INFORMATION ON SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION -- 1960

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 40
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 16, 1999
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: May 6, 1960
• Content Type: REPORT

BI.CIClI NT;ERN;R1";IONRL GEOPH'Y5I CAIN '' COOPE
RF~TI ON.
s
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08: CIA-RDP82-00141ROIrT~ 01-3
P'd 131632-117
R 'CORD
LOkY
INFORMATION ON SOVIET BLOC SN'('f:RNATIONAL C!OPIIYSTCAL COOPERATION - 1960
May 6t 1960
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
Business and Defence Services Administration
Office of Technical Sorvices
Washington 25,. D. C.
Published Weekly
Subscription Price 012.00 for the 1960 Series
Use of funds for printing this publication has been
approved by the Director of the Bureau of the Budget, October 28.* 1959,
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
INFORMATION ON INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION PROGRAM --
SOVIET-BLOC ACTIVITIES
Table of Contents
page
I.
II.
General
Rockets and Artificial Earth Satellites
i
2
---
III.
Upper Atmosphere
26
IV.
V.
Arctic and Antarctic
Meteorology
26
37
- a -
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
I. GENERAL
Procenn.Ing the Materials of the IGY and Further International Geophysical
Cooperation
The International Geophysical Year (IGY) evoked substantial progress
in geophysics and related branches of knowledge, and determined many now
forma of rewarding international scientific cooperation.
Ninety Soviet scientific institutes and institutions of higher
education and 18 departments participated in the investigations of this
program. Of 500 stations conducting observations 170 were newly built
or were completely rebuilt. Original equipment was installed in these
stations, which in many cases was more advanced than foreign equipment,.
Industry mastered and produced 30 types of now instruments and equipment.
In addition, 400 types of mass-produced instruments and equipment were
installed in the stations. Soviet expeditions to the Antarctic, in all
the oceans of the world, on the largest glaciers and to many other rela-
tively inaccessible regions were outfitted. The regional Center of an-
nouncement of outstanding solar and geophysical phenomena began function-
ing.
The utilization of such new technical means as rockets and arti-
ficial earth satellites for geophysical resew.?ch was the greatest achieve-
ment.
The methods of observation and investigation in all Soviet stations,
observatories and expeditions carrying out the program of planetary obser-
vations and investigations in coordination with other countries were con-
siderably improved.
Despite the fact that the period of observation ended 31 December
1959, the processing of materials has just begun, and already very im-
portant information has been obtained and fundamental discoveries have
been made concerning the upper atmosphere, the structure of the magnetic
field at great distances from the Earth, magnetic traps around the Earth,
connections between various geophysical phenomena of the electromagnetic
complex, the peculiarities of the development various geophysical pro-
cesses simultaneously in the Arctic and Antarctic, the life of the' oceans,
etc.
Assembled in world centers, one of which is located in Moscow,
the observational materials serve as a basis for work in the field of
geophysics and related sciences and shall be a major new basis for theo-
retical research and generalization. These materials will be supple-
mented by the results of subsequent observations.
The years 1960 and 1961 have been proclaimed by international
organizations as the period of analysis and multifaceted study of the
data of IGY, and the participant countries are competing with each
other in scientific mastery of the results of the observations.
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
(laving hourd the report of the Interdepartmental Committee on the
Conduct of IGY concerning the organization and ensuring of active partici-
pation of the USSR in this undertaking, the Presidium approved its activity
and noted that now an especially responsible period in beginning in the
activity of the IGY participants. The Interdepartmental Committee must
determine the main directions of mastery of the unique materials of the
IGY in the USSR for the purpose of successful resolution of the problems
connected with the prediction of waathor and changes in climate, predic-
tion of the conditions of radio communications, the possibilities of
actively influencing geophysical processes, study of the cosmos, determi-
nation of the shape and structure of the Earth, exploitation of the re-
sources of the ocean, and many other tasks which at the present time have
great significance and which have been resolved according to the results
of planetary observations. The Interdepartmental Committee was charged
with daily control of fulfillment of the work plans during the basic
period of Scientific and practical mastery of the IGY results (1960-1962),
and with control of providing personnel of the world centers of assembly
and distribution of geophysical data materials subject to international
exchange.
The committee is required to ensure timely publication in its
publications of the IGY results, coordination of the Soviet geophysical
investigations with works conducted abroad, and active participation of
the USSR in the activity of the appropriate international organizations;
to develop and introduce in the international organizations recommenda-
tions concerning problems of cooperation and mutual aid to countries in
the phases of processing the IGY data.
The most important tasks of the institutions working on the IGY
program are to ensure timely assembly, scientific mastery and publica-
tion of the results of observations, and to submit to the World Center
all materials of observations and publications subject to exchange
through the Center.
In 1960 and in the following years the level of observations and
investigations achieved in 1959 will be maintained. ("Processing the
Materials of the IGY and Further International Geophysical Cooperation,"
Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, No 2, 1960, p 106-107)
XI. ROCKETS AND ARTIFICIAL EARTH SATELLITES
10,000 Turns Around the Earth
As of 0600 hours 3 April the third artificial earth satellite
completed 9,982 turns around the Earth.
On 4 April the third Soviet artificial earth satellite will com-
plete its ten-thousandth turn around the earth's sphere. By that time
it will have flown 446.6 million kilometers and will have been in flight
for 689 lays.
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
The third satellite considerably surpassed its predecessors in
time of existence. As is known, the worlds first artificial earth
satellite, created by Soviet scientists, engineers and laborers, which
opened a new ern in the development or science and technology, existed
for 94 days, making 1,440 turns around the Earth, and the second lasted
for 163 days, completing 2,370 turns.
The weight of the third satellite, 1,327 kilograms, is almost
sixteen times greater than the weight of the first satellite, and with
respect to payload weight the third satellite remains unsurpassed to
the Prevent time.
The great weight of the third satellite (enabling complex and
varied scientific equipment to be installed in it), the reliability
and durability of the functioning of this equipment under the condi-
tions of launching and orbiting, and the high efficiency of the elec-
tric power sources on board enabled important and precise investigations
to be conducted with the aid of this satellite over the course of a long
period of time.
Finally, the substantially large apogee of the third satellite
in comparison to those of the first two satellites enabled the acquisi-
tion of new data concerning altitudes which previously had not been
attained.
When the third satellite first was placed in orbit its greatest
distance from the Earth (apogee) was 1,880 kilometers, the minimum
distance (perigee) was 226 kilometers, and its period of revolution
was 105.95 minutes. By the time it had completed five thousand revolu-
tions, on 8 May 1959, the period of revolution of the third satellite
had decreased to 99.51 minutes, and its apogee had been shortened by
605 kilometers, reaching 1,275 kilometers.
Following the second five thousand revolutions the changes in
the parameters of its orbit occurred considerably more rapidly, in
connection with the motion of the satellite through dense layers of
the atmosphere.
By 4 April the period of revolution of the satellite had de-
creased to 88.60 minutes, and the apogee of its orbit dropped to 230
kilometers.
The perigee of the orbit of the satellite also decreased con-
siderably, dropping to 165 kilometers. The shortening of the orbit
and its approximation of a circular path was especially intense during
the course rf the last month of the existence of the satellite.
A period of sharp braking of the motion of the satellite and its
entrance into considerably denser layers of the atmosphere began on 26
March.
On the basis of calculations which have been performed the termi-
nation of the existence of the third Soviet satellite is expected on
approximately 4-6 April of the current year.
With the aid of the third Soviet artificial earth satellite ex-
tensive investigations were conducted on cosmic rays, corpuscular radia-
tion of tiie Sun, the magnetic field of the Earth, and the structure of
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
the ionosphere, and studios were conducted on the distribution of density
and pressure in the upper strata of the atmosphere and on meteorite parti-
cles and the propagation of radio waves.
The discovery of the external radiation zone and selective investi-
gation of both the internal and external zones are important scientific
results obtained through study of cosmic radiation with the aid of the
third satellite. As is known, the first reports of the existence of the
external radiation zone of the Earth were obtained through the flight of
the second Soviet artificial satellite.
During the flight of -the third satellite over a region of 65 de-
grees of geomagnetic latitude in the northern and southern hemispheres
it intersected a zone of increased radiation caused by electrons with
energy in the range of tens and hundreds of thousands of electron volts.
This radiation was not observed in the lower latitudes nor in the region
of the geomagnetic poles, which is possible only in a case in which elec-
trons are closed in a trap created by the magnetic field of the Earth.
This conclusion, based upon the obser.vation.3 of the third satellite, were
later substantiated by data obtained from the flights of Soviet cosmic
rockets.
Intense cosmic radiation above equatorial regions had been dis-
covered prior to the launching of the third satellite. However, the
characteristics of this radiation and how it was distributed in space
were not known at that time. The instruments of the third Soviet arti-
ficial earth satellite gave the first answer to these questions. It
was shown that the internal equatorial zone of radiation of the Earth
consists of very high energy protons, in the range of tens, and even
hundreds, of millions of electron volts. In addition, interesting data
were obtained on the distribution of heavy nuclei in primary cosmic
radiation.
Equipment for observation of low energy particles was installed
on the third satellite, with the aid of which streams of electrons with
energy on the order of 10 kiloelectron volts were detected. A consider-
able portion of these electrons is reflected in proportion to motion
toward the Earth as a result of the existence of the geomagnetic barrier.
The electrons which are able to reach the ionospheric strata create addi-
tional ionization and charging of the upper atmosphere. The discovery
of the indicated electron streams throws new light upon the nature of
the aurora polaris.
With the aid of the third satellite new data were obtained on
the permanent magnetic field of the Earth. Brief and rapid changes in
the magnetic field also were detected. Because of this valuable infor-
mation was obtained on the investigation of the so-called current sys-
tems of the upper strata of the atmosphere.
New data were obtained in the measurement of the density of the
atmosphere. Observation of the speed of braking of the third earth
satellite enabled the discovery that the density of the upper atmosphere
at levels higher than 200 kilometers is considerably greater than had
-4-
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
been thought provioutily. In thin, the very speed of braking of the
satellite was found to be irregular. Fluctuations in -the density and
temperature of the upper atmosphere wore exposed. It was established
that its illuminated portion is denser and warmer than the unilluminatod
portion, and that the density and temperature of the upper atmosphere
over the higher latitude regions depend essentially upon the condition
of solar activity.
Utilization of improved ionization- and magnetic'eleotrioal-
discharge manometers enabled direct determination of the distribution
of pressure and density of the upper strata of the atmosphere up to an
altitude of 500 kilometers.
Mass-spectrometric measurements by the third satellite enabled
acquisition of data on the status of ionization of the ionosphere within
a wide range of altitudes.
The measurements indicated that during the daytime ions of atomic
oxygen predominate in the ionosphere at altitudes from 225;1,000 kiJ.o-
meters. Molecular ions of nitrogen, nitric oxide, oxygen and ions of
atomic nitrogen also were detected., The molecular ion.cpntent.drops
rapidly with increased altitude and beginning at 500 kilometers the
ionosphere becomes' atomic. It was established that the I composition of
the ionosphere depends upon latitude.
Prior to.the launching of the third satellite direct measure-
ments of the concentration of charged particles were conducted only
up to an altitude of 470 kilometers (by the high altitude geophysical
rocket of the Academy of Sciences USSR, launched 21 February 1958).
With the aid of ion traps mounted on the third satellite the magnitude
of ionic concentrations up to an altitude of 1,000 kilometers were
established fo:? the first time. The concentration of ions, measured
at this altitude, was found. to be 60,000 ions per cubic centimeter.
Data were obtained on the amount of ionospheric irregularities at vari-
ous altitudes.
Measurements made with the third satellite enabled explanation
of the fact that the so-called meteor danger is not great.
Radio observations of the transmitter "Mayak" installed in the
third satellite played a significant role in the investigation of the
ionosphere, pinpointing its characteristics, and in studying the propa-
gation of radio waves. Many tens of Soviet and foreign scientific
measurement stations and points distributed throughout the entire
earth's sphere, received and-registered its radio signals.
The long and reliable functioning of the "Mayak" transmitter
enabled investigation of the propagation of signals broadcast by it'
at extremely different altitudes, at different times of the day and
year, and at various points'of the earth's sphere.
These investigations enabled acquisition of new information on
the so-called irregular changes in the ionosphere.
The phenomenon of "fading" of the radio signals of the satellite
was detected. As a result of the processing of numerous experimental
data by Soviet investigators it was'explained that this fading is caused
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
by heterogeneities in the ionosphere. These heterogeneities form a
clearly defined broad zone; a connection was established between fading
of the riatollito radio signals and other geophysical phenomena. The
character of the dependence of fading upon the time of day and altitude
wau en tablishod .
Regiutration of the radio signals of the "Mayak" transmitter
enabled the acquisition of new information on the,epneentration of
electrons in the outer ionosphere. In conformance with the data ob-
tained earlier with the aid of the first satellite it was established
that the electron concentration in the outer portion of the ionosphere
is considerably denser than had been proposed earlier.
The results of the long use under outer space conditions of the
solar batteries-installed in the third satellite are very important and
interesting, and these appear to have a good outlook in utilization as
sources of electric Dower for space objects. The faultless functioning
of the solar batteries from the moment of launching of the satellite
substantiated the correctness of the design which had been developed,
and of the rationality of the placing of its individual sections in the
satellite.
The measurements conducted with the aid of the third satellite
may be processed only under the condition of knowledge of the altitude,
latitude and longitude at which the satellite is located at every moment
of time.
A special land-based automatic measuring complex, equipped with
the latest radio technical apparatus, was developed for determination
of the components or the motion of the satellite. The elements of the
satellite's orbit are determined by high-speed electronic computers.
The work of this measuring complex enabled determination of the charac-
teristics of the orbit of the third satellite during the period in which
the greatest amount of measurements were conducted with a degree of ac-
curacy greatly surpassing the accuracy of measurement of the parameters
of the motion of the first two satellites.
Other radio technical and optical means also are of great impor-
tance in Ghe observation of the third satellite. Approximately 90 opti-
cal stations and observatories within the Soviet Union, and more than
110 such stations abroad constantly conducted and conduct.o.)servations
and regularly send the results of the measurements to the address;
"Moskva -- Kosmostt (Moscow -- Spaci. In addition to this, approximately
400 more foreign stations in 33 countries periodically conduct observa-
tions and forward their data to the Astronomical Council, Academy of
Sciences USSR.
Tens of thousands of Soviet and-foreign radio amateurs and amateur
observers regularly conduct observations of the third satellite.
For evaluation of the volume of measurements and observat.ons con-
ducted it is suf#ie'?nt to indicate that during the existence of the
third Soviet artificial earth satellite approximately 56,000 ephemerides
(target designations) were submitted to the coordinating computer center
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
by Soviet rboorvation stations and more than 46,000 were forwarded by
foreign stationo. During this period were received and processed more
than 127,000 radio intersections from the "Mayak" transmitter on board
the aatollito, approximately 28,500 results of optical observations
conducted by Soviet observation stations, and approximately 19,800
observational results forwarded by foreign stations.
Observations of the satellite during the final period of its
existence, when it enters the denser strata of the earth's atmosphere,
are of, special significance and interest. Study of the conditions of
flight of satellites, o pecially in the dense layers of the atmosphere,
are most essential for the development of space apparatuses which must
return to Earth. During this final stage of existence of the satellite,
when observation becomes complex in connection with the sharp changes
in the parameters of its orbit, an additional large number of radiotech-
nical, optical, and other means are employed in its observation.
From the moment of its launching to the last days of its existence
the third Soviet satellite evoked great interest from the Soviet people
and from foreign citizens.
During this period many thousands of letters addressed to "Moscow
-- Space" and "Moscow -- Sputnik" were received from Soviet citizens and
from abroad, containing the results of observation of various problems,
suggestions for the improvement of equipment and methods of observation,
and expressions of admiration of the outstanding achievements of Soviet
science and technology in space research.
The results of the investigation accomplished with the aid of
the third Soviet artificial earth satellite enriched our knowledge of
the upper strata of the atmosphere and cosmic space and -:d to new
discoveries of great theoretical importance. ("10,000 Turns Around
the Earth," Unsigned, Pravda, 3 April 1960, p 6)
Atomic Rockets
Rocket technology has grown precipitously during recent years.
One of the most complex problems in this field is that of producing
highly efficient engines. Its solution is connected mainly with the
development of various types of high-energy chemical fuels. The
launching of artificial earth satellites and of the first space rockets
are indicative of the great successes which have been achieved in this
field. However, long space flights of rockets with engines using chemi-
cal fuel are impractical, mainly because of the power limitations of
chemical sources of energy. It is known that the energy which may be
obtained through the chemical reaction of one kilogram of high explosive
or of any combustible mixture is 10 -fold less than the energy which may
be obtained from one kilogram of fissionable material. The experiences
of practical utilization of atomic energy for power purposes which have
been accumulated to the present time enable the indication of the way
in which atomic sources of energy may be used in rockets.
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
The basic difference between ordinary rockets and atomic rockets
is in the means of obtaining the energy necessary for motion.
The ordinary rocket obtains energy from the combustion or decom-
position of chemical fuel. Heated to a high temperature and ejected
through the nozzle of the rocket with great speed, the products of
combustion or decomposition of the fuel (viorking body) also ensure the
forward motion of the rocket. In an atom'.c rocket, for example, with
an engine of the heat exchange type, the working body is passive. It
is heated by the kinetic energy of dissociative fission, forming as a
result of the regulated process of fission in the nuclear reactor, and
is ejected with great speed from the nozzle of the rocket.
If it would be possible to eject the products of the synthesis
of deuterium with tritium, formed during the course of a thermonuclear
reaction, in a direction opposite to the direction of motion of the
rocket, the effective specific impulse of such a working body (nucleus
of the helium atom) would be 104-fold greater than the effective spe-
cific impulse of contemporary rockets using chemical fuel. Thermonu-
clear processes provide a sufficient energy output per unit of reacting
mass to ensure working characteristics for rockets which are difficult
to obtain at the present time.
Therefore let us examine several possible non-chemical engine
systems utilizing the atomic energy of the fission of atomic nuclei.
In a rocket engine of the heat exchange type (Figure 1) the working
body is fed into the active zone of the reactor by centrifugal pumps
driven by a power take-off from the turbine. In the reactor the
liquid working body vaporizes, is heated to the necessary temperature,
and then ejects through the nozzle with supersonic speed. The payload,
which in the future w!ll include the crew, may be located in the nose
section, in front of the tanks of fuel. This is done for maximum ut;Lli-
zation of the working body as protection against radiation from the
reactor, and also to place the people as far as possible from the re-
actor.
The process of fission may be s.titably accomplished in a manner
in which retardation of fragmentary fission occurs directly in the
working body, and not in the structure, which in the beginning heats
itself and only afterward heats the working body. This principle is
utilized in the engine,of the following type rocket (Figure II. hot
reproduced her]). A homogeneous mixture of fissionable material and
working body is fed into the chamber, wLere the working body is heated
directly by fragmentary fission, and then is expelled through the nozzle.
The reactor of this type actually is gaseous in the zone of heat ex-
change. The disadvantage of an engine of this type is that along with
the working body a considerable portion of unexpended atomic fuel also
is expelled. However, the possibility is not excluded that through
rapid rotation of the gaseous stream in the active zone, or through
the utilization of electric or magnetic fields separation of the fuel
and the working body may be achieved, and thus the loss of fissionable
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
material may be considerably decreased. The specific impulse developed
by an engine of this type would be 6- or 7-fold greater than of the
previous engine.
The third system reviewed by us is based upon utilization of
electric or magnetic fields for accelerating ions or charged particles
to very high speeds. The accelerator is powered by electricity de-
veloped by a reactor and turbogenerator (Figure III).
The engine of the fourth rocket (Figure IV) works on the basis
of a special thermomechanical cycle. Part of the energy of the reactor
is utilized to drive a pump, which feeds a liquid working body into the
active zone, whore it is vaporized and heated under high pressure. The
hot gas obtained is fed into a separate high-pressure chamber, which
communicates with the blast wave tube via valve 11. At the other end
of the blast tube is a difruser, serving to concentrate the energy of
the blast wave, and valve 12 which unites the tube with the nozzle of
the rocket. The working cycle of the engine is the following: valve
5 takes the working body from the lank and under high pressure drives
it through the reactor, where it vaporizes and is heated to approxi-
mately 2,500 degrees Centigrade, after which it is fed into the high
pressure chamber. The blast tube at this moment still is filled with
low pressure gas remaining from the previous cycle. Next, valve 11
opens rapidly, and compressed gas bursts into the tube, suddenly com-
pressing and heating the gas located in the tube, and evokes in it the
phenomenon of a strong blast wave. The greatest compression is obtained
in the lower portion of the diffuser. Then valve 11 closes and valve
12 opens, and the gas escapes from the nozzle at high velocity. When
the temperature of the escaping gas drops 3- or 4-fold in comparison
to the maximal temperature attained in the blast tube, valve 12 closes
and valve 13 opens, and with the aid of pump 5 the gas remaining in
the blast tube enters the radiator, where it is cooled. This cycle is
repeated continuously, producing "clots" of the high-temperature gas
escaping from the nozzle at high speed.
The last type of rocket engine with high flight characteristics
is ba,3ed upon direct heating of the working body by an electric cur-
rent.
One of the possible variants of the nuclear-electric engine is
a system with are heating, in which the working body is transformed
into plasma in the are and is expelled through the nozzle located in
the cathode of the arc (Figure V). In distitction from the system
reviewed above, the method of direct electrical heating in an are is
uninterrupted and may provide constant thrust with specific impulse
of the working body 25-fold greater than the specific impulse of crz-
temporary chemical rockets.
Computations have shown that the weight of rockets with nuclear
engine systems will be 10- to 1;-fold greater than that of ordinary
chemical rockets, and 3- to 5-fold greater than that of high-power
chemical rockets with the new types of fuel. If it is remembered that
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
each kilogram of payload of a rocket requires from 10 to 100 kilograms
blast-off weight, then it is clear that the development of non-chemical
engine systems is of extreme importance to interplanetary flight and to
flights with great payload weights. In the event of the successful solu-
tion of the problem of developing highly efficient atomic rocket engines,
they will supplant presently existing rockets, at least in cases in which
great load-lifting ability and long range are needed. There is no doubt
that the future of rocket ;notion is connected with the utilization of
atomic energy.
To those who wish to become acquainted in greater detail with the
various problems connected with the utilization of atomic energy for
creating reactive thrust we recommend the book by R, Bassard and R. De
Lauer: Raketa c atomnym dvigatelem socket with Atomic Engin 7, Foreign
Literature Publishing House, Moscow, 1960. ("Atomic Rockets," by M.
Vishkova, Tekhnika Molodezhi, No 1, 1960, p 37-)8)
Step by Step
I "Launching was accomplished with the aid of a multistage rocket.'
We already have read these words many times in reports of the launchings
of the world's first artificial satellites, of the creation of the satel-
lite of the Sun, and of the launching of the space rocket to the Moon.
Although this is a short sentence, how much inspired work of scientists,
engineers and laborers of our country is hidden by these six words;
What constitutes the contemporary multistage rocket? Why did the
necessity arise for the use of rockets consisting of a large quantity of
stages for space flight? That is the technical effect of increasing the
number of the stages of a rocket? We shail' attempt briefly to answer
these questions.
The accomplishment of space flights requires enormous fuel sup-
plies. These supplies are so great that they cannot be stored in the
tanks of a single-stage rocket. At the present level of engineering
science it is possible to build a rocket in which the fuel would accc'int
for 80 or 90 percent of the total weight. Flight to other planets would
require fuel reserves hundreds, even thousands of times greater than the
weight of the rocket itself and the useful payload contained within it.
With the fuel reserves which may be scored in the tanks of a single-stage
rocket a flight speed of up to 3-4 km/sec. may be achieved. Improvement
of rocket engines, research on the most suitable types of fuel, the use
of better quality structural materials and further improvement of rocket
design undoubtedly will enable a slight increase in the speed of a single-
stage rocket. However, for space flight all this is greatly inadequate.
K. E. Tsiolkovskiy recommended the use of multistage rockets for
the attainment of space speeds. The scientist himself figuratively called
them "rocket trains." According to the concept of Tsiolkovskiy the rocket
train or, as we say at present, multistage rockets, must consist of sev-
eral rockets, fastened to each other. The lowest rocket usually is the
largest. It carries the weight of the "train." The succeeding stages
are of increasingly smaller dimensions.
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
In the take-off from the surf ace of the Earth the engines of the
lowest rocket are functioning. They function until they have expanded
all the fuel contained in its tanks. When the tanks of the first stage
are empty it separates from the upper rockotc in order not to burden
their further flight with dead weight. The first stage with the empty
tanks continues to fly upward for a short time by virtue of inertia, but
then falls 'to earth. To enable reuse of the first stage it may be pro-
vided with a parachute to ensure its safe fall.
After the first stage has separated the engines of the second
stage start functioning. They begin functioning when the rocket rises
to a certain altitude and has considerable flight speed. The engines
of the second stage accelerate the rocket further, increasing its speed
by several kilometers per second. After all the fuel contained in its
tanks is expended, the second stage also is discarded. The further
flight of the composite rocket is ensured by the functioning of the
engines of the third stage. Then the 'third stage also is discarded.
This succession leads to the engines of the fourth stage. Fulfilling
the work assigned to them, they increase the speed of the rocket by a
certain additional amount, after which the engines of the fifth stage
begin functioning. After the fifth stage is discarded the engines of
the sixth stage begin.
Thus each stage of the rocket in turn increases the speed of
flight and the last, highest stage attains the necessary space speed
in airless space. If the task is set for landing on another planet
and return to Earth, then the rocket which flies out into space also
must consist of several stages, which are fired in sequence in landing
on the planet, and in taking off from it.
It is interesting to examine the effect produced by the use of
a large number of stages in a rocket.
Let us take a single-stage rocket with a launchir,y weight of
500 tons. Le:t us assume that this weight is distributed in the follow-
ing manner: payload 1 ton, dry weight of the stage 99.8 tons, and
fuel 399.2 tons. Thus the design perfection of this rocket is such
that the weight of the fuel is 4-fold greater than the dry weight of
the stage, or the weight of the rocket itself, without fuel and pay-
load. The Tsiolkovskiy number, or the ratio of the launching weight
of the roc':et to its weight after expenditure of all its fuel, will
be 4.96 for t- given rocket. This number and the magnitude of the
speed of escapement of the gas from the nozzle of the engine determine
the speed which may be attained by the rocket. Now let us attempt to
replace the single-stage rocket with a two-stage rocket. Let us again
take the payload as 1 ton, and assume that the design perfection of
the stage and the speed of escapement of gas shall remain the same as
in the single-stage rocket. Then, as indicated by the calculations,
for attainment of the same speed of flight as in the first case a two-
stage rocket with a total weight of only 10.32 tons will be needed, or
almost 50-fold lighter than the single-stage rocket. The dry weight
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
of the two-stage rocket in 1.86 tone, and the weight of the fuel stored
in both ot.agoc in 7.46 tons. Thus we see that in the case considered
the replacement of a single-stage rocket with a two-stage rocket onabloc
a 54-fold reduction in expenditure of metal and fuel for launching the
same payload.
Lot us take as an example a apace rocket with a payload of 1 ton.
Lot thin rocket penetrate the donne layers of the atmosphere and, fly-
ing out into airless apace, develop the second apace speed of 11.2
km/coec. Our diagrams show the changes in weight of thin apace rocket
an a function of the weight charge of fuel in each cta o, and of the
number of stages (see page 22 L,of the original source/).
It in not difficult to calculate that if a rocket in built whose
engines discharge gases at a speed of 2,400 m/sec. and if the fuel charge
of each of the stages accounts for only 75 percent of the weight, then
in the construction of nix stages the take-off weight of the rocket is
very high, almost 5.5 thousand tons. The launching weight moy be con-
siderably reduced through improvement of the design characteristics of
the rocket stages. Thus, for example, if the fuel charge accounts for
90 percent of the weight of the stage, then the six-stage rocket may
weigh 400 tons.
The use of high-calory fuel and increasing the efficiency of the
engines of the rockets have an extremely great effec . If by increasing
the speed of discharge of gases from the nozzle of the engine by 300
m/sec it may be brought up to the magnitude indicated on the graph,
2,700 nv/sec., then the launching weight of the rocket may be reduced
several times. A six-stage rocket in which the weight of the fuel is
only 3-fold greater than the weight of the stage structure, may have
a launching weight of approximately 1.5 thousand tons. However, by
reducing the structural weight by an amount equal to ten percent of the
total weight of each stage, we may reduce the launching weight of a
rocket wit the same number of stages to 200 tons.
If t:1e speed of discharge of gases is increased another 300 m/sec,
or taking the gas escape speed at 3,000 n~/sec., this leads to still
another reduction in weight. For example, a six-stage rocket with a
fuel weight ratio of 75 percent may have a launching weight of 600 tons.
By increasing the fuel weight ratio to 90 percent we may build a cosmic
rocket with only two stages. Its weight proves to be approximately 850
tons. By increasing the number of stages two-fold we may reduce the
weight of the rocket to 140 tons. For a six-stage rocket the take-off
weight may be reduced to 116 tons.
Thus we have the effect of the number of stages, their design
perfection and speed of discharge of gas upon the weight of the rocket.
Why do the necessary fuel reserves and the over-all weight of
the rocket decrease with an increase in the number of stages? This
derives from the fact that the greater the number of stages the more
frequently may empty tanks be discarded, and the rocket may rid itself
more rapidly of useless weight. At the same time, the take-off weight
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
of the voejkot prior to launching docroauou very rapidly with an increase
in the fiumbor of utagon, but after that the effect of the incroario in
number of' ii-tagon becomes loon significant. It may be noted aluo, an in
quite evident on the appended graphs ZnTot reproduced hore7, that for a
rocket with relatively poor design characteristics an increase in the
number of utagoo produces a greater effect than for a rocket with a
high-percentage fuel content in each stage. This in completely under-
utu.ndablo. If the body of each stage in very heavy, then they must be
di:'cardod an soon an possible. However, if the body in very light it
dries not burden the rocket excessively, and rapid discarding of the
empty bodies does not produce such a groat effect.
In a flight to another planet the necessary expenditure of fuel
is not limited to the amount necessary for acceleration in taking off
from the Earth. Flying up to another planet, a space ship falls into
the sphere of its gravity and begins to approach its surface with in-
creasing velocity. If the planet is lacking an atmosphere capable of
diminishing part of its speed, then in falling to the surface of the
planet the rocket wastes that speed necessary for taking off from that
planet, or the second space speed. The magnitude of the second space
speed, as is known, is different for each planet. For example, for
Mars it is 5.1 km/sec., for Venus 10.4 km/seo., and for the Moon 2.4
km/sec. In the case in which the rocket approaches the sphere of
gravity of a plane-c, having a certain speed relative to the latter, the
speed of fall of the rocket already is great. For example, the second
Soviet space rocket reached the surface of the Moon with a velocity of
3.3 km/sec. If the task is set to ensure a gradual landing of the
rocket on the surface of the Moon, then supplementary fuel reserves
must be on board the rocket. In order to extinguish any particular
speed it is necessary to expend only the amount of fuel necessary for
the rocket to develop that speed. Consequentl1r a space rocket assigned
to accomplish a safe landing on the Moon surface of any particular load,
must carry considerable reserves of fuel. A single-stage rocket with
a payload of 1 ton must have a weight of 3 to 4.5 tons, depending upon
its design perfection.
We have indicated in the above the great weight which a rocket
must have to carry a load of 1 ton into cosmic space. Now we see that
only one third or one fourth of this load may be safely landed upon the
surface of the Moon. The remainder must be devoted to fuel, tanks for
storing it, an engine and the control system.
What must be the sum total of the launching weight of a space
rocket intended for safe landing on the surface of the Moon of scien-
tific equipment or of any useful load weighing 1 ton?
To give a representation of the ships of this type, on our draw-
ing is a conventional cross-section of a five-stage rocket intended for
dblivering on the surface of the Moon a container with scientific equip-
ment and weighing one ton. Technical data cited in a large number of
books were included in the basic calculation of this rocket (for example,
- 13 -
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141 R000201170001-3
in the books: V. Foodos'yov and 0. Sinyarov: Vvodeniyev rakgtnyu
tekhniku LYntroduotion to Rookot Teohnology], and Satton: Rake e
dvigateli Cooket Engine.
Rocket engines using liquid fuel ware taken. Turbopump unite,
placed in action by the products of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide,
are provided for feeding the fuel. The average velocity of gas die-
charge for the first stage engines is taken at 2,400 mleuo. The en-,
ginee of the second stage function in the extremely rarifiod layers of'
the atmosphere and in airless space, and because of this their efficiency
is somewhat greater, and the velocity of their gas discharge is taken
as equal to 2,700 rc/soc. The design characteristics of the stages also
are based on values which may be found in rockets described in the tech-
nical literature.
At the selected original data the following weight characteris-
tics of the space rocket were obtained: take-of'Mweight 3,348 tons,
including 2,892 tons of fuel, 445 tons, structural weight, and a one-ton
payload. The weight distribution among the individual stages is the
following: first stage 2,760 tons, second stage 495 tone, third-Stage
75.5 tone, fourth stage 13.78 tons, and fifth stage.-2.72 tone. The
length of the rocket is 60 m, and the diameter of the lowe4t?atar& is
;?, ,
10 M.
In the first stage are installed 19 engines wi'th' 350?t6ns,'thrast
each. The second stage contains three engines of the same thrust, and
the third stage contains three engines of 60-tons thrust each. The
fourth stage contains one engine of 35-tons thrust; and 'he.last .,stage
contains an engine of 10-tons thrust.
In take-off from the surface of the Earth the engines .of,*..'the
first stage accelerate the rocket to a speed of 2,kw/aeo. After -the
empty body of the first stage is discarded the engines of the follow-
ing three stages are started, and the rocket attains the second space,
speed. ' ,
Farther on the rocket flies to the Moon by, inertia. .,ppproaahing
its surface, the rocket turns with its nozzle downward. The engiAe.;of
the fifth stage is started. It brakes the speed of fall, and the rocket
gradually lands on the surface of the Moon.
Finally, the appended drawings and the related computations do
not represent an actual plan of a Moon rocket. They are ino.luded only
to give an initial impression of the scale of multistage space rockets.
It is completely clear that the design of a rocket, its dirpensions and
weight, depend upon the level of development of acienoe'and.teohaology,
upon the materials at the disposal of'the designers, 'upon the?.fuel,used
and the quality of the rocket engines, and upon the skill of ..its -.builders.
The creation of space rockets represent unlimited scope, for the., creativ-
ity of scientists, engineers and technicians. Much disoovery'and. in-
vention still remains to be done in this field. With each new achieve-
ment the characteristics of rockets will change.
14
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141 R000201 170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
Juut an the contemporary aircraft of typos IL-18, TU-104 and
TU-114 are not uirnilrir to the airplanes which were flying at the be-
ginning of thin century, apace rockets will be continuously improved.
Dy the time apace flights are being made rocket engines will be using
riot only chemical reactions, but other sources of energy, such an the
energy of nuclear processes. With changes in the types of rocket en-
gines the design of the rockets themselves also will change. However,
the remarkable idea of K. E. Taiolkovskiy concerning making "rocket
trains" always will have an honorary role in the investigation of the
limitless oxpannoc of space. ("Stop By Stop," by I. Merkulov, Tekhnika
Molodozhi, No 1, 1960, p 18-21)
that series of experiments, and... Soviet scientists ha e long since
proven that they can put the undesirable geographic pos tion of the
USSR, with respect to achieving optimum results in inte planetary tra-
jectories, to good use by simply taking the conditions ictated by
nature into consideration in makina their calculations-[
In another part of this article, Mielke recalls that the major YRG HT
difficulty in past space flights has been the element of inaccuracy
presented by the absence of accurate knowledge regarding the "Astro-
nomical Unit," defined as the mean distance between Earth and Sun
(149,500,000 kilometers). He does imply, however, that possibilities
exist for solving this problem, in that space probes can now continu-
ously measure the distance between themselves and the earth as well as
between themselves and the target planet and transmit this information
to earth by radio. Thus, comparison between these actual distance
measurements and those based on computations, could result in a more
accurate determination of the "astronomical unit," than heretofore.
According to Mielke, the known "Astronomic Unit" is accurate only to
within about 70,000 kilometers, a factor which could lead to consider-
able errors in planning interplanetary trajectories. ("Progress To-
ward Mars," by Heinz Mielke, Magdeburg, Volksstimme, 19 Mar 60, p 4)
East Germans Pick October 1960 as Ideal Time for Firing Mars Probe
An article by Heinz Mielke in Volksatimme, 19 March, discusses
the problems inherent in firing space probes, particularly to Mars and
Venus, as announced by the Soviet Union. The author covers, in general
terms, the difficulties which anyone has to overcome in firing such a
probe, including selection of vehicle, angle of flight, time of firing
etc. In discussing the best time for the proposed space flight, the ~PYRGHT
author states that n into consideration the Earth-Moon mass, the
[n5:0,000 e Moon, the position of the Sun, and the orbit
of Mars, the choic ideal firing time for probe intercepting the
orbit of Mars with kilometers would be 14-15 October 1960.11
Turning to a proposed Venus probe, the author states that Venus would
not be in favorable position until January 1961.
Although the author does not claim that these dates are those
chosen by Soviet space experts he does state that the USSR needed
o wo es r ngs Lin to e Pacific Ocean/ to suoce sfully conclude
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
Satollitos Servo Peace
1. 0utor-Space Observatory
The atmosphere of the Earth is a very serious hindrance to astro-
nomic observations. It refracts and partially absorbs the light coming
to us from heavenly bodies. Starlight, passing thro4gh the continually
moving layer of air, is partially refracted and weakened. This decreases
the visible clarity of star:, caused their, twinkling and, as a conse-
quence, flickering and dirfuseness of the images of heavenly bodies in
telescopes.
An outer-space observatory will enable observation of the world
of heavenly bodies in unaltered form. In photographing heavenly bodies
from here, considerable magnification and great lengthening of exposure
time may be permitted. This will become possible because due to the
lack of gravitational force the structure of telescopes may be consider-
ably simplified and lightened, and its dimensions may be much greater.
Calculations indicate that a mirror 2.5 m in diameter, with a focal
length of 27.5 m may yield an image of the Moon 25 cm in diameter, and
an image of Mare 3.7 mm in diameter.
From a space observatory the sky will appear absolutely black
upon observation. The brightness of heavenly bodies will increase con-
siderably on this background. This will enable photographs.to be made
of stars and star clusters which are unattainable with terrestrial tele-
scopes. With the aid of radio telescopes the investigation of radio
emanations of heavenly bodies in the entire range of electromagnetic
waves known to us will be possible.
2. Space Land Surveyors
To the present time we still do not know the precise shape of our
planet. However, this is of extremely great importance in the composi-
tion of geographic maps. At the present time only part of the Earth's
dry land has been mapped [e-mail].
It is known that the speed of motion of a satellite is not con-
stant. It is greater above the poles, and less. above the equatorial
belt of the Earth. The Soviet scientist F. Krasovskiy.catculates that
the distance from the center of the Earth to the equator must be 21,382 m
greater than at the pole. Because the foreg of gravitational attraction
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from, the.center
of the Earth, to counterbalance this force a satellite must 'move with
greater velocity over the poles than over the equator. By.observing the
changes in velocity of the flight of a'satellite the shape of our planet
may be defined more precisely, and the distance between continents may
be measured with greater accuracy. At present this distance has been
determined with an accuracy on the order of 100 m! Great perspectives
also are opened by photography of the surface of the Earth.
- 16 -
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
3. $attnllitc Proopectors of 'Ferrestvial Mineral Resources
Thu; muin force determining the motion of an earth :satellite after
it has been placed in orbit is the force of gravitational attraction of
the Earth.
Moving in the field of gravity, it roactc very sensitively to all
changes in this f teld caused by changes in the composition of the crust
and in the character of terrestrial mineral deposits.
It is as though a satellite senses what lies beneath it: whether
deposits of heavy iron ore, massive mountain c,.-eats, or relatively light
ocean waters. The greater the mass in a given area, the more the satel-
lite is attracted at that point.
Depending upon the extent to which the mass of the Earth is dis-
tributed unevenly the satellite, experiencing definite perturbations,
moves in a wavy trajectory.
Through observation of the motion of satellites with the aid of
optical and radio technical means the structure of the Earth and the
distribution of large-scale heterogeneities in the mass of the earth
crust may be studied. This will enable not only more precise determina-
tion of the configuration of our planet, but also will enable discovery
of new areas in which deposits of various mineral resources lie.
Especially numerous deposits of mineral resources may be found
in regions of large expanses of water, which at the present time are
completely uninv stigated in this respect.
4. The Secret of Time and the Satellites
The theory of relativity asserts that there is no single time for
the entire universe. The proper time of the crew of an astral flight,
moving at a velocity nearly equal to the speed of light, is substantially
shortened with respect to time on the Earth. A clock located on a satel-
lite moving at a speed of 8 km/sec. will lose one hundred seconds with
respect to clocks on the ground. The insignificance of this lag is ex-
plained by the fact that the speed of the satellite is very small in
comparison to the speed of light.
For experimental testing of the effect of slowing of the "course"
of time, Corresponding Member of the Academy of Scien3es USSR V. L.
Ginzburg states that a special, highly precise atomic-molecular clock
must be installed on a satellite. By comparison of its indications,
transmitted from the satellite by radio, with the indications of the
same type clock located on the Earth appears to offer the possibility
for determination of the lag predicted by the theory of relativity.
The realization of such an experiment will have decisive impor-
tance in puzzling out the secret of time, which is very important both
in investigation of the character of the development of the universe in
time, and for interstellar travel. It may be that this negligible rate
of seconds also will solve the problem of how far man will penetrate
into the universe.
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
5. Satellite Firefliod
Oboervationo of the flight of artificial earth satellites are
conducted with the aid of radio technical equipment, such an radar and
radio telescopes, and with optical means, such as telescopes, and bin-
oculars. However, the radior:nethods are relatively low in precision,
and with the use of optical instruments the satellites may be seen
mainly in the morning and evening, when it is already dark on the Earth,
but the satellite very well reflects the rays of the sun. Put how is
the satellite to be seen at night? For this it would be sufficient to
have a source of light on the satellite, which periodically would give
off a brilliant burst of light, readily visible P,gainst the dark back-
ground of the night sky.
To increase the aoauracy of determination of the coordinates of
the satellite in space, it would be advantageous to transmit radio im-
pulses simultaneously with the burst of light. The data on the posi-
tion of the satellite, measured with an accuracy of up to 2 or 3 seconds
of are, would enable determination of the distance between various points
on the Earth and the shape of the terrestrial sphere with an accuracy of
up to tens of meters.
6. Space Radio Beacons
In marine navigation and aviation radio beacons transmitting
powerful signals are used extensively for determination of the location
of ships or aircraft. These radio signals are received with the aid of
radio receiving equipment on board the ship or aircraft, and the instru-
ment indicates the direction to the radio beacon. Through the inter-
section of the direction to several radio beacons, plotted on a naviga-
tional map, the navigator finds the position of the ship or aircraft at
the given moment.
For interplanetary travellers to steer their space ships accu-
rately it is necessary for them also to have radio orientation. These
may be satellites orbiting around heavenly bodies and equipped with.
power radio transmitters. The possibility is not excluded of,setting
them up on the surface of satellites of other planets, or on the planets
themselves.
Knowing the trajectory of motion of the space radio beacons and
their location at definite moments of'time, it appears. possible to de-
termine the position of the space ship in space which is receiving their
signals.
7. Bio-Satellites
The time is approaching when man will rush into cosmic space. To
accomplish this extremely great step Soviet scientists are conducting
multifaceted research on the conditions of the existence of a living or-
ganism under these circumstances which'are unusual for it.
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
Thu launching of the second Soviet satellite, carrying the dog
Layka, wan a great accomplishment in this direction. An important
factor in this Case was the sufficiently long stay of an animal in
space. The materials obtained indicated that its condition was satis-
factory both during the process of the ascent and during the entry of
the satellite into orbit, and also during the further movement of the
satellite until consummation of this unique experiment. It is thcaght
that the first flight of an animal in a satellite did not solve enough
of the problems connected with ensuring the safety of people from cosmic
rays. New experiments will be indisputably provided.
The basic problems connected with the stay of man in space may
be divided into three groups. The first group includes the problems of
the influence upon man of the acceleration and weightlessness which arise
in placing the satellite in orbit and during its movement through cosmic
space. The second g.?oup includes problems such as the ei?ation of her-
metically sealed cabins, equipment, providing members of the crew with
food, and providing the necessary supply of air, its temperature and
humidity. Finally, the third group consists of the problems of protec-
tion from cosmic rays, ultraviolet and X-rays of the Sun, from meteors,
etc.
Artificial earth satellites, used as space medicine laboratories,
will play a prime role in the solution of these. problems. With their
aid it will become possible to conduct experimental studies of the in-
fluence upon the living organism of the conditions of prolonged space
flight, which cannot be conducted on the Earth.
6. Space Solar Electric Power Stations
The solar batteries placed in the third Soviet artificial earth
satellite and in the third Soviet space rocket, have performed very well
(for an explanation of the functioning of solar batteries, see No. 10,'
1959, of the present periodical).
The solar batteries, having freed the world from the subjugation
of solar light, transformed solar power of the Earth in space. The space
solar electric power stations, transforming the hot radiation of the sun
into electric power with the aid of photo- and thermoelectric generators,
thermal machines and other means, will satisfy the needs of consumers
located in space. When man will learn to transmit electric power from
space to the Earth without wires, similarly to the manner in which radio
communication is accomplished at present, the creative mind of man will
devote its forces to the creation of space solar electric power stations,
supplying the inhabitants of the Earth with electric power in unlimited
amounts. This will enable considerable savings in all types of fuel and
will most completely satisfy power demands.
- 19 -
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
9. Space Projector
This is how a space projector may look. It may be a solar elec-
tric power station equipped with a special light reflector. By concen-
trating the power light stream with the aid of an optical system, arti-
ficial lighting of individual regions of our planet during the hours of
darkness may be possible. Calculations show that a projector looted
on r.iatellite, with a mirror diameter of several hundred meters is
sufficient to produce an illumination of the surface of the Earth equal
to that of the full moon on a cloudless night. Illumination may be in-
creased by focusing the rays from two or more space projectors upon the
same illuminated area.
10. Meteorological Stations in S
The activity of man is closely connected with the weather. Its
caprices -- destructive downpours and floods, parghirig drought and
bitter cold, brutal storms and hurricanes -- cause man oollossal losses
and untold disasters. It is very important to be able to predict them
in order to take the necessary protective measures. However, 9~t present
the world meteorglogiaal service has very limited resqurces fop this.
Only one third of the surface of the Earth has a network of meteorologi-
cal stations, the remaining two thirds, covered by oceans and seas and
where weather also is formed, have no such stations. The artificial
earth satellites will be of significant assistance to the world meteoro-
logical service.
Equipped with the necessary instruments for observation of the
processes taking place in the forge of weather, the atmosphere, during
the course of one-nnd-one-half to two hours they may. fix the distribu-
tion and character of the cloud cover, the presence of. regions of bad
and good weather, and the movement of warm and cold air masses. '
As a result of the rotation of the Earth about its axis, with
every successive rotation the satellite is able to observe the metepro-
logical picture of new regions contiguous with the preceding regionp.
This enables determination of the movement and sped of movement of
visible storms, determination of which cyclones and anticyclones die
out and which are becoming stronger, and the movement of warm and cold
air masses. Through observation from satellites of the processes taking
place in the atmosphepe of the Earth we do not simply obtain a picture
of the weather during any given moment and .n a limitgcl region) bit we.
detect the basic tendencies of its development on an entire' planetary
scale.
With the development of earth satellites end.of elgatronie compu-
tation technology a new era was began not only in the #.mprovement of
methods of long-range prediction of weather, but also of the emergence
of a new science, the science of spade meteorology. ("Satellites Serve
Peace," by N. A. Varvarov, Tekhnika Molodezh4., No. 1, 1960, pp 3-38)
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
The Earth' a "Corona."
Threb articles to a recent issue of Znaniye-Sila discuss the
"corona"-of the Earth. The first article is devoted to drawing simi-
larities between the Van Allen belts of the Earth and the corona of
the Sun, the second discusses the "hot" electrons in the earth's
atmosphere, and the third attempts an alternate explanation of the
radiation zones surrounding the Earth.
Following the US announcement in February 19:58 of the exist-
ence of a "deadly" radiation zone surrounding the Earth the third
Soviet artificial satellite was launched on 15 May 1958, carrying
special instrumentation for investigation of the unknown radiation,
and the results were reported at the September 1958 meeting of the
IGY at Moscow by Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences USSR
S. N. Vernov and Professor V. I. Krasovskiy. Working independently
of the Soviets, US Scientist Van Allen calculated the existence of a
zone of electrons of considerably less power than cosmic rays at
approximately 150 km above the polar regions of the Earth. Van
Allen's cosmic ray counters, carried in equatorial orbits by the US
satellites Explorer I, II and III were "choked up" by excessive
radiation at an altitude of 1,000 km. A cosmic ray counter of re-
vised design aboard Explorer IV confirmed Van Allen's theory and
revealed that despite its heavy concentration, this radiation is of
low penetrating power and was almost completely absorbed by the shell
of the satellite. The problem of the origin of this radiation was
solved by a radiation counter carried by the third Soviet satellite,
sensitive only to electrons with energy of at least ten kiloeleetron
volts, and S. N. Vernov's X-ray-detecting instrument. In a polar
orbit, the satellite showed that at an altitude of 250 to 500 km the
radiation consisted of electrons unable to penetrate the alloy shell
of the satellite, but producing heavy X-ray radiation through collision
with the satellite shell, and thus also through collision with atmos-
pheric molecules at that altitude. The stream of electrons was so
dense that an instrument outside the satellite was "choked up." This
phenomenon was called the "corona" of the Earth.
According to the views of S. N. Vernov, the boundaries of the
two zones of radiation which surround the Earth coincide with the mag-
netic lines of fora of the Earth. The inner zone ig at an altitude of
600 kilometers in the region of the US, and 1,600 kilometers in the
region of the USSR. Thus the Earth changes the cosmic space surrounding
it, and the "corona" of the Earth actually should be called the zone of
the Earth's corpuscular radiation. According to Yu. I. Gal'perin the
power of this aureole of rapid, charged particles surrounding the Earth
has been found to exceed all expectations, and these particles have a
very great role in the most important processes of the upper layers of
the atmosphere.
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
Just as the corona of the Sun, consisting of a plasma of hydrogen
nuclei and free electrons emitting heat, light, radio- and higher-frequency
radiation, may extend to the Earth in the form of corpuscular radiation,
the atmosphere of the Earth, once thought to be a close-fitting "scarf"
extends farther into space than previously thought, and at the boundary
between the atmosphere and interplanetary gas consists of ions and elec-
trons, forming a shield which protects the Earth from all forms of solar
radiation and from radiation from outer space. Ultraviolet rays cause
ionization of the upper atmosphere, but the strongest ultraviolet rays
come to within only 80 or 100 km of the earth before dying out. The
ultraviolet rays which succeed in approaching closer to the Earth are
stopped at an altitude of 30 to 50 km by ozone molecules. X-rays and
gamma rays, which strip electrons from atoms, do not penetrate below
60 kilometers. Similarly to the corona of the Sun, the ionized layer
of the earth's atmosphere at an altitude of 1,000 km, or 7- or 8-times
the earth's diameter, is influenced more by the magnetic field of the
Earth than by its gravity, is the region of the X-ray radiation peculiar
to the Earth, and the plasma of the earth's atmosphere at this altitude
is heated to temperatures of thousands of degree"
Yu. I. Gal'perin states that solar wave- and corpuscular radiation
generally is absorbed below an altitude of 300 kilometers.. The atmosr
phere above this level is practically transparent for all forms. , of,-solar
radiation. The temperature of several thousand degrees 0entigrade'at
this attitude cannot be caused by absorption of short-wave solar radia-
tion, and one of the hypotheses for the explanation of .this,. temperature ,
is that the Earth passes through very hot interplanetary gas in its revo-
lution around the Sun. The real cause of this phenomenon is not yet.
known. Another phenomenon which has not yet been explained?*satisfantor-
ily is the ionization of the upper atmosphere at night and during a. solar
eclipse. A suggested explanation is that only the "leading ranks" of a
stream of solar corpuscles make contact with the uppermost.arid most rari-
fied regions of the atmosphere.
The Earth's corona consists of two layers.: the inner, relatively
stable layer at an altitude of 500 to 1,000 km, consisting of charged
particles and located mainly over the Equator, and the outer, relatively
variable layer located at an altitude of 40,000 to 50,000 km, consisting
of electrons, covering almost the entire Earth,.and having a much denser
concentration of charged particles. Associates of the.Department of the
Upper Atmosphere of the Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Academy of
Sciences USSR, headed by Professor Valerian Ivanovich Krasovskiy, main-
tain that the Sun is responsible for the formation of the Earth's corona.
S. N. Vernov offers another possible explanation of the origin of
the Earth's "corona," or the Earth's corpuscular radiation. According
to this theory the collision of oosm.{e ray particles with atoms of the
earth's atmosphere may result in th'a formation of neutrons. Because
the neutron has no charge it may continue in a straight line into'outer
space. However, because the average life of theproton is.15 minutes,
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
some of the neutrons decompose into a proton, electron and neutrino,
which are caught in the -trap of the earth's magnetic field and oscillate
between the Earth's pole because as they approach a pole, where the
magnetic lines of force of the Earth emerge, a magnetic "bottleneck" is
formed and the protons and electrons reverse their dirbetion. Because
of the rarefaction of the upper atmosphere this oscillation continues
for a long period of time. Because of recent studies of cosmic rays in
the stratosphere the amount of neutrons formed by the earth's atmosphere
under the action of cosmic rays now is known, Although this theory may
explain the origin of the inner band of radiation around the Earth, no
satisfactory explanation yet has been found for the fact that the con-
centration of matter between the two radiation zones is at least one-
thousand-fold less than within the radiation zones. A new science, the
physics of plasmas, may provide the answer to the question of how the
two radiation zones become filled with matter. The relatively great
temporary changes in the outer radiation zone indicate this may be due
to the action of corpuscular radiation from the Sun. The question of
whether the Moon also has a corona was answered by the launching of the
Moon rocket: no marked magnetic field, and hence no corona was detected
near the Moon.
The rockets launched from the Earth to the Moon passed radially
through the electron layer and enabled precise determination of the
extent of the Earth's "corona." The earth radiation zone reaches its
highest level at 25,000 km above the Earth, after which it drops off
rapidly. At a distance of 10 earth radii the radiatic:- has dropped
100-fold and is practically equal to the general cosmic level. This
defines the boundary of the Earth's "corona." At this altitude the
magnetic field of the Earth has no marked effect, the magnetic trap
disintegrates, and electrons cannot be held by it. If this were not
the case, charged particles would be observed there because, based
upon computation, each charged particle would live no less than one
week.
Yu. I. Gal'perin explains the formation of the magnetic trap
around the Earth as follows. Because of the rarified atmosphere at an
altitude of 500 to 1,000 km, collisions between atoms or molecules of
the air are less frequent than in the lower, denser atmosphere, and
thus the velocity of these atoms and molecules toward outer space is
so high that they begin to move in an elliptical orbit around-the center
of the Earth. The outer atmosphere contains a large number of these
"satellite" particless. The charged particles moving within the mag-
netic field of the Earth are subjected to a force in conformance with
the Right Hand Rule. The action of this force in the magnetic field
of the Earth will bend the trajectory of solar corpuscles in a complex
manner so that a considerable portion of these corpuscles will go to-
ward the opposite, or night side of the Earth, mainly in the vicinity
of the magnetic poles. The charged particles of the upper atmosphere
and within the magnetic field of the Earth describe a complex, spiral
- 23 -
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
path, and while they-move atound the Earth the electrons move toward the
east and the positively charged particles move toward the west. Thin
movement of charged particles must create a ring iurront around the Earth,
which weakens its magnetic field. This current may exist only if its
magnetic field is weaker than the magnetic field of the Earth at the
given altitude. In additicri to revolution around the Earth, tha charged
particles revolve around the magnetic lines of force, and also vacillate
around the latter. Because of fewer collisions between particles in the
rarified altitudes of the atmosphere the particles maintain this complex
motion for long periods of time. If great energy'is imparted to these
particles, which is equivnlent to the great heating of the upper atmos-
phere, the increased temperature also will be maintained for a long
period of time because of little interaction between this portion or the
atmosphere with the denser layers. Thus we have the magnetic tap for
charged particles around the Earth. In this trap the ions and electrons
or the hot plasma which is formed at extreme altitudes above the Earth
are held in endless motion around the Earth, just as scientists at pres-
ent are attempting to create a, sun-like plasma and confine it within a
"magnetic bottle,,' If, under certain conditions the amplitude of vacil-
lation of particles around the magnetic lines of force is increased, a
small portion of the particles are deflected from their usual,orbit, and
especially in the polar regions, collide with atoms and molecules of the
denser layers of the atmosphere at altitudes of 100 to 500,,kilometers,
imparting great energy to these atoms and molecules and resulting in the
phenomenon of the aurora polaris.
At the annual meeting of the Department of Mathematical Physics
of''the Academy of Sciences USSR Sergey Nikolayevioh Vernov reported that
sounding balloons released during the IGY from Murmansk and from the
Moscow suburb of Dolgoprudnaya indicated that perhaps once a year rela-
tively high energy particles from outer space are recorded, although
they have not been recorded at latitudes to the south of Moscow. As to
whether these particles originate in the Sun, it is noted that although
a powerful solar eruption cccurred on 23 February 1956, charged particles
were not observed in the vicinity of the Earth until twenty hours later.
Vernov states that this suggests the existence of "travelling" traps,
which may be "pieces" of the magnetic field of the Sun which have broken
off from the latter and are travelling in space. It is known that in a
stream of solar corpuscles, or a shred c: rarif ied plasma, the magnetic
field generated. by the movement of its component charged particles may
continue to exist for an unlimited period of time. Entering the earth's
magnetic field, these shreds of the solar magnetic field disintegrate
the continuity of the earth's magnetic trap and penetrate the trap,
According to V. I. Krasovskiy and his associates t4e cloud of
electrons surrounding the Earth consists' of a stream of solar corpuscles
caught in the earth's magnetic field. External corpuscles cannot enter
the region of regulated movement of charged particles described above,
and this region is "prohibited" to them. Investigations conducted with
the third Soviet artificial earth satellite unexpectedly revealed the
- 24 -
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
prc~.7~~t~r1c~ of fast., charged particles, especlally electrons, in the outer
at,mornphere an(I In the "prohibited" regions. V. I. Kranovskiy and his
asnociatuu determined that the temperature of these electrons attains
tons of millions of degrees. Other investigation led to the discovery
of even hotter particles, though in much less quantity. According to
the view of' Yu. I. Gal'perin, the origin of these "superheated" parti-
cles results from the transformation of the kinetic energy of clots of
Ionized gas ejected from the Sun into heat upon the collision of these
clots, having magnetic fields of their own, with the outer atmosphere
of the Earth, which also constitutes a closed magnetic field. The hot
particles generated in the outer atmosphere in this manner have a velocity
approximately equal to that of electrons in a television picture tube.
Pgcause of the presence of high energy particles in the lower zone
of the earth's "corona" it is suggested by Ye. Saparina that the forma-
tion of this zone may have boon caused by the explosion by the US of
thermonuclear bombs high above Johnston Island in the Pacific Ocean late
In 1957. At the came time an unusual aurora polaris was observed 3,500
kilometers away. The explosion and the aurora occurred along the same
magnetic line of force, and it in known that charged particles travel
most, easily along magnetic linen of force. Computations of Soviet sci-
entists show that an atomic explosion above the state of Nevada, for
example, may result in electrons rising as high as 10,000 km, and may
directly enter the lower zone of the earth's "corona." Although it may
be argued that the charged particles produced by an atomic explosion are
insufficient to produce a noticeable result, calculations show that only
a few high-altitude atomic explosions would be sufficient to "fill" the
lower zone with charged particles. To test this theory the US conducted
"Project Argue" in 1958, with three nuclear explosions at an altitude of
several hundred kilometers, with the result that a considerable portion
of the Earth was encircled by a supplementary zone of radiation for
several days. Thus atomic tests are considered objectionable not only
because of the direct danger from radiation, but also because of their
possible meteorological effect. The Johnston Island test, for example,
apparently caused great magnetic storms and the extraordinary appearance
of an aurora polaris over the tropical islands of Samoa, the Canary
Islands, and others. ("Corona of the Earth" by Ye. Saparina, Znaniye-
Sila, No 3, 1960, p 34-39, "Hot' Electrons in the Earth's Atmosphere,"
by Yu. I. Gal'perin, Znaniye-Sila, No 3, 1960, p 36-37, Article by S.
N. Vernov, Znaniye-Sala, No 3, 1960, p 37-38)
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141ROO0201170001-3
III. UPPER ATMOSPIIERE
Giant Telescope
Soviet astronomical science soon will be enriched by a now
telescope, the most powerful in the world. The planned building at
Pulkovo of a telescope with a mirror diameter of six motors has been
developed under the direction of Corresponding Member of the Academy
of Sciences USSR D. D. Maksutov.
At the present time there is a reflecting telescope with an
aperture of five motors at the Palomar Observatory in California.
The new Soviet reflector, the plan of which includes the creation of
a great mirror and the introduction of many design and technological
innovations, will enable the realization of research unknown to scien-
tific practice. This is primarily related to the study of extragalac-
tic space outside the limits of the Milky Way, and which to the present
time has been little accessible to Soviet astronomers because of the
lack of sufficient powerful telescopes.
The telescope will enable realization of extensive investigation
of the physical properties and structure of stars through the use of
spectral analysis and modern electronic technology.
During the current year the Pulkovo Observatory is continuing
work started earlier in expeditionary searching prior to selection of
a site for the new telescope. In the immediate future special expedi-
tions are being sent to the mountainous regions of the Caucasus, Central
Asia, the Pamirs, and the Far East for study of astroclimatic conditions.
("Telescope-Giant," Izvestiya, 6 April 1960, p 2)
IV. ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC
Climatic Zones of East Antarctica and the Southern Ocean
During the International Geophysical Year meteorological and
aerological observations were conducted not only on the shore of Ant-
arctica, but also within the sixth continent. Because of this, data
were obtained on the circulation of the atmosphere and the course of
weather at various distances from the shore, all the way to the South
Pole. Valuable observational data were accumulated during the move-
ment of sled-tractor trains into the interior regions of Antarctica.
',vetch was accomplished by air weathor surveys, with the aid of which
distances of 2,000-4,000 km were covered in one day. To this must be
added the systematic study of the relief of Eastern Antarctica, con-
ducted by the Third Soviet Antarctic expedition in 1958. Analysis of
all this observational data enables us now to indicate the basic cli-
matic zones of Eastern Antarctica and its surrounding Antarctic Ocean
(Figure 1). jiote: Reproduced figures are appended following the
last page of this report,.]
- 26 -
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141ROO0201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
Five climatic zones are differentiated: (1) the high Antarctic
plateau, 2) the Antarctic elope, (3) the Antarctic chore, (4) drift
toe, and (5) open Antarctic waters.
All five zones are described briefly in the following.
The zone of the High Antarctic Plateau
An is indicated by the surface profile of the ice cover of
Eastern Antarctica, which extends in various directions, a atr":ctural
contour of approximately 2,800 m limits that internal region of East-
ern Antarctica which boat may be called the high Antarctic plateau.
It is true that this is not a plateau in the sense that the surface is
completely horizontal. On the contrary, on a relief map a domed sec-
tion stands out clearly, located to the southwest of camp Sovetskaya
and outlined by a 4,000-m structural contour. However, the slope of
the snowy surface on all aides of the dome is small, on the order of
10-3, and produces only weak slope winds.
The climate of the Antarctic plateau is unusually bleak and is
not duplicated anywhere on the earth's sphere. The main oharaoteris-
tics of the climate are: low negative temperatures of the air during
the entire year, predominance of clear weather with little wind, small
amount of precipitation, and dryness of the air.
The Vostok, Sovetskaya and Komsomol'skaya stations characterize
this climatic zone with their observations.
The warmest months, December and January, are distinguished by
a great regularity of temperature throughout the entire Antarctic
plateau. At the ground surface the mean diurnal temperature in two
thirds of the cases is between -30 and -35 degrees. The maximum tem-
perature reaches -22 to -24 degrees.
During summer the troposphere above the plateau also is charac-
terized by horizontal regularity of temperature.
During February and March the temperature drops sharply; after-
ward, the period of the Antarctic cold winter begins, lasting until
the middle of October, with July and August the coldest months. The
lowest temperatures recorded in 1958 were during the month of August:
-87.4 degrees at station Vostok, -86.8 degrees at station Sovetskaya,
and -80.7 degrees at station Komsomol'akaya. During winter the mean
diurnal temperatures of all days were below -40 degrees. In the second
half of October and in November the temperature rises rapidly.
The daily fluctuations-in temperature are interesting. In the
summer a considerable range of temperatures is observed during a 24-
hour period. In April the temperatures begin to level out. During the
polar night the regular diurnal change is lacking, but is clearly ex-
pressed again with the rising of the sun. However, the diurnal varia-
tion in temperature during the course of the year remains great,.with
the greatest fluctuation from day to .:gay observed during the winter
period, which is well illustrated by the data of station Vostok (Figure
2). The explanation is that in winter a meridional exchange of air
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
mariuou arisen, and on the Antarctic dome, together with cyclonic out-
bursts air currents from temperate, and even from tropical latitudes
arise. On the other hand, sharp diurnal fluctuations in temperature
may be observed oven during periods of regular, very frosty weather,
when there is absolutely no exchange of air masses. In this case an
especially sharp temperature inversion occurs near the surface, with a
rise in temperature of 3-5 degrees at 100 m in a thin, low layer.
Naturally, with rising winds and increasing mixture the fluctuation
.
in temperatures at the surface of the plateau may become great
Clear weather predominates on the Antarctic plateau both in
winter and in summer. However, this does not mean that a laIting
anticyolone is located hero during the winter. On the contrary, the
lowest temperatures always are observed during the periods of lowest
pronnure, approximately 600-610 mb. Thus, during the winter a cold,
cloudless cyclone dominates above the Antarctic plateau, the circulation
of which extends upward, also occupying the stratosphere. During the
period of this closed circulation, when no warmer air masses penetrate
the Antarctic from the outside, as a result of loss of heat through
radiation the lowest temperatures are produced. In the surface inver-
sion layer, extending several hundred meters high, a frosty mist is
formed almost continuously, from which icy crystals precipitate. This
produces a small amount of precipitation because the absolute humidity
of the air fluctuates within the range of 0.001-0.1 mb. In the case
when cyclones of the oceanic region enter the system of the Antarctic
cyclone and brim in warmer air, clouds are formed and precipitation
increases somewhat.
The predominant cloud form is cirrus and the condensed cirro-
stratus which is peculiar to the Antarctic; altostratus formations
are rare. The sun always shines through this cloud cover, and precipi-
tation falls in the form of ice bars or plates, rarely in the form of
snowflakes. All this cannot greatly increase the snow cover. Precipi-
tation is increased with the appearance of dense altostratus clouds,
reminiscent of nimbostratus, but this occurs only in isolated oases.
Ong third to one half of the monthly total precipitation is
deposited V hoarfrost. The total annual precipitation at station
Komsomoltskaya is approximately 20-25 mm. The total precipitation at
the Sovetskaya and Vostok stations may be taken as 25-35 mm. Close
to the outer border of the high Antarctic plateau the annual total
increases, apparently to 50-60 mm.
Despite the fact that the general features of the climate of
the entire area of the Antarctic plateau are similar there in no com-
plete climatic homogeneity, which is caused by variations in altitude,
location inland within the continent, and by peculiarities of the re-
lief of East Antarctica. Thus the climatic character in the region of
station Sovetskaya is determined by a depression in the relief in a
northwesterly direction, alongside the mid-continental valley, opening
on the Olaf - ryuds Bay. This depression determines the direction of
- 28 -
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
the predominant ESE wind. The wind in of a elope-wind character, and
has a low velocity of 2.5-4.6 m/noo. At the same time a west-southwest
wind, also of low velocity and of a elope-wind character, predominates
at the geomagnetic pole, located on the eastern slope of the spur sepa-
rating the Sovetskaya and Vostok stations. These peculiarities of
inland slope winds, determined by the relief, are encountered every-
where.
Turning to the region of station Sovetskaya, on the other hand,
it must be mentioned that it in located on the upper portion of the
wide valley mentioned above, which leads to the following results. In
the event that warm air masses invade the Antarctic through,the shore
of Olaf-Pryuds Bay, they penetrate relatively easily to the region of
station Sovetskaya, and in any case no less frequently than the intru-
sion of warm air as far as station Komsomolskaya, located at a much
shorter distance from the shore.
The existence of the crest of the icy dome of the Antarctic
southwest of station Sovetskaya and of the spur which extends in a
northeasterly direction to a known degree screens the region of the
station from loss of warm air masses from the region of Ross Sea; the
latter fairly frequently reach station Vostok, which lies on the oppo-
site slope of the spur.
The trip to the relatively inaccessibleSpple, which was made
in December 1958, revealed that more abundant deposit of frost and
precipitation is observed on the opposite, western and southwestern
sides of the dome than on the slopes on which station Sovetskaya is
located. This indicates that relatively more humid and warm air cur-
rents from the west and the Weddels Sea release their reserve of mois-
ture on the western and southwestern slopes of the Antarctic dome, and
arrive at the opposite slope in a much drier state.
There are several differences in the course of temperature varia-
tions, also, which is apparent at least from comparison of the data of
station Komsomol'skaya with the data of stations Sovetskaya and Vostok.
This differen:;e is explained not by the altitude or geographic latitude
of the locale alone, but also by the distance from the shore, from where
advection of heat, diminishing with distance, occurs.
Figure 3 contains annual isotherms assembled by Kh. Ya. Zakiyev
on the basis of results of measurements of the temperature of subsurface
firn taken during trips into the interior continent. As is known, the
temperature at a depth of approximately 15 m (where annual variation in
temperature is absent) is equal to the average annual temperature of the
aid at the given point. The map shows marked differences in the tempera-
ture characteristics of the Antarctic plateau. The region of rise in
temperature between station Sovetskaya and the station at the relatively
inaccessible Pole is noteworthy.
The conditions of deposit of precipitation in various sections of
the Antarctic plateau have not been studied very thoroughly, and in this
connection valuable results may be afforded by analysis of the reserve
of firn-snow thickness through boring holes. At present this work has
been only at a small number of points.
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
0
The Zone of the Antarctic Slope
The basic distinguishing characteristic of the climate of this
zone is the existence of oonston+, otrcng glopo winds which create a
drifting movement of snow from the interior regions of the Antarctic
to the shore. We take the upper boundary of the Antarctic slope as a
structural contour of approximately 2,800 m, and the lower boundary is
taken close to the shore, at a distance of several tons of kilometers
from the shoreline. The width of the zone is 600 to 800 km.
The Antarctic slope is rather step. For the first hundred
kilometers from the shore the slope is o .pa4 or 0.015, but higher up
the slope factor decreases to 0.004 or 0.005. The conditions for
establishing a downflow of air, cooled by passing over a snowy slope,
are unique in their proportions.
At present the climate of the slope is characterized ~y the
observations of three inland stations: Vostok-l ( 9 = 72?08
. 96?35', h ^ 3,140 m), Pionerskaya ( ip m 69?41', 956301
,
h - 2,700 m), and Sharko ( 9 e 69?30', - 139?02', 2,400 m).
Station Vostok-l was functioning during the winter of 1957.
It is located to the south of the upper boundary of this climatic
zone, where the drainage slope winds are born. The winter temperature
characteristics are indicated by the following average values:
April May June July August September October
-48.0 -52.7 -51.7 -58.0 -53.0 -48.7 -48.3
According to the observations of station Vostok-1 the monthly
average wind velocity is 6 to 77m/see, and that of the Antarctic
plateau is 3 or 4 m/see.
The observations of the Pionerskaya and Sharko stations are
most typical of the slope. The annual maximum temperature at station
Pionorskaya is -13 degrees, and minimum is -67 degrees. The distribu-
tion of annual average temperatures on the slope is shown on the map
of Zakiyev (Figure 3). As far as the monthly average wind velocity
is concerned, it varies in the range of 8 to 13 m/sec. In general
the wind on the slope is weaker than on the shore. However, the char-
acter of the wind in the slope zone is different. On the shore periods
of storms and hurricanes alternate with days of weak wind, but on the
slope the wind is distinguished by great constancy, although it does
not reach hurricane force.
The down-slope wind lifts many small crystals of snow from the
Antarctic surface, creating an almost constant down-grade drift, cover-
ing the Antarctic slope with a cloud of drifting snow mist. From afar
or from above this cloud has a very characteristic lavender. shade. Its
upper edge rises to 50-100 m above the snowy surface. According to
aerial observations, during ordinary 'balm" weather the aloud of drifting
mist begins 100-150 km from the shore and gradually dissipates, transform-
ing into drifting snow at a distance of 500-600 km from the shore. The
-30-
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
density of the cloud of snowy mist depends upon the force of the wind
and the condition of the snowy surface. The cloud grows with a fresh
fall of snow.
The influence of oceanic cyclones passing close to the shore or
penetrating the interior of the continent extends to the Antarctic slope
with considerably greater frequency than to the Antarctic plateau. Be-
cause of this snow fall is frequently observed here, increasing the re-
currence of drifting. Downgrade and general drifting is observed a
total of 25-29 days per month during the winter, and 15-20 days per
month during the short summer. Because of this the Antarctic slope
sometimes is called the climatic zone of constant drifting.
The Antarctic Shore Zone
The climate of the shore of East Antarctica has been studied by
many stations both prior to the International Geophysical Year and,
especially, during the IGY. In general the climate of the Antarctic
shore at the latitude of the Antarctic Circle may be termed dry, and
relatively warm with a large number of clear or sunny days. The lat-
ter circumstance essentially distinguishes the shore from the drifting
ice zone, with its misty, damp weather. The stormy slope winds are the
climatic scourge of the shore zone, but they are also its own peculiar
blessing. It is well known that winds which have a slope-wind, or
foehn-rind character bring with them dry and warmed air, mix with forma-
tions of extremely cooled terrestrial layers of air (which occurs in
the deep regions of the Antarctic) and enable the breaking up of low
cloud formations. Its boundary constantly is visible on the horizon
from the sea to the north. Because of the slope wind the most frequent
temperatures on the shore are within the range of -10 to -25 degrees,
even during the winter. During the coldest periods the minimal tem-
perature drops to -30 to -35 degrees, and the minimal limit is approxi-
mately -40 degrees.
Fairly intense melting of snow is observed on the shore in the
summer, and the maximum temperatures sometimes rise above zero.
Four climatic zones may be distinguished within the extent of
all shore zones: (a) icy shore with barrier, (b) external shelf-
glaciers, (c) inland shelf-glaciers, and (d) Antarctic oases.
The first climatic region, icy shore with barrier, includes the
most extended sections which constitute the ends of the slope of the
Antarctic shield, with a perpendicular barrier at the boundary with
the sea. The icy surface rises sharply upward toward the south, and
at several tens of kilometers from the shore the absolute altitude is
greater than 1,000 m. Naturally, this sharp rise of the surface rapidly
changes the climatic conditions, especially with respect to temperature
and precipitation. As a result of this the observations of stations
located on the icy shore characterize the climate as a narrow coastal
belt. The area of location of the Mirnyy observatory, in particular,
belongs to this climatic region.
- 31 -
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
On the shore of Antarctica oases also are observed, as well as
shelf-glaciers abutting on the shore line. Their climates are distin-
guished by peculiarities connected with great areas of open rocky
surface in the first case, and with an almost horizontal icy or snowy
surface in the second case.
The shelf' glaciers may be divided into two categories: external
and inland glaciers. Examples of the first are the Western and Shaclcle-
ton shelf glaciers, and of the second the Aymer and Ross glaciers.
The external shelf glaciers move far to the north in the sea.
Because of the quasi-horizontal surface the slope winds of the Antarctic
die down over the shelf glaciers at a small distance from the shore.
Under the conditions of anticyclonic weather during the summer this
leads to much greater cooling of the air than at the shore. On the
other hand the constant stratus and stratocumulus cloud cover observed
above the sea frequently expands over sections of glaciers which have
moved out to sea, increasing the number of cloudy and hazy days per
year. Winds of storm and hurricane force dominate here during the pas-
sage of deep cyclones. Precipitation must be greater than on the shore.
The inland shelf glaciers cut deeply into the continent and are
located at very high latitudes. Because of this the temperature condi-
tions of these glaciers must be bleak. It is known that the average
monthly temperatures at the Little America station during the coldest
months are considerably below -30 degrees (down to -38 degrees). At
the same time the average wind velocities are approximately the same as
those on the high Antarctic plateau. Strengthening of the wind as a
result of stormy cyclones occurs more frequently than on the Antarctic
plateau. The amount of precipitation is approximately the same as at
the shore.
The basic climatic characteristics of the Antarctic oases are
such that their areas may be included in the climatic zone of the shore,
despite the sharp difference between the underlying surface in compari-
son to the surrounding geographic medium. However, they also have their
own characteristic distinctions, which may be readily seen in the example
of the Banger oasis ( 9 = 66?16', T = 100?44', h = 20 m). First of all,
slope winds are lacking at the oases. These die down at the approaches
to the oases, meeting an intersecting surface of low grade having a con-
siderably horizontal expanse. The existence of slope winds on the near-
est Antarctic slope is detected by a bluish shroud of drifting ground
snow, while winds are calm or of low velocity at the oases. On the
other hand, during the passage of stormy cyclones hurricane winds flare
up, lasting from one or two days to several days. These hurricanes re-
move the snow cover, which is maintained only in the form of air drifts
on the leeward side of obstacles, and because of this during the entire
year, including winter, the rocky surface of the oasis remains uncovered.
This has only a slight reflection in the course of temperatures during
the cold periods of the year from the point of view of comparison with
other climatic fields of the shore. During the summer, however, and
- 32 -
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
during the transitional seasons, the uncovered surface of granite,
detritus and coil change the radiation and heat balance of the active
surface in comparison with a snowy surface. During the prevalence of
gentle winds this leads to a perceptible warming of the air.
The climatic region of the mountain chains of the Antarctic re-
main to be delineated. At the present time, however, an extremely small
amount of data is available pertaining to the characteristics of these
regions.
The zone of drift ice and icebergs exists as though it were a
continuation of the Antarctic continent to the north on the ocean side.
Its climate is particular: the sky is covered almost constantly with
low clouds, fog is formed above the ice, and supercooled rain fails fre-
quently. The character of prec{,pitation is both frontal and convective,
within unstable air masses. Convection precipitation falls from Antarc-
tic Cb 5umulonimbus7, distinguished by a small vertical development of
approximately 1.5 to 2 km. The total annual precipitation here is greater
than on the shore.
The climatic conditions of the drift ice zone during the summer
season have been studied on the basis of the data of various naval expedi-
tions, and the first climatic maps have been drawn up. In particular,
the temperature of the air here remains constantly at approximately zero.
The amount of data which has been accumulated on the characteris-
tics of the cold period still is small. Because of this, ice surveys
have been conducted monthly during both the winter and summer by air-
craft flying from the shore to the edge of the ice within the area of
the Davis Sea, and meteorological observations have been made during
these air aL:?veys.
The slope winds extend from the shore for a distance of a few
kilometers, at the most, over the sea. Because of this, in the event
of calm weather it is colder on the drifting ice fields than on the
shore. However, as the edge of the ice is approached we meet a zone
of sharp rise in temperature, dense, low clouds, occasionally blending
with low fog, snowfall or supercooled rain. Cutting through this zone,
which is approximately 100 km thick, we enter another, warmer air mass
with temperatures above -10 degrees, with a temperature of approximately
-20 degrees on the shore. This zone is the Antarctic front. It may be
contrasting or diffuse, depending upon the general synoptic condition.
Toward the end of winter the edge of the ice moves up to 800 km from
the shore.
The Zone of Open Antarctic Waters
In the preceding climatic zone the annual changes in the course
of weather depends to a great extent upon the seasonal movement of the
edge of the ice toward the north or back toward the south. Because of
-33-
U Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
this the northern boundary of the drift ice climate may be taken as the
extreme (farthest removed from the shore) position of the edge of the
ice in winter.
The water of the ocean, nowhere covered by ice, goes even farther
north. The climatic characteristics of this zone, lying south of the
end of the subtropic anticyclones, are determined primarily by the fact
that the underlying surface here is the water of the open ocean. Further-
more, as it is known, these are the stormy latitudes of the southern hemis-
phere, with their misty and bad weather. The line of Antarctic conver-
gence, constituting a remarkable physico-geographical border, must serve
also as the northern boundary of the climatic zone of the open Antarctic
waters. ("Climatic Zones of East Antarctica and the Southern Ocean" by
V. A. Bugayev, Meteorologiya i Gidrologiya, No 3, 1960, p 3-10)
- 34 -
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approc elease 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141 R000201170001-3
Figure Appondix for Chaptor IV Arctic and Antarctic
Figure 1. Climatic Zones of East Antarctica atd the Southern
Ocean; l.-Antarctic Plateau; 2 -- Antarctic
slope; 3 -J Antarctic shore; 4 drift-ico zone;
and 5 -- zone of open Antarctic waters.
AMA
l // m 91 V 1'! PD ? it X 17 M
Figure 2. Annual range of mean diurnal air temperatures at
Station Vostok.
-35-
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
Figure 3. Mean annual air temperatures (after Kh. ya''$'Za-
kiyev) . Legenid: 1 .-- Pole of 'relative inaccessi-
bility; 2 -- Sovetskaya; 3 -- Vostok;.4 ?- Xamo-
molskaya; 5 -- Pion rskaya; 6 -- ldrnyy.
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 CIA-RDP82-00141 R0002011170061-3
 Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141R000201170001-3
V. METEOROLOGY
Fog Dissipation by 002 Seeding
A brief article in 0 onek describes a demonstration o(' C02 seed-
ing of a fog bank to clear an airport. The CO22 apparatus, mounted in a
large aircraft, was made by associates of the GVF Scientific; Research
Institute under the direction of A. V. Tarasov, and consisted of a mete-
orograph, recording air temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity,
and an apparatus including liquid-CO2 bottles.
The fog, described as a menace to the regular operation of air
lines, in this case apparently was a supercooled fog. The seeding from
an aircraft took 30 or 40 minutes, during which time the aircraft flew
a great "S-11 shaped course within an area of 100 square kilometers.
Precipitation occurrd rapidly in a zone 1-1/2 kilometers wide on each
side of the line of flight, cutting a swath out of the fog 'where the
aircraft had passed. A "lower sun" is seen shining from beneath the
fog. This is explained as a reflection of the sun by snow crystals
formed from droplets of water comprising the supercooled fog. The
aircraft landed at the same airfield, which now had been cleared of
fog. ("Sun in the Fog," by A. Golikov, Ogonek, No 0' 1960, p 31)
-37-
Approved For Release 1999/09/08 : CIA-RDP82-00141 R000201170001-3