THE SOVIET ARCTIC

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• Collection: General CIA Records
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• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 190
• Document Creation Date: December 12, 2016
• Document Release Date: June 24, 2002
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: July 1, 1959
• Content Type: IR

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SECRET
25X1C
GEOGRAPHIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT
THE SOVIET ARCTIC
C1A/RR?G 59-1
(Revision of ClA/RR?G-15
dated December 1956)
July 1959
DOCUMENT NO.
NO CHANGE IN CLASS.
0 DECLASSIFIED
CLASS. CHANGED TO: TS S C 25X1
NEXT REVIEW DATE:
AUTK.? gR_ 1,0-2.1a
IDATEd
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND REPORTS
25X1C
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WARNING
This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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25X1C
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S-E-C-R-E-T
GEOGRAPHIC INTETTTGENCE REPORT
THE SOVIET ARCTIC
CIAIRR-G 59-1
(Revision of CIA/RR-G-15
dated December 1956)
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Office of Research and Reports
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CONTENTS
Summary
EpLE2
1
I.
Introduction
3
II.
Population and Settlements in the Soviet Arctic
9
A.
Character of the Population
9
B.
Urban Settlements
10
1. European Arctic
10
2. Siberian Arctic
15
C.
Rural Population
23
III.
Economic Activities
25
A.
General Characteristics
25
B.
Wood Processing
26
C.
Fishing
31
D.
Shipbuilding
35
1. Extent of the Industry
35
2. Severodvinsk Naval Yard, Zavod Number 402 .
36
3. Rosta Naval Shipyard (Sevmorput)
37
E.
Mining
38
1. Mineral Resources
38
2. Major Deposits
39
a. Norilisk
39
b. Nikel'
42
c. Vorkuta
42
d. Pevek
44
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3.
Minor Deposits
a. Amderma
b. Nordvik-Khatangskiy Zaliv
c. Murmansk
d. Iul'tin
Page
45
45
45
46
48
Additional Deposits
48
F. HOrding
50
G. Htnting and Trapping
52
H. Agriculture
55
IV.
The Ddvelopment of Transportation in the Soviet Arctic
63
A. Atr Transportation
63
1.;
Role of Air Transportation
63
2.
Polar Aviation
63.
3.
civil Air Fleet
69
Military Air Forces
70
Facilities Available for Air Transport ? ? ?
72
a. Airfields
72
(1) Airfields of Major Significance
74
(2) Airfields of Secondary Significance
78
Seaplane Stations
79
B. Water Transportation
80
1.
The Northern Sea Route
80
. Historical Background
80
. Economic Significance
81
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c.
Military Significance
83
d.
Physical Aspects of the Route
84
e.
Shipping Procedure
88
f.
Scientific Support
89
g.
Types of Ships
96
h.
Availability of Fuel
98
i.
Ports Along the Route
101
2.
Inland Waterways
105
3.
Submarine Activities
110
C.
Land Transportation
112
1.
Railroads
a. The Role of Railroads in the Soviet
112
b.
Arctic
Railroad Development in the European
112
Arctic
112
(1) The Murmansk Railroad Complex ? ? ?
112
(2) The Arkhangel'sk-Severodvinsk
Railroad Complex
11-
(3) The Vorkuta Railroad Complex . ? ? ?
115
c.
(4) Planned Railroad Construction ? ? ?
Railroad Development in the West Siberian
118
Arctic
118
(1) The Salekhard Railroad Complex . .
118
(2) The Noril'sk-Dudinka Railroad Complex
120
(3) Planned Railroad Construction ? ? .
122
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Road Systems
Page
123
a. The Character of the Overland Traffic
?
?
123
. Roads in the European Arctic
124
. Roads in the Siberian Arctic
127
V.
TelecoMmunications
129
A. Telecommunication Methods
129
1. Telegraph
129
2. Telephone
130
3. Broadcasting
130
4. Radar
131
B. Regional Difficulties in Construction and
Oteration
132
VI.
Arctic $cientific Activities
133
A. Polar Stations
133
B. Drifting Stations
134
C. Flying Observatories
141
D. Oceanographic Expeditions
141
E. High-Latitude Air Expeditions
142
F. International Geophysical Year Activities
?
?
143
G. Nuclear Tests
146
VII. Relation;Between Physical Environment and Arctic
Operations 149
A. Clim*te 149
149
1. Effect on Air Operations
Temperature 149
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b. Winds
c. Visibility
d. Light Conditions
e. Precipitation
150
151
153
153
2.
Effect on Land Operations
156
a. Temperature
156
b. Winds
157
c. Precipitation
158
d. Visibility
158
3.
Effect on Sea Operations
159
a. Ice
159
b. Fog
159
4.
Effects of Climatic Change
160
B. Terrain
161
Appendixes
A.
Gaps in Intelligence
171
Photographs
(abbreviated titles)
Figure 1. Lenin Avenue, Murmansk
Figure 2. Main office of the Kapitalnaya Coal Mine in
Vorkuta
Figure 3. Snow-drifted streets in Amderma
Figure 4. Inta, on the Kotlas-Vorkuta Railroad
Figure 5. Freighters at anchor in Igarka
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13
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Figure 6. gouses and streets in Igarka 16
Figure 7. Part of the harbor complex at Dudinka 16
Figure 8. Aerial view of NorilYsk 17
Figure 9. *ultistoried building in Norillsk 18
Figure 10. Apartment buildings in Noril'sk 18
Figure 11. New wooden houses in Dikson 20
Figure 12. The port area of Salekhard 20
Figure 13. )iakuti and his reindeer team in Olenek 22
Figure 14. Three-storied Gosudarstvennyy Universal'nyy
'Magazin in Tiksi 22
Figure 15. Pkles of lumber stacked at Mezeni 26
Figure 16. t4miber stacked at sawmill south of Arkhangelfsk 28
Figure 17. PO.les of lumber stored at Arkhangel'sk 28
Figure 18. SOlombalskiy cellulose plant in Arkhangellsk . 29
Figure 19. Mtaling operations at an Igarka sawmill . 30
Figure 20. Fteighters berthed at the lumber wharf in
:Igarka
Figure 21. Tiawlers of the Murmansk fishing fleet
Figure 22. A
floating fish cannery of the Murmansk fleet
30
33
33
Figure 25. A 'part of the industrial complex in Noril'sk . 39
Figure 26. Loading ore on gondola cars near Noril'sk . . . 41
Figure 27. Interior of electrolytic refinery near Noril'sk. 41
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Figure 28. Buildings of the smelting and refining
complex at Nikel' 43
Figure 29. Vorkuta, largest coal-mining center in
the Soviet Arctic
Figure 30. An oil derrick at Nordvik
Figure 31.
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Mining operations in the Yurung-Tumus
Peninsula
32. A fox farm on the Taymyr Peninsula
33. A fur warehouse on the Chukotsk Peninsula .
34. A kolkhoz member from the Bulun Rayon
35. A large nesting colony of shore birds on
Novaya Zemlya
43
47
47
51
53
56
56
36. Electric lights supplement the short winter
daylight hours in a greenhouse 59
Figure 37.
Figure 38.
Figure 39.
Figure 40.
Figure 41.
Figure 42.
Figure 43.
Figure 44.
Figure 45.
Figure 46.
A cabbage field in an experimental station
in Salekhard ? 59
A field of kohlrabi at Igarka 61
A field of barley at the Igarka experiment
station 61
A Coach (I1-12) being loaded and fueled . . . . 65
The twin-engine Cab (Li-2) 65
The Bull (Tu-4), used for ice and weather
reconnaisance 66
The Coot (I1-18), a four-engine turboprop
transport 66
The turboprop Cat (An-10) 67
The air terminal at Dikson 67
A Polar Aviation aircraft 67
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Figure 47. iThe four-engine turboprop Bear 70
Figure 48. The Bison, a four-engine jet bomber 71
Figure 49. The Badger, a medium jet bomber
71
Figure 53.
Figure 54.
Xcebreakers wintering in the ice at Tiksi . .
Mys Vankarem on the northern coast of Chukotsk
i Peninsula
85
90
Figure 55.
i radio beacon at Mys Kosistyy
91
Figure 56.
4 drifting automatic radio meteorological
station (DARNS)
93
Figure 57.
Sketch of a DARNS
94
Figure 58.
TIbe
diesel-electric ship Lena
97
Figure 59.
The
icebreaker Iosif Stalin
97
Figure 60.
Model
of the icebreaker Lenin
99
Figure 61.
The
Kapitan Voronin
99
Figure 62.
The
oil tanker Azerbaydzhan
100
Figure 63.
Freighters
anchored in the harbor at Tiksi
104
Figure 64.
Timber raft on the Yenisey River
107
Figure 65.
The
packet vessel Iosif Stalin
109
Figure 66.
The
Ordzhonikidze at Dudinka
109
Figure 68.
A
distant view of the Murmansk-Pechenga
railroad
113
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Figure 69. Freight train on the Noril'sk-Dudinka
railroad
Figure 70.
Figure 71.
Figure 72.
Figure 73.
Facade of the railroad station at Norilisk
Logging road of pre-cast concrete slabs
121
121
? . . 124
Buildings of the polar station at Dikson . . . 135
Prefabricated buildings on SP-6
135
Figure 76. Preparing a platform for scientific observations
on SP-4
Figure 77. An instrument for actinometric measurements on
SP-4
Figure 78. Scientists filling a balloon with hydrogen
Figure 79.
Preheating the engine of a Coach before
takeoff . . .
Figure 80. Preparing a Coach for takeoff
Figure 81. A meandering stream with braided channels near
Mys Vankarem
139
140
150
155
162
Figure 82. Low coastal cliffs near Onega 163
Figure 83. Two small coastal lagoons west of Mys Vankarem 165
Figure 84. Reindeer moss growing on polygonal tundra 166
Figure -85. Polygonal tundra on dry, stony soil 166
Maps
[No title] (25221) Frontispiece
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Soviet Arctic: Resources and Industry (27361) 62
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Following Page
Soviet Arctic: Northern Sea Route (including
Ports and Polar Stations) (27359)
?
?
?
128
Soviet Arctic: Transportation and Administrative
Divisions (27362)
128
Soviet Arctic: Telecommunications (27363)
132
Soviet Driftiing Stations in the Arctic Basin (27669)
?
?
?
148
Soviet Landing Sites in the Polar Basin (27375)
148
Nuclear Test Sites on Novaya Zemlya (27668)
148
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UNiTED
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THE SOVIET ARCTIC*
Summary
The Arctic region of the Soviet Union is a tundra plain underlain
for most of its extent by permafrost and covered by marshy land dotted
with a myriad of lakes. The winters are dominated by cold temperatures
accompanied by total darkness or only short periods of daylight. Sum-
mers are short and cold. This barren, inhospitable region has recently
come into prominence because of both its strategic position and its
economic potentialities. The Arctic Basin provides the shortest routes
between the United States and the USSR and, in event of global conflict,
aircraft and missiles would probably fly over these routes.
The economic development of the Soviet Arctic began on a large
scale with the establishment of the Chief Directorate of the Northern
Sea Route in 1932 and has progressed rapidly since then. The economy
is based on the extracting and processing of natural resources, herding,
and a small number of fabricating industries. Lumber, pulp, and paper
mills use trees from forests south of the Arctic, and the finished
products are exported in large amounts to foreign countries by way of
the Arctic seas. The mines supply a significant part of the Soviet
mineral production of nickel, copper, cobalt, tin, and coal. Noril'sk
supplied one-third of the refined nickel and one-fifth of the cobalt
produced in the USSR in 1957. The Arctic ranks second to the Soviet
Far East as a producer of fish and fish products, the Barents Sea
contributing the greatest amount. The economy of the indigenous
tribes is based on reindeer herding, and nearly all the products
are used locally. Shipbuilding is the only fabricating industry of
national importance and is centered at Severodvinsk (formerly Molotovsk).
The population of the Arctic has been increased greatly by the
Introduction of both free and forced labor. Most of the settlements
are along the coast and river valleys, with the greatest concentration
within the European Arctic at Murmansk and Arkhangel'sk and within
Siberia along the lower Yenisey area at Dudinka, Igarka, and Noril'sk.
Transportation in the Arctic is limited chiefly to water and air
routes. Land routes are sparse because of the difficulties of con-
structing and maintaining both roads and railroads. The Northern
Sea Route is the single most important transportation artery and
supplements the Trans-Siberian Railroad as a freight carrier. It
brings supplies and equipment to the Arctic settlements and takes
out mineral ores, timber, and other products. Naval vessels, some
carrying troops, have followed the sea route; but its military use
* The information in this report is based on the best sources available
to this Office as of 1 July 1959.
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and commercial use are limited by a navigation season of only 4
months, July to October. The rivers in the Arctic flow to the north,
and three of thiem -- the Ob', Yenisey, and Lena -- connect the
Trans-Siberian !Railroad with the Northern Sea Route. River navigation
is also limited by the short ice-free season.
Air facilities have been greatly expanded in recent years, and
nearly 100 airfields and seaplane stations have been established
within the Arctic. The majority of the military airfields are concen-
trated in European USSR, whereas fields for Polar Aviation and
Aeroflot aircraft are widely scattered. Polar Aviation operations
are limited chiefly to the coastal region and include ice reconnaissance
and freight transport. Aerotlot flights originate in the south and
carry mail and passengers.
Land transportation is limited chiefly to railroads, which are
concentrated in the European Arctic and terminate at Murmansk,
Arkhangel'sk, and Vorkuta. The Murmansk-Pechenga, and Noril'sk-
Dudinka lines provide limited east-west transport.
Scientific activity in the Soviet Arctic entered its era of
greatest intensity with the inauguration of the International
Geophysical Year. This program was similar to the research program
already in forae, and only minor changes were made in the activities.
Observations from drifting stations, together with information from
polar stations along the coast, flying observatories, high-latitude
air expeditions!, and oceanographic expeditions, are supplying vast
amounts of oceanographic, meteorological, terrestrial, geophysical,
and upper atmosphere information of great value for economic and
military operations.
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I. Introduction
Since the outbreak of World War II, considerable attention has
been focused on the economic and strategic significance of the Soviet
Arctic.* This interest stems from the increasing magnitude of
maritime, scientific, and military activities and from the increasing
strategic importance of transpolar air routes. The scope of recent
Soviet scientific activities throughout the Arctic Basin suggests
that military as well as economic motives prompted the extensive
program. Further indication of the importance attached to the Arctic
is revealed in the periodic economic plans (Five-Year Plans and the
more recent Seven-Year Plan) which have included large appropriations
for Arctic research and development.
Although development has been in progress throughout the Arctic
over a period of many years the major activities, both economic and
military, have been centered in the Northwest European part and to a
lesser extent on the Chukotsk Peninsula opposite Alaska. With a few
exceptions the significant economic and military operations in the
vast intervening territory are a development of World War II and the
postwar era. Arctic operations, once seasonal in character, are
carried on the year round, thus (1) increasing the capabilities of
the Northern Sea Route as a major shipping and naval route, (2)
permitting greater exploitation of the natural resources of the
Arctic, and (3) making possible the collection of a formidable mass
of physical environmental data through scientific research. This
combination of activities in the Arctic is viewed with considerable
interest -- and with apprehension regarding Soviet intentions.
The importance attached to the Northern Sea Route is revealed
by the chain of polar stations, navigational aids, ports, and related
coastal installations that have been established along the Arctic
littoral from the Kola Peninsula eastward to the Bering Sea to
facilitate shipping operations. Approximately 100 polar stations of
various sizes are located along the coast, most of which are in
operation on a year-round basis. In conjunction with improved
shipping and the development of mining, ports along the Arctic coast
have become active transshipment points for large areas of the
sub-Arctic as well as the Arctic. Although the population of the
Arctic is numerically small, some of the more active ports -- notably
Murmansk, Arkhangel'sk, Severodvinsk, and Igarka -- as well as the
mining developments of Noril'sk and Vorkuta have become sizable
centers of urban population. Many of the coastal and river ports
have also become important centers for the expanding lumbering and
fishing operations.
*For a delimitation of the Soviet Arctic, see pp. 6-7.
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Geological exploration in the Soviet Arctic has revealed valuable
mineral deposits throughout the region, many of which are currently
being exploited:. Mining activities centered at Noril'sk, Vorkuta,
Nikel', the Pevpk area, and Tull-tin, have become foci of Soviet
economic activity. Nickel, copper, coal, tin, and tungsten in addition
to uranium, cobalt, and other strategic minerals essential to Soviet
industries are Mined at one or more of these centers. Many of the
mines as well at other projects were initially worked by forced
labor, which hat since been replaced to a large degree by free
contract labor.] Noril'sk, with large reserves of copper-nickel ore
and coking coal) has become the largest metallurgical center in the
Soviet Arctic.
Aside fromkthe transportation capabilities of the Northern Sea
Route the Soviets have placed increased emphasis on the use of air
and rail transpOrt as a means of rapid year-round transportation.
Nearly 100 airfields and seaplane stations have been established in
various parts (:)* the Arctic. Many of these facilities serve as bases
for Polar Aviation operations, which include year-round ice and
weather reconnaissance, as well as for the transport of high-priority
mail, supplies and personnel, and for the support of extensive
scientific operations. The successful year-round operations of the
drifting stations are attributed to the increasing logistic capabilities
of Polar Aviation.
Despite serious environmental obstacles such as terrain and
climate, which pIpse costly and difficult construction problems in
the Arctic, the Soviets have made significant progress in the
construction of rail lines to facilitate year-round transport to
remote parts of the region. Concentrated within the European north
are railroads that provide access to the rich mineral resources of
the region and tO the major naval and shipping ports of Mhrmansk,
Arkhangel'sk, and Severodvinsk as well as to strategic airfields
on the Kola Peninsula. The most recent construction in the European
Arctic is the extention of the Kotlas-Vorkuta Railroad from Khaltmer-Yu
to Kara and a branch line from Mikun' to Mezen'. Sections at both
ends of the latter line have been completed or are under construction.
Particular emphatis is focused on the construction of a line along
the Yenisey Rive* that will provide a link between the ports of
Dudinka and Igara on the Northern Sea Route and the Trans-Siberian
Railroad at Achinsk. A stretch of the line from Achinsk northward
to Maklakovo is Ourrently under construction.
The strategic significance of the Soviet Arctic is evident from
its proximity to the North American Continent. In the event of a
future global co4flict, intercontinental aircraft and guided missiles
would undoubtedly: take advantage of transpolar air routes as the
shortest distance between the USSR and the United States. Throughout
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much of the Soviet Arctic, major airfields capable of staging medium
and heavy bombers have been constructed and expanded since 1950. The
existence of surface-to-air missile sites near Murmansk has been
suggested but not confirmed.
The build-up of military air facilities has been noted particularly
on the Kola Peninsula and to a lesser extent on the Chukotsk Peninsula,
both of which lie close to the North American Continent. Operating
from the larger known airfields -- notably Severomorsk, Mal-Yavr,
Tiksi, and Mys (Cape) Shmidta -- the Soviet heavy turboprop bomber,
the Bear, could reach virtually any target in the United States. The
development of infligbt refueling techniques also strengthens Soviet
strategic air power in the Arctic by providing greater range capa-
bilities, thus increasing the number of potential long-range aircraft.
Although these airfields have the advantage of proximity to
North America they are vulnerable to retaliatory air attacks from the
United States and Western Europe. Furthermore, potential air capa-
bilities of the region are limited somewhat by adverse climate, which
imposes (1) seasonal flying restrictions, (2) logistic problems, and
(3) aircraft- and runway-maintenance difficulties. On the other hand,
many additional air and guided-missile bases could be remotely located
deep within the Soviet Arctic, where the danger of retaliatory measures
would be at a minimum.
The strategic importance of wartime sea operations in the Arctic,
other than the supply functions of the Northern Sea Route, is focused
mainly on potential submarine activities. Naval installations con-
centrated along the deep-water inlets of the ice-free Koliskiy Zaliv
(Bay) and in the White Sea at Severodvinsk permit year-round operation
of submarines and other naval vessels. The development of atomic-powered
submarines would permit year-round naval movement by submarines
throughout the region, including their deployment between the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans via the Arctic. In addition to the strategic
importance of the Northern Sea Route as an east-west communication
link, maritime shipping along the route is a vital necessity for
transporting supplies to the numerous scientific stations, air
facilities, ports, and mining centers as well as to possible future
guided-missile bases within the Arctic.
From the point of view of defense, the coastal installations
will serve as an early-warning line to detect enemy planes approaching
the mainland since the major polar stations and the larger airfields
are equipped with both radar and radio facilities. Radar sites are
*References in arabic numerals refer to sources listed in Appdndix B.
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concentrated along the coast from the USSR-Norwegian border to 60?E
in the western Arctic and around the Chukotsk Peninsula in the east.
In the middle Sector, radar stations are sparsely distributed.
With the great amount of polar scientific activity, especially
during the IGY0 the Soviets have acquired a formidable mass of physical
environmental data on the Arctic unmatched by the rest of the world.
The intensive Scientific program, focused upon hydrometeorological
and oceanographic research, is closely interlinked with a wide range
of other scientific research, including terrestrial geophysics
(geomagnetism,:geoelectricity, seismology, and gravimetry) and
upper-air physics. This comprehensive program could lead to a Soviet
superiority ovdr the rest of the world in understanding variations in
natural conditions and in forecasting meteorological, cryological,
magnetic, and ionospheric phenomena that are important to surface
and submarine navigation, air operations, and communications. Such
Arctic superiority would also give the Soviet Union an increasing
ability for thd rapid mounting of forward offense bases for air or
missile attack a that could be staged under cover of the winter night.
The collection ,of geomagnetic and gravity data is particularly
significant in relation to Soviet capabilities for the positioning
and navigational control of long-range missiles.
The total area of the vast east-west Arctic expanse, including
the islands, covers over 872,000 square miles (1,400,000 square
kilometers) or roughly 10 percent of the USSR land mass. The region
as defined for the purposes of this study, lies mostly north of the
tree line, the generally accepted southern limit of the Arctic. South
of the tree line is the taiga or coniferous forest belt usually
associated with the Soviet sub-Arctic. Although the major settlements
of Arkhangeltsk:and Igarka lie within the forested sub-Arctic, they
play an active role in the politico-economic development of the
Arctic and therefore are included in this study of the Arctic area.
In the Far East, where a series of mountain chains has limited tree
growth to appro4imately 60?N, a relatively straight line from
Nizhniye-Kolymsk eastward to Zaliv Kresta was drawn as the southern
boundary of the Arctic. South of this line, most of the activity is
oriented toward the Bering and Okhotsk Seas and the Far East port of
Vladivostok rather than to the Arctic.
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The traditional boundary of all Arctic regions has been the
Arctic Circle at 66?33'20"N. This line is not satisfactory within
the Soviet Union since it either includes areas that would be
considered temperate on the basis of vegetation and wildlife or
excludes areas, such as the Chukotsk Peninsula, which on the basis
of climate and other characteristics are largely Arctic. In defining
climatic regions, Oppen chose the isotherm of 50?F for the warmest
month as the southern border of the Arctic since this isotherm is
the limit of tall tree growth.
The Soviet Union, however, has rejected most geographic theories
and has defined the Arctic in terms of administrative jurisdiction.
According to a 1931 decree the southern boundary of the Far North
(Kraynyy Sever) region appeared to follow, in general, the northern
limit of relatively continuous population. 2/ At that time the
European Arctic included Murmanskaya Oblast and ?the northern
portions of Arkhangellskaya Oblast' and Komi ASSR; the Siberian
Arctic included most of the area north of 60?N. East of Ozero (Lake)
Baykal, however, the line dipped south to 55?N and even to 50?N in
the Soviet Far East.
In the past, the territory controlled by the Chief Directorate
of the Northern Sea Route (Glavnoye Upravleniye Severnogo Morskogo
Puti--GUBMP) also has frequently been associated with the areal
limits of the Soviet Arctic. Until 1938, this area included all
islands and seas of the European north and all land north of 62?N
latitude east of the Urals. Many of the activities of GUS P up to
this date were conducted by seven Territorial Administrations, which
served as administrative and functional organs of GUSMP. These
administrations were (1) Arkhangel'sk, with headquarters at Arkhangel'sk;
(2) Omsk, with headquarters at Tobol'sk; (3) Krasnoyarsk, with
headquarters at Igarka; (4) Yakutsk, with headquarters at Yakutsk;
(5) Far Eastern, with headquarters at Vladivostok; (6) Leningrad,
with headquarters at Leningrad; and (7) Murmansk, with headquarters
at Murmansk. After the reorganization of GUBMP in 1938, however, the
Territorial Administrations were abolished, and its efforts were
concentrated on the operation of the Northern Sea Route, the conduct
of scientific work, and the construction and outfitting of ports,
shipbuilding facilities, and living quarters along the Arctic littoral.
In contrast to a somewhat arbitrary southern boundary, the northern
limit of the Arctic is sharply defined by a Soviet decree of 15 April
1926 based on the so-called "sector theory." Under this decree the
Soviet Union claims unlimited sovereignty over all lands and islands
that lie between 32?04'35"E and 168?49'30"W. 3/ Within this wedge
the Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, and Chukotsk Seas are claimed as
internal waters through which there is no right of innocent passage.
In addition the USSR claims a I2-mile limit in waters along its coasts;
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in the Barents Sea this has the effect of closing Proliv (Strait)
Karskiye Vorota, the entrance to the Kara Sea. In the Bering Strait,
where the territbrial waters of the USSR and the United States overlap,
namely between Ostrov Ratmanova (Big Diomede Island) and Little Diomede
Island, the international boundary has been fixed at the center of
the mid-channel. 4/
The water area north of the Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, and
Chukotsk Seas is claimed as polar seas having a status nearly
identical with that of territorial waters. So far as is known,
there has been nd official decree concerning the status of this
portion of the Arctic Ocean, although Soviet jurists have claimed
the Soviet Union exercises sovereignty over the water and ice areas
as well as the land in its polar sector. This claim is essential
to the Soviet Union if it expects to control the air space above the
sector since, according to a principle of international law, a State
is entitled to sovereignty over the air space above its territorial
waters.
Although thei Arctic, as defined for this study, lies completely
within the RSFSR, it includes a variety of administrative subdivisions
within this major republic of the Soviet Union. From west to east,
it includes the northern portions of Murmanskaya Oblast', Arkhangellskaya
Oblast' proper, Nenetskiy Natsional'nyy Okrug (14.0.) of Arkhangel'skaya
Oblast', the Komi: ASSR, the Yamalo-Nenetskiy N.O. of Tyumenskaya Oblast',
the Taymyrskiy (Dolgano-Nenetskiy) N.O. of Krasnoyarskiy Kray, the
Yakutskaya ASSR, and the Chukotskiy N.O. of Magadanskaya Oblast'.
By far the greater part of the Arctic area is divided among various
nationality units. These national divisions were created to give
some degree of autonomy to the various racial groups, depending on
their size and stage of advancement. The Komi and Yakutskaya ASSR's
have constitutions and are under the supervision of a union republic
(SSR). The national okrugs, which are inhabited by small ethnic
groups that are little advanced culturally, enjoy a lesser degree of
autonomy, and are, under the jurisdiction of administrative oblasts
or krays.
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II. Population and Settlements in the Soviet Arctic
A. Character of the Population
The recent growth of population in the Soviet Arctic closely
parallels the intensified economic and strategic developments during
the postwar period. Since 1945, the population has increased steadily
along with the intensified efforts (1) to establish the Northern Sea
Route as an east-west conuaunication link and shipping lane for
settlements and installations along the northern coast and (2) to
exploit the vast resources of the Arctic. In conjunction with the
operation of the Northern Sea Route, the Soviets have placed consider-
able emphasis on the growing military importance of the region, which
is associated with the construction of airbases on both the mainland
and the Arctic Islands, the increase in Polar Basin research, and
the recent extension of railroad lines. Most of the advances have
been limited to four major areas: (1) the Kola Peninsula, (2) the
southeastern shore of the White Sea, (3) the lower Yenisey Basin,
and (4) the Chukotsk Peninsula. Within these areas are the principal
ports, industrial centers, and military installations and most of
the population.
The population of the Soviet Arctic exceeds 1,000,000. Although
the total population is numerically small, it is highly concentrated
in settlements of significant size, such as Arkhangellsk (238,000),
Murmansk (170,000), Severodvinsk (70,000), and Igarka (30,000). These
settlements, located at favorable sites along the littoral and rivers
of the Arctic, function as important water and rail transshipment
points serving large areas of the Arctic and sub-Arctic. The expanding
mining and industrial centers of Noril'sk (92,000) and Vorkuta (60,000)
are examples of more recent population and settlement growth. Many
of the larger regional settlements have important fishing and lumbering
industries or serve as political-administrative centers. In a large
number of the Arctic settlements, isolation has stimulated the
establishment of seaplane landing facilities as well as radio and
polar weather installations; and the number of scheduled and
nonscheduled polar flights, including those of a military nature,
has increased.
On the Arctic Islands, where the population is extremely sparse,
military and scientific installations and other government enterprises
have formed the nuclei for settlements. Major airfields -- such as
those at Belush'ya Guba (Bay) on Novaya Zemlya, Nagurskaya and Ostrov
Gofmana on Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa, Bukhta (Bay) Somnitelinaya on
Ostrov Vrangelya, and the numerous polar stations scattered throughout
the Arctic Islands -- form populated points in an otherwise desolate
area of ice, rock, and water.
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Although basic facilities such as schools, hospitals, clubs,
and theaters have been built in a large number of the Arctic settle-
ments, the harsh! environmental conditions, generally inadequate
housing, and relative isolation do not foster a normal population
Influx. The use! of forced labor to meet the initial large industrial
labor requirements of mining and construction contributed significantly
to the original influx of population. Many large urban centers such
as Noril'sk and Vorkuta were developed primarily by forced laborers,
many of whom were subsequently released but forcibly retained in the
areas as free workers. As a result of the amnesties issued between
1953 and 1957, large numbers of forced laborers were released and
the Soviets have been placing increased emphasis upon the use of
contract labor. Small numbers of forced laborers are still used in
some mining areas.
Since 1932, the USSR has issued a number of announcements
encouraging workers to migrate to the Arctic. The pay scales are
generally higher than in more southern areas, the amount of pay
increasing with the degree of isolation. In very isolated places,
workers are given double allowances, special pension rights, and
additional leave. J The normal tour of duty at most polar stations
appears to be 2 to 3 years, and at the end of each year of service
the salary is inOreased 20 percent. At the more isolated places,
however, the time. is probably reduced to 1 year or even 6 months,
thus allowing a rtiore frequent rotation of personnel. 2/ Special
privileges and inducements such as guaranteed housing are also used
to attract free contract laborers to mining and other industrial
centers in the Arctic. These inducements have met with only partial
success, and labor shortages continue in many areas. In addition to
free workers and $ome forced laborers, a relatively large number of
exiles from the Baltic republics and from former German-occupied
territories have been resettled throughout the Arctic. Although
most of these peoPle enjoy considerable freedom, they are not permitted
to leave their assigned areas. The indigenous population, which is
small in number, oontributes little to the total labor force of the
region.
B. Urban Settlements
1. Eurppean Arctic
ApproximatelY two-thirds of the population is concentrated in
the European part of the Soviet Arctic, chiefly on the Kola Peninsula
and along the southeastern shore of the White Sea, where the important
Murmansk and Arkhangel'sk trunklines and the Severnaya Dvina River
terminate. The relatively high population densities of these areas
are attributed to the large urban centers of Murmansk, Arkhangel'sk,
and Severodvinsk and to a heavy concentration of military facilities,
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including airfields, naval bases, radar stations, and coastal defense
installations. Many fishing villages are also scattered along the
coast. In addition to their port and transshipment functions, Murmansk
and Arkhangelisk are important industrial centers, with about half of
the total population consisting of civilian workers engaged chiefly
in lumbering, wood-chemical, fishing, and shipbuilding activities.
Murmansk, along the ice-free Kollskiy Zaliv, is the only major
port in northern USSR that is accessible the year round, and conse-
quently it is the focus of intensive merchant and naval activity.
The port of Murmansk and the nearby Rosta naval shipyards together
form the administrative headquarters and the major repair and supply
base for the Soviet Northern Fleet. Murmansk is also the winter port
for ice-bound Leningrad, with which it is connected by a double-track
railroad. The port activities of Murmansk are equaled in importance
by its role as the administrative and commercial center of the Kola
Peninsula (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Lenin Avenue, one of the main thoroughfares
of Murmansk.
Along KolIskiy Zaliv to the north are the important naval bases
of Severomorsk, Polyarnyy, and Guba Tyuva, which have sizable concen-
trations of both civilian and military personnel. In addition to
maintenance and supply facilities, naval schools emphasizing specialist
training, are operated at these bases. Severomorsk, with an estimated
population of between 10,000 and 15,000 in 1951, is served by rail
and road from Murmansk and is the site of one of the major airfields
in the Soviet Arctic. Minor settlements along the northern coast of
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the peninsula include a number of fishing ports -- notably Pechenga,
Port Vladimir, SaYda-Gubal Teriberka: and Ponoy -- and the minor
naval base of Iokanga (5,000 in 1944). Military airfields have been
constructed near Most of these ports.
Pechenga, located on the deep-water and ice-free fiord of Guba
Pechenga, is a fifihing center of secondary importance. Its port at
Linakhamari is 10Imi1es (16 kilometers) to the north on the western
shore of the bay. The main function of Linakhamari before construction
of the Nikell-MurMansk railroad was the shipment of ore from the mines
at Nikel' to Murmansk, but its most important activity is now fishing
and fish processing. J Pechenga and Linakhamari are on the Arctic
Highway which extends northward from the Finnish-Soviet border and
terminates at Linakhamari.
The sizable population on the southeastern shore of the White
Sea is concentrated in the large urban centers of Arkhangelfsk and
Severodvinsk. Arkhangelfsk, the largest seaport and urban complex
in the Soviet Arctic, occupies both shores of the Severnaya Dvina
and many islands in the estuary of the river. Arkhangellsk is
served by a double-track railroad line from Moscow and by the navigable
Severnaya Dvina, Which is connected by a system of canals with both
the Baltic Sea and Volga River. The port is also a major Northern
Sea Route base and a secondary naval base. Prior to World War II,
it handled approximately 14 percent of all USSR shipments through
ports, averaging More than 2,000,000 tons per year. The city is
also the chief center of the USSR lumber industry and is a port of
call for ships of several nations.
Approximately 17 miles (27 kilometers) west of Arkhangellsk is
the shipbuilding center and secondary port of Severodvinsk. Created
in 1936 to meet the demand for a shipbuilding center with direct
access to the open sea, Severodvinsk has rapidly become a sizable
urban settlement and one of the largest shipbuilding centers in the
USSR. A single-track railroad that connects with the Arkhangellsk-
Moscow trunkline at Isakogorka provides the city with most of its
consumer goods, foodstuffs, and industrial materials for the shipyard.
Elsewhere in the European Arctic the population is restricted
mainly to the river valleys and to isolated villages and installations
along the coastline. Population density is relatively high along the
Pechora River and its tributaries, where important reserves of coal,
oil, and timber are being exploited. Vorkuta, in the upper basin of
the Pechora, is the largest coal-mining center in the Soviet Arctic
(Figure 2). The numerous mines of Vorkuta are a major source of
coking coal for the industries of Leningrad. Coal is also shipped
down the Pechora 'River to the port of Nar'yan-Mar, where it is used
for bunkering and is exported to Murmansk, Arkhangel'sk, and other
ports along the Arctic coast.
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Figure 2. Main office of the Kapitalnaya Coal Mine
in Vorkuta. (1957)
Figure 3. Snow-drifted streets in Amderma. (1956)
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Figure 1.. The town of Inta on the Kotlas-Vorkuta Railroad.
Figure 5. Freighters at anchor in Igarka.
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Nartyan-Mar, at the mouth of the Pechora River, is a loading
point for ships and barges carrying coal, lUmber, and fish to
Murmansk, Arkhangel'sk, Leningrad, and other cities in European
Russia. In addition, lumber is exported to Western European countries.
The city is in the midst of an expansion program to enlarge and
reconstruct buildings and residential areas in the city and its
environs. Nar'yan-Mar is the administration center for the Nenetskiy
N.O. and had an estimated population of 11,000 in 1956.
Mezen' (population 10,000) near the mouth of the Mezen' River
and Amderma (2,000) on the Kara Sea coast are among the other popu-
lated places along the European Arctic coast. Amderma (Figure 3) is
the site of a major airfield and is also the northern terminus of a
railroad under construction from Khallmer-Yu. Along the Kotlas-Vorkuta
rail line are the small railroad and mining settlements of Inta
(Figure 4) and Abez with 5,000 and under 5,000 population, respectively.
2. Siberian Arctic
Although the majority of the population of the Arctic is located
in the European part, the post-World War II growth of ports, mining
settlements, and airfields east of the Urals has been phenomenal,
notably in the lower Yenisey Basin, on the Chukotsk Peninsula, and
to a lesser degree in the Ob', Lena, and Kolyma River valleys. As
is characteristic of most sparsely populated regions, the areas with
the greatest population densities are concentrated chiefly along the
major transportation arteries. Many of the principal settlements of
the Siberian Arctic, like those in the European north, have developed
as transshipment points.
The greatest density is in the lower Yenisey, where population
is estimated to exceed 200,000. Most of this population is concen-
trated in the river ports of Igarka and Dudinka and in the rapidly
expanding mining and metallurgical center of Noril'sk.
Igarka, located at the junction of river and ocean traffic, has
become a major port of the Siberian Arctic and a leading lumber center
of the USSR (Figure 5). Lumber from Igarka is exported to ports in
both the Soviet Union and the countries of Western Europe. Igarka
is the only Siberian Arctic port open to foreign vessels. The city
is made up of an old and a new section, which are separated by a
large timber storage area. In addition to its large lumber combine,
Igarka contains a fish-curing plant, a ship-building yard that
produces motor boats and launches, ship repair shops, and a brick
plant. A sovkhoz on an island in the Yenisey River opposite Igarka
provides the city with fresh vegetables, meat, and dairy products.
Until recently all buildings were made of wood (Figure 6); and
streets, sidewalks, and paths were planked. A reconstruction and
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Figure 6. Wooden houses and planked streets in Igarka. (1955)
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the harbor complex
at Dudinka.
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development program, however, has been started, and the first stone
building, a House of Culture, was being constructed as of 1957.
Dudinka, 134 miles (215 kilometers) downstream, functions
primarily as the major outlet for the strategic minerals of Noril'sk.
The port is equipped with cranes, conveyors, and numerous warehouses
(Figure 7). It has considerable open storage area, and a tank farm
is nearby. The streets of Dudinka are paved with stone and covered
with asphalt. A busline connects the city with the railroad terminal
in the suburbs. Most of the freight between Dudinka and Norillsk is
shipped over a narrow-gauge and a broad-gauge rail line. According
to one report the broad-gauge line is being electrified; the section
between Norillsk and Kayerkan was to be finished in 1958 and the
entire line by 1960. /./ Large quantities of Noril'sk coal are shipped
from Dudinka to Dikson, a bunkering station for the Northern Sea Route,
and to other Arctic ports. During the navigation season on the
Yenisey, freight and passenger service operates between Dudinka
and Krasnoyarsk on the Trans-Siberian Railroad. In addition to the
basic port activities, Dudinka also serves as the administrative
center of the Taymyrskiy N.O. and includes regional and district
offices, educational and medical facilities, and a number of other
public and government buildings.
Noril'sk, with its exports of nickel, copper, and cobalt to
industrial centers in various parts pf the USSR, is the largest
metallurgical center in the Soviet Arctic (Figure 8). The urban
Figure 8. Aerial view of Norillsk, looking east. (1957)
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Figure 9. A multistoried building on Gvardeyskaya Ploshchad'
in Noril'sk.
Figure 10. Apartment buildings in Gorstroy, a section of
new apartment buildings in the northern part of Noril'sk.
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ar4ea, of Noril'sk is centered around the ore-concentrating plants,
the nickel and copper refineries, and a number of repair and
construction-materials plants, most of which have been developed
since World War II. These plants have good rail and road connection
with the nearby mines. Two powerplants, which operate on local coal,
provide electric power for the industries and the city, as well as
for distant Dudinka. Near the center of Norillsk are a number of
government offices, barracks, warehouses and other buildings (Figure 9).
A new area of apartment buildings, Gorstroy, is located in the
northern part of the city and houses much of the population (Figure 10).
The Soviets plan to increase housing facilities further in 1959
through the construction of 2,300 apartments or of 695,000 square
feet (65,000 square meters) of dwelling space.
Other minor populated places in the Yenisey Basin include
Usti-Port, a small fishing village, and Dikson, an important Northern
Sea Route port (Figure 11). Bunkering facilities, a major airfield,
a polar station, and an Arctic observatory are also located on Ostrov
Dikson.
The population of the Ob' Basin is concentrated in Salekhard
(18,000) and the adjacent settlements, such as Labytnangi. The
population of Salekhard consists of Nentsy and Komi, as well as
Russians, who predominate here as in most of the other principal
settlements. The city serves as the administrative center for the
Yamalo-Nenetskiy N.O. and has a number of cultural, educational,
and medical facilities in addition to sawmills, fish canneries, and
a leather factory. Salekhard also has storage facilities for fuel
(coal and petroleum), equipment, and materials for the railroad,
airfield, and local industry. The Seyda-Salekhard railroad serves
the city, and river barges and ocean freighters call at the port.
The port is under the administration of the Irtysh River Steamship
Agency and during the 1958 navigation season handled approximately
1,150,000 tons of cargo (Figure 12). On the western shore of
Obskaya Guba is Novyy Port, a small fishing settlement. According
to one source the port is no longer used as a transshipment point
for traffic on the Ob' River and has declined in importance. 8/
In the central part of the Siberian Arctic the population
consists mainly of various indigenous nationalities who live mostly
in small villages or on collectives along the Khatanga, Olenek,
Lena, and other rivers or, occasionally, in scattered coastal areas
(Figure 13). Most of the Russians are concentrated in a few large
settlements, such as Khatanga and Tiksi, which are transshipment
ports along the Northern Sea Route as well as sites of important
airfields, telecommunications facilities, and polar stations.
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_..or
Figure 11. New wooden houses in Dikson.
Figure 12. The port area of Salekhard.
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Tiksi, near the estuary of the Lena River, is the principal
settlement of the region. Since World War II, the port, adjacent
air facilities, and the settlement have undergone considerable
expansion (Figure 14). As in Dikson, an observatory of the Arctic
and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute takes part in fleet
planning and direction in cooperation with dispatchers and port
workers. The observatory also participated in extensive scientific
investigations of the Arctic during the International Geophysical
Year.
With the development and expansion of mining activities in the
upper Kolyma region, Ambarchik has become an important Arctic port
despite certain site disadvantages. During World War II, lend-lease
shipping was frequently routed here. Although the population of
Ambarchik has been estimated at 15,000, this figure seems excessively
high in view of its known facilities. 9/ Further development of
Ambarchik will probably depend chiefly upon military considerations,
since it could become a terminus of an important land-water route
linking the Arctic Ocean with the Sea of Okhotsk at Magadan, thus
bypassing the vulnerable Bering Strait.
Although the eastern Arctic accounts for only a small percentage
of the total population, the intensification of mining and military
activities since 1945 has resulted in the creation of a number of
relatively new settlements -- notably Krasnoarmeyskoye, Iulitin, and
Egvekinot -- and the expansion of others, including Pevek, Mys
Shmidta, and Provideniya. These developments have been paralleled
by an increase in road construction and shipping activities within
the area. At the mines in the Pevek-Krasnoarmeyskoye area and at
Iulttin, there are sizable concentrations of contract workers as
well as some forced laborers.
Pevek, with a population of at least 1,000,* serves as the outlet
for the extensive mining operations near Chaunskaya Guba. It has
developed into an active port settlement that includes dwellings, a
Soviet-established school, a hospital, and a club. In addition to
port facilities, Pevek has wireless and radar stations, several
repair shops, a powerplant, warehouses and petroleum storage tanks,
and a number of GLISMP offices that operate the radio and polar
stations, the port, and other public enterprises. Pevek is also
the administrative center for Chaunskiy Rayon.
Egvekinot, located along the northern shore of Zaliv Kresta,
has also become an active transshipment point for mining operations
of the interior. As at Pevek, a large flow of construction and
mining equipment as well as fuel and supplies passes through Egvekinot.
*PW population estimates range from 1,000 to 4,000.
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Figure 13. A Yakuti and his reindeer team in the settlement
of Olenek on the coast of the Laptev Sea at the delta of the
Olenek River. (1955)
Figure 14. Three-storied Gosudarstvennyy Universal'nyy
Magazin (GUM) or state department store in Tiksi. (1956)
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Most of this material is transported by road to the mines at lull-tin
about 180 miles (290 kilometers) to the north. Tin and tungsten ore
mined here is trucked to Egvekinot, where it is transferred to
vessels and sent to refineries outside the Arctic. Several settle-
ments have been noted along the Egvekinot-Iulitin route. Little is
known about the facilities at Egvekinot, except that they include a
wooden pier, a meteorological station, and a nearby airfield.
Other settlements of the region have expanded greatly with the
development of military establishments, chiefly airfields, along the
coast of the Chukotsk Peninsula. Provideniya (4,500), 12/ on the
southeastern coast of the peninsula, is the site of the largest
military base in the area and one of the Soviet airfields nearest
Alaska. The military base comprises over 600 buildings capable of
accommodating an estimated 5,400 persons. 11/ The airfield has a
permanent runway that was increased to 8,000 feet (2,440 meters) in
1954. The port of Provideniya is an important bunkering station and
staging area for Northern Sea Route operations. During the navigation
season, naval vessels operate out of Provideniya. The port also
serves as a transshipment point for smaller settlements and instal-
lations along the coast. GUSMP and other government organizations
maintain offices at Provideniya. Among the other small coastal
settlements are Lavrentiya, Naukan, and Uelen.
C. Rural Population
In contrast to the predominantly urban population of the Arctic
is the numerically small rural population, estimated at less than
150,000 and consisting chiefly of indigenes who represent numerous
ethnic groups. The major racial groups -- Komi, Nentsy, Yakuty,
and Chukchi -- have retained some degree of cultural unity through
the formation of four national okrugs and two autonomous republics,
which encompass most of the Soviet Arctic and parts of the sub-Arctic.
These political-administrative divisions, however, are directly
subordinate to the RSFSR and in reality provide the main racial
groups with only a limited degree of autonomy.
The indigenes, like the Russians, are found largely along the
river valleys where they have been settled either in small villages
or on state or collective farms. Villages are usually located near
the center of a kolkhoz and include a school, medical center, library,
and club. Some villages are even electrified. In most villages,
especially along the valleys, the people live in crude log houses.
During the organized seasonal migrations of reindeer herds, the
natives live in portable tents called chums, yurtas, or yarangas.
In those coastal areas where fishing and pelagic hunting are the
principal activities, many indigenes still live in tents. Many of
the native villages, particularly on the Chukotsk Peninsula, are
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located in the vicinity of Russian settlements where the natives
trade, occasionally engage in part-time employment, and avail
themselves of Soviet-established educational and medical facilities.
Occasional individual natives are selected for specialized training
in Soviet institutions or, more frequently, receive political,
technical, or some military training in the local Russian settlements.
In addition to reindeer herding, which is the principal
occupation for most of the indigenes, many supplement their income
by seasonal fishing, hunting, and trapping of fur-bearing animals.
Despite Soviet educational, medical, and technical aid, the living
standards of the indigenes remain low and their economy is near the
subsistence level.
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III. Economic Activities
A. General Characteristics
The economy of the Soviet Arctic is based principally on the
extraction and processing of natural resources -- chiefly timber,
minerals, fish, and furs. The construction of ships and food
processing make up a smaller segment of the economy. (See Map 27361)
Most of the products of the Arctic are shipped from the area to
foreign countries or to other parts of the Soviet Union. A large
part of the lumber and other wood products are exported from
Arkhangel'sk and Igarka to the United Kingdom, Netherlands, and
Belgium. Large quantities of canned salmon, salted herring, and
caviar are also shipped to Great Britain and other Western European
countries. Minerals are used domestically, and the contribution of
the Arctic to the national total is significant. In 1957, Noril'sk
produced an estimated 18,000 tons of nickel and 50,000 tons of
copper 12j; and the Pechora Basin produced 15,000,000 tons of coal.
The ship construction at Severodvinsk is the only fabricating
industry of national Importance. It contributes an estimated 7.5
percent of the combat-ship construction to the national total.
The products of herding and small-scale specialized farming
are consumed within the region. The reindeer of the indigenes
furnish meat, milk, and hides. Vegetables and fruits, frequently
grown under glass, are sources of the antiscorbutic vitamins
especially necessary in maintaining a balanced diet during the long
winter period. Although the amount of food produced is a small part
of the total for the nation, its local importance is significant.
The Soviet Arctic, together with the rest of the Soviet Union,
has recently altered the organization and management of its industry,
including construction. The change occurred in May 1957, when
management was decentralized to the territorial level. At that time
the country was divided into 105 economic-administrative regions, each
headed by a sovnarkhoz (council of national economy). The Arctic
includes the Murmansk, Arkhangel'sk, Komi, Tyumen, Krasnoyarsk,
Yakutsk, and Magadan Sovnarkhozes; and the boundaries of these
economic-administrative regions coincide with the corresponding
administrative boundaries. The purpose of the reorganization was to
remove bureaucratic "narrow-mindedness," cumbersome administrative
apparatus, and poor organization of supply and marketing methods,
and to improve the working conditions and efficiency of the scientific
establishments and organizations serving industry. Apparently,
however, the reorganization has had only partial success and in many
instances has actually extended bureaucracy and increased misthanagement.
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B. Wood Processing
The wood-processing industry of the Soviet Arctic is keyed
largely to the production of lumber, with increasing emphasis on the
output of wood-chemical, pulp and paper, and allied products. Big
industrial combines -- including wood-processing, furniture, and
prefabricated-housing factories -- have sprung up in the vicinity
of large sawmills. Although the processed lumber supports important
local construction, shipbuilding, and repair activities, it is
chiefly a foreign-export item.
Most of the timber originates in the upper river basins of the
sub-Arctic and is towed downstream in large sectional rafts to sawmills
located at principal rail or water transportation terminals. Arkhangel'sk
and Igarka, the leading sawmill and lumber export centers, obtain most
of their timber from the forests along the Severnaya Dvina and in the
upper Yenisey Basin. Logs are also rafted down the Mezen', Pechora,
Ob', and Lena Rivers to the secondary lumber export centers of Mezen'
(Figure 15), Nar'yan-Mar, Salekhard, and Tiksi. Log rafts are often
Figure 15. Lumber stacked on the shore and on the
pontoon wharf at Mezen'. (1957)
damaged while moving downstream; and, in 1956, logs valued at 2,000,000
rubles were lost on the Lena River. Summer storms, fluctuations in
water level, and poor handling techniques account for most of the
losses. The bummer losses occur largely because weather forecasts
for a specific area are issued for 12-hour periods whereas the
convoys often take more than 24 hours to pass through the area.
Despite these limitations the rivers provide not only the most
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economical means of transporting timber but also the only means in
most cases. Electricity provided by local powerplants is the chief
source of energy for the wood industries. Although the wood industries
employ a sizable labor force, the number of workers apparently varies
with the seasonal supply of timber.
Arkhangel'sk produced 3.8 million cubic yards (2.9 million
cubic meters) of coniferous lumber in 1955. In the same year the
lumber exported amounted to 2.2 million cubic yards (1.7 million
cubic meters) and represented 70 percent of the total Soviet lumber
exports. It has been proposed that timber be exported from Arkhangel'sk
on a year-round basis, using icebreakers to keep the White Sea open.
At present, navigation in the White Sea is closed by ice from
mid-November to mid-May. Since the southern part of the Barents Sea
is ice free, European vessels would be able to call at Arkhangel'sk
throughout the year. Four hundred foreign ships called there in
1957. 21/ Twenty-six sawmills 14/, 4 wood-processing plants, and 21
lumber and log-storage areas are located within Arkhangel'sk and its
environs (Figure 16). 15/ The area is also the center of an expanding
wood-chemical, pulp, and paper industry. Most of the mills and
processing plants have good rail connection with nearby storage
areas and piers (Figure 17).
The Kuznechevskiy mill, located north of Arkhangel'sk, is the
largest sawmill in the USSR. It is equipped with 24 saw frames and
employs over 1,000 workers. The waste products from the mill are
used at the Arkhangel'sk pulp plant, Solombalskiy. Prefabricated
houses, silos, and hothouse frames are also constructed in some of
the local lumber mills. The Krasnyy Oktyabr' mill produces large
numbers of prefabricated houses for lumber camps in the northern
regions as well as for Arctic installations and settlements. Lumber,
hothouse frames, and silo parts have been manufactured in Arkhangel'sk
for use in regions as remote as the New Lands.
The Solombalskiy and the Voroshilov pulp plants are two of the
most important in the Arkhangel'sk area. Both plants are served by
their own heat and powerplants (TTS), which are a part of the
Arkhangellsk-Severodvinsk power network. The Voroshilov, located
east of Isakogorka, is one of the largest pulp plants in the USSR.
It produces pulp, newsprint, writing paper, and chemicals. In 1951,
production was estimated at 250,000 metric tons of pulp, 90,000 metric
tons of paper, and 16,000 metric tons of alcohol. 16/ The Solombalskiy
plant supplies cellulose and pulp to explosive, plastics, and synthetic-
fiber plants throughout the USSR and also makes brown wrapping paper,
cardboard and soap (Figure 18). A large hydrolysis plant produces
wood-chemicals, including xylose (wood sugar), ethyl alcohol, methyl
alcohol, acetone, acetic acid, and turpentine. Several smaller
cellulose and wood-chemical plants are also located in the area.
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Figure 16. Lumber stacked at sawmill No. 3 on the
Severnaya Dvina River, south of Arkhangellsk. (1957)
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lumber stored at
Arkhangelfsk. (1957)
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Figure 18. The Solombalskiy cellulose plant in Arkhangel'sk. (1958)
Igarka, the second largest sawmilling and lumber-export center
in the Soviet Arctic is the site of a major lumber combine that
includes 3 sawmills and extensive lumber yards. Rafts, which occa-
sionally carry up to 44,500 cubic yards (35,000 cubic meters) of
logs, are floated downstream to Igarka where they are stored, seasoned,
and processed (Figure 19). A wooden wharf, with a total length of
2,100 feet (640 meters) can accommodate several vessels simultaneously.
The lumber is hauled to the wharf by motorized fork-lift-type trucks,
but it is transferred to the ships by their own gear because the wharf
is not equipped with cranes (Figure 20). During the 1957 season,
about 135,000 tons of timber were exported from Igarka by 50 foreign
vessels. Most of these were of British, Norwegian, West German,
Liberian, and Greek registry. Timber not exported is manufactured
into prefabricated houses, furniture, other finished wood products,
and wooden boxes and barrels for packing graphite and fish. Some
timber is rafted beyond Igarka and is used in the sawmills at Dudinka
and Noril'sk. Most of the products of these mills are used in local
construction and mining activities.
Sawmills and associated industries are found in several other
Arctic cities. Prefabricated houses are manufactured in Salekhard,
and lumber is produced in neighboring Labytnangi. Logs for these
mills arrive by rail from the Ural Mountains and by raft on the Ob'
River. The several sawmills at Severodvinsk operate largely in
support of local shipbuilding. Little is known of the wood-processing
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Figure 19. Milling operations at an Igarka sawmill.
Figure 20. Freighters berthed at the lumber wharf in
Igarka. Ramps connect the wharf with lumber storage
areas on the top of the river bank. (1956)
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industry at Murmansk; but a,sawmill, plywood plant, prefabricated
housing factory, and furniture factory are known to be in operation.
A number of smaller sawmills have also been established throughout
the Arctic -- notably at Vorkuta, Tiksi, Pevek, and Provideniya --
to support expanding construction and mining activities.
C. Fishing
The fishing industry of the Soviet Arctic comprises a large
part of the region's economy and, in the Soviet Union, ranks second
only to the Far East. Production is probably increasing and will
continue to grow as the Northern Sea Route develops. At present
the many small canneries along rivers in the Siberian Arctic process
fish products for local consumption exclusively. Production in
these canneries will probably increase greatly when better transpor-
tation to the populated centers in the south and west becomes
available.
Research at ocean fishing grounds has been aided by the introduction
of submarines. The research submarine Severyanka is equipped with
windows, floodlights, and a television camera, and has been used to
observe fish and their habitats regardless of weather or sea con-
ditions. 11/ On its maiden voyage, the submarine made a 10-day
cruise in the Barents Sea.
Cod, haddock, and herring make up the largest percentage of the
total catch in the Arctic; and within the Arctic the Barents Sea is
the largest producing area. Other species of commercial fish caught
in the rivers and coastal waters include salmon, sea bass, and roach.
In the past, salting has been the most widespread method of
preserving fish. Herring are still salted, and in many isolated
areas this is the only practical method for preserving fish. Cod,
haddock, and some salmon are canned, however, the percentage of the
fish preserved in this manner has increased in recent years as the
result of new cannery construction. The best grades are exported.
Only a small percentage of the total catch is preserved by smoking
or air drying. Dried fish is eaten by the native population and is
used as dog food. Advances in sea and air transportation have made
possible a wider distribution of fresh and frozen fish.
The length of the fishing season and the distribution of fish
in the seas and rivers of the Soviet Arctic depends upon ice and
climatic conditions. Ice cover on the seas and rivers during much
of the year limits fishing to the summer season. Salmon and sturgeon,
the most valuable river fish, do not appear in the rivers until after
the spring breakup.
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The southern half of the Barents Sea is not covered with pack
ice because of the ameliorating effect of a branch of the Gulf Stream.
Since this part of the sea remains ice free in winter, fishing fleets
can operate without interruption throughout the year. Although
herring, cod, haddock, and salmon are the principal species caught
in the Barents Sea the warming of the water by the Gulf Stream has
permitted the entry of numerous other species of fish. Cod, herring,
mackerel, and haddock are found even along the western coast of
Novaya Zemlya.
At sea the fish travel in schools near the surface when not
feeding and are caught in large nets pulled by trawlers. When the
fish feed, they move into coastal waters and estuaries, where they
are caught in small nets -- often hand dip nets.
Murmansk is the most important fishing port and processing
center in the entire Soviet Arctic. A fleet of 560 trawlers is
based there and accounts for most of the fish taken in the Barents
Sea (Figure 21). In addition to the trawlers, there are 14 floating
canneries for processing fish (Figure 22). The catch amounted to
nearly 500,000 tons in 1957, most of which was canned for export,
chiefly to the United Kingdom.
Fish are brought into the port and processed the year round,
since the trawler fleet is not restricted by winter ice. Several
plants salt, can, and pickle the fish. The preparation of frozen
fish, especially fillet of cod, has become important as a result of
the development of rapid refrigerated transportation. Byproducts
of fish processing include cod liver oil, vitamin A extracts, and
fishmeal. Wooden barrels and tin cans are manufactured near most
canneries.
Arkhangel'sk is an important fish processing center for the
White Sea fishing fleet. Herring is the principal fish caught.
Ice conditions in the White Sea limit the fishing season, and the
canneries operate only 5 months during the year.
To the east of Barents Sea, fishing conditions rapidly become
less favorable. Plankton is relatively abundant in these cold
waters, but fish decrease both in number and species. In addition,
the short ice-free season and the great distances from consuming
centers limit the development of the fishing industry. Most fish are
caught in river estuaries, and fishing collectives are found on all
the major rivers. Part of the catch is canned for export, the
remainder is smoked or air dried for local consumption.
Obskaya Guba is the second most important fishing area in the
Soviet Arctic. The many factories around the bay can large amounts
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Figure 21. Trawlers of the Murmansk fishing fleet.
Figure 22. A floating fish cannery of the Murmansk
fleet, with trawlers tied alongside the mother ship.
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of salmon, sturgeon, and whitefish. Products of the canneries reach
the populated centers of the country via the Northern Sea Route and
the ow River--Trans-Siberian Railroad network.
The slow-moving water of the estuary is rich in plankton and
provides favorable feeding grounds for the fish as they move upstream
to their spawning grounds. In addition to salmon, sturgeon, and
whitefish, great numbers of pike and perch are caught. Salmon often
weigh over 50 pounds (22 kilograms), and sturgeon may reach 200 to
250 pounds (90 to 112 kilograms). The fish reach great size since
only a small portion are caught each year, and the remainder live
to an old age.
A total of 10 fish-processing plants were scattered along the
shores of Obskaya Guba in 1951, and several additional fish-packing
plants are located along the shores of Tazovskaya Guba, an eastern
extension of the bay. The Salekhard Canning Combine (Salekhardskiy
Konservniy Kombinat) is the most important producer of fish products
and includes plants at Kushevat, Shugin, Puyko, and Aksarka. The
largest plant, which is in Salekhard, employed over 3,000 people in
1950. In 1946 the daily production of the combine amounted to 42,000
tins of fish. Salmon, sturgeon, and whitefish are canned, smoked,
frozen, salted, and dried. Caviar is prepared from sturgeon roe.
Waste products are converted into bone meal for fertilizer.
The delta of the Yenisey River north of Ust'-Port also supports
a sizeable fish industry. The principal fish caught are three
species of whitefish (Coragonus) chir, and muksun. In 1955
the catch of sieg and chir amounted to 424 tons and 777(7Es, respectively;
and in 1954 the muksun catch was 156 tons. The fish are procured
with cast seine nets in the summer and with stationary nets during
the remainder of the year. In winter the nets are placed under the
ice. Fish too small to be processed in canneries such as that at
Ustr-Port are used for dog food and as bait for white-fox traps. 18/
The Yenisey River upstream from the delta supports relatively
few fish since the water is not rich in plankton and lacks protected
spawning grounds. Fish that do live in the river grow slowly but
reach great size. Salmon are canned and cod are salted at a small
fish cannery and curing factory located on an island in the Yenisey
near Dudinka.
A number of smaller canneries are scattered along the Arctic
shore at various points, including Teriberka, Tazovskoye, Ustf-Port,
Kazach'ye, and Ustt-Yansk. Their contribution to the total production
of the Soviet Arctic is small. Most other villages along the coast
and river deltas catch and process fish at least for their own
consumption.
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D. Shipbuilding
1. Extent of the Industry
The shipbuilding industry of the Soviet Arctic is keyed largely
to the support of the Soviet Navy and the fishing industry of the
region. In addition to outfitting and repairing ships of the Northern
Sea Route and naval vessels of the Soviet Northern Fleet, the yards
construct naval and fishing vessels. The majority of the yards are
concentrated in the vicinity of Murmansk and Arkhangelsk, which are
connected by railroad with the principal industrial areas of the USSR.
Direct year-round access to the open sea has been conducive to the
expansion of shipbuilding and repair facilities within these areas.
Although secondary and minor yards have sprung up in a number of ports
along the Arctic coastline, the relatively short navigation season
(except along the Kol'skiy Zaliv) and the lack of year-round supply
routes preclude large-scale expansion of shipbuilding and repair
activities elsewhere in the region.
Among the approximately 31 shipyards and boatyards in the Soviet
Arctic, the most important are the Severodvinsk Shipyard Zavod Number
402 and the Rosta Naval Shipyard near Murmansk. These yards operate
largely in support of the Soviet Northern Fleet; the former is the
principal shipbuilding yard and the latter is the principal repair
yard. The remaining shipbuilding and repair facilities in the Arctic
consist of either secondary shipyards or minor boatyards. The
secondary yards engage in the construction, maintenance, and repair
of fishing vessels and patrol craft and perform limited repairs to
ocean-going merchant vessels and naval ships up to destroyer size.
The shipyards in the Arkhangel'sk area include Isakogorka,
Krasnaya Kuznitsa, and Morskoyflot as well as 5 smaller yards.
Isakogorka does minor ship repairs. Krasnaya Kuznitsa overhauls
submarines, merchant ships, and fishing craft; it has a graving dock
that can accommodate 2 destroyer escorts simultaneously and 2 floating
25X1 drydocks for destroyers Morskoyflot shipyard repairs
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small destroyers, submarines, and commercial ships; its facilities
include 2 installations that may be graving docks.
Shipyards in the Murmansk area, in addition to the Rosta
Shipyard, include those at Murman-Ryba, Mys Khaldeyev, Chelnopushka,
and 2 smaller yards. Murman-Ryba repairs fishing trawlers, utilizing
1 large and 2 small drydocks. Mys Khaldeyev builds and repairs
local fishing vessels, and has facilities for constructing 12 ships
simultaneously. Chelnopushka Shipyard, located in a small bay 5
miles (8 kilometers) northeast of Murmansk, has been constructed
since World War II to take over small-repair work formerly done at
Rosta. It has 2 floating drydocks 500 and 300 feet (152 and 91
meters) in length which can be joined to make one 800-foot (244-meter)
drydock. The shipyard repairs submarines and destroyers and performs
maintenance work on larger ships. 12/
Smaller boatyards, scattered throughout the region, are engaged
chiefly in the construction and repair of fishing boats and barges
and have limited repair facilities for small naval vessels only. In
addition to those near Arkhangel'sk and Murmansk, yards are located
at Nartyan-Mar, Severomorsk, Polyarnyy, Iokanga, Mezen', Tiksi, and
several other settlements. Although most of these yards have only
limited equipment, they provide important construction, refueling,
maintenance, and repair bases for river craft and fishing vessels
operating in the region.
2. Severodvinsk Naval Yard, Zavod Number 402
The Severodvinsk Naval Yard, Zavod Number 402, is the largest
and best equipped shipyard in the Soviet Arctic. It is located on
the north side of the city along the Nikol'skoye Ust'ye (Estuary),
a small inlet from the Dvinskaya Guba. A large ship basin is also
located on Ostrov Yagry, an island forming the northern side of the
harbor. The dockyard and associated shops are served by rail, water,
and planked roadway and are equipped with electricity, heat, steam,
and other utilities. Water access to the yard from the Dvinskaya
Guba is through a dredged channel, 5 miles (8 kilometers) long and
180 feet (55 meters) wide. Rapid silting makes constant dredging
necessary to maintain the 27- to 30-foot (8- to 9-meter) depths.
Except in the severest winters, ice breakers are able to keep the
harbor open to navigation most of the year. The bulk of the industrial
materials, with the exception of lumber, arrives via a single-track
railroad line that connects Severodvinsk with the Arkhangel'sk-Moscow
trunkline at Isakogorka.
The yard has constructed tanker barges, submarines, destroyers,
and 2 or possibly 3 cruisers. If an atomic-powered submarine were to
be built, the covered construction docks of this shipyard would permit
continuous construction with little danger of surveillance.
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The yard occupies an area of approximately 550 acres (220
hectares), with about 12,000 feet (3,660 meters) of water frontage.
Facilities include (a) 2 covered graving-construction docks, each
about 1,000 feet (305 meters) long and 150 feet (45 meters) wide
and capable of building 4 destroyers simultaneously; (b) 2 transverse
building ways; (c) a large transverse shipbuilding site for smaller
vessels; and (d) a ship assembly shop 350 feet (107 meters) long and
80 feet (2)i- meters) wide for the construction of subchasers and small
craft. Each graving-construction dock is served by a 25-ton and a
100-ton electric gantry crane and several lighter cranes. Since these
docks and the ship assembly shop are covered, the shipyard is capable
of year-round operations. Included in the yard are large multisectional
plate, prefabrication, fabrication, and ship-assembly shops; a number
of foundry, forge, and machine shops; a boiler shop; pipe and joiner
shops; and extensive storage facilities. The Severodvinsk municipal
powerplant supplies electric power to the yard and to the city as
well as to part of Arkhangel'sk.
3. Rosta Naval Shipyard (Sevmorput)
The Rosta Naval Shipyard is located about 2.5 miles (4 kilometers)
north of Murmansk and is the principal shipyard and supply depot of
the Soviet Northern Fleet It has a total area of 80 acres
(32 hectares) and extends for about 3,000 feet (915 meters) along the
eastern shore of Kol'skiy Zaliv. The shipyard is readily accessible
from Murmansk by water, road, and an electrified railroad line. Most
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of the materials and equipment for the shipyard arrive by railroad
from the Leningrad and Moscow areas. Rosta has 2 graving docks 800
and 420 feet (244 and 128 meters) in length. In addition, there are
3 repair wharves that can accommodate the largest ships of the fleet.
The wharves and graving docks are served by 7 cranes.
Some 60 barracks for naval personnel, several headquarters-type
buildings, and a number of supply warehouses have been identified in
the southeastern part of the dockyard. About 30 buildings believed
to be used as quarters for civilian workers are also located in the
vicinity. Current employment is estimated at 5,000 to 6,000 workers.
E. Mining
1. Mineral Resources
Minerals found in the Arctic region contribute significantly to
the total mineral production of the Soviet Union. Nickel, copper,
cobalt, tin, uranium, and coal are among the more important minerals;
antimony, tungsten, platinum, gold, silver, and oil are also found.
Although many of the mineral deposits of the Arctic are remote from
consuming areas, transportation is not a prohibitive factor if the
need for the mineral warrants its exploitation. The increasing need
for nickel and copper prompted the development of the Norillsk mines
in western Siberia. The coal mines at Vorkuta are over 1,400 miles
(2,250 kilometers) from Leningrad, but the urgency of the demand
during World War II prompted their development. Uranium ore has
been flown from distant mining centers to refineries in the interior
of the country. The Kotlas-Vorkuta railroad, which connects the
coal fields with the Leningrad rail lines, was completed in 2 years
at a terrific cost in human lives. Nonstrategic minerals, such as
rock salt and many ores of relatively low strategic importance, are
delivered by ocean freighter, and their deposits have been less
rapidly exploited.
The search for mineral deposits in the Soviet Arctic is carried
out by the Scientific Research Institute for Geology of the Arctic
(NIIGA) of the Ministry of Geology and Conservation of Mineral
Resources, Leningrad. Every year, prospecting parties are sent into
the field throughout the Arctic mainland and islands. Field parties
usually begin work in April or May and return to Leningrad in September
or October. A variety of transportation -- including aircraft, river
boats, reindeer and dog teams -- is utilized to deliver the personnel,
food, machinery, explosives and other equipment. Field parties of
up to 80 people, including NIIGA geologists and technicians as well
as indigenous natives, operate from expedition bases such as Khatanga,
Tiksi, and Igarka. Surface and subsurface geology is mapped, drill
cores are obtained, and test trenches are dug during the short summer
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season. The parties return to Leningrad with their field notes and
samples at the end of the season, but small groups are often left
at the prospecting sites during the winter.
Numerous mineral deposits have been discovered by NIIGA expeditions.
Rare minerals, including columbium, lanthanum, and cerium, were found
by the Kyndyn expedition; garnet and emerald deposits were found by
the Biretka expedition; and chromium was discovered on Ostrova Izvestiy
TsIK; west of the Taymyr Peninsula.
2. Major Deposits
Mineral production is centered in four major areas: Noril'sk
(nickel, copper, cobalt, coal); Nikel' (nickelz copper, cobalt);
Vorkuta (coal); and Pevek (tin, tungsten, gold).
a. Noril'sk
Metal refining and its associated industries have made the
Noril'sk Mining and Metallurgical Combine the largest center of
heavy industry in the Soviet Arctic (Figure 25). The mineral deposits
Figure 25. A part of the industrial complex in Noril'sk. The
large building in the foreground is believed to be the locomotive
repair shop. (1957)
were discovered in the late 1930's and large-scale mining operations
began during World War II. The principal minerals are nickel, copper,
cobalt, and coal; smaller amounts of silver, gold, platinum, and iron
are also found. Metal production in 1957 was estimated as follows:
copper 50,000 tons, nickel 18,000 tons, and cobalt 270 tons. Ore
reserves have been estimated at 720,000 tons of copper, 200,000 of
nickel, and 13,500 of cobalt. 20/
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The Noril'sk ore contains 0.47 to 0.6 percent copper, 0.31 to
0.9 percent nickel, 0.1 percent cobalt, and smaller amounts of other
metals. It is mined in the hills south and southwest of the city.
Since the ore bodies are only 130 feet (40 meters) below the surface,
open pit mining as well as underground methods are used (Figure 26).
The ore is hauled by broad- and narrow-gauge railroads to concentrating
plants where it is crushed, separated by selective flotation, and
cencentrated. The copper and nickel ores are smelted, cast into
electrodes, and electrolytically refined to pure metal (Figure 27).
Cobalt and selenium are extracted as byproducts of the refining
process. Platinum also is recovered during the refining, 2 grams of
platinum being obtained from every ton of ore. The platinum concentrate
is further processed to obtain palladium, osmium, irridium, and
ruthenium. Platinum production began in 1940-41, and by 1947
Noril'sk produced 80,000 to 85,000 fine ounces a year or 30 percent
of the Soviet output. Ferro-chromium and tellurium are also produced
at the Noril'sk Mining and Metallurgical Combine.
Several industries are operated to support the refining operations.
A coking plant prepares Noril'sk coal for use in roasting the ore.
About 192,000 tons of coke were produced in 1955. The byproducts --
coal tar and coal gas -- are consumed in Noril'sk. Two thermalelectric
powerplants located within the city supply power for electrolytic
refining and for other industrial uses. The same installations furnish
electricity, water, and steam heat to the city.
Both bituminous and anthracite coal are found in the Noril'sk
area and enable the city not only to satisfy its own needs but also
to ship large quantities to Dudinka. According to schedule, 2
million tons of coal are to be produced in 1959. Thirteen anthracite
mines are located in the hills north and northeast of Noril'sk. The
coal is in veins 13 to 16 feet (4 to 5 meters) thick and is produced
at a rate of 2,000 tons per day. Numerous bituminous deposits of
coking quality are scattered along both sides of Shmidt Gora (Mountain).
Mines have also been reported at Kayerkan on the Noril'sk-Dudinka
railroad about 19 miles (30 kilometers) west of Noril'sk. Only one
mine in this area was worked in 1952, and it produced 2,400 tons a
day.
Oil shale is also used as a fuel and is burned without prior
processing. It is found in large, thick lenses in the poorer
quality coal formations.
Other industrial installations associated with mineral refining
include sulphuric- and hydrochloric-acid plants, a plant for manu-
facturing rubber-coating for lining pipes and barrels, brick factories,
and a cement plant.
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Figure 26. Loading ore on gondola cars at the
strip mine near Noril'sk.
Figure 27. Interior of the
electrolytic refinery of the
Noriltsk nickel combine.
(1956)
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A heavy-water plant ifs reportedly located at Noril'sk, in the
northeastern part of the city near one of the thermal powerplants.
It consists of 6 buildings and 2 steel towers. 21/
Iron mines located near Noril'sk include one on Shmidt Gora,
another north of the Noril'sk-Dudinka railroad and several 75 miles
(120 kilometers) east of the city. gy Iron ore production is minor
and is probably limited in use to local iron-foundry operations.
Small amounts of gold are produced at Norillsk. The metal is
recovered as a byproduct of nickel-copper refining and by dredging
Ozero (Lake) Pyasino. A factor contributing to the small production
from the lake is the short ice-free season.
b. Nikel'
The Pechenganikel Combine at Nike]: in the northwestern part of
the Kola Peninsula produces nickel, copper and minute quantities of
cobalt (Figure 28). When the mines were under Finnish jurisdiction
they had an annual capacity of 10,000 tons of nickel contained in
matte. Production has undoubtedly risen since then and may now be
as high as 12,000 tons. The nickel-copper matte produced in the
smelter is shipped by rail to Monchegorsk for electrolytic refining.
The probability that Nikel' now has a refinery is indicated by the
recent development of hydroelectric power in the area. Such a
development would allow a great part of the matte produced by the
smelter to be refined at Nikel'.
The mines are located in a mineralized zone southeast and east
of Nikel', the original mine being southeast of the settlement. The
ores contain 1.0 to 3.5 percent nickel and 1 to 2 percent copper. A
new mining area, called Zapolyarnyy, is being developed about 12
miles (20 kilometers) east of Nikel' and will be operated by open-cast
methods. Zapolyarnyy will no doubt replace the old mine, but the
ore is of a lower grade, averaging 1 percent nickel. A high voltage
powerline has been completed and an ore-processing plant is to be
constructed along side it. 23/
c. Vorkuta
The Vorkuta area in the northeastern part of the European Arctic
is the largest coal-mining center in the Soviet Arctic and produced
an estimated 11,000,000 tons of coal in 1956 (Figure 29). Much of
the coal is of coking quality and is expected to play a large role
not only in the continued industrialization of Leningrad but also in
the development of the Far North.
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Figure 28. Buildings
of the smelting and
refining complex at
Nikel'. (1956)
Figure 29. Vorkuta, the largest coal-mining center in the
Soviet Arctic. On the left is a thermalelectric power-
plant, and in the distance at the right is a mine and a
pile of tailings. (1957)
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Twenty-four mines were reported in Vorkuta in 1957. 24/ They
are located north and west of the city, and most are of shaft type.
Although the majority of the mines are mechanized, some cars are
probably loaded by hand. The quality of Vorkuta deposits varies
from lignite to bituminous. Coal of coking quality is also found
here, but it is sent to industrial centers to be processed.
Coal is produced at several other places in the Vorkuta area.
Khaltmer-Yu, 37 miles (60 kilometers) northeast of Vorkuta, has
high-quality coking coal. Coal is also mined at Khanovey, 12 miles
(20 kilometers) east of the city; at Abez and Inta, to the south of
it, lignite is mined.
Several minerals including chromium, iron, gold, manganese,
platinum, and uranium have been found north and east of Vorkuta
but the present status of their exploitation is unknown.
d. Pevek
Mineral exploitation in the Pevek area is found in a broad zone
surrounding Chaunskaya Guba in eastern Siberia. Geological exploration
started in the 19301s, and mining operations began in 1948. The mines
at present are important producers of tin. In addition, tungsten,
copper, lead, zinc, platinum, silver, gold, and uranium are also
produced in small quantities. It is possible that mining of the
uranium ore has been abandoned in favor of more accessible deposits
elsewhere in the Soviet Union. The ores produced at Pevek are
graded and barreled for export since the isolated position and lack
of a fuel base indicate that the construction of a refinery might
be uneconomic. The ores are stockpiled in the winter and shipped
out during the navigation season. Over 900 tons of tin ore and
about 12 tons of tungsten ore were shipped from Pevek in 1957.
Mining is concentrated at several places near Pevek. Mt.
Yandra-Paken, at the northern tip of Pevek Peninsula, contains
deposits of tin and gold. The tin ore is found in thin seams several
thousand meters in length and has a low metal content. Elsewhere on
Pevek Peninsula, copper, lead, and zinc are found. The mountainous
area 31 miles (50 kilometers) northeast of the peninsula contains
shallow uranium mines, which were developed before World War II and
were operated by hand labor. The valley of the Kuyveyem River along
the eastern slopes of the mountains also has deposits of uranium
and tin. The ore is found in alluvial deposits along the river and
in veins in the surrounding hills. The largest mining area is 50
miles (80 kilometers) east-southeast of Pevek at Krasnoarmeyskoye,
where more than 20 open-pit and shaft mines produce tin, tungsten,
silver, and possibly uranium. 25/ Small amounts of tungsten,
gold, silver, and platinum, are produced south of Krasnoarmeyskoye.
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One of the newest mining areas near Pevek is located at Bilibino
on a tributary of the Malyy Anyuy River southwest of Chaunskaya Guba.
Equipment including a diesel-electric power unit and mining machinery
was sent by tractor train to Bilibino to develop the gold deposit in
the river. 26/
Prospecting for gold has been in active progress in the Pevek
area for the past several years. Gold was found in the Ichuveyem
River south of Pevek in 1956, and a placer mine was to start operation
in 1957. In the Chaunskaya Guba area, prospecting parties have also
been active on Ostrov Ayon, and on the Rauchevan, Gyrgychan, and
Ichuveyem Rivers.
3. Minor Deposits
The minor mineral deposits of the Soviet Arctic are relatively
small and include fluorspar at Amderma, oil in the Nordvik-Khatangskiy
Zaliv area, iron ore near Murmansk, and tungsten and tin in northeastern
Siberia.
a. Amderma
One of the largest fluorspar deposits in the USSR is found near
the Amderma River at the settlement of Amderma. The ore body consists
of 10 beds that cover 7 square miles (18 square kilometers) and contain
veins up to 26 feet (8 meters) thick. The isolated far-northern
position in the European Arctic and resultant high production costs
have probably caused the mining operations to shut down. Since Amderma
was a major producer of fluorspar, cessation of operations may be
only temporary.
b. Nordvik-Khatangskiy Zaliv
The Nordvik-Khatangskiy Zaliv area is an oil-bearing region on
the southeastern edge of the Taymyr Peninsula. Exploration began in
1935 and probably continued until 1953. During the exploration,
more than 250 wells were drilled (Figure 30). The oil is found on
the flanks of large salt domes. The first well struck oil strata
at 2,000 feet (610 meters), and other wells were drilled at 6,000
feet (1,830 meters). The highest grade of oil, however, was found
at 1,000 feet (305 meters). Most of the oil in this area is a
sulfurous naphthenic base oil containing paraffin wax. In recent
years, no information has been available on the region, and it is
probable that prospecting and drilling have stopped.
The first area of exploration was on the Yurung-Tumus Peninsula
near Nordvik. The oil flowed at a rate of 5 barrels a day. ,Exploration
later shifted to the southwest, in the Bukhta Kozhevnikova area, and
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several refineries, apparently of the small pot-still type, were
built on the north shore of the bay to process the oil. 27/ There
are also known oil deposits at several other places in the Nordvik-
Khatangskiy Zaliv area, including Ostrov Begicheva, the lower Anabar
River, and the northwestern coast of Khatangskiy Zaliv.
Other minerals of the Nordvik-Khatangskiy Zaliv area include
coal, salt, gypsum, and copper-nickel ore. Coal is produced in small
amounts and used locally. At Bukhta Kozhevnikova, the coal varies
in quality from lignite to bituminous and is produced from shaft mines
65 to 98 feet (20 to 30 meters) deep. Coal also outcrops in the hills
at the confluence of the Khatanga and Khabydar Fivers. Ostrov Begicheva
contains beds of bituminous coal 3 feet (1 meter) thick but they are
probably not worked. At Nordvik, lignite is mined from open pits. A
lignite bed at Bukhta Kulb'cha on the eastern shore of Khatangskiy
Zaliv has been burning since 1932.
The salt dome south of Nordvik on the Yurung-Tumus Peninsula is
an important source of rock salt (Figure 31). The deposits are 6,000
to 8,000 feet (1,830 to 2,440 meters) thick, and producing shafts
were working at the 300-foot (91-meter) level in 1947. In that year,
100,000 tons of salt were produced. Since it contained little foreign
matter, the salt was shipped directly from the mines to fish-processing
plants along the Arctic Coast. No recent information is available on
the status of production.
The gypsum deposits south of Bukhta Kozhevnikova near the settle-
ment of Kozhevnikovo provide stone that is used locally for house
construction. Sulfide ores containing copper and nickel are found
near the confluence of the Khatanga and Kheta Rivers. The deposits,
which are believed to be the eastern end of the Norillsk ore body,
have probably not been exploited. In 1944, diamonds were found near
the town of Khatanga. An expedition was sent from Moscow to explore
for other deposits, but the results were negative. A recent Soviet
map indicates the presence of diamond-bearing deposits southwest of
Khatanga; the stones found in 1944 were probably washed from this
deposit. 28/
c. Murmansk
Iron ore deposits are found along the north coast of the Kola
Peninsula near Murmansk. The ore bodies are lens shaped and contain
30 to 40 percent iron. Reserves of the area are estimRted at from
60 to 100 million tons. The ore is found in two broad strips that
extend from Koliskiy Zaliv westward to the Norweian border. ?,2/
The first strip is 4 to 6 miles (6 to 10 kilometers) wide and closely
parallels the coast. The largest deposit is at Bolshaya Zapadnaya
Litsa 40 miles (65 kilometers) northwest of Murmansk, where ore pockets
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Figure 30.
An oil derrick at Nordvik.
Figure 31. Mining operations at the salt dome
in the Yurung-Tumus Peninsula.
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are 1 to 2 miles (2 to 3 kilometers) in length. The second strip
is discontinuous and lies 25 to 30 miles (40 to 50 kilometers)
farther south.
The deposits apparently are not worked at present because of
the presence of larger ore bodies in the central and southern Kola
Peninsula. The deposits, located south of the study area, include
Olenegorsk, Kovdorsk, Afrikanda, and Kirovogorsk and contain reserves
of ore totaling nearly 900 million tons.
d.
The ore deposit on the western edge of the Chukotsk Peninsula
north of the junction of the Chaantallvegyrgyn and Amguyema Rivers
appears to be an important source of tin and tungsten. The deposit
was discovered in 1936, and exploration began the same year. The
settlement of Iul'tin subsequently grew up nearby. World War II
provided the impetus for a rapid expansion of mining operations.
To facilitate the export of ore, a road was built from Iul'tin
south to the port of Egvekinot. The port, located on Zaliv Kresta
on the southern coast of the Chukotsk Peninsula, has a longer
ice-free season than those along the northern coast. Bulldozers,
steam boilers, air compressors, and pumps are shipped to Egvekinot
and trucked from there to the mines at Iulitin. Since diesel engines
and electric equipment have been sent to Iulttin, it is probable that
electric power is generated there and that the mines are now mechanized.
Large deposits of tin have been found at Pyrkakai, about
halfway between Pevek and Iulttin. They occur as placer deposits
and are estimated to contain 300,000 to 500,000 tons of ore. The
present status of the deposits is unknown, but they are probably
not being worked.
4. Additional Deposits
In the major ore producing areas of the Soviet Arctic several
minerals are characteristically found in combination. A few minerals
of strategic importance, however, including uranium, coal, and oil,
occur in isolated deposits scattered throughout the region.
Uranium is in particularly high demand because of its many uses
in times of both peace and war and has been searched for in a number
of places. The Soviets were actively interested in deposits in the
Arctic until 1953; but, with the development of southern deposits
such as Krivoy Rog, Pyatogorsk, and the Fergana Valley, the Arctic
sites were probably abandoned. Deposits have reportedly been found
near Iokanga on the coast of the Kola Peninsula 186 miles (300
kilometers) southeast of Murmansk. Uranium is also found on Novaya
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Zemlya, but the deposits are probably not worth exploiting. Another
deposit, 37 miles (60 kilometers) east of Vorkuta in the Polyarnyy
Ural, is reportedly being worked. 2/ Although uranium has been
reported on Ostrov Komsomolets in Severnaya Zemlya, it is doubtful
if the deposits are workable. In 1946, ores were discovered at Mys
Chelyuskin on the shore of Proliv Vil'kitskogo, but it is not known
whether they are being worked at present. On Zaliv Lavrentiya at the
eastern end of the Chukotsk Peninsula, uranium mines have been
reported, but production, if any, is unknown.
Deposits of coal are scattered throughout the Soviet Arctic
and serve as actual and potential fuel bases for the settlements.
Except for the major fields at Vorkuta and Noril'sk the deposits
are small, and they vary in quality. In most cases the deposits
are actively worked to meet the local need for fuel. Mines 12
miles (20 kilometers) northeast of Murmansk produce 800 tons per
day and supply a part of the city's coal requirements. Three
surface mines on Novaya Zemlya are worked by hand labor and the coal
is consumed locally.
Boghead coal is mined on the lower Olenek River and is used
locally as a fuel. It is also refined to yield kerosene, benzine,
and lubricating oils. Low-quality bituminous and small amounts of
anthracite coal are mined in the bluffs along the Lena near Bulun.
This coal is used locally for heating, bunkering fuel for the Lena
River fleet being obtained from Sangar farther south.
A part of the coal supply of Tiksi is mined northwest and south
of the town, but much of the coal used there comes from Sangar. Since
the local coal is of glacial alluvial origin, the beds are thick (45
feet or 14 meters) and the moisture content is high. Mining operations
at Tiksi began in 1945 and, by 1957 the coal shipments to nearby
consumers exceeded 9,000 tons.
Although numerous coal deposits have been discovered in other
parts of the Arctic, they have not as yet been worked because of
their isolated position or small size. Seams in Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa
are 10 feet (3 meters) thick. A large anthracite field, reportedly
covering 32,000 square miles (83,000 square kilometers) is centered
south of Salekhard. Coal has also been found at Dudinka on the
Yenisey, at Dikson, on the Yamal Peninsula west of Obskaya Guva, and
in the lower and upper courses of the Pyasina River, where vast
deposits are reported. On Ostrov Kotellnyy in the Novosibirskiye
Ostrova, coal deposits have been found in the vicinity of Guba
Nerpich'ya and Guba Reshetnikova, and outcrops of coal occur on
Ostrov Bennett in the Ostrova De-Longa. Other known deposits are
located in the Chukotsk Peninsula at Mechigmenskaya Guba, north of
Provideniya, and at Mys Serdtse-Kamen'.
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Many settlements in the central and eastern Arctic are supplied
with coal from 3 mines south of the study area. The mine at Kotuy,
in the Evenkiyskiy N.O. apparently was scheduled to produce between
25,000 and 30,000 tons of coal in 1958. Coal from Kotuy was sent
to Nordvik, Khatanga and other settlements on Khatangskiy Zaliv in
1957. The mine at Beringovskiy south of Anadyr' supplies coal to
settlements on the coast of the Bering, Chukotsk, and East Siberian
Seas. Planned production of coal for 1958 was 145,000 tons, with a
minimum goal of 130,000 tons. The largest quantities of coal were
sent to Provideniya (45,600 tons), Egvekinot ()-t-1,770 tons), and
Pevek (20,200 tons).
Oil deposits other than those in the Nordvik-Khatangskiy Zaliv
field are small in size and are concentrated in the western Arctic.
They could serve as future fuel bases for ships of the Northern Sea
Route, but at present the deposits remain undeveloped in favor of
larger fields to the south. Oil seeps have been discovered near
Zaliv Inostrantsev in Novaya Zemlya, but large accumulations of oil
are unlikely because of the poor holding capacity of the rock. Oil
has also been found in Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa. In the lower Yenisey
area, seepage and prospecting have indicated that oil deposits extend
from Turukhansk north to the estuary of the river. The largest area
of exploitation is at Ust'-Port, where many wells have been drilled.
According to reports, however, operations at Usti-Port were terminated
in 1946. 31/
F. Herding
Reindeer herding is the principal occupation of the native
population of the Soviet Arctic. Reindeer provide meat, hides, and
milk for the natives, whose economy is at a near-subsistence level.
Leather and preserved meat are exported in small quantities. Raising
fur animals, fishing, and hunting are among the other occupations of
the natives. Pelts are the only products of these minor activities
that reach outside markets. There are about 2 million reindeer in
the Soviet Union and about 300 to 400 thousand caribou or wild
reindeer. In recent years the reindeer herds in the Siberian Arctic
have increased, whereas the European herds have decreased -- a result
of an expanding market in Siberia and depletion of pastures in Europe.
The nomadic herding tribes of the Arctic were collectivized in
the 1930s. The resulting kolkhozes and sovkhozes cover large areas
because vegetation in the pastures is scant and food requirements
for the reindeer are great. One reindeer requires from 100 to 170
acres (40 to 70 hectares) of pasture during the year. 32 . 21/
Kharp Kolkhoz in the Nenetskiy N.O. covers 3,860 square miles 10,000
square kilometers). The largest collective is the Kirov Kolkhoz,
which includes 11,500 square miles (29,900 square kilometers) in an
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irregular area between Yeniseyskiy Zaliv and the Pyasina River. 33/
A kolkhoz herd may include up to 16,000 reindeer. In addition to
these collectives, there are breeding and experimental stations for
improving the quality of the herds.
One of the most important results of collectivization of the
nomadic tribes has been the settling of people in villages. Formerly
the entire tribe moved with the reindeer herds, but now only the
herdsman and his immediate family migrate seasonally. Villages are
usually found near the center of the kolkhoz area.
Tents are now used only during the migrations. Although pre-
fabricated huts have been designed by the Scientific Research
Institute of Agriculture of the Far North, they have not as yet been
used in the tundra. In some parts of the Arctic, small groups of
houses have been built along the routes and serve as temporary
shelters during the migration.
The herdsman is paid wages in the form of meat, reindeer, or
money according to the amount of labor furnished to the kolkhoz.
When paid in reindeer, the animals are added to the family's private
herd. Each family is allowed to own 250 reindeer. Annual wages of
a herdsman are reported to average 8,000 to 15,000 rubles.
Supplementary activities of the herders change with the seasons.
During the summer, when the reindeer are driven north, the herdsmen
fish and hunt for birds in the numerous tundra lakes. In winter,
when the herds are pastured in the south, the natives hunt and trap
fur-bearing animals. During the 4-month trapping season of 1951-52,
one hunter's catch in the Nenetskiy N.O. amounted to 30,000 rubles.
Many reindeer kolkhozes have organized fur farms and raise silver
and blue fox (Figure 32). Both of these have been bred from the native
Figure 32. A fox farm on the Taymyr Peninsula.
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arctic fox and red fox. Under controlled conditions the animals can
be made to breed true and are raised in large numbers. One fur farm
in the Nenetskiy N.O. produced pelts worth 100,000 rubles in 1952. 34/
The most significant feature of the herding economy is the
seasonal migration of the reindeer. The herds winter in the wooded
tundra where the trees afford shelter from the biting winds and the
snow is not hard packed. By pawing through the snow the reindeer
can find sufficient forage to last them throughout the winter.
When warm summer temperatures begin to melt the snow cover,
herds are driven into the tundra pastures. The move is necessary
to escape from insect pests and to find new pastures. Myriads of
mosquitoes, gnats, and flies hatch in the southern tundra and wooded
tundra and are a serious nuisance to men and animals. The insect
most harmful to the reindeer is the botfly. It lays eggs in the
hair of the animal; and when the larvae hatch they bore into the
skin of the reindeer. Hides from such reindeer are full of holes
and are worthless for leather. Herds on Novaya Zemlya produce hides
of good quality since the climate is too cold for botflies.
Seasonal migrations of the herds involve great distances. The
reindeer often move more than 300 miles (480 kilometers) to their
summer pastures in the tundra. Some herds travel over the pack ice
to summer pastures on nearby islands such as Ostrov Belyy and return
to the mainland after the sea ice forms in the fall.
Migration routes to the pastures are planned in advance so that
none will be grazed by more than one herd. The pasture areas are also
assigned in order to prevent overgrazing. Because of the short summers
and the slow rate of growth of mosses and lichens, an overgrazed
pasture requires 20 years to recover fully.
The number of persons accompanying a herd is very small. Herds-
men are usually assigned at the rate of 1 person for every 200 to
300 reindeer. Veterinarians and husbandry experts also accompany
the herds.
G. Hunting and Trapping
The Arctic region has been a rich hunting and trapping area
since the early days of the Russian Empire, when Arctic fox pelts
and seal skins were taken in large quantities. Today the Arctic
continues to supply a significant portion of the furs, skins, and
other products of hunting used in the Soviet Union. Arctic fox
still accounts for most of the animals trapped (Figure 33). The
ermine is also a leading fur bearer. Skins of leather quality are
procured from reindeer, seals, and belukhas (white whales). Other
products of hunting include oil, meat, down, and eggs.
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Figure 33. A fur warehouse on the Chukotsk Peninsula.
Arctic fox pelts are hanging from the ropes.
The basic unit of the hunting economy is the artel. This type
of collective has its awn rifles, traps, and other gear. The hunters
are organized into brigades of 50 to 100 men who operate from hunting
stations scattered throughout the Arctic. These stations, or factories,
serve as collecting and storage points for pelts and skins. Food
supplies and equipment are purchased from the factories. Individual
hunting and trapping are also carried on by natives, whose herding
activities are curtailed during the winter season (Figure 34). In
addition to pelts, trapped animals furnish the natives with meat.
Along the southern edge of
do not predominate, hunters are
and forestry settlements. When
hunters work on the farms or in
the tundra where hunting and trapping
attached to agricultural kolkhozes
the hunting season is closed the
the forests.
The state has taken steps to control the size of the catch and
to increase the animal population. Rigid laws limit the open season
and the number of pelts that can be taken during this time. All
hunters must be licensed, and poachers are severely punished. State
breeding and experimental stations have been established to study
fur-bearing animals so as to increase their number and the quality
of their pelts. 35/ A 1957 decree of the RSFSR Council of Ministers
imposed prohibitions and restrictions on the hunting and killing of
arctic animals. Polar bear hunting is banned and walrus can be
killed only by kolkhoz members or special expeditions. Caribou,
also, may be hunted only by kolkhoz members, and eider duck colonies
can be exploited only under license. 36/
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Fur-bearing animals make up the largest part of the yearly catch.
The arctic fox is found throughout the Arctic, and on Novaya Zemlya
over 2,000 pelts were taken in one season. The fox's fur turns white
in winter, and during this season the fox does not hibernate but
roams over the land and far out on the pack ice in search of food.
Ermine is also trapped in the winter when its coat, except for the
tip of its tail, turns white. It lives throughout the Arctic mainland
and islands. Ranking third as an important fur-producing animal is
the otter, which is limited to the nearshore waters, rivers, and
lakes along the coast of the Kola Peninsula.
Caribou provide both skins and meat for the indigenous hunters.
Very few caribou are found in the European Arctic since most have
been incorporated into domesticated herds.
Sea animals -- including seal, walrus, and belukha -- furnish
leather, oil, and meat, all of which are important products of the
hunting industry. The Greenland seals, and to a lesser extent the
ringed and bearded seals, provide most of the skins. In 1938, some
850,000 seals were taken at the mouth of the White Sea. In recent
years the catch has been smaller, amounting to about 146,000 seals
from the entire White Sea in 1947. Only males and young pups are
taken; the males provide skins and the pups furnish fleecy, white
fur. Greenland seals congregate in large herds during the mating
and pupping season. The White Sea herd, numbering many thousand,
is the largest and gathers on the ice-covered shores of the White
Sea entrance. The herd follows the receding ice pack to Zemlya
Frantsa-Iosifa and Severnaya Zemlya when the pupping season is over.
The seal remain at the high latitude for the rest of the summer
and return south in the fall.
The belukha furnishes high-grade lubricating oil, leather, and
meat. Although the meat is tough, it is canned for human consumption.
Belukhas are found in large herds and live in the coastal waters.
They feed in river estuaries and often travel far upstream in search
of fish.
Wolves are hunted to reduce their depredations on reindeer herds.
It is estimated one wolf eats 1.5 tons of meat a year and, during its
lifetime of 10 to 15 years, destroys reindeer valued at 100,000 rubles.
Wolves are trapped, poisoned, and hunted. Since 1951, aircraft have
been used to hunt wolves, and the number of animals killed has increased
greatly. 37/
Birds form only a small part of the hunting economy. Eider ducks
furnish eider down, a valuable insulating material for high-latitude
clothing and sleeping bags. The female duck lines her nest with down
plucked from her breast. The nests are collected after the nesting
season and the down is cleaned of dirt and grease.
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Birds' eggs form an important part of the local native's diet.
Guillemot eggs are the main species eaten, and in the late 1930's
more than one-half million were collected. The birds live in large
nesting colonies called bazars, which are located along the high,
rocky coasts of the islands and mainland (Figure 35). Distribution
of the bazars depends on hydrological conditions that favor the
growth of rich marine fauna. The largest bazars are found along
the western coast of Novaya Zemlya where the Nordkap Current of
the Gulf Stream warms the water and permits the growth of abundant
marine life. The Novaya Zemlya colonies are estimated to contain
nearly 2 million birds. The principal species include guillemots,
eider ducks, gulls, and mews.
H. Agriculture
Agricultural production in the Soviet Arctic satisfies only a
small fraction of the local food needs. Although fodder for livestock
is relatively abundant, only limited amounts of vegetables, fruit, and
grain are produced. The goal of Soviet economic planners is to make
the area supply its own food requirements in order to comply with the
official dogma of regional self-sufficiency in food production. The
pressure for agricultural development is justified on the basis that
the northern limit deuends not on physiographic conditions but on
economic considerations. 38/ The determining factor for growing
crops is the extent to which the Russians are willing to allocate
funds for the subsidization of crop production. As a result, in most
parts of the Arctic the cost of agricultural production far exceeds
the value of the crops. The farm at Tiksi operates at a loss of
800,000 to 900,000 rubles per year because production costs are
greater than consumer prices. 39/
By a decree of 26 March 1957, income, agricultural, and fishing
taxes have been abolished for households of collective farmers in an
effort to increase agricultural output and encourage free workers to
settle and farm in the Arctic.
Physical conditions are severe for crop production. The growing
season varies from 40 to 45 days along the littoral to 100 to 105 days
near the Arctic Circle. Annual precipitation ranges from 3 inches
(75 millimeters) on the northern islands to 16 inches (400 millimeters)
at Igarka. The combination of cold temperatures with desert and
semidesert moisture conditions is a serious handicap to agriculture.
The majority of the food consumed in the Arctic must be shipped
into the region either by rail or water. Air transportation, since
it is too expensive and limited for general use, is used primarily
to supply the drifting stations with fresh vegetables. Railroads
serve only the western part of the Arctic, and vegetables are
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Figure 34. A kolkhoz member from the Bulun Rayon
with his catch of arctic foxes.
Figure 35. A large nesting colony or bazar of shore birds
on the rocky cliffs of MYs Karmakuly, Novaya Zemlya.
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expensive if carried long distances, such as from Leningrad to Vorkuta
(1,473 miles or 2,370 kilometers). Although shipment by water is the
cheapest method, it is too slow for perishable items.
Since much of the population of the Arctic, particularly in the
eastern part, can be reached only by water, the shipment of food is
a seasonal operation. Supplies for the entire year in these areas
must be stockpiled during the short summer season. In winter,
vegetables may freeze unless they are properly stored. Meat products
are canned or salted. A diet of canned goods, without a supplement
of fresh vegetables, will result in avitaminosis. For this reason,
fresh vegetables and milk must be produced within the Arctic.
As in areas farther south, farming in the Arctic is centered on
sovkhozes, kolkhozes, and individual garden plots. The garden plots
are cultivated by the urban population to supplement their diet. The
sovkhozes and kolkhozes are the primary food producers and are of
great size and are widely dispersed because of the difficult growing
conditions.
Vegetable farms are concentrated in the western Arctic, since
most of the population is found there. The farms vary in size; one
of the largest is at Abez in northeastern Komi ASSR and covers 6,000
acres (2,)-30 hectares). Even in the western Arctic, only a small
fraction of the area is cultivated because of the scarcity of suitable
land. Factors such as soil composition, slope, exposure to sun and
wind, snow retention, and permafrost limit agriculture to small,
scattered fields.
The most productive soil is developed by draining marshes, since
they contain the greatest amount of humus. Other soils must have
large amounts of peat added to increase the humus content. Furthermore,
all the soils require large applications of fertilizer and lime. To
prepare the soil for cultivation, 44 to 66 tons of organic fertilizer
and up to 1 ton of lime per acre are added.
Slope of the land is important in order to secure adequate soil
drainage and a maximum amount of sunshine. South-facing slopes often
warm up to 90?F (32?C) or higher during the long summer days. If the
land is sheltered from the wind, crops can grow faster and the frost-
free season is longer than on exposed fields. Long snow retention
also affects the agricultural potential of land by shortening the
time available for planting and growing crops. Permafrost, which
underlies nearly all the Soviet Arctic, presents a serious drainage
problem. Areas that have only a thin active soil layer lying over
the permafrost are unsuited to farming. The permafrost layer gradually
sinks, however, as repeated cultivation stirs up and thaws out the soil.
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As the permafrost receds a serious soil moisture problem arises since
the scant precipitation which falls is more rapidly absorbed.
Vegetables grown in the Arctic are acclimatized varieties of
crops cultivated in lower latitudes. Root crops are the most widespread
and include potatoes, turnips, parsnips, beets, carrots, and rutabagas.
Other vegetables grown are cucumbers, cabbages, parsley, spinach,
onions, tomatoes, peas, and cauliflower.
Crops are grown by three methods: greenhouses, hotbeds, and
open fields. Greenhouses are used for starting seedlings, growing
complete crops, and experimenting with new varieties. Seedlings
grown in greenhouses are transplanted to open fields to mature, thus
increasing the chances that the plants will complete their life cycles
before fatal fall frosts occur. Crops such as tomatoes, cucumbers,
onions, lettuce, and herbs that are sensitive to cold temperatures
are grown exclusively in greenhouses. Although such facilities are
limited, controlled conditions permit 2 to 4 crops to be grown in a
year. At many settlements, greenhouses use electric lights to
supplement the short winter daylight hours (Figure 36). To combat
the cold climate the soil is heated by rays of electrodes and the
plants are irrigated with warm water.
gotbeds are also used to start seedlings and to produce mature
crops. They are easier to construct and cheaper to heat than greenhouses
and greatly increase the facilities for growing vegetables under glass.
Plants can be started before the open-field season begins, and several
crops can be raised before the season ends. Relatively high temperatures
are maintained by insulating the frames with manure.
Open-field cultivation is limited to small, scattered plots
that have favorable exposure, slope, and soil (Figure 37). New soil
is prepared by plowing the land in spring and allowing it to remain
fallow and thaw out during the summer. The following year it is
ready for cultivation. Spring playing begins in June or July, as
soon as the snow has left the soil. Root crops are dug in August
or September and other field crops are harvested in July or August
(Figure 36).
Fruit forms a small but very important part of the local diet
since it is a valuable source of Vitamin C. Fruit grown in the
region consists of imported and indigenous species. Orchards of
apples and cherries, established at Igarka in the mid-1930's, marked
the beginning of fruit culture in the Arctic. Since that time, small
orchards have been planted in several places in the western Arctic.
The trees are pruned and made to trail along the ground in order to
utilize the heat of summer and to receive protection against the cold
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Figure 36. Electric lights supplement the short winter daylight
hours in a greenhouse on the Taymyr Peninsula.
Figure 37. A cabbage field in an experimental station in
Salekhard, with greenhouses in the background.
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temperatures of winter provided by drifting snow. Trees grown in
this manner produce fruit high in sugar, and damage by frost is
reduced.
Wild fruit is widespread and consists chiefly of berries, such
as black currant, serviceberry, whortleberry, bilberry, cowberry,
blueberry, and raspberry. The fruit ripens in late summer and is
eaten fresh or dried for winter use. Berries of some species are
not damaged by freezing and can be gathered after the snow melts in
the following spring.
Dairy cattle, though not numerous, are a source of fresh milk
and meat for the population. Since milk is in short supply, it is
given only to children and hospital patients. Milk yields are
reportedly high. Annual production of the herd at Tiksi averages
1,300 gallons (4,900 liters) per cow. Some cows in this herd give
as much as 2,300 gallons (8,700 liters) a year. 40/ The herds are
turned out to pasture on the tundra during the summer from June
through September. Wild tundra plants of the uplands and grasses
and clover sown in river meadows provide rich pasture. In winter
the cattle are fed hay and ensilage. Grain crops, such as barley,
oats, and winter rye, seldom yield mature grain, but they are cut
and stored for winter feed (Figure 39).
Attempts to raise milk cows where there is no adequate pasture
have met with little success. A herd was started at Bukhta Tikhaya
in Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa, but the experiment was unsuccessful since
the land supports very scant vegetation and all fodder had to be
imported.
Some pigs are raised along with cattle and contribute a small
amount of fresh meat to the diet. The farm at Tiksi produced 50
tons of pork in 1954. The pigs are fed sugar derived from wood
waste products, root crops, and fodder. Reindeer provide a source
of fresh meat in addition to beef and pork. Although reindeer
would also furnish limited amounts of milk, most of it is probably
consumed by the indigenous herdsmen.
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Figure 38. A field of kohlrabi at Igarka. The crop
will be dug in August or September.
Figure 39. A field of barley at the Igarka experiment
station. The crop will probably be cut and stored for
winter feed for cattle.
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SOVIET ARCTIC
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