APRIL 196 5
WARNING
This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the'.espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Office of Research and Reports
S-E-C-R-E-T
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CONTENTS
I. Performance in Construction Through 1964 . . . . . . . . 3
A. Communist China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Burma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
C. Laos and North Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1. Laos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2. North Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
II. Problems of Terrain and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Standards and Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2. Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
B. Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
IV. Assessment of Potential Border-Crossing Points . . . . . 10
Appendixes
Appendix A. Place Name List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Appendix B. Road Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Appendix C. Terrain and Climate in the China - Southeast
Asia Border Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Appendix D. Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Maps
(Inside Back Cover)
Figure 1. China - Southeast Asia Border: Transportation
Routes
Figure 2. China - Southeast Asia Border: Index to Roads
- iii -
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CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS
IN THE CHINA - SOUTHEAST ASIA BORDER AREA
THROUGH 1964*
Summary and. Conclusions
The Chinese Communists have continued. to improve the road. network
adjacent to their borders with the countries of Southeast Asia. This
road. network not only has facilitated. political consolidation of the
frontier area and. opened. up new regions for economic development but
also, more importantly, has improved logistical capability by provid-
ing vehicular access routes toward'Burma, Laos, and North Vietnam.**
This program of road construction has been implemented at a sustained
pace during the past 15 years (1950-64) and. has continued unabated
during the recent nationwide retrenchment in construction. The present
network of main roads in Yunnan Province, where the greatest amount of
new construction has been carried out, was completed by the end. of 1957,
although many of these roads were of substand.ard.construction and. most
of the bridges were of temporary construction. Since 1957, construc-
tion has consisted primarily of improvement and. repair of this network,
completion of additional interconnecting and branch roads, and.construc-
tion of numerous feeder roads.***
In the countries south of the China border, where road. networks
were established. two decades ago, a greater number of roads have deterio-
rated and, disappeared. than have been improved. or newly constructed. In
Burma, sections of the main road. network construction through the border
states initially were surfaced, but that country's chronic problem of
insurgency has prevented. adequate maintenance and repair and. has limited.
the amount of new construction. Initially the roads in Laos and North
Vietnam were constructed almost entirely of natural earth.t Because of
lack of maintenance and. repairs, most of the road. system in northern
Laos has long since become a maze of jungle trails, and., as a consequence,
vehicular connections have ceased. to exist with other parts of the coun-
try. In the border areas of North Vietnam adjacent to Communist China,
several roads have been surfaced., a few roads have been constructed,
and. some cutoffs have been built to shorten the distance of existing
routes, but the road. system generally is in poor condition and. in need.
of constant repair.
* The estimates and. conclusions in this publication represent the
best judgment of this Office as of 1 March 1965.
** See the map, Figure 1, inside back cover. Additional maps are
available in the 1:1,000,000 series.
*-- For a discussion of the over-all Chinese program of road. construc-
tion, see CIA/RR ER 61-8, The Construction of Highways in Communist China,
1949-60, March 1961, CONFIDENTIAL.
t For a description of the term natural earth, see the glossary,
Appendix D.
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Although most of the roads in the border area* degenerate into
trails just short of the border, eight motorable roads continue across
the border from Communist China and feed. directly into the existing
road. networks of adjacent countries. Included in these border-crossing
routes are two roads into Burma, two roads into Laos, and four roads
into North Vietnam. The existing road gaps between Communist China and
Burma, Laos, and North Vietnam could be closed by intensive efforts in
a relatively short period of time. At present, there is no conclusive
evidence, however, that the Chinese Communists are engaged in extending
additional routes across the border into Burma or Laos or that any
major road construction program is underway by Communist China and North
Vietnam to provide substantially improved road. connections between these
two countries.
Major conditions affecting the construction and. maintenance of roads
in the entire border area are the nature of the terrain, the adverse
seasonal climatic conditions, and, the prevalence of a system of roads
that are low-grade by Western standards. In spite of these limiting
factors, however, the Chinese Communist practice of using mass labor as
an expedient means of building, repairing, and keeping routes open, even
under the most adverse conditions of weather and. terrain, makes any
border road or trail a potential access route into Southeast Asia.
* The term border area as used in this publication refers to territory
adjacent to the border in Communist China, northern and. eastern Burma,
northern Laos, and northern North Vietnam.
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I. Performance in Construction Through 1964
The greatest amount of new road construction in the entire China -
Southeast Asia border area has taken place in Yunnan Province, where
there was an almost total lack of motorable roads in 1950. Although
new roads have been constructed in Kwangsi Province, extensions into
the border area within Yunnan amount to more than twice the length
added. within Kwangsi. At the other end. of the scale the smallest
amount of road construction has been in northern Laos, but Laos is
the only country where new roads have been constructed across the
border from Communist China in the past decade. The other six roads
that link Communist China with Burma (two) and North Vietnam (four)
are improved roads, built before or during the early 1950's. Both
Burma and North Vietnam have been engaged more in the reconstruction
of existing roads than in new construction.
A. Communist China*
Since 1950 the Chinese Communists have steadily expanded. and,
improved. the road system in the border provinces of Yunnan and. Kwangsi.
At no time during the past 15 years has there been any indication that
this construction program has been carried out on a crash basis. The
exception occurred. in 1953-54, when roads were hastily constructed. and.
improved to provide supply routes to Vietnam during the French-
Indochina war. Additionally, there has been no indication that the
road. construction program in southwestern China suffered a major set-
back during the years of countrywide retrenchment in construction. The
outstanding characteristic of the entire program has been one of steady
and. sustained effort to extend the network to the border.
During the years 1950-57 the Chinese Communists concentrated,
their roadbuilding efforts in Kwangsi on lateral routes near the border
through the province into Yunnan Province, thus providing a more direct
connection between Nan-ning** and. K'un-ming. The road. system, a remnant
of the 1940's, consisted. of two north-south roads that branched. from
the Kweichow-Kwangsi*** trunk road and extended through Kwangsi and.
across the border into North Vietnam. The new roads, therefore, greatly
shortened, the distance not only between Nan-ping and K'un-ming and Nan-
ning and the border but also between western Kwangsi and, central Yunnan
by eliminating the necessity of going by way of K'un-ming. In Yunnan
the Chinese Communists directed their road construction efforts toward
North Vietnam and. Burma. Improvement of the Yunnan-Tibett and Burma
Roads and construction of the Hsiang-yun - P'u-erh, Nan-ta, K'un-lo,
* Including only the areas adjacent to the border in the provinces
of Yunnan and. Kwangsi.
For a list of coordinates, see Appendix A.
The alignment of this road, constructed before 1940, is Nan-ning
(Kwangsi), Kuei-yang (Kweichow), and K'un-ming (Yunnan).
t For a discussion of individual roads, see Appendix B.
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and, Shuang-chiang - Meng-hai Roads were started early in the 1950's.
Construction and. improvement of roads leading to the border of Laos
began in 1958-59-
The tendency in road. construction throughout the past 15 years
has been to construct natural earth roads initially in order to gain
access to new areas quickly and then to improve them progressively.
Although some sections of the main roads, especially those servicing
military installations, had. been improved by 1957-58, work on these
roads, as well as on secondary roads, is continuing.*
B. Burma
Prolonged civil strife and. other internal difficulties have
greatly hampered. improvement and maintenance of the road. system in
Burma. Nevertheless, the government has made some attempt to improve
the roads, but its efforts have been sporadic and more or less con-
fined. to roads that would. provide better :Logistical support for com-
bating insurgency. The new roads that ha~Je been constructed serve
as alternate connections from central Burma to, or within, its border
states** where the use of preexisting roads continues to be threatened
by insurgents.
In Burma the highway network is oriented generally in a north-
south direction roughly parallel to the major river system except in
the northern part of the country, where, by the nature of the terrain,
the roads are confined to following water courses. Most of the east-
west roads follow the pattern of ancient routes that connected. water-
ways and. that led to important mines. ThEere are three national routes
that pass through the border states and. provide direct connections
between the border zone and the central valley of Burma. These routes
include the Mandalay-Putao Road*** through the Kachin and the Northern
Shan States toward. the borders with Tibet and. northwestern Yunnan; the
old Ledo Road. (Myitkyina-Pangsau Pass Road) toward the border with
India; and. the Meiktila-Tachilek Road through the Southern and Eastern
Shan States toward the borders with Thailand, Laos, and. southwestern
Yunnan.
In addition to these main roads, sections of the Mandalay-
Putao and Meiktila-Tachilek routes, where they pass through the
* An outstanding example of this is the Ch'e-li bridge (on the
K'un-lo Road.) on which construction was resumed after a lapse of
2 years (see road study no. 17, Appendix B).
** Including the Kachin State of northern Burma and. the Northern
and. Eastern Shan States, which form the eastern portion of the country.
The Southern Shan State lies between the Eastern Shan State and the
central valley of Burma.
**- From Mong Yu, on this road., a secondary road extends to Wan-t'ing
(Yunnan Province) and. provides the link between the Burma Road in
Yunnan and the main road system of Burma.
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Northern and. Southern Shan States, are linked by interconnecting
secondary roads that run parallel to the border in the area west of
the Salween River. Only a few roads branch east from these secondary
roads, and, where they do exist, they support local traffic only as
far as the river. In the area between the Salween and the Sino-Burmese
border, old roads have disappeared and. only trails exist. In the
Eastern Shan State, sections of old. secondary roads connecting Keng
Tung (on the Meiktila-Tachilek route) with the border have lapsed into
trails, and. none can support vehicular traffic.
During the past few years, Burma has made an effort to recon-
struct and. repair the road system in its northern and. eastern regions,
but the specific details of many of these projects are unknown. Im-
provements were underway on the Myitkyina-Putao route north of Myit-
kyina during 1962-64, and other existing roads in the Kachin State
probably were repaired and alternate routes constructed, especially
in the area east of Bhamo. Repeated. reports of the destruction of
bridges and road sections by insurgent forces as well as usual damage
from the rainy season in both the Kachin and. the Northern Shan States,
however, would indicate that most of the roads were frequently impas-
sable because of the difficulties of keeping them repaired. In the
Eastern Shan State, reconstruction and. repair of roads apparently has
met with more success. Although there is no evidence that any new
roads were constructed or underway in this border state, repairs on
the Meiktila-Tachilek route and on roads branching from it reportedly
were undertaken during 1961-64.*
Late in 1963, Burma reached final agreement with Communist China
on the construction of two suspension bridges across the Salween River
that were to be financed under the $84 million credit of January 1961.
The first of these bridges is located in the Northern Shan State at
Kunlong on one of the few branch roads extending east from the Mandalay-
Putao Road at a point about 32 miles north of Lashio.** The other
bridge is to be located at Ta-kaw on the Meiktila-Tachilek Road in the
Eastern Shan State.***
C. Laos and. North Vietnam
In the northern part of the area of old Indochina a greater
length of road. has disappeared than has been constructed or rebuilt
during the past few years. Initially the road. system consisted mainly
of natural earth roads, only a few of which were surfaced with gravel
or stone. Neglect through the years caused the roads to deteriorate
* For a description of these branch roads, see road studies nos. 14,
27, and 28, Appendix B.
** For a description of the Kunlong bridge, see road study no. 16,
Appendix B.
*** For a description of the Ta-kaw bridge, see road study no. 22,
Appendix B.
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rapidly. Even the reconstruction and repairs that have been carried
out in recent years have not substantially improved. the capabilities
of this network.
1. Laos
Except for roads connecting Phong Saly* and. Muong Sing to
the border of Yunnan and. the three roads connecting Sop Nao and Samneua
with the border of North Vietnam, there are no motorable roads in
northern Laos. The road system constructed. by the French, of natural
earth, has become a maze of trails, thus severing all motorable con-
nections, not only in the northern part of the country but also with
central Laos.
In 1963 the Chinese Communists completed a road from
Meng-la in Yunnan to Phong Saly. In the following year a second link
was established. between Communist China and Laos when the trail in the
border section between Meng-mang and, Muong Sing was made motorable dur-
ing November-December 1964. There have been reports of plans for con-
struction of additional roads, both into and. within Laos, by the Chinese
Communists, but there is no evidence that any of these projects has ever
been started. Some repair work was carried out around the areas of
Muong Sing and Nam Tha** by the Communists, but only a natural earth road
suitable for four-wheel-drive vehicles connects Muong Sing with Nam Tha.
All other routes in this area are pack trails that possibly are jeepable
in dry weather.
Probably with some assistance from North Vietnam, sections
of the roads from the vicinity of Sop Nao and. Samneua to the border and
for a short distance into North Vietnam were reconstructed in the late
1950's. Continuation of these roads in North Vietnam, however, did
not have similar improvement at that tim.e. There is no indication
that extension of these roads beyond the vicinity of Sop Nao and Sam-
neua, either northwestward toward Phong Saly or southward toward
Central Laos, is underway or planned..
2. North Vietnam
Since the early 1950's, road work in the northern border
provinces of Vietnam has been directed toward reconstructing and repair-
ing the old road, system, including the access routes to Communist China.
Only a few new roads were constructed in the 1960's, and. although these
extend toward the border, they do not cross it.
It is in the Sino - North Vietnamese section of the border,
between Ha Giang and. the Gulf of Tonkin, that the greatest concentra-
tion of border-crossing routes exists. There are four vehicular routes
For a list of locations, see Appendix A.
* Also known as Muong Luong Nam Tha.
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between North Vietnam and Communist China, all of which are improved,
previously existing roads. Three of these roads branch from the main
route in North Vietnam, which parallels the border, and, link Cao Bang
and. Dong Dang to Ching-hsi, Lung-ching, and Ping-hsiang in Kwangsi
Province. The fourth route crosses the border at Mong Cai linking the
northeastern coastal route in North Vietnam with Kwangtung Province.
West of Ha Giang the border section of an old road (extending north-
west from Ha Giang), which had been hastily connected with a road
from Wen-shan in Yunnan in 1953-5+, has d.eteriorated into a trail
and is no longer passable for vehicular traffic. Recently, however,
there has been indication that another old road. that passes through
Lai Chau to the border was being improved. and. that an east-.west road,
connecting it with Lao Kay was being constructed.* Completion of
these roads, possibly in 1965-66, will provide direct access routes
from the border via Ban Nam Coum and the railroad. at Lao Kay through
northwestern North Vietnam into northern Laos. At present, roads
from the provinces of Kwangsi and Kwangtung are the only ones that
feed into the main network of North Vietnam. Improvement of the road
through Lai Chau, however, will provide additional access into the
main network (via Moc Chau to Hanoi) and for the first time in recent
years a road. from Yunnan into North Vietnam.
II. Problems of Terrain and Climate**
The nature of the terrain and. weather in the border area creates
serious problems in regard to the location, construction, and mainte-
nance and. repair of roads and, bridges. The mountains; the high plateaus
with a minimum of flat land., deep gorges, and. numerous valleys; and the
extensive karst*** areas restrict alignments and frequently cause an
excessive amount of construction. Optimum conditions for earthmoving,
one of the most fundamental tasks in road. construction, are limited by
the moisture content of the ground, the type of soil, and conditions
of natural drainage. In the border area, therefore, the construction
season is more or less restricted to the dry season, which is a period
of about 6 months (November-April). Throughout the remainder of the
year, heavy rains cause landslides and. washouts, which necessitate
constant maintenance and repair, both during and after completion of
construction.
III. Standards and Inputs
In all countries of the border area the standards and methods of
road. construction and maintenance are substantially the same. More-
over, the environmental conditions and the prevailing economic and
See road study no. 1, Appendix B.
For a more detailed discussion, see Appendix C.
A limestone plateau marked. by caverns and underground. streams and
by sinkholes interspersed with abrupt ridges and irregular protuberant
rocks.
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military situation create similar problems and needs for roads, and,
therefore, it is possible to make certain generalizations that are
applicable to the entire border area.
A. Standards
1. Design and. Construction
The road. system of the border areas is low-grade by Western
standards because it is characterized-by a predominance of soil-aggregate
and natural earth roads designed to carry only light traffic. With few
exceptions they are single-lane roads averaging in width from 23 feet (in-
cluding shoulders) to 10 feet with no shoulders* but with passing lanes
where the terrain permits. Bridges on the roads include small timber
trestle, masonry arch, and reinforced concrete structures; bailey
bridges; and steel suspension bridges over deep gorges or wide rivers.
Bridge construction is held to a minimum, however, and many streams
are forded. or crossed by ferry.
Improvement** of the roads has included adding stone or
gravel to the road surface, widening the roadbeds, improving drainage,
building cutoffs for better alignment, and reducing the number of hair-
pin turns where it has been feasible. On some roads, where the prepara-
tion of the roadbed was particularly poor, the existing roadbed has been
reconstructed.. In some cases, temporary bridges have been replaced with
more permanent structures, and. bridges have been constructed to eliminate
some of the fords and ferry crossings.
2. Maintenance
Soil-aggregate roads are capable of supporting a limited.
amount of traffic under all weather conditions when they are constructed
properly and. are adquately maintained. During the rainy season, roads
become potholed or the road foundation fails; landslides not only cover
the roadbed but also can take away whole sections; roads become flooded;
and bridges are washed out. Therefore, natural earth roads can disappear
in one rainy season. In addition, in the cold areas frost heave causes
roads with inadequate drainage facilities to buckle, whereas in hot areas
encroachment of vegetation is rapid. Therefore, constant maintenance,
often requiring major repairs, must be carried out.***
* The only two-lane roads (averaging 30 feet wide) are the Burma Road
and the K'un-ming - K'ai-yuan Road.
** In Asia the usual practice is to improve only the worst sections
of a road and. to maintain the other sections, both activities tending
to be carried, out under extreme necessity.
*** This activity is the basis for the majority of reports of road
construction in the late fall and early winter of each year.
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B. Inputs
The method. of construction in the border area is one that
employs mass labor, a minimum of construction equipment, and local
materials. The labor force is composed. of thousands of unskilled,
locally conscripted, civilian laborers augmented. by troops and, super-
vised. by military engineers. Members of civilian organizations, either
those attached. to the various administrative levels of government or
private contractors, also participate in supervision and construction.
Responsibility for design usually falls to the civilian organizations.
Some bulldozers and. pneumatic drills and, a few trucks are used, but
the use of picks, shovels, hand tampers, primitive spreaders, and.
manually pulled rollers prevails. Often the handtools are furnished,
by the conscripted workers or are made by them at the construction
site.
The cost of constructing roads in the border area is best
measured in terms of the time and effort expended.* In this sense
the use of conscripted labor and. handtools is expensive. The rate
of construction is determined by the number of workers -- that is,
as the size of the labor force is increased, the rate of construction
is increased. Because laborers must be provided with adequate food,
housing, and. medical care or their labor productivity will decline
rapidly, these. necessities must increase in proportion to the corre-
sponding increase of. the labor force.** Moreover, the number of tech-
nicians must be increased. proportionately to train and. supervise
thousands of laborers rather than hundreds. Failure to provide these
necessities obviously results in severe attrition of the labor force,
poor quality of construction, and labor inefficiency. In addition
to labor inputs, materials further increase the cost of road construc-
tion in terms of amounts required. and availability. Soil-aggregate
roads require an enormous amount of stone or gravel for subbase and
surface. Even a substandard road. of this type requires from 2,000
to 2,500 cubic yards of stone or gravel per mile. When this material
is not readily available, long hauls add greatly to the cost of the
road., and quarrying operations are expensive even where the stone or
* An estimate of the cost of road construction could be expressed in
US dollars, but the paucity of data and the process of converting and
reconciling the exchange rates and. implied exchange rates of the various
countries would distort the results. In general, however, the cost of
constructing roads increases with the remoteness and. difficulty of the
terrain. In Communist China, for example, where scattered and, ambiguous
figures have been reported officially, the cost of constructing roads
in border areas averages 60,000 to 70,000 yuan (and, more) per kilometer
as opposed. to an average of 50,000 yuan (and. less) per kilometer in other
areas of the country. For a discussion of the breakdown of the costs of
road. construction, see CIA/RR ER 61-8, The Construction of Highways in
Communist China, 1949-60, March 1961, pp. 8-11, CONFIDENTIAL.
** In Asia a poorly fed. worker performing hard. manual labor can produce
only one-third to one-half the amount produced. by an adequately fed worker.
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gravel is available locally on short hauls. When the aggregate reaches
the construction site, it must be reduced. further to a usable and speci-
fied size and then put in place.*
IV. Assessment of Potential Border-Crossing Points
Although there are at present only eight routes for vehicular traffic
from Communist China into Southeast Asia, the distribution and, extent
of road. construction in the border area of China have increased sub-
stantially the number of potential links. Gaps in road terminals have
been shortened to less than 50 miles along the border of Burma and along
the border of North Vietnam as far east as about the 105th meridian.**
Should the Chinese Communists undertake to extend their road system
across the border, there are seven road gaps that they would be most
likely to close. All but one of these links could be constructed fairly
quickly, especially during the dry season. Estimates of the amount of
construction and the time required to close these selected. road. gaps
are as follows:
Road Reference
Number
Road Terminals (Appendix B)
Hpimaw-Myitkyina 31
T'eng-ch'ung - Myitkyina 40
T'eng-ch'ung -Bhamo 7, 41
Meng-lien - Keng Tung 14
Ban Nam Coum - Moe Chau 1
Wen-shan - Ha Giang 11, 47
Fu-ning - Ha Giang 10, 13
Length of
Road Gs.p
MileeL
Bridges
to be Repaired
or
Constructed
Approximate
Construction
Time Required
(Working Dayst)
30
7
330
40
30
60
1'7
8
45
33
12
165
.15
2
60
15
1
45
15
5
165
* Although a primitive type of stone crusher is used, the great
majority of all stone work is done by hand.
** Roads in Yunnan run near the border of northeastern Laos, but
some distance (at least 100 miles) would, have to be covered to form a
junction with the Meng-la - Phong Saly Road, the road farthest north in
Laos.
*** Estimates of construction are for single-lane, graveled roads that
can support 100 vehicles (300 tons) each way per day and. that allow for
limited two-way traffic. A single-lane road has a lane width of at
least 10 feet (8 feet plus clearances) and a surface width of about 23
feet (one lane plus shoulders).
t A working day is of 10 hours duration. The size of the work force
is sufficient to accomplish the work in the estimated time, using con-
struction methods common to Asia.
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The first four of the above roads would link the main road system
of Yunnan with the Mandalay-Putao and the Meiktila-Tachilek Roads in
Burma. Of these, the first three would provide alternate routes to
the Burma Road and would. serve at least to secure the Myitkyina and
Bhamo areas, including the railhead at Myitkyina. The fourth connec-
tion, which involves the improvement of a well-defined, trail, would
secure the area of Keng Tung and would give additional access (south-
ward) to Laos and Thailand as well as (westward.) to central Burma.*
Improvement of the short trail sections on the remaining three
routes not only would provide additional motorable links between the
main road systems of Communist China and North Vietnam but also would.
establish direct connections with Yunnan, where none exists at present.
In addition, improvement of the section south of Ban Nam Coum would
give direct access to northern Laos through northwestern North Vietnam.
* The other road. in this area, which connects with a main road in
Yunnan, is the Keng Tung - Mong La Road (see road study no. 14,
Appendix B). Further improvement of this road would require about
6 months (or 165 working days).
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APPENDIX A
PLACE NAME LIST
Road Reference
Numbers*
Atunze, see Te-ch'in
Bac Quang
22?29' N - 104?52' E
19, 46
Ban Koa
22045' N - 104043' E
46
Ban Nam Coum
22?36' N 103?10' E
1, 15,
20
Ban Sop Bau
20?43' N - 104023' E
36
Bao Lac
22057' N - 105?40' E
2
Bawdwin
23?06' N - 97?18' E
16
Bhamo
24?16' N - 97?14' E
7,
21,
41
Cao Bang
.22?40' N -"1o6?15' E
2,
3,
4,
5,
30
Chart-chiang
21?12' N - 110?23' E
26
Chan-ta, see Lien-shan
Ch'e-li
21?59' N - 100?49' E
6,
17
Chen-k'ang
24007' N - 99?25' E
48
Ch'eng-lung-chieh
24045' N - 98?o6' E
17,
41
Chen-pien, see Mu-pien
Chen-pien
22?37' N - 99?59' E
38
Chen-yuan
23051' N - 100057' E
12
Chiang-ch'"eng
22?35' N - 101050' E
8,
39
Chi-chieh
23?30' N - 103009' E
8
Chien-ch'uan
26028' N - 99?52' E
35
Chien-shui
23037' N - 102?49' E
8,
25,
39
Ching-hsi
23?08' N - lo6025' E
3,
4,
30,
43
Ching-ku
23?28' N - 100042' E
9,
12
Chin-p'ing
22?46' N - 103?15' E
15,
25
Chung-tien
27?50' N - 99?36' E
50
Dien Bien Phu
21?23' N - 103?01' E
44
Dong Dang
21057' N - 106?42' E
43
Dong Gach
22?50' N - 106?20' E
3,
5
Dong Khe
22026' N - 106?27' E
43
Dong Van
23?16' N - 105022' E
10,
11, 13
En-lo, see Chen-yuan
Fo-hai, see Meng-hai
Fort Bayard, see Chan-chiang
Fu-ning
23?37' N - 105?36' E
10,
13
* Road reference numbers are keyed to the road. studies in Appendix B
and. are shown schematically on the map, Figure 2, inside back cover.
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Road Reference
Numbers
Ha Giang 22?50' N - 104?59' E
2, 10, 11, 13, 47
Hanoi 21?02' N - 105?50' E
1, 11, 37
Hoi Xuan 20022' N - 105?07' E
37
Hon Gai 20057' N - 107?05' E
26
Ho Tsai Trai 22?24' N - 104013' E
19
Houei Sai 20?18' N - 100?26' E
33
Houei Yeui 21?11' N - 102049' E
44
Hpimaw 26002' N - 98?37' E
31
Hsenwi 23?18' N - 97?58' E
16
Hsi a-kuan 25?34' N - 100?14' E
50
Hsiang-yun 25?29' N - 100?35' E
9, 12
Hsi-meng 22?43' N - 99?26' E
38
Hsiao-wei-hsi 27?29' N - 99?01' E
50
Hwang Luk
20029' N - 99?56' E
K'ai-yuan
23?42' N - 103?14' E
8,
13,
30
Kawpa-ta
20?50' N - 100?03' E
38
Keng Lap
20?51' N - 100?31' E
28
Keng Tung
21?17' N - 99?36' E
14,
22
Ko-chiu
23?23' N - 103?09' E
15,
25
Kuei-yang
26?-35' N - lo6?43' E
Kunlong
23?25' N - 98?39' E
16
K'un-ming
25?04' N - 102?41' E
8,
17,
18,
34
Lai Chau
22?02' N - 103?10' E
1
Lang Son
21?50' N - 106?44' E
26
Lan-ts'ang,
Lao-chang
see Chen-pien
22?45' N - 99045' E
38
Lao Kay
22?30' N - 103?57' E
1,
15,
19,
20
Lashio
22?56' N - 97045' E
16
Laukhaung
25?54' N - 98?11' E
31
Li-chiang
26048' N - 100?16' E
50
Lien-shan
24?48' N - 97?54' E
7,
41
Lin-ts'ang
23?54' N - 100002' E
9,
12
Lung-ching
22?24' N - 106?50' E
43
Lung-ling
24?35' N - 98?41' E
42
Ma-kuan
23?02' N - 104?24' E
46,
47
Mandalay
22?00' N - 96?05' E
16,
21
Mang-shih
24?27' N - 98?36' E
18
Man-hao
23000' N - 103?23' E
Man-kaung
21054' N - 100?15' E
38
Man-pien
22?28' N - 101?32' E
39
Meiktila
20?52' N - 95?52' E
14,
22,
27,
28
Mein-ning,
Meng-hai
see Lin-ts'ang
21?58' N - 100?28' E
38
Meng-hun
21?50' N - 100023' E
17
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Meng-la
Meng-lang, see Chen-pien
Meng-lien
Meng-lung
Meng-mang
Meng-p'eng
Meng-sung
Meng-sung-a-k'a
Meng-ting
Meng-tung, see
Meng-tzu
Mien-ning, see
Moc Chau
Mong Cai
Mong Hpayak
Mong La
Mong Lin
Mong Yang
Mong Yawng
Mong Yu
Mong Yu
Muong Sing
Mu-pien
Myitkyina
Ts'ang-yuan
Lin-ts'ang
Road Reference
Numbers
21?28' N - 101035' E
23,
24
22?21' N - 99?36' E
14,
38
21?47' N - 100?27' E
6
21?18' N - 101?18' E
23
24005' N - 98059' E
23
23?21' N - 99026' E
34
21?29' N - 100031' E
6
23033' N - 99005' E
16,
34,
48
23?22' N - 103?24' E
20050' N - lo4038' E
1,
20,
36,
37
21?32' N - 107?58' E
26
20053' N - 99?56' E
27
21041' N - 100002' E
14
20?44' N - 100009' E
28
21050' N - 99?41' E
14,
38
21?11' N - 100022' E
6,
27
21?20' N - 100033' E
27
23?58' N - 97059' E
21
21?11' N - 101?09' E
23?23' N - 105?48' E
25?23' N - 97?24' E
Na-fa-tui-hsun 22?37' N - 103?07' E
Na Khan 22047' N - 106?10' E
Nam Tha (Muong Luong Nam Tha) 20?57' N - 101?25' E
Nan-chiao
Nan-chien
Nan-ping
Nguyen Binh
Ning-erh, see P'u-erh
Pac Muong
Pai-se
Pangsau Pass
Pao-shan
Pa Tan
Phong Saly
Pi-chiang
P'ing-hsiang
P'ing-pien
P'u-erh
Putao
22002' N - 100015' E
25?04' N - 100?37' E
22049' N - 1o8?19' E
22?39' N - 105056' E
22056' N - lob?32' E
23054' N - 106?37' E
27?14' N - 96?10' E
25007' N - 99?09' E
22?28' N - 103?11' E
21041' N - 102?06' E
26033' N - '98?56' E
22006' N - 106044' E
22?54' N - 103040' E
23?05' N - 101?03' E
27?21' N - 97?24' E
23, 24, 28, 29
5, 30
21,
31,
32, 4o
15
5
29,
33
38
12,
34
4
13,
30
32
18,
41,
42, 49
20
24,
44
35,
45
43
25
9,
12,
17
16,
21
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Coordinates
Road Reference
Numbers
Samneua
20028'
N 104?02' E
36,
37
Shih-p'ing
23?43'
N 102030' E
8
Shuang-chiang
230281
N 99050' E
38
Soc Giang
22?54'
N 106?0l' E
5,
30
Sop Nao
21010'
N 102046' E
44
Ssu-mao
22?46'
N 101?05' E
8,
39
Tachilek
20027'
N - 99053' E
14,
22,
27,
28
Ta-kaw
21013'
N - 98042' E
22
Ta-lo
21041'
N - 100005' E
14,
17
Te-ch'in
28?30'
N - 98052' E
50
Te-pao
23020'
N - 106?37' E
43
T'eng-ch'ung
25002'
N - 98028' E
7,
40,
41,
42
Than Thuy
22055'
N - 104?51' E
11
Thiet Tra
20?18'
N - 105?09' E
37
Tien-pao, see Te-pao
Tien Yen
21?20'
N - 107?24' E
26
T'o-kuo-lo
26?47'
N - 100000' E
50
Tsang-Yuan
23?09'
N - 99?15' E
34
Tuan Giao
21035'
N - 103025' E
1,
44
Wan-t'ing
24?05'
N - 98?o4' E
7,
18,
21
Wa-yao
25025'
N - 99016' E
35,
45
Wen-shan
23?22'
N - 104014' E
11,
13,
46,
47
Yang-t'ou-yen
24012'
N - 99059'
Ying-chiang,
see Ch'eng-lung-chieh
Yun-hsien
24025' N - 100?07' E 49
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APPENDIX B
ROAD STUDIES*
1. Ban Nam Coum - Moc Chau (North Vietnam) Surface: Varied
Length : 250 to 255 miles
This road extends from Ban Nam Coum on the border southward to Moc
Chau, where it continues (as route 6) to Hanoi. The section from the
border south to Lai Chau is a narrow, unbridged road, little more than a
trail. From Lai Chau to Tuan Giao the section was once a fairly good
road but has deteriorated badly, and only a few old bridges still remain.
The last section, from Tuan Giao to Moc Chau, has been improved and
bridged throughout. Improvement of the latter section was underway in
1957 and included widening the road (still single-lane), adding gravel
to the surface, putting in concrete culverts, and replacing timber struc-
tures with bailey bridges. Repairs on the road have continued on a
yearly basis. There has been some indication that reconstruction might
begin, shortly on the Lai Chau - Tuan Giao section simultaneously with
construction of a connecting road from Lao Kay (see road study no. 20).
Depending on the amount of effort expended, both of these roads could be
completed in 1965-66, giving the northwestern area of North Vietnam
direct access to the railroad at Lao Kay. Possibly included in this con-
struction project is the trail section from Lai Chau to the border.
Because a road in Yunnan already extends to the border (see road study
no. 15), construction of this section will provide an additional route
across the border from Communist China into the main road system (route 6)
of North Vietnam and, also, an access route into northern Laos. This road
passes through mountainous terrain and has steep grades and hairpin
turns. The best period for road construction is November through March,
when the ground is dry.** In the area of Ban Nam Coum, however, there are
marshes and swamps and the ground is dry for only 3 months (January-March);
during the remainder of the year it is wet and flooded.
Burma Road (see road study no. 18)
2. Cao Bang - Bao Lac (North Vietnam) Surface: Partly graveled
Length : 65 to 70 miles
The road running west and north toward the border from Cao Bang to
Bao Lac (via Nguyen Binh) was reconstructed after the French-Indochina War.
* The roads described in this Appendix are shown schematically in the
map, Figure 2, inside back cover.
** The terms dry and wet as used in this publication describe the state
of the ground from the surface to a depth of at least 3 inches. The ground
is dry when the pore space is essentially free of water and. wet when it is
almost or completely filled with water.
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Beyond Bao Lac the road has been extended for about 25 miles and runs
westward toward Ha Giang rather than north toward the border. There is
no indication that construction is continuing to Ha Giang. Other new
construction on the road is a cutoff west of Nguyen Binh. This new
section connects the Cao Bang - Bao Lac Road to an old repaired road
that runs southwest from Nguyen Binh and joins with the main road (route 3)
from Cao Bang farther to the south. The ground is dry for a slightly
longer period in this area, but the terrain causes road alignments to be
steep and winding and confined to following river valleys. Cao Bang
itself, however, is situated in a small area of rolling plains.
3. Cao Bang - Dong Gach (North Vietnam) Surface: Partly graveled
Length : 25 to 35 miles
A potential access road from Cao Bang across the border to Ching-hsi
in Kwangsi Province is the one via Dong Gach. It was initially con-
structed in 1953-54 as a dry-weather road, but sections of the road
within Kwangsi have deteriorated from lack of maintenance. In North
Vietnam it has been reconstructed but is in poor condition and requires
constant repair. The road apparently is suitable only for local traffic
up to the border. It is a steep winding mountain road and passes through
an area where the ground is dry for most of the period from November
through March.
4+. Cao Bang - Pac Muong (North Vietnam) Surface: Graveled
Length : 4+5 to 50 miles
This road, one of several radiating from Cao Bang to the border, is
the one probably used as the main through route between Communist China
and North Vietnam. The road runs from Cao Bang across the border (at Pac
Muong) through Kwangsi Province to Ching-hsi and is the only one in this
area of the border that links the main road systems of Communist China
and North Vietnam. Initially constructed in the 191+0's and reconstructed
in 1953-54+, it was repaired in the early 1.960's on both sides of the bor-
der. The road requires constant maintenance and repair because it winds
through a mountainous area where the ground is wet from mid-April to
about mid-October.
5. Cao Bang - Soc Giang (North Vietnam) Surface : Partly graveled
Length : 25 to 30 miles
This road extends through Soc Giang to the border of North Vietnam
but does not cross it. It has had some repairs, and two new cutoffs have
been constructed, which provide alternate routes from Cao Bang through
Soc Giang to the border. One of these new roads branches from the main
road between Na Khan and Soc Giang and extends north to Soc Giang paral-
leling the main road. The northern half of the new road has not been
completed and is only a jeepable trail. Northeast of Soc Giang a local
road in poor condition terminates just short of the border opposite a
road from Mu-pien in Kwangsi Province (see road study no. 30). Another
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new road bypasses Cao Bang to the north and connects the road to Soc
Giang with the Cao Bang - Dong Gach Road. All of the roads have the same
soil and terrain conditions as other roads in this area (see road studies
nos. 2, 3, and 4). Maintenance of these roads is sporadic, and extensive
repairs usually are needed after each rainy season to make them passable.
6. Ch'e-li - Meng-sung-a-k'a (Yunnan) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 50 to 60 miles
Construction of this road, which extends directly south from Ch'e-li
toward the border and terminates opposite Mong Yawng (Burma), apparently
was started after 1957 but had been surveyed before that time. By the
end of 1961, it had been completed as far as Meng-lung and was extended
to Meng-sung-a-k'a by 1963-64. There is no indication that the road is
being extended across the border. The road reportedly is in very poor
condition and, although short stretches have been covered with gravel, it
is impassable during the monsoon season. The road passes through an area
that is seldom dry except during November through February and because
the area is mountainous the road is restricted to following river valleys
and, therefore, subject to inundation.
7. Ch'eng-lung-chieh - Wan-t'ing (Yunnan) Surface: Partly graveled
Length : 85 to 95 miles
This road is a continuation of an old realigned and reconstructed
section of the T'eng-ch'ung - Lien-shan Road (see road study no. 4l). It
continues west of Ch'eng-lung-chieh and turns south near the border a
few miles east of where the old road (now a trail) connecting T'eng-ch'ung
and Bhamo continued across the border. From this point, it runs south
roughly paralleling the border and connects with the Burma Road at
Wan-t'ing. Reports of dates for construction of this road are ambiguous,
but it probably was completed by the end of 1957. The following year im-
provements, consisting of adding gravel or stone to the surface of some
sections, were started and have continued through 1964. In this area the
alignment is confined to following river valleys through the mountainous
terrain. The area is wet during most of the year, except from November
through February, and much damage is caused by landslides and washouts
caused by heavy rains.
8. Chien-shui - Border (Yunnan) Surface: Partly graveled
Length : 80 to 95 miles
An improved road runs south from Chien-shui to a point about 30 air
miles from the border with North Vietnam. From this point a natural
earth road swings westward and continues for about 30 to 35 miles, where
construction has stopped. The road was officially announced as open to
traffic in April 1964, and construction probably has been underway since
1960. Eventually it probably will connect with the Ssu-mao - Chiang-ch'eng
Road (see road study no. 39) and will form a new lateral route close to
the borders of both North Vietnam and Laos. Chien-shui is connected to
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the main network by improved roads. One of these, which was in very
poor condition in 1956, runs west via Shih-p'ing and connects with the
K'un-lo Trunk Road (see road study no. 17). This west road plus another
extending from Chien-shui southeast to Ch:L-chieh and then north to
K'ai-yuan forms the main link with the K'ai-yuan - Pai-se Road (see road
study no. 13), which creates a direct southern route between western
Kwangsi and central Yunnan and bypasses K`un-ming. There is a shorter,
more direct route that runs northeast from Chien-shui to K'ai-yuan, but
this road has not been improved and probably is in poor condition. In
the area of the southernmost and western sections of the Chien-shui -
Border Road the ground is never completely dry and is wettest from about
March to mid-October. Along the northern section of the road and around
the area of Chien-shui, the ground is dry from December through April but
can be very wet from May through September. Both of these moisture
conditions also are found along the roads to Shih-p'ing and K'ai-yuan.
The terrain in this area varies from dissected plains, hills, and moun-
tains in the northern part to mountainous terrain farther south.
9. Ching-ku - Lin-ts'ang (Yunnan) Surface: Probably natural
earth
Length : 60 to 70 miles
This road connects two main north-south routes by branching west from
the Hsiang-yun - P'u-erh Road to a point on the Nan-ta Road (see road
study no. 34) south of Lin-ts'ang (Mien-ning). A regular bus service from
P'u-erh to Lin-ts'ang reportedly was running over this road by the end of
1958, indicating that construction was started about 1956-57. The road
passes through varied terrain composed of mountains, hills, and plains.
The ground in this area is dry much of the year but is very wet during
July and through October.
10. Ha Giang - Dong Van (North Vietnam.) Surface: Partly graveled
Length : 100 to 125 miles
This new road was completed after 4 years of construction. Accord-
ing to the North Vietnamese press of October 1963, assistance in planning
and construction of the road was provided by the Chinese Communists. The
road was reported to have an average of three bridges per mile of road
and to be surfaced with gravel and stone for about three-fourths of its
length. The road stops short of the border, but it is one of the con-
venient points along the border where a connection with the border road
from Fu-ning in Kwangsi Province could be made (see road study no. 13).
This road winds through mountainous terrain and follows river valleys.
In this area the ground is dry during November-December, increases in
wetness in April, and remains wet into October.
11. Ha Giang - Than Thuy (North Vietnam) Surface: Partly graveled
Length : 15 to 20 miles
This is the northernmost section of a main road (route 2) in North
Vietnam. (The route south of Ha Giang to Hanoi is a reconstructed road
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some sections of which have a gravel surface.) It has not been improved
and becomes a trail before it crosses the border into Yunnan. This
section was part of a road hastily constructed in 1953-54 from Wen-shan
to Ha Giang for use as a supply route during the French-Indochina war
(see road study no. 47). The trail section within North Vietnam is less
than 5 air miles in length and is one of the most likely points along
the border where a connection might be reconstructed. The terrain and
moisture conditions of the ground in this area are similar to those of
the Ha Giang - Dong Van road (see road study no. 10).
12. Hsiang-yun - P'u-erh (Yunnan) Surface: Graveled
Length : 200 to 250 miles
This main north-south soute connects the Burma Road at Hsiang-yun
with the K'un-lo Road at P'u-erh. The northern section of the road,
between Hsiang-yun and Nan-chien, links the Nan-ta Road to the Burma
Road (see road study no. 34). The road is single-lane (with shoulders)
and generally is 23 feet wide throughout. Although it reportedly is an
all-weather road, some sections are dangerous in wet weather. Construc-
tion started in 1951-52 and was completed between 1955 and 1957. Most
of the terrain along the road consists of mountains, high hills, and
dissected plains. Two sections of the road, however, pass through rugged
terrain very similar to that of northwestern Yunnan. These sections are
located from the area of Nan-chien to the vicinity of Chen-yuan (En-lo)
and just to the north of P'u-erh. Moisture conditions of the ground are
similar to those of the Ching-ku - Lin-ts'ang Road (see road study no. 9)
except in the rugged terrain areas, where wetness persists for a longer
period during the year.
13. K'ai-yuan - Pai-se (Yunnan-Kwangsi) Surface: Graveled
Length : 280 to 300 miles
Running at a distance of 20 to 50 miles from the border of North
Vietnam, this main road, which is connected to the Kun-lo Road west of
K'ai-yuan, greatly shortens the distance between western Kwangsi and
central Yunnan (see road study no. 8). Construction on this road, which
started in the early 1950's, was completed in 1955-56, but it probably
was not entirely surfaced until after 1958-59. Two roads extending from
it toward the border converge at Wen-shan (see road studies nos. 46
and 47). A third road runs south from Fu-ning for a distance of 20 to
25 miles and terminates near the border opposite Dong Van in North Vietnam.
The gap from the end of the road to Dong Van is less than 10 air miles,
but the trail distance probably is about 15 miles. Converting this trail
section into a road would provide a connection from the K'ai-yuan - Pai-se
Road into the main road network of North Vietnam via Ha Giang (see road
study no. 11). The K'ai-yuan - Pai-se Road passes through an area of
dissected plains, hills, and mountains where its alignment is restricted
in some places to river valleys. The ground in this area is predominantly
dry from December through April but is frequently wet from that time into
October.
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1ZE. Keng Tung - Mong Yang - Mong La (Burma) Surface: Varied
Length : Varied
Two roads branch off the Meiktila-Tachilek Road at Keng Tung and
extend toward the border with Communist China. The road which extends
50 to 60 miles northward to Mong Yang is narrow and winding. Initially
constructed by Thai troops during World War II, the Burmese have continued
to improve this old road, especially since 1960-61, by adding gravel to
some of the sections and by repair and construction of bridges. Beyond
Mong Yang, two well-defined trails continue northward through Burma and
across the border of Communist China to Meng-lien (see road study no. 38).
From Keng Tung the other road extends 40 to 45 miles northeast toward
Ta-lo in Yunnan via Mong La, a town located in Burma near the border (see
road study no. 17). Except for sections near Keng Tung and Mong La, it
has been a narrow natural earth road, lit-:le.more than a trail and not
passable for vehicles. According to a press report of November, the
Burmese planned to improve but not to sur:ace the trail section immedi-
ately. Reports on improvements are ambiguous, but there are good indi-
cations that constru.ction has been started and that the road should have
been passable for vehicles by February 1965. Further improvements of
this road would require about 6 months. Except for the small plains on
which Mong Yang and Keng Tung are located the terrain in this area is
mountainous, and roads are confined to river valleys and ridges. The
plains are wet or flooded from May through October, and the slow-drying
ground of the uplands is wet from May through September.
15. Ko-chiu - Chin-p'ing - Border (Yunnan) Surface: Partly graveled.
Length : 65 to 75 miles
This road runs from Ko-chiu through Chin-p'ing to Ban Nam Coum on the
border of North Vietnam a distance of 65 to 75 miles. The road was com-
pleted as far south as Chin-p'ing by 195'7 and to the border by 1963. Also
completed by 1963-64+ are the piers and abutments of a large bridge over
the Red River at Man-hao that has been under construction since about
1960-61. Most of the unfordable streams throughout the entire length of
the road are bridged. Ferries are needed to cross the Hung Ho at Man-hao
and the river near the border at Na-fa-tui-hsun where another bridge is
believed to have been under construction for some time. Construction
apparently has been abandoned on a branch :road running southwest from Man-
hao along the river toward Lao Kay after it was completed for a short
distance. The terrain through which the road passes is generally moun-
tainous, but there are some plains and hills. The ground in this area,
never completely dry, is driest from December through February and wettest
from March into October.
K'un-lo Road (see road study no. 17)
16. Kunlong-Hsenwi (Burma) Surface: Graveled
Length : 52 miles
This road was constructed before 19+0 along the alignment of an
ancient route used by the Chinese for carting lead and silver ores from
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the Bawdwin mines into China. The road, which is in fair condition,
branches to the east from Hsenwi, a town on the Mandalay-Putao Road
about 32 miles north of Lashio. Kunlong is reached by ferry across the
Salween River. East of Kunlong the road is no more than a jeepable
trail that continues across the border into Yunnan to a point just west
of Meng-ting. Between the Salween River and the border a natural earth
road, which was under construction in 1957, runs east and north from
Kunlong. Kunlong is the site of the suspension bridge over the Salween
River that is to be constructed by Communist China. Preliminary con-
struction started in May 1964, and by late June some 62 Chinese Communist
technicians and engineers had arrived at the site. By November 1964,
construction had not progressed much beyond the initial stages of build-
ing a construction camp and storage facilities. According to a press
release of 27 January 1965, construction of the bridge has been resched-
uled for completion in 1966-67 from the original completion date of June
1965. The best construction season in this area is October into May,
when the ground is dry.
17. K'un-ming - Ta-lo (Yunnan) Surface: Graveled
Length : 850 to 900 miles
Designated as a military highway by the Chinese Communists, this
road is called the K'un-lo Road and is sometimes referred to as the
South Burma Road. The road is single-lane, from 23 to 26 feet wide in-
cluding shoulders, and is well maintained. The road reportedly was
designed with a maximum loadbearing capacity of 50 metric tons and the
bridges with a capacity of 15 metric tons. Construction was started in
late 1951 and completed to Ta-lo by 1957. Originally the road was con-
structed of natural earth, and improvements were begun about 1953 on
some of the completed sections. The road was surfaced with gravel or
stone throughout most of its length by the end of 1957, and many sections
have been and are continuing to be realigned and reconstructed to provide
better gradients. The section nearest the border, from the vicinity of
Meng-hun through Ta-lo, probably is the least improved. Reportedly,
there are only temporary wooden bridges on this section. Along the en-
tire road, however, both repair of existing briges and building of new
ones is continuing. One of the largest of these, which will replace a
ferry, is a 10-span, reinforced concrete structure some 340 to 395 meters
(1,115 to 1,300 feet) long over the Mekong River about 3 miles west-
northwest of Ch'e-li. Construction of the bridge, which was resumed in
May 1964, is completed except for the approach roads and finishing work
and reportedly was to be officially opened to traffic in January 1965.
The terrain over which the road passes is mountainous and interspersed
with plains, especially in the area between P'.u-erh and Ta-lo. Along
the latter section the ground is never as dry as it is along the remainder
of the road from December through April. Over the entire alignment the
ground is wettest in the period from early May through early October.
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18. K'un-ming - Wan-t'ing (Yunnan) Surface: Graveled
Length : 500 to 600 miles
Since it was initially completed 20 years ago, the Burma Road has
undergone constant improvement, repair, and realignment of sections which
makes the exact length difficult to determine. It is a two-lane road (aver-
aging 30 feet in width) with a gravel surface, except for a bituminous-
treated section west of K'un-ming. It is the only two-lane road that
extends to the border of Southeast Asia from Communist China. Since the
mid-1950's, there have been rumors of discussions and agreements between
Burma and Communist China about "opening" the Burma Road. Sections on
both sides of the border were in need of repair, however, before the road
could be opened to traffic. In 1963-64, there was evidence that local
traffic was moving back and forth across the border, implying that those
sections of the road had been repaired. This and other evidence indicates
that traffic from Yunnan to the main highway system of Burma is now pos-
sible. The road passes through difficult terrain, especially southwest
of Pao-shah where the terrain is similar to that found in northwestern
Yunnan. Except for the section west of Mang-shih to the border, which is
never very dry, the ground along the road is mostly dry from early
December through April and wet from early May into October.
Ledo Road (see road study no. 32)
19. Lao Kay - Bac Quang (North Vietnam) Surface: Partly graveled
Length : 70 to 75 miles
At one time there was a road between Lao Kay and Bac Quang, but two-
thirds of it has deteriorated into a trail. The 25-mile section from
Lao Kay to Ho Tsao Trai was reconstructed by 1960. Nothing has been done
to the 50-mile eastern section where the bridges are lacking, which, for
all practical purposes, makes it unusable. Although a system of roads
exists around. the Lao Kay area, none of them is connected with the main
roads. Most of these roads are natural earth roads which were repaired
after 1954 and which are maintained only to the extent necessary to sup-
port local traffic. The terrain and moisture conditions of the ground
are very similar to those associated with roads radiating from Cao Bang
(see road studies 2, 3, and 4).
20. Lao Kay - Pa Tan (North Vietnam) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 70 to 80 miles
Construction of this road has been underway since 1959. At the end
of the dry season in 1963 the road had been completed for a distance of
about 30 miles west of Lao Kay. A 20-mile jeepable section also had
been completed eastward from Pa Tan toward Lao Kay, but the middle
section still remains little more than a well-defined trail. Because
Pa Tan is located on the Ban Nam Coum - Moc Chau Road (see road study
no. 1), completion of this road together with the northern sections of
the Ban Nam Coum - Moc Chau Road will provide a direct route into north-
eastern North Vietnam from the railroad at Lao Kay. The terrain west of
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Lao Kay is mountainous, but it is dryer for a longer period (November
into April) than for most of the area to the east where it becomes in-
creasingly wet after March.
21. Mandalay-Putao (Burma) Surface: Varied by
section
Length : 708 miles
This is the main trunk road (route 3) in Burma that links the cen-
tral valley with the far northern part of the country via the Northern
Shan and Kachin border states. It is the only main road in Burma that
is connected directly with the main road system of Communist China.
The connection is made by a secondary road, once a section of the old
Burma Road, which branches from the Mandalay-Putao Road at Mong Yu
and runs northeast to Wan-t'ing in Yunnan Province (see road study
no. 18). For a distance of about 380 miles from Mandalay to just beyond
Bhamo the road has a bituminous-treated surface that was applied in
World War II. It was reported in 1962 to be in generally good condi-
tion, although the edges were eroded and the shoulders washed out in the
hill sections. During 1962-63 about 125 additional miles, including a
25-mile section north of Myitkyina, reportedly were tarred. Beyond that
point to Putao it is a natural earth road passable only in the dry season,
although some sections have been surfaced with gravel or stone. Even
though the road has been repaired recently, it is doubtful that it is
in better than fair condition throughout most of its length. Not only
has annual maintenance and repair been hindered by the presence of in-
surgent forces, but also they are reported to have severely damaged
several sections. The moisture conditions of the ground along most of
the road are similar to those in the Eastern Shan State (see road studies
nos. 14, 22, 27, and 28). From the area of Bhamo to the area of
Myitkyina, however, the land is wet or flooded from mid-May into November.
The center of the plain on which Putao is located also is subject to
flooding at that time of year.
22. Meiktila-Tachilek (Burma) Surface: Varied by
section
Length : 499 miles
A trunk road (route 4) extends east from the central region of Burma
into the Eastern Shan State to Keng Tung where it turns south to the
Thai border. From Meiktila for a distance of about 175 miles the road
has an old bituminous-treated surface that has eroded edges and washed-
out shoulders; beyond this point the road is narrower and has a graveled
surface. Although it has been repaired annually since 1962, it is in
generally poor condition and requires almost constant maintenance to keep
it trafficable. South of Keng Tung all the way to the border the road is
very narrow and has many sharp turns. Along the Keng Tung Tachilek
section, four roads branch north and east toward the borders of Communist
China and Laos (see road studies nos. 14, 27, and 28). Ta-kaw, which is
about 113 miles west of Keng Tung, is the site of the suspension bridge
to be constructed by the Chinese Communists across the Salween River.
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According to a press report of 27 January 1965, construction of the
bridge is scheduled to start in 1966-67. On the Shan Plateau the road
generally follows river courses through hilly terrain, but it does cross
two fairly high mountain ridges. Along most of the length of the road
the ground is wet from April through OctoDer. The southernmost section
near the Thai border and the sections around Keng Tung pass through
plains that are wet or flooded in the period May through October.
23. Meng-la - Meng-p'eng - Meng-mang (Yunnan) Surface: Graveled
Length : 25 to 30 miles
A road that was completed before 1957 runs west and southwest from
Meng-la across southern Yunnan to Muong Sing in Laos. As a continuation
of the improvement on the road to Meng-la in Yunnan in 1958-59 (see road
study no. 24), it was widened and graveled probably as far as the junc-
tion of the roads to Meng-p'eng and Meng-mang (21025' N - 101023' E).
Conversion of the trail, which runs south of Meng-mang to the border,
into a road for vehicular traffic by adding gravel or stone to the surface
reportedly continued after 1959, but the project was suspended and the
road was allowed to deteriorate into a trail. It was not until after
mid-November 1964 that construction was resumed, and by the end of the
year a road was completed connecting Meng-?mang with the border and on
across the border to Muong Sing. The road is a single-lane, unbridged,
natural earth road, probably surfaced in the worst spots, and usable by
4-wheel-drive vehicles. The terrain in this area is a mixture of moun,
tains, hills, and scattered plains. The ground is never completely dry
and is the wettest starting in early March and continuing into October.
24. Meng-la - Phong Saly (Yunnan-Laos;, Surface: Graveled
Length : 185 to 200 miles
By January 1962, when the agreement for construction of this road
was officially announced, it is believed not only that the Chinese Com-
munists had completed the survey but also that construction probably had
begun on the section in Laos. The section in Yunnan from the K'un-lo
road to Meng-la (100 to 115 miles) was completed in 1955-56. At that
time, it was a narrow earth road incompletely bridged. Graveling and
widening of the road to its present width (single-lane plus shoulders)
was started in 1958-59, and additional improvements including construc-
tion of reinforced concrete bridges continued through 1963. Construction
and improvement of the section from Meng-la to the border, which is the
first section of the Meng-la - Phong Saly Road, also was underway in
1958-59. From the border the road was built along the alignment of old
trails and was continued beyond Phong Saly to the river. Although the
road reportedly was designed with a load-bearing capacity of 60 tons, it
was constructed with a substandard foundation and a minimum of bridging
and drainage. Since its completion in May 1963, it has suffered severe
damage from heavy rains and flooding and has required constant repairs
to keep it trafficable. This road, however, together with the one to
Muong Sing, is the only new road constructed across the border from
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Communist China in 10 years (see road study no. 23). Except for a few
stretches of flat land in Yunnan, the road for most of its length is
steep and winding, especially through Laos. The ground in the area is
seldom dry and is wettest in the period March through October. The
section in Laos varies somewhat from Yunnan in that the ground becomes
wetter a month later (in April) and can be fairly dry during November-
December.
25. Meng-tzu - Ping-pien (Yunnan) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 30 to 40 miles
Little information is available on construction of this road, but
it probably is intended for local traffic, although it does not extend
all the way to P'ing-pien. It has been improved for about 15 to 20 miles
south of Meng-tzu, but there is no evidence that construction is continu-
ing. The alignment roughly follows a road constructed from Meng-tzu into
North Vietnam in 1953-54 and a road that was constructed during World
War II to supplement rail traffic on the railroad between Yunnan and
North Vietnam. The terrain and moisture conditions of the ground along
the road are similar to those in the area of the road from Chien-shui to
the border and from Ko-chiu to Chin-p'ing (see road studies no. 8 and
15).
26. Mong Cai - Tien Yen (North Vietnam) Surface: Graveled
Length : 45 to 50 miles
This coastal road (route 4) in North Vietnam connects with a road
in Kwangtung Province that runs to Chan-chiang (Fort Bayard). In North
Vietnam the road was opened to traffic in 1950 and was improved for
through traffic with Communist China when the bridge at Mong Cai was
completed in 1958. At Tien Yen the main road turns west and continues
to Lang Son, and another road continues south to the port of Hon Gai.
Both these roads are reported to be in poor condition. The Meng Cai -
Tien Yen Road passes through an area of rolling plains situated between
high mountains, and west of Tien Yen it becomes a mountain road. The
ground in the area is driest during November-December and wettest from
May through September.
27. Mona-Hpayak - Mong Yawng - Mong Yu_ (Burma) Surface: Varied by
section
Length : 60 to 65 miles
From Mong Hpayak on the main Meiktila-Tachilek Road, this road runs
eastward through Mong Yawng to Mong Yu. From Mong Yu a trail continues
through Burma and across the border into Communist China. The road is
surfaced with gravel probably as far as Mong Yawng (47 miles) but continues
as a natural earth road to Mong Yu. The Burmese initially opened this
road to vehicular traffic in 1962, at which time it was narrow and unsur-
faced. Since then they have widened and surfaced it, although it still
is single-lane. Further improvements on the section to Mong Yawng are
continuing, and it is believed that the Mong Yawng - Mong Yu section also
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will be improved. Except for the plain on which Mong Yawng is located
the terrain is mountainous and hilly, and the road follows river valleys
and clings to ridges. The area is wettest from late May to October,
but the plain can be wet or flooded all of May through all of October.
28. Mong Lin - Keng Lap - (Burma-Laos) Surface: Natural earth
Muong Sing Length : 90 to 100 miles
Closely paralleling the Mekong River., a road-trail runs northeastward
from the Meiktila-Tachilek Road through Keng Lap to Muong Sing in Laos.
There is no bridge where the route crosses the Mekong River, but traffic
can be ferried across the river. Reports on this road within Burma are
conflicting, but apparently the Burmese had made some repairs to the road
and bridges and had opened it to traffic by late 1963. Improvement of
the road is continuing and some sections are being surfaced with gravel.
Within Laos a jeepable trail continues from the river to Muong Sing. In
1963-64 the trail was improved to some extent but only in the vicinity of
Muong Sing. The terrain on both sides of the border is mountainous, and
the ground has the same seasonal moisture conditions -- that is, driest
in November-December and wettest from May through September.
29. Muong Sing - Nam Tha (Laos) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 30 to 35 miles
During the period 1961-64, there were numerous reports that this
road was under construction. Probably it was not until 1963-64 that it
became usable by 4-wheel-drive vehicles. It is still a narrow, unsur-
faced, and unbridged road passable only in dry weather and subject to
extensive repair after each rainy season. Repairs have been carried out
for a short distance on trails extending north and south of Nam Tha, but
there is no indication that further work is underway. All of the old
roads that connected Nam Tha to the other areas of Laos have deteriorated
into trails. The area is mountainous causing the roads and trails to
follow water courses or ridges. The ground in the area is driest in
November-December and wettest from May through September.
30. Mu-pien - Ching-hsi (Kwangsi) Surface: Partly graveled
Length : 40 to 45 miles
This road was constructed initially in the early 1950's and recon-
structed about 1961. Although there is some evidence that a road once
ran from Mu-pien north to the Kai-yuan - Pai-se Road, this connection
no longer exists. Another road was constructed southeast from Mu-pien
to the border of North Vietnam opposite Sac Giang (see road study no. 5).
The condition of sections of the roads varies from poor to good but is
adequate for local traffic. Continuation of the road across the border
to Soc Giang would provide an alternate route from Ching-hsi to Cao Bang
and a main road (route 4) in North Vietnam. The terrain in the area is
composed of dissected plains,hills, and mountains. Throughout most of
the area the ground is dry from December through April. In the border
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area, however, the terrain is more rugged and the ground is never com-
pletely dry.
31. Myitkyina-Hpimaw (Burma) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 100 to 125 miles
This is an old road constructed along an old trade route before 1940.
It is jeepable most of the year within a short distance of Laukhaung, and
from there it is passable in dry weather only. The road ends in a trail
that continues across the border to Hpimaw. The route climbs fairly
rapidly from a plain through hill country to high rugged terrain. The
ground in the area is wet from May through September, and snow in the
mountains is not a serious problem during the winter.
32. Myitkyina - Pangsau Pass (Burma) Surface: Partly graveled
Length : 228 miles
The Ledo Road, constructed in World War II, is trafficable most of
the year for a distance of about 120 miles west of Myitkyina. Beyond
this point, it has not been repaired or maintained, and bridges over
several rivers are out. It is possible for jeep vehicles to travel the
entire route during the dry season, but the road is impassable during
the monsoon season. The road passes through an area of intermontane
basins and plains until it reaches the mountains in the west. These
flat areas are wet or flooded from May through September.
33. Nam Tha - Houei Sail (Laos) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 95 to 100 miles
This narrow old road has deteriorated considerably. In the vicinity
of Nam Tha the road was repaired in 1963-64, but only for a short distance
south of the town. From Houei Sai it is possible during dry weather to
travel about 30 miles, but during the rainy season the road is impassable.
The road runs through mountainous terrain and follows water courses and
ridges. The ground, which is wettest from May through September, is
never very dry.
34. Nan-chien - Meng-ting (Yunnan) Surface: Graveled
Length : 380 to 390 miles
Designated as a military highway, this road is in good condition and
is well maintained. Reportedly the road, referred to as the Nan-ta
Road, was designed for a maximum load-bearing capacity of 40 metric tons
and the bridges for a capacity of 15 metric tons. Beyond Meng-ting the
road is in bad condition and terminates in a trail a short distance west
of the town. Construction of the road started in the dry season in
1952-53 and was scheduled to be completed by 1957. Because sections of
this road closely paralleled the alignment of the proposed K'un-ming -
Burma rail line, those responsible for the construction of the road were
cautioned not to use or damage the old abandoned railroad bed. In
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1955-56, construction also was underway on a 30-mile branch road that
extended south from the vicinity of Meng.-sung toward the border via
Ts'ang-yuan (Meng-tung). Construction of the main road to Meng-ting
apparently was completed at the end of 1956 or early 1957 and the southern
branch road in 1959-60. The terrain through which this road passes is
very similar to the high, rugged terrain of northwestern Yunnan. Although
the easternmost section of the road is in an area where the ground is dry
from December through April, most of the area is never very dry. Rains
occur most frequently along the entire road in July, August, and October.
Nan-ta Road (see road study no. 34)
35. Pi-chiang - Chien-ch'uan (Yunnan) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 100 to 200 miles
This road crosses high mountain ranges and deep valleys and connects
with the Wa-yao - Pi-chiang and Yunnan-Tibet Roads. Little information
is available on the construction of this road, but it probably was built,
after 1957. Because it traverses extremely rugged terrain, it is steep
and winding and undoubtedly much longer than estimated. Although the
ground in this area generally is dry from November through April, it
increases in wetness in the mountains starting with the spring thaw in
early March and remains wet until it freezes in October-November. At
lower elevations the ground is wettest from May into October, and where
it is fed by melting snow it is wet for a much longer period.
36. Samneua - Moc Chau (Laos-North Vietnam) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 70 to 75 miles
The road in Laos, including several small bridges, has been improved.
There is a ferry crossing at Ban Sop Bau. Across the border in North
Vietnam the road is in poor condition. Repairs to the entire length of
the road have been carried out yearly at least since 1960. The surface
of the road, especially the section in Laos, may have been stabilized
with stone or gravel. The road continues for a short distance beyond
Samneua but ends in a trail. Another road that branches from this one
near the border and runs for some distance along the river within Laos
toward the border has not been improved. The roads in this area wind
through steep mountainous terrain where the ground is wettest from May
through September. For a 20-mile section within Laos from Samneua east-
ward, however, the ground is wet for a longer period than in the area
traversed by the remainder of the road.
37. Samneua - Thiet Tra (Laos-North Vietnam) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 85 to 90 miles
During the dry seasons of 1962-63 and early 1964 the road was
bridged and repairs were made to the surface, which probably is stabi-
lized in some sections. The road is in fairly good condition and is
connected with the Hanoi - Moc Chau Road (route 6) in North Vietnam by
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a road which runs north of Thiet Tra via Hoi Xuan. This latter road is
in poor condition. The terrain and seasonal moisture conditions of the
ground are similar to those in the area of the Samneua - Moc Chau Road
(see road study no. 36).
38. Shuang-chiang - Meng-hai (Yunnan) Surface: Graveled
Length : 140 to 150 miles
This main north-south route parallels the Burma border and connects
the Nan-ta Road at Shuang-chiang with the K'un-lo Road at Meng-hai. The
road is in good condition and receives adequate maintenance. The road
was completed in 1955-56 and was improved during 1957-58. Three roads
branch westward from it toward the border. Just south of Nan-chiao a
narrow road,probably graveled part way, extends toward the border oppo-
site Mong Yang in Burma. Originally it was planned to extend this road
to Kawpa-ta, but construction was either suspended or abandoned in 1961,
when the road had reached Man-kaung (5 to 10 miles). Farther north a
second road branches from Chen-pien (Meng-lang) for a distance of 85 to
90 miles via Meng-lien to within a short distance of the border. After
it was completed in mid-1955 the road was realigned, bridges were con-
structed, and gravel or stone was added to the surface between 1956 and
1958. There have been reports that roads were under construction south
from Meng-lien connecting it with Mong Yang in Burma, but only well-defined
trails exist between these two towns. A third road branches westward
(40 to 45 miles) from the main road via Lao-chang and Hsi-meng but stops
-short of the border. The latter road was completed in 1958-59 and
reportedly is in good condition. There are indications that widening
and bridging is underway on both this road and the one from Chen-pien.
Both the main road and its branches generally follow river valleys
through mountainous terrain. Throughout most of the area the ground is
never dry, except in the northernmost section of the main road, and is
most frequently wet in the period May through October.
39. Ssu-mao - Chiang-ch'eng (Yunnan) Surface: Partly graveled
Length : 60 to 70 miles
This road, which branches off of the K'un-lo Road, was completed to
Chiang-ch'eng by late 1957. Improvements were made later, and the road
was continued eastward as far as the Li-hsien Chiang (Black River).
Eventually it probably will be extended to connect with the road running
south of Chien-shui (see road study no. 8) when the bridge over the
river, which has been under construction for some time, is completed.
From this road a branch runs toward the border of Laos as far as Man-
pien where it ends in a trail. For about 30 to 35 miles from Ssu-mao
the road is fairly good, but for the remaining distance it is in poor
condition. The terrain in this area is mountainous interspersed with
plains and hills. Except near the Li-hsien Chiang where it is never
completely dry, the ground is dry from December through April. It is
wettest from May into October, and the mid-section of the road generally
is wetter than the other sections of the road during the rainy season.
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40. T'eng-ch'ung - Border (Yunnan) Surface: Natural earth
Length : Varied
The Chinese Communists started construction on several roads radiating
north and northwest from T'eng-ch'ung toward the border with Burma in
the early 1950's. About 1957, improvement of these roads was started and
continued over the next 4 or 5 years. Sections of the road near T'eng-
ch'ung have been surfaced with gravel. One of these roads is a recon-
structed section of the old T'eng-ch'ung cutoff that was built during
World War II through rugged terrain between T'eng-ch'ung and Myitkyina
in Burma. The mountainous border section of the road is no longer pass-
able. East of Myitkyina the 10-mile section of the road in Burma has an
old bituminous surface and is jeepable under all weather conditions.
Except in the mountains, where the ground is wet for longer periods, the
area is dry from December through April and is wettest from May through
October.
41. T'eng-ch'ung - Lien-shan (Yunnan) Surface: Partly graveled
Length : 75 to 85 miles
Sometimes called the T'eng-ch'ung - Bhamo Road, this is an old road
that the Chinese Communists reconstructed in 1952 and repaired in 1958.
The road has been realigned and now passes through Ch'eng-lung-chieh.
It is on the T'eng-ch'ung - Ch'eng-lung-chieh section that the greatest
amount of improvement has been carried out. The border section of the
road no longer exists, however, and the road on west of Lien-shan gen-
erally is in poor condition. The terrain and moisture conditions of the
ground in this area are similar to those of the Burma Road (see road
study no. 18), but because the road lies farther to the north, it escapes
the particularly rugged terrain south and west of Pao-shan.
42. T'eng-ch'ung - Pao-shan - (Yunnan) Surface: Graveled
Lung-ling Length : Varied
Two roads extend. south and east of T'eng-ch'ung and connect with the
Burma Road at two points, Lung-ling and just south of Pao-shan. The
road south to Lung-ling (40 to 45 miles) was constructed in the 1940's
and reconstructed and improved during the 1950's, whereas the road east
to Pao-shan (60 to 80 miles) was completed about 1955 and later improved
in 1958. Both of these roads are surfaced with gravel or stone and are
trafficable under all weather conditions. Except for the plain surround-
ing T'eng-ch'ung, these two roads pass through rugged terrain where the
ground at lower elevations is dry from December through April and wettest
from May into October.
43. Te-pao - Lung-ching - (Kwangsi) Surface: Graveled
P'ing-hsiang Length : 140 to 150 miles
This road parallels the northeastern border of North Vietnam and con-
nects the main north-south road (to Ching-hsi) with other main roads in
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Kwangsi. The road probably was completed by 1957 and improved by 1963.
From Lung-ching a road runs westward across the border to Dong Khe in
North Vietnam and another crosses the border and connects Ping-hsiang
with Dong Dang. The gravel-surfaced branch roads into North Vietnam
have been improved and are maintained sporadically. They are important
supply routes into North Vietnam from Communist China and provide the
main links between the system of main roads on both sides of the border.
The terrain in the area is composed of dissected plains, hills, and low
mountains. To the north of Lung-ching the road alignment is restricted
more to river valleys than it is to the south. The ground in the area
north of Lung-ching is drier than that to the south where it is never
dry during the period from December through April. Throughout the area
the ground is wettest from. March through November.
44. Tuan Giao - Sop Nao (North Vietnam-Laos) Surface: Graveled
Length : 75 to 80 miles
This road is improved as far as Houei Yeui in Laos where it becomes
a natural earth road and a trail about 6 miles beyond Sop Nao. The
section from Tuan Giao to the border was widened to about 26 feet by mid-
1960. Since then it has been progressively surfaced with gravel and
surfacing is continuing. The road is being improved further by the con-
struction of a bridge approximately 15 miles south of Dien Bien Phu.
There is no indication, however, that the road is being extended beyond
Sop Nao across northern Laos toward Phong Saly. Except for an area of
rolling plains extending from just south of Dien Bien Phu to Sop Nao
the terrain in this area is mountainous and steep. The ground is dry
in November-December but increases in moisture in January. It is wettest
from May through September but not quite as wet as areas around Tuan
Giao to the north or around Samneua to the south.
45. Wa-yao - Pi-chiang (Yunnan) Surface: Graveled
Length : 125 to 130 miles
According to the provincial plans of Yunnan the road originally was
scheduled for completion in 1957. It was not until early 1962, however,
that it was officially announced as open to traffic. Apparently this
road was surveyed and a rough alignment made before 1957, but it is
doubtful that actual construction was started until 1957-58. Although
it follows the Salween River valley, it traverses rugged mountainous ter-
rain. Two large suspension bridges reportedly have been constructed,
probably over the Salween River. The road is in fair condition but
requires constant maintenance and repair to keep it open to traffic.
Along the entire length of this road the ground tends to be wet more
frequently than dry. In some areas around Pi-chiang the ground is
frozen from mid-October into March and is wet the remainder of the year.
In other areas it is wettest from May to about mid-October.
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46. Wen-shan - Ma-kuan - Border (Yunnan) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 50 to 60 miles
Construction of the road from Wen-share south to the border of North
Vietnam (via Ma-kuan) was completed between 1957 and 1963. The terminal
of the road at the border is roughly 10 air miles from the end of a new
road near Ban Koa in North Vietnam. Although these roads service the
border areas within each country, a connection would. provide access from
Communist China to Bac Quang located on a main road (route 2) in North
Vietnam. The terrain in this area is one of dissected plains, hills, and
mountains. From December through April the ground is drier around Wen-
shan and for a distance of 25 to 30 miles to the south than it is in the
mountains, where it is never really dry. Along the entire road the area
is wettest from May into October.
47. Wen-shan - Border (Yunnan) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 55 to 65 miles
The road was hastily constructed in 1953-54 to supply the North Viet-
namese during the French-Indochina war. By 1962 it had been reconstructed
and improved, but it is not in very good condition, especially the last
25 to 30 miles to the border, where it is barely passable. Recently con-
struction has been underway on the southernmost section of the road,
indicating that annual maintenance is being carried out. It also is pos-
sible that the trail section across the border will be improved (see
road study no. 11). The terrain and moisture conditions of the ground
in this area are the same as those in the area of the Wen-shan - Ma-kuan
Road (see road study no. 46).
48. Yang-t'ou-yen - Chen-k' ang (Yunnan) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 80 to 85 miles
This road branches from the Nan-ta Road at Yang-t'ou-yen and con-
tinues for only a short distance beyond Chen-k'ang. Although it re-
portedly was opened to traffic in early 1959, construction was continu-
ing and was scheduled to be completed by the end of that year. Apparently
construction was abandoned when it reached its present terminal. The
road passes through extremely rugged terrain similar to that of north-
western Yunnan. In the area between Yang-.t'ou-yen and Chen-k'ang the
ground is dry at lower elevations from December through April, but beyond
Chen-k'ang the ground is never dry. The ground is wettest during May and
through October throughout the entire area between Yang-t'ou-yen and
Chen-k'ang.
49. Yun-hsien - Pao-shan (Yunnan) Surface: Natural earth
Length : 140 to 145 miles
The Chinese Communists claimed that this was a new road when it was
opened to traffic in April 1964. The road., however, was initially com-
pleted about 1956-57. The central portion had a poor foundation, and
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the reconstruction and probable realignment of the damaged section
prompted its designation as a new road. The road passes through fairly
rugged mountainous terrain. Although the ground in this area is gen-
erally dry from December through April, the mountain sections are wet.
The ground is wettest in the area from May into October.
50. Yunnan-Tibet (Yunnan) Surface: Graveled
Length : Varied
From Hsia-kuan on the Burma Road the road runs due north for a
distance of 90 to 100 miles. It is a two-lane road in level areas,
narrowing to a single-lane road in hilly areas. At the northern ter-
minal, T'o-kuo-lo, roads diverge northwest to Te-chain (Atunze) and
Chung-tien and east to Li-chiang. All of these roads are single-lane
and graveled, except for the road toward Te-ch'in which is surfaced only
part way. Before 1950 the Chinese Nationalists constructed a natural
earth road to Li-chiang and for some distance toward Te-chain. The
Chinese Communists started reconstruction of these roads in 1950-51 and
by 1957 had completed the road to Li-chiang and had extended the one to
Te-chain as far as Hsiao-wei-hsi, well beyond the old terminal of the
road. In addition, a road had been constructed over an old trail north
of T'o-kuo-lo to Chung-tien, and construction was continuing northward
into Sikang, which is now part of Szechwan Province. Since that time,
these roads have not been extended for any great distance beyond their
1957 terminals. Recently, the Chinese Communists announced that a steel
suspension bridge had been completed over the Mekong River in Te-ch'in
Tibetan Autonomous County. The new bridge, which replaces a rope-way,
probably is located on the road to Te-ch'in. Its location and the fact
that it was completed in 6 months indicates that it probably is a steel
chain suspension bridge suitable only for pack trains. The alignment of
the road to T'o-kuo-lo and from there to Li-chiang lies through a narrow
area of rolling plains and hills flanked on each side by extremely
rugged mountains. The ground throughout this area is dry from December
through April and wet from May through October. In the mountain areas,
however, the ground is always wet and is frozen and snow-covered from
October to early March, when the spring thaw begins.
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APPENDIX C
TERRAIN AND CLIMATE IN THE CHINA - SOUTHEAST ASIA BORDER AREA
1. Terrain
The China - Southeast Asia border area is an integrated land mass
dominated by mountains and the Yunnan plateau, which slopes downward and
outward from southwestern China. The extensions of this high plateau
form the mountain and plateau areas of eastern Burma, northern Laos, and
northern North Vietnam. Along the entire border the terrain is rugged,
averaging in elevation between 6,000 and 8,000 feet above sea level, with
the most rugged section in northwestern Yunnan and the gentlest in south-
eastern Kwangsi.
a. Southwestern China
In northwestern Yunnan Province, there are deep parallel trenches
located a few dozen miles apart that have been cut by three of the world's
largest rivers, the Salween, the Mekong, and the Yangtze. South of the
26th parallel the plateau is dissected by numerous narrow malaria-ridden
valleys that render road construction difficult. Farther south and east
the plateau slopes gradually downward, forming the low ranges of southern
Kwangsi Province. Road alignments are restricted by such terrain, gen-
erally are winding, and in many places have very short-radius curves or
hairpin turns. Grades range from moderate to very steep, and the number
of passing lanes is limited. Many bridges are required, and most of
their approaches are difficult. Timber for bridge construction for the
most part is available locally. Silty clay, which is prevalent here and
usually is stony (or gravelly), provides a fair subgrade but a poor base
course and a poor wearing surface because it is dusty when dry and spongy
when wet. Generally throughout the area, therefore, the base course
must be improved and the wearing surface stabilized. Materials for this
purpose, such as sand and gravel and rock suitable for crushing, are
available locally. Grading requires the movement of very large quantities
of earth and rock,* but the amount of clearing and grubbing is moderate.
Although natural drainage in most of the region generally is good, land-
slides and damage from flashfloods are common. Roads throughout the
region, therefore, require an excessive amount of construction, and
adequate maintenance is essential.
b. Burma
Burma is naturally isolated by a great horseshoe shaped barrier
composed of mountains, escarpments, and difficult hill country. The
* In the rugged area of northwestern Yunnan, construction involves ex-
cessive and difficult rock excavation, necessitating much drilling and
blasting.
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western mountain ranges arc to the northeast and merge with the higher
eastward extension of the Himalayan ranges, forming the northern border
of Burma with India and Tibet. In this area, very few roads are passable
through the extremely rugged terrain. From Putao southward to Myitkyina,
alignments are restricted to valleys and passes through the hills and
mountains. Around Putao and between Myitkyina and Bhamo, there are areas
of intermontane basins and relatively flat upland plains. Road align-
ments through this type of terrain generally are unrestricted except for
isolated hills and swamps and numerous streams. Throughout most of the
border areas the soils are fairly well suited for foundations and fills
but poorly suited for base course or wearing surface. In the hills and
mountains, and to some extent in the basins and plains, sand, gravel,
and hard rock: for crushing are abundant locally. In the mountain area,
extensive clearing and grubbing of thick jungle are required, with little
to none required elsewhere.
The eastern part of the country, or the Shan plateau as it is
called in Burma, averages about 3,000 feet in elevation and is well
defined along its western edge, where it rises abruptly from the central
basin and the Irrawaddy River Valley. The Salween River flows through
the plateau, where its rapid current has c-at a deep trench, creating a
barrier between the eastern border area and central Burma. Terrain con-
ditions in the Shan States are similar to those of northern Burma, except
that there are no high mountains. The Shan States, however, have an ex-
tensive karst area through their center, where road alignments are
restricted by cliffs, gorges, and steep slopes.
c. Laos and North Vietnam
Except for the Tonkin Plain the entire region of northern Laos
and northern North Vietnam generally is unsuited for road construction.
Alignments are restricted to narrow valleys in the mountains and to
ridges at lower elevations. Numerous steep grades and winding roads
with many hairpin turns are encountered. The soils provide a fairly good
foundation, but generally they are unsuited for base course or wearing
surface. Construction of roads requires much clearing and grubbing, many
cuts and fills, and numerous culverts and bridges. Landslides occur
frequently in the steep mountains, especially during the monsoon season.
2. Climate
The border area has a tropical monsoon type of climate.* In general,
there are three seasons: the rainy season, from about the middle of June
to about the end of October (the southwest monsoon), when the rain cools
the atmosphere and the temperature is lower; the cool season, extending
from about the first of November to about the end of February (the north-
east monsoon), when there is little rainfall; and the hot season, also
* The term monsoon usually is used among climatologists to mean the
periodic winds of Asia, but it is used also to mean a season.
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mostly rainless, from about the end of February to about the middle of
June.*
As summer approaches, the land tends to heat rapidly, and the great
high pressure system is replaced by a succession of low pressure areas.
The winds blowing in from the Indian Ocean, which vary in strength and
regularity, are heavily moisture-laden and bring torrential rains to the
areas in their path. In winter the northeast winds pass over land with
the result that much of the border region is relatively dry, receiving
less than 10 inches of rain. In January the 32-degree Fahrenheit (F)
line follows the mountain barriers across northern Burma and Yunnan, but
temperatures at higher elevations are very cold. Farther south the
60-degree line dips irregularly below the Tropic of Cancer (23?27' N)
pushed southward by the mountains and plateaus of Burma, northern Laos,
and North Vietnam.
a. Southwestern China
Even though a large part of the Yunnan plateau lies within the
tropics, the climate of the high plains is temperate. Between the higher
and lower altitudes, however, the climate ranges widely from cold wind-
swept ranges with permanent snowfields to hot steamy jungle valleys.
The southwest monsoon brings frequent and, at times, torrential rainfall,
and the region is drenched by heavy rains occurring 3 to 8 times per
month, especially during July and August. During October the heavy rains
taper off, and the ground begins to dry out. It is from November to mid-
May, during the northeast monsoon, that optimum conditions for road con-
struction prevail throughout most of this area of China. In the high
mountainous region of northwestern Yunnan, however, the ground in the
valleys is wet all year except for a short period during midsummer, when
conditions become most favorable for road construction.
b. Burma
Throughout the border region of Burma, rainfall ranges from 40 to
80 inches per year. However, in the eastern part of the Kachin State an
area 600 miles from the ocean receives more rainfall than the coast**
because, as the warm air is pushed rapidly northward in March and meets
the cold air, heavy rains are produced before the monsoon reaches the
area. During the southwest monsoon the plains and uplands in the border
area become increasingly wet during April and May, when they become
flooded or waterlogged -- a condition that lasts into December. The dry
season in the plains areas lasts only briefly, thus reducing the optimum
* The months given here are a rough approximation because the length of
these seasons varies from place to place.
** The western and southern coastal mountains (Arakan and Tenasserim)
and the Irrawaddy Delta have nearly 200 inches of rain per year. In con-
trast, the central dry belt has as little as 20 inches per year.
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construction season to about 3 months. These plains are located along
the Ledo Road; around Myitkyina, Bhamo, Keng Tung, and Hwang Luk; and
along the Burma-Laos border. During the northeast monsoon and through
April the uplands are almost continuously dry. Frozen ground and snow
cover occur only in a narrow zone along the border in the far north.
In northern Laos, more than 70 percent of the annual precipita-
tion occurs during the southwest monsoon season, with rain falling 20 to
26 days per month. From late April through June, violent thunderstorms
produce severe turbulence, high gusty surface winds, torrential rains,
and occasional hail. All of northern North Vietnam, except the east
coast (Tonkin Gulf), has similar climatic conditions. The southwest
monsoon brings strong sea breezes to the Tonkin Plain area, followed in
the early fall by typhoons with high winds and heavy rains. Throughout
the area the northeast monsoon is relatively cold and dry from November
to March, with the heaviest precipitation occurring along the east coast,
which lies in the path of the moisture-laden northeast winds.
In northern Laos and northern North Vietnam, ground moisture
conditions are similar. From November through March the ground is pre-
dominantly dry, with wetness increasing in April and continuing through
September. In October and November the ground generally becomes dry
enough to be workable. Most of the area of the Tonkin Plain is wet all
year, with the extent of the wet area being greatest in the period May
through September. Flooding, prevalent from December through April,
causes the water table to lie just below the surface of the plain. As
a result, roadbeds are constructed above the level of the plain and
require extensive initial development and constant maintenance and
repairs to keep them stable throughout the year.
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APPENDIX D
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Information contained in this glossary is based on standard US
practice.
Bituminous pavements: There are four general types of bituminous
pavements: 1 surface treatments, consisting of a thin bituminous
layer usually less than three-fourths of an inch of penetration on a
prepared road surface; (2) road mixes, in which the bituminous material
is mixed with the aggregate by manipulation on the roadbed; (3) bitumi-
nous macadam, in which the top course of broken stone is penetrated
with bituminous binder; and (4) bituminous concrete and sheet asphalt,
in which aggregates and bituminous material are mixed under controlled
conditions at a central plant.
Macadam roads: The term macadam has come to mean road surfaces and
bases constructed of crushed or "broken" stone fragments cemented together
by action of traffic or by rolling and water. The term is applied also
to broken-stone surfaces and bases where aggregate particles are bound
by cement or bituminous materials. Macadam roads are flexible or semi-
rigid in nature, so that preparation and conditions of the subgrade are
vital. Failures or deformation in the subgrade show up in the base and
wearing surface. Surface irregularities in this type of road are much
more difficult to correct than in some other types of construction.
Maintenance: Maintenance operations consist of maintaining the road
surface, shoulders, drainage and drainage structures, roadsides, and
bridges. Maintenance operations also include snow and ice control and
special services such as relining pavements and repainting signs.
Natural earth roads: Natural earth roads are the lowest type of
roads and are composed of natural soils as they exist. The natural soil
is bladed to the center to form a crown with a ditch along each side.
The condition of such roads depends on the nature of the soil and the
effectiveness of drainage. Where the natural soil is gravelly or is
sand mixed with some clay, the surface will be fairly stable; in silty
or clay soils the surface will be muddy during rains and will dry out
into ruts at other times.
Soil-aggregate mixtures: A wide variety of materials is used in
soil-aggregate mixtures, including sand-clay, gravel, and stone or slag
screening; sand, crushed stone, or slag combined with soil as a binder;
and various combinations of these materials.
Soil-aggregate roads: Soil-aggregate roads are roads that consist
of a substantial layer of properly proportioned and blended mixture of
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of soil and aggregate compacted to form a road which is capable of sup-
porting traffic in all weather conditions. This type of road includes
those constructed from sand-clay mixes ar.Ld various coarse-graded aggre-
gate materials that generally require smaller maintenance operations.
Coarse-graded aggregate surfaces consist of a wide range of mineral
aggregates such as gravel, crushed stone, crushed slag, or similar sub-
stances combined with clay, stone dust, cr other binder material to
produce stability. Water-bound and traffic-bound macadam surfaces are
included in the coarse aggregate group. In addition to serving as
wearing courses, generally for light traffic, soil-aggregate mixtures
are used widely as bases and subbases.
Soil stabilization: Soil stabilization may be defined as the com-
bination and manipulation of soils, with or without admixtures, to
produce a firm mass that is capable of supporting traffic in all weather
conditions. In other words a stabilized road surface is one that will
stay put, and stabilization is the process by which it has been made
that way. In some instances, unfavorable natural soils are modified
through the use of gravel or of crushed stone or of clay binder. In
other instances, bituminous materials, cement, salt, or lime are used
for effective stabilization. The type and degree of stabilization
required in any given instance is largely a function of the availability
and cost of the required materials, as well as the use that is to be
made of the stabilized soil mixture. Stabilized soil mixtures lend
themselves readily to the process of "stage construction." A.properly
designed stabilized soil mixture might function as a wearing surface,
receive a thin bituminous surface treatment as traffic increases, and
eventually serve as a support for a high type of bituminous pavement
for a heavy volume of traffic.
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 RAILROADS
Standard gangs (e'SW')
Narrow gauge (various widths)
ROADS
Main oad
---- Otherroad
Jespaale track
?? Wall?dafined trail
(shown In China. only)
ens Spot helght(in feet)
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NO FOREIGN DISSEM
S-E-C-R-E-T
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