INFORMATION ON SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION - 1959

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• Collection: General CIA Records
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• Document Page Count: 23
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 11, 1999
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: September 11, 1959
• Content Type: REPORT

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BLOC L NTERNAT I ONRL GEOPHYS I CRI; .'CaO;PERAT I ON
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INFORMATION ON SOVINT 41,00 INT RNATIONAL GXOPHYSICAL COOPERATION ` 1959
September 11, 1959
U. S. DSPARTMZNr OF 0010MCZ
Office?of.Tecknical Services
Wnakinjton 25, D. C.
P1 131632-83
Published Weekly
Sub,acription Price-$12..1 for tke, Series
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INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION PROGRAM--
SOVIM-BLOC ACTIVITIES
Table of Contents
Page
I.
Rockets and Artificial Earth Satellites
:'.1
II.
Upper Atmosphere
6
III.
IV.
V.
Meteorology
Seismology
Oceanography
16
VI.
Arctic and Antarctic
18
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Results of Sputnik-III Study of Electron Concentration Reported
The Satellite study of electron concentration in the upper atmosphere
is described in the July issue of a'Soviet journal.' A translation of
the article follows.
The direct observation of electrons of medium hardness in the upper
atmosphere was made in an experiment conducted on the third Soviet arti-
ficialsatellite, launched 15 -May 1958: The somewhat harder component was
studied later by other inve.3tigators. Analogous experiments were made of
rockets in the region'of the auroras.
A feature of the experiment described here is that only electrons with
energies of the order of 10?kiloelectron volts were recorded.. The indica-
tors used did not react to the X-radiation produced by these electrons in
the atmosphere and in the satellite itself. Thin fluorescing screens (ZnS,
activated by Ag) were used which contained two milligrams of the substance
per square centimeter. These screens completely absorbed"the' electrons
noted above, and only'a very inconsiderably portion of the X-radiation pass-
ing through them. Protons with energies of several tens'.of. kiloelectron-
volts did not act on these indicators.since aluminum foils (0.4 and 0.8
milligrams per square centimeter) were placed in'frpnt of the screens. If
the X-rays had also been recorded, the data obtained would have distorted
the information concerning the distribution of corpuscle-electrons with
latitude and altitude. The upper atmosphere of the Earth, particularly, in-
the zone of maximum recurrence of auroras, is transformed into a source
of X-rays under the action of electrons with the energies mentioned above.
About half of this radiation passes directly into outer space. The equip-
ment on a high altitude rocket or a satellite will therefore be subjected
not only to the X-rays whi-ch'are produced in their shells but also to the
radiation of the whole upper atmosphere. Since X-rays are generated to
a more intense degree close to the' zone. of the, maximum recurrence of auroras
and this zone becomes visible above the equator at a distance of approxi-
mately 2.5 Earth radii, the maximum flux of this radiation above the
Equator will be close to this *region. In other experiments,_ the deeply
penetrating Xrradiation was recorded, along with hard electrons and protons,
thus making the interpretation of results vague or not completely unique.
1, 1
By using aluminum foils of various thickness as absorbers, we were
able to estimate the "equivalent" energy of the electrons in addition to
estimating the intensity of the flows of, electrons of medium hardness.
Indicators were graduated in a parallel flow of monochromatic' electrons ,
which impinged perpendicularly on a fluorescing screen, for a wide range
of energies. With a change in the electron energy, there was a change in
CPYRGHT
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the ratio of the intensities of the radiation recorded by the photoelements
for the same fluorescing screens. The flow of nonmonochromatic corpuscles
of the upper atmosphere also caused different signals in '?oth indicators.
The observed ratio of the signals corresponded to a definite value of the
energy of the monochromatic electrons. This energy was called the "equiva'
lent" energy of the electrons. The sensitivity of the indicators used
for electrons with energies of 10 kiloelectron volts as compared with'elec-
trons with energies of 40 kiloelectron volts decreased by a factor of 30
for the thin foil and 3.103 for the thick foil. Thus, the equivalent value
indicated that the majority of electrons have an energy less than the
"equivalent". Within the limits of the scales of the measurements, and as
a consequence of certain nonhomogeneities in the thickness of the foil, the
indicators used recorded electrons with energies from 10 kiloelectron volts.
The characteristic of the amplifiers was made nonlinear and as far as pos-
sible was made such as to record the logarithms of the intensity of the
radiation of the fluorescing screens. This was accomplished with an ac-
curacy of several tens of one percent. The difference in the logarithms
of the currents of the two indicators was first determined and with this,
the equivalent energy of the electrons was determined on the basis of the
graduated curves. The "equivalent" current of the monochromatic electron
flow was found on the basis of the equivalent energy and then its "equiva-
lent" strength, which is the derivative of the "equivalent" energies and
currents.
Restricting diaphragms were placed in front of the indicators to in-
sure the recording of corpuscles in a solid angle of 1/4 steradians. To
obtain the value of the "equivalent" currents and strengths in steradians,
the measured values must. be multiplied by 4. However, the electron flows
may exhibit considerable anisotropy.
The radio telemetry material which we have at our disposal makes it
possible to draw a number of new conclusions which are extremely important
from a geophysical point of view. For the first time in the investigation
of the upper atmosphere, a direct observation was made of medium hard
electrons with an ei.ergy of approximately 10 kiloelectron volts.
They were recorded at altitudes of from 470 to 1,830 kilometers above
sea-level. The lowest intensity was recorded above the geomagnetic equator
at an altitude of around 1,300 kilometers. For an "equivalent" energy
of approximately 20 kiloelectron volts, their minimum current was estimated
to be. approximately 10-14 amperes per square centimeter per steradian. At
medium and polar latitudes, up to 60 degrees geomagnetic latitude, the
current for electrons with an equivalent energy of about 12 kiloelectron
volts was:ordinarily 5.10-11 amperes per square centimeter per steradian
during the night time and sometimes more than 10-10 amperes per square
centimeter per steradian. zsolated higher values of the recorded
current were noted even at 4 degrees geomagnetic latitude. It is interest-
ing to note that the appearance of considerable measureable currents was
observed in the extraequatorial zone of increased ionization in the F,
region, described by Appleton.
CPYRGHT
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In planning the experiment, it was not expected that the intensity
of the electron flows would be so great. In many cases, as a result, the
apparatus went beyond its scale and it was then impossible to estimate
the intensity and "equivalent" energy of the recorded electrons. Both
instruments only infrequently went beyond their scale simultaneously.
Figure 1 [not reproduced] shows the dependence of the intensity of the
electron flow on the equivalent energy in the region from minus 42 to
minus 54 degrees geomagnetic latitude in the altitude range from 1,720
to 1,880 kilometers during the night of 15 May 1958 above the southern
Pacific Ocean. The values for the equivalent energy of the electrons
In kiloelectron volts are laid off along the abscissa and on the
ordinate in logarithmic scale are the densities of their "equivalent"
currents in amperes per square centimeter, assuming that they correspond
to a parallel flow of electrons, I.e., without multiplying the measured
values by 4 per steradian. The concentric circles indicate repeating
values of equal intensity with the same "equivalent" energy of the
particles. With an increase in the "equivalent" energy of electrons,
their number quickly decreases.
As the satellite rotates around its two axes, considerable changes
occur in the intensity of the electron flows. However, sometimes varia-
tions were observed in the intensity and "equivalent" energy of the
electrons within a time interval which was much less than the very short
period of rotation of the satellite. The quickest observed changes oc-
curred within a time of around 1/2 second. Faster changes were not re-
corded. The rotation of the satellite changed the position of the entry
window of the indicator relative to the direction of the magnetic lines
of force.
The "equivalent" energy of electrons in lower latitudes was higher.
The maximum recorded value was 40 kiloelectron volts. In the polar
regions, only the lowest values around 10 kiloelectron volts were re-
corded.
It is possible to estimate the solid angle around the magnetic line
o." force within which the Charged corpuscles penetrate the atmosphere
w.1low a given altitude. For. example, at a geomagnetic latitude of 50
degrees, the span of the critical solid angle to ensure penetration of
particles from altitudes of 1,500-2,000 kilometers to the regions below
the F-layer of the ionosphere must have a value of around 100 degrees,
which is greater than the capture angle of the indicators. In the
light of this, it becomes possible to estimate the total flow of fast
electrons penetrating the lower layers of the atmosphere. For example,
this energy flow for the case of minimum currents is equal to approxima-
tely one erg per square centimeter per second. This value is quite suf-
ficient for further ionization and heating of the upper atmosphere. It
is close in magnitude to that which Bates and Chapman found necesser to
maintain the temperature gradient in the upper atmosphere near 5 degrees
per kilometer and which cannot be guaranteed because of the hard electro-
magnetic radiation of the Sun.
-3-
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CPYRGHT
Since the observed electron flows are more intense in the higher
geomagnetic latitudes, one might suspect that they are sources for the
heating and expanding of the upper atmosphere which was observed on the
basis of the slowing down of artificial Earth satellites. The variations
in the intensity of the flows of these electrons, which evidently depends
on solar activity, could explain the observed correlation between the
degree of slowing down of the satellites and the integral effect of
chromosphere bursts.
Electron flows with energies around 10 kiloelectron volts which
penetrate the lower layers of the atmosphere and are absorbed in them
are so great that they cannot be explained on the basis of cosmic rays.
("Observation of Electrons with Energies Around 10 Kiloelectron -Volts
in the Upper Atmosphere With the Aid of the Third Satellite), by V. I.
Krasovskiy, I. S.'Shklovskiy, Yu. I. Gal'perin, and Ye. M. Svetlitskiy,
Institute of Physics of the Atmosphere, Academy of Sciences USSR; Dok-
lady Akademii Nauk SSSR, Vol 127, No 1, 1 Jul 59, pp 78 81)
Moon Satellite Discussed by Shternfel'd
An instrumented (TV, etc.)'lunar satellite orbiting only 10 kilo-
meters above the surface of the Moon is suggested by A. Shternfel'd,
noted Soviet scientist, as fully possible and the most satisfactory
means of mapping lunar details, the latter being-necessary for future
space ship landings and the establishment of Moon "villages." Shtern-
fel'd's description follows.
It is possible to achieve such an orbit after first bringing a
rocket to a point 200'kilometers from the Moon's surface. The rocket
can then be transformed into an artificial Moon satellite at this dis -
tance by imparting a horizontal velocity to it, whereby the satellite's
fall will be equalized by the inertia of itq, forward motion. This value
is 1,590 meters per second, approximately one-fifth that of the orbital
velocity of a satellite near the Earth's surface.
The mountain peaks on the Moon reach an altitude of approximately
9 kilometers. This means it would be dangerous. to drop a satellite
lower than 10 kilometers.
For lowering the orbit of a satellite with an altitude of 200 kilo-
meters down to 10 kilometers, its speed must be reduced down. to 1,5.5
meters per second, decreasing its orbital velocity by 41.5 meters per'
second. This -is a difficult operation, but 'if successfully accomplished,
the satellite gradually drops closer and closer to the lunar surface.
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This drop continues for an hour and 2 minutes. The'velocity during
this time builds up to 1,719 meters per second. But, if this entire
inertial flight is made at a small angle to the horizon then at the
lowest point of the calculated elliptical curve, at the periastron, the
flight will be strictly horizontal. Then after passing through the point
closest the Moon, the satellite will again rise up to an altitude of
200 kilometers. It is necessary to switch the rocket from its ec-
centric orbit into a circular one at the periastron.
During the rocket's fall, the radial velocity increases by one meter
per second every 2-2.5 kilometers and at an altitude of 10 kilometers
[sic] already consists of 1,674 meters per second. The speed of a rocket-
satellite lowered to such an altitude from a 200-kilometer orbit is equal
to 1,719 meters per second. Therefore, it is necessary to slow down the
motion of the satellite at periastron by 45 meters- per second (1719-
1764).
In the. smaller orbit, the local day will also be shorter. Here it
will last one hour 49 minutes and 20 seconds. During this time, the
lunar satellite will cover a distance of 10,983 kilometers, the length
of the new orbit.
However, when it completes a full circle, it will not be over the
same point on the surface of the Moon as it,was before. The Moon, though
very slowly, also revolves around its own axis. Therefore, if the satel-
lite travels in a polar orbit, then it will gradually survey the entire
surface of the Moon. For this, less than a month would be necessary:
after 27 days 8 hours, the length of the lunar month, the satellite, fly-
ing at an altitude from 200 down to 10 kilometers over the Moon, will
complete from 308 up to 363 revolutions around it, and the Moon itself,
one revolution in relation to the stars.. Thus, in this course of time,
the entire lunar surface will be seen by observers on Earth.
From an altitude of 10 kilometers all the details of the lunar sur-
face with a dimension of 3 meters will be distinguishable with 15-power
binoculars (with average vision).' People possessing sharp vision can
distinguish objects less than half this size. It is obvious that the
optical instruments with which artificial satellites of the Moon will be
outfitted will have greater resolving capability than binoculars. How-
ever the maximum duration of observation for a point on the surface of
the Moon from an altitude- of 10 kilometers is reduced fivefold; from 18,
minutes 37 seconds at an altitude of 200. kilometers down to 3 minutes
and 42 seconds. ("Moon of a Large Moon," by A. Shternfel'd; Tekhnika
Molodezhi, No 41 Apr 59, p 4)
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Abastuman Radiotelescope
Regular observations on the Sun's radio temperature are conducted
at the Abastaman Astrophysical Observatory of the Academy of Sciences
of the Georgian SSR under the IGY program. These investigations are
conducted with apparatus for detecting the Sun's radio emission by
the compensation method. The equipment is described by A. L. Semenov,
of the observatory as follows. CPYRGHT
The apparatus consists mainly of three units-=an antenna feeder
system, a radio receiver with an automatic recorder, and power units.
The antenna consists of 32 dipoles located in a single plane and
placed over the reflecting screen. All the dipole6 are interconnected
by an asymetric feeder and the output antenna is tapped in to an RK-6
receiver cable. Attenuation of the signal in the cable for a given
length is equal to three decibels. The antenna's design permits it
to be aimed at any portion of the sky. The directivity factor of the
antenna
sin T d'?
0
was determined graphically for two sections of the antenna's direc-
tional diagram, the horizontal and vertical.
Thereafter, according to the formula
D r Dg ? Dv
avalue for D, equal to 80, was found. The width of the antenna'a
radiation pattern at half-power in the horizontal and verticle planes
is equal to 12 and 17 degrees respectively.
The receiving apparatus of the radiotelescope for 209 megacycles.
is a sensitive superheterodyne with' a total band pass of A f=1.5
megacycles and operates according to the compensated circuit. Such
circuit give a specific gain in comparison with usual amplifiers
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in the reception of weak signals having a continuous spectrum. This
gain is Qk 2f Ar , where T a RC is a time constant of the detector.
In this instance, 2'= 4 seconds, and Qk = 3.5X103. The sensitivity
according to the incrementation of temperature is
6T Is
FTo
Qk
where F is the noise factor of the receiver, which in this case is
equal to 8 and To = 300 degrees Kelvin.
A TE = 0.7 degrees Kelvin
Since the Sun is viewed under an angle of about 40 minutes, which
gives a solid angle of A _ 1 , then the sensitivity
according to the temperature of the body with D = 80 will be
D ti d00 degrees Kelvin.
Tmin ^
zSQ
The radiotelescope's power units are highly stable sources of
anode and incandescent voltages for all the radio tubes.
From 3-hour averaged data for each day the effective temperature
of the radioemission of a quiet Sun was found to be equal to 0.7X106
degrees Kelvin. This value is well within the limits of error of the
experiment and agreement is in with data from other sources.
The maximum temperature Qf a disturbed Sun in the period of ob-
servations was equal to 35X106 degrees Kelvin. Thi: means that the
the Sun's temnerature exceeded the level of the
quiet Sun 50 times. ("Measurement of the Radio Noises of the Sun on
a Frequency of 209 Megacycles," by A. L. Semenov; Tbilisi, Soobah-
cheniya Akademii Nauk Gruzinskoy SSR, Vol 22,. No 4, Apr 59, pp '413-
416)
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III. METEOROLOGY
Study on Electrical Properties of Thunderstorm Precipitations
Parallel measurements of the charge and radius of individual rain
drops and the density of the current of thunderstorm precipitations were
conducted for obtaining additional information on thunderstorm precipi-
tations. The instrument used for this aim has three separate channels
with an automatic printer. The channels for measuring the total charge
of the precipitations (integrator) and for measuring the charge of
the individual drops are constructed on the principle of direct current
amplifiers with a carrier frequency.
The instrument used made it possible to fix the radius of drops in
the range from 0.47 down to 0.63 millimeter and the charge3 (both positive
and negative) from 2X10-3 down to 3X9-2 CGSE. The urrent of precipita-
tions could be measured within the limits of 3.10-" amperes per square
centimeter. The error in measuring the charge and radius of a drop did
not exceed 2 percent, and in measuring the current of precipitations
amounted to 7 percent.
The studies showed that a more considerable negative charge enters
the Earth during strong thunderstorms than previously supposed. The
distfibution of the charge according to the drops in thunderstorm pre-
cipatiuns is assymetrical because of the presence in part of- the drops
of large negative charges which are not found for positively charged
drops. The charges in drops of thunderstorm precipations near the surface
of the Earth have a somewhat smaller value than was observed by R. Gunn
(J. Geophys. Res., No 1, 1949, p 54) in thunderstorm clouds, which is
explained by the neutralization of part of the charge of the drops during
their fall to Earth. In other respects, the measurements obtained confirm-
corresponding measurements made by Gunn from ani airplane (J. Geo h .
Res., No 2, 1950, p 55) and ground observations by J. Chalmers J. Ro .
Met. Soc., No 331, 1957, p 77). ("On the Electrical Properties of
Thunderstorm Precipations," by V. I. Arabadzhi; Moscow, Doklady Akademii
Nauk SSSR, Vol i27, No 2, 1959, pp 298-301)
East German Searchlight for Scatter and Extinction Measurements in the
Atmosphere
A group of associates at the Physical-Techuical Institute of the
German Academy of 3aiences in Berlin, Radiation-Sources Area, investi-
gated the feasibility of using a searchlight with a high-voltage mercury
arc lamp for measuring the scattering and extinction of light in the
atmosphere. They selected a two-kilowatt DC lamp, type HBO 2001 (made
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by VEB Berliner Gluehlampenwerk), which has do average light density of
about 45,000 candles per cm2 and a good average distribution of light
density over the anode-cathode axis; the light density values directly
in front of the cathode are higher than the average, and below the
average value at the anode. The spectrum consists almost entirely of
the mercury lines of the arc spectrum with line widths which, at times,
can amount to as much as 30 angstroms, because of different factors of
line broadening, and has a continuous background of approximately half
the total radiated energy.
The total energy radiated in the lines could be about 0.75 kilowatt
for a two-kilowatt lamp, and the resonance lines of the mercury, because
of considerable reabsorption, do not contribute essentially to the re-
flection.
The mercury high-voltage light source affords the great advantage
of the extraodinarily high intensity of the lines, which, if selective
filters with pass widths comparable to the width of the line in question
are used, is equivalent to a much higher powered are.
In the designing of the searchlight, special attention was given to
an exact adjustment of the vertically directed beam and to the focusing
of the light source.
The light source was arranged axially in the mirror, in the normal
position, with the cathode at the top and the anode below. A mirror 60
centimeters in diameter, with a 35-centimeter focal length (usual Zeiss
type), mirrored'on the back and corrected by the glass body, was used.
On the mirror, the light source illuminates a ring-shaped zone which
makes up about 65 percent of the entire surface of the mirror. -The
center zone is excluded by a shading of the anode; this affords the
advantage of a better optical quality of the reflection, since in these
mirrors, the difference of the focal lengths of the edge zone and of
the center field amounts to as much as one millimeter.
In this arrangement, part of the illuminating plasma of the discharge
is not used'as a light beam, and the parts of the mirror lying directly,.
in front of the anode do, not contribute to the illumination. This means
that the effective illuminating volume is quite small, 2 x 2 mm2, but that
.the light density is greater than average, since the area of greatest
density is in front of the cathode.
Practical tests were conducted at the branch station of the in-
stitute at Kloster on tiddensee Island. The beam focusing was very
good; the intensity of the laterally scattered light, and thus the
maximum altitude, depends strongly on the adjustment, in that the
laterally scattered brightness diminishes rapidly with defocusing.
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With this relatively small searchlight, heights in excess of 20
kilometers were reached -- with the good visibility conditions which
prevail on the island of Hidc?.ensee.
Observations made earlier by J. Wempe (reported by Reeger and
Seidentopf in Optik 1 (191E6) 15) on the presence of a vapor or cloud
layer with its lower edge at a height of 11 kilometers, with otherwise
clear sky, were confirmed several times.
Special interest was devoted to photographing the beam in the violet
and ultraviolet part of the spectrum and comparing it with the general
brightness caused by nig}:t glow and moonlight. The intensity of the
violet and ultraviolet lines is so great that, when selective filters
are used, the increased brightness caused by other factors has no in-
fluence at all. This affords the possibility of conducting photographic
observations -- independent of a large general brightness. ("A Search-
light With 2-Kilowatt Mercury High-Voltage Lamp for Scattering and. Ex-
tinction Measurements in the Atmosphere," by C. Jung) et a1; Berlin,
Exprimentelle Technik der Physik, No 3, 1959, pp 1.39-142)
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IV. SEISMOLOGY
Study on Multiple Reflected Waves
Experimental data on the kinematics of multiple reflected waves
registered with the aid of middle frequency (f = 37 cycles) and high-
frequency (f = 105 cycles) apparatus are presented. Types of multiple
waves are determined. The possibility of improving the scheme of propa-
gating multiple waves with the use of the amplitude of the waves is shown.
("Determining the Types of Multiple Reflected Waves According to Their
Kinematic and Dynamic Characteristics," by A. M. Epinat'yeva and N. G.
Mikhaylova, Institute of the Physics of the Earth Academy of Sciences
USSR; Moscow; Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSE, Seriya Geofizicheskaya,
No 7, Jul 59) pp 965-980)
Measurement of Earth's Crust Motions Requires Global Cooperation
On the assumption that both regional and local movements of the
earth's crust are of equal importance, this article suggests that objec-
tive results can be obtained in the study of the mechanism of these move-
ments only through large-scale geodetic cooperation: by periodic repeti-
tion of the precise level determinations in-individual countries, by
joining together the nets of individual countries, by checking the nets
at geologically stable areas, by combining the triangulation nets (parti-
cularly between continents and islands), and by a regular repetition of
measurements and-comparison of results. This would necessitate a close
international coo eration such as was realized with such great benefit
during the IGY. ("Some Remarks On the Question of the Movements of the
Earth's Crust and Their Geodetic Determination," by K. Svoboda, Prague;
Berlin, Vermessungstechnik, No 8, Aug 59, pp 221-223)
Coefficient of Reflection of Petroleum-vas Bearing Strata in Seismic Re-
cordings
On the assumption that one of the reasons for the complexity of
seismic data is rock which contains petroleum and gas (the petroleum-
gas content influences the density of the rocks, the velocity of elastic
waves inside them, and the wave resistance of the rocks and.thus in-
fluences the coefficient. of vibration from the boundaries of a petroleum-
gas bearing stratum), this article considers the influence of the petroleum-
gas content on the elastic properties of rock under various geological
conditions.
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All petroleum-gas strata comprise multicomponent nonhomogeneous media
and, as far as elastic properties are concerned, represent a system con-
sisting of solid, liquid, and gaseous components; the solid component is
made up of grains of rock forming a skeleton of a collector and cemented
matter; the liquid and gaseous componento are petroleum and as and water
containing an insignificant amount of gas. The petroleum-gas layers
also contain a certain amount of combine water, in which there is also
some dissolved gas. In nonhomogeneous media, in the absence of external
pressure, the velocities of elastic vibrations (the wave lengths of which
are immeasurably greater than the dimensions of the nonhomogeneities) are
determined by the macroscopic conditions of the nonhomogeneous media.
If a porous medium is subjected to external pressure, however, then the
velocity is also partially determined by the contacting of~the grains.
In view of these conditions, the equation of velocity of a longitudinal
seismic wave (apt) in a petroleum stratum has the form
(1 COP1/3)2
3 Km
1/3
C AP
-3
1-SI C 0 Pl/3
Km
where LP = P'V - P; O is the mean density of the porous rock saturated
with liquids; II is the coefficient of porosity of the collector; 0 is
the compressibility of the embedded petroleum; Km is the modulus of struc-
tural compression of the grains of sand of the collector; P) is the geo-
dynamic pressure; P is the strata pressure; C is the quantity character-
izing the Young modulus and the Poisson coefficient of the grains of sand
of the collector. (In the case considered here, it is assumed that the
as is completely dissolved in the petroleum, and the amount of combined
water is equa:, to zero; it is further assumed that the collector repre-
sents grains of sand which, in the first approximation, are of spherical
form with a hexagonal packing.)
Under natural conditions, the quantity a 2 in equation (1) cannot
be determined uniquely because of the ambiguity of PD.
Not considering the possible relationship of PJ and P under various
geotectonic conditions, and assuming that, in the general case,
PO ' P < Pm, and also that, as a result of the deformation of the
rock, Pm < p'DI , there are three possibilities for the limiting value
P (PO = hydrostatic pressure; Pm geostatic pressure):
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1) Pp = P, where P Pm, P~ P0. Then La P a 0, and equa-
Vion (1) is rewritten in the form
(2)
2) PO > P, where P = Pm, P = P0. Then 4 P Pm PO, and
apt is determined according to equation (1).
3) PJ > P, where P ,a PO, PO > Pm. This case corresponds
to the highest, and most ambiguous, value of P ) .
In the. above determination of a,2 it wad assumed that the mechanical
admixtures in the porous volume eithtr are completely absent or are found
as if in a suspended state and that they are subjected only to the presstire
of the all-sided compression and are not in elastic contact with the grains
of sand. In reality, however, admixtures located between the grains of
sand reduce the elasticity of the contacts which form in accordance with
the Hertz theory [H Hertz, Gesammelte Werke, Leipzig 1895, Vol 1, pp 155-
1731; thus, in equation (1), the value C should be replaced by AC a C - ri,
where C1 th ct izes ttle macroscopic elasticity of the admixtures, as well
as their quantity and their distribution in the pores. In the range where
A C -) 04 equation (1) is rewritten in the form
apt
1
P (II~+ 1
)
KMo
(3)
Interstitial masses formed by admixtures can be considered'zones
which connect the elementary volumes of the grains of sand. Under these,
conditions, Kmo represents. the distributed elasticity. The velocity apt
is determined by equation (3).
Computed for constant parameters of the collector and of the em-
bedded petroleum (The skeleton of the collector, with a porosity of
20 %, is represented by quartz; the compressibility of the petroleum
^ 12 - 10-11bar-1.), the velocity apt has the following values:
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According to equation (1), with H = 3,000 meters, ap2 = 1,970 m/8ec;
according to equation (2), ap2 0 1,300 m/sec; and according to equation
(3), ap2 ^ 1,330 m/sec.
The velocity computed according to equation (1) differs considerably
.Groin that computed according to equations (2) and (3), and, at this point,
it is not possible to determine, according to the value of ap2, any
appreciable influence of the embedded petroleum on the elastic properties
of the rock. This influence, however, can be characterized by the rela-
tionship between the velocity in the petroleum-bearing (ap2) and in the
water-bearing (ap3) parts of the petroleum-bearing stratum, where all
parameters, except those of the fluids which fill the pores of the col-
lector., and the geological conditions of deposition are uniform in the
first approximation.
Computed for H a 3,000 meters, the relationship ap2/ap3 = 74 * $ %;
for H = 2,000 meters, ap2/ap3 0 74 f 8 %, and for H ^ 1,000 meters,
?ap2/,ap3 = 72 6 %. (Under these conditions, and for a cubic packing
of the grains of sand (of spherical form), ap2/ap 3 is equal, respectively,
0 - 4 percent.) The intervals of change of
to 72 ? 6) 72 - 6, and 70i-
ap2/ap3 correspond to the divergences (for Q P < 0 and, A P > 0) 'of
the values of ap2/ap3 from the average value and, under certain circum-
stances, may serve as the limits of accuracy of the characteristic of
the influence of the embedded petroleum on the elastic properties of the.
porous rock under natural conditions.
The coefficient of reflection from a water-petroleum contact of a
nozzaal.ly incident longitudinal seismic wave for the above-indicated
depths (3,000; 2,000; and 1,000 meters) of the stratum, Its parameters,
and the compressibility of the petroleum is equal to 17 5, 17 1 5.,
and 18 ?' 4 `A, respectively.
The value of the coefficient of reflection from the surface of a
water-petroleum contact is great enough, in many cases, to cause such a
reflection to be recorded on seismograms, and is one of the reasons for
the periodic appearance and disapperance of isolated vibrations on seismo-
grams.
The. value of the relationship ap2/ap3 indicates that the coefficients
of reflection from the roof and $nnthe foot of a petroleum bed are different
and are one of the reasons for'the change of form of the seismic record-
ing.
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The oriented values obtained here are considered to be characteristic
of the degree of influence of the embedded petroleum on the elasticity
of the rock and suggest the feasibility of mapping according to the elastic
properties of a petroleum-gas-bearing portion of a stratum in the surround-
ing formations. ("On the Possiblity of Using Seismic Surveying for the
Direct Search For Deposits of Petroleum and Gas," by I. Ya. Ballakh and
M. F. Mirchnik, Corresponding Members, Academy of Sciences USSR; Moscow,
Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, Vol 126, No 6, 1959, pp 1239-12+1)
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Sea-Bottom Studies Aided by Submarine
A description of submarines and underwater devices used for peaceful
pursuits by Engr Yu. Kryuchkov, includes a brief mention of the Soviet ,
research surmarine Severyanka. Kryuchkov gives a bit of new information
on the ship which is operated by the All Union Scientific Research Insti-
tute of the Fishing Industry and Oceanography. The Severyanka, accord-
ing to Kryuchkov, is equipped with a depth-stabilizing device which enables
it to remain at any depth. In addition, it has an exit chamber through
which its scientific personnel equipped with diving suits and helmets can
leave the submarine while :t lies on the bottom of the sea and conduct
scientific studies. ("Ove.board- -The Deep Continent," by Engr Yu. KSry-
uchkov; Moscow, Tekhnika Molodezhi, No 4, 1959, pp 36-39)
Non-Magnetic Ship Zarya Departs on Second Voyage
The Zarya, Soviet nonmagnetic expeditionary ship, left on its second
voyage under the International Geophysical Cooperation program. The
Schooner left on 20 August on what will be a period of 10-11 months during
which it must cover some 30,000 miles. Its itinerary will carry it near
the shores of India, Indonesia, Australia, New Zealand, the islands of
Samoa and F:Lji, and also to Japan and the People's Republic.of China.
All the scientific apparatus, magnetometers, the ionospheric sta-
tion, the neutron monitor, and also the ship and navigation mechanisms
and instrument are in perfect condition. The schooner is coimiunded
for the long voyage by Taras Ivanovich Mazhara. ("The Zarya Has Put
to See"; by B. Bologov, Chief of the Complex Marine Magnetic Expedition)
Candidate of Physicomathematical Sciences; Moscow, Izvestiya, 21 Aug 59,
p 1)
Vityaz on New Voyage
The Vityaz, scientific research ship of the Institute of Oceanology
of the Academy of Sciences USSR, left Vladivostok 31 July on a new voyage.
The scientific workers aboard will, in accordance with the International
Geophysical Cooperation program, conduct research in the northern part
of the pacific Ocean. Accompanying the Soviet scientists on the voyage
were the Chinese oceanologists Ho Chun-shu, Weng Hsueh-ch'un, and Fan
Sbih-Tz'un. The voyage will last 40 days. ("On a Distant Voyage";
Moscow, Izvestiya, 1 Aug 59, p 2)
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Report on Marine Suspensions in North Atlantic
Suspended matter from the surface waters were collected on the first
voyage of the Soviet expeditionary ship Mikhail Lomonosov in the northern
part of the Atlantic Ocean between Iceland .nd the shelf of the British
Isles according to these profiles: (1) Iceland-Hebrides Islands; (2)
along the Icelandic shelf; (3) Reykjanes Ridge-shelf of the British
Isles, (!r) the Faroe-Scotland Gut.
Microscopic investigations of the suspensions were made. This
analysis revealed three basic types and three subtypes of particles. The
Atlantic waters are characterized by their great cleanliness during November,
the period of the study.
Good separation of suspended matter and the study of their microscopic
coudposition: makes it possible to establish the origin of water masses and
even of' individual currents. The advantage. of this method is the need
of ouLly small quantities of water, and also the speed in obtaining results
T:;hich can be used during hydrological investigations directly in the ex-
pedition. ("Susnended Matter in the Northern Part of the Attantic Ocean
(Between Scotland and Iceland)," by M. V. Klenova, Institute of Oceanology
Arrad.ery of Sciences USSR; Moscow Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, Vol 127,
No 2, 1959, pp 435-437)
Study on the Heat Balance of Par Eastern Seas
The results of the calculation of the main component of heat balance
for the surfaces of the Bering 0khost, Japan, Yellow, and China seas Are
presentee.. It is shown that the heat balance of the surfaces of these
seas is negative, and its compensation occurs a,: the expense of heat trans-
port by branches of currents in the northwestern part of the Pacific
Ocean. The distribution of the value of heat balance within the limits
of each of these seas makes it possible to plot the course of intrusions
of Pacific Ocean waters and also to estimate the mass of these waters.
The problems of the yearly variation of the main component of heat
balance are also considered. ("Heat Balance of Far Eastern Seas," by
A. M. Batalin, Far East State University; Moscow, Izvestiya, Akademii
Nauk SSSR, Seriya Geofizicheskaya, No 7, Jul 59,, 'PP 1,003-1,010)
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Arctic Summer Begins
The short Arctic summer has begun at the Soviet drift stations
Severnyy Polyus-6'and Severnyy Polyus-8. Even at midnight, the sun
doers not disappear below the horizon.
Severnyy Polyus-6 is now drifting 320 kilometers north rf Spitsbergen.
The air temperature is often as high as 1-2 degrees above freezing point,
and the snow is melting rapidly.
Severnyy Polyus-8 is drifting 780 kilometers north-northeast of
Ostrov Vrangelya. In this region the weather is colder. The maximum
air temperature has never yet been as high as one degree above freezing
point.
The program of scientific observations at the stations is being ful-
filled according to plan. All polar staff workers are in good health.
("Twenty-four hours of daylight," Moscow, Vodnyy Transport, 23 Jul 59)
Winter. Season at Station Lazarev
The Antarctic winter weather in the area of station Lazarev has, been
relatively mild. The average temperature in June was about minus 18'de-
grees Centigrade. During the first part of July, the average temperature
of the air dropped to minus 24 degrees Centigrade. The sea near the ice
shelf, on which the station is located, is getting a cover of young ice.
One of the periodic hurricanes broke up the ice and carried'the ice frag-
ments out to. the west. During June and July, the calving'of icebergs
from the edge of the ice shelf about 5-15 kilometers northwest of the
station, has continued.. Ice domes, which are up to 200-300 meters high,
have formed on the surface of the ice shelf. The domes are covered with
a large number of cracks.
After a 2-month polar night, the sun has appeared again. A period
of more intensive scientific observations is now approaching. The station
workers are planning to explore the ice shelf in the vicinity of the
station. ("The Polar Day is Beginning," Moscow, Vodnyy Transport,
25 Jul 59)
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Temperature Drops at Station Vostok
On 23, July, the air temperature at the interior station Vostok was
minus 79.5 degrees Centigrade. It is the first time this year that such
a low temperature has been recorded at the south geomagnetic poke. In
August, even lower temperatures are expected. As it is known, on 25 August
1958, the temperature at the station Vostok was minus 87.4 degrees Cl:nti-
grade; which was the lowest temperature ever recorded on the earth.
Despite low temperatures and lack of oxygen, the ten Soviet scientists
headed by V. S. Ignatov, Candidate of Technical Sciences, are conducting
regular scientific observations. ("Minus 79.5 degrees," Moscow, Voctnyy
Transport, 28 Jul 59)
Winter operations at the Station Vostok
The most Important stage of the wintering period at the station Vostok
has now begun. This is the height of the Antarctic winter, and the polar
night is still continuing. The air temperature has dropped to minus 80
degrees Centigrade. During the last few days, the temperature rarely rose
above minus 75 degrees. The severe cold complicates all activities at
the station. Radiosonde launchings and meteorological observations have
become more difficult. Injection of diesel fuel. also presents difficulties.
Occasionally, the self-recording devices for temperature and humidity
measurements break down and the aurora cameras fail to operate. Daily
life is a continuous struggle with nature.
The staff members were able to make the self-recording devices oper-
ate at a temperature of minus 80 degrees. Until now the temperature limit
had been minus 50-60 degrees. The breakdowns of aurora cameras have been
reduced to a minmum. Aerological observations have been continued without
a single interruption. The small group of Soviet polar scientists is suc-
cessfully overcoming all difficulties and is striving to improve the
quality of scientific research results.
At present, the station staff is spending much time in drilling a
deep'test hole for glaciological research; tests will be made to deter-
mine the temperature regime at various levels of the snow and ice. This
will help to solve a number of interesting problems such as the heat
balance of the Antarctic ice sheet and the ice age and will aid in deter-
mining conditions of glaciation.
The return of the sun to this region of Antarctica is not far off.
A broad reddish stripe is already visible near the horizon, like the'
glow-of a distant fire.
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Several days ago, a severe geomagnetic storm broke out in Antarctica,
which was accompanied by a complete absorption of radio waves in the iono-
sphere and by brilliant auroras. During a 9-day period, radio contact
between Vostok and the stations Mirnyy and Lazarev was completely dis-
rupted.
Despil:e the severe cold and snowstorms, the scientific staff is
successful;L;, conducting research under the program Of the IGC-1959.
The result; obtained in all fields of research are of great scientific
and practl:,cal interest. All staff members at Vostok are in good health
and are looking forward to the end of the winter and the arrival of the
first planes from Mirnyy. ("Before Sunrise," Moscow, Izvestiya) 29 Jul
59)
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