JPRS ID: 9822 USSR REPORT HUMAN RESOURCES

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• Document Page Count: 44
• Document Creation Date: November 1, 2016
• Sequence Number: 3
• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPflS L/9822
2 July 1~8~
_ USSR Re ort
p
� HUMAN RESOURCES
CFOUO 3/81)
FBt$ FOREICN BROADCAST INFORMATION SERVICE
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NOTE
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JPRS L/9822
- 2 July 1981
USSR REPORT
NUMAN RESOURCES
(FOUO 3/81)
CONTENTS
LABOR
New Labor Maaagement Syetem Detailed
(D. Karpukhin; VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, Mar 81) 1
Aelationahip Between Economic Growth, Public Well-Being Examined
(G. SBrkisyan; APN DAILY REVIEW, 11 Jun S1) 14
DEMOGRAPHY
U.S. Analyaeg of Soviet Demography Critiqued
(V. K. Bagdasarov, V. Z. Drobizhev; ISTORIYA SSSR,
Mar-Ayr 81) 28
EDUCATION
- Use of Russian in International Communication Analyzed
(V. V. Ivanov; VESTNIk AKADEMII NAUK SSSR, Mar S1) 37
- a - [III - USSR - 38c FOUO]

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LABOR
' NP~1 LABOR MAPtAG~tENT SXSTFM AETAILEA
- Moacow VOPROSY EK,ONOMIKI in Russian'No 3, Mar 82 pp 131-142
[Article by D. Karpukhin: "The Economic Mechanism and Labor"]
[Text] It was noted at the 26th CPSU Congress that the decree adopted in 1979 by the
CPSU Central Committee and USSR Council of Miniaters oa further improving the econo-
mic mechanism~ oa improving the plaaning system, anticipates the creation of a suit-
. able economfc atmoephere and suitable organizational relations. 7'hey must 5e syste-
. ~ matiC811y actualized. At the same time, we need to go further and solve the problems
which hgve accumulated.
~ The decree formulates decisions,of a fundamental, long-term character and defines the
coacrete forms of management as applicable to the conditions of the llth Five-Year
Plan. It is ther~�ore very iaaportant to analyze how the ministries, departments, as-
sociations and enterprises are preparing to resolve the tasks set, to take steps to
eneure implen~eatation of the socioeconomic program and overall str.ategy of developing
the USSR national economy.
Labor is of primary, determining importance in the development of socialist society.
- Manq important provieions of the decree on perfecting the economic mechanism are or-
~ iented to~vards solving the pivotal problema of labor and perfecting the labor manage- ,
a?ent mechanism. Thia also appliea to sectione on planning, working out comprehensive
targat progre~ma~ developing cogt accounting and ineentives, and othera.
By the conclusion of the lOth Five-Xear Plan. we had a definite underfulfillment of
the labor productivity plan. Under these conditions, additional workers were en-
listed to implement pldne in terms o� production volume. For example, in 1978, the
total number of workers and employees in all enterpriae and organization plans ex-
eeeded the demand for them as adopted in national economic plan calculations by more
than two million people. Ob~ective conditiona (including deteriorating mining and
geolog3cal conditiona for mineral extraction and lower contents of valuable compo-
nenta in mineral ores. structural chaages in production and others) unquestionably
had a definite influence on labor productivity. However, the primary reason for the
lag in labor productivity growth was the incomplete uae of reserves, caused by short-
comingst in production management and adminiatration methods. These include delays
- in bui7~ding facilities and utilizing production capacities, Iag in enterprise reno-
vation and equipment modernization. Failure to carry out new equipntent plans has
been a determining factor retarding labor productivity growth.
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- The proportion of those employed at manual labor is dropping slowly. Given nonful-
fillment of the labor productivity plan, wages have grown significantly. During
197b-1979, the average wage increment per one-percent increment in labor productiviCy
_ in industry was 0.8 percent, instead of the 0.59 percent calculated in the five-year
' plan. Given growth in the wage fund, underfulfillment of the trade turnover plan oc-
curred. Postponed demand is increasing. This has a negative impact on the material
interest of workers in the results of their labor and reduces the stimulus role of
wages on increasing labor productivi and improving work quality. Large reserves
for Iabor productivity growth are inherent in organizing it better, in setting rates
and ~aagea better, in improving materisl and moral incentives, in developing a creat-
ive attiCude tawarde labor and in strengtnening discipline.
The 11th Fiv~-Year Plan anticipates faster labor productivity growth rates than were
actua'l1y achieved in the lOth Five-Year Plan. Under these conditions, improving the
labo:- management mechanism to bring labor productivity growth reserves into plny is
of sper_ial impor~ance.
Ac::ordir~g to the "Basic Directiona of USSR Economic and Social Development in 1981-
19~35 an~.i Through 1989," which were adopted by the 26th CPSU Congress, an economic and
social development plan will be warked out for the llth Five-Year Plan. On the one
hand, the pro~ecte, by year af the five-year plan, must be taut, and on the other,
they must be realistic. 1ne fact ia that in five-year planning practice, we have
come to distribute as~ignments by year at increasing rates of increment, from the
star~ to the end of the five-year plan. In the lOth Five-Year Plan, Che 1980 labor
productivity inerement plan anticipatecl for industry wae to have exceedad the 1976
increment planned by more t:~an two-fold. The tesults of five-year plan fulfillment
bear out that rates actually fluctuate by year, wtth a tendency tn drop towards the
end of the period.
Minis~ries and departments ad~uet annual plan indicators downward. As a check by the
_ USSR People's Control Committee showed, the USSR Ministry of Machine Tool and Tool-
Making Induetry reviewed labor productivity plans for each enterpri~e an average of
eight times in 1978. Such adjustments are often made without adequate foundation and
are essentially aimed at reducing a lag permitted, ta drive the assignment down to
- actual fulfillmer~t. Ministries and iaduatrial aeaociations often redistribute plan
asaignments ta eneure plan fulfillment by the branch. subbranch, or at least to come
close. As a result, the prestige of the atate plan decreases.
The CPSU C~ntral Committee and USSR Council of Ministers Decree "On Improving Plan-
ning and Streagthening the Influence of the Economic Mechanism on Improving Produc-
tion Efficiency and Work Quality" anticipates a syatem of ineasures called upon to
raiae the level of planning work in the area of labor, as well as the interest of
entc_rprise and association workers in adopting taut plan assignments to reduce labor
expendltures, in seeking out reserves. To this end, we plan to create a system of
interlinked long-range and current plans in which the indicator of labor productiviry,
as the most importent i.ndicator at all levels of the national economy, must be sub-
etantiated in d~tail, foremost ia five-year plana, which are the primary form of
leadership of the country's economic and social development and the basis of the
economic activity of enterprisea~ associationa and branchea. The plan must be drawn
up on the basie of progressive technical-econom3c norme and normatives.
This decree aingles out labor and social development planning indicators in particu-
lar. They include: labor productivity growth, growth in deductions based on
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normative net output or another indicator which more a~curar.ely reflects labor expen-
_ diture changes in individual branchea; the normative wa~e per ruble of output; limits
oa the numbers of workers and emploqees; normatives on the farmation of material in-
: centives funds and funds for sociocultural measures and housing construction; assign-
, ments on reducing manual labor. The aggregate of these indicators is called upon to
facilitate resolving socioeconomic tasks in the labor field.
Iiow is the planned program being implemented? In what manner are the indicators re-
flected in the economic and social development plans of branches, associations and en-
terprises? What ia the status of the development of normative documents which were
prepared in developing the decree, what is their value, what are their shortcomings,
and ~ahat needs to be done for them to fully reflect the demands.inherent in the new
economic mechanism? It ia important to answer these questions now, when existing
shortcomings can be overcome with minimal expenditurss. The normative documents
were called upon to concretize the fundamental provisiona of the decree ar.d to cre-
at~ a aormative basis for securing and actualizing them~ for ensuring the function-
ing of the new ecoaomic mechaniem. An analysis made by associatea at the Scientific
Research In~titute of I,abor bears out that~ in spite of the development of normative
docum~nts for all lines and indicators outlined in Che decree on the economic mechan-
ism, they are not fully in practical use yet, and certain ministries have not communi-
cated these ncrmative documents to their eaterprisea, nor have they worked out docu-
menta with conaideration of specific~ and features of their own production and
labor organization. A survey of a large number of enterprises bePrs out that the
bulk of them are slow in chang~ng over to the new management conditions. Approxi-
mately one-third of the enterpriae leaders could not anawer a question about the time
involved in the change-over.
The difficulties arising in changing over to the new management procedure include
foremast a lack of branch methods materials and recommendations concretizing the de-
cree as applicable ta the specifics of particular branches, enterprise lea~ers main-
tain. Theq cite as other reasons slowness in refining existing norms and normatives
to bring them into line with the demands of the decree and the absence of a link be-
tween the indi.cator levels set by the minietries and enterprise opportunities.
Gxeat hopee are being placed on the indicator df normative net output. Scientifically
- subetantiated plaaning of. collective work results evaluations and the rewards for
thoee reeulte will dep~ad largely on the ir.dicator of labor productivity.
The USSR Ministry of Heavy and Transport Machine Building and the USSR Ministry of
Power Machine Building have summed up the results of an experiment in planning pro-
duction volume and labor productivity using the indicator of normative net output.
The range of ministriea and periods for transferring them to planning and evaluating
activity on the ba~is of normative net output have been determined. According to the
19~1 plan, the USSR Miniatry of Machine Building for Stoc~craising and Feed Production
will change over to its use thie year and 42 basic Union ministries will change over
next year. Seven Union ministries have been granted the ri.ght to experimentally
verify the uae of this indicator in 1950-1981. Among them are Che Ministry of Chemi-
cal Industry, Minietry of Meat and Dairy Industry, Ministry of Food Indnstry, Minis-
try of Fiah Induatry and others in which the experiment in using normative net out-
put as an indicator was not conducted.
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In ~the course of. organizational-economic and methods preparations for the change-over
to normative net output, as was anticipated by the methods instructions approved, the
ministries.must wor: out bx~anch methods instructions (directions), draft net output ~
normatives for the E:ntire products list and their approval, as well as calculations
of production volume and labor productivity indicators based on the new normatives
for the base and planning periods.
Methods instructions on the procedure for developing and using normative net output
planning indicators have undergone significant changes as compared with the methods
recommendations for calculating that indicator in br~nches where it was used experi-
menta~.Iy. Therefore, it has been necessary in nearly all branches to implement a
c~mplex of ineasures ensuring their introduction, both in those where the experiment
was conduceed earZier and in those where it was not. As a check of industrial minis-
try preparations for changing over to pla~~nf.ng and evaluating their activity using
normative net output in accordance with the procedures and schedules established by
narmative documsnts showed, there are s'gnificant shortcomings. They are manifested
in the incamplete methods and organizational readiness of ministries to do the wark
- which preceeds Che large-scale change-over to use of the new indicator.
Of the 1b induatrial ministriea surveyed, only the USSR Minietry of Machine Building
for 5tockraising and Feed ProduEt~.on had worked out net output normatives in accord-
ance with the methods instructions approved in 1979 and had begun their experimental
verifi.eation at its enterprises. Tn the remaining ministries, they continue to use
or are experimentally verifying the net output norrnative worked out using t~e old
1975 method. The nornlatives do not correspond to the principles adopted for calcu-
lating them and are generally individual in nature.
The latter circumstance is very important, �or the new methods instructions on the
procedures f~r developing, using and planning net output anticipate the use of branch
nora~atives based on a unified ba3e with constant wholesa2e prices. Such an approach
- enabl2s us to retain the principle of evaluating labor effectiveness by comparing in-
dividusl expenditures with average branch indicators and to ensure the reducibility
and-comparabi3.ity of this indicator at various levels of social production. In a
majority of the ministries surveyed, the principles for calculating normatives
adopted in the new methods instructions are not always followed and there is an ef-
for~ to d~ffer~ntiate their value by enterprise, which does not provide an opportun-
ity to chmuga over fsom the individua~l to the branch level. That ia facilitated by
the provisions in lhe methods inetruction~ which permit the extensive use of indivi-
dual normati.ves in~toad of.branch onas. In our opinion~ in order to conform to the
branch lev~1 of the net c~utput normative, crianges and refinementa must be made in the
methads inetruetione ao ae to anticipate a minimum number of exceptions and to define
th~ condit~ons for their use.
As the 9112V@}1 sho:va, the organization of work to create and develop ttie branch methods
base alao needs improvement. Oaly half the ministries surveyed had worked out branch
inEtructions on calculating normative net output; the remaining ministries formally
re~ied on usir~g interbranch methoda instruct~.one, though they lack~concrete recommenda-
tions as applicable to branch specifics on a number of questions.
Devir~l:ions from interbranch methoda instructions on solving a number of problems are
permitted by the branches in calculating normatives: choice of inethods of calculating
individual elements of the normatives, bases for determining profit, methods of
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reflecting product quality and othera.which determine in considerable meaaure the
character of the normatives being used and their differentiation for identical out-
put being manufactured uader different conditions.
This situation is to be explained largely by the fact that the methods instructions
on using normative net output were based on an analysis of materials for machine
building and did not take into accotmt the features ot other branches. In particu-
lar, the new methods instructions changed the methods of determining profit in the
net output normative, and foremost the base for calculating it by item. The basis
for calculating that profit is net cost minus materials expenditures, which helps
reduce the differing profitabillty af new branch net output normatives in terms of
profit, since it excludea that proportion of it previously accounted for by mater-
_ ials. At the same time, in our view, there are deniations in recomtnendations on us-
ing the profit calculation base as compared with the above-cited CPSU Central Commit-
tee aad USSR Council of Miniaters decree. The decree anticipates ite use only in
proceasing induetry, but the methode instructions for calculating the net output
normative anticipate uaing it in all branches of induatry.
While evaluating poai~cively the attatnpt to set the amount of normative net output
- with consideratiou of exiating differences in cooperative delivery amounts, we must
at the eamn time not fail to note that the methods instructions contain no concrete
recommendations on the methods for taking them iato account. They define only pos-
sible general approachea to ad~usting normative net output amounts dissimilar even
_ in individual production aesociations (enterpri~es), which is associated with average
working conditions and changes in cooperation terms as compared with those taken into
account when setting wholesale prices and net output normative~. In the one case,
they assume a corresponding differentiation of branch normative~ with consideration
of differences in the 1eve1 of branch expenditures stemming from different coopera-
tion terms outlined in the plan; in the second, they assume change in existing nor-
matives by the value of the normative approved under established procedures for semi-
finished products, parts, subassemblies and assembly components procured at associa-
tions (enterpri~es) specialized for their production, that is, the best manufactur-
ing conditions are used. ~
Not one of the branchQO aurveyed wae working out n~t output normatives for semi-
finished praducts. eubgseembliee and other aeeembly components, and they proposed
ad~uatmente on the basia of individual labor expenditures. In the machine-builaing
ministries vith individual and serise-type production, given a single wholesale
price. they.establiahed several net output normatiyes based on number ~f plants pro-
ducing a given product. It was difficult to check the substantiation far such dif-
ferentiation. We cannot be confident that it was based solely on differences in
amount of cooperation.
In view of the difficulties which have arieen, it would be more appropriate, in our
view, not to ad~ust net output normat3ves, but to take into account labor expendi-
ture changes reeulting �rom cf?anges in amount of cooperation, when substantiating
on the basis of production volume and labor productivity increment.
Ministries are lagging in meeting schedules for carrying out the complex of prepara-
tory work on changing over to th~ uae of normative net output. For a number of min-
istries, this situation i~ linked to delay in working out wholesale price lists and
net outpnt normativee in the raw material branches.
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The study shows deviations from established procedure for approving net output norma-
ti.ves simultaneously with wholesale prices. The ministries of timber, wood process-
ing, chemical industry and fi~h industry have already adopted wholesale price lists
without nox~atives.
A number of fundamental deviation~ from the general methods instructions have been
revealed. They basicalZy concern methods of calculating individual elements or L'ne
net output noru~tive, as for example, methods of calculating the amount of profit.
In some instances (Cimber and wood processing, pulp and paper industry and power
machine building},.the amount of prof it being included in the net output normative
is being calculated in pxoportion to the wages of production workers. In oCher in-
stances {chcmica~ industry), the amount of profit is being determined on the basis
of the proritabil.ity notms relative to overall production ourlays. At the same
time, a new pro~cedure for calculating amount of profit has been adopted for use when
whol~sale prices are set r~lative to proceseing coet, wiCh a view towards some
equalizing of the nonhomogeneity of producing individual types of items.
All these factc~rs muat be Caken into account and corrected as we prepare to change
over to the new i~dicator of calculating output volume and labor productivity. Eco-
nomic evaluations ~f production volume and labor productivity using the new net out-
put no~nati~~es have yet to be made by a single ministry. It i:; ~herefore impossible
to imagine what chaages wi21 appear in the level and dynamics ol labor productivity
when the new normgtives are used. Based on the results of a chectc at individual en-
te~prises, we have ~ucceeded in evaluating the dqnaffiics of these indicators to some
extent, as well as in evaluating the influence on those dynamics of the differing
profitability of cost compari~ona ginen shifts in the assortment of output being re-
].eased. The camparison~ projected for introduction (wholesale prices and normative
net output) reveal a closer iMterrelationship between one another than current prices
and normativ~s, ~ r~sult of the uni.fied methods of detenuining them. The new whole-
sale p~ices and net output normatives are characterized by a relative diminution of
differin~ pxofitability in terma of materials-intEnaiveness by excludin~; a portion
of the profit from th~ calcnlation~ but on th~ whole, its value is not weakened, gi-
van reten~ion of axieting differ~cee in production conditions. The dynamics of the
3ndicator af norcnative net'output therefore need corresponding ad~uatment in the .
planning pro~ese.
- Labo:- iud3cators include a limit on the number of workers and employees. The neces-
sity of int.roducing it into the ir~dicators being approved results fram ever-increas-
ing difficulti~e in providing the national economy with manpower. In this connection,
the demr~nd that it be used at eaterpri~es (associations) increases, and the limit on
numbers, r.o~eth~r wiCh other meaeures of economic influence, must predetermine the
iuller ~ctuaZization of intraproduction reserves.
In 1980, the USSR Goaplan approved limits on the numbers of workers and employees
in av~ra~~-anr~ual t~rata for USSR miaistries and departments and for Union republic
Councils of Minieters, which in Curn approved limits on numbers for subordinate as-
sociations and enterprises, distributing them by quarter and type of activity.
Aa ehe anml.ysis ~hows, limita on the number~ of workers and employees have been ap-
proved for a majoxity nf the enterpriees of Uni.on aubordination, bu~ all enterprises
of r~public ministries are covered by them in only four Union republics (Belorussian,
Kaxalch, Latvinr~ and Tajik). Zn ~ome republics, these limits were established only
for enterpri.sea of individual branches in 1980.
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In order to ensure normal production conditiona, the limit on the number of workers
and employees must correapond to the enterprise's actual manpower demand. In this
connection, the degree of conformity of actual numbers of workers and employees to
the limit, the level of production plan fulfillment and the status of nanpower use
- at the enterprises should be revealed. At the enterprises surveyed by the Scienti-
fic Research Institute of Labor, the actual numbers of industrial production person-
nel turned out to be below the limit in a majority of instances. At the same time,
e~iterprise production plans were fulfilled or overfulfilled. This situation can be
expla{ned either by the fact that the limit on numbers being approved currently does
not crQate the neceaeary tautness in manpower uae or the contrary, by the fact that
production program fulfillment is being achieved by heightened tautness.
With introduction of the new indicator, the number of ministries, enterprises and
associations which maintain above-limit numbers of workers and employees has risen
sharply. In the first half of 1980, the number of ministries with above-plan numbers
increased nearly four-fold as compared with 1979. Thia situation resulted from the
following. Prior to the introduction of limita, the planned numbers of workers and
employees in the inclividual branches was a eum of the planned numbers of the enter-
prises. Aut the enterprises, when planning their numbers of workers and employees,
strove to creats freer conditions for carrying out the product{on program. With
the institution of limits, it became necessary for the ministries to organize more
prec~.aely their work on revealing and using intraproduction reservea. The organiza-
tion of this work al~o determined the level of fulfillment of plans (limits) on the
numbers of workers and employPes at enterprises and asaociations subordinate to them.
In the ministries and departments with above-].imit manpower available to them, the
proportion of enterprises not fulfilling the labor productivity plan has reached a
third of the total number of enterprises. The conclusion can be drawn that minis-
tries not only can bring the numbers of ivorkers and employees into conformity with
the establish~d limit, but can aubsequently lower that limit.
T'he introduction of a limit on the numbers of workers and employees into the indica-
tors.being approved requires improvement first of all in the procedure for determin-
ing that limit t~nd communicatinq it to the ministries. entervrises and associations.
Sarue experience has alzeady been acc~smulated in establiahing such limits. At enter-
pr~~ee of Moecow and Leningr.ad, these ].imits have been established since the start
of the lOth F~ve-Year Pa.an.
Setting limita on numb~ra must be closely linked to the lab,or productivi*_y indica-
- tors b~ing planned. The �act is that the number Af workers needed to carry out pro-
duction plans ie a valus deriv2d from the labor productivity l~vel. If the antici-
pated producti.on volume ~nd ~.ahor p~mductivity level take intraproduction opportuni-
tiea ~nto account sufficiently precisely, implementation of the plan of organiza-
tional-technical. mea~urea will in the fir~al analysis perniit ensuring conformity of
the established numbex to the number needed as well.
Along this l.i.ne, there is the procedure adopted by the USSR Council of Ministers,
undQt which association and enterprise leaders are deprived of a portion (up to 50
perc~nt) af tiheir bonuees for annual work results i� there is an above-plan number
of warkers ~nd emplayees.
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Reduction in manual labor is another new labor indicator.l Under present conditions,
it is necessary for a precise determination of ways of reducing those employed at
manual lahor. But the primary thing is to link this i~dicator in every branch and
at each enterprise and association with the target comprehensive program for reduc-
ing manual 2abor. That program is called upon to ensure a sharp reduction in the
number of workers employed at manual, heavy physical and low-ski11 labor and to en-
sure increased worker satisfaction with their labor based on retraining those freed
from manual jobs and transferring them to jobs involving skilled, mechanized labor.
From the viewpoint of labor resources use, Che effectiveness of this program is de-
termined forErnost by how quickly workers freed from manual labor are retrained, re-
distributed and placed in ~oba, as the duration of ~hat process is directly propor-
ti4nal to the amount of outlays for society and the worker.
The effectivenese of reducing manual labor is also determined by the extent to which
the usa of w~r'Kers thue freed is combined with their interests. It can be assumed
that a portion of the workers, especially the elderly, who do not have adequate gen-
eral Qducational preparation wili not make an effort to change over to mechanized
~obs r~quiring ret~sining in a new occupation. Conse~uently, it might become neces-
sary to seek out for such workers ,jobs to which they are accustomed. At the same
time, iC is evident. that ~peciaZ incentives will be req~ired for workers thus freed
ta ch~nge occupazions, places of work and places of residence.
In accord with the CPSU Central Committee and USSR Council of Ministers Decree "On
Zmproving Planr_ing and Strengthening the Influence of the Ecvnomic Mechanism on Im-
proving Production Effectiveness and Work Quality," the brigade form of labor organi-
zatioa and stimulation must became.the basic form in the llth Five-Year Plan. As of
1 August 1980, ~he brigade form covered 48.6 percent of the workers in industry as a
whnl~. This farm has been introduced moet extensively in ferrous metallurgy (61.5
percent), fo~d industry (60.9 percenC), power machine buildin~ (58.2 percent) and
paPer industry (58.1 percent). More than half of a11 workers have been combined into
brigadea at enterpr~.$es of lumber, autowotive~ light~ meat and dairy industries,
heavy machi.ne building~ building materiale induetry and the fish industry. In these
brsnch~s, uee of brigade labor organization moet ofCen results from the nature of the
technological a~nd productian proce88es. However, the brigade form of labor organiza-
tion must also be introduced where individual lmbor organ32ation (machine tool opera-
tiom, w~lding, and others) has until recently been the traditional form.
What dags the br.igade form of. lsbor organization and stimulatian offer? Worker mas-
terin~ af related occupations is conaiderably expanded, worker skills are improved
(especially,for young workers}, labor and production discipline are stre~gthened and
praduction plaaning an.d management are improved. As a sesult, certain conditions
are created fo~ increasing the labor productivity of each worker and, in so doing,
of the brigade a~d:,of shop and enterprise collectives. Moreover, the brigade form
of labor orgat~i.zaCion and etimulation facilitates tihe creation of a favorable micro-
climate f.n Che a.abor coll.ectives and the resolution of a number of social tasks asso-
ciated with ~eveloping high moral qualities, a creative sttitude towards labor, mu-
tual aasisCance and responeibility for one another, greater labor discipline, and so on.
1. Manua? 'labox r~duction aesi~mentc will be Approved in the form of indicators of
the groportion vf workere emPloyed at manual labor involving machines and mechan-
iems and not involvin~ machines and mechanisms.
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The change-o~Jer to trie brigade form of labor organization and stimulation is not al-
ways painless. Much preparator~ work aimed at creating conditions for highly pro-
ductive labor in the brigades is therefore required.
The demands on the level of rate-setting increase with the change-over to the bri-
gade fo~ of labor organization and stin.~ulation. The numbers and occupational-
ski11 composition of bxigade workers are calculated and the work results of the bri-
gade as a whol~s and the contribution of ~ach worl~er are evaluated on the basis of
branch and interbranch normativea. In this connection, technically aubstantiated
norms are establiehed for each operation in each job at leading enterprises with the
brigade form of labor organization and stimulation and comprehensive norms zre cal-
culated on their base, wfth consideration of the advantages of ths brigade form of
organization. At the same time, comprehensive norms are ~et at some enterprises
without approFriate calculations on the basi~ of labor productivity actually achieved.
Survey materisls lhear out the great diversity of forms of labor paymeat in brigades.
The primary task is for the w~ge system for workers using the brigade organizational
form to combine intarest in end resulte and interest in increasing the contribution
of each worker to tlie attainment of those end results.
There are three large groups of braaches in t~rms of type of brigade wages. The
first group is represented by mining indu~try, continuous-apparatus processes in
chemical industry, production on automated lines and units and other ~obs in which
each brigade member performs certain fixed functions, but their labor results are
co~on. In this case, the wage form is primarily one ba~ed on single job authoriza-
tions, with the total wage being distributed based on rate category and time worked.
The second ~roup ~s repre~ented by textile, garment an~l footwear industry, in which
each worker performs separate operations. Wages based on individual piece-work rates
for finished products released by the brigade predominate here. Bonus smounts are
set with consideration of the work results of the brigaile as a whole.
The third group encompasaes primaxily machine building, in which wages are calculated
based on brigade end resulta and the total wage is distributed using a labor parti-
cipaCion factor..
- In December 19$0, a USSR State Committee for Labor and Social Questions and AUCCTU
resolution establiahed "Standard Provisions on the Production Brigade, Brigade Lead-
er, Brigade Council and Brigade Leader Council." The provision~ note that develop-
ment and expan~ion af the ~phere of application of the brigade fc~rm of labor organi-
= zation and etimulation muet be done along two 1ir~es: continued improvement in bri-
gade labor organization in branches and at production facilities in which it is pre-
dotninant and traditi~nal and the creation of brigadea in those branches and at those
production facilities in which individual labor organizaCion is being used.
A certain work volume in terma of eud product released or a portion of end product
releaeed (machine aubassembly, set of parta, brigade-set) must be assigned the bri-
gade and evalu~ting and paying for brigade labor must be done based on end product,
whieh will ensur.e strengthening overall interest in and responsibility for the ef-
fectiveness of collective labor. Instead of the product of an individual worker's
labor being the planning. accounting and payment unit, thaC unit will be the end
product of the brigade's labor. That will require serious work on restructuring
labor productivity organization, rate-setting and payment, planning and accounting.
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The ~rganizational form of the brigade, its numerical and occupational-skill composi-
tion, are determined by the content and complexity of the production process and the
- labor-intensiveness of the work, which is established on the basis of interbranch,
branch and ather progressive labor normatives, the requirements of scientific labor
and production organization, the techni~al and organizational means being used, and
other factors. Brigades can be either specialized or multipurpose.
_ The "Standard Proviaions" define the internal organization of brigade work, the plan-
ning system, the procedure for changing over to cost accounting, wages, the basic
righCs and duties of the brigade leader, the production brigade council, the brigade
leader council and its functions. At gresent, the Scientific Research Institute of
Labor is preparing the methods principles of the brigade form of labor organization
and atimulatian in industry. They have been devel~ped with a view towards of.fering
mfnietries. departments, aseociationa, enterprises and organizations methods assist-
_ ance in working out and implementing measures to extensively develop the brigade form
of labor organization and stimulation.
Que$tione of improving worker wagea and material incentives occupy a special place
in the overall eyatem of ineasures outlined by the decree on improving the economic
mechanism.
Accord~ng to the CPSU Central Committee and USSR Council of Ministers decree of 12
- July 1979, the five-year plans of economic and social development will establish for
the industria~ ministries, associations and enterprises long-term wage normatives
per ruble of output (broken down by year). Universal use of the normative of wage
- expenditures per ruble of output released to create the wage fund is called upon to
link its size to work results and, in so doing, to strengthen its role of achieving
the best e.nd results in enterprise production-economic activity, to arouse collec-
tives Co using every production reserve, to work with the least number of workers.
The wage fund muat become an active lener of planned regulaCion and stimulation to
improve Froduction indicatora.
Beg3.nrting in 1981, some 18 minietries will be tr~naferred to the normative method of
. wage planning. However~ attention ie called to the fact that a large number of min- ,
istriee do nnt have preciae ech~dules for changing over to the new syatem. Several
min3etri~e and departments are not planning at all for the change-over to the new
normative method of wage planning.
This s~~uati.on is to be explained by a number of factors, and foremost by the fact
that conditions suitable to introducing normative wage fund planning have not been
crea~ed. Metnods work must be completed. We have now established, as is known, a
procedure for sctting long-term wage normatives per ruble of output. But it con-
taina oniy the general principles of normative planning. We need to develop con-
creCe methods af determining normatives for production associations and enterprises
which orient eizterprises towards setting up efficient systems of labor organization,
rate-setting and wagea. The subatantiation of the wage fund size will depend on the
correctnesa of theee methods.
The ehortcomingb noted above could be eliminated by the establishment of wage expen-
diture normativee d~.fferentiated ae a function of the link between wages and indivi-
dual groupa of worker~ as a result of changes in production volume, rather than all
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industrial production personnel. The method worked out by the Scientific Research
Institute of Labori, which can be recommended ae a baeis for developing branch methods
of normative wage fund planning, anticipates such differentiation of normatives.
The amount of funds due enterprises for worker wages must be made dependent not on
- the total volume of output released, as is presently the case, but on fulfillment of
the del~very plan in accordance with contracts, ueing for this purpose the mechanism
of bank monitoring of the issuance of wage funds t~ enterprises, which must be re-
flected in carreaponding normative documents.
. Much attention ie paid to questions of forming and uaing economic incentives funds
in the decree on improving the economic mechanism. The principles of forming in-
centives funds laid out in the decree and in normative documents adopted in accord-
ance with it are a result of a creative search for ways in which to improve the fund-
forn~ation mechaniem which has been undertaken over the course of the last three five-
year plans en route to better consideration of how to stimulate indicators character-
izing production end results, including qualitative indicators on stimulating the
adoption o� taut plans, and the development of an incentive fund for adopting counter
plana.
As di.stinc~ from the procedure previously in effect for forming the material incent-
ives fund, the llth Five-Year Plan anticipates using atable normatives established
for each enterprise as a function of labor productivity growth and increasing the
production of output in the highest quality category. With considEration of brancn
specifics, the material incentivea fund can be formed based on such indicators as
material reaources aaved~ increased return on capital and others. In the 1981 plan,
the material incentives fund amount is determined on the baeis of established norma-
tivea, generally in percentagea oF profit,and fund-generating indicators for the
1981 plan as compared with ~heir average annual growth rates in 1976-1980.
Eighteen of 30 induetrial mini~tries must use indicators of labor productivity growth
and prvportion of oufiput in the highest quality category in overall production vol-
um~; a brench fund-generation method has been approved for four ministries. An in-
dicator of output in the highest quality category as a proportion of overall ~ioduc-
rion volume.ha~ not been approved for all ministries. Thus, 13 ministries have been
set growth in production volume as a fund-generating indicator.
Such a combination of fund-generating indicatora (labor productivity and production
_ volume growth} is apprapriata in the raw material and extractive branches, in our
view, as they need to stimulate output growth not only by increasing labor produc-
tivity, but al~o by increasing the number of workers. At the same time, those min-
istriea ~].so include a numb~r of machine-building minisCries.
Instead o� labor product~.vity growth, the indicator of production volume growth has
b~en established for the USSR M3niatry of Light Industry.
Ministri.ee aad departmente can also eatablish other fund-generating indicators for
ind~vidual aubbranches, aasociatione and enterprises, with consideration of the
1. See: "'NormAtivnoye planirovaaiye fonda zarabotnoy platy.' Methadicheskiye re-
komendaCsii" [Normative Wag~ Fund Planning. Methods Recommendations.], Moscow,
, Scientiflc Reaearch Institute of Lahor, 1979.
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specifics of their work: saving material resources, higher return on capital and
higher shift index, level of profitability, and others. In branches in which output
quality cannot be used as an indicator, lower expenditures per xuble of output is
used as a second fund-generating indicator in all instances. The influence of this
indicator is detected in considerable measure by ehe profit indicator and is taken
into account when forming the material incentives fund, inasmuch as the deductions
narmatives are set as percentages of profit. In this connection, it is appropriate
- for the indicated enterprises Co broaden the range of fund-generating indicators be-
ing used and to take into account, along with reduced output net cost, other indica-
~ tors more imporCanr for those enterprises, including lower raw and other material
expenditures.
For a number of branches of industry, the use of norcnatives calculated as a percent-
age ~of Che wage fund ie anticipated, as an exception. This permits the use of uni-
fied branch r.ot~uatives in these branches, aa was accepted in the lOth Five-Year Plan.
This concernn the US~R Miaistry of Food Industry, USSR Ministry of Meat and Dairy
Industry, USSR Minietry of Fiah Induatry, individual asaociations and industries of
the USSR Miniatxy af Light Industry, and a ntimber of machine-building ministries.
This article has examined only some of the questions related to the system of labor
manaoement. Also of important significance are analyzing the development of scien-
tific labor organization and increasing its effectiveneas, the status of prepara-
tion of technical-economic norms and normatives by type of ~ob and expenditures on
(savings ot) labor, the introduction of full labor intensiveness, the development of
labor balances, analyzing how associations (enterprises) use the right to pay more
than wage rates and salaries through wage fund savings obtained above the estab-
lished normative or planned wage fund, the development of new forms of socialist
competition, and others. But the primary thing we need to reveal is how the entire
aggre~ate of labor and social questions indicators operates in increasing production
efficfency and labor productivity growth. In this regard, as was noted at the 26th
CPSU Congress, the search muat coatinue, especially along the line of improving man-
agement at the aesoc3a~ion and enterprise level.
RECdMMENDED READING
Lenin, V. I., "From Deatrucrion of the Ancient Order to Creation of the New" ("PoI-
noya eobraniya ~?ochineniy" [Complete Collected Works], Vol 40).
- Lenin, V. T., "New Economic Policy and the Tasks of Political Educators" ("Polnoye
sob�raniye sochineniy," Vo1 44).
"On Further Strengthening Labor Discipline and Reducing Personnel Turnover in the
National Economy," CPSU Central Committee, USSR Council of Ministers and AUCCTU de-
cree (PRAVDA, 12 January 1980).
"On Tmproving Pl.anning and Strength,ening the Influence of the Economic Mechanism on
Improving Production Effectiveness and Work Quality," CPSU Central Committee and
USSR Cauncil of Miniet~rs decree of 12 July 1979.
Brezhnev, L. T., "Rech' na Plenume Tsentral'nogo Komiteta KPSS 27 Noyabryn 1979 g.
Poatanovleniye Plenuma TsK KPSS" [S~eech c~t the 27 November 1979 CPSU Central Com-
mitt~e Plenum. CPSU Central Committee Plenum Decree], PoliCizdat, 1979.
.
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Brezhnev, L. I., "Otchetnyy doklad Tsentral'nogo Komiteta KPSS XXVI s"yezdu Kommunis-
ticheakoy partii Sovetskogo Soyuza i ocherednyye zadachi partii v oblasti vnutren-
ney i vneshney politiki" (CPSU Central Committee Accountability Report to the 26th
Congreas of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Next Tasks of the Party
- in Domestic and Foreign Policq], 23 February 1981, Izdatel'stvo Politicheskoy Liter-
atury, 1981.
. "Basic Directions of USSR Economic and Social Development in 1981-1985 and Through
1989" (PRAVDA, 5 March 1981).
"Sovershenstvovaniye khozyaystvennogo mekhanizma" [Perfecting the Economic Mechan-
ism], a collection of documents, Izdatel'stvo "Pravda," 1980.
"Si~tema upravleniya trudom v razvitom sotsialisticheskom obshchestve" [System of La-
bor Management in Developed Socialiat Society], Tzdatel'stvo "Ekonomika," 1980.
Kheyf.ets, L. S. "Perfecting the Economic Mechaniem and Material Incentives to Work-
ers" (VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, No 9, 1980).
COPYRTGHT: Izdatel'etvo "Pravda", "Voprosy ekonomiki", 1981
11052
- C50: 1828/95
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LABOR
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ECONOMIC GROWTH, PUBLIC WELL-BEING EXAMINED
Moacow APN DAZLY REVIEW in Eaglish Vol 23 No 13, 11 Jun 81 pp 1-21
[Article by G. Sarkieyan, origina~?~ ~c;.klished in Moscow VOPROSY ECONOMIKI
in Ruseian No S, 1981]
[TextJ The 26th CPSU Congress stressed that the party approach, the political
approach to the ecanomy has invariably been based on the progratt�~atic require-
ment--everything for the same of man, for the benefit of man. Hence, the
- emphasig on a more thorough regearing of the national economy to meet the
tasks of raisiag the living standards.
In pLrs uan~e of the decisions of the 26th CPSU Congress, the country accentuates
the greater social orientation of eeonomic~development and more effective use
- of producti.on and scieatific and technical potentialities to facilitate the
grow~s~ of public wEl1-being. It has now become more nec~ssary than ever to
enaure the positive feedback of aocial progress and growing public well-being
- to prompte an economic advance and higher production efficiency.
Today Che rates amd proportions of the growth of production on the basis of
its intensification arg the central problem of economi.c aad social development.
High gmwth ratee expand poseibilities for increaaiag the social orientation
of the ecorwmy~ manoeuvring with reeourcee aad making progresaive structural
~ changes in eoeial producCion. Better economic proportions are an effective
tool for ~tepping up economic progrees and increasing resources allocated
for extensive r~pxoduction and the growth of public well-being. The scale
and effectiveness of the solution of economic and social tasks depend on the
way intensive growth factors are used.
Developed aoci.alist society is characterised by the plan-based growth of the
economy, th~ dynamic development of key economic sectora, and, the corresponding
iMCr~a~ea in public well-being. Und~r the Tenth Five-Year Plan,�the USSR
used over l.b trill3.on roubles from national income to boost public well-being.
Thie nearly equals the fund~ used for the purpose under the Seventh and Eighth
Five-Year Plaz~ taken together.
However, in the past few yeare economic growth rates have slowed down because
of a low inc~rease in production efficiency ~nd the domination of extensive
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development factors. production expenditures, that is, investment and fixed
capital, were outpacing national income and, hence, resources allocated for
constmnption. Compared with 1970, in 1980, with national income, used for
- consumption and the accumulation of capital, having increased by 55 per cent,
investment went up by 66 per cent and fixed capital by more than 100 per cent.
A ma~or addit.ional source o� raising public well-being was an increase in the
share of the consimmption fund in national income (in current prices), which
roee from 70.5 per cent in 1970 to 75.3 per cent in 1980. However, this did
not make up fully for a fall in the increment of the resources used for con-
sumption because of a drop in the growth rate of national income, which resulted
in lower relative increases in some indicators nf the growth of public well-
beiag. Real per-capita income increased by 17 per cent under the Tenth Five-
Year Plan, compared with 24 par ceat in the previous five years, and non-
productive ffxed aeseta by 32 per cent, as againat 37 per cent, respectively.
Overcoming the downward Crend of economic development rates registered in
racent years, 9tspping up theea rates, and improving correlation between the
growth of productioa resources and the results of economic performance is a
ma~or prerequiaite for the atable rise of public well-being in the future.
L. I. Brezhnev at the 26th CPSU Congress said that "making the economy more
intensive sad efficient consists, above all, in having production output grow
faster thaa inputs, in achieving more while involving relatively fewer re-
souzces in production." Under the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, with the relative
~ increase in investment to be more than~halved, and fixed capital to be reduced
by 50 per cent, nationaJ. income wil.l remain approximately on the level of the
previous f ive years, while the output of industry, agriculture and other sectors
will exceed the reJ.evant figures for the Tenth Five-Year Plan. As a resalt,
whereas in the past five years 10 per cent of the iacrement in investments
accounted for 7.2 per cent of the increment in national income~ and 8.3 per cent
of the incremeat in industrial output, under the Eleventh Five-Year Plan these
figurae will grow by 13-15 per.cent and 19-22 percent, respectively. In
1916-1980 10 per cent of the tncrement in basic production asaets were
reaponsible for 4.8 per cent of the increment in national income and 5.6 per
cent of Che i.ncremertt in the iaduetrial output, in 1981-1985 theae figures
will be 5.8-6.5 per cent attd 8.4-9.0 per cent respectively. Better correlation
between th~ae indicatora with smaller relative a~ad absolute increases in invest-
mante can be achieved uadar~the current five-year Fian only by substantially
raieing irrvestment efPiciency, a major prerequieite of high and stable growth
rates in the 12th five-year period.
Economic inteasification enhances the role of labour productivity in increasing
producti.on and raiaing public well-being. In the 1980s htgher labour productivity
becomes particularly importaat because of a sharp falt in the increment in man-
power reaources due to birth drops in the 1960s aad a simultaneous increase in
the ntsm3~er of people reaching pensionable age. In the llth and 12th five-year
periods, the active population is expected to grow by 3.3-3.2 million as
againet 11.2 million under the Tenth Five-Year Plan,
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In 1981-1985, the rates of increment ia labour productivity will average
3.2-3.7 per cent a year, compared with 3.2 per cent in 1976-1980. Specifically,
labour productivity will go up by 4.2-4.6 per cent in industry (3.3 per cent)
and 2.8-3.2 per cent (2.2 per cent) in construction, respectively. Labour
productivit~ in agriculture will grow, as a yearly average, by 22-24 per cent
under the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, compared with 16 per cent in the previous
five years. Higher labour productivtty will account for no less than
80-94 percent of the increinent in national income and over 90 per cent in
the increment in industrial output, as against 76 per cent and 75 per cent,
respectivel.y, under the Tenth Five-Year Plan.
Mc~re rational u~e of materials, checking the downward trend of the output-
as$eta ratio and reducing material intensiveness are very important, if we
are to accelerate economic growth and improve its end reaulta. Hindering �
the growth of production efficiency, the falling output-assets ratio limits
the scale of increasing production.and, in the final account, the economic
possibilities of solving social tasks. Under the Eleventh Five-Year Plan,
- the rateg of reduction in the output-assets ratio are to be slowed down,
compared wirh the TenCh Five-Year Plano However, this trend will not be
overcome in full. Despite the accelerated growth of labour productivity,
iCs growCh rate3 will fall ahort of increases in the fixed assets-per
worker ratio which for the five yeara will rise 32 per cent in industry,
38 per cent in agriculture, and 20 per cent in construction. Tapping new
resources and possibilities for raisi ng labour productivity, the output-assets
ratio and reducing material intensivenesa in the proceas of elaborating
and carrying out the Eleventh Five-Year Plan is important for.further stepping
up the growth of the output of consumer gooda, developing services, increasing
resourcea to raiee public well-being and, at the same time, for making the
manpower situation lesa tense.~
More effective u~?e of production potential.will inerease the favourable impact
of structural chatzges on economic development and the growth of publi,c well-
bei.na.
The Eleventh Five-Year Plan provides for further improvementa in the structure
of nritional income and also for increases in the raeources directly used to
- boost public well-being. In 1981-1985 the share of the consumption fund's
increment in the overall increaee in national incottt~ will reach 84 per cent.
Over 90 per ceat of the increment in national income, compared with 82 per cent
in the prewious five years, will be uaed for curreat consumption and construc-
tion in the non--productive sphere. As a result, the share of the consumption
fund in nattonal income will grow to 77.3 per cent, aa against 75.3 per cent
in ].980 and 73.4 per cent in 197g. Thia will allow us Co channel over 10 billion
roubles in extra �unds in conaumption, wh ich makes almoet two-thirds of the total
to be spent in 1981-1985 on new centralised initiatives to raise living standards.
An irtcrease in tha share of reaources used directly to promote the well-being
of the peopla ie an indicator of better performance results and higher production
ef fici~acy .
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In the future, etructural policy will be aimed at ensuring the priority develop-
ment of the capital gooda sector, especially ita segments decisive for scienti-
fic and technical progrese, and at p romoting qualitative changes in the material
' and� technical foundatioa of society.
~ A more resolute turn of the economy to raising public well-being requires the
accelerated growth of cons ~ner goods output and the faster rates of growth of
both the consumer goods aad capital goods sectors. Under the Eighth Five-Year
' Plan, the rates of increment in the output of capital goods and consumer goods,
which were al.most equal (51 per cent and 50 per cent) made it possible to raise
the share of consumer goods in overall industrial production from 25.9 per cent
' in 1965 to 26.6 per cent in 1970. In the ninth five-year plan period, the
� priority ~ate of iacremeat in capital goods rose, compared with the relevant
figure for coneumer goods, to 1.24 timea. Under the Tenth Five-Year.Plan,
this prio~ity bacame etabilised, and in th e past tea years the share of con-
sumer gooda fell insignificantly, to 26 per cent. I�n 1981-1985 the output
of coaeuaan~r manufactures will grow by 27-29 per cent and that of capital goods
by 26-28 per cent. The rates of incremeat in capital goods, pro~ected for the
currant fiva-ynar period~ excesd the relevant indicator for the previous
fiva-year plan by more than ~thirty per cent.
Like under the previous plan, in the 11th five-year period the fastest rates
of growth in the coASUmer goods group will be ~hc~wn by cultural and household
commadities.~ The ouCput of the food industry will be stepped up considerably
and the rates of growth of ZighC induatry will be stabilised. For the five
years, the manufacture of cultural and household goods by heavy industry
w~ill graw by almcst 40 per cent, the output of the food industry by 23-26 per
cent, which ia above the figure for 1976-1980, and the output af light industry
by 18-20 p er cent .
Accordingly, atructural changes will be made within the consumer goods sector.
Under the Tenth Five-Year Plan, such changes manifested themselves in the
growiag share of coszsumar goods, primarily cultural aad' household articles,
manufactured by heavy induatry~ with the share of light industry going up a
little and the output of the food induatry decreasing. The share of heavy
industry incre~aead from 26.2 p~r cent in 1975 to 29.1 per cent in 1979, that
of light induetry from 27.0 per cent to 27.5 per cent, and that of the
food induetry Eell from 46.8 par cent to 43.4 per cent. The share of cultural
and household articlQa 1n the overall output of cons~nner goods grew from
13.6 par cant in 1.965 to 15 per cent in 1979. The Eleventh Five-Year Plan
will aea a furthar increase, albeit a relatively smaller, in the share of
heavy industry, a reduction in the share of light industry, as well as a drop
- in the share of the food industry which wi11 fall at dacelerated rates.
The further growth of public well-being is largely determined by the development
_ o� the agro-industrial co~ lex and more eff ective cooperation between all its
segments in order to achieve better economic resul.to, first of all, to solve
the food problem. The goal of the food programme is the satisfaction of the
SovieC people's reasonable requirements for foodstuffs, th~ achievement of a
consum~tion level corresponding to 5cient:fically grounded standards, and a
con~iderab le increase in the quality o� food. Tentative estimates show that
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the full implementati~n cf the food prograuaae wi11, apparently, go beyond the
current decade. However, the daci~ive step towards ita fulfilment should be
made in :he currer?t decade, primarily in the 11th five-year period, which
provides for better provision of the public with foodstuffs, fuller satis-
faction of public requirements, and a subetantial increase in the cons~nuption
of more nutritious foods.
In agriculture, the current five-year plan accentuates the growth of the
output of cerea].~, fodder, and livestock products, the effective storage of
farm products and their sale in the best marketable form. In 1981-1985,
average annual farm output will grow by 12-1k per cent, ~as against 9~ per cent
in 1976-1980. In acCOrdance with the decisions of the July 1978 Plenary Meeting
cf the CPSU Centrxl Co~ittee,~ uader the Eleveath Five-Year Plan the annual output ,
of ceYeals is Co ~?verage 238-243 million tone, compared with 181.6 million tons
- in 1971-75, and 205 million tons in 1976-1980 in order to bring per-capita
praduction to a ton.
In the past few yeara the redietrib ution o� inveatments in favour of agriculture
ha~ eneured the faaCe~c rates of growLh of the ba91c f ixed assets of agriculture,
compared with the relevant national average. Under the TenCh Five-Yea1 Plan,
agricultural i~av~atments made aver 27 per ceat and under the Ninth Five-Year
Plasi, 26 per cent of overall irrvestments, as against 23 per cent for the
Eighth F'ive-Year Plan and 20 per cent for the Seventh Five-Year Plan. In
accordance with the decisions of the July 1978 Plenary Meeting of the CPSU
Ceatral Committee, the Guidelines f or 1981-1985 say that the share of agriculture
in overall economic investmeats should not go below today's level. A ma~or
~mptsasis is laid on more effective use of the resources channelled in agriculture,
which is very important for improving national economic performance in general.
As the efficieucy of production, particularly agriculture, will grow, conditions
will emerge for increasing resources to expand the non-productive sphere and
develop its material and technical foundation.
In the future the country will aea a further redigtribution of manpawer between
the productive and noa-productive eectora. However, of deci~ive importance
wi11 be more rational uae of tha manpowar cu~trently employed in the~non-productive
~eetor. Under th~e Tenth Five-Year Plan, tha a~boY of factory and office workers
in the non-prociucCiva aactor graa by 4.8 million, more than the expected overall
iacrease in the workfarce under the Elsvanth Five Year Plan. This underscores
the i.mportanca of raising manpower Officiency in the non-productive sector, the
retooling aad moderai~ation of eaterprisee and a aharp reduction in the share
o� manual low-~killed work which in this sector is 50 or 100 per cent above the
correspondiag figure for the productive sector. The faster growth of assets
in the non-preductive sactor aad an increase in the funds earmarked for this
sectox are importar?t for th e succassful aolution of this task.
The 26th CPSU Congresa stressed that the foundation for tackling social tasks
is being laid in the economic field. Today it is necessary to ensure a closer
contact batween a real increase in living atandards and the growth of production
and labour productivity. The role of Che social factors of economic growth, that
is mon~y and mQra atimulants to work, has growri~ as has ~heir impact on the
development of ptoduction and the attainment of high ead results.
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The vast progranmtie of social development and the growth of public well-being,
mapped out by the ~6th CPSU Congress, aims at solving major social problems
and, at the aame time, at increasing the impact of rising livi~g standards
on the growth of the volume aad efficiency of production. This approach
makes it necessary for the social progra~e to center on transformations in
work which coastitutes the basis of the socialist way of life and which is
the main condition for the all-rouad development of the individual. For
' these purpoaes, it ie envisaged to further raise labour productivity, make
work more usef ul and better working conditione, on the one hand, and increase
the interdependence of the growth of living standarda and the end results of
work, on the other.
To maet public requirementa and, simultaneously, to raise the effectiveness
of economic aad moral iacentives, it is neceseary to step up the reduction
of the vol~e of manual work~ especially work requiring great physical effort,
and to make work more useful and creative in all fields. This is crucial for
gradually overcoming substantial differences between manual and mental work and
for turning agricultural work into a variety of in dustrial labour.
The solution of this problem largely determines possibilities for raising labour
productivizy, the wages and cultural and vocational standards of manpower, for
making the spiritual life of workers richer and increasing their satisfaction
with work. A falling share of manual work will help substan.tially alleviate
the manpower problem, reduce labour turnover, and save on compensation pr~yments
for adverse worlcing conditions .
Compared with 1969~ in 1979 thanks to mechanisation and automation, the share
of people doing mechaaised ~o~a rose by 3.7 points in industry and 7.6 points
in construction. However,~the share of manual work in the economy is still
large. The share of maaual labour goes down slowly and not infrequently this
~ process ie accomp~nied by incrsases in the overall volume of manual work. At
present~ tha following shares of.mar~power do manual ~obe in different sectors:
nearly Cwo-fiftha in industry, excluding machinery repairs and ad,justment;
over half in construction, ar?d nearly two-thirds in agriculture.
It ie particularly necessary to mechanise the manual ,jobs of auxiliary workers
who accovait for 50 per cent of induetrial manpower. The work of 64 per cent
of manpower employed on basic operations in industry have been mechanised.
H~wever, the relevant figure for awciliary ,~obs is only 29 per cent. Studies
show that the mecliaaieation of auxilia.ry ~obs and the release of the same
number of workere for employment elsewhere requirea a fourth or a fifth uf
the means inveated in the mech anisation cf basic operations. Hawever, nearly
80 par cent of the funda allocated for tha mechanisation of manual work are
claimed by baeic operations and only 20 per cent go to auxiliary ~obs.
More effective solution of theae problems in tha 1980s will be ensured by the
accelarated retooling of the economy, making the social orientation of
aCientific And technical progrees more pronounced, ahaping and carrying out
a specific integraCad programme for reducing manual work.
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~ Attaching great importance to transformations in `he sphere of social labour,
it is also necessary to emphasise the rationalisation and greater efficiency
of work at subsidiary individual holdings which today account for nearly a
- quarter of natl.onal farm output. At preaent, nearly 40 million families of
collect3.ve farmers and office workere have subsidiary individual holdings .
Two-fiftr.s of the manpower in this sector are pensioners and over half are
p~eople of the working age groups. Nearly 90 per cent of them combine work in
s~cial production with the tilling cf their subeidiary individual holdings.
Greater output of machinery custom-made for such holdings, better provision
of their owners with mineral fertilisers and greater technical aid to them
in doing labour-intensive ~obs will considerably facilitate their work, reduce
time spent on subsidiary individual holdings and increase their output. All
this, in its turn, will help promote the labour activity of people in social
production and raise labour productivity in the socialized sector.
One of th~: main economic and social taska today is to fuller meet consuaner
demand, promote th~s growth of consumption, ~he quality of goods and the
expansion of their assortment.
In the p~ast faw years, the money incomea of thE working people were growing
faster than cosmodity trade, mostly due to the underfulfilment of agricultui�al
assignm~nta. Co~par~d with 1975, in 1980, with the output of cons~ner manu-
factures havin$ increased by 21 per cent and retail trade by 24 per cent, the
wage bill went up by 27 per cent and the public consumption fund by 29 per cent.
Imbalanc~s beCween public incomea and conanodity reaources undercut the efficiency
of ineasures for raiaing living standards, intensify the spontaneous redis-
tribution of incomea between people, and undermine motives for work.
Meat, milk and other livestock products and fruits are in heightened demand. In
1971-1979, per capita consumption of ineat and meat products grew by 10 kilograms,
- milk and dairy products by 12 kilograms, and eggs by 74. However, over the
recent years the rates of growth and sale of these products have become de-
celerated, which could not but havE adversely affected the dynamics of the
proviaion of the public with theae foodstuffs and their consumption. Thus,
in 1979 the eale of ineat and meat products by state and cooperative shops made
10.2 million ton~, the increase of 40 per cant on 1970. Aowever, in 1979
the r~levent figure remained on the level of 1975. In 1971-1979, milk and
dairy praducts sales increased by a third, and by es little as 6 per cent in
the first four years of the Tenth Fiva-Ye~~ Plan. Demand for milk and meat
was increasing not only because the growth of the population was outstripping
output, but also because of a markad fall in the role played by subsidiary
individunl holdinga and changee ia the demand pattern of villagers. In
1916~1979~ the output of ineat and megt producte by ~ubsi.diary individual
holdings did not increama, while that of milk coatinued to fall. Whereas
in 1979 collective farmare' eubeidiary individusl holdinga yielded more
potaCo~s, other vegetables and fruit, eggs, and milk than their owners con-
s~nned. 92 per cent of ineat output was conaiuned by producers. Also, dema.nd
for more nutritious foods rose cotzsiderably because of increases in the
lncomeg of the less well off familie~, which were growing particularly rapidly
in the past 10 or 15 years. �
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The social programme of the Eleventh Five-Year Plan gives a first priority to
the fuller satisfaction of consumer demand and overcoming the.shortage of some
goods. The solution of this problem requires, on the one hand, the faster
groWth of co~odity reeources vis-a-vis the money incomes of the population,
a better structure of com:nodity trade, and strict adherence to plan targets
for the growth of incomea, above all, to the wage bill, and more effective
control in thia field, oa the other. More extensive use of the posaib{lities
of subeidiary individual holdings and reducing tha loeses of farm produce
will help improve the provision of the public with foodstuffa.
In the current five-year period, retail state and cooperative trade will grow
by 22-25 per cent and its absolute increment will be much greater than in the
previous five years, while the volume of everyday services to the population
will increase by about 40 to 50 per cent. In 1981-1985, the money income of the
population will go up by 20-23 per cent.
By 1985, the output of ineat will reach 17-17.5 million tons (slaughter weight),
as against 14.8 million tons in 1976-1980. The production of milk will reach
97-99 million tons, compared with 92.6 million tons for the previous f ive years,
and the output of eggs will make no leas than 72 billion, as against 63.1 billion.
The corresponding increase in sales will considerably improve the supply of
the public with livestock produots. The production and consUmption of vegetables
and fruit will also increase.
Uuder the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, the sale and coneumption of cons~uner goods
other than foodstuffs wi11 grow appreciably, and the provision of families
with cultural and ?~ausehold goode will increase, Public demand for these goods
could be fuLler satisfied aven with today's volume of trade, if we raised
quality of output. Haoever, the ahare of goods with state quality mark is still
low: at the entarprisee of the USSR Miaistry of Light Industry, it was 12 per cent
in 1980 (2.2 pez cent in 1975).
Consumer demand will ba met fuller, while the state retail prices of basic food-
etuffs and manufactures will rem~in stable. According to the USSR Central
Statietical Ac~inietration, in 1979, compared with 1970, the index of the
state retail prices of corieumer goods stood at 102 per cent. The prices of
eeeentials, particularly foodstuffs, do not change. Rent, utility rates and
city transit farea also remain on the same level. Since these coarmodities
and services account for the bulk of the spending of the family, the stability
- of prices, renL rates and fares largely predetermines the dynamics of the
general level of cone~aer prices. In this period, the prices of some non-
essentials increased~ ae did prices on the collective farm marke.t. These ~re
cases of gooda being priced higher, although their quality has not been improved.
Someti~nea more e~cpensive coamw ditias are marketed, while cheaper goods, although
Chey are in demaud, of the same category dlsappear from sale. That is why the
- Guidslines for 1981-1985 point to the neceesity of considerably increasing the
putput and salee of inexpensive high-quality goods which are in demand, intensify-
ing state and public control over prices, and raising the responsibility of the
heada of industirial asaociattons, factories and other organizations for the
strict observance of pricea.
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The growth of the consimmption of goods and services, taking into account the
stability of prices in the llth five-year plan period, will make it possible
to increase real pEr capita incomes by 16-18 per cent, to exceed the 1970
level by 1.7 times. At present nearly 75 per cent of real incomes of the
public comes from lgbour rern~neration. With the pro~ected increase in labour
~ productivity, under the current five-year plan the wages of factory or
office workers will increase by the average of 13-16 per cent and the labour
remuueration of collective faYmers from the socialised sector by 20-22 per cent.
The average monChly labour reffiuneration of collective farms will make almost
75 percent of the wages of factory and office workers, as against 70 per cent
in 1975, and 63 per cent in 1970,
The 26th CPSU Congresa stressed Che necessity of ensuring in 1981-1985 the
priority growth of labour productivity vis-a-vie wages~ a ma~or condition for
increasing production and raising public well-baing. The point is that in the
past fivo ysare the growth rates of labour productivity came unduly close to
those ot wagee, moatly due to th~ u~derfulf ilment of plan assignments for labtiur
productivity, which fact created new difficultiee with balanci~ig money incomes
and caa~odity resourcea. Thus, 1976-1980 one per cent of the inerease in
labour praductivity in industry accounted for 0.82 per cent of the incr~ase in
wagas, compared wi~h 0.64 per cent in 1971-1975. The relevant figure in con-
struction was 1.43 per cent (0.62 per cent) . Also, in these years the wages
in the non-productiv e sector grew faeter than in production. Under the current
five-year plan, the prajected 13-16 per cent increase in the average wages of
factory or office workers wi~l be eneured with a 22-25 per cent rise in labour
productivity in industry and a 15-I7 per ~ent productivity increase in
construction.
It is very important to improve the corralation between the growth of labour
produ tivity and labour remuneration in agriculture, particularly in the
collectiv e farm sector~ where labour remuneration was growing much faster than
produ.ctivity for a long xime. Thue, compared with 1970, in 1979~ with labour
productivity in tha eoc~alieed esctor of agricultur~ having grown by 23 per
cent ~ the wag~ee of e tate farm workar~ increaead by 4S per cent ~ and the l.abour
r~muneration of collactiv~a fat~tnere by 52 per cent, with the lead being 2-2.3 times.
Und~r the Elev~nth Five-Year Plan, with th e pro~ected growth of labour pro-
ductivity in the social e~ctor of agriculture by 22-24 per cent, the labour
remuneratian of collective farmers will rise 20-22 per cent.
To increas e the effectiveneas of incentives, it is necessary to establish
closer d~pendence of wages on the performance of every worker and Chat of an
enterpxise a,9 a whole, raise the role of incentives as a productivity stimulant,
better the quality of output, ensure the fuller saving of resources of all kinds,
further rsise rhe role of the wage-rate system, improve the forms and system
of wages in close contact with more eff ective quota-setting, increase control
over the m~easure o.f work and the measure of payment, and ensure the necessary
dep~ndgrtce of bonuses on the perfo~ance of a worker and that of an enterprise
as a whole .
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At~other ma~os dirsCtioa of improving labour remuneration is to rationalise
retions bett4asn the wages of different categories of workers, taking into
account the complexity and importance of work, ita conditions and intensity,
and slso sectorat aad regional specifica. It is a pressing matter to raise
the wages of er.gineers and technicians and to improve the correlation between
thair wages aad those of ahopfloor workers. The wages of engineers and
techniCiat~s exceedad those of ahopfloor workers by 45.9 per cent in industr}~
and 48.2 per cent tn :vnstruction in 1965; 36.3 percent and 34.7 percent in
1970; and 15.9 per ceat and 4.3 per ceat in 1979.
In raisiag wages,. particularly those of low-bracket workers, great importance
is attached to the reduction of manual and low-skilled work, to the growth
of a1cLlls, ar~d the combining of ~obs. This is the main way to reduce the
absolute nianbers of low-paid workers and thei~ proportion in the national
labour force, raiae their wages, and cut down gap between thA labour remunera-
tion of diff erent categories of workera. At the same tim~e, a greater emphasis
on incentives and better performance, specifically higher quality standards,
may eventually increase ttie difference between the wages of various categories
of wcrkers, which will promote the more consiatent implementation of the
- principle of equal pay for equsl work.
In the future, the role of the public consumption funds in solving production
aad socio-demographie problems wi].l grow, as will the eff iciency of using the
means allocated for these purposee. In the current five-year period, the public
cons ~aption funds will grow by 20 per cent to 138 billion roubles in 1985.
The social programmne of the Eleventh Five-Year Plan accentuates demographic
prob lems, particularly the higher social role and pre&tige of the family which
ie the primary eell of socialist society, higher birth rates and the longer
lif e-span and active life of the people. The Soviet population grows at high
rates, by an average of ovcr two million a year. In birth rates and natural
increas e of the population, the USSR holds one of the first places in the
world. The Soviet Union is among the countries with low death rates. In
1979 natural incroaee per thoussad wae 8,1 in the Soviet Union, 7.1 in the
United Statee, 3.9 iA France, 3.1 ia ltaly, 0.4 in Britain, and 2.1 in West
r~rmany.
In recent years, the sex and age compoeition of the population has worsened,
parti cularly in the countryaide, and birth rates hava gone down substantially
~ in the European part of the Ru~aian Faderation, the Ukraine~ Byelorueeia and
- the Baltic republ~.ca. Whereas in 1961-1979 th~ population of the Soviet
Rapublico of Cantral Aeia, Kaz~khstan and Tranecaucaeia increasad by 52 per
cent~ the relavaat f igure for tha Rudsian Federatioa, the Ukraine, Byelorussia
and th~ Baltic republica rose as little as 14 per cent. Tn the 1980s, in view
of the after-affecte of the 1941-1945 war and the eging of the population,
regional differea~eea in pop ulation dynamics may grow, which will affect the
regional diatributioa of manpower. Increment in the active population will
zema~n re.l.atively high in the Soviet Republics of Central Asia and Azerbaijan,
and gartly, in Armania, Georgia, Mpldavia~ Southern Kazakhstan and some
autonomous republic8 0� the Rusaian Federation. In the current decade, almost
the entire inczement in the active Soviet population will come from these
republics. '
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Of 1ate, unfavourablP trends have grown in the field of family and marriage
reletions . The nu~er of divorces has increased, as has that of single men
and women. 1"he absolute number and the proportion of families with one child
- or without children ke~p growing. According to the 1979 population census,
of the 66.3 million fam:[.lies, 58.6 per cent consisted of two or three persons
and most of them ware families with one child or without children.
Under the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, steps will be made to improve the material
we11~-being and liviag conditions of families with children and young couples,
grant them gxeater privileges and material aid, improve the education of
children as m~bers of society and family, better medical aid and health-
build~ ng fFCilitie~ . It is particularly important to create more favourable
conditior,.s fo~ women to allaw tham to combine active participation in social
pro duction ~ri~h tiheir rola ga mothera, improve their working conditions,
raCioa~~iis2 ~r~d raduc~~household work~ develop children's facilitiea in every
w~ay poE~ibld, ~nd intraduce a paid leave of abaence for women to look after
the chi]:d. Tn thQ firet place, we ehgll increaae privileges and advantages
to workj.ng wowea orith childr~n.
Th~ ~~eveldpm~nt of ~ocaal security echemea will b~ aimed at further improving
the canditio~ae of life and work of pensioners, the promotion of their labour
a~.tivi*y, the growth of pen~ions, particulaxly minim~ pensions and the bringing
- clos~r to~et~h~r of the conditione and levels of the p~nsions of industrial
work~xs and collective farmers. In 1981-1985 it is planned Co gradually draw
cl~ser together the size of the earlier established pensions and those fixed
for trie workers of similar skills at present. The pension is calculated as
~axt of tne wages of a worker at the time of his retirement and the size of
- the pe~sions o~ this manpower category does not change, as a rule, in the
future. As a result~ wce have substantial differences b etween the pensions of
the warkera of s imilar skills, fixed in different years. The average size
of the nld-a~e pension established in 1979 was 12 per cent higher than that
of 1975, 3b per ces~t above the 1970 peasion and 60 per cent above the 1965
p~n~i.on. '1'~is~ ie why the correlntiona betwesn thaee pensior~s and present-day
- wages di.�f~r~ althou~h they ware nearly equal at the time when these pensions
w~r~ eAtabliehed. Raieing the earli~r paneiona~ with an eye to the growth
of waAes, wi1]. make it poasibl~ to improve correlatione between peneions
gro,nt,sd in diff~renc years.
The social programme of the Eleventh Fiva-YeaY Plan provides for the solution
thg housing ~roblem, a major social. isaue. In the current decade, the task
ia to ~iv~ ~:very family an unshared flat. In 1980, 80 per cent of the families
in r1~3PS ].i~ed in unehared flate, compared ~rith 75 per cent in 1975. In 1985
t.h~ per-�capita provision of Sov~er citizens with houeing wil.l average 13.7 square
m~tres. Unrls~r the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, we shall complete the change-over
to the constructicrn of houeing to standard designs with better layout and
built-in amenities. (In 1979 the new generation of blocs of f lats accounted
_ for 40 per cent of the housing built by the atate.)
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Along wi.th etate-financed housing, it io necessary Co increase attention to
housing conetruction by building societiea and individuals. The importance
of this aeg~nent of housing construction is particularly great now because
_ it can become an extra aource of ensuring balance between money incomes
and commodity resources. Apart from that, housing construction in this
sector can be conducted with the participation of woul.d-be owners. However,
plan aesiguments for hovsing ~onetruction by building societies are not carried
ouz in full and its proportion in the overall volume of new housing has been
dropping for the last few years.
Ratianal use of working time and an increase in leisure time are very important
for the harawuious developmeat of the individual and for fuller satisfaction
of the spiritual requirements of the public. The importance of this problem
is explained, oa th~ one hand, by the rising requirements of people, particularly
bq the rapid grawth of their s ocial and spiritual requirements, and, a consider-
able rhare of houeehold work in overall time free from work in production,
on the othar.
Raducing the volume of ho wa hold work and removiag its anst arduous forms is
the main reearve of increasing laisure time, particularly that of women. On
a national scale, hotb ehold work takes nearly 180 billion hours a year, slightly
less than time spent in production. The developmei~t of services, better housing
and the provision of families with a11 the necessary efficient domeatic appliances
will considerably reduce time spent on household work and increase leisure time,
particularly that of women, which will favourably affect labour activity and
productiv3ty ia soci8l production.
The growth of public well-beiag is organically connecGed with the further
consolidation and development of the socialist way of life, the fuller demon-
stxation of its advgntages, and the ~noulding of the new man.
Moulding the new man requires the harmonious combination of growing material
well-being with the anxichmeat of spiritual life, the cultivation of the sound
and ratiotis7: requizsm~nts of th~ comprehensively devaloped individual. In
thie connectSon it i~ important, first~ that the material and spiritual
opportunities of ~vary working per~on ehould be detsrmined, above all, by the
axteat of Cheir participation in aocial productioA~ their labour performance
and their ralev$nt ehara of the coneumption fund; �econd, the eatisfaction
of the requiram~at~ of tha public should meet Lha priaciples of the socialist
way of 11fe; third, thsse requiraments should bQ increasingly geared to the
intereata of the Comprehenaivaly daveloped individ�al. The creation of condi-
tions for tha ~radual turning of work into the main vital raquirement of man
plays a particul~zly importan t role in thie respect. .
Growing public well-being favourably influences social production, and stimulates
~ta fast development. The imp act of growing public well-being on the develop-
meat of production has always benn recognised in tha theory and practice of
socialist construction. However, as a rule, an emphasis was laid on the
dependence of the grawth of living standards on production, whereas their
f eedback to production was frequently reduced to the stimulating function of
wages .
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The importancz of hi~her public well-being for promoting economic progresa has
become particularly gxeat in connection ~7ith the growing role played by the

, sub.~ective factor of social production in the context of the scientific and
technical revolution, i.e., the Y^le of the worker, the harmonious development
and use of his abilities. Hence, the necessity of ensuring the more integrated
imp act of pubZic wall-b eing on social production and the growth, on this
basie, of the stimu].ating role of public weil-being.
The growing impact of the public well-being on production now that the l~itter
is ~a3.ng intenaified, makes it necessary to furth~r improve the ways of
raising living starxdards and the methods of implemeating social undertaking3.
In this connection priority is given to the ways directly connected with the
fuller use of inLen~iva growth factors, labour productivity growth, and the
improv~meat at the quality of work. A particularly important role is being
asaumed by more efficient use of resources directly used for raising public
wel1.-being. The solution of these tasks requires the profound substantiation
of structural chaages in the redistribution of the increment in resources under
every nera p1an, eloser connection between the growth of the well-being of
different public atrata and categoriea of the working people and the extent
of the3r participatian in social production, and the improvement of the
- planned-based m~chaniam used to carry out social undertakings.
Attaching the prime importance to tran~formations in the character of labour
an.d to raising it~ producCivity, the 26th CPSIJ Congreas stressed the necessity
and importance of improving the di~tribution of goode and services between
individuals, first of all, dietxibution ot goods and ~ervices according to
- oae'a laboux performance to consolidate the aocialiat way of life, raise
public we11-being 8ad, simultaneously, increa~e preduction. As the main form
of the implementation of the principle of the distribution of gooda and
services according to one's work, labour remuneration has the leading role to
play in promoting public welfare and in stimulating aocial production economically.
To atimula~e production it becomes more and more import~nt to use such ways of
raising pubJ.ic well-being as better housing~ furthar rationalisation of the
allocation af housiag, improvements in the content and conditions of work,
fostering the creative initiative of advanced workere, longer holidays and
conditions for adequate recreation geared to the labour performance of workers,
higher pensian~, etc. At the present atage the growth of the stimulating
ef ~ect of living staadards on production is insepsrably connected with the
proaw Cion of l~bour discipline and raieing the responaibllity of people for
their 3obs.
2he gro~ath ~f public we].l-being and its stimulating impact on production are
accowpaniad by the int~neification of tlze former's eocial aspects, thanks to
which iC b~come~ poesible ta eneure closer interaction between the economic
and sacial functione of publ.ic wall-baii~g. The most optimal case ie their
cuordinated development, w~th the etimulating effact of living standards on
production growing in ineeparab].e connection with the solution of social
problems. Howev~r, the stimulatiag funetion of public well-being can develop
if only it doea not hinder social developmerit. At the eame time, the
preference is given ta social development which increaees stimuli to work.
26
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At all stagea of the construction of socialism aad communism, the economic
development of Soviet society proceeded in organic unity with social develop-
ment and was subordinated to the solution of ma~or social tasks. Under mature
socialism, ecoz~omic growth becomes increasingly aimed at satisfying the
material and sp3rit~al requiretnents of tTie peaple and creating the best
poeaible conditions for the all-rouad development of the individual.
Simultaneous ly, the growth of living s~andards produces an ever greater
impact on econotaic development. Ensurgnce of optimal interaction between
economic progres~ and the growth of public well-being, a greater stress on
the social orie~tation of the acotyomy and fuller uee of the social factors
of producti0n developmeat are ma~or conditione for etepping up the advance
of the 9ociety ot auture eociali~m.
(VOPbtOSY FKIJNOMIKI No 5, 1981. In fu11. )
OLKIVO-14483
CSO: 1812/54
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DEMOGRAPHY
U.3. ANALYSES OF' SOY~T DEMOGRAPHY CRITI~UED
Moscow IST~RIYA SSSR 1n Russian No 2~ Mar-Apr 81 pp 219-225
~Article by Y. K. Bagdasarov and V. Z. Drobizhevs "New Books by American Demo-
gx~aphers about Pbpulation Movement in the US3R'J
~TextJ The reproduction of the pcpulation ia a prnblem which represents a top-
priority scientific interest. Data on the birth rate, mortality ra.te~ nwnber of
persons enterir~ upon marriage~ etc. reflect extr~nely i.mportan~ shifts in so-
ciety's socioeconomic structure. On the other hand~ the type of population re-
production e~ae~La ~rt influence on the aize of labor resources and on the course
of thm mogt diverse eocial px~oae$ses.
During the laet f~+~r yeara there has been an:increased interest on the par~ of
3oviet schols~t~s ia the problmas of the hietorical daanography of the USSR. More
and more attes~tioa l~s slso being paid to theae p~obleaa in the West. Active work
along this line is being canduc'tsd at the Centex for the Study of Russia and the
Eatstern Eurbp~an Countries at the Univereity of Hianingham (Great Britain) as
- xell se at t anmber ot universities ia ths United. States. This is testified to
by the pub~lioa,tion in 1976--19?9 of three detailed monographs dev~oted to the po-
pulation ot l~ttrsis snd the Sovi~t2 nion during the 19th and 20th centuriesi xe
xill disouss the~ in this survey.
Ths lnterest on the part of A~nerican historianB in population movement xithin the
U83R la ~xplairud by the attempt to disaover ttie common fac~rs accounting for the
lo~er birth rat~ in ths contempos~r.ty rrorld. Thus~ the book by A. Coale~ B. Ander-
aon~ atui E. Hes~ waa xritten in accoz~dance with the plan adopted in 1963 by the
CNSt~r for Pbpa~li~#~ioa Study of Princeton University. This plan has provided for
the sbudy of biitb rat~s in Pbrtugal~ Italy~ Bslgiwn, France~ and the USSR.
On the other ha~d, American authors have turned to t~.he historical demography of
the U39R in~brde~ to reveal tha intex~connection betxeen the processes of the so-
csllecl 'Snoadzaisittion" of eociety ac~d the changs in the country's population.
Moreover~ it le ~mphaei$sd throughout that the laws of populatfon do not depend
on a aociety's eoono~ic or socisl �ttvctura. Thua, R. Lewis and R. Rowland de-
claace the followiriga "We have adopt~d a univeraal or common approach in analyzing
the populatiob ahat~g~a i~n Ruesia e~nd the USSR~ inasmuch as we are convinced that
pop~ulati.on char~~rt...are complst~ly unconneGted with the political or ideologi-
aa1 syete~ c?~C xitY~ the cultw~al or hiatorical factors inherent to any one
nountt�y. "9
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To be sure, there are a nuu~ber of factors (an increase of cultural standards among
ths population, rtomen being drawn into production work, etc.) which exert an equal
intlue~ce on ths population's reproduction in countxies with diffeMng social sys-
teus, but thex'e a~'e slso radical differences. Socialimn does not know exploita~
tion~ criee~ and uri~nployment~ enonaous p~operty differentiation~ or any signifi-
cant gaps in.the level of education of various classes and social groups. The so-
cial policy of a socialist state is ai~aed at carrying out the optimum rates of
population dynamics. This is xhy Marxists emphasize the historical conditionallty
of a population's type of reproduction. "The conditions of hwnan multiplication~"
xmte V. I. Lenin~ "depend directly on the structure of various social organisms."4
To pose the question in a social-histoMcal contex~o he streaged~ means "studying
tha principle of the population oi eaoh historioal econo~nic systesn individually
and studying ita connection and relationship With the given systmn."5
, Denying the apeaific influence of the mode of production on the population's re-
production lesQe to a aituation r?hereby in a11 the xorks under consideration here
nothing ie said about the influence of people'a xsy of life under the conditions of
socialiss on the deaographic pmaesses. The Ameriaan demographers' field ~f vi-
- sion ca~pef,~s the period from i897 through 1970~ xhich is regarded as a~u~.ty.
' "Dsbpped out" he~sin is duch aa extre~ely importa,nt milestone in world history as
the Oatober Rev~olution, xhich brought about rA~d.i.cal social transformations in our
country.
The booke by the American demographer~ have thoroughly analyzeci the reaults of the
Ceanr~uBea of 189?~ 1920~ 1926~ 1939, i959~~and 1970. And although certain authors
nake stiputlated qvalifications concerning the incanpleteness of the census data,
they reg4xd td~ert, on the whole~ as a reliable source bdse for studying ,population
rd~roduction. Cone~idu~ably poorer use ie made of materials derived from the cur-
reat aacoucttf~ag oP~populstion movement. Praotically no mention is made of the
statiatical re~f~cence xorks xhioh wsre publiahsd during the 1920's on the birth
rate and morta7,3ty rate in the U3SR~ nor of speciall~ed publications on the US5R's
populatiotl xhS:ah t+sr~ lesued duri~g ths period fsro~ the 1950's through the 19~'0' a.
Th~ p~rio8ial?1 publyoations of ths T~3U ~~ntnl Statiatical AdministrationJ also
remeln ~uteids �3~~~ of vie~o�. Thl~ ce~ainl;~ impoveriehe_ the ~rox~:E ~.;.~3~r
rsvis++.
~ The books by the Aa?erican deanographers have utilized quite an interesting mathema-
tical apparatus to charaaterize popu].ation mov~ment. With the help of computers
they have calculated various a~e ind~xes of birth rates~ mortality rates~ marriage
rate8 in regional snd republle-wide croBe-sections over the extent of the Soviet
state's entire peMod of exist,ence. �
One of the basio poec~blems of the t,ppip under conaideration is the de~ographic po-
licy of the Soviet state. 5everal of the American authors pay lip service to the
1Aflven~e of the 3ovist regima's socioeaonomic policy on the demographic pro~.
oe~aes. In eeoe~ace~ however~ they avoid thie queetion during the course of their
inveatigation. Tha matter ia presented ae if the processes of migration and ur-
bat~i~ation have bsen dirsated by th0 SovJ.et ~tats for the sole purpose of streng-
thening ~h~ Aussiana' domination over the other--non-Russian and non-Slavic--
peoplea.Y ~Ot coure~e~ euoh an intsrpretation of ona thrust of the Soviet sociallst
state'a aooial poliey hss nothing in oommon with the actual facts. Well known are
the truly titanic ~ti'qrta of ths Soviet atate 8lrected at eliminating national
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inectuality and etret~gthsning the international unity of ail the peoples of the
USSR. '
A very great achievement of the Soviet syst~ has been the elimination of the eco-
nomic backxa,rdneas of the previously oppressed peoples of Russia; but R. Lewis, R.
Rorrlaad, and R. Clem try to present this as merely the result of the fact that the
distribution of indust~ry in our courstry was dictated solely by considerations of
defense aad the aeed to mcve production closer to the raw-material ba.ses. Of
course~ ths Pactara of economic feasibility and stren6thening the country's d~fense
played a mle, but in the given instance nothing ie mentioned about one of the ba-
sic aspec~s of the 3oviet state's socioeconomic policy--a Whole complex of ineasures
undertaken to ~liminate the economic and cultural backwaxdness of the fonner colo-
nial outlying areas of pre-rewlutionazy Russia. In this connection numerous facts
aou],d have bee~ cited from the ressarch of Soviet historians~ which are fully ac-
oeettible to the AAbrican authors.9 In the faat that these facta have been passed
ovsr in eilence we oarinot fsil to see biae in ths tre~tment of a number of basic
p~'Obl![us. '
Fine~l.ly, the opinion is uttered that tha U3SR~ so to speait~ has not worked out a
policy xith re~asd to th~ various e~apeots of population movement. "In the US5R
there doee not exi$t a policy of urbani~ation in the sanee i.n which rre understand
it~" R. Ld?+ie~ ~d R. RoWland goiat out~ "that is~ Soviat policy in this regard no-
Khere n~entions ~hst the level of usbenization xill increase by such-and-such a per-
centage in a give~ yeax or in a 61ven period."10 ~
First of all~ it must be noted that western hietoriaris have passed over in silence
the xidely Iaiwt~a maa~ures taken by the Soviet state xith respect to regulating de-
mographic p~oce~ses. Was not the mass development of the virgin and long-fallow
la~ds of I~,~akhmt~t ~ regions of 3iberia, and the Far F~et ~ which . were succesafully
c~?rMed out in the US3A~ the result of the state'a activity?! Neverthelees~ it
Would be inaorrect to p~'esent dewogre.a~hic policy in the USSR as a direct control
ovsr the popula~tioa's birth rat~~ marria6e rate, migre~tion~ and urbanization. All
stt~aapte~ at auch int~s'~'~renae by thr etate in the extremely complex socio-demogra-
- phia proossaes, ~s historical ~x,p~risncs ha,a eK'�an'ation
ovement.~ Thia isaaemats-
eesses instru~ee'~te ~+hl.oh indissctly Snfluence popul
tsr of dp~aifio material~ moral~ politioal~ arrd aocial devicee and methode Mhich
are capable~ in the lin~l analyais, of influ~ncing the developnent of demographic
prooaa~es. Th~ Amsrican ~uthore s~ef~ss to analy~e these measures of the Soviet re-
gi~e~ d,i,zyotsd at r~gulatin6 th~ dmnographic prxeesee~ and they seaune the bold-
aN?~ of spe~Ic1~ ab0~tat the laak of a eocial-d~agraphic pol~cy in general in the
UBg~.
The dexaographio polioy of the Soviet. �atste consista of a system of ineasures ( eco-
naula~ aocldl~ 1e6a1~. ideologiaal), directed at maintdining and increasing the
Qownfisy~s hum~,n r~sources~ auBnsnting the life span~ foaaing a new type of popu-
lstion raproduction baaed on the oonscious regulr~tion of family si~e. Demogr#i
phic polioy is based on population atatistics organi~ed on a statewide scale.
The work by A. Coa1e, B. Anderson~ and E. Haxm is specially devoted to the dyna-
mics of the birth rate~ marriaae rate~ and mortallty rate in Russian and the USSR.
Thie book investigate~ the processes of population reproduction primarily on that
territory xhich oomprised ths Euzopean part of Russia prior to 1917~ and with
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zegard to the postxar period nuiaerous data are adduced con~erning population dy-
nwics in the ea~tern republics of the US5R. The authors consider that the most
important de~aographic shifts over the period 189?--19~ were the folloxings in-
cresse in the life spaa~ decrease in the bir.th ra.te as a result of improved liv-
ing conditions. d~velope~ent of inedical care. and a fa11 in the percentage of the
mortality rate in a11 age groups. The book cites interesting tables showing birth-
rate c~}mamics. Moreover~ it ia pointed out that the reduction in the birth rate
wa,s pe.rticularly sigaificant during the years of World War I~ the Revolution~ and
the Civil i~as~ on tt~e eve of and durln8 the Grea.t Patriotic War. The data on the
~ birth rate in Russia and the USSR are adduced in comparison xith analogous infor-
nation on other E~rope~.n countries.
Though~the utili~ation of Btatistical materiaY does not present anp ob3ections
whatsoever, the tree~tment of certain da.ta obtained does not always seem convincing
to us Thum~ for ~xveple~ the suthon nntethe reduction 1n the birthir~08 along
194p.12 They mention further that the partial mobilize~tion of 1939-- 9~
_ xith the disruptiion of normal lif~ along the borders~ conetituted the ma1A.rCoale~
Yor the ehe~'p fall-off in the birt~ xate. But those events mentioned by
B. Anderson~ and Haaa could haxd.]-y have had a real effect on significantly re-
ducing the blrth rate, as observed in 1940. It eeetas to us that the principal fac-
tor has been omitted. At the end of the 1930's the generation of people Hho were
born duri~g the yesrs of World Was I and the Civil War were caning of marriageable
age. The reduction o~ the birth rate at that earlier period led to a sharp limita-
tion on the conti~ent of pereons entering int,o narriage in the late 1930's. This
3s also teatiff.ed to by 'the d~.ta on marriages which the American demographers th~n-
selves c3te. .
' Z~e monograph by A. Coale, B. Anderson~ and E. Haan characterizes the influence of
the Great Pe~triotic Was on the birtl~ rate, mortallty rate~ and marriage rate of the
population. Based on the materials of the 1959 ~ 197~ eensuses~ data are cited
on the loases among the male PoP ~adeal of atte?ntion8t ~thepregional differen es in
year8. The authors devote a 6rea
the population'e birth ra~e and marriage rate during the pcetwar years. In parti-
cular~ a high level of birth rate 14 noted in those territoriee where the predomi-
nant religion ia Tala~a.
In this conneetion~ it should be emphaai~ed that analysie of the factors which in-
fluence pop~l.etion reprc~duction is a problwn of top-priority scientific importance
which hsa sti11 not been sufficiently developed nelther in the works of Soviet de-
mographers nor in those of foreiga reaearchers. So far this matter i~s limited
merely to poatulating the inf'luenae of certain factors without a precise scientific
determination oP the xei~t to be aesigned ea~ch of them.
In their book R. Lewia and R. Roxland assert that the reduction of the birth rate
in the USSR duri.ng recent years has Posed a nwnber of serious economic difficul~'~.
ties.13 It i$ aertainly true that the lowering of the birth ra.te and the exhaus-
tion of free labor resourceB has advanced new economic and social problems to the
fore. In working out ita prospective plans for development~ however~ the Soviet
state hae t~Jcen theae factors into consideration. In the report entitled "Basic
Directions for the Developme~t of the USSR's National Economy during the Period
19?6--1980" it was emphesi~ed thet during the 1980's the natural increase in man-
poti+er would be redu~oed. This comprised one of the fundamentals of the problem set
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forth--to achieve a rationa.l utilization of labor resources during the tenth and
succeeding five-year plans. "The more dynamic the national economy, the faster
its sectorial end territorial structure changes," the report stated, "and the
mor~e acute is the problem of coordina.ting the develop~ent of material produc-
tion and the non-production sphere with the presently available labor resources."1'~
A reallstic appraisal of the state of affairs allowed the Soviet state to provide
for the difficultiea which arose and thus to balance the developaient of the eco-
nomy in order to av~cid any posaible disproportions. A planned economy is a
power.~1 lever for raising the et'Pectiveness of soclal production and increasing
the role of intensive factors of development.
Certain Western speciallsts have atteanpted to interpret the factor of regional
differeiices in the bizth-rate level from the point of view of increased internal
contradictions in the Soviet Union. "The increase in the Muslim population~"
xrite~ for example, R. Ler?is and R. Rowland, "has influenced the nationality Gom-
poeition of the e~my.... Questions of loyalty and the suitability of the Russian
language may pose a threat."15 ExpeMence has ahoHn that the change in the nation-
ality campositicm af ths U3SR in the direction of an insignificant reduction in
the proportion of Russi4ns (from 53~3 Percent in 19?0 to 52.4 percent in 1979)
has, to be sure~ exerted some influence on the nationallty composition of the army,
labor group~, etn. But thi~ in no way has led to na,tional frictions or any dimi-
nution of the role of tha laaguage of international exchange. In this regard data
of the 197'0 ar~d 1979 Ceneusaea, as adduced in the table below, are characteristic.
proport7.on of Pereone of ~ Gieen Nationality
Who Speak Rusaian Fluently'~'
in
Nationality i97o 1 Nation y
Ukrainians 36.3 48.9 Georgiana 21.3 2b�7
llzbeks 14.5 49.3 Molc~av~ans 36. i 47.4
Belorusaians 1+9�~ 57�o Tajiks 15.4 z9.6
xazaw~s 4i.~ 52.3 Lithuanians 35~9 5z.i
Azerbai3ani 16.6 29.5 Turkmeng 15~4 25�~+
Armenians 30.1 38.6
* Pop~tlation of the U33R accozding to data from the All-Union Census
of i979. Moacow, i98o, p 23.
One of the moet Smportant indicators of popule~tion movement is the developnent of
urbanizstion.
Thn Ameriaan iavsstigatora scknowledge that in its rste of urbanization the 5oviet
Union has overtaken ~.1 th~ oountrie8 of the world. 'The process of urbaniwation
oacurred at a, rapid rate~ not only much more rapi,dly and higher than the average
world level, but even higher than any other ~evaloped modern country~" R. Lewis,
R. Rowland, and R. Clem note in their book.1 3'hese authors emphasize that the
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Soviet urbanizatian x~,s t,he most rapid in the entire world. Its rate slowed down
only during the time of World ~fq,r II, but it increassed again beginning in the
1950's and continued to grow over the course of the 19~0's.1?
As confiaaation of their conclusion~ the American authors adduce data concerning
the level of urban,tsa,tion in the USSR and in the most importa,nt regions of the
~orld in 19~Or 19~tA, 19~'j0~ 1960~ and 1970.18 Particularly high rates of urbani-
- se~tion marked the period'fmm 19z6 throu8h 1939� In connection with industriali-
satlon the gz~o+~tt~ of the urban population occurred primarily in the eastern regions
of the RSFSR~ ir1;~ltsakh8tan, the Donbass~ and the Dnepr Region. Only the period
of the Grea,t Pal~+iiotic Wdr xas characterized by a certain reduction in the rate of
urbanization.
The problem of urb~nisastion is examined in the xorks under review in close con-
ne+ction xith a~n at~al,ysia of the migration processes. First of all, it should
be noted that in t,he latest Amaric,sn historical-demogra.phic investigations
acJmosrlecl~m~tit~ is made of the groutidlesaness of the thcsis concerning the compul-
~ory nature of t.ha migra,tion procesees in the USSR. Bourgeois Sovietologists
havs frequently 4ttampted to treat the organi~ation of labor in the USSR as if it
were bssed on oampulsion. Norr R. Lexis s~nd R. Rowland acknoxledge that the
- orgatzlaed migration "constitutes a proceas under gc,vernmental supervision: th~
recxuitment o! mat~poae~, agricu7.tural resettlement~ popular appeals~~+ork after
the completion of atudiss~ sto. If xork after sra+dua.ting from an educational
iru~titut3or? 3e nnt considered a.a obligatory~ then it could be said that migration
in the USSR is not~caenpulsory."19
The period.of socialist reconstruc.tion of the national economy~ they write~ is
characterl~ed by mass migration processes~ directed, in the first place~ from the
vi.llage to t,he city~ and in the second place~ from the western to the eastern
regions of t,Me cauntry.20 During the period from~ the 1950's through the 197o's
a rr~ tendency of migra,tion processes manifested itself . Lese than half of a11
the migrante wers ~ox accountsd for by rural inhabitants. "Thus," write R. Lewis
and R. Roxland, "t~he USSR atta,iaed such a level that the migration from city to
city becaAte more ei~nificant thau fr~m village t,o city."'21 Noted herein is the
eff~ct of the special mea.suras dev~l.op~d. by ths Soviet state which were aimed at
elittinating the exceseive outPlox of manpower from the village. '~eginning xith
the ~ighth Five-Ysar P'lari up to th~ preeent time~ the government has continued to
si.gnificantly incredse capital investmerrtB in agrioulture~ raise rragea~ improve
xorking coaditiona~ raiee the level of inechani~ation and electrifioation~ grant
more tree time~ ia?provs and e~and houeing conetruction in rural areas, impro~-e
eduoation~ tt~atiaportation, and all typea of services, as Kell as to construct
indwtri4l enterprisee in z~uz~,l rsgions. In brief, � a11 these measures ase aimed
at tully tranafoza~ing rural life in the USSR. 'Great attention xas also paid to
the ndn-cherr~ozem ~one in the lOth Five-Year Plaa."22
Along with the realistic euzalyeia of the principal trends of the migration pro-
oe+saes in the USSR~ the works under review by the American authors also reveal
attempts to misrepresent the influaica of these processes on the ethnic situation
in t,he U3SR.
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During the course of economic developnent the Russian people rendered fraternal aid
to the previously backfrard peoples of the USSR. In the cities of the country's
- many national regions a considerable number of hi~ly skilled workers, engineers~
and technicians xe:re esaployedi they Were of Russian nationality. The process of
the migration of Russian population into the regions of Central Asia, Transcaucasia
facilitated the atrengtheni.ng oi frieaidship between the peoples of the USSR and the
mutual enriahment of the cultures of the 5oviet nationalities; it also assisted in
speeding up the rates of economic and social progress. However~ in the opinion
of the bourgeois authors, these migration processes led only to an intensification
of inten~ational #'rict3ona. A. Lewis~ R. Rowland~ and R. Clem declare that the
arrival of the "outaiders" in a nationellty region and "discrimination in hiring
for work in the developed areas of production--a11 this provoked dissatisfaction
among the ethnic groups."23
Nat a aingle sentence 18 true in theae utterances. In the first place~ it was
not outaiders Nho oame into these natianality regions but rather working people~
penneated with an aw~renees of internationalisn?. In the second plaoe~ not a
Bingle faat ha$ been regiatered in Soviet history testifying to any discrimination
in hiring agalnet the members of an indigenoud nationality. Furthermore~ in a11
the Soviet republica preference xss given to training groups of skilled workers
and engineerin$-teahnioal personnel drawn from memnbers of nationalities xhich had
been oppreseed in the past. And, finally, xe cannot help drawing e,ttention to the
fact that the a'bgence of facts testii~rizig to tension in international relations
within the i1S5~ +a~ a re$ult of ur'beaization and the developa?ant of migr~tion pro-
cegaes ha~ aompell~d the bourgeois authors=to "predict" certain ethnic frictions
in the USSa iri the future. Thus~ several timea in the book cited above~ in fore-
casting the flevelo~etant of demogra~hic processes in the future~ the American
au~hor8 predict that 4x?e USSR will be confronted xith a serious problem of ethnic
conflicts. ThiB xill supposedly be caused both by ~the migration of the Russian
popvlation into th~ national republics aa well eas by the predicted flow of migra-
- tion f~om the Cea~tsal Asian re~ublice and Trangcauca.sia into the couritr~r''s central
regioas.~+
"Modarni~ation end an inorease in inter-sthnic end intra-ethnic ties," write R.
Lr~rie and R. Raw],a~nd~ "dre leu,ding to a heigh~ened ethnic watahfulnass (concern
and an inorease in th~ 'Ka-theY~ division)."2
Theae "as~uroptiona" contradict th~ aatual faats of So~et reality~ which testify
to the inaressing uaity of the Soviet people and the intexnationali$~tion of the
xa,y of ll.fe in the US3R. Since 1971 the Inatitu~e of Ethnography of the US5R
Acad~my of 3oianaes in oon~unction xith the rspublia-1eve1 academic institutions,
- hae oonducted reeearch on the problem of "OptLnising Soc~o-cultural Conditions
of the Developasnt e~tid Drawing Clo~er Together of the Nationalities of the USSR."
Wlthin the Praaaewotk of this paco~ect mass questionnaires were conducted (more
than 30~000 peraons~ in Moldavia~ Georgia~ Uzbekietan~ Estonia~ and the RSFSR.26
Thig reaearch has demonstrated that the procese of drawing cultures closer together
during t,he oottrse of the industrial proceas and urbanization of society conEtantly
- expands t,hs ob~ective base for friendly international exchange. Evening out the
levels of eduoation has created a basis for satisfying national interests and has
l.ed to an agzeement in the acceptarice of reality~ as xell as in supply and demand.~7
The unity at' txie entir~ 3oviet people ie a notable trait of the sociallst way of
life.
3l~
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Ar~alyeis of worke by American historians reganiing population movement in the USSR
testifies to a number of positive shifts in American historiography. There are
xorks~ bassd oa ~t anal.Ysis of Soviet statistica~ which characterize the birthrate,
mortality x~te, asx-sge structur~ of the Soviet people. They reveal in quite a
c3raIInstantial matlner the demograptaic consequences of t~orld ilar I~ the Civil War~
and the Great Patriotic War. These works contain a detailed characterization of
the procesae~ af urbani~ation and migration of the population; they apply interest-
ing methods for calculating ~Ehe specifics for population reproduction at various
at~ges, aa caapa,red xith other c~uritriee and regions of the world. Nevertheless,
they also aon~l,e~in s frequently 8istoxted presentation of the processes of the
3oviet state's sxial policy, and thsy likewise falsify international relations
xithin the U35A oftan in form~ whlch have become traditiona.l for bourgeois
3avietoloay.
FOOTNOTES
1. See~ for example: "Problemy istoricheskoy demografii SSSR" `Problems of His-
torioal Demo~raphy of the USS~~ Tallin~ 19'r7i Y. Z. Drobizhev, Yu. A. Polya'r.
kov~ "Population of the USSR and 5ocial Progress~" VOPROSY ISTORII, 197~, No 2;
5. I. Bruk~ "~thno-demographic Processes in the USSR (Based on Materials of
Post-Wsar Population Censusea)~" ISTORIYA SSSR~ 1980~ No 6.
2. I. L~r3.s~ R. RoHland, R. Clem~ "Nationality aad Population Change in Russia and
the U99A. An ~valuation of C~sus Datsa ~89?--1970~" New York--Washington--
Londan~ 19'j6s 8. Lexie~ R. I~cxlaad~."Poptilation Distributuin in the USSR. Its
Impact on 9x iety~ 1897--~9?"l~" New York--Washington, 1979t A. Coa1e~ S. Ander-
son~ Hasmi~ "Humar~ Fer~il~ty in Russia 31nce the Nineteenth Century," Prince-
ton~ 1979�
3. R. Lei+ie~ R. Rowland~ Op. cit. p 2.
4. Y. I. Lsnin ~"P35" ~Complete Collected WorkeJ, wl 1~ p 478.
Ibid., vol 2~ p 104.
6. Sest a. La~?is, R. Roxland~ Op. cit.~ p 2.
7. Sees I. Lsxis, R. Rowland~ R. Cle~a~ Op. cit.~ p 96.
8. Tbid.~ p 13.
9. See~ for example: Yu. F. Votnb'yev, "Vyravnivaniye urovney ekonomicheskogo raz-
vitiya soyuznykh res ublik" ~ivening Out tha I,evels of Economic Development of
the Uaioa Republics~ Moscow~ 1g6s~ M. I. Kulichenko~ "Natsional'nyye otnoshe-
niya~ v S53R i tendenteii ikh razvitiya" ~Nationality Relations in the USSR and
Trends of Their DevelopJaentJ~ Mo~cow~ 19?2i "Sovetski narod--novaya istoriches-
kaya obshohaoat' lyudey. Stanovleniye i r~~vitiye" ~i'he Soviet Peo~le--A New
Hiatoric Cammu~itq of People~ P3nergence and Development~, Moscow~ i975~
10. R. Lert~is~ R. Roxland, Op. cit., p 15.
35
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il. For more details about tbis see the follorring: A. Ya. Kvasha~ "Problemy de-
mograficheakogo optimuma" ~Problems of the Demographic 0 timum~~ Moscox~
197~i "Upravleniye razvitiyem narodonaseleniya v SSSR" ~egulating Popula-
tion Develo~ment in the USSR,J, Moscow~ 197?; M.~B. Tatimov~ "Razvitiye naro-
donaseleniya i ~lemograficheskaya politika" ~Population Developn�ent and De-
mogra.phic Policy~ ALna-Ata~ 1978�
12. A. Coale~ B. Anderson~ E. Hsrm, Op. cit., p 19.
13. R. Le~wis, R. Roxland~ Op. cit.~ p 407. .
14. "XXV s"ye~d Kommunisticheskoy partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. Stenogr. otchet"
~'25th C~U Congresss A 5tenographic Repor~~ vol 2~ Moscow~ 1976~ p 20.
15. R. Lewis~ R. Roxlarxi~ Op. cit.~ p~07.
16. I. Lewis~ R. Rowland~ R. Clem~ Op. cit., p 134.
17. R. Lewis~ R. Rowland~ Op. cit.~ p 159~
18. Tbid., p 173.
19. Ibid.~ p 19. .
20. Ibid., p 10~. ~
21. ibid.~ p 199. ~
22. Ibld.
' 2~. 3eei T. Len+ia~ R. RoNla,nd~ R. Cleu?, Op. cit. ~ pp 94~ 346.
24. Ibid., p 17J.
25. R. LeWie~ R. RoWland, Op. ait.~ p 346.
26. On the progreua of research ees~ Yu. V. Arutyur~yan~ "Social and Cultural As-
pecte of ths Devalopment and Drawing Closer Together of the Nations of the
US3R," SOV~T9KAYA ETNOGRAFIYA~ 1972~ No 3.
27. See~ VOPROSY I9TORIYA, i979~ xo 11~ p 15.
COPYRIGHTe I~Aatel'stvo Nauka~ ISTORIYA SSSR~� 1981
2384
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i
EDUCATION
UDC 406.2
t]SE OF RUSSIAN IN INTERDIATTONAL COMMiJNICATION ANALYZED
Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII DiAUK SSSR in Russian No 3, Mar 81 pp 97-101
[Article by Doctor of Philoloqical Sciences V. V. Ivanov: "Russian Language as a
Means of International Com�nuni~cation. Important Aspects and Problems"~
[Text] 7.'he experience of histoity shows that no multinational state can do without
a sinq?.e communication resource common to all of its peoples, sirice otherwise it
cannot perform its functions, it cannot develop normally, and it cannot protect the
interests of its citizens. In our country, being the most widespread and developed
language, Russian was voluntarily ehosen by all nationalities as the common resource
af international:communication.
. "We want a voluntary union of nations," wrote V. I. Lenin, "a union which would not
permit any violence of one nation upon ano~her--a union which would be based on the
full.est possible trust, on a clear awareness of fraternal unity, and on fully
voluntary consent."*. These premises of Lenin's nationalities policy were laid at
the basis of our country's linguistic development, at the basis of practical develop-
ment of national languages and cultures.
~ The Soviet Union is a multinational and multilingual state. All of its peoples
hav~e close economic and cultural ties with one another. They engage in daily exchange
of experience, and they share the knowledge they have accumulated in production,
~ngineering, and culture, without which social progress would be impossible. In terms
of the orqanization of the economic life of the Soviet republics arid their close
union, Rusaian ie a means of communication between groups of people speaking different
languages, facilitating mutual understanding, acceleratinq exchange of information,
and thus promoting iatroduction of all innovations and progressive ideas into social
labor. A tremendoue volume of scientific-technical literature published in all
' countries of the world is available in Russian. Scientific-technical and other in-
formation is translated into Rueeian from all national languages, thus making such in-
formation available to all peoples of the USSR. A knowledge of Russian, its fluent
use in production, auzd its active use in professional training and in communion with
special literature in all ~reae of knowledge are now becoming prerequisites of high-
quelity personnel training. As a rule, owinq to fluency in Russian, all Soviet people
* I,enin, V. I., "Poln. sobr. soch." [Complete Collected Works], Vol 40, p 43.
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1'Vl\ UL'l LVLCIL I~JLJ ~/l\LL . .
can now claim access to the world achievements of soience and technology, and to the
great works of world culture. 'I'his is why it is now true that "a knowledge of Russian
is an inseparable aspect of the training of the complete engineer and physician,
pedagog and agronomist, and all specialists in industrial and agricultural production,
in science, in public health, and in culture."*
Russian is the language of Lenin, the language of progressive democratic thought,
and the successes of socialist development, the victory of the Soviet people in the
Great Patriotic War, and the conquest of outer space are associated with it.
Russian is the language of Push}cin, Turgenev, Nekrasov, Tolstoy, Gor'kiy,
Mayakovskiy, anc3 many other great artists whose creations have enriched the treasure-
houae of world literature. A reader of any nationality in our country can acquaint
him~elf with the woxks of the bast foreign writere translated into Russian; at the
same time, tranc~lations into Ru~sian promote a broad awareness of.the remarkable
worka of the national literatures of the peoplea of the USSR, both here and abroad.
Yn addition to functionfng jointly with national languages, Russian favorably affects
- their developm~nt, it reinft>rce~ their soci.al importance, and it promotes their im-
provement. Under its influence the lexical and phraseological ftulds and stylistic
resources of the national lanquages are enriched, their gramm:~ti~~ structure is im-
proved, and a necessary amount.of differentiation of functiona~ styles and certain
changes in the phonetic system of languages occur. The creativity of writers pro-
ducing works in both Ruesian and their native language plays a major role in the en-
richraent of the national languagzs.
In the course of paralle~ us~:ge,..btussian experiences the reciprocal influence of
~ national languages. This is especially obvious in nocabulary--the most pervious
area of language. As a result of active interaction between Russian and national
languages, these languages form a common lexical-phraseological fund, which serves
as an indicator of their converqence and mutual enrichment. But formation of comnon
traits in languages is not limited to just creation of a com�non lexical-phraseological
fund. It affeots phenomena at different linguietic levela, ones having different
effect~ upon differt~nt levels of linguietic structure. Thus a harmonious combination
of intarnational a~nd national features is establiahed in the development of Russian
and other languaqes in our country.
Improvement of Soviet society's social structure and formation of a historically new
community of people-,the Soviet people--are making it increasingly more important
to study Russian as a means of international con�nunication, and to improve its
instruction in the schools and VUZ's of the national republics.
A number of new taska have recently arisen before Soviet linguists in this area.
_ Most important is the need for deternuning the social functions of Russian and
nat9.ona1 languages, of studying the social spheres of their function. In turn, this
ta~k has made it necessary to provide a careful, comprehensive linguistic description
* Rasridov, Sh. R., "R~ssian--a Languaqe of Mutual Co~nunication and Cooperation
Among Al1 Nations ~d Nmtionalities of the 3oviet L7nion," in "Russkiy yazyk--
yazyk mezhnat~ional'nogo obshcheniya narodov SSSR" [Russian--the Language of Inter-
national Communication Among Peoples of the USSRj, Nbscow, 1976, p 23.
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of the most important areas of use of Russian in every union and autonomous republic
and in every autOnomous oblast, with the goal of developing, in the end, practical
recommendations aimed at reinforcing the social functions of Russian in different
spheres, and at broadening the spheres of its application.
- Investigation of the way Russian and national languages interact in the course of
their parallel function is acquiring special significance. Within zhe framework of
the problem of interest to us, such an investigation presupposes, first of all,
analysis and description of the concrete ways national languages influence the
vocabulary and phraseology of Russian.literary language, the'way they enrich its
vocabulary, and the way such interaction leads to development of a common lexical-
phraseoloqical fund on one hand, and the way a national language influences the
Russian speech of non-Russians (the interference it creates) in ~cernis of phonetics
and phonology, word-building and.morphology, and syntax and style on the other.
We should note that the way native languages cause interference in word-building,
syntax, and style can be revealed most distinctly in texts~written in Russian, while
the way native languages influence phonetics and phonology reflects itself mainly
in pronunciation. Were we to examine the principal avenues through which national
languages influence the Russian.speech of non-Russians, and were we to account for
- the most itaportant results of such in~lueACe, we would be able to create a dependable
linguistic basis for teaching Russian to representatives of non-Ru~sian nationalities.
- Investigation of the quality of Russian speech within the framework of national-
Russian bilingualism can lead to solution of a number of theoretical and practical
problems. In order that Russian could optimally perform its mission as a means of
international communication, we would need to constantly raise the quality of
Russian speech in all republics. The problem of upgrading the quality of Russian
, speech ian a multinational state thus acquires univexsal significance, becoming the
most important factor of all of our country's cuitural development.
Ruasian-r~ational and national-Russian dictionari~s a~nd phrase-books of various types
and purposos m~y play a great role in this effort. The lexicographic aspect of
the problem of studying Russian as a means of international comnunication presupposes
that we gen~ralize the experience of bilingual (Russian-national and national-Russian)
lexicoqraphy in the republic, and that we continue to systematically search for the
ways and possibilities of improvinq the principles of compiling,.selecting, and
preaenting linguistic material in bilingual dictionaries. We also need to continue
our comparmtive-typological investigations of Russian and national languages, since
this would have a direct bearing on creating an optimum system for teaching Russian
to non-Ruasians, and on developing the scientific principles behind the methods of
teaching Russian in an environment characterized by national-Russian bilingualism.
When we write Russian language textbooks for national schools and WZ's, we must do
so with regard to the specific difficulties representatives of different nationali-
ties may have in assimilating Russian. By comparing the Russian and native language
systems, we can penetrate to the roots of these difficulties. Comparative-typologi-
- cal investigations, which reveal the ganeral and specific characteristics of
languages being investigated, thus serve as a linguistic foundation for creating
Rusaian language textbooks for national schools and WZ's.
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As we can see, all of the directions of research listed above have practical signi-
ficance. The main aim of this effort is to provide practical assistance to the
national school, to the W2's, and to all people of the union and autonomous
republics in their assi.milation of Russian. But this help would be effective only
in the event that the study aids, dictionaries, and phrase-book~ (that is, all
Russian language training literature) are written on the basis of data acquired from
an examination of a concrete linguistic situation, and in the event that the specific.
features of Russian and different national languag~s are systematically and strictly
accounted for; in other words a good linguistic foundation must be laid beneath all
study aids and dictionaries. This is why development of theory, which is a generali-
zation of practical experience, is becoming an object of special concern on the part
of Soviet linguists working on the multifaeetEd problem of studying Russian languaqe
as a means of international communication.
It cannot be said that serious attention had not been devoted to this problem pre-
viously. On the contrary, in the years of Sovist rule domestic linguists have done
- very much to reveal the role of Russian in the life of the peoples of our country,
and its interaction with national languages. Comparative grammars of Russian and
national languages, nutwerous.bilingual (Russian-national and national-Russian)
dictionaries of various types, textbooks, study aids, references, and so on have
been created for students of Russian in the national republics. We can see today,
however, that what has been done is not enough.
The principal shortcoming in the study of Russian language as a means of inter-
national communication continues to be the fact that the great deal of effort which
has been exerted in this direction by various scientific institutions and institu-
tions of higher education has not proceeded within the framework of any sort of
general proqram, and it has not been coordinated in any way whatsoever. The
Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences has now ordered the USSR Academy of �
Sciences Institute of Russian Language to compile such a program and coordinate
research in this area. A special sector has been created at this institute to deal
with this problem. Help would also be provided in this direction by the socio-
linguistica sector of the Linguistics Institute and the USSR Academy of Sciences
5cientific Council on the Complex Problem "Laws Governing Development of National
Languagea in Connection With Development of Socialist Nations".
Back at the beginning of 1977 the Council for Coordination of the Scientific Activi-
ties of the Academies of Sciences of the Union Republics recommended that all of the
linguistic instituti.ons of the republic academies organize Russian language sectors
(divisions, groups) or coordination councils, which are now working in close contact
with the USSR Academy of Sciences Institute of Russian Language and with other
scientific institutions in the country dealing with the problems of learning and
teaching itussian language.
Today the USSR Academy of Sciences Institute of Russian Language is conducting an
extensive research program on the problem "Russian Language as a Means of Inter-
national Communication", intended as a long-term effort, and called upon to help us
correctly organize the work of all appropriate scientific subdivisions of the
US5R Academy of Sciences, its branches, and the republic academies. The program
consists of the following sections: problems associated with the function of
Russian languatge in an environment of national-Rusaian bilingualism, interaction of
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of Russian language with the languaqes of the peoples of the USSR, problems associ-
ated with the quality of Russian speech in an environment of national-Russian bi-
lingualism, the linguistic problems of studying the language of bilingual writers,
Russian-national and national-Russian lexicography, and comparative-typological
analysis of Russian and national languages. Every section of the program contains,
first of all, a brief descrigtion of the status of research on a particular important
aspect of the problem, and of the paths of further scientific inquiry; second, each
section contains a tentative list of the basic problems that must be studied; third,
each section contains a list of the most important projects in this area of sc~.ence.
- The choice of important research directions and the sequence of inspection of
specific problems mu~t be determined in each republic depending on the concrete
conditions, on the status of research on ~he problems, on the scientific potential
of the institute (sector, division, group, coordinating council), and on other
local factors. If we are to correctly plan the scientific work of such sectors
(divisions, groups, councils), it would be important to reveal what has been done
in the republic on the given problem, so that we might determine the status of
research on the problem, and determine the aspects of this work that are most signi-
ficant in theoretical and practical~respects. Z'he most important task of the Russian
language sectors (divisions, groups, councils) of the union and republic academies
of sciences and branches of the USSR Academy of Sciences is to introduce the achieve-
ments of modern Russian philology into the practical teaching of Russian to peoples
of different nationalities. 7."his means that every subdivision must structure its
work in close contact with the appropriate institutions of the USSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences and the republic's institutions of higher education.
Recall that the USSR Academy of Sciences Institute of Russian Language and the
linguistic institutions of the republic academies of sciences possess plans for the
scientific organizational and scientific research efforts of their Russian lanquage
sectors (divieions, groups) and for their Russian language coordinating council for
1981-1985, and that these plans were used as the basis for creating a summary five-
year plan for the entire Soviet t7ni.on, one foreseeing completion of the most important
tasks associated with the study of Russian as a means of international co~nunication.
This plan foresees practical activities aimed at improving the teaching of Russian
language in national schools and WZ's, at creating textbooks, dictionaries, and
various reference aids tailored to philological instructors of national republi~s,
- and at broadly publicizing knowledge of the Russian language.
We would hope that greater attention of our country's academic institutions to the
study ot Russian language, development of their ties with institutes of the Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences and the higher educational institutions of the national
republics training specialists in Russian philology, and close contact among
linguists, pedagogs, and methodoloqical experts in this effort would be a real
stimulus for improving the study and instruction of Russian in national schools and
W2's.
COPYRIGfiT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR", 1981
11004
CSO: 1828/98-A END
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