THE SOVIET ARCTIC

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79T01018A000200040001-8
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 164
• Document Creation Date: December 12, 2016
• Document Release Date: June 21, 2002
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: December 1, 1956
• Content Type: IR

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 25XI
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SECRET
GEOGRAPHIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT
THE SOVIET ARCTIC
CIA/RR-G-1 5
December 1956
N? 180
DOcUMENTNO.
NO CHAP GE IN CLASS.
13 DECLASSIFtEQ
CLAM,
VCHM4GED TO; MWDATE,
IS C 25X1
AtlTN; HR .2
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND REPORTS
25X1
SECRET
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WARNING
This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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Air Distances to North America
from selected airfields
Sim ~F,11,' ~?Chicago Pinsburph hilodelphin
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ERRATA
On pages vi and 42, in the caption for Figure 22
"oil refinery" should read "nickel refinery".,
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CIA/RR-G-15
December 1956
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Office of Research and Reports
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CONTENTS
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. Population and Settlements in the Soviet Arctic . . . . .
A. Character of the Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
B. Urban Settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1. European Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2. Siberian Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
C. Rural Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
III. Economic Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
A. General Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
B. Wood Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
C. Fishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
D. Shipbuilding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1. Extent of the Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31i
2. Molotovsk Shipyard Number 402 . . . . . . . . . . 35
3. Rosta Naval Shipyard (Sevmprput). . . . . . . . . 36
E. Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1. Mineral Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2. Major Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
a. Nor i l' s k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
b. Nikel' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
c. Vorkuta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
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d. Pevek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3. Secondary Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
a. Amderma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1+3
b. Nordvik-Ktiatangskiy Zaliv . . . . . . . . . . 1+5
c. Murmansk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
d. Iul'tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
1+. Minor Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1+7
F. Herding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
G. Hunting and Trapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
H. Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
IV. The Development of Transportation in the Soviet Arctic. . 63
A. Air Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1. Role of Air Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2. Polar Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3. Civil Air Fleet (GVF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1+. Military Air Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
a. Current Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
b. Airfields of Major Military Significance. . . 73
c. Airfields of Secondary Military Significance. 76
5. Facilities Available for Air Transport. . . . . . 78
a. Airfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
b. Seaplane Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
B. Water Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
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1. The Northern Sea Route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
a. Historical Background. . . . . . . . . . . . 80
b. Economic Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
c. Military Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
d. Physical Aspects of the Route. . . . . . . . . 82
e. Shipping Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
f. Scientific Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
g. Types of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
h. Availability of Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
i. Ports Along the Route . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2. Inland Waterways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
C. Land Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1. Railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
a. The Role of Railroads in the Soviet Arctic . . 101
b. Railroad Development in the European Arctic. . 101
(1) The Murmansk Railroad Complex . . . . . . 101
(2) The Arkhangelsk-Molotovsk Railroad
Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
(3) The Vorkuta Railroad Complex. . . . . . . 105
(1) The Salekhard Railroad Complex. . . . . . 108
(2) The Igarka Railroad Complex . . . . . . . 111
(3) The Noril'sk-Dudinka Railroad Complex . . 111
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2. Road Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
a. The Character of the Overland Traffic. . . . . 112
b. Roads in the European Arctic . . . . . . . . . 114+
c. Roads in the Siberian Arctic . . . . . . . . . 117
V. Arctic Scientific Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
VI. Relation Between Physical Environment and Arctic
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
A. Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
1. Effect on Air Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
a. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
b. Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121+
c. Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
d. Light Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
e. Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
f. Aurora Borealis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 129
2. Effect on Land Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
a. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
b. Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
c. Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
d. Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3. Effect on Sea Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
a. Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
b. Fog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
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It.. Effect of Climatic Change . . . . . . . . . . . 133
B. Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Addendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113
Appendixes
A. Gaps in Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 4
Photographs
(abbreviated titles)
Figure 1. Freighters in the harbor of Murmansk. . . . . . . 12
Figure 2. Lenin Avenue, Murmansk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 3. Vorkuta, the largest coal-mining center in the
Soviet Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 4. The town of Inta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure .5. Freighters at anchor in Igarka. . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 6. Wooden houses and planked streets in Igarka . . . 17
Figure 7. A part of the harbor complex at Dudinka . . . . . 17
Figure 8. A multistoried stone building in Norilsk . . . . 19
Figure 9. A hotel in Noril'sk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 10. Apartment buildings in Gor-stroy. . . . . . . . . 20
Figure 11. New wooden houses in Dikson . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figure 12. The harbor area at Tiksi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 13. The freighter Budennyy loading logs at
Arkhange l' sk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure hi.. Logs stored at a sawmill in Arkhangel'sk. . . . . 28
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Figure 15. Freighters loading lumber at a dock in
Arkhange l' s k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Figure 16. Aerial view of Igarka. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 17. Milling operations at an Igarka lumbermill . . . . 29
Figure 18. Trawlers of the Murmansk fishing fleet . . . .
32
Figure 19. A floating fish cannery of the Murmansk fleet. . . 32
Figure 20. Loading ore on gondola cars near Noril'sk. . . . . 39
Figure 21. The thermoelectric powerplant at Norilsk. . . . . 39
Figure 22. The oil-refinery complex at Nikel' . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 23. A coal shaft at Vorkuta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 24. Amderma in 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 25. An oil derrick at Nordvik . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 26. Mining operations at the salt dome on the Yurung-
Tumus Peninsula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
51
54
54
56
56
59
Peninsula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 35. A cabbage field in an experimental station in
Salekhard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Figure 28. A fox farm on the Taymyr Peninsula . . . . . . . .
Figure 29. A fur warehouse on Chukotsk Peninsula. . . . . . .
Figure 30. A kolkhoz member from Bulun Rayon. . . . . . . . .
Figure 31. Packing guillemot eggs on Novaya Zemlya. . . . . .
Figure 32. A nesting colony of shore birds on Mys Karmakuly .
Figure 33. Greenhouses on Kola Peninsula. . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 34. Cucumber plants in a greenhouse on Taymyr
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Figure 36. A field of kohlrabi at Igarka . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Figure 37. A field of barley at the Igarka experimental
station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 38. A Coach (I1-12) being loaded and fueled . . . . . . 66
Figure 39. The Cab (Li-2), the Soviet version of the DC-3
transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 4+0. The air terminal at Dikson . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 41. The Bull (Tu-1), a copy of the U.S. Superfortress . 68
Figure 11.2. The four-engine turboprop bomber Bear (Tu-31) . . .
72
Figure 43. The Bison, a four-engine jet bomber . . . . . . . . 72
Figure 1,7. The diesel-electric freighter Lena. . . . . . . . . 90
Figure 4+8. The icebreaker Iosif Stalin . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 49. The icebreaker Yermak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 50. The oil tanker Azerbaydzhan . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 51. Lighters in the harbor at Tiksi . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 52. Timber raft on the Yenisey River. . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 53. The packet vessel Iosif Stalin. . . . . . . . . . . 100
Figure 54. The Ordzhonikidze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Figure 55. Distant view of the Murmansk-Pechenga railroad. . . 102
Figure 56. A freight train on the Noril'sk-Dudinka Railroad. . 113
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Figure 57. The railroad station at Norilsk . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 58. A part of the drifting station SP-3. . . . . . . . 120
Figure 59. Filling a balloon with hydrogen prior to launching
radiosonde instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Figure 60. Preparing a platform for scientific observations
on SP-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 61. An instrument for making actinometric measure-
ments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 62. Preheating the engine of a transport before
taking off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Figure 63. Preparing a Coach (I1-12) for take-off . . . . . . 128
Figure 64. A meandering stream with braided channels on
Chukotsk Peninsula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Figure 65. Low coastal cliffs near Onega. . . . . . . . . . . 136
Figure 66. Two small coastal lagoons west of Mys Vankarem . . 138
Figure 67. Reindeer moss growing on polygonal tundra. . . . . 140
Figure 68. Polygonal tundra on dry, stony soil. . . . . . . . 140
Maps
Soviet Arctic: Air Distances to North America (From
Selected Airfields) (25347). . . Inside front cover
Following page
Soviet Arctic: Resources and Industry (25351) . . . . . . . . 62
Soviet Arctic: Air Facilities and Associated Air
Routes (25349) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Soviet Arctic: Northern Sea Route (Including Ports
and Polar Stations) (25348). . . . . . . . . 100
The Soviet Arctic [terrain, administration, land
transportation] (25352). . . . . . . . . . . 116
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THE SOVIET ARCTIC*
Summary
The Arctic region of the Soviet Union is a tundra plain underlain
for most of its extent by permafrost and covered by marshy land dotted
with a myriad of lakes. The winters are dominated by cold temperatures
accompanied by total darkness or only short periods of daylight. Sum-
mers are short and cold. This barren, inhospitable region has recently
come into prominence because of both its strategic position and its
economic potentialities. The Arctic Basin provides the shortest routes
between the United States and the USSR and, in event of global conflict,
airplanes would probably fly over these routes.
The economic development of the Soviet Arctic began on a large
scale with the establishment of the Chief Directorate of the Northern
Sea Route and has progressed rapidly since then. The economy is based
on the extracting and processing of natural resources, herding, and a
small number of fabricating industries. Lumber, pulp, and paper mills
use trees from forests south of the Arctic, and the finished products
are exported in large amounts to foreign countries by way of the Arctic
seas. The mines supply only a small part of the Soviet mineral produc-
tion; but nickel, copper, cobalt, tin, uranium, and coal are mined in
significant quantities. The Arctic ranks second to the Soviet Far East
as a producer of fish and fish products, the Barents Sea contributing
the greatest amount. The economy of the indigenous tribes is based on
reindeer herding, and nearly all the products are used locally. Ship-
building is the only fabricating industry of national importance and
is centered at Molotovsk.
The population of the Arctic has been greatly increased by the
introduction of both free and forced labor. Most of the settlements
are along the coast and river valleys, with the greatest concentration
within the European Arctic at Murmansk and Arkhangelsk and within
Siberia along the lower Yenisey area at Dudinka, Igarka, and Norilsk.
Transportation in the Arctic is limited chiefly to water and air
routes. Land routes are sparse because of the difficulties of con-
structing and maintaining both roads and railroads. The Northern Sea
Route is the single most important transportation artery and supplements
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the Trans-Siberian Railroad as a freight carrier. It brings supplies
and equipment to the settlements and takes out mineral ores, timber,
and other products. Naval vessels, some carrying troops, have followed
the sea route, but its military use and commercial use are limited by
the short navigation season. The rivers in the Arctic flow to the
north, and three of them -- the Ob', Yenisey, and Lena -- connect the
Trans-Siberian Railroad with the Northern Sea Route. River navigation
is also limited by the short ice-free season.
Air facilities have been greatly expanded in recent years, and
over 100 airfields and seaplane stations have been established within
the Arctic. The majority of the military airfields are concentrated
in European USSR, whereas fields for Polar Aviation and Aeroflot air-
craft are widely scattered. Polar Aviation operations are limited
chiefly to the coastal region and include ice reconnaissance and
freight transport. Aeroflot flights originate in the south and carry
mail and passengers.
Land transportation is limited chiefly to railroads, which are
concentrated in the European Arctic and terminate at Murmansk,
Arkhangel'sk, and Vorkuta. The Murmansk-Pechenga, Salekhard-Igarka,
and Norilsk-Dudinka lines provide limited east-west transport.
Scientific activity in the Soviet Arctic entered its era of
greatest intensity with the founding of drifting stations in the Polar
Basin. Observations from the drifting ice floes, together with infor-
mation from polar stations along the coast, flying observatories, mo-
bile research teams, and oceanographic expeditions, have supplied a
vast amount of hydrographic, atmospheric, gravimetric, and magnetometric
information of great value for economic and military operations.
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I. Introduction
Since the outbreak of World War II, considerable attention has
been focused on the economic and strategic significance of the Soviet
Arctic.* This interest stems from the increasing magnitude of
maritime, scientific, and military activities and from the increasing
strategic importance of transpolar air routes. The urgency and
secrecy of recent Soviet scientific activities, in addition to the
magnitude of effort involved, suggest that economic as well as mili-
tary considerations have been initiated at a high government level.
Further indication of the importance attached to the Arctic is
revealed in the Five-Year Plans, which have included large appro-
priations for Arctic research and development.
Although development has been in progress throughout the Arctic
over a period of many years the major activities, both economic and
military, have been centered in the Northwest European part and to
a lesser extent on the Chukotsk Peninsula opposite Alaska. With a
few exceptions the significant economic and military operations in
the vast intervening territory are a development of World War II and
the postwar era. Arctic operations, once seasonal in character, are
carried on the year round, thus (1) increasing the capabilities of
the Northern Sea Route as a major shipping and naval route, (2)
permitting greater exploitation of the natural resources of the
Arctic, and (3) making possible the collection of a formidable mass
of physical environmental data through scientific research. This
combination of activities in the Arctic is viewed with considerable
interest -- and with apprehension regarding Soviet intentions.
The importance attached to the Northern Sea Route is revealed
by the chain of polar stations (hydrometeorological stations), navi-
gational aids, ports, and related coastal installations that have
been established along the Arctic littoral from the Kola Peninsula
eastward to the Bering Sea to facilitate shipping operations. Over
100 polar stations of various sizes are located along the coast, most
of which are currently in operation on either a seasonal or a year-
round basis. In conjunction with improved shipping and the develop-
ment of mining, ports along the Arctic coast have become active
transshipment points for large areas of the sub-Arctic as well as the
Arctic. Although the population of the Arctic is numerically small,
some of the more active ports -- notably Murmansk, Arkhangelsk,
Molotovsk, and Igarka -- as well as the mining developments of
*For a delimitation of the Soviet Arctic, see pp. 6-7.
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Noril'sk and Vorkuta have become sizable centers of urban population.
Many of the coastal and river ports have also become important
centers for the expanding lumbering and fishing operations.
In spite of the large gaps in the geological exploration of the
Soviet Arctic, valuable mineral deposits are currently being
exploited throughout the region. Mining activities centered at
Norilsk, Vorkuta, and Nikel', and more recently in the Pevek area
and at Iul'tin in the eastern Arctic, have become foci of Soviet
economic activity. These mining centers are important sources of
nickel, copper, coal, tin, and tungsten in addition to uranium,
cobalt, and other strategic minerals essential to Soviet industries.
Many of the mines as well as other projects are worked by forced
labor, which initially added considerably to the population growth
of the region. Noril'sk, with the nearby reserves of copper-nickel
ores and coking coal, has become the largest metallurgical center
in the Soviet Arctic.
Aside from the transportation capabilities of the Northern Sea
Route the Soviets have placed increased emphasis on the use of air
and rail transport as a means of rapid year-round transportation.
Over 100 airfields and seaplane stations have been established in
various parts of the Arctic. Many of these facilities serve as
bases for Polar Aviation operations, which include year-round ice
and weather reconnaissance, as well as for the transport of high-
priority mail, supplies, and personnel and the support of extensive
scientific operations. The successful year-round operations of the
drifting ice stations are attributed to the increasing logistic
capabilities of Polar Aviation. I
Despite serious environmental obstacles such as errain and cli-
mate, which pose costly and difficult construction pr blems in the
Arctic, the Soviets have made significant progress in the construction
of rail lines to facilitate year-round transport to r mote parts of
the region. Concentrated within the European north are railroads that
provide access to the rich mineral resources of the re'gion and to the
major naval and shipping ports of Murmansk, Arkhangel'sk, and Molotovsk
as well as to strategic airfields on the Kola Peninsula. Among the
more recent railroad developments are the Murmansk-Pechhenga and the
Vorkuta-Amderma lines. Recent railroad construction in the Siberian
Arctic is primarily a penetration into the permafrost region between
the Ob' and Yenisey Rivers. This construction is focused on a new rail
access between Salekhard and Igarka that will facilitate year-round
transport in support of economic and military developments of the area.
Additional lines have also been projected along the Yenisey River to
provide a future link between the Northern Sea Route ports of?Dudinka
and Igarka and the Trans-Siberian Railroad at Achinsk.
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The strategic significance of the Soviet Arctic is evident from
its proximity to the North American Continent. In the event of a
future global conflict, intercontinental aircraft and guided missiles
would undoubtedly take advantage of transpolar air routes as the
shortest distance between the USSR and the United States. Through-
out the Soviet Arctic, major airfields capable of staging medium
and heavy bombers have been constructed and expanded since 1950.
The build-up of military air facilities has been noted particularly
on the Kola and Chukotsk Peninsulas, which lie closest to the
United States. Operating from the larger known airfields -- notably
Severomorsk, Tiksi, Mys (Cape) Shmidta, and Provideniya/Urelik --
the Soviet heavy turboprop bomber, the Bear (Tu-3l), could reach
virtually any target in the United States. The reported development
of inflight refueling techniques also strengthens Soviet strategic
air power in the Arctic by providing greater range capabilities, thus
increasing the number of potential long-range aircraft.
In spite of the proximity of these airfields to North America
the potential air capabilities of the region are probably limited by
its adverse climate, which imposes (1) seasonal flying restrictions,
(2) logistic problems, and (3) numerous aircraft- and runway-
maintenance difficulties. Although these factors impose operational
limitations, many air and guided-missile bases could be remotely
located deep within the Soviet Arctic and consequently would be
subject to minimum damage from retaliatory measures.
The strategic importance of wartime sea operations in the Arctic,
other than the supply functions of the Northern Sea Route, is focused
mainly on potential submarine activities. Naval installations con-
centrated along the deep-water inlets of the ice-free Kol'skiy Zaliv
(Bay) permit year-round operation of submarineb and other naval vessels.
The possibility of the development of an atomic-powered submarine for
operation below ice might permit year-round naval activities through-
out the region, including the deplqymen of submarines between the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans via the Arctic. In addition to the
strategic importance of the Northern Sea Route as an east-west
communication link, maritime shipping along the route is a vital
necessity for transporting supplies to the numerous scientific
stations, air facilities, ports, and mining centers as well as to
possible future guided-missile bases within the region.
From the point of view of defense the coastal installations could
serve as an early-warning line to detect enemy planes approaching the
mainland since the major polar stations and the larger airfields are
commonly equipped with both radar and radio facilities. The number
and disposition of radar sites at other points along the coast is
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unknown, but they are probably sparsely distributed except in the
European Arctic. The radar net is most closely spaced in the area
extending from the USSR-Norwegian border eastward to approximately
50?E, particularly along the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula.
With the rapid growth of polar scientific activity, the Soviets
have acquired a formidable mass of physical environmental data on the
Arctic unmatched by the rest of the world. The intensive scientific
program, focused upon hydrometeorological and oceanographic research,
is closely interlinked with a wide range of other scientific research,
including terrestrial geophysics (geomagnetism, seismology, and gra-
vimetry) and upper-air physics. Only recently, the Barents Sea near
Novaya Zemlya was the scene of an underwater nuclear explosion. J
This comprehensive program may well give the Soviets a superiority
over the rest of the world in understanding variations in natural con-
ditions and in forecasting meteorological, cryological, magnetic, and
ionospheric phenomena that are important to surface and submarine
navigation, air operations, and communications. The emphasis upon
geomagnetism and gravity has particular significance in relation to
Soviet capabilities for positioning long-range missiles. Aside from
the obvious contributions to military capabilities, this Arctic
superiority will give the Soviet Union increasing ability for the
rapid mounting of forward offense bases for air or missile attacks
that could be staged under cover of the winter night.
The total area of the vast east-west Arctic expanse, including
the islands, covers over 872,000 square miles (1,)+00,000 square
kilometers) or roughly 10 percent of the USSR land mass. Most of
this area lies north of the tree line, which is generally regarded as
the southern limit of the Arctic. South of the tree line is the taiga
or coniferous forest belt usually associated with the Soviet sub-Arctic.
Although the major settlements of Arkhangel'sk and Igarka lie within
the forested sub-Arctic, they play an active role in the politico-
economic development of the Arctic and therefore are included in this
study of the Arctic area. In the Far East, where a series of mountain
chains has limited tree growth to approximately 60?N, a relatively
straight line from Nizhnie-Kolymsk eastward to Zaliv Kresta was drawn
as the southern boundary of the Arctic. South of this line, most of
the activity is oriented toward the Bering and Okhotsk Seas and the
Far East port of Vladivostok.
The traditional boundary of the region has been the Arctic Circle
at 66?33'20"N. This line is not satisfactory since it either combines
Arctic and temperate conditions on the basis of vegetation and wild-
life or excludes regions such as the Chukotsk Peninsula, which on the
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basis of climate and other characteristics is largely Arctic. Koppen
in defining climatic regions chose the isotherm of 50?F for the warm-
est month as the southern border of the Arctic since this isotherm
is the limit of tall tree growth. The Soviet Union, however, has
rejected most geographic theories and has defined the Arctic in terms
of administrative jurisdiction. According to a 1931 degree the
southern boundary of the Far North (Kraynyy Sever) region appeared to
follow, in general, the northern limit of relatively continuous popu-
lation. 2,p.28-38 At that time the European Arctic included Murman-
skaya Oblast' and the northern portions of Arkhangel'skaya Oblast'
and Komi ASSR, and the Siberian Arctic included most of the area north
of 60?N. East of Ozero (Lake) Baykal, however, the line dipped south
to 55?N and even to 50?N in the Soviet Far East.
In the past, the territory controlled by the Chief Directorate
of the Northern Sea Route (Glavnoye Upravleniye Severnogo Morskogo
Puti--GUSMP) has frequently been associated with the areal limits of
the Soviet Arctic. Until 1938, this area included all islands and
seas of the European north and all land north of 62?N latitude east
of the Urals. Many of the activities of GUSMP up until this time
were conducted by seven Territorial Administrations, which served as
administrative and functional organs of GUSMP. These administrations
were (1) Arkhangel'sk, with headquarters at Arkhangel'sk; (2) Omsk,
with headquarters at Tobol'sk; (3) Krasnoyarsk, with headquarters at
Igarka; (4) Yakutsk, with headquarters at Yakutsk; (5) Far Eastern,
with headquarters at Vladivostok; (6) Leningrad, with headquarters at
Leningrad; and (7) Murmansk, with headquarters at Murmansk. After
the reorganization of GUSMP in 1938, however, the Territorial Admin-
istrations were abolished, and its efforts were concentrated on the
operation of the Northern Sea Route, the conduct of scientific work,
and the construction and outfitting of ports, shipbuilding facilities,
and living quarters along the Arctic littoral. Soviet publications
in the post-World War II period indicate once again that the GUSMP
operates through a system of territorial administrations. L Although
the GUSMP continues to function as the principal government agency
within the Soviet Arctic, neither its overall responsibilities nor the
status of its current territorial administrations are fully known.
In contrast to a somewhat arbitrary southern boundary, the northern
limit of the Arctic is sharply defined on the basis of the so-called
"sector theory" that was established in a Soviet decree of 15 April
1926. 4,p.5/ Under this decree the Soviet Union claims unlimited
sovereignty over all lands, islands, and seas south of the North Pole
that lie between 32?04'35"E and 168?49'30"W as well as the air space
Ocean as a territorial sea. Although this view has not become offi-
cially recognized, the Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian Seas are gener-
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ally accepted unofficially as Soviet territorial waters. In addition
the Soviets claim a 12-mile limit in territorial waters along all
coasts of the USSR. In the Barents Sea, this has the effect of clos-
ing Proliv (Strait) Karskiye Vorota, the entrance to the Kara Sea.
In Bering Strait, where the territorial waters of the USSR and U.S.
overlap, namely between Ostrov Ratmanov (Big Diomede Island) and
Little Diomede Island, the international boundary has been fixed at
the center of the mid-channel. J
Although the Arctic lies completely within the RSFSR, it includes
a variety of administrative subdivisions within this major republic
of the Soviet Union. From west to east, it includes the northern
portions of Murmanskaya Oblast', Arkhangel'skaya Oblast' proper,
Nenetskiy Natsional'nyy Okrug (N.O.) of Arkhangel'skaya Oblast', the
Komi ASSR, the Yamalo-Nenetskiy N.O. of Tyumenskaya Oblast', the
Taymyrskiy (Dolgano-Nenetskiy) N.O. of Krasnoyarskiy Kray, the Yakut-
skaya ASSR, and the Chukotskiy N.O. of Magadanskaya Oblast'. By far
the greater part of the Arctic area is divided among various nation-
ality units. These national divisions were created to give some
degree of autonomy to the various racial groups, depending on their
size and stage of advancement. The Komi and Yakutskaya ASSR's have
constitutions and are under the supervision of a union republic (SSR).
The national okrugs, which are inhabited by small ethnic groups that
are little advanced culturally, enjoy a lesser degree of autonomy, and
are under the jurisdiction of an administrative oblast or kray.
The only recent change in the administrative structure of the
Arctic has been in the Far East. In December 1953 the Kolyma-Magadan
area, including the Chukotskiy N.O., was removed from Khabarovskiy
Kray and was made into an independent oblast of the RSFSR. The
creation of the Magadanskaya Oblast' emphasizes the increasing economic
and military importance of the Far Eastern Arctic. The move may also
be viewed as a possible lessening of MVD authority in the region --
presumably by transferring control to the new oblast government directly
responsible to Moscow. 6,p.18
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A. Character of the Population
The recent growth of population in the Soviet Arctic closely
parallels the intensified economic and strategic developments
during the postwar period. Since 1945, the population has increased
steadily along with the intensified efforts (1) to establish the
Northern Sea Route as an east-west communication link and supply
and shipping lane for settlements and installations along the
northern coast and (2) to exploit the vast resources of the Arctic.
In conjunction with the operation of the Northern Sea Route, the
Soviets have placed considerable emphasis on the growing military
importance of the region, which is associated with the construction
of airbases on both the mainland and the Arctic Islands, the
increase in Polar Basin research, and the recent extension of
railroad lines. Most of the advances have been limited to four
major areas: (1) the Kola Peninsula, (2) the southeastern shore
of the White Sea, (3) the lower Yenisey Basin, and (4) the
Chukotsk Peninsula. Within these areas are the principal ports,
industrial centers, and military installations and most of the
population.
The population of the Soviet Arctic, excluding forced labor,
probably exceeds 1,000,000. Although the total population is
numerically small, it is highly concentrated in settlements of
significant size, such as Arkhangel'sk (238,000), Murmansk
(168,000), 7 Molotovsk (60,000), and Igarka (22,000). 8/ These
settlements, located at favorable sites along the littoral and
rivers of the Arctic, function as important water and rail trans-
shipment points serving large areas of the Arctic and sub-Arctic.
The expanding mining and industrial centers of Norilsk (85,000)
and Vorkuta (55,000) 2 are examples of more recent population and
settlement growth. Many of the larger regional settlements have
important fishing and lumbering industries or serve as political-
administrative centers. In a large number of the Arctic settle-
ments, isolation has stimulated the establishment of seaplane
landing facilities as well as radio and polar weather installations;
and the number of scheduled and nonscheduled polar flights,
including those of a military nature, has increased.
On the Arctic Islands, where the population is extremely
sparse, military and scientific installations and other government
erxterprises have formed the nuclei for settlements. On Novaya
Zemlya and Severnaya Zemlya the growth of some settlements has been
attributed to the sizable numbers of forced laborers sent there
to work in the mines. Belush'ya Guba (Bay) on Novaya Zemlya and
Bukhta (Bay) Rodzhersa on Ostrov Vrangelya are the sites of 2
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principal island settlements. Each of these settlements have an
airfield, seaplane station, and polar station. The Bukhta
Rodzhersa settlement is also a staging base for drifting ice
stations.
Although basic facilities such as schools, hospitals, clubs,
and theaters have been built in a large number of the Arctic settle-
ments, the harsh environmental conditions, generally inadequate
housing, and relative isolation do not foster a normal population
influx. The use of forced labor to meet the initial large indus-
trial labor requirements of mining and construction has contributed
significantly to the total population. Many large urban centers
such as Noril'sk and Vorkuta were developed primarily by forced
laborers, many of whom were subsequently released but forcibly re-
tained in the areas as free workers. Since the special amnesties
in 1953 and 1955, when large numbers of forced laborers were re-
leased, the Soviets have been placing increased emphasis upon the
use of contract labor.
Since 1932, the USSR has issued a number of decrees governing
workers in the "Far North." Special privileges and inducements
such as higher pay scales, additional leave, and guaranteed housing
have been offered to increase the voluntary labor supply, especially
in the mining areas east of the Urals. 10;11,p.1l/ These induce-
ments have met with only partial success, and labor shortages con-
tinue in many areas. In addition to free workers and forced laborers,
a relatively large number of exiles from the Baltic republics and
from former German-occupied territories have been resettled through-
out the Arctic. Although most of these people enjoy considerable
freedom and receive higher pay than the forced labor population,
they are not permitted to leave their assigned areas. The indige-
nous population, which is small in number, contributes little to
the total labor force of the region.
1. European Arctic
Approximately two-thirds of the population is concentrated in the
European part of the Soviet Arctic, chiefly on the Kola Peninsula and
along the southeastern shore of the White Sea where the important
Murmansk and Arkhangel'sk trunklines and the Severnaya Dvina terminate
along the Baltic-White Sea waterway. The relatively high population
densities of these areas are attributed to the large urban centers
of Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, and Molotovsk and a heavy concentration
of military facilities, including airfields, naval bases, radar
stations, and coastal defense installations. Many fishing villages
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are also scattered along the coast. In addition to their port and
transshipment functions, Murmansk and Arkhangel'sk are important
industrial centers, with about half of the total population con-
sisting of civilian workers engaged chiefly in lumbering, wood-
chemical, fishing, and shipbuilding activities.
Murmansk, along the ice-free Kol'skiy Zaliv, is the only major
port in northern USSR that is accessible the year round, and conse-
quently it is the focus of intensive merchant and naval activity
(Figure 1). The port of Murmansk and the nearby Rosta naval ship-
yards together form the administrative headquarters and the major
repair and supply base for the Soviet Northern Fleet. 12,p.70-19/
Murmansk is also the winter port for ice-bound Leningrad, with which
it is connected by a double-track railroad. The port activities of
Murmansk are equaled by its importance as the administrative and
commercial center of the Kola Peninsula (Figure 2).
Along Kol'skiy Zaliv to the north are the important naval bases
of Severomorsk (formerly Vayenga), Polyarnyy, and Tyuva, which have
sizable concentrations of both civilian and military personnel. In
addition to maintenance and supply facilities, naval schools empha-
sizing specialist training are operated at these bases under the
direction of the Ministry of Navy. Severomorsk, with an estimated
population of between 10,000 and 15,000 in 1949, is served by rail
and road from Murmansk and is the site of one of the major airfields
in the Soviet Arctic. Minor settlements along the northern coast of
the peninsula include a number of fishing ports -- notably Pechenga,
Port Vladimir, Sayda-Guba, Teriberka, and Ponoy -- and the minor
naval base of Iokanga (5,000 in 1944). Military airfields have been
constructed near most of these ports.
Pechenga, a
.1 cen i iy on e eep-wa er an ice-free fiord of
Guba Pechenga, is also being developed as a naval base for submarine
operations. It is possible that this naval installation may be
located farther north along the bay at Linakhamari, which serves as
the deep-water port for Pechenga as well as for the more southerly
town of Nikel'. Both of these settlements are on the Arctic Highway,
which terminates at Linakhamari. A railroad recently completed
from Kola on the Murmansk railway to Pechenga should greatly
increase the military and economic importance of the port and its
naval facilities, as well as the development of the nearby Pechenga
airfield and the Nikel' mines.
The sizable population on the southeastern shore of the White
Sea is concentrated in the large urban centers of Arkhangelsk and
Molotovsk. Arkhangelsk, the largest seaport and urban complex in
the Soviet Arctic, occupies both shores of the Severnaya Dvina and
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Figure 1. Freighters in the harbor of Murmansk.
Figure 2. Lenin Avenue, one of the main thoroughfares
of Murmansk.
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many islands in the estuary of the river. A large percentage of its
population consists of exiles from the Baltic area and forced
laborers who are employed in the port, shipyards, and numerous saw-
mills and related industries. In 1953, 12 labor camps were reportedly
located at Arkhangel'sk, 13/ but many of these camps may have been
abolished following the recent amnesties. Arkhangel'sk is served
by a double-track railroad line from Moscow and by the navigable
Severnaya Dvina, which is connected by a system of canals with both
the Baltic Sea and Volga River. The port is also a major Northern
Sea Route base and a secondary naval base. Prior to World War II,
it handled approximately 14 percent of all USSR shipments through
ports, averaging more than 2,000,000 short tons per year. 14,p.2/
The city is also the chief center of the USSR lumber industry and
is a port of call for ships of several nations. 15/
Approximately 17 miles (27 kilometers) west of Arkhangel'sk
is the shipbuilding center and secondary port of Molotovsk. Created
in 1936 to meet the demand for a shipbuilding center with direct
access to the open sea, Molotovsk has rapidly become a sizable
urban settlement and the third largest shipbuilding center in
the USSR. 16,p.1/ A single-track railroad that connects with the
Arkhangel'sk-Moscow trunkline at Isakogorka provides the city with
most of its consumer goods, foodstuffs, and industrial materials for
the shipyard.
Elsewhere in the European Arctic the population is restricted
mainly to the river valleys and to isolated -villages and installa-
tions along the coastline. Population density is relatively high
along the Pechora River and its tributaries, where important
reserves of coal, oil, and timber are being exploited. Vorkuta, in
the upper basin of the Pechora, is the largest coal-mining center
in the Soviet Arctic (Figure 3). The numerous mines of Vorkuta are
a major source of coking coal for the industries of Leningrad. Coal
is also shipped down the Pechora River to the port of Nar'yan-Mar,
where it is used for bunkering and is exported to Murmansk,
Arkhangel'sk, and other ports along the Arctic coast.
With the development of oil in the Ukhta area in the upper
Pechora basin, Nar'yan-Mar has developed into an important refueling
base for both naval and merchant vessels operating in the northern
sea area. The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1951-55) included provisions for
the enlargement and reconstruction of the Nar'yan-Mar and Murmansk
seaports. Nar'yan-Mar also serves as the administrative center for
the Nenetskiy Natsional'nyy Okrug. The population of Nar'yan-Mar
on the eve of World War II was estimated at 10,000. 17,p.18/
Mezen' (10,000 pop.) near the mouth of the Mezen' River and
Amderma (25,000) on the Kara Sea coast are among the other
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Figure 3. Vorkuta, the largest coal-mining center in
the Soviet Arctic. In the foreground is Komsomolskaya
Street, a paved and lighted thoroughfare.
Figure 4. The town of Inta on the Kotlas-Vorkuta Railroad.
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concentrations of population along the European Arctic coast. 18/
Although the population figure for Amderma seems high, local mining
and recent construction activities have probably created a sizable
labor force in the area. Amderma is the site of the largest
fluorspar deposits in the USSR and of a major airfield that is
believed to have been extensively enlarged. It is also probably
the northern terminus of a railroad line currently under construction
from Vorkuta. Along the Kotlas-Vorkuta trunkline are the small
railroad and mining settlements of Inta and Abez. According to
various PW reports, the population of Inta is about 15,000 to
20,000 (Figure 4).
2. Siberian Arctic
Although the majority of the population of the Arctic is
located in the European part, the post-World War II growth of ports,
mining settlements, and airfields east of the Urals has been
phenomenal, notably in the lower Yenisey Basin, on the Chukotsk
Peninsula, and to a lesser degree in the Ob', Lena, and Kolyma
Valleys. As is characteristic of most sparsely populated regions,
the areas with the greatest population densities are concentrated
chiefly along the major transportation arteries. Many of the
principal settlements of the Siberian Arctic, like those in the
European north, have developed as transshipment points.
The greatest density is in the lower Yenisey, where population
is estimated to exceed 200,000. Most of this population is
concentrated in the river ports of Igarka and Dudinka and in the
rapidly expanding mining and metallurgical center of Norilsk.
Igarka, located at the junction of river and ocean traffic,
has become the major port of the Siberian Arctic and a leading
lumber center of the USSR (Figure 5). It is also the eastern
terminal of a rail line from Salekhard. The port serves as the
northern outlet for Yenisey Basin lumber, which is exported to
Murmansk, Arkhangel'sk, and Western European ports. Igarka is the
only Siberian Arctic port open to foreign vessel. 19/ A sovkhoz
and several Arctic stations are also located at Igarka. Because
of the swampy terrain of the area, streets, sidewalks, and even
paths are planked. Most of the buildings also are constructed
of lumber produced locally (Figure 6).
Dudinka, 13!- nautical miles downstream, functions primarily
as the major outlet for the strategic minerals of Noril'sk. The
port is equipped with cranes, conveyors, and numerous warehouses
(Figure 7). It has considerable open storage area, and a tank farm
is nearby. The streets of Dudinka are paved with stone and covered
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Figure 5. Freighters at anchor in Igarka.
with asphalt. A bus connects the city with the railroad terminal
in the suburbs. Most of the freight between Dudinka and Noril'sk
travels over a 70-mile (112-meter), narrow-gauge rail line that has
been either supplemented or replaced by a broad-gauge line. Large
quantities of Norilsk coal are shipped from Dudinka to Dikson, a
bunkering station for the Northern Sea Route, and to other Arctic
ports. During the navigation season on the Yenisey, freight and
passenger service operates between Dudinka and Krasnoyarsk on the
Trans-Siberian Railroad. In addition to the basic port activities,
Dudinka also serves as the administrative center of the Taymyrskiy
Natsional'nyy Okrug and includes regional and district offices,
educational and medical facilities, and a number of other public
and government buildings.
Noril'sk, with its exports of nickel, copper, and cobalt to
industrial centers in various parts of the USSR, is the largest
metallurgical center in the Soviet Arctic. The urban area of
Norilsk is centered around the ore-concentrating plants, the
several nickel and copper refineries, and a number of repair and
construction-materials plants, most of which have been developed
since World War II by the Ministry of Nonferrous Metals. These
plants have good rail and road connection with the nearby mines.
It is possible that the industrial facilities at Norilsk could
support guided missile activities in the Norilsk-Taymyr Peninsula
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Figure 6. Wooden houses and planked streets in Igarka.
Figure 7. A part of
the harbor complex
at Dudinka.
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area. Infrequent reports of low reliability indicate such activity
on the Taymyr Peninsula. A sizable powerplant, which operates on
local coal, provides electric power for the industries and the city,
as well as for distant Dudinka. Near the center of Noril'sk are a
number of government offices, barracks, warehouses and other
buildings* (Figures 8 and 9). A new area of apartment buildings,
Gor-stroy, is located in the northern part of the city and houses
much of the free population (Figure 10). Although free workers and
government employees form the majority of the population, many
prison camps located in the outskirts of the city continue to house
large numbers of forced laborers.
Other minor population concentrations in the Yenisey Basin in-
clude Ust'-Port, a small fishing village, and Dikson, which has a
major airfield and polar station in addition to bunkering facilities
(Figure il). The Dikson station is one of the major observatories
of the Arctic Institute, as are also Mys Chelyuskin, Tiksi, Pevek,
Mys Shmidta, and Uelen on the mainland; Barentsburg on Spitsbergen
(Svalbard); Bukhta Tikhaya on Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa; and Matochkin
Shar on Novaya Zemlya (see Map 253+8).
The population increase in the Ob' Basin has been confined
chiefly to Salekhard (15,000) and the adjacent settlements, which
have expanded with the construction of the Vorkuta-Salekhard line
and, more recently, the Salekhard-Igarka railroad. The population
of Salekhard consists of Nentsy, and Komi as well as Russians, who
predominate here as in most of the other principal settlements. At
Salekhard, storage facilities for fuel (coal and petroleum), equip-
ment, and materials for the railroad, airfield, and local industry
have been expanded recently. The city serves as the administrative
center for the Yamalo-Nenetskiy Natsional'nyy Okrug and has a
number of cultural, educational, and medical facilities. The labor
forces employed by the several government enterprises -- including
sawmills, fish canneries, and a leather factory -- are small.
Since the Ob' River can be ascended to Salekhard only by small
sea-going craft, Novyy Port on Obskaya Guba has become the focal
point for the transshipment of cargo between ocean-going vessels
and river craft. Novyy Port serves also as a base for fishing and
whaling operations. A number of small fishing villages are also
scattered along the shore of the bay.
*Most of the information on Noril'sk is based on Source 20,
Appendix B.
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Figure 8. A multistoried stone building on Gvardeyskaya Square
in Norilsk.
Figure 9. A hotel in Norilsk.
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Figure 10. Apartment buildings in Gor-stroy, a new section
of Noril'sk.
Figure 11. New wooden houses in Dikson.
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In the central part of the Siberian Arctic the population
consists mainly of various indigenous nationalities who live mostly
in small villages or on collectives along the Khatanga, Lena, and
Kolyma Rivers or occasionally in scattered coastal areas. Most of
the Russians are concentrated in a few key settlements, notably
Khatanga, Nordvik, Tiksi, and Ambarchik, which are bunkering and
transshipment ports along the Northern Sea Route as well as sites
of important airfields, telecommunications facilities, and polar
stations.
Tiksi, near the estuary of the Lena River, is the principal
settlement of the region. Since World War II, the port and adjacent
airfield have undergone considerable expansion (Figure 12). As in
Dikson, a local observatory of the Arctic Institute takes part in
fleet planning and direction in cooperation with dispatchers and
port workers. The Tiksi observatory receives weather and ice
Figure 12. The harbor area at Tiksi.
reports several times a day from 23 polar stations located on the
islands and on the shore of Laptev Sea. 21 The Tiksi observatory
in conjunction with those at Barentsburg, Bukhta Tikhaya, Dikson,
and Pevek and three drift stations is scheduled to participate in
extensive scientific investigations of the Arctic during the
International Geophysical Year (1957-58). 22,p.4/ A cosmic ray station
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is to be established at Tiksi. This station along with two others
now operating at Bukhta Tikhaya and Mys Shmidta and a fourth
station to be established at Murmansk will also take an active part
in IGY activities. 23/
With the development and expansion of the Dal'stroy mining
activities in the upper Kolyma region, Ambarchik has become increas-
ingly important as an Arctic port despite certain site disadvantages.
During World War II, lend-lease shipping was frequently routed here.
Although the population of Ambarchik has been estimated at 15,000,
this figure seems excessively high in view of its known facilities.
21-,p.5-2,5-3/ Further development of Ambarchik will probably depend
chiefly upon military considerations, since it could become a ter-
minus of an important land-water route linking the Arctic Ocean with
the Sea of Okhotsk at Magadan, thus bypassing the vulnerable Bering
Strait. 25
Although the eastern Arctic accounts for only a small percent-
age of the total population, the intensification of mining and
military activities since 19+5 has resulted in the creation of a
number of relatively new settlements -- notably Krasnoarmeyskoye,
Iul'tin, and Egvekinot -- and the expansion of others, including
Pevek, Mys Shmidta, and Provideniya. These developments have been
paralleled by an increase in road construction and shipping activi-
ties within the area. At the mines in the Pevek-Krasnoarmeyskoye
area and at Iul'tin, there are sizable concentrations of forced
laborers and of contract workers who come to the area on 3-year
contracts.
Pevek, which serves as the outlet for the extensive mining
operations centered at Krasnoarmeyskoye, has developed into an active
port settlement, with an estimated population of at least 1,000
inhabitants.* In addition to minor port facilities, dwellings,
a Soviet-established school, a hospital, and a club, Pevek has
wireless and radar stations, several repair shops, a powerplant,
warehouses and petroleum storage tanks, and a number of GUSMP
offices that operate the radio and polar stations, the port, and
other public enterprises. Pevek is also the administrative center
for Chaunskiy Rayon. A number of intelligence reports based on the
interrogation of PW's also indicate the presence of a military
garrison at Pevek. It has been reported that this unit was assigned
coast-guard duties along the northern coast of the Chukotsk
Peninsula from Pevek to Mys Dezhneva (formerly East Cape). A
network of coastal fortifications as well as food and other storage
facilities were to be constructed by this garrison. 26/
*PW population estimates range from 1,000 to 4,000.
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Egvekinot, located along the northern shore of Zaliv Kresta,
has also become an active transshipment point for mining operations
of the interior. As at Pevek, a large flow of construction and
mining equipment as well as fuel and supplies passes through
Egvekinot. 27/ Most of this material is transported by truck over
a newly constructed road to the mines at Iul'tin about 180 miles (290
kilometers) to the north. In 1950, Iul'tin reportedly had a labor
force of 1,200 workers. 28/ Tungsten ore mined here is trucked to
Egvekinot, where it is transferred to vessels and sent to refineries
outside the Arctic. Several settlements and numerous forced labor
camps have been noted along the Egvekinot-Iul'tin route. Other
than a wooden pier, a meteorological station, and a nearby airfield,
little is known about the facilities at Egvekinot.
Other settlements of the region have expanded greatly with the
development of military establishments, chiefly airfields, along the
coast of the Chukotsk Peninsula. Provideniya (4,500), 29/* on the
southeastern coast of the peninsula, is the site of the largest mil-
itary base in the area and of the Soviet airfield nearest Alaska.
The military base comprises over 600 buildings capable of accommo-
dating an estimated 5,400 persons. 30/ The airfield has a permanent
runway that was increased to 8,000 feet (2,440 meters) in 1954. 31/
The port of Provideniya is an important bunkering station and staging
area for Northern Sea Route operations. During the navigation sea-
son, naval vessels have reportedly operated out of Provideniya. 32/
The port also serves as a transshipment point for smaller settle-
ments and installations along the coast. GUSMP and other government
organizations maintain offices at Provideniya. Among the other
small coastal settlements are Lavrentiya, Naukan, and Uelen.
C. Rural Population
In contrast to the predominantly urban population of the Arctic
is the numerically small rural population, estimated at less than
150,000 and consisting chiefly of indigenes who represent numerous
ethnic groups. The major racial groups -- Komi, Nentsy, Yakuty,
and Chukchi -- have retained some degree of cultural unity with the
formation of four national okrugs and two autonomous republics,
which encompass most of the Soviet Arctic and parts of the sub-Arctic.
These political-administrative divisions, however, are directly
subordinate to the RFSFR and in reality provide the main racial groups
with only a limited degree of autonomy.
*This source also gives the population of Pevek as 1,500.
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The indigenes, like the Russians, are found largely along the
river valleys where they have been settled either in small villages
or on state or collective farms. Villages are usually located near
the center of the kolkhoz and include a school, medical center,
library, and club. Some villages are even electrified. In most
villages, especially along the valleys, the people live in crude
log houses. During the organized seasonal migrations of reindeer
herds, the natives live in portable tents called chums, yurtas, or
yarangas. In those coastal areas where fishing and pelagic hunting
are the principal activities, many indigenes still live in tents.
Many of the native villages, particularly on the Chukotsk Peninsula,
are located in the vicinity of Russian settlements where the natives
trade, occasionally engage in part-time employment, and avail them-
selves of Soviet-established educational and medical facilities.
Some individual natives are selected for specialized training in
Soviet institutions or, more frequently, receive political, techni-
cal, or some military training in the local Russian settlements.
In addition to reindeer herding, which is the principal occu-
pation for most of the indigenes, many supplement their income by
seasonal fishing, hunting, and trapping of fur-bearing animals. On
Novaya Zemlya the natives obtain the major part of their income
from birds. Guillemots provide over a half million eggs, and ducks
are an important source of eider down and meat. Despite Soviet
educational, medical, and technical aid, the living standards of
the indigenes remain low and their economy is near the subsistence
level.
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III. Economic Activities
A. General Characteristics
The economy of the Soviet Arctic is based principally on the
extraction and processing of natural resources, chiefly timber, min-
erals, fish, and furs. The construction of ships and the production
of food products make up a smaller part of the economy. (See Map
25351.)
Most of the products are shipped from the area to foreign coun-
tries or to other parts of the Soviet Union. A large part of the
lumber and other wood products are exported from Arkhangelsk and
Igarka to the United Kingdom, Netherlands, and Belgium. Large quanti-
ties of canned salmon, salted herring, and caviar are also shipped
to Great Britain and other Western European countries. Minerals are
used domestically. Although the mineral contribution of the Arctic
is small when compared with producing areas farther south, the amounts
are significant. In 1945, Noril'sk produced an estimated 2,000 tons
of nickel as compared with 11,000 tons for Monchegorsk. 33 An
estimated 10,000,000 tons of coal was mined in the Pechora Basin in
1950, while the Donets Basin produced 85,000,000 tons. 31+/
The ship construction at Molotovsk is the only fabricating indus-
try of national importance. It contributes an estimated l4 percent of
the submarine construction and 7.5 percent of the combat-ship construc-
tion to the national total.
The products of herding and small-scale specialized farming are
consumed within the region. The reindeer of the indigenes furnish
meat, milk, and hides. Vegetables and fruits, frequently grown under
glass, are the source of antiscorbutic vitamins especially necessary
in maintaining a. balanced diet during the long winter period. Although
the amount of food produced is a small part of the total for the na-
tion, its local importance is significant.
B. Wood Processing
The wood-processing industry of the Soviet Arctic is keyed largely
to the production of lumber, with increasing emphasis on the output of
wood-chemical, pulp and paper, and allied products. Big industrial
combines -- including wood-processing, furniture, and prefabricated
housing factories -- have sprung up in the vicinity of large sawmills.
Although the processed lumber supports important local shipbuilding,
construction, and repair activities, it is chiefly a foreign-export
item.
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Most of the timber originates in the upper river basins of the
sub-Arctic and is rafted downstream to sawmills located at principal
rail or water transportation terminals. Arkhangel'sk and Igarka,
the leading sawmill and lumber export centers, obtain most of their
timber from the forests along the Severnaya Dvina and in the upper
Yenisey Basin. Logs are also rafted down the Mezen', Pechora, and
Ob' Rivers to the secondary lumber export centers of Mezen', Nar'yan-
Mar, and Salekhard. Despite heavy losses and operational limitations
due to fluctuations in water level and the short navigation season,
the rivers provide not only the most economical means of transporting
timber but also the only means in most cases. Electricity provided
by local powerplants is the chief source of energy for the wood
industries. Although the wood industries employ a sizable labor
force, the number of workers apparently varies with the seasonal supply
of timber.
Arkhangel'sk handles approximately one-third of the Soviet Union's
export of timber products (Figure 13). Some 20 independent sawmills,*
4 wood-processing plants, and 21 lumber and log storage areas are
located within the Arkhangel'sk complex (Figure l1+). 35/ It is also
the center of an expanding wood-chemical, pulp, and paper industry.
Figure 13. The freighter
Budennyy loading logs at
Arkhangelsk.
*Includes 1 sawmill located
outside the target complex.
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Most of the mills and processing plants have good rail connection
with nearby storage areas and piers (Figure 15).
The Molotov mill, located northeast of Arkhangel'sk, is the
largest sawmill in the USSR. It is equipped with 24 saw frames and
employs over 1,000 workers. The waste products from the mill are
used at the Arkhangelsk pulp plant, "Solombalskiy," which produces
wood pulp and chemical products in addition to heavy brown wrapping
paper, cardboard, black soap, and alcohol. Prefabricated houses,
silos, and hothouse frames are also constructed in some of the local
lumber mills. The "Krasnyy Oktyabr" mill produces large numbers of
prefabricated houses for lumber camps in the northern regions, 36/
as well as for Arctic installations and settlements. Thirty-two
carloads of lumber and 18,000 parts for hothouse frames have been
sent to the New Lands. The Lenin Sawmill recently manufactured the
parts for 27 silos for sovkhozes in Krasnodarskiy Kray and Rostovskaya
Oblast'. 37/
The "Solombalskiy" and the "Arkhbumstroy" are two of the most
important pulp plants in the Arkhangelsk area. Both plants are
served by their own heat and powerplants (TETS), which are a part
"
of the Arkhangel'sk-Molotovsk power network. The "Arkhbumstroy,
located east of Isakogorka, is one of the largest pulp plants in the
USSR. It produces pulp, newsprint, writing paper, and chemicals.
90,000 metric tons of paper, and 16,000 metric tons of alcohol. 38/
The "Solombalskiy" plant at the southern end of Solombala Island sup-
plies cellulose and pulp to explosive, plastics, and synthetic-fiber
plants throughout the USSR. A large hydrolysis plant produces wood-
chemicals including xylose (wood sugar), ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol,
acetone, acetic acid, and turpentine. Several other cellulose and
wood-chemical plants are also located in the area.
Igarka, the second largest sawmilling and lumber export center
in the Soviet Arctic is the site of a major lumber combine that in-
cludes 3 sawmills and extensive lumber yards (Figure 16). Logs,
amounting to many millions of board feet, are annually rafted down-
stream to Igarka, where they are processed, stored, and seasoned
(Figure 17). The labor force includes forced and voluntary workers.
During the navigation season, ships from various European nations
call at the port for lumber. In 1954, approximately 100,000 cubic
Northern Sea Route to Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, and foreign ports. 39
Much of the finished lumber is hauled to a wooden loading jetty by
motorized fork-lift-type trucks. Manufactured items produced by
combine are prefabricated houses, furniture, other finished wood
products, and boxes and wooden barrels for packing graphite and fish.
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Figure 14. Logs stored at a sawmill in Arkhangel'sk.
Figure 15. Freighters loading lumber at a dock in Arkhangel'sk,
with stacks of stored lumber in the foreground.
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Figure 16. Aerial view of Igarka showing logs stacked
near the shore. (19+0)
Figure 17. Milling operations at an Igarka lumbermill.
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Some timber is rafted beyond Igarka and is used in the sawmills at
Dudinka and Noril'sk. Most of the products of these mills are used
in local construction and mining activities.
Lumber for export is also milled at the river ports of Salekhard,
Nar'yan-Mar, and Mezen'. The ports of Nar'yan-Mar and Mezen' are also
open to foreign vessels. Prefabricated houses are reportedly manu-
factured at Salekhard. 1+0/ 'Although a sawmill at Labytnangi on the
opposite banks of the Ob' River also produces some lumber for export,
most of its output is used in construction projects within the area.
Logs for this mill are said to arrive by rail from the Ural Moun-
tains. 1+1
The several sawmills at Molotovsk operate largely in support of
local shipbuilding. Little is known of the wood-processing industry
at Murmansk; but a sawmill, plywood plant, prefabricated housing
factory, and furniture factory are known to be in operation. A num-
ber of smaller sawmills have also been established throughout the
Arctic -- notably at Vorkuta, Tiksi, Pevek, and Provideniya -- to
support expanding construction and mining activities.
C. Fishing
The fishing industry of the Soviet Arctic comprises a large part
of the region's economy and provides much of the fish consumed in the
Soviet Union. The total catch of the region was estimated at 750,000
tons in 1953; ranking second only to the Far East. 42,p.68/ Production
has probably increased since then and will continue to grow as the
Northern Sea Route develops. At present the many small canneries
along rivers in the Siberian Arctic process fish products only for
local consumption. Production in these canneries will probably in-
crease greatly when better transportation to the populated centers
in the south and west becomes available.
Cod, haddock, and herring make up the largest percentage of the
total catch in the Arctic, and the Barents Sea is the largest producing
area, Other species of commercial fish caught in the rivers and
coastal areas include salmon, sea bass, and roach.
In the past, salting has been the most widespread method of pre-
serving fish. 1+3/ Herring are still salted, and in many isolated
areas this is the only practical method for preserving fish. The per-
centage of the fish canned has increased in recent years as the
result of new cannery construction. Cod, haddock, and some salmon
are preserved in this manner, and the best grades are exported.
Advances in sea and air transportation have made possible a wider
distribution of fresh and frozen fish. Only a small percentage of the
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total catch is preserved by smoking or air drying. Dried fish is
eaten by the native population and is used as dog food.
The length of the fishing season and the distribution of fish
in the seas and rivers of the Soviet Arctic depends upon ice and
climatic conditions. Ice cover on the seas and rivers limits fishing
to the summer season. Salmon and sturgeon, the most valuable river
fish, do not appear in the rivers, however, until after'the spring
breakup.
The southern half of the Barents Sea is not covered with pack
ice because of the ameliorating effect of a branch of the Gulf Stream.
fleets can operate without interruption throughout the year. Herring,
ddock
h
d
, v.
a
,
co
The warming effect of the Gulf Stream has allowed numerous species of
k
dd
h
oc
a
fish to enter Arctic waters; and cod, herring, mackerel, and
44
4
/
5
are found even along the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. ,
At sea the fish travel in schools near the surface when not feed-
ing and are caught in large nets pulled by trawlers. When the fish
are
th
ey
feed, they move into coastal waters and estuaries, where
caught in small nets -- often hand dip nets. 46/
Murmansk is the most important fishing port and processing, center
is based here and accounts for most of the fish taken in the Barents
Sea (Figure 18). In addition to the trawlers, there is at least one
Figure 19). Recent figures
herrin
i
g
ng
floating cannery for process
but 135,000 tons of fish were caught in 1947. 47/
not available
,
are
Most of the catch is canned for export to foreign countries, chiefly
the United Kingdom.
The Murmansk Fish Combine (Rybokombinat) processes all the fish
brought into the port. It operates the year round, since the trawler
several- plants that salt, - can, and pickle the fish. The preparation
ish
froz .
- l
w
, a-r---
o
ult of the development of rapid refrigerated transportation. By-
res
products of fish processing include cod liver oil, vitamin A extracts,
ar most
d
. ne
and fishmeal. Wooden barrels and tin cans are manufacture
canneries. 48
Arkhangelsk is an important fish processing center for the White
ditions intD the White Sea limit the fishing season, and the canneries
operate only 5 months during the year.
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Figure 18. Trawlers of the Murmansk fishing fleet.
Figure 19. A floating fish cannery of the Murmansk fleet,
with trawlers tied alongside the mother ship.
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Conditions favoring the propagation of fish decline rapidly to
the east of the Barents Sea. Cold water reduces the growth of plank-
ton, and the number and species of fish decline proportionally. Fish
are found in large numbers only in river estuaries where the water
is warm and rich in food. Part of the catch is canned for export,
and the remainder is smoked or air dried for local consumption. Fish-
ing collectives are found on all the major rivers.
The Ob' Estuary (Obskaya Guba) is the second most important
fishing area in the Soviet Arctic. The many factories around the bay
can large amounts of salmon, sturgeon, and whitefish. 1+9/ Products
of the canneries reach the populated centers of the country via the
Northern Sea Route and the Ob' River--Trans-Siberian Railroad network.
and the remainder live to an old age.
fish reach great size since only a small portion are caught each year,
weigh over 50 pounds, and sturgeon may reach 200 to 250 pounds. The
whitefish, great numbers of pike and perch are caught. Salmon often
to their spawning grounds. In addition to salmon, sturgeon, and
provides favorable feeding grounds for the fish as they move upstream
The slow-moving water of the estuary is rich in plankton and
A total of 10 fish-processing plants were scattered along the
shores of Obskaya Guba in 1951, and several additional fish-packing
plants are located along the shores of Tazovskaya Guba, an eastern
extension of the bay. The Salekhard Canning Combine (Salekhardskiy
Konservniy Kombinat) is the largest producer of fish products and
includes plants at Kushevat, Shugin, Puyko, and Aksarka. The largest
plant, which is in Salekhard, employs over 3,000 people. 50/ In 1946,
the daily production of the combine amounted to 1+2,000 tins of fish.
Salmon, sturgeon, and whitefish are canned, smoked, frozen, salted,
and dried. Caviar is prepared from sturgeon roe. Waste products
are converted into bone meal for fertilizer.
on the right bank of the river has also been reported. 53
and cod are salted at the factory. 52/ A cannery north of Dudinka
located on an island in the Yenisey near Dudinka. Salmon are canned
reach great size. 51/ A small fish cannery and curing factory is
breeding grounds. Fish that do live in the river grow slowly but
is too pure for a rich growth of plankton and too swift for good
The Yenisey River supports relatively few fish since the water
A number of smaller canneries are scattered along the Arctic
shore at a number of points, including Teriberka, Tazovskoye, Ust'-
Port, Kazach'ye, and Ust'-Yansk. Their contribution to the total
production of the Soviet Arctic is small. Most other villages along
the coast and river deltas catch and process fish at least for their
own consumption.
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D. Shipbuilding*
1. Extent of the Industry
The shipbuilding industry of the Soviet Arctic is keyed largely
to the support of the Soviet Navy and the fishing industry of the
region. The yards have a major responsibility for equipping both
naval and merchant vessels for early sailing over the Northern Sea
Route. The majority of the yards are concentrated in the vicinity
of Murmansk and Arkhangel'sk, which are connected by railroad with
the principal industrial areas of the USSR. Direct year-round access
to the open sea has been conducive to the expansion of ship building
and repair facilities within these areas. Although secondary and minor
yards have sprung up in a number of ports along the Arctic coastline,
the relatively short navigation season (except along the Kol'skiy
Zaliv) and the lack of year-round supply routes preclude large-scale
expansion of shipbuilding and repair activities elsewhere in the
region.
Among the approximately 26 shipyards and boatyards in the Soviet
Arctic, the most important are the Molotovsk Shipyard No. 1+02 in
Molotovsk and the Rosta Naval Shipyard near Murmansk. These yards
operate largely in support of the Soviet Northern Fleet and employ
an estimated total of 12,000 to 20,000 workers. The Molotovsk yard
is the third largest in the Soviet Union and engages chiefly in
construction of new vessels. The yard's maximum annual construction
capability is estimated to be 282,000 gross tons (GRT) or 221+,000
naval standard displacement tons (NSDT). During the period from 191+9
through 1953, the yard completed 22 destroyers of the Skoryy class
and an unknown number of minesweepers, motor torpedo boats, patrol
vessels, and other craft.
The shipyard at Rosta, which is equipped only for repairs, is
rated as the second most important yard in the Soviet Arctic. Be-
cause of the relatively ice-free condition of the harbor, it has
become the major repair base of the Soviet Northern Fleet. The
shipyard is capable of repairing naval ships, including cruisers and
merchant ships up to 15,000 gross tons. During World War II the yard
was used for repairing destroyers, submarines, and small ships.
The remaining shipbuilding and repair facilities in the Arctic
consist of either secondary shipyards or minor boatyards. The
secondary yards engage in the construction, maintenance, and repair
of fishing vessels and patrol craft and perform limited repairs to
*Based primarily on Source 51+, Appendix B.
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ocean-going merchant vessels and naval ships up to destroyer size.
The most significant of these yards are the Rybprom (Glavryb) and
Sudna shipyards in Murmansk and the Krasnaya Kuznitsa shipyard in
Arkhangel'sk, which have a combined annual shipbuilding capacity*
estimated at 52,11.00 GRT or 51,700 NSDT. An estimated total of 4,500
to 9,000 workers are employed in the 3 yards. Four other secondary
yards are located in the Arctic; two in the vicinity of Arkhangelsk,
one at the Iokanga Naval Base, and one at Igarka. The yard at Igarka
builds seiners, motor boats, and launches in addition to making
repairs to river and Northern Sea Route vessels.
An estimated 17 small boatyards, located throughout the region,
engage chiefly in the construction and repair of fishing boats and
barges and have only limited repair facilities for small naval vessels.
The majority of these boatyards are concentrated in the vicinity of
Arkhangelsk, the focus of intensive shipping activities. In addition
to the 8 yards at Arkhangelsk, 4 others are located along the
Kol'skiy Zaliv -- two at Murmansk and one each at Severomorsk and
Polyarnyy. Pechenga, Mezen', Salekhard, Tiksi, and Ambarchik also
have one boatyard each. Although most of these yards are equipped
with only limited facilities, they provide important refueling,
maintenance, and repair bases for submarines, destroyers, and small
ships operating in the region. Most of the yards are also served by
rail and maintain facilities for storing large quantities of fuel as
well as naval stores and munitions.
2. Molotovsk Shipyard Number 402
The Molotovsk Naval Yard, Zavod Number 31+11-, is the largest and
best equipped shipyard in the Soviet Arctic. It is located on the
north side of the city along the Nikol'skoye Ust'ye, a small inlet
from the Dvinskaya Guba. A large ship basin is also located on
Ostrov Yagry, an island forming the northern side of the harbor. The
dockyard and associated shops are served by rail, water, and planked
roadway and are equipped with electricity, heat, steam, and other
utilities. Water access to the yard from the Dvinskaya Guba is
through a dredged channel, 5 nautical miles long and a 180 feet (55
meters) wide. Rapid silting makes constant dredging necessary to
maintain the 27 to 30 foot (8-9 meter) depths. Except in the severest
winters, ice breakers are able to keep the harbor open to navigation
most of the year. The bulk of the industrial materials, with the
exception of lumber, arrives via a single-track railroad line that con-
nects Molotovsk with the Arkhangel'sk-Moscow trunkline at Isakogorka.
*Capacity based on one-shift operation.
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The civil labor force of Molotovsk is estimated at 35,000, with
the shipyard and related activities employing the largest percentage
of the workers. In 1949, an observer estimated that 6,000 persons
were employed on a three-shift operation, but more recent estimates
place the number of shipyard workers at 15,000. 56/ However, with
production per person equal to that of US workers, an estimated 21,000
workers would be required to operate the yard on a full three-shift
basis.
The yard occupies an area of approximately 550 acres, with about
12,000 feet (366 meters) of water frontage. Facilities include (1)
two covered graving-construction docks, each about 1,000 feet (305
meters) long and 150 feet (45 meters) wide and capable of building
the largest of vessels; (2) two transverse building ways; (3) a large
transverse shipbuilding site capable of simultaneous construction of
10 destroyers; and (4) a ship assembly shop 350 feet (106 meters)
long and-80 feet (24 meters) wide for the construction of subchasers
and smaller craft. Each graving-construction dock is served by a 25-
ton and a 100-ton electric gantry crane and several lighter cranes.
Since these docks and the ship assembly shop are covered, the shipyard
is capable of year-round operations. Included in the yard are large
multisectional plate and prefabrication, fabrication, and ship-assembly
shops; a number of foundry, forge, and machine shops; a boiler shop;
pipe and joiner shops; and large storage facilities. The Molotovsk
municipal powerplant supplies electric power to the yard and to the
city.
3. Rosta Naval Shipyard (Sevmorput)
The Rosta shipyard is located about 2.5 nautical miles north of
Murmansk. An important function of the yard is the preparing of both
naval and merchant vessels for the eastward trip over the Northern
Sea Route. Although strictly a ship repair yard, it is reportedly
being developed into a first-class shipyard that may possibly build
submarines and destroyers. 57/
The yard has a total area of approximately 80 acres and extends
for about 3,000 feet (915 meters) along the eastern shore of the
Kol'skiy Zaliv. It is readily accessible from Murmansk by water, road,
and an electrified railroad line. Most of the materials and equipment
for the shipyard arrive via the railroad from the Leningrad and Moscow
areas. Yard facilities include two graving docks 656 feet (200 meters)
and 328 feet (100 meters) long, and a floating drydock reportedly of
3,000-ton lifting capacity. The graving docks are served by three
15-ton-capacity derricks. Among the other facilities are three ma-
chine shops; a sheet-metal, foundry, and forge shop; and a number of
supplemental shops. A 36,000-kilowatt?powerplant at Murmansk and a
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48,000-kilowatt hydroelectric plant at Tuloma supply electric power
to the Rosta dockyard.
Some 60 barracks for naval personnel, several headquarters-type
buildings, and a number of supply warehouses have been identified in
the southeastern part of the dockyard. About 30 buildings believed
to be used as quarters for civilian workers are also located in the
vicinity. 58 In 1943, some 10,000 workers were reportedly employed
in the yard, of whom the majority were convicts. Current employment
is estimated at 5,000 to 6,000 workers.
E. Mining
1. Mineral Resources
Minerals found in the Arctic region contribute significantly to
the total mineral production of the Soviet Union. Nickel, copper,
cobalt, tin, uranium, and coal are some of the more important minerals;
antimony, tungsten, platinum, gold, silver, and oil are also found.
Exploitation depends upon the strategic importance of the mineral.
The increasing need for nickel and copper prompted the development
of the Noril'sk mines. Since tungsten is a necessary ingredient for
high-speed tool steels and armor-piercing ammunition, deposits of
the mineral are being developed rapidly. The growth of Iul'tin, in
the isolated northeastern part of Siberia, is a further indication of
this need. The coal mines at Vorkuta are over 1,400 miles (2,250
kilometers) from Leningrad but the urgency of the demand during
World War II prompted their development. The strategic significance
of uranium has caused a widespread search for deposits, and the
mineral is mined wherever it is found, even in distant, isolated
areas such as Severnaya Zemlya.
Transportation is not a limiting factor if the need for the
mineral warrants its exploitation. Uranium and tungsten ores are
flown from distant mining centers to refineries in the interior of
the country. The Kotlas-Vorkuta railroad, which connects the coal
fields with the. Leningrad rail lines, was completed in 2 years at a
terrific cost in human lives. Nonstrategic minerals, such as rock
salt and many ores that do not have such high priority, are delivered
by ocean freighter.
2. Major Deposits
Mineral production is centered in four major areas: Norilsk
(nickel, copper, cobalt), Nikel' (nickel, copper, cobalt), Vorkuta
(coal), and Pevek (uranium, tin, antimony).
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a. Noril'sk
Metal refining and its associated industries have made Norilsk
the largest center of heavy industry in the Soviet Arctic. The mineral
deposits were discovered in the late 1930's, and large-scale mining
operations began during World War II. The principal minerals are
nickel, copper, cobalt, and platinum; but smaller amounts of coal,
silver, gold, iron, vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum, and chromium are
also found. Ore reserves (in metric tons) have been estimated at
720,000 of copper, 500,000 of nickel, and 10,000 of cobalt. 59/
Although these amounts are outranked by deposits in the Urals and
Central Asia, they contribute significantly to the economy of the
Soviet Union.
The Norilsk ore contains 0.47 percent copper, 0.31 percent
nickel, 0.1 percent cobalt, and smaller amounts of platinum, gold,
and silver. It is mined in the hills surrounding the town on the
north, east, and south. Ore is found in greatest quantity in the
Shmidt and Medvezkha Hills southwest and southeast of Noril'sk. Since
the ore bodies are only 130 feet (40 meters) below the surface,
strip mining is used (Figure 20). Three mines are in operation on
Medvezhka Hill and two on Shmidt Hill.
The ore is hauled by broad- and narrow-gauge railroads to the
concentrating plants, where it is crushed, washed, and graded. An
estimated 2,500 to 3,000 workers are employed in these plants. After
concentration, the ore is smelted to separate the copper and nickel
components. These are cast into anodes and electrolytically refined
to pure copper and nickel. The nickel process takes about a week and
the resultant plates weigh 8 pounds. Copper is formed into much
larger plates which weigh 352 pounds. 60/
Several industries operate to support the refining operations.
A large coking plant prepares Norilsk coal for use in roasting the
ore. The byproducts, coal tar and coal gas, are consumed in Norilsk.
A thermoelectric powerplant located within the city supplies power
for electrolytic refining and for other industrial uses (Figure 21).
The same installation furnishes electricity, water, and steam heat to
the city.
Both anthracite and bitiminous coal are found in the Norilsk
area and enable the city to be self-sufficient in meeting its power
needs. Thirteen anthracite mines are located in the hills north
and northeast of Noril'sk. The coal is in veins 13 to 16 feet (i+ to
5 meters) thick and is produced at a rate of 2,000 tons per day. 61/
Numerous bituminous deposits of coking quality are scattered along
both sides of Shmidt Hill. Mines have also been reported at Kayrkan
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Figure 20. Loading ore on gondola cars at the strip
mine near Noril'sk.
Figure 21. The thermoelectric powerplant at Noril'sk.
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(Kaerukan)* on the Noril sk-Dudinka railroad about 19 miles (30 kilo-
meters) west of Noril'sk. Only one mine was worked in 1952, and it
produced 2,400 tons a day. 62/
Oil shale is also used as a fuel and is burned without prior
processing. 63 .2 It is found in large, thick lenses in the poorer
quality coal formations. Shale is sometimes saturated with liquid
oxygen and used in blasting when regular types of explosives are in
short supply.
Other industrial installations associated with mineral refining
include sulphuric- and hydrochloric-acid plants, a plant for manu-
facturing rubber-coating for lining pipes and barrels, a brick yard,
and a cement plant.
According to PW reports, three plants in the Noril'sk complex
are engaged in secret work. 6)+/ They have been described as a cobalt
or platinum refinery, an atomic- and hydrogen-bomb plant, and a poison-
gas plant. Platinum production began in 19+0-41; by 1947, Norilsk
produced 80,000 to 85,000 fine ounces or 30 percent of the Soviet out-
put. Platinum is obtained as a refining byproduct of nickel-copper
ore, by stream panning, and by mining. The metal is recovered at a
rate of 2 grams of metal from every ton of nickel-copper ore. Many
streams are panned for platinum, but no production figures are known.
One platinum mine is known to have been in operation at Norilsk, but
it has reportedly been closed. 65/
Iron ore is mined at several places in the vicinity of Norilsk,
but the total production is unknown. A strip mine was started in
19+7 on Shmidt Hill, and an iron mine north of the Norilsk-Dudinka
railroad is producing small amounts of ore. Several mines are
reportedly located 75 miles (120 kilometers) east of Norilsk. 66/
Small amounts of gold are produced at Norilsk. The metal is
recovered as a byproduct of nickel-copper refining and by dredging
Lake Pyasino. Production from the lake is small since operations can
be carried on only during the short ice-free season.
b. Nikel'
The Nikel' area in the northwestern part of Kola Peninsula also
produces nickel and copper. No reliable production figures are avail-
able. However, when the mines were under Finnish jurisdiction, they
had an annual capacity of 10,000 tons of nickel and 3,000 tons of
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copper. 67/ Estimates of ore reserves vary from 230,000 to 5,000,000
tons. 689/
The mines are located near the town of Nikel' in the extreme
northwestern corner of Murmanskaya Oblast' (Figure 22), and the ore
contains 1.5-3.0 percent nickel, 1-2 percent copper, 1 percent cobalt,
and minute quantities of platinum. 70,71/ The ore is concentrated
to matte at Nikel' and is then sent to Monchegorsk for further refin-
ing. The furnaces at Nikel' are electric and receive their power from
the hydroelectric station at Yaniskoski, 13 miles (70 kilometers) to
the southwest. 72/ When concentrated into matte the ore contains
30-60 percent nickel and copper. Until recently the matte from Nikel'
was first trucked to Linakhamari, the deep-water, ice-free port for
Pechenga; then the matte was shipped to Murmansk; and from there it
was sent by rail to Monchegorsk. In late 1955, a railroad from
Pechenga to Murmansk was completed, and now most of the ore probably
moves over this route.
c. Vorkuta
The Vorkuta area is the largest coal-mining center in the Soviet
Arctic and produced an estimated 12,850,000 tons of coal in 1952.
This amount, however, represents only 4.3 percent of the total USSR
production. 73/ Much of the coal is of coking quality and is expected
to play a large role not only in the continued industrialization of
Leningrad but also in the development of the Far North.
Soviet sources state there were 28 mines at Vorkuta in 1950 74/
and claim that the present total is 40. 35/ The mines are located
north and west of the city and are mostly of shaft type (Figure 23).
I some of the mines are highly mechanized, but
most cars are by hand. 76,77/ The quality of Vorkuta coal
varies from lignite to bituminous. Coal of coking quality is also
found here, but it is sent to industrial centers to be processed.
Coal is produced at several other places in the Vorkuta area.
Khal'mer'yu, 37 miles (60 kilometers) northeast of Vorkuta, has sur-
face mines. Coal is also mines at Khanovey, 12 miles (20 kilometers
east of Vorkuta. Abez and Inta, both south of Vorkuta, produce
coking coal and anthracite.
Several minerals of minor importance are mined in the Vorkuta
area. Chromium, iron, gold, and platinum are found 10 to 20 miles
(16 to 32 kilometers) north of the town. In 1950, gold and platinum
were mined, and the ore was sent downstream by barge to be processed.
Manganese deposits were developed east of Vorkuta in 1945, and the
ore was shipped to Kozhva for refining.
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Figure 23. A coal
shaft at Vorkuta.
Figure 22. Buildings of
the oil-refinery complex
at Nikel'.
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d. Pevek
Mineral exploitation in the Pevek area extends from Chaunskaya
Guba northeastward to the Koyveyem River and southeastward to
Krasnoarmeyskoye. The area was explored in the 1930's but mining
operations did not begin until 1948. At present the area is an
important producer of tin. Uranium, iron, tungsten, vanadium,
copper, antimony, lead, zinc, platinum, silver, and gold are mined
in small quantities. Since the isolated position and lack of a fuel
base preclude the possibility of refining ores at Pevek, they are
graded and barreled for export. The ores are stockpiled in the winter
and shipped out during the navigation season.
Mining is concentrated at four places in the Pevek area. Mt.
Yandra-Paken, at the northern tip of Pevek Peninsula, contains
deposits of tin and gold. 78,p.1,078/ The tin ore is found in thin
seams that extend for several thousand meters and have a low metal
content. Elsewhere on Pevek Peninsula, copper, lead, and zinc are
found. The mountainous area 31 miles (50 kilometers) northeast of
the peninsula contains shallow uranium mines, 79/ which were developed
before World War II and are operated by hand labor. The valley of
the Koyveyem River along the eastern slopes of the mountains also has
rich deposits of uranium and tin. The ore is-found in alluvial
deposits along the river and in veins in the surrounding hills.
Ore deposits extend from Pevek southeastward to Ust'-Chaun. The
largest mining area is 50 miles (80 kilometers) southeast of Pevek
at Krasnoarmeyskoye. More than 20 open-pit and shaft mines produce
uranium, tin, tungsten, and silver. 80/ Small amounts of antimony,
tungsten, gold, silver, platinum, iron, molybdenum, and vanadium are
mined south of Krasnoarmeyskoye.
3. Secondary Deposits
The secondary mineral deposits of the Soviet Arctic are relatively
small and include fluorspar at Amderma, oil in the Nordvik-Khatangskiy
Zaliv area, iron ore near Murmansk, and tungsten and tin in northeastern
Siberia.
a. Amderma
One of the largest fluorspar deposits in the USSR is found near
the Amderma River at the settlement of Amderma (Figure 24). The ore
body consists of 10 beds that cover 7 square miles (28 square kilo-
meters) and contain veins up to 26 feet (8 meters) thick. 81/ The
ore is refined at Amderma, and the fluorspar is shipped to Arkhangelsk
for distribution. Zinc is obtained as a byproduct of the refining.
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Figure 24. Amderma in 1943. The spur "a-a" brings
ore from the fluorspar mine to the pier "br."
Figure 25. An oil derrick at Nordvik.
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b. Nordvik-Khatangskiy Zaliv
The Nordvik-Khatangskiy Zaliv area is an oil-bearing region on the
southeastern edge of the Taymyr Peninsula. Exploration began in 1935
and probably continued until 191+6. 82/ During the exploration, more
than 250 wells were drilled (Figure 25). The oil is found on the
flanks of large salt domes. The first well struck oil strata at
2,000 feet (610 meters), and other wells were drilled to 6,000 feet
3
- /
meters). Most of the oil in this area is of a resinous paraffin type
with a high sulphur content. 83 No reliable production figures are
available for the region. On the basis of the small yields obtained
during the exploratory drilling, it is probable that there is little
or no production at present.
The first area of exploration was on the Yurung-Tumus Peninsula,
an eastward extension of the Khara-Tumus Peninsula. The oil flowed
at a rate of 5 barrels a day., Exploration later shifted to the
south, near Mys Ilya in Bukhta Kozhevnikova, and several small
refineries were built on the north shore of the bay to process the
oil. 81+/ There are also known oil deposits at several other places
in the Nordvik-Khatangskiy Zaliv area, including Ostrov Begicheva, the
lower Anabar River, and the northwestern coast of Khatangskiy Zaliv. 85/
Other minerals of the Nordvik-Khatangskiy Zaliv area include coal,
salt, gypsum, and copper-nickel ore. Coal in the Nordvik-Khatangskiy
Zaliv region is produced in small amounts and used locally. At Bukhta
Kozhevnikova it varies in quality from lignite to bituminous and is
produced from shaft mines 65 to 98 feet (20 to 30 meters) deep. Coal
also outcrops in the hills at the confluence of the Khatanga and
Khabydar Rivers. Ostrov Begicheva contains beds of bituminous coal
3 feet (1 meter) thick but they are probably not worked. At Nordvik,
lignite is mined from open pits. A lignite bed at Bukhta Kulb'cha has
been burning since 1932.
The salt dome on the Yurung-Tumus Peninsula is an important
source of rock salt (Figure 26). The deposits are 6,000 to 8,000 feet
(1,830 to 2,1+1+0 meters) thick, and producing shafts were working at
the 300-foot (91-meter) level in 191+7. In that year, 100,000 tons of
salt were produced. Since it contains little foreign matter, the
salt is shipped directly from the mines to fish-processing plants
along the Arctic Coast. 86
The gypsum deposits south of Bukhta Kozhevnikova near the settle-
ment of Kozhevnikovo provide stone that is used locally for house
construction. Sulfide ores containing copper and nickel are found
near the confluence of the Khatanga and Kheta Rivers. The deposits
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Figure 26. Mining operations at the salt dome on the
Yurung-Tumus Peninsula.
are believed to be the eastern end of the Noril'sk ore body and have
probably not been exploited. In 1944, diamonds were found near the
town of Khatanga. An expedition was sent from Moscow to explore for
other deposits, but the results were negative. L/
c. Murmansk
Important iron ore deposits have recently been developed among
the north coast of the Kola Peninsula near Murmansk. The ore is sent
by water to the new steel mills at Cherepovets (Vologodskaya Oblast'.
Here it is combined with Vorkuta coal to produce steel for the indus-
tries of Leningrad. The ore bodies are lens-shaped and contain 30-40
percent iron. Reserves of the area are estimated at from 60 to 100
million tons. 88/ The ore.is found in two broad strips that extend
from Kol'skir Zaliv westward to the Norwegian border. 89 The first
strip is 4 to 6 miles (6 to 10 kilometers) wide and closely parallels
the coast. The largest deposit is at Bolshaya Zapadnaya Litsa, where
ore pockets are 1 to 2 miles (2 to 3 kilometers) in length. The
second strip is discontinuous and lies 25 to 30 miles (40 to 50 kilo-
meters) farther south.
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d. Iul'tin
The tungsten ore deposit on the western edge of the Chukotsk
Peninsula north of the junction of the Chaantal'vegyrgyn and Amguyema
Rivers appears to be one of the largest in the USSR. Discovery and
exploration of the deposit began in 1936, and the settlement of
Iul'tin subsequently grew up nearby. World War II provided the impetus
for a rapid expansion of mining operations. The need for tungsten
has remained acute, and Iul'tin has continued to grow. In 1950,
some 1,200 PW's were reportedly working in the mines. 90/ To facili-
tate the export of ore, a road was built from Iul'tin south to the
port of Egvekinot. The port, located on Zaliv Kresta on the southern
coast of the Chukotsk Peninsula, has a longer ice-free season than
those along the northern coast. Bulldozers, steam boilers, air com-
pressors, and pumps are shipped to Egvekinot and trucked from there
to the mines at Iul'tin. Since diesel engines and electric equipment
have been shipped to Iul'tin, it is probable that electric power is
generated there and that the mines are now mechanized.
Large deposits of tin have been found at Pyrkakai, about halfway
between Pevek and Iul'tin. They occur as placer deposits and are
estimated to contain 300,000 to 500,000 tons of ore. 91/ The present
status of the deposits is unknown, but they are probably not being
worked.
4. Minor Deposits
Uranium, coal, and oil have a strategic significance that makes
them more valuable than any of the other minerals found in the Soviet
Arctic. In addition to the major deposits of these minerals that
have previously been described, minor deposits are scattered through-
out the entire Arctic Sector.
Uranium is in particularly high demand because of its many uses
in both peace and war. It is, therefore, being searched for and
mines in a number of places. Iokanga, on the coast of the Kola
Peninsula 186 miles (300 kilometers) southeast of Murmansk, produces
uranium ore, which is shipped to southern refining centers. Uranium
is also mined on Novaya Zemlya but the exact location is unknown.
The ore is stockpiled during the winter and sent to Murmansk when the
seas become ice free. Another deposit 37 miles (60 kilometers) east
of Vorkuta in the Polyarnyy Ural is reportedly being exploited. 92/
The ore is processed at the mines and then sent by rail to southern
consuming centers. The uranium deposits of Ostrov Komsomolets in
Severnaya Zemlya are on the southwestern coast. 93/ The mines cover
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a square kilometer and are 33 to 66 feet (10 to 20 meters) deep.
After the ore has been separated from the waste, it is flown to the
mainland. In 1946, deposits were discovered at Mys Chelyuskin but it
is not known whether they are being worked at present. On the
Chukotsk Peninsula uranium is being mined at Zaliv Lavrentiya
an E: Il and from there is sent to southern processing centers by snip
aircraft. 91+/
Deposits of coal are scattered throughout the Soviet Arctic and
serve as actual and potential fuel bases for the settlements. Except
for the major fields at Vorkuta and Noril'sk the deposits are small,
and they vary in quality. In most cases the coal deposits are actively
worked to meet the local need for fuel. Mines 12 miles (20 kilometers)
northeast of Murmansk produce 800 tons per day and supply a part of
the city's coal requirements. Three surface mines on Novaya Zemlya
are worked by hand labor. The coal is shipped out, probably to
Nar'yan-Mar.
Boghead coal is mined on the lower Olenek River and is used
locally as a fuel. It is also refined to yield kerosene, benzine,
and lubricating oils. Low-quality bituminous and small amounts of
anthracite coal are mined in the bluffs along the Lena near Bulun.
Although it is used locally for heating, bunkering fuel for the Lena
River fleet is imported from Sangar.
Coal for Tiksi is mined northwest and south of the town. Since
the coal is of glacial alluvial origin, the beds are thick (45 feet
or 14 meters) and the moisture content is high. Mining was started
in 1945 and production reached 50,000 tons in 1947. 95/ Small mines
at Ambarchik and Pevek are also being worked.
Although numerous coal deposits have been discovered in other
parts of the Arctic, they have not as yet been worked because of
their isolated position or small size. Seams in Zemlya Frantsa-
Iosifa are 10 feet (3 meters) thick. A large anthracite field,
reportedly covering 32,000 square miles (80,000 square kilometers)
is centered south of Salekhard. Coal has also been found at Dudinka
and Dikson, on the Yamal Peninsula, and in the lower and upper courses
of the Pyasina River are reported to contain vast deposits. On Ostrov
Kotel'nyy in the Novosibirskiye Ostrova, coal deposits have been
found in the vicinity of Guba Nerpich'ya and Guba Reshetnikova, and
outcrops of coal occur on Ostrov Bennett in the Ostrova De-Longa.
Other known deposits are located in the Chukotsk Peninsula at
Mechigmenskaya Guba and Mys Serdtse-Kamen'.
Oil deposits other than those in the Nordvik-Khatangskiy Zaliv field
are small in size and are concentrated in the western Arctic. They
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could serve as future fuel bases for ships of the Northern Sea Route.
For the most part the deposits remain undeveloped in favor of larger
fields to the south. Oil seeps have been discovered near Zaliv
Inostrantsev in Novaya Zemlya, 96/ but large accumulations of oil a.re
unlikely because of the poor holding capacity of the rock. Oil has
also been found in Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa. In the lower Yenisey area,
seepage and prospecting have indicated that oil deposits extend from
Turukhansk north to the estuary of the river. The largest area of
exploitation is at Ust'-Port, where many wells have been drilled.
According to reports, however, operations at Ust'-Port were terminated
in 1946. 97
F. Herding
Reindeer herding is the principal occupation of the native popu-
lation of the Soviet Arctic. Reindeer provide meat; hides, and milk
for the natives, whose economy is at a near-subsistence level. Leather
and preserved meat are exported in small quantities. Raising fur ani-
mals, fishing, and hunting are among the other occupations of the
natives. Pelts are, the only products of these minor activities which
reach outside markets. There are 2 to 3 million reindeer in the
Soviet Union and about 300 to 400 thousand caribou or wild reindeer.
In recent years the reindeer herds in the Siberian Arctic have in-
creased, whereas the European herds have decreased -- a result of an
expanding market in Siberia and depletion of pastures in Europe. 98/
The nomadic herding tribes of the Arctic were collectivized in
the 1930's. The resulting kolkhozes and sovkhozes cover large areas
because vegetation in the pastures is scant and food requirements
for the reindeer are great. One reindeer requires from 100 to 170
acres (40 to 70 hectares) of pasture during the year. 99,p.21 Kharp
Kolkhoz in the Nenetskiy Natsional'nyy Okrug (N.O.) covers 3,860
square miles (10,000 square kilometers). The largest collective is
the Kirov Kolkhoz, which includes 11,500 square miles (29,900 square
kilometers) in an irregular area between Yeniseyskiy Zaliv and the
Pyasina River. 100/ A kolkhoz herd may include up to 16,000 reindeer.
In addition to these collectives, there are breeding and experimental
stations for improving the quality of the herds.
One of the most important results of collectivization of the
nomadic tribes has been the settling of people in villages. Formerly
the entire tribe moved with the reindeer herds, but now only the
herdsman and his immediate family migrate seasonally. Villages are
usually found near the center of the kolkhoz area. 101/
Tents only are now used during the migrations. Although pre-
fabricated huts have been designed by the Institute of Polar Agriculture
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and Cattle Breeding, they have not as yet been used in the tundra.
In some parts of the Arctic, small groups of houses have been built
along the routes and serve as temporary shelters during the migration.
The herdsman is paid wages in the form of meat, reindeer, or
money according to the amount of labor furnished to the kolkhoz.
When paid in reindeer, the animals are added to the family's private
herd. Each family is allowed to own 250 reindeer. Annual wages of
a herdsman are reported to average 8,000 to 15,000 rubles. 102
Supplementary activities of the herders change with the seasons.
During the summer, when the reindeer are driven north, the herdsmen
fish and hunt for birds in the numerous tundra lakes. In winter,
when the herds are pastured in the south, the natives hunt and trap
fur-bearing animals. During the 4-month trapping season of 1951-52,
one hunter's catch in the Nenetskiy N.O. amounted to 30,000 rubles. 103
Many reindeer kolkhozes have organized fur farms and raise silver
and blue fox (Figure 28). Both of these have been bred from the
Figure 28. A fox farm on the Taymyr Peninsula.
native arctic fox and red fox. Under controlled conditions the ani-
mals can be made to breed true and are raised in large numbers. One
fur farm in the Nenetskiy N.O. produced pelts worth 100,000 rubles in
1952. 104+
The most significant feature of the herding economy is the seasonal
migration of the reindeer. The herds winter in the wooded tundra where
the trees afford shelter from the biting winds and the snow is not hard
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packed. By pawing through the snow the reindeer can find sufficient
forage to last them throughout the winter.
When warm summer temperatures begin to melt the snow cover,
herds are driven into the tundra pastures. The move is necessary
to escape from insect pests and to find new pastures. Myriads of
?mosquitoes, gnats, and flies hatch in the southern tundra and wooded
tundra and are a serious nuisance to men and animals. The insect
most harmful to the reindeer is the gadfly. It lays eggs in the
hair of the animal; and when the larvae hatch they bore into the
reindeer's skin. Hides from such reindeer are full of holes and
are worthless for leather. Herds on Novaya Zemlya produce hides of
good quality since the climate is too cold for gadflies.
Seasonal migrations of the herds involve great distances. The
reindeer often move more than 300 miles (480 kilometers) to their
summer pastures in the tundra. Some herds travel over the pack ice
to summer pastures on nearby islands such as Ostrov Belyy and return
to the mainland after the sea ice forms in the fall.
Migration routes to the pastures are planned in advance so they
will not be grazed by more than one herd. The pasture areas are
also assigned to prevent overgrazing. Because of the short summers
and the slow rate of growth of mosses and lichens, an overgrazed
pasture requires 20 years to recover fully.
The number of persons accompanying a herd is very small. Herds-
men are usually assigned at the rate of 1 person for every 200 to
300 reindeer. Veterinarians and husbandry experts also accompany the
herds.
G. Hunting and Trapping
The Arctic region has been a rich hunting and trapping area since
the early days of the Russian Empire when Arctic fox pelts and seal
skins were taken in large quantities. Today the Arctic continues to
supply a significant portion of the furs, skins, and other products
of hunting used in the Soviet Union. Arctic fox still accounts for
most of the furs trapped (Figure 29). The ermine is also a leading
fur bearer. Skins of leather quality are procured from reindeer,
seals, and belukhas (white whales). Other products of hunting in-
clude oil, meat, down, and eggs.
The basic unit of the hunting economy is the artel. This type
of collective has its own rifles, traps, and other gear. The hunters
are organized into brigades of 50 to 100 men who operate from hunting
stations scattered throughout the Arctic. These stations, or factories,
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serve as collecting and storage points for pelts and skins. Food
supplies and equipment are purchased from the factories. 105/ Indi-
vidual hunting and trapping are also carried on by natives whose
herding activities are curtailed during the winter season (Figure 30).
In addition to pelts, trapped animals furnish the natives with meat.
Along the southern edge of the tundra where hunting and trapping
do not predominate, hunters are attached to agricultural kolkhozes
and forestry settlements. When the hunting season is closed the
hunters work on the farms or in the forests.
The state has taken steps to control the size of the catch and
to increase the animal population. Rigid laws limit the open season
and the number of pelts that can be taken during this time. All
hunters must be licensed, and poachers are severely punished. State
breeding and experimental stations have been established to study
fur-bearing animals so as to increase their number and the quality
of their pelts. 106/
Fur-bearing animals make up the largest part of the yearly catch.
The Arctic fox is found throughout the Arctic, and on Novaya Zemlya
over 2,000 pelts were taken in one season. 107/ The fox's fur turns
white in winter, and during this season the fox does not hibernate
but roams over the land and far out on the pack ice in search of
food. Ermine is also trapped in the winter when its coat, except
for the tip of its tail, turns white. It lives throughout the Arctic
mainland and islands. Ranking third as an important fur animal is
the otter, which is limited to the nearshore waters, rivers, and
lakes along the coast of the Kola Peninsula.
Caribou provide both skins and meat for the indigenous hunters.
Very few caribou are found in the European Arctic since most have
been incorporated into domesticated herds.
Sea animals -- including seal, walrus, and belukha -- furnish
leather, oil, and meat, all of which are important products of the
hunting industry. The Greenland seals, and to a lesser extent
the ringed and bearded seals, provide most of the skins. In 1938,
some 850,000 seals were taken at the mouth of the White Sea.
In recent years the catch has been smaller, amounting to only
146,000 seals from the entire White Sea in 1947- 108/ Only males
and young pups are taken; the males provide skins and the pups
furnish fleecy, white fur. Greenland seals congregate in large
herds during the mating and pupping season. The White Sea herd,
numbering many thousand, is the largest and gathers on the ice-
covered shores of the White Sea entrance. The herd follows the
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Figure 29. A fur warehouse on Chukotsk Peninsula. Arctic
fox pelts are hanging from the ropes.
Figure 30. A kolkhoz member from Bulun Rayon
with his catch of arctic foxes.
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receding ice pack to Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa and Severnaya Zemlya when
the pupping season is over. The seal remain at this high latitude
for the remainder of the summer and return south in the fall.
The belukha furnishes high-grade lubricating oil, leather, and
meat. The meat is tough, but is canned for human consumption.
Belukhas are found in large herds and live in the coastal waters.
They feed in river estuaries and often travel far upstream in search
of fish.
Walrus is hunted for its skin and meat. It is seldom found in
the European Arctic, and its numbers have been reduced to such an
extent elsewhere that it is probably not widely hunted commercially.
Birds form only a small part of the hunting economy. Eider ducks
furnish eider down, a valuable insulating material for high-latitude
clothing and sleeping bags. The female duck lines her nest with
down plucked from her breast. The nests are collected after the
nesting season and the down is cleaned of dirt and grease. 109
Birds eggs form a large part of the local native's diet. Guille-
mot eggs are the main species eaten, and more than one-half million
are collected yearly (Figure 31). The birds live in large nesting
colonies called "bazars," which are located along the high, rocky
coasts of the islands and mainland (Figure 32). Distribution of the
bazars depends on hydrological conditions that favor the growth of
rich marine fauna. The largest bazars are found along the western
coast of Novaya Zemlya where the Nordkap Current of the Gulf Stream
warms the water and permits the growth of abundant marine life.
The Novaya Zemlya colonies are estimated to contain over 1.5 million
birds. The principal species include eider ducks, guillemots, gulls,
and mews.
H. Agriculture
Agricultural production in the Soviet Arctic satisfies only a
small fraction of the local food needs. Although fodder for live-
stock is relatively abundant, only limited amounts of vegetables,
fruit, and grain are produced. The goal of Soviet economic planners
is to make the area supply its own food requirements in order to
comply with the official dogma of regional self-sufficiency in food
production. The pressure for agricultural development is justified
on the basis that the northern limit depends not on physiographic
conditions but on economic considerations. 110/ The determining
factor for growing crops is the extent to which the Russians are
willing to allocate funds for the subsidization of crop production.
As a result, in most parts of the Arctic the cost of agricultural
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Figure 31. Packing guillemot eggs on Novaya Zemlya.
Figure 32. A large nesting colony or bazar of shore birds
on the rocky cliffs of Nays Karmakuly, Novaya Zemlya.
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production far exceeds the value of the crops. The farm at Tiksi
operates at a loss of 800,000 to 900,000 rubles per year because
production costs are greater than consumer prices. 111
Physical conditions are severe for crop production. The growing
season varies from 40 to 4+5 days along the littoral to 100 to 105
days near the Arctic Circle. Annual precipitation ranges from 3
inches (76 millimeters) on the northern islands to 16 inches (406
millimeters) at Igarka. The combination of cold temperatures with
desert and semidesert moisture conditions is a serious handicap to
agriculture.
The majority of the food consumed in the Arctic must be shipped
into the region either by rail or water. Air transportation, since
it is too expensive and limited for general use, is used primarily
to supply the floating scientific stations with fresh vegetables.
Railroads serve only the western part of the Arctic, and vegetables
are expensive if carried long distances, such as from Leningrad to
Vorkuta (1,473 miles or 2,370 kilometers). Although shipment by
water is the cheapest method, it is slow -- especially for perishable
items.
Since most of the area can be reached only by water, the shipment
of food is a seasonal operation. Supplies for the entire year are
stockpiled during the summer. In winter, vegetables may freeze
unless they are properly stored. Meat products are canned or salted.
A diet of canned goods, without a supplement of fresh vegetables,
will result in avitaminosis. For this reason, fresh vegetables and
milk must be produced within the Arctic.
As in areas farther south, farming in the Arctic is centered on
sovkhozes, kolkhozes, and individual garden plots. The garden plots
are cultivated by the urban population to supplement their diet.
The sovkhozes and kolkhozes are the primary food producers and are
of great size because of the difficult growing conditions.
Vegetable farms are concentrated in the western Arctic, since
most of the population is found there. The farms vary in size; one
of the largest is at Abez and covers 6,000 acres (2,430 hectares}.
Only a small fraction of the area is cultivated because of the
scarcity of suitable land. Factors such as soil composition, slope,
exposure to sun and wind, snow retention, and permafrost limit agri-
culture to small, scattered fields.
The most productive soil is developed by draining marshes, since
they contain the greatest amount of humus. Other soils must have
large amounts of peat added to increase the humus content.
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Furthermore, all the soils require large applications of fertilizer
and lime. To prepare the soil for cultivation, 44 to 66 tons of
organic fertilizer and up to 1 ton of lime per acre are added. 112
Slope of the land is important in order to secure adequate soil
drainage and a maximum amount of sunshine. South-facing slopes often
warm up to 90?F (32?C) or more during the long summer days. If the
land is sheltered from the wind, crops can grow faster and the frost-
free season is longer than on exposed fields. Long snow retention
also affects the agricultural potential of land by shortening the
time available for planting and growing crops. Permafrost, which
underlies nearly all the Soviet Arctic, presents a serious drainage
problem. Areas that have only a thin active layer lying over the
permafrost are unsuited to farming. The permafrost layer gradually
deepens, however, as repeated cultivation stirs up and thaws out the
soil.
Vegetables grown in the Arctic are acclimatized varieties of
crops cultivated in lower latitudes. Root crops are the most wide-
spread and include potatoes, turnips, parsnips, beets, carrots, and
rutabagas. Other vegetables grown are cucumbers, cabbages, parsley,
spinach, onions, tomatoes, peas, and cauliflower. 113
Crops are grown by three methods: greenhouses, hotbeds, and
open fields. Greenhouses are used for starting seedlings, growing
complete crops, and experimenting with new varieties. Seedlings
grown in greenhouses are transplated to open fields to mature, thus
increasing the chances that the plants will complete their life
cycles before fatal fall frosts occur. Crops such as tomatoes,
cucumbers, onions, lettuce, and herbs that are sensitive to cold
temperatures are grown completely in greenhouses (Figure 33)?
Although such facilities are limited, controlled conditions permit
2 to 4 crops to be grown in a year. At many settlements, greenhouses
use electric lights to supplement the short winter daylight hours.
(Figure 34+). 11J+/ To combat the cold climate the soil is heated by
rows of electrodes and the plants are irrigated with warm water.
Hotbeds are also used to start seedlings and produce mature crops.
They are easier to construct than greenhouses and greatly increase
the facilities for growing vegetables under glass. Plants can be
started before the open-field season begins and several crops can be
raised before the season ends. Relatively high temperatures are
maintained by lining the frames with manure.
Open-field cultivation is limited to small, scattered plots that
have favorable exposure, slope, and soil (Figure 35). New soil is
prepared by plowing the land in spring and allowing it to remain
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Figure 33. Greenhouses on Kola Peninsula.
Figure 34+. Cucumber plants growing in a greenhouse on Taymyr Pen-
insula. Electric lights supplement the short winter daylight hours.
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Figure 35. A cabbage field in an experimental station in Salekhard,
with greenhouses in the background.
Figure 36. A field of kohlrabi at Igarka. The crop
will be dug in August or September.
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fallow and thaw out during the summer. The following year it is
ready for cultivation. Spring plowing begins in June or July, as
soon as the snow has left the soil. Field crops are harvested in
July or August and root crops are dug in August or September (Figure
Fruit forms a small but very important part of the local diet
since it is a valuable source of vitamin C. Fruit grown in the
region consists of imported and indigenous species. Orchards of
apples and cherries, established at Igarka in the mid-1930ts, marked
the beginning of fruit culture in the Arctic. Since that time,
small orchards have been planted in several places in the western
Arctic. The trees are pruned and made to trail along the ground in
order to utilize the heat of summer and to be protected by drifting
snow from the cold temperatures of winter. Trees grown in this manner
produce fruit high in sugar, and damage by frost is reduced. 11-5.1/
Wild fruit is widespread and consists chiefly of berries, such
as black currant, serviceberry, whortleberry, bilberry, cowberry,
blueberry, and raspberry. The fruit ripens in late summer and is
usually eaten fresh. Berries of some species are not damaged by
freezing and can be gathered after the snow melts in the following
spring.
Dairy cattle, though not numerous, are a source of fresh milk
and meat for the population. Since milk is in short supply, it is
given only to children and hospital patients. Milk yields are re-
portedly high. Annual production of the herd at Tiksi averages 1,300
gallons per cow. Some cows in this herd give as much as 2,300 gallons
per year. 116/ The herds are turned out to pasture on the tundra
during the summer from June through September. Wild tundra plants
of the uplands and grasses and clover sown in river meadows provide
rich pasture. In winter the cattle are fed hay and ensilage. Grain
crops, such as barley, oats, and winter rye, seldom yield mature
grain but are cut and stored for winter feed (Figure 37).
Attempts to raise milk cows where there is no adequate pasture
have met with little success. A herd was started at Bukhta Tikhaya
in Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa, but the experiment was unsuccessful since
the land supports very scant vegetation and all fodder had to be
imported. 117/
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Figure 37. A field of barley at the Igarka experimental
station. The crop will probably be cut and stored for
winter feed for cattle.
Some pigs are raised along with cattle and contribute a small
amount of fresh meat to the diet. The farm at Tiksi produced 50 tons
of pork in 1954. The pigs are fed sugar derived from wood waste
products, root crops, and fodder. 118/
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 Boundcries on not necessarily those
recognized by the U.S. Government.
Molotovs
Isakogk
Arkhangelsk
veromorsk
liTeriberka
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SOVIET ARCTIC g~daC~4
25351 7-56
~r
IRON AND FERROALLOY METALS
Fel Iron
Manganese
Chromium
Molybdenum
n
NI
Tungsten
Vanadium
Nickel
Cobalt
a
Zn
METAL ORE DEPOSITS
NONFERROUS METALS
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Cadmium
Sn
Reported exploitation indicated by
PRECIOUS AND FISSIONABLE METALS
Tin Au Gold
Antimony Pt Platinum
Arsenic 1Rg Silver
Uranium
n
25X1
RESOURCES AND INDUSTRY
0 200 400 600 800
I I
Statute Miles
0 200 400 600 800
I I I
Kilometers
PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES
? Wood processing
Fish processing
.., Shipbuilding
STUDY AREA BOUNDARY
NONMETALS
? Salt
Sulfur
t:?arll
? Asbestos
$ Fluorspar
OTHER MINERAL DEPOSITS
FUELS
Y Graphite Hard coal (anthracite or bituminous)
+ Gypsum LI\ Soft coal (lignite)
Diamonds 0 Oil
0 Oil shale
Reported exploitation indicated by
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IV. The Development of Transportation in the Soviet Arctic
A. Air Transportation
1. Role of Air Transportation
Air transportation in the Soviet Arctic is characterized by a
relatively dense network of Polar Aviation air routes that largely
parallel the northern coast. These are augmented by scheduled "All-
Union" and regional Civil Air routes that operate directly between
the Arctic settlements and Moscow and other major Soviet territorial-
administrative, industrial, and transportation centers. The majority
of these routes are concentrated east of the Urals, where air trans-
port -- because of vast distances, difficult terrain, and paucity of
overland routes -- has become increasingly important for the penetration,
economic development, and political unification of the Siberian Arctic.
For most of the Arctic coastal establishments and mining centers, air
transport provides the only means of year-round supply and communication.
Airlift operations in support of the drifting ice stations and the
Arctic Islands have been of major scientific and strategic significance.
Hydrometeorological flights by Polar Aviation are also of utmost impor-
tance to successful maritime and naval operations along-the Northern
Sea Route.
The expansion of air routes throughout the polar region has been
facilitated by the construction and improvement of air installations,
chiefly along the Arctic littoral. Along the littoral there are 67
airfields and 27 seaplane bases, as well as a number of others whose
exact status has not been established. 119-123/ Although these in-
stallations are used chiefly by civil aircraft, many of the airfields
lend themselves to military operations. In the peripheral areas of
the Soviet Arctic, major airfields devoted primarily to military opera-
tions have recently undergone considerable expansion. These develop-
ments reflect an increasing emphasis on the strategic significance of
transpolar air routes.
2. Polar Aviation
Polar Aviation plays a key role in the regional development of
the Soviet Arctic. Its activities range from providing aerial ice
reconnaissance in support of shipping along the Northern Sea Route
to carrying mail, freight, and passengers to the numerous coastal
settlements, mining centers, and isolated polar and radio stations
that are dependent largely upon air transport for year-round supply
and communication. A wide range of auxiliary functions is also
performed by Polar Aviation, including meteorological work, aid to
scientific expeditions, aerial assistance to hunting patrols on land
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and sea, and aid in locating reindeer pastures, as well as propaganda
work under the Political Directorate of the GUSMP. To assist in these
functions, four regional air groups were created -- the Igarka Air
Group, Lena Air Group, Chukotsk Air Group, and Moscow Special Purpose
Air Group. 124/ Since 1955 the headquarters group based at Moscow
has assumed control of the regional air groups. 125,p.59/
The activities of Polar Aviation date from the late 1920`s when
it carried out sporadic missions and experimental flights to the
European north. During the period 1929-33, the principal aims of
Polar Aviation were consolidated into two areas of responsibility --
scientific and economic. These activities were paralleled by an
intensive effort associated with the establishment of air-transport
routes in the north. Not until 1933, however, when the newly organized
GUSMP acquired control of Polar Aviation, did the use of aircraft
become particularly significant in the exploration and development
of the Arctic. 126/ Since then the development of Polar Aviation has
closely paralleled the growth of its parent organization and has be-
come a major instrument in the economic and political unification of
the Arctic region.
In the past decade, the Soviets have made significant operational
and technological advances in Arctic flying in order to correct earlier
weaknesses and meet needs arising from the increasing economic and
strategic importance of the Arctic. Postwar developments include (1)
a significant increase in the number and capabilities of polar air
facilities, (2) improvement of communication aids to assure better
meteorological and navigational service for aircraft, (3) replacement
of obsolete aircraft with newer types, including the helico ter, (4)
improvement in the training of flight personnel, 12 7 .405 and (5)
introduction of equipment and supplies designed specifically for use
under Arctic conditions.
In early 1955, Polar Aviation was apparently assigned an expanded
mission that resulted in some realignment of its operating structure.
Although the new mission of Polar Aviation is not known, it undoubtedly
calls for utilization of the experience of the past 25 years in the
conduct of aerial reconnaissance, supply, and communication missions
in polar areas. In any event, the new Polar Aviation operating
structure is not likely to be extensive since its aircraft complement
in the-past has never exceeded 5 percent of the major nonmilitary
transport aircraft strength of the USSR. 128/ It is estimated that
about 75 Coach (I1-12) and Cab (Li-2) aircraft and an additional 75
smaller planes, such as the Mule (Po-2), Colt (An-2), and Hound (Mi-4)
helicopter, are now in service. 129 Recent sightings of a Bull
(Tu-4) 4-engine aircraft at Mys Shmidta and a similar plane at the
Moscow/Vnukovo airfield, all with Polar Aviation markings, indicate
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that these ex-bombers are being used for long-range ice and weather
reconnaissance and possibly for freight shipments (Figures 38 and 39).
In addition to providing timely and accurate weather and ice
forecasts, the major functions of Polar Aviation are air transport
and communications. The transport system of Polar Aviation consists
chiefly of a relatively dense network of routes confined largely to
the Arctic rim. Most of these routes appear to radiate from the
larger air terminals that serve as Polar Aviation operational and
supply bases (Figure 40), notably Amderma, Dikson, Igarka, Khatanga,
and Tiksi. These bases, along with Mys Chelyuskin, Pevek, and Mys
Shmidta, have become important staging areas for airlift operations
to the Arctic Islands and in support of current Polar Basin activities.
Probably only a few routes are operated on schedules; most of Polar
Aviation's, flying is believed to be on an "as required" basis. 130/
The main route, however, has regular service of undetermined frequency
from Moscow to Anadyr' via the Arctic Coast. Apparently this route
connects the intervening points of Arkhangelsk, Amderma, Dikson,
Khatanga, Tiksi, and Pevek.
Tons of freight -- including food and fuel supplies, scientific
equipment, prefabricated houses, and motorized equipment such as a
GAZ-69 automobile and a KD-35 tractor -- have been ferried to the
drifting ice stations by transport and helicopter aircraft. 131/
Helicopters have actually been flown directly from Moscow to the
drifting stations in the Central Arctic Basin. 132 On the flight
from Moscow the helicopters made maintenance and refueling stops at
Arkhangel'sk, Nar'yan-Mar, Amderma, and Mys Kamennyy. From Mys
Kamennyy, one helicopter proceeded to Dikson and then to Severnyy
Polyus-3 and another to Ostrov Vrangelya and then to Severnyy Polyus-l+.
On the flight to Ostrov Vrangelya, stops were made at Dudinka, Tiksi,
Chokurdakh, Nizhniye Kresty (Kresty Kolymskiye), Pevek, and Mys Shmidta.
Other Polar Aviation flights from Moscow have also been noted along
similar routes. It is doubtful whether Polar Aviation operates west
of Arkhangelsk. All Polar Aviation long-range Arctic operations as
well as local operations in the western half of the polar region are
conducted by the Moscow Special Purpose Air Group. 133/
The network of Polar Aviation air facilities, in addition to its
increasing air-logistic capabilities and sizable cadre of trained
and experienced Arctic personnel, serves as a potential adjunct to
Soviet military operations in the polar region. Many of the current
Polar Aviation airfields could readily be made available for refueling,
servicing, and staging various types of military aircraft. Polar
Aviation aircraft could also be diverted to transport and reconnaissance
use in support of military operations. In addition to the airlift
potential of Polar Aviation, the ice reconnaissance essential to
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Figure 38. A Coach (I1-12) being loaded and fueled for a flight
to the drifting ice stations.
Figure 39. The twin-engine Cab (Li-2) is the Soviet version of the DC-3
transport supplied to the USSR under lend-lease during World War II.
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successful tactical operations along the Northern Sea Route would
also be significant. The larger four-engine transports and Bull
(Tu-1+) aircraft currently used for long-range ice and weather recon-
naissance could perform vital photo-reconnaissance missions or serve
as troop carriers for airborne operations (Figure 41).
The cadre of Polar Aviation personnel, including fliers, navi-
gators, technicians, and administrators, has gained a vital know-how
in Arctic operations, which could be made available on demand to the
Soviet military forces. Since 1946, active officers of the Red Army
have been assigned to duty in Polar Aviation. The tendency toward
militarization, which is evident within Polar Aviation, indicates
that the Soviet Air Force is probably studying closely the operational
techniques of Polar Aviation. 134+
3. Civil Air Fleet (GVF)*
A number of Civil Air routes -- scheduled "All-Union" and
regional -- have been established to facilitate rapid movement of
mail, freight, and passengers between Arctic centers and major air-
traffic hubs to the south. Most of these routes follow the principal
north-south river valleys and are closely integrated with the trans-
portation networks of the Northern Sea Route, the inland waterways,
and Polar Aviation. The major scheduled air routes connect Moscow
with Murmansk, Arkhangel'sk, Vorkuta, and Noril'sk. These routes are
supplemented by a network of regional routes, both scheduled and
nonscheduled, operated under the jurisdiction of various Territorial
Directorates of the Civil Air Fleet. The administration of the
scheduled air lines as well as the territorial routes is carried out
by the Chief Directorate of the Civil Air Fleet (Glavnoye Upravleniye
Grazhdanskogo Vozdushnogo Flota -- GUGVF), which maintains control
over all civil aviation in the USSR.
According to the 195+-55 winter timetables, the network of
scheduled Arctic routes of the GVF, which operates under the trade
name Aeroflot, consists of five airlines. 13 These routes are
primarily carriers of mail and passengers, but sizable amounts of
air freight are included in air shipments to the Siberian Arctic,
where other means of surface transportation are notably lacking.
Operating from Moscow,,the Aeroflot routes include the northern
segments of the following lines: (1) Moscow-Vologda-Arkhangelsk,
(2) Moscow-Leningrad-Petrozavodsk-Arkhangelsk, (3) Moscow-Leningrad-
Petrozavodsk-Murmansk, (4) Moscow-Gor'kiy-Syktyvkar-Vorkuta, and (5)
Moscow-Krasnoyarsk-Noril'sk. Except on the Syktyvkar-Vorkuta line,
which operates three round trips per week, Aeroflot maintains daily
round-trip service between the terminal cities on each of these lines.
*For additional information, see page 11+3.
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Figure 40. The air terminal at Dikson, which serves as an
operational and supply base for Polar Aviation.
Figure 41. The Bull (Tu-4), a copy of the U.S. Superfortress,
is currently used for ice and weather reconnaissance.
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An additional insight into the possible extension of GVF routes
northward into the Arctic is provided by a Soviet postwar map of
regular and irregular civil air routes of Aeroflot.* Most of the
routes are located east of the Urals and originate at Headquarters
of the Territorial Directorates of the Civil Air Fleet. They follow
the courses of the Ob', Yenisey, and Lena Rivers and lead northeast-
ward to the Chukotsk Peninsula. A recent USAF report on Polar
Aviation indicates that these routes, along with several others,
were transferred from Polar Aviation to the authority of the GUGVF
during the reorganization of the GUSMP in 1938 on the grounds that
they were "in normal operation." 137/ The north-south lines appear
to be feeder routes for scheduled transcontinental services.
The Ob' route begins at Sverdlovsk and follows the Irtysh and
Ob' Rivers northward to Salekhard via the principal cities of Tyumen',
Tobol'sk, Samarovo, and Berezovo, a total air distance of 1,10+ miles
(1,777 kilometers). From Salekhard, an irregular route is shown
connecting Novyy Port with Tazovskoye (formerly Khal'mer-Sede), an
additional air distance of 340 miles (550 kilometers). In 1947, an
airline reportedly linked Tazovskoye with Khanty-Mansiysk and Tyumen'.
138/
The Yenisey route extends from Krasnoyarsk northward to Igarka,
with irregular service continuing farther north to Dudinka. Stops
are made at Strelka, Yeniseysk, Yartsevo, Podkamennaya Tunguska,
Verkhne-Imbatskoye, and Turukhansk. The total air distance from
Krasnoyarsk to Igarka is 865 miles (1,392 kilometers). The air distance
to Dudinka is an additional 133 miles (215 kilometers).
The Aeroflot route along the Lena River and to the Chukotsk
Peninsula begins at the GVF headquarters at Yakutsk. The Lena route
connects the river settlements of Sangar, Zhigansk, Dzhardzhan, and
Bulun and terminates at the Northern Sea Route port of Tiksi, a total
air distance of 880 miles (1,415 kilometers). However, for the section
between Bulun and Tiksi, a distance of 124 miles (200 kilometers),
irregular air service only is shown on the Aeroflot map. The recent
construction of a 9,500-foot (2,895-meter) hard-surfaced runway at
Tiksi indicates plans for increased air traffic, including landings
by multiengine heavy transports. The route to the Chukotsk Peninsula
terminates at Uel'kal', a military airfield on the west coast of Zaliv
Kresta. In view of the increased transshipment, Aeroflot service
probably has been extended to the rayon center of Egvekinot on the
northern shore of the bay and perhaps to other points along the coast
of the Chukotsk Peninsula. This development is generally associated
*The map, source 136 in Appendix B, also shows air distances
between terminal points.
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with the increasing activities and airfield construction that have
been noted on the peninsula since World War II. In 1947, bimonthly
passenger and mail service was inaugurated between Provideniya and
Moscow. 139,p.20/ This service, however, may have been a Polar Avia-
tion operation. Along the Yakutsk-Uel'kal' route, an air distance of
1,610 miles (2,591 kilometers), the map shows stops at Oymyakon, Seym-
chan, Markovo, and Anadyr'. According to the Alaskan Air Command,
Ambarchik is also the northern terminus of the Kolyma air route from
Magadan. Since Magadan is a major northeast Siberian civil air
terminal, it is provided with Aeroflot connections to all major
Soviet cities. 11+0
The map of Aeroflot airlines also shows a route from Arkhangelsk
to Nar'yan-Mar via Mezen', an air distance of 416 miles (670 kilometers),
as well as irregular operations along the Petrozavodsk-Murmansk and
the Syktyvkar-Vorkuta air routes.
Although Polar Aviation will undoubtedly continue to operate
territorially within the Arctic, the development program in progress
in the Soviet polar region indicates that the Polar Aviation system
may be in process of realignment. If the 25-year pattern for Polar
Aviation development continues, Aeroflot should take over any of its
operations that have been placed on a regularly scheduled basis.
The numerous scheduled and nonscheduled regional routes as well
as "special purpose" operations, are controlled mainly by the local
Territorial Directorates of the GVF, subject to approval by the GUGVF
in Moscow. Although a number of the regional routes flown may have
the same alignment as scheduled Aeroflot routes, many others undoubtedly
serve areas that do not generate sufficient traffic to warrant service
on a regular basis. Nonscheduled services may be devoted primarily
to freight lifts associated with high-priority construction and mining
projects. Although the USSR claims to have the largest air-freight
lift in the world, this is not reflected in published timetables of
scheduled routes.
"Special purpose" operations are apparently those designed to
support the activities of nonaviation government agencies such as
the Ministry of Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Procurement, and
Ministry of Geology. Several other Soviet agencies operating in the
Arctic region, notably the MVD and MGB, also utilize civil aircraft
and at times flight personnel assigned to them by the GUGVF to carry
out their specific responsibilities. These organizations have been
assigned 50 transport aircraft, of which a substantial number may
currently be based in the northern areas of Yakutsk or in the Far
Eastern Territorial Directorate of the GVF to service construction
and mining projects. These security organizations also conduct
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coastal patrol flights from Polar Aviation and military airfields
and maintain surveillance of ports and military installations. The
GUGVF has also provided the Ministry of Geology with 20 transports
for use in aerial exploration and geological surveying missions. A
sizable number of these aircraft may also be based currently in the
Arctic. 141
4. Military Air Transport
a. Current Status
The recent development of major airfields, combined with improved
logistic support by air, water, and rail and the reported development
of inflight refueling techniques, has significantly increased Soviet
strategic air power in the Arctic region. An estimated 35 airfields
and 12 seaplane stations are currently utilized by military aircraft.
The most important of these are located on the Kola and Chukotsk
Peninsulas, where hard-surfaced runways are suitable for staging
long-range turboprop and jet heavy bombers. Operating from these
stations, Russia's only truly intercontinental bomber -- the turboprop
Bear with a radius/range of 4,2508,300 nautical miles -- would be
capable of reaching virtually any target within the United States*
(Figure 42). The Bison jet bomber, with a radius/range of 3,100/6,100
nautical miles, provides additional striking power to the Soviet Long
Range Air Force (Figure 43). With one inflight refueling, the basic
radius/range of an aircraft could be increased approximately 35 per-
cent. 143 As of January 1956, the estimated number of bombers in
military operational units was 36 Bear and 38 Bison, with'the estimated
total authorized strength placed at 64 aircraft of each type. 144
An arc with a 3,100-nautical-mile radius from the Chukotsk Peninsula
passes through Chicago, Illinois, and El Paso, Texas (see Map 25347).
Recent runway developments in the Central Arctic, combined with
Soviet capabilities in the construction and use of compacted snow-
and-ice airstrips, have added appreciably to Russia's military air
potential in the polar region. In addition to their role as strategic
air bases, many of the airfields already have or could readily assume
a defensive role as fighter-interceptor bases. A large number of
such readily-adaptable facilities are found in the vicinity of Murmansk
and Arkhangelsk, the two key ports and naval bases of the Soviet Arctic.
*All radius/ranges based on optimum conditions under Basic or
Cruise Mission III. See source 142, Appendix B.
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Figure 42. The four-engine turboprop bomber Bear (Tu-34 )
has a radius/range of 4+,250/8,300 nautical miles and is
capable of reaching nearly any target in the United States.
Figure 4+3. The Bison, a four-engine jet bomber, has a radius/range
of 3,100/6,100 nautical miles.
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b. Airfields of Major Military Significance
The major airfields on the Kola Peninsula include Severomorsk
and Pechenga and a number of others within the Murmansk Complex --
Murmansk, Murmansk/Northeast, Murmansk/Kola, Kulp-Yavr, and Kildin --
that have recently become significant as bases for jet fighter air-
craft operations. On the basis of the estimated lengths of the runways,
most of these airfields are currently capable of staging medium and
possibly heavy bombers and have the advantage of year-round logistic
support by water, rail, and road. Extensive underground storage
facilities have been constructed throughout the area. The Severomorsk
airfield, which measures an estimated 7,000 by 260 feet (2,130 by 80
meters) is the most important military airbase in the European Arctic.
It is approximately 7 miles (11 kilometers) northeast of Murmansk and
is used by both the Soviet Air Force and Soviet Naval Air Force.* It
is also an important fighter and bomber training base that has been
used by Beagle and Bull aircraft. The concrete runway has been
enlarged and hard-surfaced since the war; and new hangars, barracks,
and other facilities have probably been constructed. 145
The Pechenga airfield near the USSR-Norwegian border has two
parallel northeast-southwest runways, one 6,600 by 200 feet and the
other 6,500 by 375 feet (2,010 by 60 meters and 1,980 by 114 meters).
The longer runway is supplied through the ice-free port of Linakhamari
(19 miles north-northeast at the mouth of the Guba Pechenga), by an
improved dirt road from Pechenga to Murmansk, and by a railroad line
that was completed in 1955. Up to 30 Fagot fighter aircraft have
been based at the airfield. Both runways could be extended an
additional 6,000 and 5,000 feet (1,830 and 1,525 meters), thus making
Pechenga a potential base for heavy bombers. 146/
Other sizable airfields of the European Arctic include Ioganka,
Belush'ya Guba on Novaya Zemlya, and Amderma, all of which are believed
to have undergone considerable expansion since 1950. Amderma, the
largest and most active of these airfields, has an estimated minimum
runway length of 8,200 feet (2,500 meters). The use of the field
by Bull aircraft in 1955 seems to substantiate this estimate. 14+
In addition to probable use by ice-reconnaissance aircraft, Amderma
serves as an important civil air route stop and air supply point for
Novaya Zemlya and Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa. Although no military planes
are known to operate from Amderma, the military as well as economic
significance of the airfield has been greatly enhanced by its recent
expansion and by a railroad line currently under construction from
Vorkuta northward to Amderma.
*Although the Bear and Bison require 9,000- and 8,200-foot runways,
respectively, with a 50-foot clearance they are capable of taking off
on 6,000- and 5,300-foot runways at sea level.
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X1
Airfield development has also been extremely active in the Far
East. On the Chukotsk Peninsula, an 8,000- by 500-foot (2,1+1+0- by
152-meter) hard-surfaced runway capable of supporting medium and
h was completed at Provideniya/Urelik during 1954
This is the nearest of the very large Soviet airfields
to continental United States and serves currently as a base for a
Soviet Air Force jet fighter unit. A taxiway approximately 65 feet
(20 meters) wide parallels the runway and is joined to it by 4
access taxi tracks. There are no large hangars or workshops on the
airfield, but several small buildings to the east appear to serve as
maintenance and storage facilities and barracks. A POL (petrol, oil,
and lubricants) storage area, located about 4 miles (6 kilometers)
to the north along the eastern shore of Bukhta Emma, is connected with
the airfield by a road and reportedly by a narrow-gauge railroad line.
Logistic support for the airfield is provided by the limited port
facilities at Urelik, supplemented by somewhat larger facilities at
Provideniya on the opposite shore of the bay. Radar trackings show
that air activity in the Chukotsk area has increased greatly since
1953. During the first 6 months of 1955, radar trackin s were more
than double the number for the same period in 1954. 150/ The increase
in air activity is believed to have followed the introduction of the
Falcon aircraft, which currently operate from the Provideniya/Urelik.
and probably from the Lavrentiya airfields. In 1954 the stockpile
of fuel supplies appeared to be adequate to service intensified air
activity from February through May. 151/ An increase in night track-
ings also indicates that both of these airfields are probably equipped
with lights. Since the Lavrentiya runway is used by jet fighter air-
craft, it is estimated to be at least 6,000 feet (1,830 meters) long.
In view of runway construction taking place elsewhere on the
Chukotsk Peninsula, the runway at Uel'kal' airfield along the west
shore of Zaliv Kresta has probably been lengthened to 8,000 feet
(2,440 meters). 152 Although this development has not been confirmed,
Uel'kal' is known to be fairly well equipped with ancillary facilities,
including navigational aids, fixed installations (hangars, quarters,
etc.) and maintenance facilities. During World War II, Uel'kal'
served as a major stop for lend-lease aircraft ferried from Alaska.
It is currently a civil air route stop.
One of the most important Soviet Arctic bases is located along
the northern coast of the Chukotsk Peninsula approximately 3-1/2
miles (5.6 kilometers) southeast of Mys Shmidta. In addition to
serving as an important Northern Sea Route base for ice and weather
reconnaissance flights, it has recently become capable of supporting
medium- and heavy-bomber operations, with a consequent increase in
its military potential. In 1955, a 9,000-foot (2,740-meter) runway
was under construction. This permanent runway is paralleled by a
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northwest-southeast strip made of ice and compacted snow approxi-
mately 8,500 feet (2,590 meters) long, which has been used by Bull
aircraft for reconnaissance patrols.
In the Soviet north the longest known hard-surfaced runway,
9,500 by 500 feet (2,895 by 152 meters), has recently been completed
at Tiksi. 153,154/ It is one of the few Arctic airfields currently
capable of supporting any type of Soviet aircraft. The runway is
equipped with hard-surfaced taxiways that connect it with a large
parallel parking ramp that has a hard surface. Although Tiksi has
no hangars or workshops, large warehouse facilities and barracks
have been noted near the field. POL is stored in drums on the field
and in a nearby storage area consisting of four above-ground tanks.
A parabolic radar antenna is located on top of the control tower
adjacent to the parking ramp. Logistic support is probably provided
by the port facilities at Tiksi, which is an active river-ocean
transshipment point and major supply base for the region. Although
the Tiksi airfield is several hundred miles farther from key United
States target areas than either Provideniya/Urelik or Severomorsk,
it serves as a potential forward staging area. The significance of
Tiksi in offensive air operations could be greatly improved by in-
flight refueling over the Polar Basin or one-way missions.
c. Airfields of Secondary Military Significance
X1
In addition to the airfields suitable for staging long-range
bomber operations, the Soviet Arctic has a network of temporary and
natural-surfaced runways that currently serve as bases for fighters,
transports, and various types of reconnaissance aircraft. In event
of hostilities, many of these military airstrips, as well as numerous
civil airfields, could easily be improved to support staging operations
of heavy transports, medium and heavy bombers, and jet fighter aircraft.
With the current improvement of air facilities along the Arctic
littoral, many of the present runways have probably undergone expansion.
The civil airfields of Dikson, Khatanga, and Kosisty, which have
permanent runways estimated at 6,000 feet (1,830 meters) each, and
the recently hard-surfaced 5,500-foot (1,675-meter) runway at Nizhniye
Kresty* could readily be used for military purposes. Although the
airfields in the Chukotsk area are vulnerable to attack, Uel'kal',
Provideniya/Urelik, Lavrentiya, and Chaplino could be used for staging
airborne attacks on Alaska, as well as serving a defensive role
On the basis of AAC intelligence estimates, the
*A nearby 6,000- by 400-foot clearing appears to be a second air-
strip in the early stages of development. ill/
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Provideniya/Urelik, Lavrentiya,* and Chaplino airfields could sup-
port a total of 32 jet light bombers, 74+ jet fighters, and 150 trans-
ports. 156 Several ice strips 7,000 and 4,500 feet (2,130 and 1,370
meters) in length were noted on recent aerial photographs of Ostrov
Vrangelya; these also could support seasonal air operations.
Drifting ice islands and floes provide other potential sites for
advanced airstrips, refueling bases, and direction-finding equipment.
Having the advantage of remote locations, many of these islands or
floes in the Arctic Basin could serve as advanced bases for small
mobile striking forces consisting of long-range fighter aircraft.
Although infrequent reports of low reliability refer to numerous
strategic air and guided-missile bases at a number of selected sites
throughout the Soviet Arctic, no intelligence available substantiates
the existence of developments other than those already noted.
*Based on 5,000-foot and 3,500-foot runways at Provideniya/
Urelik and Lavrentiya, respectively, that have subsequently been
extended to 8,000 feet and 6,000 feet.
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Facilities Available for Air Transport
a. Airfields
Most of the airfields have been built on the better drained gravel
terraces found chiefly along the coast and in the principal river val-
leys of the Arctic. The majority of these installations, most of
which are east of the Urals, have been collocated with polar stations
and are relatively accessible to supply by river and Northern Sea
Route vessels. Many of these coastal airfields are on barrier bars
or spits consisting of sand and gravel. A number of these spits
enclose lagoons that serve as seaplane landing areas in summer and
as ice strips in winter. During the winter the rivers and numerous
lakes of the Arctic region also provide suitable ice strips for ski-
or wheel-equipped aircraft.
Among the network of approximately 67 Arctic airfields, 33 are
located in the European Arctic and 311. east of the Urals. Of these,
21 are equipped with permanent hard-surfaced runways; 13 have
temporary runways of pierced steel, wood, or graded earth; and 33 are
classed as natural-surfaced runways. In addition to these airfields,
37 other airstrips either of unknown status or under 2,000 feet
(610 meters) in length are located within the Soviet Arctic. The
vast majority of these are located east of the Urals (see Map 25349).
Through proper drainage and the insulation of the permafrost layer,
many areas within the frozen tundra could be converted into temporary
or natural-surfaced runways. Recent experiments in Alaska have proved
that it is feasible to build quickly and inexpensively landing areas
of compacted snow capable of supporting gross weights in excess of
148,000 pounds. l.' T
Although information regarding runways, parking, and ancillary
facilities is inadequate for many areas of the Soviet Arctic, over
50 percent of the airfields are known to have runways or take-off
runs of 1i.,000 feet (1,220 meters) or more in length. Most of these
are either permanent or temporary runways that are operational the
year round. The only permanent runway less than 5,000 feet (1,525
meters) in length is at Dudinkao The majority of the natural-surfaced
airstrips range in length from 3,000 to 1+,000 feet and are generally
operational only seasonally.
The airfields are supported by various navigational aids, POL
storage, maintenance facilities, and miscellaneous buildings used
as hangars, shops, and billets. The most common type of navigational
aid is air-to-ground radio (voice), although a number of airfields
are equipped with station-to-station (code) facilities. Most of the
airfields have been collocated with polar weather stations that provide
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0 Ta! '~' ~r/
90d005 ore not necessatSy those
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7Khatanga
USSR: SOVIET ARCTIC
AIR FACILITIES AND ASSOCIATED AIR ROUTES
AIRFIELDS WITH DELINEATED RUNWAYS
Q 7,000 feet or over
* 6,000 to 6,999 feet
* 5,000 to 5,999 feet
? 4,000 to 4,999 feet
0 2000 ,to 3,999 feet
a Under 2,000 feet, or facility
of doubtful status
STUDY-AREA BOUNDARY
Other scheduled Aeroflot'
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SEAPLANE STATIONS ARCTIC.CONNECTED AIR ROUTES
? With complete facilities
;!; Without complete facilities
I I Scheduled Aeroflot (winter 1954-55)?
Additional scheduled Aeroflot"
Irregular Aeroflot"
Main Polar Aviation
Transarctic Service
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navigational information for both air and maritime operations. The
Arctic coastline is also reportedly provided with a system of radio
beacons and direction-finding stations, the latter being installed
at intervals of approximately 270 miles (435 kilometers). 158 Air-
fields in Class 1 or Class 2 categories of the Arctic have air-to-
ground and station-to-station radio facilities, weather stations,
control towers, radar, and in many cases telephone and telegraph
communications and direction-finding equipment.
Bulk POL storage is available at most of the permanent and
temporary runways, as well as at many of the natural-surfaced air-
strips. Known repair facilities are limited chiefly to organizational
maintenance. Hangars, barracks, and various other facilities such
as workshops, storage, and administrative buildings are generally
found only at the military airfields of the European Arctic. The lack
of hangars or shelters at most of the airfields east of the Urals,
coupled with the low temperatures of the Siberian Arctic, imposes
numerous aircraft lubrication and maintenance problems. Most of the
Class 1 and Class 2 airfields and a number of other military and
civil installations that support special operations are probably
equipped with some type of lighting to facilitate night operations.
Lighting facilities include either runway, boundary, and obstruction,
lights or searchlights. Little information, however, is available
concerning lighting, and it is doubtful whether night flying has been
developed to any great extent as yet.
b. Seaplane Stations
In addition to airfields, numerous inlets, bays, and lagoons
along the coasts and rivers of the Soviet Arctic provide favorable
sites for seaplane operations. An estimated 27 seaplane stations
with complete or partial facilities have been established within the
Arctic. The majority of these stations (20) are located in the Siberian
Arctic and operate in conjunction with local airfields in making ice
reconnaissance, supporting polar expeditions, and servicing radio and
weather stations and settlements along the coasts. The use of seaplanes,
however, is limited to summer, when most coastal areas are relatively
free of floating ice. Offshore rocks and small islands (such as those
at Tiksi), nearby cliffs or hills, and the frequency of coastal fogs
during the summer are major obstacles to seaplane operations.
The seven seaplane stations within the European Arctic are under
military operation and are used by both the Soviet Air Force and the
Soviet Naval Air Force for ice reconnaissance and for patrol missions
in the Kol'skiy Zaliv and the Barents Sea.* The seaplane stations of
*Nar'yan-Mar is the only known, seaplane station in the European
Arctic that is used for civil operations.
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Murmansk/Gryaznyy and Arkhangelsk/Kholrn have been used by Catalina-
type aircraft. The only known seaplane stations with adequate shelter
and complete facilities are the two bases mentioned and the seaplane
station at Provideniya in the eastern Arctic. These stations are
capable of major repairs and are equipped. with beaching gear and
refueling services. Strategic location and the ice-free water of
the Kol'skiy Zaliv make the Murmansk/Gryaznyy seaplane station the
most important in the Soviet Arctic.
Navigational aids at seaplane bases are like those of the air-
fields and generally include air-to-ground radio facilities and
weather stations. Most of the operational facilities are probably
used jointly by airfields and seaplane bases. Little is known about
most of the seaplane stations that have only partial facilities.
In most cases, however, POL supplies and navigational aids are avail-
able from nearby settlements or airfields.
B. Water Transportation
1. The Northern Sea Route
a. Historical Background
The Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route (GUSMP) was
established in 1932 to develop, equip, and maintain a safe shipping
lane along the Arctic coast of the Soviet Union. In its early days
GUSMP controlled all activities on the mainland, seas, and islands
north of 620N. GUSMP reached its peak of power and influence in
1936, when it ruled an area of over 2,200,000 square miles (5,750,000
square kilometers). 159/
By 1938 it was realized that GUSMP was involved in too many
activities and was neglecting its primary duty -- operating the
Northern Sea Route. As a result of a decree in 1938, cultural and
educational work was transferred to the republics, krays, and okrugs;
and fisheries, mines, airlines, and river shipping were transferred
to other agencies. To carry out its duties of planning and coordi-
nating traffic along the Northern Sea Route, GUSMP established
extensive weather and ice forecasting facilities, formed an ice-
breaker fleet, and developed staging, dispatching, and controlling
procedures for shipping. GUSMP maintains its own research instal-
lations and educational organizations, including the Arctic Scientific
Research Institute and the Hydrographic Institute.
b. Economic Significance
The establishment of a Northern Sea Route started with the need
for provisioning settlements along the coast and lower river areas
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and for bringing out raw materials from the hinterland. Before the
route became a regular transportation line, supplies for the Arctic
settlements were sent over the Trans-Siberian Railroad and shipped
down the major rivers. This method was arduous and little freight
could be sent in one season.
Lumber, which probably comprises the largest part of material
exported via the Northern Sea Route, is carried chiefly by foreign
ships to Western European ports. Additional cargo sent over the
route includes minerals, fish products, coal, construction materials,
and general supplies.
Since operations are limited by a short navigation season, the
Northern Sea Route is not a serious competitor of other transportation
routes in the Soviet Union. The cost of icebreaker assistance and
other services along the route eliminates any saving in cost over
land routes. The sea route carries more than 2 million tons of
freight during the 2-1/2 month navigation season. 160 The Trans-
Siberian Railroad, on the other hand, moves an equal amount of
freight in only 30 days and operates the year round.
c. Military Significance
Although establishment of the Northern Sea Route was prompted
by economic considerations, the military significance of the route
cannot be overlooked. The value of a northern route was realized
in the Russo-Japanese War, when the Russian Baltic Squadron was
forced to sail around Southern Asia to reach the Far East. If a
northern route had been available to the fleet, many months of sailing
time could have been saved and the naval defeat in the Tsushima
Strait might possibly have been averted.
No information is available on the military use of the route in
World War II, but German vessels operated in the western seas. On
27 August 19+2 the German pocket cruiser Admiral Scheer shelled the
harbor, polar station, and settlement on Ostrov Dikson. 161 A
German meteorological unit operating on Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa in
1943-4i- was visited by submarines. Submarines were also used at
the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya to launch automatic weather trans-
mitting buoys. 162/
Since the Soviet Union was at war with Japan for only a few days
during World War II the Northern Sea Route was never put to the test
of moving large amounts of supplies to the Far East. The route is
used for military purposes, however, and at least 55 vessels --
including cruisers, destroyers, and submarines -- were moved to the
Far East in late August and early September 1955. 16 / Two divisions
of Chinese troops are reported to have crossed the route aboard
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Russian destroyers and participated in Soviet autumn maneuvers in
the Pechenga region of the Kola Peninsula. 164/ During a war the
movement of troops by this method would probably not be practical
except in an emergency, since the Trans-Siberian Railroad could
transport them across the country from Moscow to Vladivostok in
approximately one-half the time (9.2 days). lam/
The military use of the route is limited by the short navigation
season. During the greater part of the year, no naval ships except
submarines could traverse the route. A submarine equipped with a
device that could be extended through the ice from time to time to
replenish its air could navigate submerged over the entire route.
Another limitation to the route is its exposure at Bering
Strait. Ships traversing the strait enroute to Anadyr', Magadan, and
Vladivostok would be subject to attack from Alaskan airbases. As an
alternative to transport over this section of the route, cargo could
be transferred to river vessels and shipped up the Kolyma River to
Seymchan and then sent by truck to Magadan. Elsewhere along the
route, vessels are immune to attack by all foreign naval ships except
submarines. Convoys keep within sight of the mainland for the
majority of the route and would also be under the protection of shore
batteries.
d. Physical Aspects of the Route
The Northern Sea Route extends from Murmansk to Provideniya, a
total of 4,600 miles (7,400 kilometers). At its eastern end,
extensions lead to Anadyr', Magadan, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy, and
Vladivostok. The majority of the passage is within sight of the
mainland or islands. Entrance to the Kara Sea is provided at four
points -- around Mys Zhelaniya at the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya
and through Matochkin Shar, Proliv Karskiye Vorota, and Proliv Yugor-
skiy Shar. The last two straits are most commonly used. The route
then passes through Proliv Vil'kitskogo, Proliv Lapteva or Proliv
Sannikova, and Proliv Longa. (See Map 25348.)
In the early days of the Northern Sea Route a "Northern Variant"
passing north of the islands to the Bering Sea was proposed. This
route was pioneered and occasionally used by ships that found the
more southern route blocked by ice. In 1940 the Arctic Scientific
Research Institute studied the variant and decided to build a series
of polar stations along the northern shores of the islands to assist
in navigation. The Northern Variant has not been mentioned in recent
years and the status of this route is unknown. 166/
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Ice conditions on the Northern Sea Route vary from year to year,
and changes frequently occur within a single navigation season.
Variations in atmospheric and climatological conditions have a great
influence on the location of the pack ice. The position of the
southern ice limit fluctuates many degrees of latitude. During the
navigation season, the position of the pack ice varies from day to
day with changing winds. Narrow channels (leads) and wide areas
(polyn'i) appear and disappear, forcing ships to follow an erratic
course through the ice. The pack ice often closes in completely,
and much time is lost in spite of icebreaker assistance. Statistics
for 1940 indicate that 23 percent of the total time lost in voyage
was due to ice conditions. 167/
Ice is the principal hindrance to shipping along the route and
governs the length of the navigation season. Annual variations in
the position of the ice determine the dates for the opening and
closing of navigation, but in general the season lasts 2-1/2 months,
from about mid-July to the end of September. During the winter,
navigation is limited to the southern half of the Barents Sea where
the warm Nordkap Current of the Gulf Stream keeps the sea free of
ice. By July or early August the river ice goes out and the discharge
of the rivers melts the adjacent pack ice. In early September the
ice has retreated to its minimum size, but several areas along the
route remain choked with ice. These congested areas include the
Arkhipelag (Archipelago) Nordenshel'da, Proliv Vil'kitskogo, and
sections of the East Siberian and Chukotsk Seas in the region of
Proliv Longa.
Summer ice conditions in the straits are governed by winds.
When the winds blow from the northwest, Proliv Vil'kitskogo is
jammed, and ships cannot enter from either direction. Even under
normal conditions the strait contains some pack ice, but it can be
negotiated for 5 to 7 weeks in late summer. Proliv Longa becomes
ice blocked when winds blow from the east. The strait is seldom
ice free. When the ice does disperse, it retreats northward to the
vicinity of Ostrov Vrangelya. 168/
Icebergs are encountered in summer in the western part of the
Laptev Sea and around the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya. They are
formed from fragments separated from the lower ends of the glaciers
that cover large parts of Severnaya Zemlya and Novaya Zemlya.
Fog, another restriction to navigation, reaches its greatest
intensity during the navigation season. Fogs occur from 15 to 25
days per month during July and August. The fogs are of short duration,
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lasting from 12 to 21i hours, but occasionally they remain for several
days. 169There are records of ships sailing from Murmansk to
Dikson without sighting land. 170,P-10/ These ships used radio navi-
gation beacons to guide them along the route.
Shoal areas along the route are also a navigational hazard.
They are encountered from Proliv Yugorskiy Shar to the Kolyma River
and are a limiting factor to the size of vessels that can sail the
route. Most ships have a draught of 22 to 26 feet (6 to 8 meters),
which enables them to navigate nearly all sections of the route.
The first shallow area encountered in a west to east passage
is at Proliv Yugorskiy Shar. The water here is 32 feet (10 meters)
deep. Another shoal area extends from Ostrov Velyy to Ostrov
Dikson, where depths reach a minimum of 10 feet (3 meters). Tiksi
is located in a shoal area on the eastern side of the Lena Delta.
Although depths vary from 10 to 27 feet (3 to 8 meters), a channel
dredged to the port enables ocean vessels to dock at Tiksi. The
two entrances to the East Siberian Sea -- Proliv Sannikova and Proliv
Lapteva -- are both shallow. The former is 36 feet (11 meters) deep,
whereas the latter and more frequently used strait has several areas
only 21 feet (6.5 meters) deep. Shoals are also found off the
Indigirka and Kolyma River deltas. Ambarchik, an important port at
the mouth of the Kolyma, has a depth of 3 to 10 feet (1 to 3 meters)
and ocean vessels must anchor several miles offshore.
e. Shipping Procedure
Shipping procedure on the Northern Sea Route is controlled by
the short navigation season. To reduce travel time and ice danger,
most ships start from either the eastern or western end and move
toward the center, unloading cargo along the way; cargo for the re-
maining half of the route is unloaded at Tiksi to be picked up by
ships. returning to their home ports of Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, or
Vladivostok. Tiksi was chosen as the turn-around point on the route
and has subsequently developed into an important transshipment and
bunkering port.
Through the turn-around method, travel time for a ship is reduced,
although time spent transshipping cargo is often increased. At ports
that are short of lightering equipment or docking facilities, freight-
ers may have to wait several days before unloading. During the latter
part of the 1955 navigation season, ships were forced to wait 2 to 3
weeks at Arkhangel'sk before unloading and loading cargoes. 171/
By traveling only part of the route many ships are spared the
passage through ice-choked Proliv Vil'kitskogo. In the early 1930's,
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an alternate to this part of the route was proposed, which would
have bypassed the strait to the south. The plan entailed sailing
up the Pyasina River to a canal connecting it with the Kheta River
and then following this river to Khatangskiy Zaliv and Nordvik. This
route would have required an extensive system of locks to make it
navigable. The difficulties of constructing and maintaining such a
system would have been enormous, and the project presumably never
proceeded beyond the planning stage. 1 2
Sailing time required to cross the route depends not only upon
ice conditions but also upon the number and type of ships making the
voyage. Convoys move slower than individual ships and spend about
60 days sailing from Murmansk to Provideniya. j/ The shortest
crossing by an individual ship was made in 1940, when the German
auxiliary cruiser Komet, favored by optimum ice conditions, completed
the trip in 18-1/2 days. 174 In 1955 the diesel-electric freighter
Lena sailed from Arkhangel'sk to Nagayevo in 27 days. 175 The
standard oil- or coal-burning freighter, which must stop many times
to unload and load cargo, could make only one trip across the entire
route during the navigation season. For this reason few ships make
the complete passage, and only vessels being reassigned or carrying
special cargo travel the whole length. The advantage of the turn-
around system lies not only in reduced travel time but in increased
use of each vessel.
Ships sailing eastward from Murmansk or Arkhangel'sk normally
travel singly to Dikson. Ice conditions in the Barents and eastern
Kara Seas are usually such that no difficulties are encountered.
If assistance is required, icebreakers are sent from Dikson or Novaya
Zemlya. East of Dikson, ice conditions and shoal areas make navi-
gation hazardous and ships usually travel in convoys.
The size of the convoy depends upon the severity of ice con-
ditions and the horsepower and strength of the icebreakers and
freighters. The average convoy consists of about 10 freighters led
by an icebreaker. If ice conditions are particularly bad, 2 or 3
icebreakers will accompany the ships. Slow freighters are formed
into small convoys of only 3 or 4 vessels.
The most powerful icebreaker leads the convoy and is followed
by the broadest beamed freighter. When several icebreakers are used
they are scattered throughout the convoy, and one also serves as a
rear guard to assist stragglers. The interval between ships is
decided by the convoy captain and varies with ice conditions and the
speed of 176/
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f. Scientific Support*
Many scientific services contribute to a successful voyage on
the Northern Sea Route. The need for such support was clearly
demonstrated in 1937 when 26 ships, including 7 of the 8 icebreakers,
were trapped in the pack ice as a result of poor information on ice.
Present-day scientific support includes, in addition to ice recon-
naissance, weather reporting and hydrographic research. The latter
charts tides, currents, and I epths and establishes navigation aids
Ice reconnaissance, the most important support function, is
carried on by several methods. Data are collected by drifting sta-
tions, flying observatories, and mobile research teams. These groups
devote only a small portion of their time to the collection of ice
data, and the information is not so detailed as that performed by
aerial-reconnaissance planes. The latter account for the majority
of the information that is collected and the ice charts, and resulting
reports give a detailed picture of current ice conditions. Aircraft
used for these surveys are under the direction of Polar Aviation.
Reconnaissance flights take place throughout the year, and their
total flight distance exceeds 310,000 miles (500,000 kilometers).
The flights are grouped into four seasonal types -- winter, prenavi-
gation (spring), navigation (summer), and fall -- and occur during
the following periods:
Season
Beginning
Winter
Feb
20-28
Prenavigation
Jun
10-20
Navigation
Jul
10-20
Fall
'Oct
1-10
Ending
Average Duration
May
5-15
2.5 months
Jul
10-20
1.0 months
Oct
1-10
2.5-3.0 months
Nov
1-10
1.0 month
During the winter, flights are of a strategic nature, and the
data collected are used for long-range planning. During the flights
the edges of the pack and fast ice are mapped, and the amount of
hummocking and the condition of the ice masses are noted. By analyz-
ing and mapping these data, long-range forecasts are made for the
coming navigation season. The Soviets claimed that the forecasts
were 75 percent correct in 1940.
The aircraft follow predetermined flight patterns, which extend
to high latitudes including the central regions of the Polar Basin.
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Although only 2 or 3 flights are made during the winter because of
the brief periods of daylight, their total length exceeds 18,600
miles (30,000 kilometers). No reconnaissance is flown in December
and January since most of the region is in total darkness at this
time.
When the ice begins to break up in the prenavigation season
the number of reconnaissance flights are increased. Since some
sections of the route become clear of ice before others, reconnais-
sance at this time determines routes for the first convoys of the
navigation season.
The number of flights increases further during the navigation
season. Depending on flying conditions, they may be made every 5
to 10 days or whenever a convoy requires assistance. The greatest
number of flights are made in Proliv Vil'kitskogo and north of
Ostrov Ayon, since the ice hazard is greatest in these areas. Most
observations are visual, but radar can be used to locate edges of
the pack ice during periods of poor visibility. Aerial photography
was first used to plot ice condition in 1945.
Ice charts are compiled during the reconnaissance. Standardized
symbols are used, and colors indicate the amount of ice and clear
water, age and shape of the floes, amount of hummocking, and many
other features. The information is radioed to all ships and ports
in the mapped sector. All shipmasters beginning a voyage or enroute
use the information to guide their ships. If a ship or convoy is in
distress or when winds and currents cause rapid changes in ice con-
ditions, the reconnaissance aircraft assist them by dropping large-
scale charts to the vessels. After an aircraft has returned to its
base, a report is written describing the ice chart which was compiled
during the flight. Copies of the charts and reports are sent to the
Ice Service Office of the Arctic Scientific Research Institute to be
consolidated and published in the Ice Annals.
Fall reconnaissance begins at the close of the navigation season.
Two or three flights are made at this time to determine where coastal
waters have become blocked with ice. The distribution of old and
new ice is mapped in an effort to prolong the navigation season.
Planes are occasionally used in this season to guide tardy vessels
through the rapidly closing channels.
Drifting radio beacons also are used in plotting ice drift.
The beacons are established at various places on the pack ice, and
their battery-powered signals enable shore-based stations to determine
by triangulation each beacon's position. Their successive positions
are plotted, and the total picture of ice movement can be studied.
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A new type of beacon now being used also transmits weather data.
Daily broadcasts made by each beacon include air temperature,
atmospheric pressure, and wind speed and direction. If the beacon
receives a special signal from a coastal station or passing aircraft,
it will transmit the weather information in its vicinity as of that
particular moment. 178/
g. Types of Ships
Most vessels sailing the Arctic seas are freighters and ice-
breakers. A small number of tankers and passenger ships also follow
the Northern Sea Route, but river barges, lighters, and tugs venture
onto it only in the vicinity of river estuaries. The route is
occasionally used by river vessels sailing from European shipyards
(East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Finland) to West Siberian
rivers. 179/
A total Of 47 freighters was reported on the route in 1954. 180/
Although shoals limit the size of the vessels, they average 1,500
to 2,000 displacement tons and 22 to 26 feet (7 to 8 meters) draught.
Lend-lease Liberty ships, which still sail the route, are much larger.
Since they average 10,000 tons and have a draught of 28 feet (8.5
meters), they are excluded from many stretches of the route.
Freighters are classified according to their ability to navigate
in ice-infested waters. Icebreaking steamships belong to the first
class and include ships that can sail unaided in compact ice and can
lead other vessels through light ice. A ship of this type has a
reinforced hull, unusually powerful engines, a special rudder, and
changeable propeller blades. Three of the newest freighters on the
Northern Sea Route, the sister ships Ob', Yenisey, and Lena, belong
to this class (Figure 47). They are powered by diesel-electric
engines which, for a given weight of fuel, will carry them three times
as far as coal-fired steam engines.
Vessels of the ice-going class are freighters of a more vulnerable
type. They have reinforced hulls and powerful engines, but they can-
not navigate alone in compact ice. Ordinary freighters such as the
Liberty ships are the most vulnerable since they have no reinforce-
ment or special equipment. They cannot navigate in ice more than 4
inches (100 millimeters) thick.
The Soviet Union has the largest icebreaker fleet in the world
because most of her ports are ice-bound during the winter. The major-
ity of the icebreakers are stationed in the Arctic. About 20 of them
are seagoing vessels, and an equal number are river icebreaking tugs.
In 1955, a total of 8 icebreakers was assigned to the Northern Sea
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Figure 47. The diesel-electric freighter Lena. The
sharply undercut bow is similar to that of an ice-
breaker and enables the ship to navigate in heavy ice.
Route, but only 4 were in actual operation. 181/ According to a
recent trade agreement, Finland will build 2 super-powered icebreakers
for the USSR between 1958 and 1960. These will resemble the 3 ice-
breakers of the Kapitan Belousov class built for the Soviet Union in
1954. 182/
The Soviet Government considers many types of ships as icebreakers,
among them capital and auxiliary icebreakers, expedition ships, port
icebreakers, and icebreaking freighters. The largest ships are the
capital icebreakers, which include the Stalin, Kaganovich, Molotov,
and Yermak (Figures 48 and 49). The capital icebreakers are employed
in leading convoys and clearing lanes through the ice. They carry
surplus fuel and food supplies for marooned vessels and workshops
for minor repairs. The Stalin and Molotov have diesel-electric
engines and develop up to 20,000 horsepower. The other icebreakers
burn coal, have a limited range, and require frequent refueling.
The Russians have recently announced plans for an atom-powered ice-
breaker with a capacity of 44,000 horsepower. Such a ship would be
able to travel 10 to 12 times as far as conventionally powered ice-
breakers without refueling. The space normally used for coal or
fuel-oil storage could hold cargo. 183/
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Figure 48. The icebreaker
Iosif Stalin loading sup-
plies at Ostrov Dikson.
Figure 49. The icebreaker Yermak. The ship was
built in 1898 and is the oldest large icebreaker
in the Soviet fleet.
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Auxiliary icebreakers are used to free individual ships and to
assist stragglers in convoys. They are more maneuverable than capi-
tal icebreakers but cannot work in heavy ice that must be cleared by
impact. Expedition ships, such as hydrographic vessels, can move
unaided in heavy ice but cannot assist other ships. Icebreaking
freighters, such as the Ob' class ships, are also reinforced and
powered to sail unaided in compact ice. Port icebreakers are sta-
tioned at the main harbors along the route to keep the ports clear
of ice and assist vessels when docking or departing.
Capital and auxiliary icebreakers operate from summer stations
scattered along the Northern Sea Route. These stations are located
at Belush'ya Guba in Novaya Zemlya, Dikson, Mys Chelyuskin, Novo-
sibirskiye Ostrova, Ostrov Vrangelya, and Provideniya. 18~ The
route is divided into sectors whose end points are Ostrov Dikson,
Lena River, and Kolyma River, and the icebreakers operate within
these sectors. An icebreaker escorts vessels through its specific
sector. On reaching the terminus of a sector, a convoy takes on a
new icebreaker. The relieved icebreaker than waits to pick up a new
convoy for its return trip. Foreign ships requiring assistance must
pay for this service.
h. Availability of Fuel
The availability of fuel is a critical factor for ships sailing
the Northern Sea Route. Before the formation of GUSMP the vessels
had to carry sufficient fuel for the entire journey and cargo space
was severely restricted. Now bunkering stations are more numerous,
and ships can carry greater pay loads.
Coal is the principal type of fuel used on the route. The main
fueling points are located at Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, Dikson, Tiksi,
Ambarchik, and Provideniya. 185/ No coal is available locally, and
all fuel supplies must be brought in from the south. Murmansk and
Arkhangelsk obtain coal from Vorkuta. Prior to World War II,
Spitzbergen supplied their coal, but during the war the vulnerable
nature of this supply line was recognized and the Vorkuta fields were
developed.
Dikson is the bunkering station for the Kara Sea and receives its
coal from Noril'sk. Before the Noril'sk-Dudinka Railroad was com-
pleted, coal was sent down the Pyasina River to Dikson. Since 1938,
coal has been moved over the railroad to Dudinka and then by barge
down the Yenisey River to the port.
Ships in the Laptev Sea bunker at Tiksi. Local coal on the
Sogo River and at Bulun is unsatisfactory for ship fuel, and supplies
are brought from Sangar, 750 miles (1,200 kilometers) up the Lena.
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Ambarchik is the coaling station for the East Siberian Sea. Its
coal is mined at Zyryanka on the Kolyma River, 350 miles (560 kilo-
meters) from Ambarchik.
Provideniya services ships in the eastern part of the route.
Coal was formerly imported from Vladivostok. With the development
of the deposits at Bukhta Ugol'naya, 150 miles (24+0 kilometers)
south of Anadyr', a more convenient source was established.
Oil is used as a fuel in only about one-third of the ships on
the route. Only the most recently constructed freighters and ice-
breakers and lend-lease Liberty ships use this type of fuel. Bunk-
ering oil is available at Dikson, Tiksi, Ambarchik, and Pevek, as
well as at the terminal ports of Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, and Providen-
iya. Oil is not produced locally in the Arctic, and supplies for
these ports are delivered by river barges and tankers and by ocean
tankers (Figure 50). A number of tankers with reinforced hulls are
Figure 50. The oil tanker Azerbaydzhan (6,000 GRT)
in the Arctic.
being built for the Soviet Union by Finland and will probably be put
into service on the Northern Sea Route. 186
i. Ports Along the Route 183/
When the GUSMP was founded, ports along the Northern Sea Route
were almost nonexistent except for the terminal ports of Murmansk and
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Arkhangelsk. Elsewhere along the coast, there were only small
fishing villages and the harbor at Dikson. In establishing its
ports, GUSMP attempted to select bases that would be suitable for
provisioning ships and could also be used for developing the hinter-
land. The ports that were founded did not always serve both of these
functions. Currently the more important ports include Arkhangel'sk,
Murmansk, Dikson, Tiksi, Ambarchik, and Provideniya.
Arkhangelsk, with its suburbs of Solombala, Ekonomiya, and
Bakaritsa, is the largest port on the Northern Sea Route. Its
principal export is lumber, and its imports include hardware goods
and general supplies. It has 35 wharves that have a combined length
of 49,000 feet (15,000 meters) and provide berthing space for 150
ships. The numerous cranes and conveyors in the harbor can handle
28,000 to 30,000 tons of cargo per day. Storage facilities include
48 warehouses and 1 refrigeration plant. Oil and coal storage capa-
city amounts to 22,000 barrels and 70,000 tons, respectively.
Murmansk is the second largest port and exports ores, fish, and
lumber products. Imports include grain, petroleum products, and coal.
The commercial wharves total 16,000 feet (4,875 meters) in length
and can accommodate 64 ships. The naval wharves provide 1,200 feet
(365 meters) of berthing space and accommodations for miscellaneous
naval craft. Storage is available for 270,000 barrels of oil and
50,000 tons of coal.
East of Arkhangelsk and Murmansk the size and facilities of
the ports decrease markedly. These ports have been developed by
GUSMP in the last two decades, and many are still inadequately
equipped for handling the large amounts of shipping that arrive and
depart during the short navigation season. Further development would
probably be economically unfeasible since the ports are active for
only a short period during the year.
Dikson has developed into the principal fueling base for the
western section of the Northern Sea Route and an important transship-
ment point for Yenisey River traffic. Deep-draught ocean vessels can
anchor at Ostrov Konus, a small island between Ostrov Dikson and
the mainland. A 30-foot (9-meter) dredged channel leads to the
wharves, which provide 1,830 feet (557 meters) of berthing space.
Additional ships can anchor at the inner roadstead between Ostrov
Dikson and the mainland. The port area covers 3 square miles (7.8
square kilometers) of water, which averages 15 to 33 feet (4.5 to 10
meters) in depth and provides fair shelter. Shallow-draught lighters,
fishing boats, and other small craft have docking facilities adjacent
to the settlement of Dikson. Four traveling cranes and four conveyors
assist ships in unloading their cargoes. In 1946, over 1,000,000 tons
cleared the port.
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Tiksi was developed to serve as a transshipment point for Lena
River traffic, a coaling station for the central part of the route,
and a turn-around point for ships arriving from both ends of the
route. A mole extending into the bay provides docking facilities
for shallow-draught river vessels, which must traverse several miles
of open sea to reach the port. Berthing space for ocean vessels is
sufficient to allow 4 ships to dock simultaneously. Additional ships
can anchor 5 miles offshore in Bukhta Tiksi. Lighters and barges are
used to transfer the cargoes to the port (Figure 51).
Figure 51. Lighters in the harbor at Tiksi carrying
cargo from freighters to the dock.
Ambarchik, located east of the main channel of the Kolyma
River, has developed as a transshipment point for river traffic and
a coaling station for ships in the East Siberian Sea. Minerals from
the upper Kolyma River and supplies for these mining areas make up
the greatest part of the cargo handled. As a port, Ambarchik has
serious drawbacks, but no alternative site is available. The wharves
have an alongside depth of only 10 feet (3 meters). Consequently,
all ocean vessels must anchor in the bay and lighter their cargoes
to shore. Most cargo must be unloaded by the ship's own gear, thus
increasing the turn-around time in port. The bay is not sheltered,
and ships are exposed to winds that may vary the depth of the bay by
more than 5 feet (1.5 meters).
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Provideniya is the focal point for shipping at the eastern end
of the Northern Sea Route. It is a refueling station, staging area
for convoys, and distribution point for supplies destined for smaller
ports along the coast. The harbor, located in Bukhta Emma, an eastern
arm of Bukhta Provideniya, has all the necessary requirements for an
ideal port site -- the area is sheltered by surrounding mountains,
the harbor is deep enough for ocean vessels, and a mud bottom provides
excellent free-swinging anchorage. 188 The port has a total of 750
feet (230 meters) of berthing space, and 15 ships can be accommodated
in the harbor area. A large coal dump and oil storage area is
located at the port. Oil tanks are also located along both shores
of Bukhta Emma.
2. Inland Waterways
The northward-flowing rivers of the Soviet Arctic connect the
Northern Sea Route with the Trans-Siberian Railroad and are the most
important inland transportation arteries serving the region. Only
one Arctic river, the Severnaya Dvina, is linked by canals and locks
with other regions in the USSR. The Mariinsk Waterway connects the
Sukhona, a tributary of the Severnaya Dvina, with rivers emptying
into the Baltic Sea and with the Volga, which provides access to
the Black and Caspian Seas. A second factor contributing to the
importance of the rivers is that, in most parts of the Siberian
Arctic, they provide the only transportation routes available. Since
the distribution of railroads and roads is sparse, freight must be
moved on the rivers. The Severnaya Dvina flows through vast forests
and carries timber to the sawmills at Arkhangel'sk. Coal from
Vorkuta and oil from Ukhta are carried down the Pechora River to
Nar'yan-Mar. The upper Ob' and its tributaries tap the resources
and industries of the Kuznetsk Basin (Kuzbas). The Yenisey carries
timber from its upper reaches to the mills at Igarka. The Lena is
the main traffic route in East Siberia and carries a variety of
freight. Minerals and mining supplies are shipped on the Kolyma
River.
River transportation is affected by several physical factors
including winter ice, ice jams, and fluctuations in water level. Ice
forms on lower reaches of the rivers in early October and on the
upper parts by mid-November. Floating drift ice precedes the formation
of a permanent ice cover. The thickness of the ice cover is greater
in the Siberian Arctic than in the European part. In winter the
J Severnaya Dvina at Arkhangelsk freezes to a maximum of 2 feet (0.6
meters) and railroad tracks are laid across the ice. 189 Ice on
the Lena River at Bulun attains a thickness of 8 feet 2.1+ meters)
and many channels of the delta freeze to the bottom. 190/ Widespread
floods occur from mid-May to early June, when swollen waters from the
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upper parts of the rivers reach the icebound lower stretches. Local
floods develop when the outgoing ice jams and temporarily dams the
rivers. Spring floods reach their greatest intensity along the
lower parts of the rivers. The Yenisey has risen 70 feet (21 meters)
at Igarka and the Lena has risen 60 feet (18 meters) at Kyusyur.
At flood stage the discharge at the mouth of the Kolyma reaches
565,000 cubic feet per second cfs), whereas it amounts to only
35,000 cfs in late summer. l 91j
During the short summer season the rivers reach their lowest
level, and numerous sandbanks and shoal areas appear. These obstruc-
tions, together with the rapidly shifting river channels, are a
hazard to navigation. The low-water period continues through
September and is relieved by autumn rains. These showers cause a
small, secondary high-water period and normal navigation is again
possible until the winter freeze-up begins.
The administration and operation of the rivers is directed by
the Ministry of Inland Waterways of the RSFSR. Vessels sailing on
the rivers are formed into shipping lines and are subordinate to
the Ministry. Traffic on certain rivers such as the Aldan, Anabar,
Anadyr', Indigirka, Khatanga, Kolyma, and the Lena north of Yakutsk is
under the control of the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route.
Several organizations -- including the Ministries of Nonferrous Metal,
Fur, Timber, and Agriculture and various individual industrial enter-
prises -- also operate their own vessels. Traffic on minor rivers
is controlled by Chief Directorates for Transport Development of
Small Rivers, which is responsible to the council of ministers of
the various republics, krays, and oblasts. 192/
Freight is the principal commodity carried on the inland water-
ways and consists chiefly of bulky low-priority goods such as timber,
POL supplies, grain, ores, and construction materials. Smaller
quantities of food products, machinery, and manufactured goods are
also shipped on the rivers.
Timber is the largest single freight commodity transported and
large rafts are floated downstream to mills on the Severna a Dvina
(Arkhangel'sk), Pechora (Nar'yan-Mar), and Yenisey (Igarka). Timber
is also shipped on other rivers but the amounts are relatively small.
The Yenisey carries the greatest amount of timber, and it comprises
65-70 percent of the total freight of the river (Figure 52).
Timber rafts reach large proportions, depending on the width,
depth, and speed of the rivers. Rafts on the Yenisey carry 1 to 1.4
million cubic feet (30 to 40 thousand cubic meters) of logs. The
rafts are launched in the upper reaches of the rivers during the
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Figure 52. Timber raft on the Yenisey River en route to Igarka.
spring flood in order to take advantage of the high water level. In
the summer low-water season the rafts are exposed to shoal areas which
often ground or damage them. Summer storms frequently strike the
rafts and cause great damage unless the rafts can tie up in sheltered
spots along the river.
POL supplies destined for the Arctic are shipped over the North-
ern Sea Route and the Trans-Siberian Railroad to the rivers and are
then transshipped to barges for distribution along the rivers. Drums
are still used in great numbers to carry the POL supplies, but tanker
shipments are increasing as bulk storage facilities are constructed
at the airfields and settlements. 193 River tankers have shallow
drafts to enable them to navigate shoal areas and reach the upper
stretches of the rivers.
Much river freight is carried in barges. They are made of wood
or metal and carry from 300 to 800 tons, but some of the larger barges
have a capacity of 4,000 tons. The barges are grouped into trains of
10 to 20 vessels, which are pushed by a tug. The pusher method has
been used instead of towing since 1951 because it furnishes greater
control and more barges can be handled. The tugs used are driven from
the stern or side by paddle wheels and have not yet been replaced by
more modern screw-driven tugs.
The remaining freight items include coal, grain, machinery, ores,
and foodstuffs. Coal from mines on the Pechora, Yenisey, Lena, and
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Kolyma Rivers is distributed to seaports and settlements throughout
the Arctic. Ores and metal shipments are concentrated on the Yenisey
and Kolyma Rivers. In 1954, seed grain and agricultural machinery
were shipped upstream on the Ob' River to the New Lands areas. Food-
stuffs from the southern agricultural areas are carried downstream in
large quantities. Hardy vegetables such as potatoes, cabbages, cucum-
bers, and onions are shipped in lighters, while more perishable vege-
tables are sent in refrigerated ships. These ships carry frozen fresh
fish upstream on their return voyages.
Passengers make up a small part of the traffic on the rivers.
Passage can be obtained on barges and packet vessels (Figure 53)?
Many of the poorer people travel on the barges, which furnish little
or no shelter and comforts. Accommodations on passenger vessels are
at times heavily overloaded in spite of the increasing number of ships
on the rivers. The Ordzhonikidze, sailing on the Yenisey in 1952, car-
ried 700 passengers instead of the 360 it was designed to accommodate
(Figure 54). The three double-deck and two triple-deck vessels that
were added to the Yenisey fleet in 1954 have probably helped to alle-
viate the crowded conditions. These ships are reported to contain
restaurants, reading and music rooms, and cabins with showers, tele-
phones, and radios. 194/
Passenger traffic schedules vary from daily to monthly service.
The Severnaya Line, operating on the Severnaya Dvina River, has daily
trips between Arkhangelsk and Kotlas, a 2-day trip. Ships on the
Pechora River leave Nar'yan-Mar and Pechora on odd-numbered days for
trips which take 4 days downstream and 5 days upstream. Latest avail-
able information on the Ob' River (1950) indicates traffic moves from
Salekhard to Tobol'sk, Tyumen', and Omsk via the Ob' and Irtysh Rivers
but that no direct passage is available from Salekhard to Novosibirsk.
195,p.593-613/ Only three round-trips are made between Salekhard and
Omsk during the navigation season.
Passenger traffic is heaviest on the Yenisey. The Yenisey Steam-
ship Line controls operations and dispatches vessels from June through
September. The journey from Dudinka to Krasnoyarsk by passenger ship
takes 7 days and 10 hours and the return trip 4 days and 18 hours.
Four or five passenger ships a month, as well as a number of other
vessels carrying both passengers and freight, operate between these
ports. 196/ An express line operated' between Dudinka and Krasnoyarsk
in 1950, and both upstream and downstream trips were made in 6-1/2
days. 197/
Little information is available on passenger traffic on the Lena
and Kolyma Rivers.
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Figure 53. The packet vessel Iosif Stalin of the
Krasnoyarsk-Dudinka line.
Figure 54+. The Ordzhonikidze taking on passengers
at Dudinka.
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 SOVIET ARCTIC
Boundarin on not naessmily those
raognis.dby the U.S. Government.
~u 4of Hothn~ \
SECRET
10 50 1h f30
/ I I ,/// / i i
/
I
9
ornyanny
GeYl'
Tareya
UTaynyr
nzrrr~
Tn Yrn Yr
Kl3atang
tCSS5V
25348 7?56
AVERAGE EXTENT OF UNNAVIGABLE SEA ICE
Summer (August and September-months of maximum withdrawal)
y y .. Winter (February and March-months of maximum extent)
? Arctic ports of major importance
o Other anchorages and landings
40 150 16Q
NORTHERN SEA ROUTE
(Including Ports and Polar Stations
0 200 400 600
Statute Miles
0 200 400 600 800
I I
Kilometers
SECRET
800
J
- - - - - NORTHER SEA ROUTE
STUDY AR
A BOUNDARY
POLAR STATIONS'
Hydrological and meteorological observations
Radiosonde observations
Pilot balloon observations
Magnetic observations
Observatory
Manned only during navigation season
25X1
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C. Land Transportation
a. The Role of Railroads in the Soviet Arctic
Railroad transportation in the Soviet Arctic, though comparatively
recent, is already contributing significantly to the economic and mili-
tary build-up of the area. The penetration of key railroad lines into
the Arctic regions of European and West Siberian USSR has facilitated
the establishment of strategic airfields and the exploitation of natu-
ral resources.
From a strategic point of view, the development of railroads
within and south of the Arctic Circle opens up vast possibilities
for Soviet military build-up in the area. Many of the important new
airfields constructed in the western Arctic are located at sites
made accessible by new railroads. As the railroad system penetrates
deeper into the permafrost belt, more installation sites will become
available. The potential effectiveness of new air installations and
the operational capabilities of military and commercial aircraft de-
pend in large measure on the year-round supply of fuel, equipment,
and personnel brought in by railroads. 198/
The development of natural resources such as the copper-nickel
ores from Nikel' and Noril'sk and the coal from Vorkuta has been
given great impetus by the availability of railroad transport.
Railroad facilities in the European Arctic are focused primarily
on the industrial and maritime centers of Murmansk and Arkhangelsk,
and on the recently developed mining center of Vorkuta. In the
West Siberian Arctic, railroad construction is more recent and is
closely linked with the rise of Salekhard, Igarka, and Dudinka as
important river ports and of Noril'sk as a major industrial complex.
(See Map 25352.)
b. Railroad Development in the European Arctic
(1) The Murmansk Railroad Complex
Murmansk, located near the western extremity of the region, is
currently the major railroad center in the Soviet Arctic. It is the
terminus of a trunkline from Leningrad that serves as the principal
supply route for the Soviet Northern Fleet and the Northern Sea Route.
In addition, this line is one of the main channels for routing the
fl9w of Soviet exports and imports. It is a single-track, broad-
gauge line, and the stretch between Murmansk and Kandalaksha is
electrified. At the main railroad station in Murmansk, connection is
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made with a number of spur lines leading to a classification yard
in the northern part of the city. Spurs radiating from this yard
serve the Murmansk waterfront. Industrial and commercial spurs lead
to all the principal wharves, including the Rybprom (Glavryb) and
Rosta (Sevmorput) shipyards; the fishing, commercial, and military
ports; and the coal and oil storage areas. Operational and rolling-
stock repair facilities are located within the classification-yard
area. Among these are an enginehouse for electric and steam loco-
motives and a railroad car repair shop. 1 9 A branch line continues
northward from the classification yard to Rosta and Severomorsk.
At Rosta, which is a major repair station for the Northern Fleet, a
rail line serves a large oil storage area and the naval base. The
terminus of the line is Severomorsk, which is some 15 miles (24
kilometers) north of Murmansk proper and the site of a major military
airfield.
Two important branch lines join the Leningrad-Murmansk trunkline
at Kola, 7 miles (11 kilometers) south of Murmansk proper. One leads
southwestward along the Tuloma River to Murmashi and serves as the
main supply route to an important military airfield. The second line
is of more recent construction and provides direct access to Pechenga,
its port at Linakhamari, and the nearby nickel deposits (Figure 55).
Figure 55. A distant view of the Murmansk-Pechenga railroad
at a point east of the Pechenga River.
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Construction of the 130-mile (210-kilometer) Murmansk-Pechenga
line began in 1950 and was completed sometime in 1955. The alignment
of this new railroad is not known in detail. After crossing the
Tuloma River at Kola, it turns northward and follows the left bank
of Kol'skiy Zaliv to Polyarnyy. From there the route continues in a
north-northwest direction, eventually touching the heads of Guba Ura
and Guba Zapadnaya Litsa. The line then leads to the Titovka River
and continues to Luostari on the Pechenga River, the site of the
Pechenga military airfield. 200/ From Luostari the railroad runs
northward to Pechenga and possibly terminates some 8 miles (13 kilo-
meters) north of the town proper at its port at Linakhamari, which
is open to maritime shipping all year round. 201/
The line is steam operated and single-tracked, but several short
sidings provide passing stops for two-way traffic. 202/ Passenger
trains reportedly consist of a steam locomotive and 10 or 12 two-
axle passenger cars. The embankment is of sand and gravel construction
and is about 13 feet (4 meters) wide and 7 feet (2 meters) high. Along
some stretches where the route crosses marshy terrain, the embankment
is of poor construction, and trains must travel at relatively slow
speeds. Wooden poles, earmarked for a telephone line, parallel the
western side of the embankment. The Pechenga railroad station is
located on the east bank of the Pechenga River, approximately 1 mile
(1.6 kilometers) south of Pechenga proper. A bridge across the river
was completed by 1955, and rails had been laid. A siding from the
Pechenga station to Nikel', some 25 miles (40 kilometers) to the
southwest, was also under construction at that time. 203
With the completion of the new line, ore from the mines at
Nikel' can now be transported by rail to the refinery at Monchegorsk,
south of Murmansk. 204/ The year-round transportation provided will
also facilitate the exploitation of nickel, iron ore, and timber. 205/
Extension of the railroad system to Pechenga, the site of a medium
or heavy-bomber base, has increased the importance of the Kola
Peninsula as a staging area. The logistic support provided by the
new railroad would make possible the dispersion of air units along
the northern rim of the Kola Peninsula, whereas they are now concen-
trated in the Murmansk area. 206/
(2) ,The Arkhangelsk-Molotovsk Railroad Complex
The Arctic seaport of Arkhangel'sk, located at the mouth of the
Severnaya Dvina, is the terminus of an important trunkline from Mos-
cow. Arkhangel'sk is the chief Soviet base for lumber exports and
a major staging area for convoys of the Northern Sea Route. The
double-track railroad line enters the metropolitan area from the
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south, passes through the railroad junction and yards at Isakogorka,
and terminates at the Arkhangel'sk railroad station and yards, which
are located on the left bank of the Severnaya Dvina River across from
the main port and city area.
The terminal station and the city proper are connected by rail-
road ferry service. A ferry terminal near the railroad station
serves the river ferries that carry freight cars to the main port.
A single-track railroad line is served by a second railroad ferry
farther upstream. This ferry connects the Isakogorka railroad
junction and yard (south of Arkhangel'sk) with various port and
lumberyard installations scattered throughout Arkhangel'sk proper,
as well as with the harbor area of Solombala and the port of Ekonomiya.
Ekonomiya is located at the extreme northern tip of Ostrov
Povrakulskiy, at the confluence of the Maymaksa and Kuznechikha
Rivers. An important multispan, deck-type bridge carries the Isako-
gorka-Ekonomiya line over the Kuznechikha River. Just beyond this
crossing the railroad divides into two main branches. One serves
the waterfront area of the Maymaksa River, where there are a number
-of sawmills, lumberyards, boat repair yards, a chemical plant, and a
woodworking plant. The second branch runs farther inland and con-
nects directly with the harbor installations at Ekonomiya. A number
of smaller multispan bridges, most of wooden construction, carry the
two branches over small tributaries of the Maymaksa River. 207/
The major railroad facilities within the Arkhangelsk complex
are located at the main Arkhangelsk railroad station and yards and
at the Isakogorka railroad junction and yards. The former includes
a passenger station and a storage area connected by a railroad spur
to the freight yard. The yard area has 13 tracks and several freight
and fuel storage buildings and repair shops. Among the railroad
facilities at Isakogorka are a freight and passenger station, main
relay and servicing yards, a 12-track holding yard, a 15-engine
roundhouse with turntable, a 3-engine roundhouse, 5 workshops, a
railroad car servicing shop, and some 50-odd maintenance buildings.
208/
A single-track railroad line leads from the Isakogorka junction
to the ship-building center and naval base of Molotovsk. The line
enters the Molotovsk complex from the south-southeast and forms a
large loop around the east side of the city proper. Spurs leading
northward from the loop form a network of lines that serve the
harbor and industrial sections of the city. The main line terminates
at the Molotovsk railroad station, yards, and shops. From here, a
local line runs some 9 miles (14 kilometers) eastward from Molotovsk,
terminating at the east bank of the Solza River. Terminal railroad
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facilities include a passenger station, a railroad car repair shop,
five smaller workshops, a boilerhouse, an enginehouse, an outdoor
gantry crane, a coaling and storage area, and a number of miscellaneous
sheds. The railroad shops reportedly perform only minor repair and
servicing functions but probably produce some machinery for the
Molotovsk shipyard. A four-span, deck-type bridge carries the
Molotovsk-Isakogorka line over the Laya River, a lesser tributary
within the Severnaya Dvina estuary. 229 ,,
(3) The Vorkuta Railroad Complex
Since World War II the coal-mining settlement of Vorkuta has
developed into an important railroad center of the European Arctic.
It is the terminus of the now famous Pechora (Kotlas-Vorkuta) trunk-
line. Originating at Kotlas, the Pechora trunkline was hurriedly
constructed during World War II to haul coal from the Pechora River
basin for the Soviet war industries. In recent years the Kotlas-
Vorkuta line has been the sole rail link and supply route for new
railroad construction penetrating toward the Kara Sea and deeper into
the west Siberian Arctic. 210/ This construction effort consists
mainly of a northward advance from Vorkuta to Khal'mer'yu, Kara, and
possibly Amderma; and of an eastward advance from Seyda (located a
short distance southwest of Vorkuta) to Labytnangi and Salekhard on
the Ob' River and east to Igarka on the Yenisey.
The Kotlas-Vorkuta trunkline, covering a distance of 970 miles
(1,560 kilometers), crosses difficult terrain consisting mostly of
extensive areas of coniferous forest, tundra, and permafrost. Although
the line is reported to be carrying heavy traffic, operations are
frequently handicapped by difficult climatic conditions. During the
winter, heavy snowstorms and fogs often seriously reduce visibility
and the speed of travel. Even in summer, cold winds of high velocity
often create traffic problems. 211/ To alleviate traffic congestion
the current, or Sixth, Five-Year Plan calls for the double-tracking
of the entire Kotlas-Vorkuta trunkline. 212 Passenger traffic on
the line consists of 2 passenger trains daily in each direction. 213/
Trains are generally made up of a steam-operated locomotive and 18
or 20 coaches of both the 2- and 4-axle types. Freight traffic is
heavier, reportedly 12 or more trains a day in each direction.
Freight trains are up to 50 cars in length and consist of an assort-
ment of gondola, hopper, box, platform, refrigerator, and tank
cars. 214/ Northbound freight includes mainly provisions, mining
machinery, rails, and construction materials. Between 19+9 and 1953,
shipments of rails were frequently observed. Coal, oil, and timber
are the principal items carried by southbound trains. 215/
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Railroad installations of the Pechora trunkline within the Arctic
sector are located at Inta, Kochmes, Abez (Usa), Sivaya Maska, Seyda,
and Vorkuta. Facilities at Inta consist of a railroad station, a
railroad maintenance shop, and a small marshalling yard. The station
is located on the main line and has two sidings. Short spurs lead
from the main line to a number of local coal mines in the Inta area.
The maintenance shop reportedly produces railroad equipment and
parts and also repairs coal-mining machinery. 216/ Railroad facili-
ties at Kochmes are less extensive, including a small railroad sta-
tion, a steam-locomotive enginehouse, and a water-supply station. 21
The station area has a number of short sidings for freight-shipping
purposes. Abez is a main stop on the Kotlas-Vorkuta line. The
town is located on the Usa River and consists of two parts, "Old"
Abez and "New" Abez which are connected by a new steel-girder railroad
bridge some 2,600 feet (790 meters) long that rests on 5 concrete
piers. Installations at the Abez station, also known as the Usa
station, include 7 or 8 siding and shunting tracks, a watering and
coaling station for locomotives, and a small repair shop used for
locomotives, cars, and trucks. 218/ Railroad spurs reportedly lead
to an airfield, a wagon factory, grain elevators, and storage depots.
219/ Sivaya Maska, about 29 miles (46 kilometers) northeast of Abez,
is a minor stop on the line but has a turn-around enginehouse and a
small locomotive repair shop. 220 221
Seyda is a more important railroad junction located 60 miles
(96 kilometers) southwest of Vorkuta. It serves as the turn-off
point for railroad traffic routed over a newly constructed branch
line to Labytnangi on the Ob' River. Construction of the Seyda-
Labytnangi line was completed during the period 1947-48. It is a
single-track, broad-gauge line and is steam operated. Following an
easterly direction from Seyda, the line proceeds through tundra
terrain, crosses the Polyarnyy Ural, and then continues over the
boggy ground of the Ob' River flood basin. Most of the roadbed is
of sand and gravel, but stone and crushed-rock supports are used
where soft, wet ground might otherwise cause roadbed sinking. Fences
along both sides of the roadbed protect it against severe snow
drifting. Railroad stops on the Seyda-Labytnangi branch line are
located at the settlements of Ust'-Vorkuta, Nikita, Yeletskiy,
Polyarnyy Ural, Sob', and Krasnyy Kamen'. Krasriyy Kamen', Yeletskiy,
and Nikita reportedly have minor railroad repair facilities. Krasnyy
Kamen' and Nikita reportedly also have short sidings for local traf-
fic transactions. Two to four freight trains operate daily in each
direction between Seyda and Labytnangi. The chief commodities trans-
ported are food, construction materials, machinery, and motor vehicles.
Passenger traffic is relatively light, with passenger trains operating
approximately every 2 or 3 days. 222,223,224/
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Railroad facilities at Seyda proper are fairly extensive. The
railroad station is served by the main Kotlas-Vorkuta trunkline and
by a long siding. The station has two storage yards, one with 5 or
6 shunting tracks about 1,600 feet (490 meters) long. Several wooden
locomotive sheds, a railroad repair shop, and a coaling and watering
area are also located near the station. The locomotive repair shop
has a hand-operated turntable. 225/
As the result of extensive mining operations and new railroad
construction in the area, Vorkuta is becoming an increasingly im-
portant center of railroad activity. It serves as the terminus of
the Pechora trunkline and of the new railroad under construction to
Kara and possibly Amderma on the Kara Sea. Vorkuta is also the
focal point of a network of narrow-gauge industrial lines leading
to various mines in the area. At present, railroad facilities in-
clude 2 transloading stations for the transfer of coal shipments from
narrow- to broad-gauge carriers, a small railroad yard, a repair
shop capable of handling 10-15 locomotives, and a steam-locomotive
enginehouse. 226,227,228/
Since 1946, construction has been underway on a new Arctic rail-
road connecting Vorkuta with the port of Amderma on the Kara Sea.
Plans for this railroad apparently were made in the early 1930's.
According, to an article published in 1933 in the Byulleten'
Arkticheskogo Instituta (Bulletin of the Arctic Institute), a rail-
road line between Vorkuta and the Arctic Ocean had been projected
at that time. The terminus proposed for the new line was to be
located near the settlement of Khabarovo on the Barents Sea. 22
From reports of German PW's and Soviet defectors, the line has
apparently been completed to Kara and possibly beyond it to a point
some 31 miles (50 kilometers) south of Amderma. 230 The route
follows a general north-northeasterly course from Vorkuta to
Khal'mer'yu, continues to Kara, and from there runs northwestward
along the coast to Amderma.
The first section of the railroad, from Vorkuta to Khal'mer'yu,
was constructed to transport the bituminous coal from the mines in
the Khal'mer'yu area. The line has a single track and broad gauge.
Its embankment is constructed of a mixture of sand, earth, and crushed
rock. Wooden ties are laid on coarse broken stones, and rails are
fastened to the ties by means of spikes and screws. 231/ Much of
the terrain traversed by the railroad is marshy during the summer.
As a result, numerous drainage conduits and cuts have been constructed
to prevent deterioration of the roadbed. The section from Khal'mer'yu
to Kara also appears to have been completed. The Swedish Communist
newspaper Ny Dag announced the completion of the line as early as
4 November 1949. 232/ t the
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Vorkuta railroad station the arrival of several trains destined for
Kara. 233/ The status of the last section of the route, extending
from Kara to Amderma, is still somewhat of a mystery. A number of
reports suggest that construction has already reached the vicinity
of Amderma, but most of them are based on hearsay. Several stops
and sidings along the route provide for passing. They are generally
spaced 6 to 12 miles (10 to 19 kilometers) apart. A telephone line
runs along the entire course of the railroad. It is quite likely
that the railroad will be used to transport coal mined in the area
south of Amderma. 234/
c. Railroad Development in the West Siberian Arctic
(1) The Salekhard Railroad Complex
The Salekhard railroad complex consists essentially of terminal
facilities at Labytnangi (across the Ob' River from Salekhard), which
serve the Seyda-Labytnangi line, and at Salekhard proper, which will
serve the new trunkline to the Yenisey River port of Igarka.
Labytnangi, located on a channel of the Ob' River, is an assembly
point for railroad traffic earmarked for Salekhard and destinations
farther east. Railroad facilities include a fairly large passenger
station, which is connected with a freight and shunting yard that
parallels the local harbor installations. Labytnangi also has loco-
motive sheds,-small repair shops, a switching station, coaling and
watering facilities, and a number of storage sheds with loading
ramps. 235 236,237/ Railroad traffic is carried across the Ob' River
to Salekhard by ferry during the summer and by tracks laid over the
ice during the winter. The railroad ferrys are reportedly diesel-
powered iron pontoons on which two broad-gauge track sections are
mounted lengthwise. The ferry service, which handles both passenger
and freight traffic, is discontinued from the end of October to the
middle of March. During this period the river freezes to a depth
of approximately 8 feet (2.4 meters), which permits the laying of
railroad tracks across the ice. The first successful crossing over
the ice was made in February 1948. 238/ Tracks are laid on a foundation
of wooden logs, with the bottom logs solidly frozen into the ice. In
crossing the ice, trains of not more than 6 to 8 cars are pulled by
steam locomotives. 239/ An average of 1 to 3 trains cross the river
daily in each direction. Information as of 1948 indicates that the
Soviets had originally planned to build a ferroconcrete bridge over
the Ob' River between Salekhard and Labytnangi. In 1950, some
bridge-construction material was reportedly stored along the west bank
of the Ob' near Labytnangi. 240/ To date, however, there is still
no evidence that construction is under way.
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A few miles east of Labytnangi, according to PW sources, a
branch line leads northeastward to the small shipping port and naval
base of Novyy Port on the west shore of the Obskaya Guba. Reports
from 1946 to 1949 stated that this line was then under construction,
but its present status is not known. 241
Railroad facilities at Salekhard serve both the local port area
and the new trunkline to Igarka. Facilities include a main railroad
station, a freight station and marshalling yard (consisting of 10-12
shunting tracks), 242/ a locomotive and railroad-car repair shop,
a roundhouse, switching towers, and locomotive water-supply tanks.
Spur lines lead to a railroad-ferry terminal and to port installations
scattered along the Ob' waterfront. 243 In addition, there are
indications that Salekhard may soon develop into an important rail-
road. junction point.
official Soviet press releases, reveal plans to construct new
railroad connecting Salekhard with the railroad network of the Ural
industrial area. This line will proceed northward from Polunochnoye
(on the east side of the Urals) to Burmantovo and Nyaksimvol', swing
northeast to Berezovo on the Severnaya Sos'va River, then follow the
course of the Severnaya Sos'va northward to its junction with the
Malaya Ob', and continue along this river to its confluence with the
Bol'shaya Ob'. The railroad will cross the Ob' River before reaching
Salekhard. Railroad ties were laid for a single-track line during
the period from 1945 to 1952. 244 An article published by Soviet
academician V. Nemchinov in Izvestiya of 3 February 1956 might be
considered as partial Soviet endorsement of this new railroad develop-
ment. Nemchinov proposes that a railroad be built from Polunochnoye
to Salekhard via Nyaksimvol' during the period 1956-60. According
to the article, the railroad would permit metallurgical plants in
the northern and central Urals to receive coal from the Pechora
Basin. 245/
The Salekhard-Igarka line, 620 miles (998 kilometers) of broad-
gauge, single track between the Ob' and Yenisey Rivers, is the most
significant and most recent railroad undertaking in the West Siberian
Arctic. It was reportedly completed between 1951 and 1953, mainly
through the use of PW and slave labor. If completed, it is strategi-
cally important as a year-round transportation and supply route to
the lumber center at Igarka and to various airfields serving the
Soviet Air Force, Polar Aviation, and territorial directorates of
the Civil Air Fleet. Severe climatic conditions, and the difficulty
of constructing a good roadbed on soft ground along much of the route
would restrict both the size of trains and the volume of traffic
that could be handled. I Ieastbound
traffic apparently will be largely coal, petroleum, oo stuffs, and
penal laborers. 246/ Return cargo will probably be mainly lumber
from the Igarka region.
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Information on the alignment of the Salekhard line, based on
reports from PW's who were stationed in the area between 19+8 and
1953, indicates that the railroad follows roughly an east-southeasterly
course from Salekhard to the small settlements of Kamenyy and Aksarka
on the right bank of the Ob' River. The terrain here is largely
tundra and marsh, except in the area directly east of Salekhard,
which is thinly forested. At Aksarka the route turns southeastward
to Yangiyugan on the right bank of the Poluy River. This stretch
of the route is approximately 37 miles (60 kilometers) long and
crosses flat tundra interspersed with small stands of scraggy trees.
Beyond Yangiyugan the railroad follows a southeasterly course for
approximately 100 miles (160 kilometers) to the settlements of Orlin
and Nadym, which is located on the Nadym River. Here the railroad
has a circuitous alignment in order to bypass swamps, small hills,
and a number of rivulets. Several short side tracks reportedly lead
outward from the railroad station at Orlin. 2447/ Eastward from Nadym
the railroad enters a region of dense swamps and many rivers, rivu-
lets, and lakes before reaching the settlement of Urengoy near the
Pur River. The Pur River is reportedly crossed by a multispan steel
bridge.
Information on the railroad alignment between Urengoy and Igarka
is still indefinite. According to an earlier interpretation of
sources the route led directly to Igarka, following a northeasterly
direction from Urengoy through the settlement of Sidorovsk on the
Taz River. More recent reports of railroad construction south
and southwest of Igarka -- specifically between the settlements
of Krasnosel'kup, Yanov Stan, and Yermakovo -- have altered the
interpretation somewhat. It now appears that the railroad has a
more circuitous approach to Igarka. It probably leads eastward from
Urengoy to the Taz River opposite Krasnosel'kup, then parallels the
left bank of the Taz River to a point some 25 miles (40 kilometers)
north of Krasnosel'kup, where it crosses the river and leads eastward
to Yanov Stan on the Turukhan River. Construction of this section
of the railroad was reported as underway in 1949. From Yanov Stan
the line follows a generally northeast course to the settlement of
Yermakovo, located on the Yenisey River some 62 miles (100 kilometers)
south of Igarka. This section of the line was reported as under
construction in 1951. 248
Railroad construction between Yermakovo, the administrative
center for the penal-labor district of the lower Yenisey region,
and Igarka is believed to be completed, or at least in its final
stages of completion. Railroad installations at Yermakovo include
a railroad station, some minor storage and repair facilities, and
at least 1 or 2 shunting tracks. As of 1951, a short stretch of
the line north of Yermakovo along the left bank of the Yenisey was
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line, which roughly follows the same route as that of the narrow-gauge,
War II and is believed to be still in operation. The broad-gauge
(Figure 56). The narrow-gauge line was laid some time before World
to a broad- and a narrow-gauge line connecting the two settlements
Railroad operations between Noril'sk and Dudinka are confined
(3) The Noril'sk-Dudinka Railroad Complex
the project now appears to have been dropped.
Yakutsk. Although some construction was reported in the early 1950's,
A third projected line was to lead from Igarka eastward to
Achinsk to Abalakovo on the Yenisey River. 252
planned construction of a line from the Trans-Siberian station of
Only recently, the Soviet Sixth Five-Year Plan announced the
to be distributed to penal camps along the construction route.
move daily over the completed section of the line, carrying provisions
of 12 miles (19 kilometers). In 1951, freight trains were said to
Yermakovo to Staryy Turukhansk is reported completed for a distance
River. Construction of a section of the line leading south from
Igarka line at Yermakovo and follow the left bank of the Yenisey
Siberian Railroad. The route will probably branch off the Salekhard-
A second projected line is to connect Igarka with the Trans-
by truck along the frozen waterway. 251/
the winter, small quantities of coal and nickel are shipped southward
some extent by the short navigation season on the Yenisey. During
resources in the Noril'sk area. Current exploitation is limited to
progress. 250 Railroad transportation to Dudinka would certainly
Dudinka has been planned, and that construction may already be in
penal laborers and camp guards that a connection between Igarka and
the Salekhard-Igarka region speak of frequent claims made by Soviet
between Dudinka and Norilsk. Almost all German PW's interned in
it will connect with broad- and narrow-gauge lines currently operating
tion in the West Siberian Arctic. A projected broad-gauge line will
lead northward from Igarka along the Yenisey River to Dudinka. Here
Igarka seems to be the focal point for planned railroad construc-
to railroad construction. 249
(2) The Igarka Railroad Complex
completed. The construction of a railroad bridge across the river
was planned for the vicinity of Ostrov Berezovyy. Penal laborers
camped along the right bank of the Yenisey from Yermakovo to Igarka
were at that time engaged in clearing and leveling ground preliminary
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was completed in 1952. By July 1954, a broad-gauge network had been
developed in the industrial area of Norilsk. The network consists
mainly of short spur and branch lines that serve the various industrial
and mining installations in the area. Apparently the narrow-gauge
lines in Norilsk and Dudinka were not completely removed and still
are being used to some extent. 253/
Noril'sk has a station from which both broad- and narrow-gauge
lines lead into the city proper and to various nearby mining instal-
lations (Figure 57). A single-track, broad-gauge line leads to
Gor-stroy, a multistory housing development under construction 6
miles (10 kilometers) north of the city limits. 254/ The main line
to Dudinka is poorly built, with ties set directly on leveled ground.
As a result, many accidents occur during the thawing of the ground
in spring, overloading of track, and breaking of rails during severe
winter frosts. Traffic is moderately heavy and consists of a variety
of materials. Items shipped from Dudinka to Norilsk include lumber,
steel plates and rods, and various types of machinery, as well as
foodstuffs such as wheat, millet, macaroni, canned and salted fish,
and small amounts of fresh meat. Material shipped from Noril'sk to
Dudinka is chiefly coal, ores, and metals.
As of 1954, coal-burning locomotives were used, chiefly freight
and switching engines. Of the latter, 8 are reported to be in
operation at Dudinka and 8 more were stationed at the Norilsk yard.
Rolling stock consists mainly of old 12-ton freight cars and some
tank and ore cars. some 40- and 60-ton freight
cars have recently arrive rrom Uzecho-sTo-vakia. There are indications
that the entire route is to be electrified by 1957. 255 In 1953,
nine electric locomotives made in Novosibirsk were sent to Norilsk.
2. Road Systems
a. The Character of the Overland Traffic
Year-round road transport in the Arctic regions of the USSR is
virtually restricted to a number of scattered motor roads in the
European Arctic, and to a few isolated roads in the Siberian Arctic.
Roadbeds and road surfaces, however, require a large amount of
maintenance every year after the spring thawing begins. The year-
round roads are supplemented by seasonal roads, which are generally
in poor condition and permit only a limited amount of truck traffic.
In large areas of the Arctic, overland travel is still primitive
in character. During the summer, such travel is limited to pack
transports drawn by dogs, horses, or reindeer. In winter, movement
by dog- or horse-drawn sleds along established winter trails or
following reindeer migration routes is common. 256/
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Figure 56. A freight train on the Noril'sk-Dudinka
Railroad passing the 56-kilometer marking.
Figure 57. Facade of
the railroad station
at Noril'sk.
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A characteristic means of overland travel in the Soviet Arctic
is by winter automobile and tractor roads. In timber areas, such as
those around Arkhangel'sk and Igarka, winter roads consist of artifi-
cially created ice tracks. These tracks, also known as ice-roads,
are surveyed and prepared prior to the advent of autumn frosts. =11!
In areas north of the timber zone, the winter roads are established
cross-country routes laid over compacted snow. Traffic over winter
roads is usually by tractor-hauled sled trains. Along a marked
route, 100 miles (160 kilometers) or more can be covered in a 21+-hour
period. Because sleds weighing up to 100 tons or more when loaded
are used, much freight can be carried by a single train.
Another method of winter travel in the Arctic is over the frozen
surfaces of major rivers. These rivers, particularly in the Siberian
Arctic, provide excellent avenues for motor traffic. On the Yenisey,
trucks travel from Igarka as far south as Krasnoyarsk. On the Lena
and Kolyma Rivers, trucks travel as far south as Yakutsk and Seymchan,
respectively.
b. Roads in the European Arctic
Most of the motorable roads in the European Arctic are located
in the vicinities of Murmansk, Pechenga, Arkhangelsk, and Vorkuta
and in the Mezen' River basin. With the exception of the Arctic High-
way at Pechenga, the newly constructed Murmansk-Pechenga Highway, and
short stretches of improved road from Kola and Murmansk, existing
roads are largely seasonal and in poor condition. Most of them are
little more than unimproved dirt tracks and are capable of handling
limited truck traffic only during the summer season.
The Arctic Highway, located in the extreme western part of the
Arctic, connects Pechenga with Virtanieni on the Finnish-Soviet
border. The highway, which was built by the Finns before the Soviet
occupation of the Pechenga (Finnish: Petsamo) area, runs from the
Soviet border to Rovaniemi in north-central Finland. The Arctic
Highway has a uniform width of about 13 feet (4 meters) and is
metaled but not macadamized. Because of its limited width, heavy
vehicles frequently have difficulty in passing each other. Along
most of its course the road is paralleled by drainage ditches and
telephone lines. An electric power line from Nikel' to Nautsi and
Yaniskoski follows the highway most of the way. The road is kept in
a good state of repair. Since the area traversed is a frontier zone,
MVD Border Guards Po anichniki) maintain a number of check and con-
trol points along the route. j Motor traffic on the Arctic High-
way section adjacent to the Finnish border consists mainly of military
transports. 25 Important branch roads lead to Nikel', Yaniskoski,
and Rayakoski. The latter two branch roads are in a state of poor
repair that permits truck traffic only.
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The recently completed Murmansk-Pechenga Highway covers a
distance of approximately 87 miles (140 kilometers). Judging by
known patterns of Soviet road construction, this highway is probably
20 feet (6 meters) wide with an improved surface (probably gravel
packed) that should permit active bus and truck service between
Murmansk and Pechenga. The, highway probably crosses the Kol'skiy
Zaliv somewhere between Murmansk and Kola to the south. It then
veers northward and follows the western bank of the Kol'skiy Zaliv
to Min'kino. From Min'kino it winds northwestward, passing through
the fishing settlement of Ura-Guba, and then roughly parallels the
coast to Pechenga. The alignment of the highway is approximately
the same as that of the new Murmansk Pechenga railroad and gener-
ally follows the contour of the terrain, bypassing hilly or moun-
tainous areas. It appears that no great effort has been made to
straighten the course of the highway. Several secondary roads
appear to branch off the highway at intervals. At the Titovka River
crossing, a road of greater importance than the secondary roads is
shown as winding northward to the northern tip of the Rybachiy
Peninsula. 260
Improved motor roads also lead northward and southward from
Murmansk. One road runs along the east bank of the Kol'skiy Zaliv
and connects Murmansk with Severomorsk. It has a gravel surface
with a stone roadbed and is capable of withstanding the heaviest
traffic. An extension northward from Severomorsk has been planned
and will lead to Teriberka via Tyuva and Maloye Olen'ye. A. second
road follows the Murmansk railroad southward to Pulozero, and then
turns southeastward to Lovozero in the central part of the Kola
Peninsula. The section of the road extending from Murmansk to Kola
and Kil'dinstroy is paved and in very good condition. It has an
average width of 23 feet (7 meters) and is heavily traveled. The
remainder of the road is reportedly in poor condition but is passable
for automobiles. At Kola a branch road leads across the Kola River
to Murmashi. This road is in good condition, and telephone and
telegraph lines run alongside it. As of 1943, the road bridge over
the Kola River had not been completed. Automobiles cross the river
by way of the railroad bridge of the Kola-Murmashi line. An improved
branch road also connects Kil'dinstroy with Murmashi. This road
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passed through a predominantly forested area and generally parallels
the'electric power lines from the Tuloma GES (Hydroelectric Sta-
tion). 262
A number of seasonal motor roads connect larger populated centers
in the Severnaya Dvina and Mezen' River basins. Some of these roads
are referred to on recent Soviet maps as main traffic routes. A
road of this type leads southeastward from Arkhangelsk along the
Severnaya Dvina to the river anchorage point of Kholmogory, where
it divides into two main branches. One follows the Pinega River
northward to the rayon center of Pinega. Across the river from Pinega,
at the village of Vonga, the road connects with a timber road that
follows the Pinega River southward (upstream) to the settlements of
Karpogory and Okulovskaya. This road is 30 to 4+0 feet (9 to 12
meters) wide and is constructed of tree trunks felled from the
adjacent forest. The second branch road leads southward from
Kholmogory along the left bank of the Severnaya Dvina to Kotlas on
the Pechora railroad.
Motor roads in the Mezen' River Basin follow the river and its
main tributary, the Vashka. A seasonal road originates at the port
of Mezen' and follows the.Mezen' River for some 250 miles (1+00
kilometers), terminating at Zheleznodorozhnyy on the Pechora trun -
line. During the winter the road is used for sledge traffic. 26
A seasonal road also follows the course of the Vashka River from
its confluence with the Mezen' at Leshukonskoye southward for a
distance of over 118 miles (190 kilometers). Near the rayon center
of Koslan it joins the Mezen' River road. Winter traffic is limited
to sledge transport.
Short stretches of motor road have been reported in the Vorkuta
area. They were built by PW and penal labor, and connect the city of
Vorkuta with various mining settlements and penal camps in the sur-
rounding area. 261+ Roads lead northward to the settlements of
Gornyatskiy, Oktyabr'skiy, Sedlovaya, and Poselok 37 Km; northwest-
ward to Komsomol'skiy; and southward to station Ust'-Vorkuta on the
Seyda-Labytnangi railroad. Apparently the roads are well built.
At least one reportedly has a crushed-rock base topped with rolled
gravel and sand and has drainage ditches along the road to prevent
waterlogging in spring and summer. 265
In addition to the motor roads in the European Arctic, there
are a number of unimproved wheel tracks, trails, and winter paths
that connect scattered coastal and river settlements. Trails lead
northward into several of the large peninsulas along the Arctic
coast, including the Kanin, Yugorskiy, and Onezhskiy. One of the
more important trails skirts the northern coastline of the Kola
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cated along the coast.
Peninsula and provides the only land communication between the isolated
rayon center of Gremikha and numerous small fishing settlements lo-
Short stretches of roads are found in the vicinity of various
settlements, including Tiksi, Ambarchik, Lavrentiya, and Provideniya-
Urelik. In the last of these areas the road extends from Provideniya
around the northern end of Bukhta Emma to Urelik and continues south-
westward to Plover. Near the Soviet military installations in the
Provideniya-Urelik area, there are evidences of relatively heavy motor
traffic. A road 9 miles (14+ kilometers) long crosses the easternmost
extremity of the Chukotsk Peninsula and connects the settlements of
Uelen and Dezhnev. In addition to these few established roads, cross-
country movement in the Siberian Arctic follows trails and reindeer-
migration routes, which can be used throughout the year.
ward for 11 miles (18 kilometers) to an unidentified mine. 26
c. Roads in the Siberian Arctic
In the Siberian Arctic, motor roads are rare. With few excep-
tions, they are seasonal in character and short in length, having
been built to connect inland mining centers with sea and river ports.
The largest road network surrounds Norilsk and connects the nickel
combine with other parts of the urban area. The main road within
the combine has an asphalt surface and is 20-26 feet (6-8 meters)
wide.. 266 The other roads of the area are unsurfaced and average
20 feet 6 meters) in width. There are indications that a motor
road may parallel the Norilsk-Dudinka railroad.
On the Chukotsk Peninsula, a major road has been constructed
from the tungsten mines at Iul'tin to the port of Egvekinot on Zaliv
Kresta. The road is about 180 miles (290 kilometers) in length and
6 meters in width, and nas a rolled gravel surface. On both sides
the road is paralleled by shallow drainage ditches. Although wooden
and concrete bridges have been built across the larger streams and
rivers, many of the smaller streams must be forded. The road can
be used only from July to October, when its surface is free of snow.
During the remainder of the year, sled trains travel cross country
between Egvekinot and Iul'tin. The travel time between these points
averages 2 weeks for trucks and 4 weeks for sled trains. 267,268]
I there are a number of roads in the Pevek
area. One leads from eve southeastward to Krasnoarmeyskoye and
serves various mines along the route. It has a crushed-stone surface
and is approximately 10 feet (3 meters) wide. Road-maintenance sta-
tions manned by 1 or 2 officers and 20 to 4+0 prisoners are reportedly
located at various points along the route. Other roads in the Pevek
area extend eastward to ore deposits in the Koyveyem Valley and south-
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V. Arctic Scientific Activities
The present extensive program of research in the Soviet Arctic
includes studies of the entire Polar Basin environment from'the
ocean bottom to the upper atmosphere. The study of the Arctic
began in 1882, when polar stations were established for the First
International Polar Year. Beginning at this early date, Arctic
research and exploration have been associated with economic
activities and have been centered in the western Arctic. Research
activities have included the exploration of the northern waters,
islands, and coast and the first attempts at ice reconnaissance.
During the Second International Polar Year (1932-33), 21+ polar
stations were established, and marine expeditions in the Knipovich,
Persey, and Sibiryakov were carried out. The drift of the Sedov
Ti-9-3-7--4o) and the;Papanin expedition Severnyy Polus (North Pole
(1937) also added to the Soviet data of the Arctic. These periodic
programs of research had only limited value since the atmospheric,
terrestrial, and oceanographic observations did not cover suitable
periods of time or significant areas. To correct this the Soviets
have gradually established a program in which observations of these
phenomena are collected from a number of widely scattered points
throughout the Polar Basin and are integrated with observations
taken at the vast network of land-based polar stations. Under this
program, observational data have been collected from about two-thirds
of the total area of the basin, the remaining area being largely in
the sector from 70OW to 160?W.
Four methods were evolved to cover the vast area of the Arctic
Ocean with facilities for the desired observations: drifting sta-
tions, flying observatories, icebreaker oceanographic expeditions,
and mobile research teams. The investigations included studies
of (1) the physical and chemical characteristics of the Arctic Ocean,
(2) the dynamics of ocean currents and their circulation, (3)
solar radiation and the associated interaction between the hydro-
sphere and the atmosphere, and (1+) the character and distribution
of the ice and of the upper air. Astronomical fixes were made to
pinpoint terrestrial locations and measure ice movement. Other
geophysical observations, including magnetism and gravimetry, were
also undertaken.
Papanin's drifting station Severnyy Polus, subsequently renamed
Severnyy Polus I (SP-I), was launched by air in 1937. A station
was established on pack ice at a point near the North Pole, and
four men remained at the station for 274 days and covered 29100
kilometers (1,305 miles) during a 2,500-kilometer (1,555-mile) drift.
SP-2, under the direction of M. Somov, was launched north of
Alaska in 1950. It was abandoned after 1 year; and the ice floe,
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these 3 stations are active in the Arctic Basin.
drifting station, SP-6, was set up during April 1956. At present,
Greenland. SP-5 was established in April 1955; and the newest
with the founding of SP-3 and SP-4 (Figure 58). SP-3 was
abandoned in May 1955, when it drifted to within 100 miles of
drifting in a large arc, returned after 3 years to its approximate
starting point. Drifting stations were again established in 1954
The drifting stations are manned by 30 to 40 scientists and
carry a large amount of equipment, which enables them to carry out
virtually any type of geophysical observation and biological
research (Figure 59). Among the investigations are determination
of ocean depth, sampling of the sea bottom and different layers
of the ocean, measurement of the speed and direction of drift,
studies of ice and heat balance, gravity and magnetic-component
determinations, and collection of biological specimens (Figures 60
and 61).
insure that the area is evenly covered.
predetermined routes to prevent the flights from overlapping and
collection of weather, ice, and magnetic data. The aircraft fly over
transport aircraft that make roundtrip flights to the Pole for the
The flying observatories used in the Soviet Arctic are large
Icebreaker operations for exploration have been used from time
to time for hydrographic and oceanographic purposes. The Soviets
claim the distinction of having increased use of specially outfitted
icebreakers or vessels reinforced for ice duty in a planned program
for broadening the network of simultaneous observations over water
areas. Recently, voyages by the Litke have been undertaken to
penetrate as far as possible into pack ice, and record penetrations
have been claimed. According to Burkhanov, areas of significant
size (reportedly as much as 15 percent of the total area) near the
Pole are ice free. The plan is to continue a northward expansion
of navigation. The Ob` has been outfitted with six laboratories
for a full range of continuous oceanographic observations from the
Arctic Basin in the northern summer to the Antarctic waters in the
southern summer.
Most recently the Soviet Union established a temporary air base
the coming program of the International Geophysical Year (1957-58)-
about 200 points had been established and 500 more are planned for
data at.each base before moving on to the next. By the end of 1950
on the pack ice. The scientists obtain a complete set of geophysical
development of mobile research teams, which consist of small groups
of scientists who fly to assigned points and set up temporary bases
One of the most significant Soviet achievements is the
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Figure 58. A part of the drifting station SP-3. The hemispherical
tents are used for housing personnel and sheltering observational
instruments. The large building in the center is the mess hall.
Figure 59. Scientists filling a balloon with hydrogen
prior to launching radiosonde instruments.
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Figure 60. Preparing a platform for scientific observations
on SP-1+. The winch is used to obtain water and biological
samples and temperature readings.
Figure 61. An instrument used for making actinometric
measurements on SP-J+.
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about 200 miles northwest of Canada. The operation, which lasted
about 10 days, was undertaken by 8 aircraft with 50 people who
fanned out to predetermined points for oceanographic, surface, air,
and upper-air observations. It was a mobile research team that
first detected the existence of the Lomonosov Ridge, which divides
the Polar Basin into two distinct sub-basins.
The extensive program of research undertaken by the Soviets
has many applications of both an economic and a strategic nature.
The benefits to shipping on the Northern Sea Route and to internal
air traffic are obvious, but the same information can also be used
for polar air flights, submarine operations, and guided-missile
flights. Weather conditions and their forecast are necessary
for any flight'via polar routes. Submarine operations are dependent
upon a knowledge of underwater topography, sea currents, and ice
movement, all of which are emphasized in the present research
program. Gravity observations have particular significance for
Soviet capabilities in positioning long-range missiles. Gravity
information is necessary to compute the earth's exterior gravity
field along the missile flight path, which affects both bearing
and range.
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Relation Between Physical Environment and Arctic Operations
A. Climate
Climate is the single element exerting the greatest influence
on the progress of air, land, and sea operations in the Soviet Arctic.
Factors of major importance affecting air and land operations are
cold winter temperatures and strong surface winds. Sea operations
are affected by summer ice and fog conditions. In the following
discussion of air, land, and sea operations, climatic factors are
represented in order of their importance to these operations.
weather.
weather forecasts, thereby reducing the dangers of flying in inclement
Arctic enable the Russians to make both long- and short-range
climatic conditions. The present meteorological activities in the
and defensive warfare, are especially dependent upon favorable
Air operations, the major means of exploration and of offensive
1. Effect on Air Operations
a. Temperature
Cold is one of the greatest obstacles to air operations. The
extremely low winter temperatures create maintenance and operating
difficulties not encountered at lower latitudes. The scarcity of
adequate hangars and shelters for parking and servicing aircraft is a
serious problem. Without protection from the low temperatures and
strong winds, a parked aircraft soon becomes "cold-soaked;" that is,
all of its parts become as cold as the surrounding air. Cold-soaked
aircraft present many maintenance and operational problems. Con-
traction of metal parts causes leakage of fluids around the gaskets
of landing gear and other parts. Oil and grease become stiff and do
not lubricate properly until sufficiently warmed. To counter this
the Russians are reported to have developed greases and lubricants
especially suited for polar conditions. Condensation of moisture in
fuel tanks causes ice crystals to form in the gasoline, clogging the
fuel lines and carburetors. Aircraft engines, especially the internal-
combustion type, are difficult to start when cold-soaked and must be
warmed by portable heaters (Figure 62).
Summer temperatures have much less influence on air operations
than do winter temperatures. Although temperatures often drop below
freezing during the short summer, outdoor activity can be carried on
without too much discomfort. The greatest difficulty associated with
warmer weather occurs when the spring temperatures rise and the
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Figure 62. Preheating the engine of a trans-
port before taking off. Aircraft of Polar
Aviation can be distinguished by the insignia
"Polyarnaya Aviatsiya."
runways thaw. Since many of the runways are constructed of gravel,
they become soft and unusable when the frost leaves the ground.
Several methods are employed to insure continuous operation during
this period. 270 The most common involves clearing one runway or
half a runway of snow and ice and allowing the sun to dry out the
gravel. Snow left on the remaining runway surface is rolled and
compacted to enable aircraft to continue to operate during the drying-
out period. By the time the snow cover finally melts away and the
soggy gravel surface is exposed, the previously cleared area is
comparatively dry and ready for use.
Winds of the Arctic have a relatively high velocity as compared
with those of more southerly latitudes. High winds often occur during
the winter and seriously affect air operations. Surface winds are
particularly strong during this season and often prevent aircraft from
taking off or landing. Gusts have reached 132 miles per hour on Novaya
Zemlya. While this is a record speed, winds of 88 miles per hour often
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occur at Uelen and on Ostrov Vaygach, Ostrov Dikson, and Ostrov
Vrangelya. The weather becomes worse when snow accompanies the high
winds, since visibility is then reduced to a few feet and all outside
activity ceases. Sand and small pebbles, as well as snow, are carried
by the wind and can damage the aircraft.
Winds aloft have no seriously adverse effect on air operations.
Upper air currents might even be an advantage to planes flying in the
same direction, as in the event of an air attack on the United States.
Narrow bands of upper air currents known as "jet streams" blow from
west to east at high speeds, occasionally reaching 275 miles (443 kilo-
meters) per hour. 271 They form numerous interrupted belts that are
flattened in cross section and vary in speed, altitude, and location
from day to day. Jet streams are found at all latitudes from the Equa-
tor to the North Pole, but are concentrated chiefly between 30?N and
40?N. 272/ The streams migrate northward in summer and become weaker.
There is evidence, however, of a midwinter jet stream in the vicinity
of the Arctic Circle. The core of this stream is at an altitude above
65,000 feet (19,800 meters). Since the present estimated ceiling of
Soviet bombers is reported to be only 42,000 to 54,000 feet (13,000
to 16,500 meters), there is some doubt as to whether this jet stream
could be utilized in the near future. 27
Many problems would be encountered in using the jet streams.
Current detailed weather information would be needed to plot the
shifting wind belts. In order to make best use of the winds, a pilot
would have to change his course repeatedly. As a result, close-
formation flying would be difficult. On the return flight a different
course would have to be followed to avoid the jet streams, which would
then become strong headwinds. 274,p.28J
c. Visibility
Visibility during air operations is reduced by fog, cloud,~and
to a minor extent by smoke. Fog and smoke are close to the ground
and are hazards in takeoffs, landings, and bombing runs. Clouds,
which are usually in the form of stratus decks up to 25,000 feet
(7,600 meters), are a hindrance to high-level bombing.
Fog is produced by the cooling effect of the coastal water and
t
ice floes upon the winds that blow over them. Summer is the wors
ogs sine
larg
o
-
~
season ~
free at this time. During the winter, when the seas are frozen and
the land is covered with snow, temperature differences are slight,
and fogs rarely occur. Warm-season fogs last about 12 hours, but
h
hi
h
c
, w
fogs of longer duration are not unusual. Ostrov Vaygac
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averages 123 days of fog per year, has experienced single fogs that
last up to 9 days. 275
The areal distribution of fogs follows a distinct pattern. The
central section of the Soviet Arctic from Novaya Zemlya eastward to
Novosibirskiye Ostrova has the greatest number of fogs. Ostrov Belyy
has a maximum of 228 per year; and Mys Chelyushkin, on the northern
tip of the Taymyr Peninsula, has 136 foggy days per year. At Mys
Chelyushkin, 25 days per month are foggy during the navigation season.
To the west and east the number of foggy days decreases rapidly. The
western coast of Novaya Zemlya has only 55 to 60 days with fog per
year and Murmansk only 57. Along the East Siberian and Chukotsk
Sea coasts, an average of 80 to 100 foggy days occur during the year.
The frequency of fogs declines rapidly with distance inland from the
coast, depending on local topography. Inland towns located in river
valleys often have fogs resulting from radiational cooling. These
fogs are not a serious hindrance to air operations, since they are
of short duration, usually burning off by midmorning.
Cloud conditions have little effect on air operations. Both
the Soviet jet and conventional aircraft have been known to carry on
operations when the ceiling was below 1,000 feet (300 meters). In
general, skies are clear in the winter and cloudy in summer. Winter
clouds are usually in the form of flat stratus decks up to 10,000
feet (3,000 meters) in altitude. In Central and Eastern Siberia the
layers are frequently so thin that objects on the ground can be
identified through them. 276 On cloudy days, air operations would
be limited to low-level flights, whereas the numerous clear days of
winter would permit high-level flights.
In summer the clouds in the European Arctic are generally low
stratus decks that would restrict operations to high-level instrument
bombing. In Central and Eastern Siberia the clouds form in thick
decks extending upward to 25,000 feet (7,600 meters). Both low-level
visual bombing'and high-level instrument bombing missions are possible.
On days with a high overcast sky, the phenomenon of "whiteout"
develops. 277 Under such conditions the sky blends in with the snow-
and ice-covered land and the horizon disappears. Since there are no
shadows, it is impossible to distinguish variations in elevation.
Flying under such conditions is hazardous and has been compared to
"flying inside a bottle of milk."
Smoke is a minor obstruction to air operations. Towns located
in valleys may often be obscured by a smoky layer of air. This is
caused by temperature inversion and is of a temporary nature.
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d. Light Conditions
Great annual variations in the length of daylight and darkness,
a characteristic of high latitudes, have little effect on air opera-
tions. In general, maintenance and flight operations can be carried
on during the winter season without many additional problems. Analysis
of radar tracks in the Provideniya-Urelik area has shown that night
flights continue throughout the winter season. 278 The planning and
execution of strategic flights, however, is affected by the length of
daylight and darkness, especially along trans-Polar routes. The
utilization of darkness as a cover in approaching or leaving a target
would depend in part on the time of year, since at high latitudes the
summers have unusually long days and the winters have unusually long
nights. If an aircraft is navigating along a parallel of latitude it
can remain under the cover of darkness by flying at a speed equal to
the peripheral velocity of the sector of darkness at this latitude.
279 At 60?N this speed is about 575 miles (925 kilometers) per hour,
which is within the speed range of most Soviet long-range bombers.
The Arctic as defined in this study covers approximately 30
degrees of latitude and has a variety of daylight and darkness condi-
tions. Arkhangel'sk,(64?34'N-40?32'E), which lies in the extreme
south, has no period of complete darkness during the winter but
experiences decreasing amounts of daylight until a minimum of 4 hours
and 12 minutes is reached on 22 December. From the end of May to the
end of July the darkness of night is replaced by twilight.
Dikson (73?30'N-80?21+'E), a representative station, experiences
periods of complete light and darkness. At this latitude the sun
remains above the horizon from early May to early August. Before
and after these dates, there is a period of several weeks during
which the sun dips below the horizon at night but a twilight condi-
tion remains. From the middle of December until the end of January
the sun never rises above the horizon, and complete darkness prevails.
Ostrov Rudolf (81?45'N-58?30'E), in Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa, is one
of the most northern island possessions and has a period of complete
darkness lasting from the middle of October to the end of February.
During the summer the sun remains above the horizon from early April
until the beginning of September. 280
e. Precipitation
The total annual precipitation in the Arctic is very small and
occurs chiefly as snow. Rain occasionally falls during the short
summer season, but thunderstorms are rare. Snow takes the form of
small, needle-shaped crystals which are easily drifted by the wind.
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Level areas and windward slopes are usually blown clear, while lee
slopes and depressions become drifted. For this reason the amount
of precipitation is difficult to measure, but in general it diminishes
from south to north. Igarka and Provideniya average 16 and 14+ inches
(400 and 350 millimeters), respectively, while on the northern islands
the amount decreases to 4 inches (1,002 millimeters) at Ostrov Domash-
niy (Severnaya Zemlya) and 3 inches (75 millimeters) at Nays Shalaurova
(Lyakhovskiye Ostrova). 281,p.57/
Snow affects both runway maintenance and flying conditions.
Permanent runways are usually constructed slightly above the sur-
rounding ground so that snow blows clear instead of drifting over
them. When strong winter winds are blowing, the snow is whipped
into blizzard conditions and air operations are usually grounded.
During all seasons, hoarfrost and rime ice form on aircraft.
Aircraft that are parked in the openjeollect needles of hoarfrost as
the temperature drops and the moisture in the air freezes. 282 The
deposit must be removed before the aircraft can be flown, since it
often acgumulates to such a thickness that the stalling speed is
dangerously increased (Figure 63). Rime ice forms on aircraft when
Figure 63. Preparing a Coach (I1-12) for take-
off. The body, tail, and wing surfaces are
cleared of frost and the interior of the plane
is heated.
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they fly through under-cooled fog or cloud. The worst season for rime-
ice formation is the summer, when fog is at a maximum..
The Soviet Arctic lies within the zone of maximum auroral activity.
This zone extends from the northern tip of Norway, through. the center of
Novaya Zemlya, and south of Ozero Taymyr, Novosibirskiye Ostrova, and
Ostrov Vrangelya. To the north and south the number of displays de-
creases, but in the north they can still be observed almost every clear
night. 283 Auroral activity is greatest when the earth's magnetic
field is highly disturbed, that is, when there is a magnetic storm.
During such periods, high-frequency wireless communication is disrupted
or "blacked out" and contact between flying aircraft and their bases is
difficult. These blackout periods often continue for several days.
Since low-frequency radio systems (up to 300 kilocycles) are less inter-
rupted by magnetic disturbances than the high-frequency, the Russians
have adopted such systems for air-ground communication. 281+;285,p?37/
2. Effect on Land Operations
Operations on land, in addition to the activities in cities and
ports, include the maintenance and operation of airfields, radar posts,
and polar stations scattered along the Arctic Coast. Military units
are stationed in the region and according to one report include 8 or
9 infantry divisions and 3 airborne divisions. Each division consists
of 6,500 to 7,000 men and is armed with light weapons. 286,p.4/ In
February 1955, large-scale maneuvers in which both ground and air
forces participated were undertaken from Novaya Zemlya to the Kolyma
River. 287 In the event of war, additional personnel would be brought
into the Arctic to bolster present positions and establish new ones,
but their total number would not be great. Large deployments of
troops, a regular feature of more temperate latitudes, would be impos-
sible in this region because of the severe living conditions and the
difficulties of logistic supply.
a. Temperature
Severe winter temperature is the greatest deterrent to land oper-
ations. Even though most Russians are accustomed to living in a cold
environment, the dangers of outdoor work -- such as frostbite and
freezing of bare flesh to metal -- are ever-present. The effect of
cold on motor vehicles is similar to the effect on-aircraft in that
water vapor in fuel freezes and oil and grease become stiff. Cold
temperatures also affect ammunition, making the range much shorter
than in temperate latitudes. In the Soviet Arctic the temperature
varies from the relatively warm Murmanskiy Bereg (Coast) to the
frigid east Siberian area. The Nordkap Current of the Gulf Stream
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ameliorates the climate along the shore of the Murmanskiy Bereg and
to a lesser extent the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Minimum
monthly temperatures for January average 16 F (-9 C) at Murmansk and
5?F (-15?C) at Malyye Karmakuly. When the Nordkap Current reaches
Mys Zhelaniya, at the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya, it is quite cool
and the coldest winter month averages 11?F (-18?C). 288
East of Novaya Zemlya the land becomes increasingly cold as the
"cold pole" of northeastern Siberia is approached. Monthly tempera-
tures reach a minimum at Kazach'ye, which averages -42?F (-410C) for
January. Temperatures rise again near the Bering Strait and at Uelen
average -13?F (-24?C) during February. Absolute minimum temperatures
drop much lower than monthly averages and vary from -30?F (-34?C) at
Ostrov Kolguyev to -76?F (-60?C) at Igarka and Bulun.
During the short Arctic summer, temperatures are cool and monthly
averages range from near freezing (34?F or 1?C) on the northern islands
to the low 60's at the southern edge of the tundra. Since the islands
are usually low in elevation, contain many glaciers, and are surrounded
by floating ice, summer temperatures are never high. An absolute
maximum of 52?F (11?,C) has occurred in Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa in July.
Inland temperatures rise much higher; at Igarka it has reached 88?F
(31?C) in July.
Winds are one of the greatest factors in limiting outdoor activ-
ity. When winds of 20 to 30 miles (32 to 48 kilometers) per hour
sweep across the land and the temperatures are low, work becomes
secondary to the struggle of keeping warm and alive. This combina-
tion of wind and temperature has been named "windchill" by Western
scientists. 289 It is calculated from the number of calories lost
from 1 square meter of surface at skin temperature (91.4?F; 33?C).
Exposed flesh will freeze in a windchill of 1,500, and in a windchill
of over 2,000 prolonged exposure becomes critical.
. The windstorms are known by various local names. The buran is
a south wind that blows in Central and Eastern Siberia and is accompa-
nied by low temperatures and blowing snow. 290 East of Chaunskaya
Guba a south wind, the yuzhak, occurs in both summer and winter.
The yuzhak is strongest in winter, when winds reach 90 miles (145
kilometers) per hour and windstorms last 3 to 4 days. It can carry
away all unsecured equipment and destroy buildings. During one storm,
fuel drums were blown several miles over the sea ice. 291
The bora is a north wind of Central and Eastern Siberia that often
continues for days. Novaya Zemlya experiences a western bora during
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the winter. Winds of 90 miles (145 kilometers) per hour with gusts
up to 132 miles (212 kilometers) per hour are accompanied by blowing
snow, sand, and small pebbles. The purga is a general name given to
strong north winds occurring throughout the Arctic. Severe windstorms
are called "black purgas" because the dark, overcast skies and blow-
ing snow almost completely destroy visibility. Winds rise to 90
miles (145 kilometers) per hour and last 2 or 3 days before dimin-
ishing. Outside work is impossible and ropes are strung between
buildings to prevent personnel from becoming lost in the storm. After
the storm passes the skies clear and the temperature rises.
Foehns occur at various places throughout the Arctic and give a
short respite to the normally harsh, cold winds. Towns near mountains
or other heights experience these winds, which are warmed as they
blow down to the lowlands, melting the snow and bringing higher tem-
peratures.
c. Precipitation
The major part of the precipitation in the Arctic falls as snow
and remains on the ground for long periods. Although maximum depth
deepest snow in December. January, or March. 292 The depth of the
snow varies from 20 inches (500 millimeters) at Mys Leskina west of
Yeniseyskiy Zaliv to 11 inches (280 millimeters) at Malyye Karmakuly
on Novaya Zemlya. These figures are only approximate, since winds
frequently blow the snow out of the measuring gauges.
Movement over the snow-covered land is difficult. Snow compacted
by the wind will support the weight of a man, but loose snow in excess
of 24 inches (600 millimeters) will immobilize him. With snowshoes, a
man can travel slowly over snow of all depths; by using skis his speed
can be doubled. Wheeled vehicles cannot move in snow deeper than 12
inches (300 millimeters). Tracked vehicles can operate in depths up to
24 inches (600 millimeters) but at much reduced speeds. 293,p.11
d. Visibility
Ground visibility is restricted most often during the summer,
when fog and whiteout occur frequently. Coastal regions experience
dense prolonged fogs during the summer; inland stations have occa-
sional fogs even during the colder seasons. Along the coast and in
the river bays, offshore summer winds bring relatively warm air in
contact with cold water, and dense fog results. Occasionally the fog
will burn off for a few hours in midday, but it forms again in the
afternoon. Most coastal stations experience fog on more than half
the days during suer. These fogs usually last up to 12 hours,
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but they occasionally persist as long as a week. Inland stations
experience radiational fogs that form during the night in river
valleys and other low places; such fogs dissipate during the day.
When whiteout conditions occur and there is no shadow or
discernible. horizon, travel overland is difficult. What appears to
be a small hump on the ground might in reality be a nearby snow drift
or a large hill several miles away. Travel is difficult not only
because of the deceptive topography but because navigation by visual
methods is restricted. Movement overland can be aided by radio homing
devices. 2 IF .20V
3. Effect on Sea Operations
Sea operations in the Soviet Arctic are dependent upon favorable
ice and fog conditions. Sea ice is the biggest problem, since all
navigation ceases with the advent of winter and the advancing pack
ice.
Pack ice covers the Arctic seas for 8 or 9 months a year. 295
During this time, navigation is limited to a small area in the south-
ern half of the Barents Sea which is kept ice free by the Nordkap
Current. By August the Barents Sea is completely clear, as are the
southern half of the Kara Sea, the mouths of the Khatanga and Lena
Rivers, and the Bering Strait. In September the ice has reached its
minimum extent, but two large sections of the Northern Sea Route are
still blocked by ice. These sections can be navigated only by heavily
reinforced vessels. The first area includes Proliv Vil'kitskogo and
extends from Mys Oskara eastward to Khatangskiy Zaliv. The second area
is in the East Siberian and Chukotsk Seas and extends from Ambarchik
to Kolyuchinskaya Guba. The pack ice is made up of floes 7 to 10
feet (2 to 3 meters) thick, but they occasionally reach 30 feet (9
meters) as a result of shelving. Currents and winds influence the
drift of the floes, and the movement of the floes widens and closes
stretches of open water.
b. Fog
Fog is a serious hazard to sea operations, since it reaches a
maximum during the navigation season. The greatest danger is the
restriction of vision, which increases the chance of collision. Often
the occurrence of fog is a warning of approaching ice floes. The
dangers of navigation during fog have been reduced considerably by
the use of radar.
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Fog occurs most frequently during July and August and usually
lasts from 12 to 24 hours. Ostrov Belyy is one of the worst areas,
averaging 15 to 20 days per month with fog. 296 Fogs, together
with shallow water, make this area one of the most hazardous parts
of the Northern Sea Route. Mys Chelyushkin averages 136 foggy days
a year and is the second worst area along the route.
4. Effects of Climatic Change
The climate of the Arctic has become increasingly warmer during
the past 30 years. This represents one phase of the cyclical progress
of climate. Evidence of previous warm periods is seen in the numerous
coal and animal-bone (mammoth, rhinoceros, and tiger) deposits
found throughout the Arctic. The retreat of sea ice and glaciers,
and the northward advance of animals and plants are indications of
the present warm-up. 297 298 The average thickness of the pack ice
has decreased from 12 feet 3.6 meters), as measured during the Fram
expedition of 1893-96, to 7 feet (2 meters), as measured during the
drift of the Sedov of 1937-40. The areal extent of the pack ice
is estimated to have decreased by some 386,000 square miles (1,000,000
square kilometers) between 1924 and 1944. The southern part of the
Kara Sea now remains ice free until September, whereas 30 years ago
there was a 30 percent chance it would be ice covered before that
date. The ice-free season in Proliv Yugorskiy Shar has been
lengthened by 2 months. At present, it is possible for unreinforced
vessels to round the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya; 20 years ago it
was a difficult task for an icebreaker. 2
Further evidence of the warming climate is found on the land.
Glaciers on Novaya Zemlya and Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa have been
retreating, and some islands of Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa that previously
were joined by ice are now separated. Two islands of very ancient ice
in the Laptev Sea have melted, and only submarine shoals mark their
former position. 300 Throughout the Arctic the extent and thickness
of the permafrost layer is decreasing.
Animals and plants are migrating northward as a result of the
warmer climate. Birds are also moving to higher latitudes because of
the more favorable nesting and feeding conditions. Flowers bloom
earlier and berries ripen sooner than in the past.
In the sea, many species of fish are found farther north and
east than previously. Herring are now caught in the Barents Sea, and
the fishing season in the northern half of the sea has been lengthened
by 3 months. Cod have appeared in increasing numbers along the shores
of Novaya Zemlya since 1921. Mackerel are now found in the Barents
Sea and occasionally in the Kara Sea. 301 Lamprey are now found
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from the Barents Sea to the mouth of the Ob' River. The catch of
commercial fish in the Barents Sea increased from 30,000 tons in 1924
to 97,000 tons in 1930-
A continuation of the warming climatic cycle would affect the
strategic and economic development of the Soviet Arctic. A lengthened
navigation season would be of greatest importance since this would
permit greater use of the Northern Sea Route. Agriculture would also
benefit from a warmer climate. Varieties of crops that at present
cannot grow or mature in the region could be introduced to help
increase the amount of locally grown food. The total acreage would
also be increased, since crops can now be grown out of doors only in
small isolated field plots. A warmer climate would reduce the extent
and depth of permafrost, and the construction of buildings and rail-
roads would become less difficult.
The Russians have proposed a fantastic scheme for speeding up
the warming cycle by constructing a Bering Strait dam. Under this
scheme, a dam would be built across the Bering Strait and the warmer
Pacific waters would be pumped into the Arctic Ocean. According to
the Russians, this would lengthen the navigation season on the
Northern Sea Route and ameliorate the climate in the Arctic sectors
of both the USSR and North America.
B. Terrain
The Soviet Arctic can be characterized as a low plain crossed
by numerous rivers and interrupted by several mountainous areas. The
coastline is indented by many bays and estuaries, and for most of its
14,000-mile (22,500-kilometer) length the coast is backed by abrupt,
low cliffs.
The plain has an elevation of 330 to 660 feet (100 to 200 meters)
and slopes gently toward the Arctic seas. The surface is flat to
rolling and is dotted by a myriad of lakes. Rivers crossing the
plain are generally slow moving and have developed meandering, braided
channels (Figure 64).
The principal mountains within the Arctic are the Urals, the
Byrranga, and the complex of mountain chains in northeastern Siberia.
Extensions of the Urals can be traced northward into Novaya Zemlya.
The Polyarnyy Ural, a northern continuation of the Urals, averages
3,600 to 4,265 feet (1,100 to 1,300 meters) in altitude and extends
to about 68?N. North of this point the mountains decrease in ele-
vation to 660 feet (200 meters), veer to the northwest, and are
-called Khrebet (Range) Pay-Khoy. The northwest trend is continued
on Ostrov Vaygach where the elevations decrease, forming low hills.
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On Novaya Zemlya, the mountains again appear and rise in altitude to
3,300 feet (1,000 meters) on the northern tip of the island.
Farther east the Gory (Mountains) Byrranga extend in an east-
west direction across the center of the Taymyr Peninsula. They
consist of ancient pre-Cambrian rocks that form a narrow chain about
620 miles (1,000 kilometers) in length and 1,650 to 3,300 feet (500
to 1,000 meters) in elevation.
The mountains of northeastern Siberia extend from the Verkhoyanskiy
Khrebet, which parallels the Lena River, eastward to the Chukotskiy
Khrebet. They reach elevations of 6,560 to 9,81+0 feet (2,000 to 3,000
meters) and have rounded summits. Valleys between the mountains are
broad and marshy.
For much of its length the coast of the mainland is bordered by
rocky cliffs (Figure 65) with elevations varying up to 200 feet (60
meters). The offshore depths are usually shallow and contain
Figure 65. Low coastal cliffs near Onega. Cliffs like these are
characteristic of much of the Arctic littoral.
shoal areas. Although the coast between Obskaya Guba and Khatangskiy
Zaliv and much of the coastline of the Chukotsk Peninsula have deep
offshore water, approaches are obstructed by rocks. Sections of low
coast are scattered and are usually located at river mouths.
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Most of the larger rivers, with the exception of the Lena, Yana,
and Indigirka, have deeply indented estuaries. Obskaya Guba, the
largest of these estuaries, extends inland for over 500 miles (800
kilometers). It varies in depth from 60 to 120 feet (18 to 36 meters)
and becomes very shallow at the mouth of the gulf, where a submerged
bar almost reaches the surface.
A distinctive feature of the northern part of the Chukotsk
Peninsula is the series of coastal lagoons that occur in an area
extending from Mys Billingsa eastward to the. settlement of Uelen.
Bars and spits that have formed along the shore impede the natural
drainage of the rivers, thus forming shallow lagoons. Some of them
parallel the coast for more than 20 miles (130 kilometers) (Figure 66).
02
The surface of the land is covered with a mixture of glacial,
marine, and river sediments; in scattered areas, igneous and sedi-
mentary rocks outcrop. Glacial sediments consisting of boulders,
gravel, and sand are found in the areas between the Urals and the
Khatanga River and between the Yana and Kolyma Rivers, as well as in
the mountains of the Chukotsk Peninsula. Marine sediments. cover
extensive areas of the European Arctic between the White Sea and
Khrebet Pay-Khoy, scattered spots along the Siberian coast, and the
Novosibirskiye Ostrova, with the exception of one island, Ostrov
Kotel'nyy. 303,30)4/ River sediments of sand, silt, and clay are
found in all river valleys but reach their greatest extent in the
valleys of the Ob', Yenisey, and Lena Rivers. The Yamal Peninsula is
built of sediments carried downstream by the Ob', and parts of the
Gydansk Peninsula are formed from deposits of the Ob' and Yenisey.
Outcrops of igneous rock are limited to the mountainous areas.
Sedimentary roaks are found between Khatangskiy Zaliv and the Lena River
and along the western side of Chaunskaya Guba.
Low tundra plants form the characteristic vegetation cover of the
Arctic landscape. The southern areas support a mixture of stunted
trees, grasses, mosses, and lichens. To the north the trees become
smaller and gradually thin out. Near the tree line, even dwarf forms
are barely able to survive in stream valleys and other sheltered spots.
In the remainder of the Arctic, vegetation is limited to mosses,
lichens, grasses, and low flowering plants. The flowering plants form
a carpet of vivid colors during the short summer season.
Several distinct types of tundra are found in the Arctic. Hillock
tundra (kochkarnaya) is formed on plains and low plateaus and in river
valleys. In tundra of this type, up to 50 percent of the surface is
covered with small hillocks 12 to 20 inches (300 to 500 millimeters)
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in height. In marshy areas these hummocks are covered with moss; in
the open, better drained areas, lichens predominate. Marshy areas
are also underlain by great thicknesses of moss, which make the
surface spongy and unstable. Vehicles cannot operate in these areas,
and walking is dangerous and slow. The mossy vegetation, however,
furnishes excellent winter pasture for reindeer.
Spotted or medallion tundra develops on mountain sides or other
steep slopes where the snow cover is blown away. Here bare, rocky
spots 3 to 5 feet (1 to 1.5 meters) in diameter are surrounded by
growths of low mosses and lichens. The total area of the bare spots
exceeds that of land covered with vegetation.
A variation of the spotted tundra has also developed on the
summits of coastal foothills of the Chukotsk Peninsula, where the
winds are very strong and of long duration but the climate is not
sufficiently harsh to form true polygonal tundra characteristic of
the Arctic. 05
Polygonal tundra develops in coastal areas of the mainland from
Proliv Yugorskiy Shar to the Kolyma River and on the northern islands.
The freezing and thawing of the ground causes cracks that divide the
surface into polygonal blocks. The polygons vary in size from a few
feet to over 600 feet (180 meters), and as a rule the size increases
toward the north, where the climate is colder. Where soil is available,
the polygons are vegetation covered, but those formed on beach gravel
or glacial debris or in areas of soil creep are devoid of any plant
life (Figures 67 and 68). 06
Permafrost underlies most of the Soviet Arctic and extends south-
ward into Mongolia. Continuous permafrost is found from the Chukotsk
Peninsula westward to the Yenisey River. Permafrost interrupted by
occasional islands of unfrozen ground continues to the Pechora River;
beyond this the amount of unfrozen ground increases toward the White
Sea. On the Kola Peninsula, permafrost is found only in small
isolated areas such as peat mounds. Permafrost varies in thickness
from a few feet in the south to over 600 feet (180 meters) along the
northern coast. Borings at Amderma indicate permafrost extends to a
depth of 752 feet (229 meters). The active layer varies in thickness
up to several feet, being deeper in the south than in the north. The
layer is also thicker in sandy ground than in peat or marshes.
Movement and construction are the two activities most affected by
terrain. The ease of movement through the tundra depends upon the
season. When ground surface is frozen during the cold season, it is
possible to move unhindered over the tundra. During the summer, perma-
frost prevents moisture from draining through the soil, and much of the
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Figure 67. Reindeer moss growing on polygonal tundra.
Figure 68. Polygonal tundra developed on dry, stony soil.
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area turns into a soggy quagmire. Mechanized amphibious vehicles on
land and boats on rivers and lakes are the only practical means of
transportation in large areas. Movement on foot over any great
distance is difficult and is limited to gravel terraces in stream
valleys or reindeer trails. Paths made by reindeer herds follow lines
of least resistance from one firm area to another; they seldom follow
the most direct route between points.
is left beneath the building.
the piles. To remove heat radiated from the structure an airspace
active layer so that it can swell and contract without disturbing
The piles are shielded and lubricated where they pass through the
after several months, and they form a solid base for the building.
frost must first be melted. The ground refreezes around the piles
Since the piles cannot be driven into the frozen ground, the perma-
and wooden buildings have been successfully constructed on piles.
or on piles. The Russians prefer the latter, and multistoried brick
and the structure settles unevenly into the active layer. To prevent
the permafrost from melting, buildings are constructed on gravel pads
occurs most frequently when the permafrost beneath a building melts
a great amount of information on the subject. Damage to buildings
Russians have gained much construction experience and have amassed
limited materially by permafrost. Through trial and error the
Construction of buildings, airfields, roads, and railroads is
and filling is required, tile drains must also be laid.
The physical conditions determining the location of airfields
are terrain, surface material, and permafrost. The site must be
level and composed of homogeneous material. Since most of the recent
airfields built in the Soviet Arctic are large, varying in length
from 8 000 feet (2,440 meters) at Provideniya to 9,500 feet (2,895
meters) at Tiksi, sites for runways are difficult to find. If the
area is not level the grading should not interfere with natural
drainage, or the field may become flooded and the permafrost balance
may be disturbed. Channels must be dug and pipes must be laid to
facilitate drainage. After the strip is graded and leveled, it is
usually left unsurfaced, although a few of the larger runways are
surfaced. Macadamized sand is often used, since this nonrigid material
can easily be repaired if the surface becomes warped or develops frost
boils. If concrete runways are built, the ground is first covered
with a low heat conducting material such as pumice, slag, or porous
lava rock. This layer is slightly thicker than the active layer and
insulates it from heat absorbed by the concrete. If extensive grading
Similar problems are encountered in the construction of roads
and railroads. Their beds should follow the natural contours of the
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land as closely as possible to avoid the necessity for any grading
or filling that might disturb the permafrost. Road cuts expose the
permafrost, subsequently causing it to melt and slump. Alteration
of the natural drainage frequently results in flooding on the uphill
side of the roadbed and slumping on the downhill side. 307/ Roadbeds
laid over the tundra cover usually cause the least subsurface dis-
turbance.
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Subsequent to the completion of this study, a 1956 summer (June-
September) Aeroflot timetable was received. According to this time-
table, four air routes are scheduled in summer between Moscow and the
key Arctic centers of Arkhangelsk, Murmansk, Vorkuta, and Norilsk.
These routes operate under the Severnaya Territorial'naya Upravleniye
(Northern Territorial Directorate) of the GVF, which is one of 15
(formerly 18) Territorial Directorates now carrying out scheduled
Aeroflot flights. The routes shown are (1) Moscow-Cherepovets-
Vologda-Arkhangelsk, (2) Moscow-Cherepovets-Arkhangelsk-Murmansk,
(3) Moscow-Syktyvkar-Pechora-Vorkuta, and (1) Murmansk-Syktyvkar-
Pechora-Vorkuta-Norilsk. During the summer, an Li-2 airplane departs
daily from each of the terminal cities bound for the opposite termi-
nus. 308/ The most noticeable difference between the winter and summer
routes is in the flights to Murmansk and Norilsk. Summer flights to
these two cities are more direct, resulting in a reduction of the total
flight time. Scheduled winter flights, however, will undoubtedly con-
tinue to follow north-south routes along the Yenisey and possibly along
other Siberian Rivers, since during this season aircraft are the most
reliable means of transportation between the river settlements and the
larger supply centers to the south.
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GAPS IN INTELLIGENCE
Although an increasing number of articles and reports are
being published on the Soviet Arctic, reliable and detailed infor-
mation concerning numerous phases of development are notably lacking.
Despite Soviet publication of their extensive Polar Basin activities,
a high degree of secrecy surrounds most of the economic and military
developments.
Changes in governmental agencies having specific responsibilities
within the region have been fairly frequent and are difficult to
ascertain. Detailed map coverage, particularly for the area east of
the Urals, is also limited.
Most population figures in terms of settlement and regional
distribution are either estimates or approximations. Current popu-
lation estimates were derived from the latest United States and Soviet
sources, which have varied considerably from year to year. Since the
last Soviet census was taken in 1939, most of these estimates are based
primarily on electoral districts and considerable allowance should be
made for error. In many cases, specific information on various
aspects of industry within the individual settlements is lacking.
Statistical data concerning the principal economic activities --
lumbering, fishing, and mining -- were for the most part meager or
unavailable. Reports on mining activities were frequently conflicting,
which made it difficult to assess the mineral wealth reliably.
There were a considerable number of gaps in information concerning
the transportation network. Statistical data on the nature, volume,
and movement of traffic by air, water, and rail were extremely limited.
The alignments given for the most recently constructed and planned
railroad lines are only approximate, since little information on this
subject has appeared in Soviet literature. Information on the progress
of current railroad construction is also meager, and data on roads
and other means of overland transport were almost nonexistent. The
territorial jurisdiction over and alignment of air routes was also
difficult to determine on the bases of available reports.
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