SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR INFORMATION

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00141R000200180001-3
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 37
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: January 13, 1999
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: June 6, 1958
• Content Type: REPORT

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SOVIET DL,OC INTERNATIONJU, GEOPEIYSZCAL YEAR ZNFORMRJIION
June 6, 1958
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
Office of Technical Services
Washington 25, D. C.
Published Weekly from February 14, 1958, to January 2, 1959
Subscription Price $10.00 for the Series
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PLEASE NOTE
This report presents unevaluated information on Soviet Bloc
Internationa]. Geophysical Year activities selected from foreign-,
language publications as indicated in parentheses. It is pub-
lished as an aid to United. States Government research.
SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR INFORMATION
Table of Contents
I. Details on Sputnik III
Page
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I. Di-Yl'AILS OPI SPUL'NIK ii:[
Intro(luc'. 1 on
The V3 ivtty issue of Pravda devotas two full pages to a description
Ot' Sputni.i in: and the experJ.mentrs which are being conducted by it.
S.--pttrate sections are devoted to the "Satellite Orbit and Observation
of Its Movement"; "S;)utntk III i qu:;.pmeiit"; "Study of the Ionosphere,"
includin "Measurement of the Concentration of Charged Particles;,"
"Inve-,tigation of the Co'~position of the ionosphere," and "Invcstlgation
of Eler,trosta,t:i.c "Mcasu..?ement of the Earth's Ma.;;T:retic Field's;
"Stu(Iy of Cosmic Rays;" "Inve,3tilJat:Lon of Corpuscular Radiation of the
Sw d). "Measurement of Pressure and Den'.aity of The Atmosphere's; "Investiga-
tion of MI rometeors "; and "Source, of Equipment Power Supply."
The Pravda article is accompanied by a photograph showing an external
v.it?w of Sputnik III and two schematic diagrams. One diagram, on pane 3,
shows the external disposition of some of the scientific equipment carried
by the satellite. (1) magnetometer, (2) photomuitipliers for register-
in,~ corpuscular radiation of the Sun, (3) solax batteries, (4) instru-
ment for registering photons in cosmic rays, (5) magnetic and ionization
manometers, (6) ion traps, (j) electrostatic fluxmeters, (8) mass-
spectrometer tube, (9) instrument for registering heavy nuclei in cosmic
rays, (10) instrument for measuring the intensity of primary cosmic
radiation, and (11) tr.ansduce...s for registration of micrometeors. The
electronic units of scientific equipment, radio-measuring systems, the
programing-timing device and the electrochemical power supplies, which
are located inside the satellite body, are not shown in the schematic.
The second diagram, on page 11, is a sketch of the satellite being
separated from the carrier-rocket showing (1) the satellite, (2) the
carrier-rocket, (3) the separating protective cone, and (1i) the shields
being separated from the satellite.
The following is the full text of the 18 May Pravda article.
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 `Chi- Ii,,ilrchim1 of the third Coviet artificial Earth satellite was ac-
com;~ on 15 May 1.91;;3. Sputnik III was placed in orbit with the aid
of cti ir~~r~rf'u1. rocl;et??carrier. When the rocket-carrier with the satellite
1h0&.l, /0,tc1Li.TlQd in the op!ei.fi,ed trajectory a flli;ht velocity of more than
6, OOO meta c:; pry r? second, the satellite was separated from the rocket-
c,arv:an' by :ipec.l.al d,:?vicec and began to move in an elliptical orbit around
tli,2 Enuring the separation of the satellite from the rocket carrier,
the protective cone and protective shields were discarded. The rocket-
c::. - ?:i ear w. i h -k'.hc protective shields and the protective cone move in an
orbit close to the satellite orbit.
Accnx?d:' ng to its specifications, Sputnik III by for surpasses the
f.trs'; un Lficia l arch satellites.
Thtt wei;rht of Sputnik III is equal to 1,327 kilograms, and the total
vci 1i1; of the scientific and measuring equipment, together with power sup-
plies rhich are mounted in the satellite, is 968 kilograms.
The satellite has a form wYdch is approximate to a cone. The length
of the satellite is ;.57 meters, and its largest diameter is 1.73 meters
not con.3iderint; the protruding antennas. A large number of systems for
conducting eotplex scientific experiments are installed in the satellite.
The experiments Ohre intended basically for studying phenomena occurring
in the upper L years of the atmosphere and the effect of cosmic factors
on processes in the upper atmosphere.
Sputnik III is eq ped with improved measuring radio engineering ap-
r atu::, .prrn idling exact measurement of its orbital movement, and a radio
te! l_emetc-~.ri. ';z, apparatus which continuously records the results of scientific
mee.niir. emk,nts, "stores" them during the entire time of the sutellite's
flight and then transmits them to Earth during the satellite's flight
o?-;'nr ooeo.i,3 . stations situated in the t SR which receive the accumulated
info::-nation. There is a programing device on the satellite which ensures
automatic functioning of its scientific and ahes,si ring apparatus. This
pf:oi,,rnaing device is made entirely of semiconductors. In addition, all
measuring, scientific, and radio engineering devices-are made with the
:ride usage of new s?fticonductor elefents. The total number of semiconduc-
tor elements sin boArd the satellite is several thousand. The power supply
of the apparatus is provided by the best improved electrochemical sources
of cu:rrer?t and by sftdconductor silicon batteries which convert the energy
of solar rays into electrical energy.
The great weight of Sputnik III testifies to the high qualities of
the rocket-carrier which carried it itito orbit. The weight of the
Sputnik I was equal to 83.6 kilograms. The weight of scientific measur-
ing equipment of Sputnik II was 508.3 kilograms. sputnik III weighs
1,327 kilograms. The total weight of equipment for scientific research
and radiosmeasur.ing equipment, together with power supplies of Sputnik III,
is 968 kilograms.
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The continuous; increase i n Lh weight of' the s;o~ Let satellites testi-
f' to th(r future r)oso.i Lil.i ties of ear rocket, engineer. intr. Already
t,od'.ay, there i:; '_c possibility of launching a rocket into the cosmos be-
yond t,lie HAT11 Lof the I':arLir'u gr.avitatIon. Lo that this would have sci.-
rnt,ific signI.fIcance and would be a real stride in accomplishing inter-
pl_ane',ary flights, it, is necessary that such a cosmic rocket is suf'f'iciently
equipped wDAi scientific and measuring apparatus and, as a result of its
launching, obtains new information on physical phenomena of the Universe
arid on conditions of cosmic flight.
The scientific equipment on Sputnik III makes it possible to study
a wide circle of geophysical and physical problems. The structure of the
ionosphere will be studied by means of observations of the propagation of
radio waves which are emitted from the satellite by a high-powered radio
transmitter. In this connection, an apparatus for direct measurement of
the concentration of positive ions along the satellite orbit has been in-
stalled. A special apparatus will permit the measurement of the natural
electrical charge of the satellite and the electrostatic field in the layers
of the atmosphere through which the satellite passes. Measurements of dens-
ity and pressure in the upper layers of the atmosphere are being conducted.
A mass spectrometer mounted in the satellite makes it possible to determine
the spectra of ions which characterize the chemical composition of the at-
mosphere.
For studying the Earth's magnetic field at high altitudes, a self-
orienting magnetometer which measures the full intensity of the magnetic
field has been installed.
A number of experiments are devoted to the study of various radiations
falling to Earth and having an effect on important processes in the upper
lavers of' the atmosphere. The study of cosmic rays in corpuscular radia-
tion of the Sun is being conducted by the satellite. Registration of the
intensity of cosmic rays, being conducted almost over the entire surface
of the Earth, will. give new information on cosmic radiation and on the
Earth's magnetic field at high altitudes. Experiments for determining
the number of heavy nuclei in cosmic radiation are being conducted. Ex-
periments in corpuscular radiation of the sun will throw a new light on
the nature of the ionosphere, aurora, and other phenomena in the atmosphere.
''everal transducers will record micrometeor impacts.
A new experiment on registering photons in the composition of cosmic
radiation is very important and will make it possible to obtain information
on short-wave electromagnetic radiation in the cosmos. This is the first
experiment permitting the study of cosmic radiation absorbed by the atmo-
;,nhere and the first step in opening a new stage in astronomy -- study of
:ienomcna in the universe according to short-wave radiation of luminary
Bodies. A number of experiments have been set up for investigating flight
onditions in cosmic space. Included in these experiments is the stud; of
he heat regimen, in a satellite, orientation of a satellite in space, and
Cher experiments.
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 of ~c:ie~ct;Lf.Ti: :1.'n'vr~ :t 1tzatiou; on Spui?nik III charac-
trr'L ea 1.!: ti., .:i p;c;ri,,z_tr;,e :ornnic A.cnt.Lf'i.c ._'';atiors. The creation of such
a o", ail Ll,1 JrLTi'r?r~ ,:c h.,;._! . ~1 'Le rc: a_ a,-Ad the placement of so broad
a uom'T~lr r of o: pcI1,:u--:'rUy; o:?. i`; ':f crl.rric: por r,:1'ble tharke to the fact that a
sateiiL of large dLnetl, 1.0~'. , w,!-.a created.
1.'hc :.1t ~l.l_t.L:t?a;fy;:t?ory w'.l1 7,as over all. roints of the globe
e.a. Thin increases even
of ex )er7me'nt8 beLng co'adtcted by the satel-
lite. Thy,: paramctc.)' of the aatellii,e's orbit were selected in a man-
ner that. L^IG'.~._:: J/~I,~r:,,r';).';a.ee Gt"i.('. ,:0.1:ti;:,';1;, of Fc.Lentific investigations in
the TnoFi
Sp;;?,-,:1k 1II wa.; place.,] into a??. elliptical or3:,it with an apogee
altLtw.t'3e the h:i.jh~~.~c i:oi.ct of the orbit from the s;arface of the Earth)
of l" 880 k.lomet'e:, After iv:'L.roductioan :Lcto orbit, the satellite was
ael;arat:'3 from the ruekob-carrier. The period of its rotation around the
Earth at t'.t_e cegln7:ing of movement was 105.95 minutes. In a day, the
satellite completes arou,v. d 14 orbital revolu:tiors. Later on, the rota-
tion per.Lcd and the apogee altit,:.de of the orbit will gradually decrease
be';aurye of decceleratio::L of the satellite in the upper layers of the atmos-
phere.. An-;or. di.:lfz to preliminary estimates o the movement of Sputnik III
in orbit will br lo::+ger than the movement of the first two Soviet Earth
satellites.
The plane of the ai?bit J,-I. .ncclined to the equatorial plane at a
650 angle.
The :Imme:liately after placing the satellite in orbit,
to or'-.it close to the satellite orbit at a rromparatively
Dt . Icg the coure3e of time, the distance between
the sEuGelt..," i;e acid the 'r Jeket?~cal?Y ter will be changed conatantly in con-
-W-1-1h 'she di.ft'erent degree of its deeele,~ation In the atmosphere.
The of c?eeelerat.ioo oc' ur because lifetime of the roc&et-
carrier w:tl.l he le.s;~ thar, the., time of existence of the satellite.
T1i:?.g dai;a e.cccwzmalated during launchings of the first Soviet arti-
ficial sa.tc.Llites, the l'Lfecime: may be predicted exactly after processing
or the f ir. s, c of mean :r?ements of the parameters of the orbit of
Sputnik Ill.
The movement of the Sputnik III in relation to the Earth is similar
to the movement of the first Soviet artificial satellites. In the middle
latitudes, each successive revolution over the Earth's rotation and the
prece3s i.on of the orbit occurs approximately 1, 500 kilometers west of the
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precedlctl rrevolution. The rate of precession of the orbit is around 14?
d,Lily. Observations of satellite movement are conducted by radio engineer
int.; and optical methods. The equipment and methods of observation have
bue n sl-nificaritly improved for Sputnik III. The satellite Is equipped
with several radio transmitting devices which make it possible to conduct
nte.asurements of its coordinates during movement in orbit. These measure-
ments are made by a series of specially created scientific stations
equipped with a large number of radio engineering devices.
Data on satellite coordinates, which are measured by radar equipment,
are automatically recorded simultaneously with unified astronomical time.
Then, these data are transmitted along special communication lines to the
general coordination-computation center. In the coordination-computation
center, measurement data, received from various stations, is automatically
fed into high speed electronic computers, which perform joint processing
and compute the basic parameters of the orbit. On the basis of these cal-
culations, the future movement of the satellite is predicted, and its
ephemerides are given. Such a complex of measuring equipment, which in-
cludes a great number of electronic, radio engineering and other devices,
ensures the measurement of satellite coordinates and the rapid determi-
nation of the parameters of its orbit with an accuracy which exceeds by
far the accuracy of measurements of the movement of the first satellites.
Dosaaf [Volunteer Society for Cooperation With the Army, Air Force,
and Navyl, clubs, radio direction-finding stations, and a large number of
individual radio amateurs are taking part in radio observations of the
satellite at the same time. A radio transmitter operating on a frequency
of 20,005 megacycles and continuously transmitting radio signals in tele-
graphic form with a duration of 150-300 milliseconds is installed on the
satellite. The radiating power of the transmitter provides sure reception
of its signals at great distances with the use of the usual amateur re-
ceivers. Systematic recording of these signals, especially recording on
magnetic tape, which is easily done by radio amateurs, will have great
scientific significance.
Radio observations of the movement of the satellite based on the
use of the Doppler effect is of considerable interest. As the observa-
tions of the first Soviet satellites demonstrated, this method is very
effective and under conditions of good tying in of results of measurements
to astronomical time, it will be possible to obtain precise data on satel-
lite movement..
In the organization of optical observations of the movement of Sput-
nik III, the experience obtained in observing the first satellites is also
taken into consideration. The network of ground stations for optical
observations has been expanded, and a number of foreign observation posts
have been added to it. Photographic methods of observation have been
significantly improved.
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 Approvea
:Cite ..: e of in c_l.cctron-ot~tic;.~]. converter in photographing the catel-
iLte in_1.l:cr, pouiil,ie a :Aharp photographic image at very great dis-
t;:n n ',pre c;ia7. :I ur ere:; t, . Models of the apparatus for photographing
with the use of the electron-optical converters were success-
fu?.i.y In obs(:r?vution:; of Sputnik II,
'wl:~~1'I.1 _i1?12.I.Et1J1Si~1~..
]pi,triii,, III In the full sense of the word is an automatic scientific
stution is r cor.iv.)s. Its equipment and design are considerably more
iinnrrt e :rL i can, t;al; i n2; i srto aecount the effect
of the uatc' Ll i to (.,it th ,~ value of ion Current of the trap. The
device nu1ceu i.L pc)rj;iLblce to rrt )a,rure the lcn cone errtra?i;lofts in the range
front 10,000 L,I ''') ml.11 iCnt ioriu 'Lit it citb.Lc centimeter.
't'he metv:;urerncrj-t of 'che pors:iti.ve ion concentration makes it pos-
s Lble for the .1.' L.rst time to obtain data about the full concentration of
charged parti clefs in the ionosphere over vat ious geographical regions of
the earth, for various altitudes, its well as its changes during the tran-
si.tlons from the regi.oris illuminated by the Sun into the region of shade
and vice versa. These data are rather important for understan:iing the
processes of the interactiron of the Suit's radiation with the Earth's
atmosphere.
Cornpo.r.i.sso.ri of the measurements conducted in the region located
below the so-called. main ion:Lzation maximum, which is located at an al-
titude of 300 to 350 kilometers,,; with the reoidts of ground ionosphere
stations has made it possible to draw a series of conclusions about the
concentration of negative ions at such altitudes and about the ioniza-
tion of the air caused by the motion of the satellite itself.
It can be expected that the measured concentration of positive
Ions will provide new data on the structure of the outer region of the
ionosphere, which will. provide additional information about this region
as previously obtained from rocket launchings and the first two artificial
earth satellites. It can also be expected that the magnitudes of the
ionosphere inhomogeneities will also be measured.
2. Investigation of the Composition of the Ionosphere
The earth's atmosphere consists of a great variety of gases.
Its composition at the earth's surface has been studied sufficiently
well. The data on the composition of the upper layer of the atmosphere
are at present rather contrathctory. One of the important gas char-
acteristics entering the earth's atmosphere, as well as of all the exist-
ing elements, is their atomic and molecular weight, which are expressed
in empirical units, so-called atomic mass units. For the atomic mass
unit, a value equal to 1/16 of the atomic weight of oxygen is taken.
The molecular weight of oxygen, composed of two atoms, ins equal to 32.
The atomic weight of nitrogen is 14, and the molecular weight is 28.
Analyzing the molecular and atomic weights of various canpounds and
mixtures, It is possible to straw conclusions about their chemical com-
position. For the determination of atomic and molecular weights of el-
ements and their compounds comprising a mixture, so-called mass-
spectrometers are used. The mass-spectrometer installed on Sputnik III
is intended for determination of mass spectrum. of the positive ions that
exist in the earth's ionosphere. Knowing the mass number of the ions it
is possible to draw conclusions about the chemical composition of the
ionosphere.
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'I%(-- mn:r;;- ;1;_ c:tromc.tri e tube, the 3eIu :i.ng :!1(mieIrt of the instru-
ment, to coruic c ted with its open-entrance aperture directly to Surround-
ing space. it cc7ntainn a series of thin-4r_irc grid-electrodes placed at
fixed dI3tances from each other. Behind the grids are collectors in the
form of m..Aa1.l.ic plates 'rhtch collect ions entering the mass-:;pcctrometer
tube after passing throuirh all the grids.
The tube electrodes are fed various direct and alternating cur-
rent voltages generated in the electronic unit of the mass-spectrometer.
These voltages are selected in such a manner that only those ions can
reach the collector which have passed the tube with optimum vector veloe-
:tty. The ions passing the tube with vector velocity greater or smaller
than the optimum, will not be admitted to the collector. The velocity
with which the ions pass through the mass-spectrometer tube, are deter-
mined, on one hand, by their mass and, on the other hand, by the accelerat-
ing potential applied to certain grids of the tube.
The accelerating potential periodically changes from zero to its
maximum value. Therefore, the optimum velocity is imparted, alternately
to the ions with various mass numbers. When the ions reach the collector,
a current pulse is generated in its circuit which is amplified and is'
transmitted by a radio telemetering system to Earth. Simultaneously,
the accelerating potential, available at a given moment on the tube grids
of the mass-spectrometer, is also transmitted. If the ionosphere has
ions of only one mass, then the receiving stations will register one
pulse of ion current for each cycle of change in accelerating potential.
In case of a more complex composition of the ionosphere, two or more
pulses are registered for each cycle. The ion mass number, correspond-
ing to each pulse, can be determined by means of comparison of the mass
spectrum records with the records of the mass-spectrometer accelerating
potential.
3. Investigation of Electrostatic Fields
As a result of a series of processes occurring in interplanetary
space, as well as in the atmosphere, the earth, with its atmosphere as
a whole, acquires a certain electrical charge. The electrical field
caused by such a charge will act on the velocity and the direction of the
charged particles traveling in interplanetary space. It can have an ef-
fect on a number of geophysical phenomena (aurorae, etc). Data on the
electrical fields in the upper atmosphere might greatly help in determin-
ing the causes for the existence of the earth's negative charge and the
positive charge of the atmosphere, which create between the earth and
the ionosphere a potential difference of several thousand volts.
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Although a number of theories explaining the origin of aurora
anal corpuscular flows allow for the existence of electrical fields in
the upper layers of the atmosphere, the direct measurement or their in-
direct determination has never been conducted. The fact remains that
the favorable conducting layer of the ionosphere prevents the pentration
of electrical fields into the lower layers of the atmosphere in the same
manner that a giant metallic shield would do if it were substituted for
the ionosphere.
For the same reason, it is impossible to measure, with the aid
of instruments located below the ionosphere, the electrical fields in
interplanetary space.
The measurement of the electrical fields with the aid of the
satellites is complicated by the fact that any body in the upper layers
of the atmosphere will acquire an electric charge, the field of which,
if not taken into account, will add up with the measured field and will
distort the measurements.
This charge appears as a result of the inequality of electron
and positive ion velocities entering the surface of the satellite, as
well as the result of phenomena such as photoeffect, i.e., the ejection
of electrons from the satellite surface by light and by other radiations.
Use of satellites for studies of such characteristics of the
ionosphere as the concentration of ions and their mass spectra requires
accounting for such disturbances which the satellite brings to the sur-
rounding space. Therefore, the measurement of the electric charge of the
satellite, which causes the redistribution of the charged particles in
its vicinity, is also desirable to improve the results of these experi-
ments. On the other hand, the information on the electric charge in
conjunction with the data on the ion concentration will make it possible
in a number of cases to determine such a difficult-to-measure ionosphere
characteristic as temperature.
The equipment used on the satellite consists of two sensing
electrostatic flux meters having co=On control circuits. It is made
in the form of two transducers mounted symmetrically on the side sur-
face of the satellite, and a unit with amplifiers. The essential part
of each transducer is the measuring electrode, a ten-sector plate con-
nected to the body of the satellite through a resistor. The surface of
the plate becomes, in a way, the surface of the satellite. This plate
is periodically shielded by another plate, a shield, which is rotated
by an electric motor. Since the measuring plate is a part of the satel-
lite surface when it is exposed, it contains some part of the satellite's
charge, as well as the charge induced by the exterior electrostatic field.
When this plate is covered by the shield, the charge is removed.
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During the rotation of the shield, the charge from the measur-
:Lng plate is periodically removed through the resistor forming an alternat-
:Lng current potential across it which is proportional to the magnitude
of the plate charge. This potential is amplified, rectified, and fed to
the input of the radio telemetering system. This system of measurement
makes it possible to determine the magnitude of the electrostatic field,
and the use of two symmetrically placed transducers of the electrostatic
flux meter makes it possible to determine not only the satellite's own
charge, but also the exterior electrostatic field.
During the operation of the apparatus, a special system of con-
trol makes it possible to check the reliability and accuracy of measure-
ments.
Measurement of the Earth's Magnetic Field
The action of the Earth's magnetic field is revealed both during
observations of artificial indicators of the type of magnetic needles
rotating coils, etc,, inserted in it, as well as during observations of
a whole aeries of geophysical phenomena: deflections in the polar regions
of charged particles emanating from the Sun, the deflection of cosmic
rays, and the polarization of radio waves.
The distribution of the magnetic field according to size and inten-
sity was studied in enough detail only over the continents in the direct
vicinity of the Earth's surface. These data were widely used in the prac-
tice of prospecting for useful minerals, ship navigation, aeronavigation,
etc.
The nature of the Earth's magnetic field up to now is unknown. As
a result of prolonged measurements of the intensity of the Earth's mag-
netic field in special observatories, it was established that it changes
with time. The most intensive changes of the magnetic field are called
magnetic storms.
Analysis of observations showed that the principal part of the Earth's
magnetic field and its secular variations are caused by sources occurring
inside the Earth. On the other hand, the chief sources of short period
variations of the Earth'a magnetic field and magnetic disturbances are
outside the Earth in the upper layers of the atmosphere.
The magnetic field of the Earth in the first approximation coincides
with the field of a magnetized globe or of a strong magnet, the distance
between the poles of which is extremely small, and on which the north
pole of this magnet is located in the southern hemisphere of the Earth,
and the south vole in the northern hemisphere. The axis forms an angle
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of 11.5 degrees i?r.th the ax!:; ()1' rc,tati.on ()i' the; Larth. This simple icp-
rcr. cntation Is complicated by the locat on of f i.eldu of continental, re-
,.i_ona,l, and local anornaJJ.ec,. Aar exarnp.1c: of the first :i.s the ';act Siberian
maLncttc anomaly, occupyiXIg a cono:i.derable .part of the continent.
Sources of local magnetic anomalies, for example the Kursk, lie in
the uppermost layer of the 'Earth's crust, lout these anomal:Leo quickly
decrease with altitude. Contradictory opinions exist concerning the
localization of continental. anomalies.
Mathematical methods permit the calculation of the field at high
altitudes if the distribution of the field near the surface is known.
Observations on the intensity of cosmic rays at different latitudes gave
definite information concerning the structure of the Earth's magnetic
field at high altitudes. The most puzzling thing is that maps of the
dt:atributl on of the magnetic field at high altitudes, according to ter-
restrial magnotometr:Lc data and according to observations of cosmic rays,
are not in agreement. Direct mea:urements of the intensity of the mag-
netic field at high altitudes using magnetometers mounted in artificial
earth satell:i.tes, permit shedding light on the cause of the observed dis-
crepancy.
The placement of a magnetometer in a satellite permits conducting
a magnetic survey of the whole of the Earth in a short period of time.
Quite exceptional possibilities for the investigation of the variable
part of the magnetic field are presented.
According to contemporary notions, magnetic perturbations are caused
by strong currents flowing in the ionized layers of the atmosphere. Up
to now, only one direct experiment was known, accomplished with the aid
of a magnetometer installed in a rocket, which attested to the actual
existence of such current systems.
The satellite moving along its orbit will repeatedly cross the
ions zed layers of the atmosphere. Thus, the existence of the current
system can be noted according to jumps in the intensity of the magnetic
field. Separation of the intensities of the field measured by a mag-
netometer, frequently related to the supposed current system, can be ac-
complished only by special methods of observation and processing of the
data. According to the reason given, programs for the investigation of
the spatial distribution of the Earth's permanent and variable magnetic
fields cannot be fulfilled in one experiment.
The principal problcrr of the experiment by the artificial earth
satellite is the investigation of the spatial distribution of the perma-
nent magnetic field of the Earth at the highest altitudes in comparison
with the spatial distribution of lines of similar intensity of the magnetic
field and lines of similar intensity of cosmic rays.
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Measurement of the magnetic field with satellites Is connected with
consLderable difficulties, which use determined by the fact that the lo-
cation of the satellite relative to the vector of the Earth's magnetic
field changes continuously. The magnetometer should possess high sensi-
tivity over a large range of measurements. The influence of the magnetic
arts of other Inboard equ.tpment is exerted on the transducers of the
mag-rictometer.
A magnetometer which eliminates these difficulties is installed on
board the satellite. This magnetometer is an instrument, the measuring
transducer of which is automatically oriented in the direction of the
fall vector of the Earth's magnetic field in any orientation of the sat-
ellite. The size of the magnetic field and its variations serve as a
compensating current passing through a coil, mounted on a measuring trans-
ducer, Ln such a direction that it fully compensates the spatial field
of the earth occupied by the transducer.
Two potentiometric transducers, installed at the junction of orienta-
tion, makes it possible to determine the position of the satellite body
relative to the Earth and the rate of rotation of the satellite around
its own axis.
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~c;~c1y w~a_C;;~antl.c FirLy,
Invor,i,.L~ tr t:Lon of cosrn:Lc radiation is making it possible to obtain in-
f'oi~tt on he procC'.::ses concerned in the formation of particles in the
depth, of outer space which possess very great energy. Moving about the
un i ver e, these particles are acted on by the effect of the medium t-hrouich
w iic'i Lituy pass. Effect on cosmic radiation is caused by processes occur-
J.n,_r on the Sun and, in particular, by streams of corpuscles ejected from
within he Sun.. The intensity of cosmic radiation changes under the
c.ction of electrical and magnetic fields present in these flows. Changes
in.. the composition of interplanetary medium surrounding the rr,rth also
lead:, to change in the character of the movement of particles of cosmic
rays iJh:ich originated in the furthermost regions of the universe and are
moving t.n tiLe direction of the ar.~th- Sometimes powerful explosive proc-
esscVs occur on the Sun, resulting in the appearance of cosmic rays. These
prccesse: have been little studied so far, and their investigation is of
grer.-tt i.rnpurtance .
Ai, thth result of deflection of cosmic rays in the magnetic field of the
Earth., only particles with energy greater than 14 million electronic volts
can e tci; the equatorial regions of the i arth. Particles with very small
energy can reach the high latitudes. Moving about its orbit, the satellite
maker it possible to register cosmic radiation of different energy.
The cosmic rays counter installed on the satellite will make it possi-
ble to obtain information on the intensity variations and the enemy spec-
truzn of cosmic radiation.
Of particular significanec_ is the research on the smallest particles
of ligi_t in the composition of cosmic rays, the photons. Photons possess-
inF; considerable energyr, as the so-called. gamma rays, can reveal to us
where ti,is radiation is generated better than any other component of cosmic
radiation. Gz ma rays shou].d propagate themselves practically l:iilearil.y in
univer:sul spc.c.c. Therefore., having detected in which direction the gam.1a
rays :re moving, it is possible to designate where their source is located.
1r; cc~i rasa to this, particles of cosmic rays having electrical charges are
tro:iL;]_y deflected. in the maLmeti c fields existing in the cosmos and lose
their .initial. direction of movement.
Ue',ect1orr of g"urana rays in the composition of cosmic radiation is con-
nectoc'_ W.I.L. great difficu3_111-ies, and all the more so, since at present, it
is not possible to predict the-'_r intensity. The satellite existing for a
long tune outs le the '1,rth ? s atmosphere presents an unusual possibility
for detecting this new component of cosmic rays.
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An in trumont Installed in the oa,tellitte makes it Possible for the
C i ra t time to realize un experi;;torrttti. attempt to detect g;aminL -ray3 in the
compos]tti.on of primary cosmic radiation. If this attempt is crowned frith
::,ucceso, then it will be possible to speak of a new method for I.nvestiga-
tlon of the universe.
It is knowli that about 70 percent of be pr:iuaLry flog of cosmic rays
entering into the upper layers of the atmosphere concint of protons --
t1LJ :IurIleus of the ].J.t;lrtest clement, hydrogen. In addition to protons,
there are also other nuclei of other elements in the primary flow of cos-
mic rays . Nuclei of helium (alpha pLL:cticle ,) tare present in a quantity
less than 20 percent and nuclei of heavier elements make up about one
percent in all. Even though the nuunbcr of such particles is small, the
energy which they bear consists of about 16 percent of the energy of the
entire flow of cosmic rays.
It is important to know the composition of the primary flow in more
detail. Information on the composition of cosmic rags in particular is
of considerable significance in r:tnswer to the problem as to how and where
particles with such great energies are created.
A considerable amount of information on the composition of primary
cosmic rays has been obtained as the result of instruments carried into
the stratosphere on sounding balloons. However, it was not possible to
obtain a complete series, of clata of primary composition while conducting;
measurements in tha stratosphere, as there is still a small layer of sub-
stance which is always present above the instruments and changes the com-
position of cosmic rays. Up to now, it is not kno4rn whether there is an
observable number of nuclei heavier than the nucleus of iron in cosmic
rays.
Installation of an instrument for registration of nuclei of heavy
elements will make it possible to reply to this important scientific
question. The basic element of this instrument is a so-called Cherenkov
particle counter. Operation of this counter is based on the use of
Cherenkov radiation, which is formed in such a case when a chang=ed particle
moves in a substance with a speed which exceeds the speed of lig=ht in that-
medium.
An important property of Cherenkov radiation is the fact that the in-
tensity of the light flash which appears in the substance during the tran-
sit of a particle through it is proportional to the square of the charge
of the particle. Therefore, particles moving with a speed smaller than
the speed of 1!F;ht in the substance do not radiate light. This property
of Cherenkov radiation males it possible to use it for the registration of
charged particles, determination of their charge, and the separation from
the entire flow of particles of only those which possess sufficiently great
speed.
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The Cherenkov counter consists of a plexiglass cylinder-detector, to
the end of which is attached a photoelectron multiplier. On passage of a
cosmic ray particle with a speed of about 300,000 kilometers per second
through the detector, Cherenkov radiation is formed in it. The rate of
propagation of light in plexiglass is equal to approximately 200,000
kilometers per second and, therefore, has the necessary condition for
forming Cherenkov radiation.
The light which appeared -in the detector is received by the photo
multiplier, which transforms -t.t into an electric signal and amplifies
It to a value which is necessary for operation of the instrument. The
instrument sorts all of the signals into two groups, corresponding to the
passage of particles through the detector with a charge greater than 30
and those greater than 17. On each passage of a particle through the
Cherenkov counter, a signal is given as to which group the entering nucleus
belongs.
Investigation of Corpuscular Radiation of the Sun
Solar electromagnetic radiation includes the infrared, visible,
ultraviolet, and X-ray regions of the spectrum. At times, an erruption
of ionized gases consisting of electrons and ions from the Sun shoots
into interplanetary space. According to the extent of emission from the
Sun, part of the ions are neutralized, that is, transformed into ordinary
atoms. The emission of these particles from the Sun has come to be called
corpuscular radiation of the Sun. Together with the corpuscular streams,
accompanying magnetic fields are given off. According to various estimates,
the corpuscles have a speed, near the earth, on the order.of several thousand
kilometers per second.
During the passage of the corpuscular streams close to the earth, mag-
netic disturbances develop, the most intensive of which are called magnetic
storms. At the same time, aurorae occur. As the corpuscles penetrate the
atmosphere, their ionization increases in the upper, as well as in the lower,
layers. An increase in ionization in the lower more dense regions leads
to a disturbance of radio communications, since an intensive absorption of
radio waves occurs. Corpuscular outbreaks are accompanied by a disturbance
in the thermal condition of the upper atmosphere.
A majority of the solar corpuscles is composed of charged particles.
Such corpuscles most often penetrate the atmosphere near the earth's
geomagnetic poles, in the polar regions. Because of the curvature of the
trajectory of movement in the magnetic fields, the charge particles also
penetrate on the night side of the earth in the vicinity of the polar
zones. Corpuscular invasion also occurs in the middle latitudes, but here
it is less intensive.. Neutral corpuscles are free to penetrate at any
place on the earth's surface.
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LiCr,.rinL,.LIor, on ~:_spY.i::culeer radiation of the Sun io very poor, and little
i.,3 knc. am of l t:3 nat!.ire and properties. Until very recently, -encral infor-
in'.t ton on corpuscular radiation has been obtained from observations of the
u.urorae .
Artificial earth r.!tell.ites are an effective means of studying cor-
pu::cular rud:iut.ion. The p:!'c;,ent time L especially favorable since this
r,!.diat:i_on ha:i intensified TWCLLUse of the increase in solar activity.
Two particle detectors are located in. Sputnik IIT_. These, indicators
are fluorescent screens covered with aluminum foil of various thicknesses.
In this manner, a rough classification is obtained of the corpuscles accord-
in` to their penetration capabilities.
In front of the fluorescent screens, diaphraL=s tare placed which re-
strict the solid angle of capture of the corpuscle,. Because of the action
of the corpuscles, the fluorescent screens glow; similar to the process in
the picture tube of a television receiver of illumination of the screen by
the electron beam. Radiation from the screen is received by a photoelectric
multiplier tube. Its signal is "stored" by a special devi^e and is then
transmitted to earth by a radiotelemetering system.
With the help of this apparatus, it will be possible to obtain valua-
ble material on the geogrsrh.i.^_, altitude, and diurnal distribution of cor-
puscular streams. For investigating the direction of approach of the par-
ticles, a rotation of the satellite is used. The Earth's mfa,imetic field
is capable of repelling the charged particles and :forcing them to follow
a pi.ral path along the lines of mogmetic force. The neutral particles may
-travel along a straight trajectory. Such observations will provide addi-
tional. (data f~r cletermining the nature of corpuscles.
Together with the registration of corpuscular radiation of the Sun,
the apparatu, makes it possible to obtain suppl.eme-ritary material on X-ray
radiation which will also be recorded by the corpuscle indicators. This
radiation may differ from corpuscitla,r radiation in its direction of approach
and by the absence of repulsion. from the earth's atmosphere. In addition,
it may be registered during the time of appearance since corpuscular radia-
tion is propagated more slowly than electrornagmetic radiation.
Measurement of Pressure and Density of the Atmosphere
The study of how the pressure and density varies with altitude belongs
to the number of most important geophysical investigations of the upper
atmosphere. Knowing these two parameters. it is possible to determine the
temperature of the atmosphere at high altitudes.
Until. recently, this study was restricted to comparatively low alti-
tudes and only high-altitude rockets made possible measurements of the pres-
sure and density in the upper layers of the atmosphere. At an altitude of
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100 kilometers, the pressure and density are approximately 10 million times
less than on the surface of the Earth. Higher than 100 kilometers, there
are single rocket measurements which agree poorly with indirect data. The
essential shortcoming of rocket measurements is their short duration and
the fact that they are conducted only above 'Individual points of the
Earth's surface.
For geophysics, it it.. extremely important to have data on the density
and pressure of the upper layers of the atmosphere at all longitudes and
latitudes by taking measurements over a long period of time.
The use of satellites makes possible more precise and expanded in:-
formation concerning the structure of the atmosphere. The prolonged stay
of an instrument at an altitude, and comparison of the results of the
measurement from one revolution to another, permits detailed analysis
of experimental data to be made and to exclude the possibility of ex-
perimental error.
Given a sufficiently accurate experiment, it will also be possible
to estimate diurnal and latitudinal variations of the density and.pres-
sure at altitudes at which the satellite is orbiting.
Manometers y1-.ce;i on the outside of the satellite are coupled with
a measuring apparatus inside the satellite. A magnetic manometer measures
pressures on the satellite within the limits of l0-5 to lo-7 millimeters
of iercury, and ionization manometers make measurements in the range of
10' to 10-9 millimeters of mercury.
Investigation of Mtcrometeors
It is known that tiny solids. particles, micrometeors, move about in
interplanetary space. When they enter into the earth's atmosphere, they
burn up. During this luminous occurrence, which can be observed with the
naked eye or with the telescope, only relatively coarse particles are pro-
duced. The very fine, and presumably very numerous, particles, which are
only a few microns in diameter, produce such-a faint light that they can
not be observed with optical instruments, nor with any other facilities
of ground observation.
By means of radar observations; it has been established that the
micrometeors which plunge into the earth's atmosphere at a speed of 70
kilometers perc:second produce an ionization of the molecules of the air.
Around the flying particles, charged particles, electrons, acid ions, form
a trail which is observable by means of radar. Even this method, however,
is not able to detect the very finest micrometeors. At present, these
particles can be studied only with the aid of apparatus contained in
rockets and, especially, in artificial Earth satellites.
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The study ci' L:1!.erpl.ani~tary matter is of great significance to the
a:ct,rcnomer, the t;eoph.y's:i c.1 st. and the astronaut, and al.^o for the solution
of prot:l_era of evolution and on in cif planetary systemr and for the c ari-
ficat.ion of a number of Important quest,iono in regard to modern theories
rJ c O~TflO _~Ony
I t i s %Iso very important tc know accurately the average amount of
me';eorlc mutter which fa11r- to the earth during a given irtterual of time.
It is necessary to tzlce into account. the. influence of impacts of meteoric
bodies on the out.r;r .hell of a rocket and an artificial satellite and also
on tn,t.rament-c t urrted. on them (for. example., or. the e,urfac:e of optical
i u~,tnun(snts, which may be turned from t ran@purent to opaque as a resul+
of rollisiona with micromet.eors), cn the active surface of solar batteries)
Another thing to be taken into account i~ the danger of the collision
of rwt.ificial Earth satellites, and e;-:pec:l.a.l1.y interplanetary rockets. with
larger meteorites., Although the probability of such a collision is not
great, -it does exist. and it is important to be able to estimate it accu-
rately.
Several methods mny be used to record the collisions of micrometeors
with th,a outer shells of interplanetary rockets and artificial earth sat-
ellites. One simple, and; at the some time. very sensitive, method is the
use of piezoelectric transducers, which convert the mechanical energy of
the collisions with particles into electrical energy.
Th,~ ma.gnitude of the electrical impulse produced in such a. transmit-
t1 n, ; element, depends on the velocity and mass of the impinging particles,
and rl,unlUer of impulses is equal. to the number of particles which
collide with the surface of the transducer. The electrical impulses
c,:)min~; from the transducers are fed, to an electronic device which counts
the .tmpu1res and. records their magnitudes n.
Sources of Equipment Power Supply
The power supply for, scientific and measuring instruments in Sputnik
III is based on silver-zinc batteries and mercuric oxide elements. The
various elements and batteries of this type developed by Soviet scientists
have high specific electrical characteristics- per unit of weight, and
volume and are suitable for use in the satellite.
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In addition to the chemical batteries, Sputnik III also has a series
of solar batteries. These batteries convert the energy of solar radiation
r1:Li:'ectly Into electrical energy. Solar batteries consist of a series of
elements, thin sheets of pure monocrystalline silicon, with predetermined
electrical conductivity. Each of the silicon elements produces about
0.5 volt, and the coefficient of transformation of the solar energy
amounts to 9-11 percent. The correct combination of elements provides
the required voltage and current.
The mounting of solar batteries on Sputnik III affords he possi-
bility of a detailed investigation of its operation under the conditions
of cosmic flight.
The launching of the third Soviet artificial r',arth satellite is now
evidence of the success of rocket engineering in the Soviet Union. The
broad complex of mutually related investigations being undertaken by the
satellite will make a great contribution to the development of science.
The launching of Sputnik III is one of the most remarkable events of the
IGY. The great size of the satellite and its high degree of automation
brings Soviet science and engineering closer to the creation of space
(Moscow, Pravda, 18 May 58, pp 3-4)
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:Auv:ie is i'ub L:iL;h Compilation of omc I{~sults 01' Sputniks I and 1,1
full-page article in the 27 April Pravda presents a compilation of some
ul' the rc~ults u1' tho rxp:rin:~n_s conducted by means of :sputniks I and II.
The r'ollowin;, is a swruuury of the article.
'1'hc launchinj's of ~putnil: I and II, on 4 October and 3 November, re-
sj_p: ctiveiy, marked the beCinrrin' -; of man's penetration into cosmic space.
such artificial rtellites open the way for the realization of a whole
series of the most important scientific investigations. The study of the
ionosphere and the mechanism of its formation, the effects of the Sun's
radiation and cosmic rays on the Earth's atmosphere, the study of the
density, temperature, and magnetic and electrostatic fields at high al-
titudes, and many other problems are of great scientific and practical
interest.
The solution of these problems requires the conduct of direct ex-
periments at altitudes of hundreds and thousands of kilometers above the
surface of the Earth. The possibility of accomplishing such experiments
appeared w*th tiie creation of artificial earth satellites which permit
mal;irg the necessary scientific measurements at great altitudes over dif-
ferent parts of the Earth's globe over long periods of time.
4llthou6h the value of sputniks for scientific observations had been
known for a long time, their launching had remained an unsolved problem.
The principle difficulty was the Duch of a rocket capable of imparting a
spEreJ in _:h_? urder of 1.3,000 meters per second to them.
It was only after the creation of the intercontinental ballistic mis
s.Lles ill the Soviet Union thatthe launching of the first sputnik was real-
ized. The ?xcellent qualities of design of this rocket enabled putting
sputniks into orbit with heavy loads of scientific apparatus. `me weight
o` the first Soviet artificial earth satellite was 83.6 kilograms, but
the sc iontific and measuring apparatus with power packs in the second Soviet
s,rtelli to weighed 50t"J . 3 kilograms .
The launching of artificial earth satellites with such a large weight
ut' apparatus makes it possible simultaneously to conduct a whole complex
uf' scientific investigations which increases their scientific value. Only
by launching such large artificial satellites can the problems of building
cuut.Luuousiy operating cosmic laboratories and of making interplanetary
flights be solved.
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Cho first :soviet artificial earth catell.Lte was put into an orbit
with a perigee of 225 kilometers and an apogee of 94'( kilometers; the
with a perigee of 225 kilometers and an apogee of 1,6'(1 kilurneteru.
'Lhe initial orbital period of the first sputnik was 96.1'( rninute~., and. of
Clio second, 103.75 minutes.
During the artificial satellites' movement along the orbital altitudes
mentioned above it was possible to conduct a number of experiments for the
Ludy of the upper atmosphere (determining the density of the atmosphere,
t:he study of the propagation of radio waves, etc.). On the other hand, at
these altitudes the density of the atmosphere is low enough so that it does
not distort measurements of the primary components of cosmic radiation,
the spectrum of the short-wave radiation of the Sun, etc.
Scientific problems also determined the selection of the orbit's angle
of inclination to the Earth's equator, equal to approximately 65 degrees.
The advantage of such an orbit is that during the sputnik's flight its
Jcientific apparatus can conduct measurements over different latitudes.
It should be noted that placing an artificial satellite into an orbit with
a greater angle of inclination to the plane of the equator is a far more
complex task than-'to place it into an orbit similar to an equatorial orbit.
During the period of its existence from 4 October 1957 to 4 January
1958, the first Soviet satellite completed about 1,400 revolutions around
the Earth. The second satellite, from 3 November to 14 April 1958, com-
pleted about 2,370 revolutions. With the aid of the first Soviet artificial
earth satellites the projected program of scientific investigations was
successfully accomplished. Some of the preliminary results of these in-
vestigations follow. On the whole, the material accumulated is very ex-
tensive, and work on it continues.
1. Radio and Optical Observations of Artificial Earth Satellites
Inasmuch as analysis of the change of the orbit of a satellite
with time makes it possible to evaluate the density of the upper layers
of the atmosphere, investigations of the motion of artificial satellites
are very important. Orbital elements of such satellites can be determined
by observations made by radiotechnical and optical methods. Among the
radiotechnical methods used were radio position finding and the observation
of the Doppler effect during reception of radio signals from the sputniks.
During radio observati^n of the signals from the first and second
Soviet sputniks the frequency of the radio signals received was measured.
A special radio apparatus and recording chronograph were used for this
purpose.
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t'ci l..l.;/ use' 1
r,rJ
d~ t;~
rul i 11:1
wadt_~ show that the Doppler ot'fect can be cuccesr -
th'! orbital p {t .'amfi~ters of sputniks. The value of
t,ftL:; n;t. tho~d
is
itr
s Lnlpl is 1 ty and the reliability of the apparatus. With
ran .irlcrer,c^e
In
t,ht-
fre(jucuncy of it transmitter and with the use of' a system
all Lomntically m,~;c;;urint; the frugluency, the error of the method can be sub-
;I,fttlt;ially r?'dUCCU..
For it more accurate determination of the coordinates special photo-
Modernized aerial pho'to-
grrcr~hac thcuilolite (fotokl.nc teodol.lty) were used.
t;ral,h.:rc survey cLLmeras for obtcainln,; photo ,raphs with the sputniks' trails
were cued. Timing durln(; photography was done with the aid of a number of
consecutive opening-, and closings of the shutter with the registration of
the time of these operations by it photoelectric method. Thus a broken
trail of the sputnik was obtained on the photograph.
During the observations of the artificial earth satellites a method
of photographing them using highly sensitive means was developed. Among
tlicse, the use of an electronic optical converter showed special promise.
Thu new method permits making observations for sputniks without using large
optical systems. Thar; will graatly simplify the means of observations.
Determination of Density of Atmosphere.
The density and temperature of the air are the most importa!t;
characteristics of the atmosphere. The determination of their principal
altitudes down to the boundaries of the atmosphere is essential for under-
stand:Ln+e a number of geophysical phenomena.
:;von bet'ore the launching of the first artificial satellites the
possibility of determining the temperature and density of the atmosphere from
observations of their motion was noted. During their movement in the at-
mosphere the sputniks meet resistance. The strength of the resistance is
pruportiuna.1 to the density of the atmosphere. As a result of the braking
action of the atmosphere there Is a gradual. reduction of the altitude of
the orbit. This continues up to the time the sputnik enters the dense
layers of the atmosphere and ceases to exist.
The farther away from the Earth's surface, the quicker the density
the atmosphere falls. Therefore, the force of the resistance in the
different parts of the orbit is not equal. In an orbit of sufficient size,
the main braking force is in the perigee. This reduces the height of the
apogee at a quicker rate than that of the perigee. In its evolution, the
r;atel].ite's orbit thus gradually approaches a circular form.
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On the basis at' a theoretical analysis of the results of the ob-
sr:rvattona it was possible to determine the values of the evolution of the
croits as the product of the atmospheric density times the square root of
altitude of a homogeneous atmosphere at the perigee altitudes of 225-
22R kilometers of the first satellites. The value of the density was also
calculated. As a result, it was found that values of the density obtained
were 5-10 times greater than the values indicated for those heights in a
number of studies of the atmosphere which were based on rocket measurements
before the launching of the satellites.
The Earth's atmosphere over different areas of its surface is not
uniform. At one and the same altitude the density and temperature of the
atmosphere change in relation to latitude and time of day. This relation-
3hip is connected with the irregular heating of the upper atmosphere by
ultraviolet, Roentgen rays, and corpuscular radiation from the Sun.
As a result of the fact that the gravitational field of the Earth
is different from the central field, the orbits of the artificial earth
satellites changed their location in space. Thus for the first Soviet
satellites the angular distance of the perigee from the midday meridian
chanced approximately by 4 degrees, and the latitude of the perigee changed
by 0.35 degree per day.
Inasmuch as the principal influence of the atmosphere occurs in
the region of the orbit's perigee, the change of its location leads to a
chance of the magnitude of the braking. This makes it possible to evaluate
the magnitude of the latitudinal and diurnal changes of the state of the
atmosphere.
On the basis of the observations, calculations were made for deter-
mining the density of the atmosphere, taking into account the changes in
'the location of the perigee of the orbit. The calculations showed that the
product of the density times the square root of the altitude of a homo-
Ucncous atmosphere increases during the transition from the night side of
the atmosphere to the day side, and reaches its maximum value at midday.
Analysis of the braking also revealed a decrease of this value during the
transition from the more northern region of the atmosphere to the equatorial
region. It should be noted that the values of density, calculated according
to the results of observations of the first and second sputniks, are in
good agreement with those of the rocket carrier of the first sputnik.
On the basis of the data obtained it is possible to draw the con-
clusion that the temperature at altitudes of about 225 kilometers is higher,
than previousl, supposed on the basis theoretical considerations.
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Tfl,, (llscc)vl~ry o[' the high temperature of the atmosphere poses
for i.;eophyuicistn the prohlQin of the sources of energy and its great
heat capacity. The ].1-lcnoown ''hard" ultraviolet and Roentgen raclia-
tions of file ,;in would 'n:ar,lly be sufficient for this purpose. Now it
is possible only to Corm di.f1'erent hypotheses on this question. For
ext.tmple, it uun be suppo:;ed that, the upper atmosphere of the polar
r'~giorts i:; intensely heated by corpuscular radiations from the "';un.
The whole upper atmosphere ma;; be .dditionally heated either by in-
i'raiound graves arriving from the troposphere or by electrical currents
arising in 1.lre electrical coiiductinl; Ionized air as a result of its
motion In the Earth's magnetic field.
Further study of the upper atmosphere using rockets and arti-
ficial earth satellites will make it possible to obtain a definitive
answer to all these interesting; and important questions.
3. Results of Investif;ations of Ionosphere
The observation of radio signals received from the first arti-
ficial earth satellites provided new data on the outer part of the
ionosphere, that is, that part lying above 300-400 kilometers. The
ionosphere is the upper part of the atmosphere containing a considerable
quantity of free, charged particles -- electrons and ions. During the
passage of radiowaves through the ionospheric layers the phenomena of
their reflection, partial and full absorption, and the distortion of the
paths of their propagation occur. Therefore, radio methods are the most
effective means of investigating the upper layers of the atmosphere.
One of the principal parameters characterizing the state of the
ionosphere is the magnitude of the electron concentration, that is, the
content of free electrons per cubic centimeter. Up to now the electron
concentration was measured from the lower ionospheric layers up to an
altitude of 300-400 kilometers, where the electron concentration has a
so-called principal maximum.
These measurements were produced mainly by ground ionospheric
stations, transmitting short impulse radio signals at different frequen-
cies and receiving their reflection from the separate layers of the
ionosphere.
As a result of systematic measurements, it was established that
the altitude of the principal maximum of the ionosphere and its electron
concentration changed from day to night, from season to season, dwring
the transition from north to south, and from east to west. The greatest,
value of electron concentration in the middle latitudes reached 2-3 million
electrons per cubic centimeter. It was found that from altitudes of 100-
110 kilometers up to altitudes of 300-1E00 kilometers, the electron con-
centration becomes on the average 10-15 times as great.
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It, is extremely important to know how the electron concentration
au ; r +,he tnai.n maximum, that is, in the outer part of the ionosphere,
This is necessary in particular to understand the interaction
o!' f-. he ultraviolet radiations of the Sun with the atmosphere and to study
the conditions of radiowave propagation and other processes originating
La the ionosphere. Certain information on the outer ionosphere can be
obtained by the study of radio emanations from the Sun and the stars and
of radio signals reflected from the Moon which are received on Earth.
Otservations on the porpagation of radiowaves transmitted from sputniks
at different altitudes is a new method of studying the outer ionosphere.
In the reception of radio signals from the first artificial earth
jatellites at a frequency of 40 megacycles, it was possible in a number of
cases to observe, free from distortion, the "radiorise" (radiovoskhod) and
"radios etting"(radiozakhod) of the sputnik and to note the exact time of
each. In contrast to the optical "rising" or "setting" of the sputnik,
which are characterized by rays of light traveling in a straight line
from the sputnik to the observer, during the "radiorise" and "radiosetting"
the radio beams are bent by the ionosphere.
Because of this, the "radiosetting" comes later than the optical
"setting" and, correspondingly, the "radiorise" outstrips the optical
"rise." The difference in time between the optical "rise" and the "radio-
rise" (or the optical "setting" and "radiosetting") makes it possible to
determine the amount of distortion of the radio beams. Inasmuch as the
bending of a radio beam in the ionosphere depends .n the variation of
electron concentration with altitude, it is possible to establish a def-
inite rule for the change in electron concentration and to theoretically
calculate its value at different altitudes. Thus the effect of the lower
layers of the ionosphere can be considered on the basis of direct measure-
ments conducted by a network of ground stations.
The data obtained as a result of the reception of the radio signals
of the first artificial earth satellites make it possible to assume that
the electron concentration in the outer ionosphere (over the principal
maximum) decreases with altitude at a rate of from one fifth to one sixth
of the rate at which it increases below the maxtmum. Thus in the altitudes
from 100 to 300 kilometers the electron concentration increased to ten
times as much in the period of observation in October, while at altitudes
from 300-500 kilometers it decreased by half.
It should be mentioned that a similar change was recorded during
the launching of Soviet high-altitude rockets. In this experiment, the
electron concentration at an altitude of "473 kilometers was one million
electrons per cubic centimeter.
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of ( . HCLc Ray:;
i'or th, r_ i:;t,utiorl of cosmic radiation two Instruments were
instLLliect In the :;ueoud :_;putnik which recorded the number of particles of
this; rc.ldi-_lt-,i,)n. Dur:intp ills motion around the Earth the satellite flew
at different distunct.s from Its surface. Therefore, the measuiement of
cor;mic rays by a siaut.nik m:lkcro it, possible to show the relationship of
the number oi' p.lrticle:; to the altitude. Processing of the data revealed
that from th'-, rl:Inimum orbit altitude of 225 kilometer:, up to an altitude
oi' 700 ki_Lorn_tr r: t,hc was a 40 percent increase in the intensity of
cosmic rays. This increusc~ was dependent primarily or. the reduction of
the screcnin action of the Earth with the increase of altitude, which
makes it po:;c;ible for the cosmic rays to reach the instrument from a
greater number or different directions. The Earth's magnetic field also
pr?NJerits an ob.;tuele to thu fLu.11 of cosmic radiation on the Earth.
The study of cosmic rays using instruments installed in satellites
can also .;ho?~ the dependence of the intensity of cosmic rays on latitude
and lon(,itude. `!.'his ur_lkes it possible to obtain new information on the
Earth's magnetic field. Measurement of the magnetic field on the surface
of the Earth makes it possible to form a representation of the nature of
terrestrial mat-net:isrn and to predict what kind of magnetic field exists
at greater distances from the Earth's surface.
From this the expected distribution of the intensity of cosmic
rays according to the Earth's surface can be calculated. In parti.c?alar
it Ls possible to indicate the lines of constant intensity of cosmic rays
(I',, Vi,_, meu:;urernent of cosmic rays made during flights of sputniks
showed IAhat the lines of constant intensity obtained from the experiment
and those calculated in theory are substantially different. This result
is in agreement with the conclusions reached by the US physicist Simpson,
who or, arize1 ,a 1arSe series of flights with high-altitude airplanes in
equatorial re,,,-ions. They showed that the equator found with the aid of
co;rrric_ r::y',: did not coincide ,iith the geomagnetic equator.
Consequently, there is a considerable divergence between the
characteristic:, of the Earth's magnetic field obtained on the one hand
with the aid of' cosmic rays and on the other hand by the measurement of
the rnarletic field on the surface of the Earth. This discrepancy can be
explained by tact that the trajectory of the motion of cosmic rays is
determined by the magnetic field Lt very high altitudes, :chile the direct
measurements characterize the magnetic field near the surface of the Earth.
resrr. c ray make it, pn!~::ibl.e to probe the Earth: s magnetic field at great
di tanccc from the E;.Lrth as well as the systems of electrical currents in
the upper atnoophere.
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Observations of cosmic rays by the earth satellites made it pos-
sible ulao to record the oscillations (variations) of the intensity of this
radiation. These variations, obviously, are connected with the state of
the interplanetary space near the Earth. One case of a sharp increase,
50 percent, of the number of particles of cosmic radiation was registered.
On the other hand, ground stations, at this time, did not discover any
substantial increase in the intensity of cosmic radiation. At present a
detailed study of this occurrence is being conducted. It is possible
that it was caused by the generation on the Sun of low-energy particles
of cosmic rays (strongly absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere) or by the
u-utnik hitting a stream of high-energy cosmic rays (connected with the
corpuscular radiation of the Sun). Such a phenomenon had not been regis-
tered before, since instruments for prolonged observations of cosmic rays
were located only on the Earth's surface. Artificial earth satellites for
the first time make it possible to fully investigate primary cosmic radia-
tion.
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in the past dcC`6de Soviet uCient:Ls is performed a large number of
b.Lolu,;ical ex er.iments in the tipper layers of the atmosphere. Animals have
been carried in rockets to altitudes of several hundred kilometers for direct
experimental study of the biolo;;i.caa effects present in conditions approach-
in(, those in comic space f1i ;lit. However, only by means of a satellite was
it possible to conduct a biol.o;,icral experiment under conditions that would be
present- in a: t-tual space fi.i.17ht. Specifically, the satellite enabled a study
of the effects on a living or;ranism of lung--dt ration weightlerssness, primary
cosmic radiation, solar crnis. ions, and other factors..
Informatior, of great value was obtained from data on the medical-
biolut_ri.cal investigations on Layka in the second artificial earth satellite.
Of special interest were the behavior and condition of the dog during the
most adverse stage of flight, from the biological viewpoint, which consisted
of the launching and entrance into orbit. The acceleration produced during
launching was many times greater than gravity, so that the apparent weight
of the animal increased correspondingly with the magnitude of acceleration.
The animal was so positioned in its cabin that acceleration acted in the
direet:Lon from i is chest. to Lts back. From the biological. viewpoint, this
.^ l-.1- r,ost-. satisfactory position for withstanrlii rig over:Loadinnr due to ac-
celeration. Data during the flight indicated that the animal was
able to oppose the apparent increase in weight only to a certain mag-
nitude of acceleration. After this point the animal appeared to be
compressed to the cabin floor, and any detectable motion was not
registered.
Decipherint., of :iau,a received from the satellite showed that imme-
diately after launching the frequency of heart contractions was three times
,realer than initially. Analysis of the cardiograms showed no ill effects.
A typical picture of increase in heartbeat (so-called sinus tachycardia)
was obtained. Later, as the ucceier. ation not only per. sisted but increased,
the frequency of heartbeat decreased.
With tha increase in the apparent weight due to increased aceelera-
motion of the thorax became more difficult. Recordings
ion, the breathing
t'rom telemetric signals showed that the breathing frequency of the animal
?.ra3 three or four times greater than the original when the satellite entered
orbit .
Analysis and comparison of data obtained with results of previous
laboratory experiments permit an assertion that the animal quite satisfac-
torily endured the flight from the start of the satellite until it entered
into orbit. Changes noted in the physiological functions were due to the
strong sudden effects of acceleration, noise, and vibration during this
period.
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CPYRGHT CPYRGHT
After the satellite entered :Lts orbit, the animal began to experi-
?jelr"ih Liessneos . As the thorax of the animal did not experience any
:c re prenaure which had previously existed under acceleration, its frequency
< i' bra r,l .Ln ; decreased. After a short riod of increased heart contractions,
the :. luency of heartbeat began to decrease and approach normal. However,
to prcri.od for t'ie heartbeat to reach noimal proved to be approximately three
k,irnec lour;cr than the period in laborato y experiments when the animal was
subjected t-.o (ie same accelerations as t?ose of the satellite. This was
i>robo.hly because after the effect of ace leration in the grouxld tests the
animal found itself in normal conditions whereas in the satellite the animi2
exp rLenced complete weightlessness. Du ing weightlessness the sensitive
nervous centers of the animal which sig position of the body were not sr.rf-
f'ici.ently affected by external irritants The slight effect
produced was re-
3pJ nsible for the somewhat longer period that the breathing and blood circu-
1v,tiorl functions took to return to normaJ Normalization of these functions
ahoo;o that the factors present during la ching and orbiting of the satellite
obviously did not cause any substantial d lasting changes in the physiolog-
:.ca-, *lmctions of the animal.
Insurance of normal living conditions for the animal during its
f1:L !.1t in the satellite could be provide only by means of a hermatically
sealed cabin. Normal atmospheric pressu was maintained in the cabin.
The o:cyt~en content was kept in the range f 20-40 percent, and the carbon
dioxide content did not exceed one percerL. These percentages were main-
tained by highly active chemical compoun which absorbed carbon and re-
leaied oxynen and absorbed other harmful axes from the living processes,
such as ammonia. Analysis of data obtai d showed that the content of
o:c-Len dial not decrease and that the cabi maintained its pressure.
No definite idea of the effect o cosmic radiation could be formed,
since no obvious physiological effect was directly observed and it would
lave been necessary to observe the animal for a long period of time after
t`:e fli; ,h t . This will be accomplished in future flights. The positive re-
arults of t.;:e experiment make it possible o continue and expand research
a:Lrned at, ensuring the safety and health o man in cosmic flight.
Study of the great wealth of maters from the first earth satellites
In the experiments described in this article and other experiments performed
on the first satellites in continuing. S bsequent launchings of satellites
in the course of the IGY will permit an i crease in the number of important
scientific experiments in cosmic space an a dee r understanding
',rocesses occurri
(Moscow, P muds,,
f nps `
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S1ec1;;?1 :.u11.o St.al;ion is Lcrcc_ I ' 31)1 Ln.Lk ITT Sit'nals
CPYRGHT
Tnmiedi atcl, on Llle announcement. of Lhe :Grin? of Sputnik III, the En-
!:oepLnr -,:tort-wave radio sLation began scanning for the satellite's signals.
71Q sec>~rc l was Cac 1.1.1. Lc.l.ted b,r Lhe announcement by radio from Moscow that
t-1110 sirrna13 from Spit Lni1: ITT aa.?c si.mi.:l.ar Lo the letter "L" in the Morse code.
From 1324 hours until 1332 hours, these signals were clearly intercepted
in ^nkoepin,;. The oi;;nrlts were found to have a frequency of 20.005-20.006 Mc.
AL 1511 hours, Lhe s i.; ;na7_ z were heard again, this time for .11 minutes. The
frojuency decreased by 1,000 cycles from L11e time they were first heard until
the end. ^^ , heard from 1700 to 1719 hours 1847 to nii-n,-Os were also
Lo 1903 hours. (Stockholm, Svenska Dagbla(let, 16 May 53)
CPYR
Sovie Ls to Exhibit- S_put.nik Models in Paris
GHT
CPYRGHT
LSR w-111 '17lc Soviet anbru y in Paris has announced that the Academy of Sciences
exhibit
I;xposi ti.on which opens in Paris on 30 May.
(Pa.:.-is, Le Monde, 17 May 58)
CPYRGHT
Rocket Mail Delivery to Polar Re~-;:ion Discussed
Tile main portion of an unsigned Czeck newspaper article deals with the
advantage; and possibilities of rocket mail in general terms. The final para-
graph jives the following specific details.
CPYRGHT
Li 1.1ie event of an emer; ;cricy, polar expeditions would be able to obtain
packa,,es sent by rocket. A two-stage roc'.-.et could be launched in Arkhangelsk
with an initial speed of 6,500 kilometers per hour, later reaching a speed of
14,000 1,ilometers per hour and an altitude of 400 kilometers. Here the first
s tr,.ge of L"ne rocl.et would drop aura; r and the rocket wol.ild be automatically
::h1ided to the North Pole with the aid of wings that would push themselves out.
As t!-- roe-'::et lost sreel, it would lose altitude. Near its goad. when it would
. r' n > hilopinters.. the mother shir, -i-rould meet it, it
up, and cr>s r; i t to land . (Prague, Obrance Vlasti, 4 Apr 53 )
CPYRGHT
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