JPRS ID: 9410 TRANSLATION MANUAL ON LABOR HYGIENE BY B.D. KARPOVA AND V.Y. KOVSHILO

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• Collection: JPRS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00850R000300050030-0
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• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 57
• Document Creation Date: November 1, 2016
• Sequence Number: 30
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JPRS L/9410
_ 25 November 1~980 -
Translatior~
� MANUAL ON LP.BOR HYG I ENE
Ed, by
B.D. Karpova and V.Ye. Kovshilo
_
F~IS FOREIGN ~ROADCAST INFORMATIOIV SERVICE
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NOTE
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~
Unfamiliar names rendered phonetically or transliterated are
- enclosed in parentheses. Words or names preceded by a ques-
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- Other unattributed parenthetical notes within the body of an
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COPYRIGHT LAWS AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING OW~TERSHIP OF
MATERIALS REPRODUCED HEREIN REC~UIRE THAT DISSEMINATION
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- ,TP RS L/ 9 410
25 Navember 1980
MANUAL ON LABOR HYGIENE
Moscow SPRAVOCHNIK PO GIGIYENE TRUDA in Russian 1979 signed to press
19 Apr 79 pp 2, 42-72, 114-118, 445-446
[Annotation, table of contents, chapters on Electrom~gnetic Fields, -
Ionizing Radiatioa an3 Radioactive Substances, and Lasers from the
book edited by B.D. Karpova, V.Ye K4vshilo, Izdatel'st~ro "I~Ieditsina",
3Q,000 copies, 4~7 pages, UDC 613.6(035)]
_ CONTENTS
Annotation 1 "
Table of Contents (Original Russian Manual) 2
Electromagnetic Fields
- (T. V. Kalyada) 4
Ionizing Radiation and Radioactive Substances
(V. P. Gerasimova) 35
Lasers
(I. N. Ushkova) 47 =
_
a
- a - [I - USSR - ~C FOUO]
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- ANNOTATION
[Text] Tn~s manual illuminates the pressing problems of labor hygiene and
industrial sanitation rather fully on a modern scientific level. It
presents the hygienic characteristics of the principal harmful production
factors, and information on their biological action upon the body
(oc 2Dy ~
- where D is the greatest geometric aperture of the emitting antenna and
_ a is emission wavelength. For practical purposes, meanwhile, where v 3 R,
the boundary of the far zone may be significantly closer, down to several ~
orders of magnitude of D, since the induction field attenuates rapidly
with distance. When the rad.iation source consists of long slits, louvers,
or openings in a screen, the formed field is fox practical purposes several
D ~.ng (in these cases D is the length of the radiating slit).
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Inasmuch as electric and magnetic fields of different intensities exist
withi.n the induction ~ ~e, the intensity of low (I~�) , high (HF) , and
ultrahigh (UHF) ra3iatior. received by workers is evaluated separately, using
different intensities for the electric and magnetic components of the field.
, The intensity of the electric field is measured in volts per meter (v/m),
while the intensity of the magnetic field is measured in amperes per meter
(a/m) -
In the wave zone, which is the one that for gractical purposes affects
persons working with superhigh frequency (SHF) apparatus, field intensity is _
determined from the power flux density--that is, the quantity of energy
falling upon a unit of surface area. In this case the power flux density
(PFD) is expressed in watts per square meter, or in fractions of watts:
milliwatts and microwatts per square centimeter (w/m2, mw/cm2, uw/cm2).
Tn hygienic practice, we most often express PFD in mw/cm2 or uw/cm2.
PFD, E, and H are associa,ted together in the wave zone by the relationships:
P c- is � t~=
[ c+,=, - - tsQ -
rG~~~=86�~~P ~~w . � .
I _
~ ` a,ta
U I_~~ 1' 0~''3 i/ P cv= '
L I
where P is power flux density, E is electric field intensity, and H is
magneti c field intensity; the dimensions of the appropriate parameters are _
shown in brackets. _
Tl:e PFD may also be determined at different distances from the source, _
- when we know the emitted power : -
. ~ .
P - 4nRz '
where W is emitted power.
When di rected radiation is involved, this value sho4ld be multiplied by
the antenna gain, which depends on the emitter's parameters.
A complex pattern of direct and reflected waves arises in production
buildings containing metallic equipment, and in shielded enclosed spaces.
In such cases we may observe formation of standing waves and irradiation
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. _
conditlons similar to those found in the induction zone. Therefore
power flux density (PFD) per unit surface would not adequately describe the ~
- intensity of irradiation. In order to arrive at a more accurate description
of irradiation intensity, we use the density ot electromagnetic energy
(the quantity of field energy per unit volume), expressed in e�rgs per `
cubic centimeter !ergs/cm3). In the wave zone, this value is associated
with the field's E and H values or the PFD (P) by the relationship:
ll' = ll%E-}- ll~y
10" f
~ 8 V
1DE[~a~, 72 ~ ~nt ' .
A
tt'tf - � 10 � � N2 [ ri '
c~i
~rt+F '
_ lV [ c~~~ 3'3 � 10 ' p[ ~`+z
- ~rhere W is the density of electromagnetic energy in a unit of volume.
We can use the energy density ~f an electromagnetic field to determine the
degree of irradiation by a field of any configuration: in the induction
~one, in the wave zone, and complex fields resulting from simultaneous
operation of several sources genera~ing in the same band or at different _
_ frequencies.
Electromagnetic oscillations created by high frequency oscillators may be -
harmonic, where E ar_d H vary according to a sine or cosine law, or
modulated, where the amplitude, frequency, or phase variesaccord ing to a
certain law. Pulse modulatxon pertains to complexly modulated os cillations.
When oscillators operate in pulsed mode, electromagnetic pulses of a certain =
length follow one another periodically, and they are separated from one -
another by intervals of a given duration. The power of energy contained
in a pulse is significantly higher than the mean radiation power, and the
association between these values is expressed by the relationship:
. p �n
: ~p - _
I'~�j'
- where P~ is energy density per pulse, Pm is mean power, F is the p::lse
" repetition frequency (expressed in Hz or pulses/sec), and T is pulse
duration, sec.
Electromagnetic waves are typified by polarization. If the three-
di-~nsional orientation of the E and H vectors remains constant while the _
fie~d moves, we are dealing with linear polarization; if the waves vary
according to a certain law, then we are dealing with e].liptical and
= circular polarization.
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If we are to make a hygienic assessment of the radia~ion cenditions
_ experienced by workers, in addition to the physical parameters of the
electromagnetic field we would need tu know the nature of irradiation. The ~
field's action may be constant or internlittent. Both periodicity and =
aperiadicity of irradiation, varying in intensity and exposure time, are _
typical of the la~ter. Concurrent physical and chemical factors of the _
production environment, produced both by the work of generator systems and
by production processes making use of electror.?agnetic energy, have
important hygienic significance.
Electromagnetic Field Sources
As power engineering and electrification undergo development, various
electric devices working on high and superhigh voltage alternating
current and intended for long-distance transmission and distribution of
energy enjoy increasingly broader applicatioa. Electric power transmission
_ lines carrying voltages of 100, 220, 330, 500, and 750 kv, outdoor
: distribution systems contain~d within switching apparatus, protective
devices, automatic systems, measuring instruments, collecting and connecting
bus bars, and auxiliary devi.ces are sources of industrial frequency electric
fields (IFEF). Thz size of the bia~ current and electric field passing
ttirough an individual present in an electric field while working on high-
voltage substations and aerial transmission lines varies within broaa
limits, from 2 to 45 w/m and f~zxn 6 to 570 Ua, and it depends on the nature of
the ~mission source and the voltage. The greatest electric fields and
current leakage are found with 500 and 750 kv power transmission lines and
outdoor 3istribution systems. Minimum electric field intensities are found
in enclosed spaces on the territory of an outdoor distribution system.
Repairs are made on circuit breaker drives anc switches, single circuits _
are tested, and other such jobs are performed directly on the equipment of -
outdoor distribution systems in places characterized by high electric field
- intensity. The time of exposure to electric fields of ~~`ferent intensities
v depends on the jobs being done, and it varies from several minutes to
several hours in a work shift.
Induction Heating
Low frequency electromagnetic energy (1-12 kHz) is broadly employed in
industry to harden, melt, and heat metal. Induction coils and certain
_ parts of the feeder lines of machinery producing power of up to 500 kw do
not possess shielding devices, and they serve as sources of electromagnetic
energy. When metal is subjected to heat treatment, the intensity of the
magnetic field produced is 500-750 a/m; steel smelters and furnace _
operators are subjected to the combined action of magnetic fields, noise
with an intensity of 80-90 db, and radiant energy of up to 3-4 cal/cm2�min.
The use of the energy of a pulsed low frequency electromagnetic field for _
stamping, pressing, for the joining of various materials, for casting,
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rva vrrt~lrw uaa V~VLI
for directe3 change~ in metal structure, and for other production
processes is accompanied by for.nation of equal-frequency Electromagnetic _
- fields.
_ When w~ operate magnetopulse devices (MIU-6, MIU- 20, etc.) and Iskr~
hydroelectric devices, although the variations in the design of the power -
' production and suppcrt systems is insignificant, the intensitie~ of the .
= magnetic component of the field experienced at the control console vary -
from 2 to 600 a/m for MIU devices and from 58 to 565 a/m for EGU
[hydroelectric] devices. Field intensity at operator working places near `
the eqLipment varies from 20 to 3500 a/m (MIU) and from 170 to 2850 a/m
(FGU) .
- The highest magnetic field intensities are recorded near an MIU-20
inductor when crushing parts located within the indu^tor, In a metal
, "dispensing" opezation the intensity of the magnetic field is not great
(20-560 a/m), since the radiation source--the induc~or--is within the
semifinished product, which serves as a shield.
The intensity of a pulsed electric field experiencea by people working with -
an MIU and an EGU is insignificant, since these devices possess ele,:tric .
shielding.
Tube-type oscillators are sources of high and ultrahigh frequency energy.
Oscillators used for industrial heating of inetals ana dielectric materials
- do not differ in principle from those of radio transi~.ltting devices. Tube-
type oscillators used in high frequency heating are usually single-circuit
or double-c~_rcuit oscillators. In a single-circuit system, the oscillating
circuit consists of the capacitance of a capacitor and an inductance coil
!which is simultaneously the primary winding of a high frequency trans-
former). The inductor (the second one) serves as the secondary winding of
tne transformer, to the leads of which tl:e working inductcr are connected.
In double-circuit systems, one circuit is connected to the anode circuit
of the oscillator tube (the anode circuit), and the second is connected
by induction to the first (the load circuit). The working element used in
induction heating is a malting or heating circuit (the inductor), while
with dielectric lieating the working elemer.t consists of the capacitor
plates. Induction heating is used for high frequency melting of inetal and
for heat treatment cf semifinished parts, articles, electronic instrument
comranents, and metallic articles. An inductor' s ENIF' [electromagnetic
field] energy is used to excite substances into a plasma state. The power
produced by such devices varies, and the frequency band has limits from
60 kHz to 20 Nffiz. The working elements of high frequency devices may serve
as electromagnetic wave emission sources in a production building: melting ~
or heating inductors, bus bars carrying HF energy, HF transformers, and -
_ various oscillator components in high frequency circuits (the inductance
c--1s of oscillating circuits, feedback coils, capacitor batteries, anode _
cr:~~:ce coils, tube anodes, some measuring instruments.
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C~ ~-42, GLZ-61A, GZ-46, and GL devices may possess an ineffectively
shielded oscillator box or oscillator. circuit containing capacitor
batteries. The intensity of radiation experienced by persons working with .
such devices may vary from hundreds to thousands of v/m, and up to
hundreds of a/m. LGZ-100, LGPZ-30, LCr68, and GZ-46 devices, which are
- used for meltiiig, hardenzng, and heating metal, can also possess unshielded
parts: a matching HF transfo~er, and capacitor batteries contained in
- the oscillating circuit. LZ-107 and LZ-207 devices, which operate at the
frequencies of 60-70 kHz, do not have s'aielding around the main working
element and the matching transformer. The intenszties of the electric and =
magnetic fields near the emitting element may be within several tens of
v/m and units of a/m.
~ LCr-3-100-53, LPZ-100, LGZ-200, I,GZ-10, LPZ-10A, LG-7, LG-3, LZ-37, LP-67
and other such devices have only the working element exposed, taking the
form of various configurations of inductors. The intensity of radiation
- experienced by persons working with these devices does not exceed several _
- dozen v/m and a/m (at distances not greater than 0.5 m from the radiation -
sources). Inasnuch as metal cabinets (shields around HE' devices) r:ave
louvers, peepholes, openings for attachment of ineasuring instruments,
and holes ~at aegrade the shielding properties, emissions from an
oscillator cabinet may exceed the maximum permissible level in relation to
the electric and magnetic components.
High EMF intensities are created by components of high frequency systems -
_ used in electronic tube industry to heat tube anodes and cathodes during
evacuation. If the inductors cara be moved outside the oscillator cabinet, .
the length of the line transmitting high frequency ~neray increases.
Such components are not shielded as a rule. Batteries of air capacitors
in the oscillator cabinet may also not be shielded. Field intensities at
workplaces may vary from units to 250 v/m for the electric field and up
to 50 a/m for the maynetic field. When electronic tubes are aged, _
- roentgen radiation of moderate strength, representing one-third to one-
fifth of the maximum permissible physical dose for a 6-hour workday, may
arise after degassing at high voltage. ~
Electromagnetic energy may be radiated by an unshielded working element
: when exciting a substance in the magnetic field of an inductor into its
- plasma state, and tY.e aznount of energy depends on the degree of shielding
and the power genE rated.
The nature of the field's spread through a production building is affected
by the shielding within the building and the locations of inetallic objects,
~ metallic semifinished articles, and the electric circuits within it. High
frequency rurrents induced within them by the external field makes them
sources of secondary emissions, which may superimpose themselves over
the field excitecl k~y the principal emitter. Liberated heat may have an
influence on the temperature conditions of the building when HF energy is
used for industrial heaL ~reatment. Unsensible shielding of the entire
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~
ruc~ vrrtl,ttu. UJa Vtvt~i
building would sharply worsen the meteorological conditions. When the
production processes indicated here are involved, we may witness the com-
bined action ~f factors of the production environment such as EN~" s,
roentgen and infrared emissions of low intensity, and high air temperature.
Dielectric Heating
Devices operating in a frequency range from 3 to 150 MHz and in a power
range from 1 to 30 kw are used for dielectric heating (drying of moist
materials, gltting of wood, heating, ~relding, thermal stabilization, and
melting of thermoreactive materials, including plastics). Working
elements (capacitors) of GS-48, GS-46, and GLE-61A devices used to dry
moist materials, wood, and yar.n are mounted within metallic shielding
chambers outside the buildirig in which the oscillator is located. The
intensity of the electric component of the field near the peepholes of
drying chambers may be witnin dozens of v/m, while the magnetic component
may be insignificant (0.5 a/m). Intense radiation (more than 100 v/m)
would be detected in the building in which the oscillator is located
(when bus bars, batteries of oscillating circuit capacitors, and inductance
coils are not shielded). Devices used for heat treatment of thermoreactive
materials, such as the UKV-3, DKV-2, LGS-0.2, LGYe-1, LGYe-3B, LGS-1.5,
LGD-LD-1--4, etc., operate in a 1 0-40 MHz range, the oscillation power being
from 80 w to 3 icw. UHF devices have working electrodes taking the form
of flat or shaped capacitors or rollers. E~nission sources may include
unshielded working electrodes, feeder lines (when the oscillator is mis-
mat~hed), tunable capacitors, ~:~d shielding irregularities (openings,
slits in the oscillator housing, and in the welding press).
Electric field intensities of significant values (up to 150 v/m) are
detected at the workplaces of operators performing spot welding with
DKV-2 devices located in shielded cabinets.
_ Electric fields with an intensity up to 100 v/m are created up to 0,3 m
from the radiation source when using devices such as the MST-3, which welds
plastic articles with roller capacitors. Devices such as the LGYe-3B,
- used to glue woo@en articles together, create an EMF due to ineffectively
- shielded capacitor plates and feeder lines. The intensity of the electric
- field at operator workplaces may attain 30 v/m. Oscillators built in
recent years are fully shielde~, and their emissions total units of v/m.
When ventilation in ,production buildings containing dielectric heating
devices is ineffective, we may exceed the maximum permissible concentration
of hydrocarbons when welding plastic materials, and of phenol and
_ formaldehyde when molding and pelletizing plastics with presses employing
HF devices as heaters; the maximum permissible limits for air
temperature may be exceeded as well.
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Testii,g Tube-Type UHF Instruments
When we manufacture tube-type instruments, we must check the characteris-
tics of the electronic tubes, testing them in different modes. Radiation =
_ sources in the dynamic testing circuits may include: the self-oscillator,
operating as a self-oscillati.ng tube (of the sort used in a GU-33B, GU-34B,
GU-15), the powez amplifier (the tube being tested), the anode circuit, and
the load. The intensity of emissions depends on the output power of the
device and the s'~ielding afforded t~ individual HF components. Field
_ intensity is up to 10 v/m at the workplace (assiuning general irradiation)
and 10-60 v/m ~ocally (around the hands). _
Designing and Experimentally Operating Radio Transmitting Devices
When we design and experimentally operate radio transm~i.tting devices
(when we test models of iJI~' transmitters and their blocks, when we conduct
experiments), we form electromagnetic fields. When tests are performed
on an exposed circuit, the field intensity at the workplaces may attain
200 v/m. When transmi~ter models are adjusted and tuned, radiation may
be produced through slits and gaps in the oscillator housing, and by wires _
leading into and out of the transmitter (carrying UHE' energy); radiation
may also be produced owing to absence of blocking capacitors or choke coils,
and due to unshielded feeder lines. The hands of the workers are exposed
- to the greatest amount of radiation (150-200 v/m). When general irradiation
is involved, the field intensity varies from units to several tens of
v/m. The processing and testing of blocks, cascades, and circuits in HF
(longwave, medium-wave, shortwave) radio apparatus in a design office and
in scientific research institutes is typified by high variability in
radiat3on intensity. The intensity of the field produced depends on the
degree to which the HF components are shielded, the types of transmitters
~ and antennas employed, the extent to which the power transmission lines are _
matched, and the work of the tra.^s~itter at equivalent power. From a
hygienic point of view the latter is the most favorable variant. The
working conditions are significantly worse when transmitters are outfitted
with asymmetrical antennas. In the former case the field intensit~ varies
� from units to 65 v/m, while in the second it varies f~nm 35 to 600 v/m. ~en
several transmitters are tested si.mLltaneously, the field inLensity rise5
' significantly (due to su~ation of power).
Operation of Transmitters at Radio and Television Transmitting Centers
Up to 20 tz~ansmitters operating in different bands and power ranges may be -
installed in the generator buildings of radio and television transmitting -
centers. Ineffectively shielded high frequency components in transmitter
blocks (power summation systems, separation filters, etc.) and unshielded `
feeder lines and switching devices are the principal sources of electro-
- magnetic energy. Antenna systems are also a source of EMF's, buth within
" the territory of the antenna field and possibly in production buildings.
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rv~~ vrri~,iew u~a: V1~L1
The intensities of EMF's produced by operating HF transmitters vary from
5 to 250 v/m. In portions of the antenna field in which personnel may
be adjusting and repairing antenna-feeder devices, the intensities of
the HF field may be from 60 to 200 v/m.
UHF electromagnetic field levels present in the instrument rooms of
- television centers depend on the type of transmitting devices. Older radio-
- television centers create EMF's with intensities from 6 to 150 v/m in
production buildings, while modern transmitters produce from units to
~ 12 v/m. The intensity of the magnetic field is found to be from 0.2 to
_ 2.0 a/m. EN1E" s within the antenna field vary from 2.0 to 9.5 v/m, while on
- the television antenna tower the EMF will vary from 9 to 450 v/m at
different elevations above the ground.
. Transmitters (HF and UHF) contained in radio transmitting centers (marine,
fishing, river fleet) create electromagnetic f~elds varying in intensity
from tens to several hundreds of v/m. When several transmitters operate
- simultaneously, the intensity of the field rises significantly.
The intensity of magnetic fields produced in the buildings of civil air
fleet radio transmitting centzrs (when shortwave and ultrashort-wave
transmitters are operating) varies within rather broad limits (from units
t~ several hundreds of v/m). The greatest intensities are detected by
feeder lines (when they are used in ring arrangement), and when they are
inadequately matched and asymmetrical. Meteorological conditions are not
always favor.able at workplaces; higher air temperature and low relative
humidity are detected. Acoustic pressure in the medium frequency band
- may attain 90 db. Shipboard radio sets make extensive use of shortwave
and medium-wave transmitters located in a radio compartment. These trans-
mitters create electromagnetic fields varying in intensity from several
tens to 1,500 v/m. Shielding of the radio compartment creates the
conditions for concentration of radio waves within a small space owing to
- their reflection from the compartment's walls. Unshielded feeder lines,
antenna switches, and switching devices serve as the sources of radiant
~ energy. The intensity of EMF's produced by operating Brig, Korvet, and
Musson sets is below or near the limit of the maximum permissible level.
When a radio set is operatin~, the deck and the superstructure are within
t'~: zone of action of electromagne,`_ic fields emitted by the antenna, and
t1:Ny serve as sources of secondary emissions (metallic structures, cables,
nonworking antennas). The nature of radiation exposure of the crew depends
on the height and location of the antenna, the radiating power and frequency
and the extent of wave reflection from metallic s~ructures. The highest
field val.ues(hundreds of v/m) are recorded on the compass platform, anr3
near stays, shafts, na~rigation instruments, metallic barriers, and pipes.
The field's magnetic component does not exceed units of a/m. On the boat
dt an electromagnetic field would 'nave an intensity of units of v/m.
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Physiotherapeutic Offices _
Physiotherapeutic offices perform diathermy and inductothermy with ~
UDL-200M, UDL-300M, DKV-1 and DKV-2 high frequency oscillators, apparatus
such as the WCh-2M, WCh-200, UVCh-4, and WCh-300 for UHF therapy, and _
Luch-58, Luch-2, Mikroterm, Volna superhigh-frequency apparatus for
microwave therapy. These devices operate in a frequency band from 1.5 to _
- 2,450 NffIz, and their output power is from 20 to 350 w. The principal -
sources of electromagnetic fields from operating hic,.i frequency apparatus
include electrodes, feeders, and emitters of various types.
- The intensity of the field near the electrodes of an operating UDL apparatus
attains 20 v/m, while around a DKV apparatus it reaches 30-80 v/m. Oper-
ating UHF apparatus produces radiation of the greatest intensity and
_ duration. The intensity of the electric field may reach hundreds ot v/m.
Persons servicing permanently installed microwave apparatus may experience
a power flux density of 300-600 uw/cm2. Persons aperating portable
apparatus experience a radiation intensity of not more than 23 uw/cm2.
The intensity of radiation to which medical personnel are exposed depends _
on a number of conditions: the power cf the apparatus, the diameter of
the electrodes and the distance between them, the method of their -
application, the shape and diameter of the microwave emitter, the method _
~ of irradiation, and the quantity of simultaneously operating apparatus.
Radio Engineering Devices (SHF Band)
Use of superhigh frequency energy in radar, radio navigation, meteorology -
and astronomy, radiospectroscopy, geodesy, and nuclear physics has led
to extensive development of an industry producing SHF oscillators.
- Personnel processing and testing the blocks and units of radar set models
in design offices and scieiztific research institutes may be exposed to
SHF radiation produced by components in exposed blocks and units, and by
ineffectively shielded radar set models. In these conditions the intensity
of irradiation varies from tens to several hundred,~ of uw/cm2. A complex
- of radar sets is tested (with antennas operating) in conditions close to
those of real operation, meaning that the PFD may attain tens of uw/cm2
at the workplaces. Personnel adjusting, tuning, and testing radar sets in -
- the final testing shops of plants and in repair shops experience highly -
variable radiation intensities. The principal sources of radiation in a -
plant shop are the antenna systems. Exposed antenna systems may create _
radiation intensities of up to 10 mw/cm2 at the workplaces. ~ntenna
system fitter-installers and bridge crane operators may find themselves in
especially unfavorable conditions when radar sets are operated with a live _
antenna. They may be subjected to radiation intensities from 500 Uw/cm2 _
to 10 mwJcm2. When the antenna rotates and scans, all shop personnel may
be subjected to microwaves. An increase in the PFD is noted when several _
radar sets are operated simultaneously.
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Unfavorable conditions typified by high irradiation (1 mw/cm2 and higher)
- by several radar sets operating simultaneously are created during the repair
of radar apparatus in workshops.
The working conditions of personnel testing radar sets in testing ranges
depend on the area of the testing range and the number of operating sets.
Operators find themselves in better cond~tions, since for the bulk of their
work time they are within buildings or inside special shielded compartments.
The intensity of radiation experienced by personnel inside buildings may be
from tens to hundreds of uw/cm . Testing ranges located on plant
territory have a relatively small area, in which several radar sets may be
located. This creates conditions for summation of the power flux densities,
meaning that the flux intensity may be higher than 500 uw/cm2.
The working conditions of personnel adjusting, texr,.ing, testing, and
inspecting individual components of units and instruments contained within
UHF apparatus in a production situation depend on the nature of the work
they are doing (testing an antenna-waveguide tract for electric strength,
testing and aging oscillator tubes and entire devices). Emission sources
may include the cathode leads of magnetrons, points of access of pistons
- used to tune oscillator grid and anode circuits, rotating junctions, wave-
guide-coaxial junctions, flange joints, transceivers, phase shifters, _
matching d~vices, antenna equivalents in the case of incomplete energy
absorption, exposed aaveguide tracts, bre~ks within them, and couplers.
When low-power ci.rcuits are tested and aged, the power flux density varies
from units to tens of uw/cm2, and it may attain 1 mw/cm2 in the presence
of operating high-power emitters.
, Donets, Don, Neptun, Okean, and Mius longe range and short range radar sets
are used for navigational. purposes aY~oard various classes of ships
(passenger, transport, fishing, technical, scientific research, and so on).
'i'hese sets operate in pulsed generation mode with a pulse power varying
- from 15 to 100 kw, and in circular scanning mode with an RpIy from 14 to 24.
Radar set generators are located either in a special compartment of the
machine room or in the chart room or wheelhouse. Antenna systems are
installed on the compass platform. Various types of antennas (slot aerials,
oarabolic antennas, etc.) serve as SHF energy sources on decks and
superstructures. The intensity of ship crew irradiation varies within
broad limits--from units to hundreds of uw/cm2, and it depends on the
reight at which the antennas are installed, their type, their emitted
_ power, the antenna gain, the architecture of the ship, and the nature of
reflection of waves from the ship's metallic structureso The highest
radiation levels exist along the axis of the main lobe of the polar diagram.
The PFD is lower by a fact-.or of 10 in the zone of the rear and side lobes,
both in the horizontal and vertical planes. The intensity of radiation
or decks and superstructures within the zone oi action of antennas depends
on ~he operating tilt angle of the radar set antenna's electric axis (its
, anyle of sight). With negative values of this angle the SHF radiation level
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graws, and as tr~a antenna angle of sight increases the iritensity of
irradiation drops. Personnel making r~pairs on and preventive inspections
of radar sets while at sea may b~. exposed to SHF energy of up to tens of
uw/cm2 when tuning and adjusting exposed blocks; at such times they are
subjected to radiation from the cathou~ leads of magnetrons, flange joints
of waveguide lines, and exposed tracts.
The ground radar equipment used by civil aviation includes various types
of radar (surveillance, landing control, air traffic control, weather).
. The antenna arrays of ground radar sets are powerful sources of micro-
wave emissions.
~ther emission sources are airplane antennas undergoing system checks.
The radiation is characterized by variability in intensity and nature.
Power flux densities vary from ~ns to thousands o~f uw/cm2, and t;iey depend
on the power of the radar devices, the height of antenna installation,
scanning height, the direction of emissions, and the distance from the
source.
Centimeter and millimeter waveband radar resources are used by the hydro- .
meteorological service to detect, observe, and determine the location of -
cloud systems and centers of thunder activity. Antennas are the main
sources of radiation to which workplaces and persons occupationally not
- involved with radar operation are subjected. The intensity of irradiation
depends on variations in the tilt ~:ngle of the axis of the main lobe, the _
height at which the antenna is installed, and the distance from the -
emission source, and it varies from tens of uw/cm2 to 1 mw/cn~2.
Accompanying unfavorable environmenta.l factors personnel tuning, adjusting, _
and repairing radar set blocks may experience could include: soft
- roentgen emissions generated by tube-type instruments carrying a high anode
voltage (up to 20 kev), higher temperature in compartments, high frequency
noise, and air ozonization. ~
The microwave band is used in radio relay communication. The apparatus of
radio relay lines includes cermet triodes, klystrons, traveling wave tubes,
and oscillating circuits taking the form of resonators or segments of short-
ciruited concentric lines, which are the principal sourcPS of SHF emissions.
- SHF energy may penetrate into buildings from reflectors and loudspeakers.
Station construction insures sufficient shielda.ng, and the intensity of .
irradiation is within permissible values (below 10 ~�w/cm2). irradiation
intensity may be 18-44 uw/cm2 in emergency repair operations.
Plasma Research Devices
SHF devices used to study plasmas and to obtain tl-,em usually create
electromagnetic fields with a PFD from 0.3 to 20 uw/cm2. Leaks in the
joints of waveguide tracts and emissions from the plasma itself may serve
as radiation sources.
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Action Upon the Body
The biological action of electromagnetic fields depends on the frequency
band, the intensity of the operating factor, the time ~f exposure, the _
' nature of radiation (continuous~ modulated), an~ the i.rradiation patt~rn
(constant, aperiodic, intermittent). _
_ A 50 Hz electric field may produce painful sensations if electric discharges
occur when the current leakage is more than 50 ua. Chronic exposure -
to a low fr~quency electric field manifests itself as both subjective
disturbances taking the form of neut�ological complaints (headache, sluggish-
ness, sleeoiness, insomnia, irritability, pains in the vicinity of the -
- heart), and fur.ctional disorders of the central nervous system, the cardio-
vascular system, and peripl:eral blood. Autonomic dysfunction proceeds as
the neurasthenic hypersthenic syndrome coupled with a vascular component--
hypertension, sinus tachycardia, and disturbed intraventricular conduction -
(EKG). The labiiity of peripheral blood indicators depends on the intensity
of the electric field and the time of action. When a high intensity ~
electric field is involved, red blood (erythrocyte, reticulocyte, hemoglobin)
indicat~rs are high, and a high percentage of neutrophils exhibiting patho-
_ l~gical graininess can be noted; the early stage may be typified by
moderate leukocytosis, followed by leukopenia.
The mechanism behind the biological action of radio frequency electro-
magnetic fields is associated with their thermal and athermal effects. The
thermal action of an electromagnetic field is typified by growth in body
temperature and local selective heating of tissues, organs, and cells -
owing to transformation of electromagnitic energy into thermal energy due
to dielectric losses in these tissues. Dielectric losses in tissues
increase as the oscillation frequency rises. The therm~l effect depends
on the radiation intensity. The threshold intensities for the thex~mal -
action of electromagnetic waves upon the animal body are typified by the -
following parameters: medium waveband--800 v/m; short--2,250 v/m; ultra-
shor*_--150 v/m; decimeter--40 mw/cm2; centimeter--10 mw/cm2; millimeter--
7 mw/cm2. Radiation intensity parame~ers below these values (and eliciting
a theYmal effect) are not neutral to the body. According to the theoiy of
molecular polarization and the ionic theory, as well as the conception of
information interaction between electromagnetic fields and living objects,
low intensity electromagnetic fields have extrathermal action. A cumulative
biological effect is typical of radio frequency electric fields of _
mu?.eiply repeating action. Experimental data also show that a disadapting
action is inherent to 5HF emissions.
High intensity radio frequency radiation may cause destructive changes in
- tissues and organs. Acute injuries may be se�~ere, moderate, and light. -
Thesc: forms are encountered extremely rarely; and they may arise in
accident situations, and when safety rules are violated. The degree to
w:,.~h the autonomic syndrome manifests itself in response to moderate
und light injuries may vary from diffuse to pronounced form. Disturbances
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in the cardiovascular system in moaerate cases may manifest themselves
immediately after irradiation as diencephalic crises and as attacks of
parax~smal tachycardia. Later, we observe changes caused by a symptom
complex typical of vascular hypotension; however, cases of hypertension
are possi~le as well. Blood system disorders boil down basically to
development of moderate neutrophilic leukocytosis. ~
Clinical researcn data permit distinction of three typical syndromes in
response to the action of radio f~equency emissions: asthenic, asthenic-
autonomic, and diencephalic. The clinical pattern of the chronic action
of radio frequency electromagnetic fields of nonthermal intensities
develops on the background of growing neurasthenic symptoms. In the early
stages of the factor's action, complaints of headache, higher tiring,
irritability, sleep disturbances, and pains in the vicinity of the heart
' are typical. An expressed asthenic-autonomic syndrome often proceeds as
a hypotonic type (hypotension, bradycardia, a highpeaked T spike).
_ In a more pronounced stage, the asthenic (neurasthenic) syndrome, and its
accompanying autonomic-vascular dysfunction, develops as the hypertonic
type, sometimes together with cerebral crises of sympathoadrenal nature.
Complaints become more intense--easy excitability, disturbed sleep, reduced
memory, seizure-like headaches, possible dizziness, passing out, gripping
pains in the vicinity of the heart, lability of pulse, hypertension, and
angiospastic reactions--constriction of arteries in tre retina. At the
moment of an attack the patient e~ibits tremor, paling or reddening of the
face, general hyperhydrosis, pronounced weakness, frequently higher body
temperature, and ~row~h in arterial pressure.
Cataracts may develop in response ~o SHF radiation, with both short-term
- irradiation aad lengthy er,posure to low PFD's.
_ Blood alteratiuns are typified by polymorphism, and for the most part we
- note lability in the number of leukocytes and, more frequently, a tendency
_ toward leukocytosis. With pronounced forms of the disease, leukopenia,
lymphopenia more rarely, monocytosis, reticulocytosis, and moderate
thrombocytopenia develop, and changes in bone marrow are possible. We note
changes in protein fractions and a higher histamine concentration, the
sugar curve undergQes alteration, aad the concentration of phosphorus,
potass~um, and scdium in the blood changes. Disturbances are possible on
- the part of the ~ndocrine~system ;thyroid hype.rfunction, stimulation of the -
hypophyseocortical system, disturbance of sex gland function). The
research done on the unique features in development of the symptoms and the
saccessiveness of. their fonnation within the bouncis of clearly distinguish-
able clinical syndromes typica)_ of chronic exposure to EMF's permit us
to consider the question of distinguishing radiowa~e disease as an
independent nosological form of occupational dis~ase.
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r~n vrrtVtt~, u~n v~vL~ -
Setting the ~-Iygienic Standards
According to the "La.bor Protection Norms and Rules Applicable to Jobs at -
400, 500, and 750 kv Alternating Current Industrial Frequency Electric _
Power Substations and Aerial Transmission Lines," approved by Order No
868-70 of th2 USSR Ministry of Public Health, 29 October 1976, exposure to
electric fields is regulated in relation to both intensity and time of
~ action. The permissible time that workers may remain within an electric
field without protective resources and the electric field intensities are
shown in Table 8.
Table 8. Permissible Time of Presence in an Electric Field Without -
Protective Resources
Total Daily
Electric Permissible Time
Para- Field of Presence of Remarks
graph Intensity an Individual
~ Number kv/m in an Electric
Field, Min
_ i.-
~ i 5 No limit "
2 10 180 The standards of paragraphs -
3 15 gp 2? 3, 4, 5 apply on the -
I condition that: a) During the
4 20 10 rest of the work day the in-
~ I S 25 5 dividual is located in places
where electric field inten~
sity is less than or equal
to 5 kv/m; b) There is no
chance that the person's
body would be exposed to -
electric discharges
When the intensity of the electric field is more than 25 kv/m at the
wor3:place and when time within the electric field is beyond the norms,
the work must be done while wearing protective resources. The intensities
of rad.io frequency electromagnetic fields at workplaces must correspond to
GOST (All-Union State ~tandard) 12.1.006-76. The maximum permissible
- intensity of a 60 kHz-300 P~ffiz EMF at workplaces and in places where ~
pez:sonnel occupationally involved with EMF's may be present must not
ex ed the following during the work day:
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Electric Component, v/m:
50--for frequencies from 60 kHz to 3 MHz; -
20--for frequenci~s from 3 MHz to 30 NIIiz;
10--for frequencies from 30 MHz to 50 Ngiz;
5--for frequencies from 50 MHz to 300 MHz; -
Magnetic Component, a/m:
- 5--f~r frequencies from 60 kHz to 1.5 MHz;
0.3--for frequencies from 30 MHz to 50 MHz.
The maximum permissible electric fieJ.d power flux densities (w/m2, uw/cmz) ~
in the 300 M.Hz to 300 GHz bands ~d the permissible ~ime of presence at wor.k- -
plac~s and in places where personnel occupationally involved with EMF's
may be present (with the exception of irradiation caused byrotating and _
scanninq ant~ennas) are presented in Table 9. Tnterpolation is not
permitte~ with ~his table.
Table 9. Maxi.mum Permissible Electromagnetic Field Power Flux Densities =
Power Flux Density Time of
w/m uW~~m Presence Remarks
up to up to Work -
0.1 100 day -
From From Not For the rest of the working time, .
' 0.1 ~0 more the power flux density must not
to 1.0 to 100 than exceed 10 uw/cm2
2 hrs -
From From Not On the condition that safety
1.0 100 more goggles are used. For the rest of ~
to to than the working time, the power flux
10.0 1000 20 min density must not exceed 10 uw/cm2
The maximum perr,~issible EMF power flux density within a frequency band from
300 MHz to 300 GHz and the time of presence at workplaces and in places of
' possible presence of personnel associated occupationally with EMF's
' produced by rotating and scanning antennas are presented in tables 9 and 10.
Interpolation is not permitted in these tables.
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Table 10. N,aximum Permissible Power Flux Densities of ENIF''s Produced
by Rotating and Scanning Antennas
Power Flux Density
Time of
Remarks i
- w/m uw/cm Presence I
- up to up to Work -
. 0 100 day i
From ~
1.0 From Not For the :~es~: of the working
100 more time, the power flux density (
10 0 to than must not exceed 100 Uw/cm2 i
1000 2 hrs ~
When roentgen radiation is present in the building or if the air temperature
is high (above 28�C), the PFD must not exceed:
_ 0.1 w/m2 (10 uw/cm2)--during the work day;
1.0 w/m2 (100 uw/cm2)--in 2 hours of the work day.
For the r~st of the working time the maximum permissible EMF power flux
. d~nsity must not exceed 0.~ w/m2 (10 uw/cm2). The d~se of roentgen
radiation experienced by personnel must not exceed ~,:h~values set by
radiation safety norms NRB-76 approved by the USSR Ministry of Public _
Health.
Measuring the Intensity of LF, HF, and iJI?F Electromagnetic Fields, and
SHF Power Flux Density ,
A PZ-1 instrument is used to measure the effective electric field intensity
- in the near zone (induction zone) within the industrial frequency band
� (50 Hz). The measuring limits for electric field intensity are from 1 to
60 kv/m. A PZ-2 instrument may be used to measure the intensities of the
- electric and magnetic components of a field produced by continuous and
pulse-modulated oscillations in the band from 200 kHz to 300 MHz. The
limitsof ineasuring effective field intensities for the electric component
of continuous and modulated oscillations are 0.5-3,000 v/m, and they are
0.06-500 a/m for the magnetic component; the corresponding figures for
pulse -modulated oscillations are 200-10,0U0 v/m and 2.0-2,500 a/m. -
T: electric and magnetic components of HF and UHF fields are also measured
by che IEI~-1 instrument, which is designed to measure effective electric
fie].d intensities from 4 to 1, 500 v/m in the 100 kHz to 30 Nffiz frequency
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_ band and from 1 to 600 v/m in the 200-300 Nffiz band, as we'l1 as magnetic
field intensities within 0.5 and 300 a/m in the frequency band from 100 _
- kHz to 1.5 I~iz in production buildings neighboring directly upon high
frequency facilities (within the induction zone) operating in continuous
emission mode.
The IEN~�-T electric amd magnetic field measuring instrument may be used ta
measure the intensity of an HF field. The sensitivity of the IEMP-T is
greater, and its weiqht and overall dimensions are lower due to substi- -
tution of tubes by semiconductors. A small number of controls makes it
easy to operate and reduces the probability that the instrument would
bzeak down due to incorrect connection. Measurements may be made in the
60-100 kHz frequency band following additional calibration of an IEMP-1
and IEMP-T.
The intensity uf the electric component of an EMF inay be measured with an
NFM-1 instrument (produced in the GDR) in the 0.06-30 MHz and 10-350 MHz
frequency bands; the measuring limits are 3-2,500 v/m and 1.5-1,250 v/m
respective ly.
- PZ-13 and PZ-9 instruments are used to measure power flux density (PFD)
in the SHF band. These instruments can make measuremer.ts in the 150-
16,700 Nffiz range. The limits of the measured power flux density are
0.02-316 mw/cm~.
_ A P2-2 SHF oscillation PFD indicator (signaling devic~) may be used to
monitor excessive S?3F radiation levels.
Radiation intensity measurements must be made not less than once a year at
workplaces in wtaich personnel regularly exposed to radiation may be located.
The measurements should be made at the maximum utilized emitted power.
Worker irradiation intensity measurements must also be made when new
devices generating electromagnetic energy are put into operation, after
repairs on them, in association with every change in the production
prucess, and in connection with changes in the design af protective
resources. Measurements of PE'D's from rotating and scanning antennas
should be meast~red at workplaces, and in places where personnel may be ~
present,with the antenna motionless,bothon the axis of the main beam and
; within the lateral lobes. Measur~ments are taken by persons specially
! trained and appointed by the enterprise administration, in the presence of
= representatives from the safety service and the trade unian organization.
, The measurements are recorded in a special log and brought to the awareness
; of the administration (GOST 12.1.006-76). Instrumental methods for
evaluatinq irradiation intensity may be supplemented by determination of
field intensity and PFD by computation. Use of computation methods is
~ especially important in prev~entive public health inspection. When new
facilities are put into operation, danger zones n?ay occupy tens and hundreds
of square kilometers, and the computer data for field intensities would serve
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.
for tentati-~e protection measures, for organization of safety zones, and _
fcr the pla~ining of the work of inspection services. Therefore public
health inspection organs must have facility with the mathematical methods
for computing EMF and PFD values, and for using computed data as the basis
of hygienic assessments to be employed in selection of the optimum
_ conditions fo~- conatruction of facilities such as radio transmit~ing
stations, television centers, retranslating stations, and various types
' of radar facilities. The following computation methods are recommended.
EMF intensities may be computed in the HF (longwave, medium-wave, short-
9 wave) band for the wave zone (radiationzone) when d~ 2L2/a, d being the
_ distance from the antenna to the measuring point, in kilometers, and L
being the maximum antenna dimensions.
- As a rule the intensity of the electric component of a field (E) is
computed using the Shuleyki,*:~ (Van-der-Pol' ) formula:
245 Y P K~ Gu ~~V
E - d � F '
nso yPW.art
d ~ r ~~-'Y-~ ,
- where E--intensity of the field's electric component; ~--transmitter power;
GQ -antenna gain; d--distance from antenna to point of ineasurement, km;
- F--attenuation factor, used to deteamine losses of electromagnetic energy
in soil. The latter is determined with the following approximation formula:
' F=1,41 ~'~"~~3x
2 r A ; O,Gr' '
where x is the so-called "numerical distance." Within the ranqe of long
and medium waves, in which the condition 60a�e' is satisfied, it is
determined with the formula:
� d lUO:td
X GOi;=a F,},Q ' .
- while in the shortwave band we use tkie formula:
:~ IU~~
TW TOlitIlNH0~1 ~5 NN (1~Cjjb ~ s�ia ~0~ G.10~ ~~~~a ~ ~(~t7
I~YO?1M111~~~ 3-I(.'~ ~�IU~ IM > 1C~> > IU~i
8~. MeTannxvccKUCCCTKn I ~1c1tb, npona:ox~a 0.1 ?+r, a.b�Il~' �1.5�I0+ 10~. I.5�10~ 1.5�!U~
~~41�~1KH IX~ tW
A1cAb, npona~oK~~{~w, 10~ 10~ 1.6� 10~ 1.5� 10~ 1,5� IG~
_ I f141'~IKN ~OX~~ ~lM f
Cran b, nposan aa 6�10~ 5�10~ 1.5�10~ 1�I0+ !'�I0~
_ ' 0.! r�:~"xi; ;X1 w~l
I CT~ 7b, (1PODOJIOKS ~ N~~ I 2� ~D~ I 5� ~0~ I~� I~.5� ~0~ ~,5.
Key: A'ICfIKII IOXIU NM 12 ~ �
1. Type screen 8. Metallic mesh
- 2. Screen material 9. 0.1 mm Copper wire, 1 X 1 mm
3. Frequency, kHz mesh
4. Metallic sheets 0.5 mn thick 10. 1 mm Copper wire, 10 X10 mm
S. Steel mesh
6. Copper 11. 0.1 mm Steel, 1 xl m~ mesh
7. Altmiinum 12. 1 m�n Steel, 10 X 10 mm mesh
Shielding effectiveness grows depending on oscillation frequency, and it
- hardly changes with a continuous mesh screen. Sufficiently high shielding
_ effectiveness is attained by eliminating the possibilities of energy
radiation through gaps, slots, and holes in the screen (peepholes, louvers,
and so on). Thus when we design screens we should mandatorily imFose
the requirement that electric contact be continuous along the perime~ters
of all interconnecting parts of the metallic housing. The general
requirements on screens for high frequency devices, reco~anendations on
- shielding improvement, and the technical concepts used in the design of
screens for individual units (inductors, working capacitors, feeder lines,
29 ~
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and sc on), blocks, and entire devices may be found in special documents.*
The distribution of electromagnetic field intensities in buildings cantaining _
HF and UHF oscillators may be complex due to secondary emissions, which may
also arise in neighboring buiJ.dings. Conductors of the lighting and
telephone circuits may in this case serve as radio frequency energy
con.ductors. In order to block propagation of radio frequency energy by
the lighting, power, and telephone circuits and in places where leads
emerge from HF device screens, we use electric filters of different designs.
~
Screens must be grounded. The grounding conductor must be as short as
- possible and have the least inductance possible; thus it would take the
form of a bus bar with a large cross section. Use of the screen as a
_ neutral conductor is not permitted, since in this case the screen itself
_ becomes a radiation source.
When designing shielding devices against SHF radiation, we must account for
- the parameters of the emitted energy and the nature of the production
process. The form, dimensions, and material of the shielding devices
depend on the emitted power, the frequency band, and presence or absence
of directive or para~itic, and continuous or pulsed emissions. The
shielding material is characterized by radiophysical principles of electro-
magnetic energy reflection or absorption. Total reflection of electro-
magnetic waves is achieved with materials having high conductivity (metals);
partial absorption is inherent to materials with poor conductivity (semi-
- conductors, dielectrics). Special materials used to manufacture resources
_ offering protection against SHF radiation are described in Table 14.
Shielding and radioabsorptive materials are intended for a broad range of -
wavelengths (for 0.8 to 200 cm) and a high percentage of attenuation.
, When directed emissions are involved, power absorbers or antenna equivalents
may be used to exclude a powerful source of radiation. These devices must
correspond to the power and frequency band of the emitting system. To
reduce the intensity of irradiation caused by directed emissions in
*"Metodika rascheta ekranov dlya rabochikh induktorov i dlya soglasuyu-
shchikh transformatorov plavil'no-zakalochnykh vysokochastotnykh ustanovok"
(Methods for Designing Screens for Working Inductors and Matching Trans-
formers of Meltfng-Heating High Frequency Devices], Leningrad, 1962; '
"Ekranirovaniye ustanovok vysokochastotnogo nagreva" [Shielding of High
Frequency Heating DevicesJ, Leningrad. 1965; "Rekomendatsii po snizheniyu
napryazhennosti elektromagnitnogo polya na rabochikh mestakh obsluzhivayu-
shchego personala televizionnykh i UKV ChM-stantsiy" [Recommendations on
Reducing Electromagnetic Field Intensity at the Workplaces of Television
and Ultrashort-Wave FM Station Maintenance Personnel], Moscow, 1972; All-
Union Standard 5.8482-77, "Radio Communication Apparatus. Methods for
- Evaluating Electromagnetic Fields and Resources Protecting People From
_ Ru~iation," Moscow, 1977.
30 .
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31-32
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production conditions, use of waveguide couplers, power dividers, and
attenuaters making it possible to reduce emissions above the antenna system
is recommended.
IIse of different types of screens is r~commended as a means for shielding
a workplace: reflecting, mesh, elastic, absorptive. The following
shielding devices are employed: fully enclosing (chambers) or partially
enclosing (panels, U shapes, hemispheres, screens, awnings, wall coatings).
The shapes, dimensions, and natu.~e of the material of a partially en-
closing screen ~nust satisfy certain requirements, and in each specific case -
they must insure an irradiation intensity in the building that does not
exceed the permissible value. In this case we shc:uld consider the number
of radiation sources and their flistribution within the building relative
to the workplaces. Walls, floors, and ceilings should be covered by
energy absorbing materials in order to reduce reflected energy in
- shielded buildings. Special protective goggles are recommended as
individual resources for protecting the eyes against the action of SHF
emissions (when the PFD is 1,000 uw/cm2 and higher). ORZ-5 goggles, the
glasses of wY~ich are covered with a layer of semiconducting tin oxide,
weaken emission power by not less than 30 db (1,000 times) in the 0.8-150
cm waveband.
Protective clothing is manufactLred from metallized fabric (Article 7289),
and it takes the form of overalls, smocks, aprons, and hooded jackets with
buitt-in protective goggles. The latter are needed for jobs of short
duratiun performed in the presence of emissions of more than 1,000 Uw/cm2.
Exclusion of contact with high voltage ~ources is a mandatory prerequisite
of electrical safety when using such clothing.
Early detection of disturbances in the health of workers, which may arise
in response to chronic lengthy exposure to radiowaves, is extremely
significant to the prevention of occupational diseases. According to
Order No 400 of the USSR Minister of Public Health, 30 May 1969, persons
working with radio frequency electromagnetic radiation sources must be
- subjected to preliminary and periodic medical examinations. According to
Attachment 1, Paragraph 51 of this order, workers exposed to superhigh _
frequencies--SHF, ultrahigh frequencies--UHF, and high frequencies--HF
(shortwaves) must undergo periodic medical examinations once every 12 months;
workers expospd to high frequencies--HF (medium and longwaves) must be
examined every 24 months. -
When symptoms typical of radio frequency irradiation are present, outpatient
and inpatient examination and treatment (symptomatic, at a sanitarium. or
health resort) are recommended. It is known that in the initial stage,
the clinical manifestations of exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic _
fields are reversible, and therefore temporary transfer to work not in-
v~~vinq EI+~ irradiation is indicated when the initial fo~m of radiowave
di=;case is established. Women should also be trans~erred to other jobs
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within the enterprise during pregnancy and nursinq. Persons below 18
years old are not permitted to work with radio frequency generators.
Persons having contact with SHF and UHF radiation sources are given
additional leave, and they work a shorter day.* Workers enjoy the follow- _
ing additional privileges if their jobs entail adjusting, tuning, testing,
and servicing centimeter and decimeter waveband oscillators, work on
measuring oscillators necessitating exposure to unshielded emitting
. systems of the same ~avebands (from 1 mm to 100 cm inclusively), and work
necessitating the indivic3ual's presence within the radiation zone in a
- building containing oscillators:
a) an additional leave of 12 work days when the intensity of irradiation
is up to 10 uw/cm2; `
- b) an additional leave of 12 work days and a reduced work day of 6 hours
when the irradiation intensity is above 10 uw/cm2. -
Workers directly involved in the testing of UHF oscillators and apparatus
- are given an additional leav~ of 12 work �ays.
So-called accompanying unfavorable factors of the production environment
- must be accounted for in a hygienic assessment of the working cor.ditions
of laborers coming in contact with radio frequency radiation sources.
Such factors include acoustic noise, an uncomfortable micrcclimate, roentgen
radiation, air ionization, ultraviolet and visible emissions, electrostatic
fields, laser emissions, and air contamination by toxic substances.
* As per the "Spisku proizvodstv, ts~;chov, professiy i dolzhnostey s -
vrednymi usloviyami truda, rabota kotorykh dayet pravo na dopolnitel'nyy
' otpusk i sokrashchennyy rabochiy den [List of Production Operations,
~ Shops, Occupations, and Positions Offering Harmful ~~orking Conditions En-
~ titling the Worker to an Additional Leave and a Reduced Work Day], Moscow,
~ 1976.
~
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rvA vrrtl.ttw uoL viri,i
IONIZING RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
Moscow SPRAVOCHNIK PO GIGIYENE TRUDA in Russian 1979 signed to press
19 Apr 79 pp 64-71
[Article by V. P. Gerasimova] ~
[TextJ Many promising directions have now been de~~elopedfor the use of -
atomic energy for peaceful purposes. A vast range of areas of application
- of radioactive substances and ionizing radiation has come into being.
The discovery of atomic energy led to development of reactor design, and
construction of atomic electric power plants utilizing uranium and thorium.
We know of aver 900 manmade radioactive isotopes used in metal flaw
detection, in analysis of the structuxe and wear of materials, in separation
of substances and synthesis of chemical compounds, in apparatus and in-
struments performing monitoring and signaling functions, in medical pratice,
and elsewhere.
" Radioactivity is defined as spontaneous transformation of atomic nuclei
accompanied byemission of energy quanta or ejection of particles. As they
undergo radioactive decay, atomic nuclei emit radiation of corpuscuiar
nature, and electromagnetic radiation. Radioactive transforma.tions are
- accompanied by ionization, which causes formation of electric charges of
different kinds. -
Basic Forn?s of Ionizing Radiation
Alpha-particles are helium atom nuclei carrying a double positive charge
and having a mass equal to 4. Alpha-particles travel linearly in mediums,
creating areas of high ionization intensity along their paths. This form
of radiation is observed predominan~ly with natural radioactive elements
(radium, thorium, uranium, polonium, etc.).
Alpha-particles do not travel far--2-11 cm in air, 30-150 mm in biological
tissues, and 10-69 mm in aluminum.
H~. ~~y particles include protons and neutrons, which interact with the
suk~stance, creating areas of high ionization intensity within it.
35 ~
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Beta-particles are a flow of electrons or positrons. Beta-particles carry
different amounts nf energy--fro~nsev~ral kiloelectram volts to 3 Mev. Pene- ~
trability depends on particle energy; however, it is less than that of
gamma-rays. Given average energy levels, the path of beta-particles in air
is several meters long, and it is about 1 cm in human tissues and 1 mm in
metals. As they pass tY,rough a substance, beta-particles interact with both _
electrons and atomic nuclei. ~
Energy lost by electrons as they pass through a substance is expended in
excitation and ionization, as well as in th~ formation of braking radiation. -
~ The latter is an electromagnetic form of radiation.
~ The specific ionizing capability of beta-particles is lower than that of
alpha-particles but higher than that of gamma-rays. Secondary processes--
luminescence, photochemical reactions, formation of chemically active
radicals--occur in some mediums as a result of ionization.
' The effect of beta-particles upon the body may manifests itself either with
external irradiation or with internal irradiation--when beta-particles
get inside the body. `
' Gamma-rays are electromagnetic radiation, and they represent a flow af
- energy quanta. Their wavelengths are shorter than those of roentgen rays.
; The energy of gamma rays varies within broad limits--from 0.01 to 10 Mev
and more. We can arbitrarily subdivide gamma-rays depending upon their
energy into soft (0.1-0.2 Mev), moderately hard (0.2-1 Mev), hard (1-10 Mev),
and superhard (over 10 Mev).
' The penetrability of gam~a-rays depends on their energy. Gamma-rays pass
~ through the human body and other materials without noticeable attenuation.
' Gamma-rays propagate linearly, their path in air is long, and they may
cause secondary and scattered emissions in the mediums through wh~~h they
~ pass.
' Neutrons do not have an electric charge. Neutrons are arbitrarily sub- -
divided depending upon kinetic energy into fast (up to 10 Mev), ultra-
~ fast, intermediate, slow, and *.hermal. Neutron radiation has higher
~ penetrability. Slow and thermal neutrons enter i.nto nuclear reactions,
' which may result in the formation of stable or radioactive isotopes.
i
_ Roentgen rays are electromagnetic radiation with a very short wavelength
; (0.006-?. nm). Roentgen radiation is distinguished from gairnna-rays by
i having a lower oscillation frequency and greater wavelength parameters.
~ Iti propagates at the speed of light. High penetrability is the most
important property of roentgen radiation.
' The shorter the wavelength, the greater is the possibility of penetration ~
' by rays. The ionizi.ng action of roentgen rays is extremely insignificant.
' When a beam of roentgen rays strikes a substance, secondary and scattered
I emissions arise.
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rvn vrri~.lru. u~L v.v..,~
Natural radioactive elements include those in the thorium series, the
uranium series, and the actinium series. As they decay, they form a large
number of new radioactive elements, which is accompanied by the release of
alpha- and beta-particles as well as gamma-radiation.
The uiiit of activity is 1 curie (Cil--the activity of a preparation of the
given isotope in which 3.7 � 1010 decay events occur in 1 second. The .
. activity cf lgm of pure radium is about 1 Ci. Other established units are
millicuries (1 � 10-3 Ci) ar~dmicrocuries (1 � 10-6 Ci).
Specific radioactivity is unit activity per unit mass--Ci/c~n, and so on.
Active concentration is expressed as L:r?its of Ci/liter and its fractions.
The gamma-equivalent is used to compare radioactive preparations on the _
basis of their gamma-radiation. The basic unit is the milligram-equivalent
of radiiun (Mg-e radium) .
The radiation dose depends on ionizing capability. The roentgen is the
unit dose of roentgen and gamma-radiation. Fractions of the roentgen in-
clude milliroentgens and microroentgens. Radiation dose per unit time is
the dose rate (1 r/hr, 1 ur/sec, etc.). The absorbed dose is the amount
of energy absorbed from any ionizing radiation, per unit mass of the
medium. The rad is the unit of absorbed energy. Given equal absorbed
doses, different forms of emissions produce different biological effects.
The biological equiva~.ent dose, measured in biological equivalents roentgen-- _
ber, is nsed to assess the action of one of the components of mixed radiation.
Sources of Ionizing Radiation _
Work with unshielded radioactive substances may be accompanied by
contamination of air, equipment, the building, special clothing, and ex-
posed skin of worker_s by radioactive aerosols, 5ases, vapors, and
- solutions. Aerosols may be liberated during mechanical and chemical
processing of radioactive materials and o.res, processing of irradiated
substances, processing of radieactive wastes, and during many processes .
involving pulverization, bulk transfer, distillation, and abrasion. The
concentration and composition of radioactive aerosols and the dimensions
- and shapes of the particles are subject to'significant variation depending
on the place and time of their formation. _
Radioactive gases may form in a number of production processes (in the
operation of reactors and accelerators, when mining and processing ores
and minerals containing natTiral radioactive substances, and so on). When
uranium is split in reactors, radioactive xenon, krypton, and argon are _
liberated; When thorium and uranium ore is processed, gaseous emanatio:zs
f. ~n--thoron and radon. We may observe contamination of the air by radon
wYien radon sources are utilized, when radium and radon containers are
opened, and when other operations are performed with radioactive substances.
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_
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Build~ng structures and trim materials may absorb radioactive substances,
cxeating secondary sources of the latter in production or ?aboratory
buildings.
The most widespread use of radioactive substances in shielded form is -
gamma-defectoscopy, in which we capitalize directly upon the capabil.ity `
~ gamma-rays have for penetrating through materials and exposing photo-
. graphic film, thus recording defects in materials. `
Gamma-defectoscopy has enjoyed widespread use in many sectors of industry:
in machine building, ship building, construction of bridges and other
structures, metallurgy, and so on. Artificial radioactive isotopes are
- used as the gamma-radiation source (cobalt--Co60, selenium--Se75, silver--
Ag110e etc.), Co60, which has a half-life of 5.3 years, is used most -
- often. The radi~activity of emission sources may be from 0.5 to 20.0
gm-e radium.
Gamma-defectoscopy may be performed with portable or permanent instruments--
that is, the analyses are performed either right at the producticn operation
or in tl-~e laboratory. Apparatus using Cos~ (GUP) is used most ofteri for
ga~una-defectoscopy in permanent condi~a.ons. 1~epending on the radioactivity _
of the saurce, the apparatus is placed either in isolated buildings
(furnished with a r.emote control panel) or in the laboratory itself. The
principal elements of its design i.nclude a container for the radioactive
source, a conducting hose through which the isotope container moves and
a device holding the article to be inspected and the photographic film.
- Permanently installed devices include the GUP-SO-O, the 5-U, the GUP-SO-50, ~
and s~ on. These devices have two containers, one holding t!-~ Co60
preparation and the other serving as the working container. The most
dangerous moment of work with a GUP is when the ampule containing the
radioactive source moves along the hose from the storage container into
the working conta.iner; g~nuna-radiation may be at its greatest at this
moment. _
- We must consider irradiation by both the initial beam of gamma-rays and _
scattered gamma-radiation; in this case emissions from an object which is
struck by a beam of gaimna-rays at a 90� angle is the mast dangerous. _
Portab~e radioactive isotope containers are used for gamma-defectoscopy in
the shop or at a production facility. The containers are made from lead _
of varying thickness depending on the radioactivity of the source. At
_ the place of work, the containers are moved either on special carts or
with the help of long handles. For illumination, a window is opened in
the container, photoyraphic film is placed on the other side of the
article, and an image of the illuminated part is obtained on the film.
The most dangerous operations during ganuna-defectoscopy are: transportation
of isotope containe~s from the storage point to the place of work and back,
placement of the container at the place of work for exposure, opening of
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I
rva~ vrrl~iru. u.aL va~L~
the contair:er ~rindow for illumination, illumination itself, and repair and ~
recharying of the containers.
Special storage points consist of the s~orehouse itself, a recharging
and repair shop, and the attendant's work area. Ampule containers are
stored in special covered pits.
1Vuclear reactors are installed. at atomic electric power plants, and they -
are used for experimental purposes. The main part of the reactor is tr.e
active zone, in which the chain reaction proceeds. The fuel element, which
contains tt-.e nuclear fuel, is in the active zone. The fuel consists of
U7_ 3 5~ U2 3 9~ pu2 3 3~ etc . When a chain reaction occurs , we observe
release of a large quantity of neutrons and gamma-rays, accompanied by
liberation of significant quantities of heat. Numerous decay products--
sources of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-radiation--fonn as a result of -
uraniums' s decav. -
- Special moderators (ordinary water, heavy water, graphite, beryllium) ~
are introduced into the reactor to reduce the energy of fast neutrons -
_ down to that of thermal neutrons. Various heat carriers are used to
remove the heat (ordinary and heavy water, grapk~ite, mercury;, air, carbon
- dioxide, and other substances).
_ The type of reactor, mode=ator, and heat carrier basically predetermines
� the working conditions of the personnel of atomic electric power plants
" and laboratories.
Work at atomic power plants and experimental reactors may iavolve both
external irradiation (gan�na- and beta-rays, neutrons) and internal
irradiation (entrance of radioactive aeresols and gases into the body) .
The active zone and its equipment as well as radioacti.ve gases formed
(Ar`+1~ Xe133~ ~.89~ are the source of gamma-radiation and neutrons.
- 5tructures, parts, and instruments possessing induced radioactivity
niay serve as sources of ga~na-radiation. Sources of beta-emissior.s may
~ include decay products, the heat carrier, and corrosion elements.
Building structures and equipment may become superficially contaminated
during operation.
The danr,er of~irradiation of workers by gamma-rdys may arise during work
with ga~n.a-radiation sources. As an example nuclear reactions are
accompanied by the rElease of gamma-rays with 10-12 Mev energy, and the
decay of a number of manmade and natural radioactive substances is also
accompanied by the release of gamma-ra~iation.
~
Flows of thermal and fast neutrons form when reactors and accelerators
~~~erate. Through so-call~:d induced activity, intense flows of neutrons
prc.duce secondary sources of beta- and gamma-radiation, and they activate ~
- equipment, ai~, and building structures.
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I
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C:amma-radiation is most dangerous when external irradiation is involved,
while alpha- and beta-emissions pr.esent the greatest danger with internal
irradia~ion. Alpha-emitters, which have considerable ionizing capability, -
are the most dangerous.
Beta-emitters are less dangerous, but they do have iunizing capability
as well.
Gaseous emanations--radon, thoron, and actinon, which are chemically
inert gases, cause irradiation by alpha-particles when they get inside
the body. The solid decay products are alpha- and beta-emitters.
~
Radioactive inert gases--krypton, argon, xenon--are beta-emitters.
~
~ Roentgen rays are used in industry for defectoscopy of inetallic articles,
~ and for roentgen structural and spectral analysis. Roentgen devices are
- uGed in medical practice for x-ray diagnosis and x-ray therapy.
The voltage applied to the apparatus may vary depending on its purpose:
~ from 30 to 70 kv for apparatus used in structural analysis and x-ray
~ diagnosis, and up to 100-400 kv and more for apparatus used in
roentgenoscopy and x-ray therapy.
The princip al unfavorable factor accompanying work with roentgen devices
is external irradiation of service personnel (local and c,eneral), as well
as of persons in neighboring spaces located above or below the work area.
Some operations involved in roentgen structural analysis (setting up
the chamber, centering the samples, and so on), ir. work with portable
roentgen apparatus in medical practice, and in x-ray diagnosis associated -
with investigation of internal organs offer the greatest danger from the
- standpoint of irradiation.
Action Upon the Body
Pathological processe~ elicited by ionizing radiation may manifest
_ themselves as acute or chronic radiation sickness depending on the degree
of injury. Chronic forms are observed in response to long-term expasure
to doses exceeding maximally permissible levels. The remote consequences
of radiation injury.may manifest themselves as radiation cataracts,
maligna:~t tumors, ~.nd other pathological alterations.
The iniicial phase of the biological action of radiat~on consists o.f _
ionization of the atoms and molecules of living matter, ionization of _
, water molecules in organs and tissues in particular.
This results in the formation of free radicals (atomic hydrogen--H),
hydroxyl (OH), hydroxide (HO), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which may
react with substances capable of being oxidized and reduced. Reacting
with the active structures of enzyme systems, free radicaZs inactivate
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these enzymes, thus disturbing the catalytic activity of thiol enzyme
- systems participating in the synthesis of nucleoproteins and nucleic acids.
The quantit}~ of the latter decreases dramatically in tissues and in cell
nuclei in response to irradiation.
~ Changes occurring in the central nervous system in response to radiation
lead to nearotrophic disorders.
Radioactive substances distribute thenselves within the body depending on
their physicochemical properties and the functional state of the body.
As an example radioactive iodine (I131~ acctunulates in the thyroid, while
strontiL.-n (Srg~) accumulates in bones. A number of radioactive isotopes
may distribute themselves uniformly within the body.
Radioactive substances are released from the body through the gastro-
- intestinal tract, the xidneys, the respiratory tract, the skin, and the
mammary glands. Depending on the biological half-life of these substances
(that is, the time during which half of the radioactive substance in the
body is eliminated from it), some substances are eliminated quickly while
othe.rs disappear slowly, forming deposition sites in a number of tissues
4nd organs.
Hygienic Standardization
Punlic heal~_'r.-rules conce-rned with work with radioactive substances and
- other sources or ionizing radiation (OSP-7~) and the radiation safety
no-rms are based upon maximum permissible doses of irradiation, and
maximum pe�rmissible levels of radioactive contamination.
Dosimetric Monitoring
Various types of dosimeters are used for dosimetric monitoring. DK-02
pocket dosimeters (gamma- and roentgen radiation), IFKU film dosimeters
(beta-raliation, thermalneutrons), and KID-2 dosimeters (gamma- and
roentgen radiation) are used for indiviclual dosimetry. Roentgen and
g~:mma-radiation dose rates are measured by the SPG-1 (4 Kura)~ DIM-60,
nftr,Z-02 (Argun' and the DRGZ-Ol (Araks) dosimeters, Ng2N;-2 and MRM-3
microroentgeno~r~eters, and others. A number of dosimeters are used as
ionizing radiation indicators: the Solovey-2 pocket indicator (gamma-
radiation, nard beta-radiatior~ neutronsj, and the SRM-2 detecting
~ radiometer (gamna-radiation). The degree to which clothing and hands
are contaminated by radioactive substances is measured by the RUP-1
c~eneral-puroose radiometer (alpha- and beta-active substances), the
TISS general-purposes radiometer (alpha- and beta-active substances),
the portable Kran-1 radiometer (alpha-active substances), and the
ZZV-1 instrument (Oleandr), used to detect short-lived radon decay
~iucts.
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Preventive Measures
- r The use ~f unshielded radioactive substances requires implementation oi ~ -
~'r complex of ~c~easures to provide protection from both external and internal -
" irradiation. The requirements i.mposed on the layout of laboratory and
enterprise spaces depend on the class of radiation danger (Table 15).
Table 15. Joh Class, Set Depending on the Radiotoxicity Group of the -
, Fcadioactive Isotope and its Actual Quantity (Activity} at
the Workplace (From OSP-2)
l~ i7peltenh ~o Aonycrur.iaa AKTnettoctb ~+a n0G04CAI ++ecic. ~fKI\N 3~ `
1"ppnna ua paBovcu r.iccrc ar.Tno�
paAno- nocr~,. ue tpeC,ybuirA FCnace paGoT LF~
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