JPRS ID: 9125 USSR REPORT POLITICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL AFFAIRS

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JPRS L/9125
4 June 1980 _
- U SSR Re ort
p
PQLITICAL AND SOCIOIOGICAI AFFAIRS -
CFOUO 12/SO)
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JPRS L/9125
4 June 19 80
USSR REPORT
POLITICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL AFFAIRS
(FOUO ].2/80 )
. CONTENTS
INTERNATIONAL
Book Describes International-Legal Problems of Disarmament
(MEZHDUNARODNO-PRAVOVYYE PROBLEMY RAZORUZHENIYA,
1979) 1
Review of Book Edited by Gromyko on Interr.ational Relations
(G.F. Kim, et al; ISTORIYA SSSR, Mar-Apr 80)............ 20
NATIONAL
Fedoseyev Discusses Structure of Soviet Economy
. (P.N. Fedoseyev; VOPROSY FILOSOFII, No 2, 1980)......... 25
Dagestani Jurist for Federalism, Against 'Fusion'
(A.M. Khalilov; SOVETSKOYE GOSUDARSTVO I PRAVO, No 12,
1979) 40
r
' a- IIII - U5SR - 35 FOUO]
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IN~.'EIt~1ATI0NAL
~
_ BOOK DESCRIBES INTERNATIONAL -LEGAL PP,OBLENS OF DISARMAMENT
Moscow MEZfiDUNARODNO-PRAVOVYYE PROBLEM~ BAZORUZHENIYA (International-Legal
v Probl'ems of Msarmament) in Russian 1979 signed to press 21 Feb 79 pp 1,
3-7, 169-19i
[Table of Contents, Introduction and Chapter 5, Part 2 of book by 0. V.
Bogdanov, "Mezhdunarodnyye otnoaheniya: Publighers, 191 pages, 8,000
copies]
[TeatJ Annotation
The basic international-legal aspects of the d3sarmament problem are exam- �
ined in the work in light of the USSR's consistent struggle to solve this
problem. Special attention has been devoted to the task of banning and
abolishing modern systems of mass destruction, especially nuclear and
thermonucleax weapons. The ~ignificance of recent Soviet initiatives in
the field of nuclear disarmament and strategic arms limitation is demons-
tratedi the basic directions in disarmament work are examined~ and the
results of the special session of the UN Gene~al assembly on disarmament
which was held in 1978 axe summed up. An analgsis of the formation of the
principle of disarmament i~~ modern international law is given.
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Table of Contents
Introductioi . 3
Chapter l. The Concept of Disarmament in History 8
, 1. Thinkers of the past on disarmament
Z. Founders of Marxism on disarmament 30
Chapter 2. Weapons of Mass Destruction and International Law 39 -
Chapter 3. Nuclear Weapons and International Law 65
1. Banning nuclear weapons a pressing task
2. The question of nuclear weapons in international law.,.,,.., 81
Chapter 4. The ;iovement Toward Nuclear Disarmament 100
1. Halting tests of nuclear weapons
2. The non-proliferation of nuclear weapons 112 ~
- 3. Strategic arms limitation 114
Chapter 5. Disarmament Law 154
i. The formation of disaxmament law
2. The paths in the evol ution of disarmament law.......~...... 169
Introduction
It is hardly possible to find a more urgent and burning problem in modern
international life than halting the arms race which has swept over the
world. The competition in t:~e production of destructive systems not only .
devours enormous material resources but also gives birth to a real threat
to the future of civilization. The weapons which have now been created
are sufficient to destroy everything living on our planet. The history of
ma.nkind has never known sucn a situation,. Under these conditions~ workable
measures axe urgently needed for the elimina.tion of the threat hanging over
the world and for practical disarmament.
Throughout the more than 60 yeaxs of its existence, the Soviet state has
always attached primary importance to the solution of this task. The
~;truggle for disarmament is the fundamental line of Soviet foreign policy.
It has received cleax-cut strengthening in the new Constitution of the
USSR. Article 28 of our country's fundamental law says that the foreign
po.licy of the USSR is directed "toward the achievement of general and
complete disarmament." The presence of this statement in the Soviet cons-
~Eitution has been ~'illed with a deep social meaning. It conveys the fact
that in a socialist society thers axe no and cannot be any social forces
= wnich axe interested in accumulating systems for waging wax and which
, e.xtract any profit from this. The basic difference between the Soviet
state and the imperialist countxies, where aggressive circles which axe
interested in spreading the arms race exist and actively operaia, lies in
thj.s. These circles have drawn the world into a very dangarous arms
production competition which is poisoning the international climate. Curbing
+hese adventurists forces is now a vitally importa.nt task.
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- Champions of disarmament ,.~e coming forward to achieve this vital goal. In
their ranks are the Soviet state, the mighty socialist commonwealth, and
millions of people of good will on a11 continents. As a result o.f their
persistent efforts, they have achieved during recent years a definite chaxige
for the better in international relations, and the process of relaxing
tensions has been developed in apite of the complications caused by the
policy of the more die-hard imperiallst circles. In order to make thls
process irreversible, it is necessary to add political relaxation to
military relaxation. The first steps have already been taken on this path,
- A number of international agreements which have blocked up severa.7_ cl~annels -
of the a.rms race have been worked out and are in effect, constant work is
being performed to prepare new measures in this area, and orga,nizatior,al
measures for examining disarmament questions are being improveci.
However~ it is necessary to recognize that the arms race has stil"1 not less-
ened. It is necessary to salve the basic complex of problems which axe
connected with implementing a fundamental change from building up arms to
their curtailment. This assumes the working out and signing of a serios of
more sweeping international treaties in the area of disarmamen~o Netr Soviet
initiatives,which provide for a complete halt in the further qua 1 itative � -
and quantitative weapons groYrth in states possessing large mil~.taxy potent-
ial ~ are directed to~ra.rd ~~his goa.l.
The disarmament problem has become not only a political but also an intexna-
tional legal one. Since it is the subject of a number of impo.rtant inter-
national treaties, this problem has a~ the same time entered inta the sphere
of operations of modern international law. One of the significant sotu ces -
of the development, which is now taking place in the area of the si:ruggle
for disarmament, is here.
During recent yeass, the amount of legal research in this axea has grown
- significantly throughout the world. This has been especially noticeable
against the background of the formerly rather passive position which ch~sac--
terized the approach of Western international law doctrine to this problem.
For many y~ears~ bourgeois jurists tried not to notice it at a11, maintain~-
ing that it appaxently had no relationship to international law since it
was an exclusively political problem. Now, this approach has been repudia.t-
- ed by the development of events itself. Here is one of the remarkable
changes which demonstrate the immeasurably growing importance of the dis-
armament problem ~.mder modern conditions.
- The Seventies were declaxed the Decade of Disazmament by the Organization
of the United P?ations. This is not only a symbolic declaxation. This
period brought a whole series of international agreements in the area of
disarmament. Among them were the first treaty in international practices
on the complete banning of a system of mass destruction biological.
weapons, the Moscow treaty on partially banning the +esting of nuclear
weapons, the nuclear weapons non-proliferation treaty, and the treaty ~bann-
ing the placement of :~uclear and other types of weapons of mass destructi.on
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rvn urr1~.1HL U~r; UNLY
on the sea ar~d ocean beds and in their depths. During these yeass, such a
comparatively new avenue in the axea of disarmament as strategic axms limi-
_ tations, was also developed. Iti has already provided appreciable practical
results in the form of a number of Soviet-American agreements on limiting
offensive and defensive strategic arms.
In general, it is not difficult to see that the past decade has been chax-
acterized by a marked stress on the international regulation of questions
which primarily concern the various systems of mass destructiori. The pre-
paration of treaties on the complete banni.ng of chemical wea,pons and aiso
, on banning the creation of new types and systems of weapons of mass des~ruc-
tion is now taking place. This last aspect of the disarmament problem is
aimed at the future and is very important since it has been called upon to
prevent in tilne a development which is fraught with serious danger for the
future of mankind. In 1978, one other document of no small importance
which was intended to close possible channels for the use of technical pro-
- gress to harm man the convention on bar,ning the militaxy or any other
hostile use of systems to affect the environment went into effect. All
t.his testifies that the process of working out international documents,
aimed at limiting the arms race~ has now grown considerably. It embraces
all the new aspects of the problem which before had not at all axisen in
international practices. The use of new methods for discussing the dis-
- armament problem is also a feature of no small importance. The convening
of a SP2C1~ session of the General Aswembly on disarmament ---the widest
forum oi all ever occupied with disarmament in 1978 is significant.
Thus, the disarmament problem has not only firmly entered international law
but is also beir~g actively developed, occupying an ever more significant
place within the limits of this law. The forecast that the process of
enveloping the disarmament groblem with international legal norms will bP
steadily expaaided, is not too bold a one. This assumes progressive enrich-
ment of the content of international or legal r~orms which touch upon dis-
- armament~ This is the general tendency of international legal ~.evPlopments
in this area.
The situation which has been cr~:;ated is leavii~g a certai.n mark on the fea-
i;ures of modern scientifi.c reseaxch in the area of disarmament. During
re~ent years, the amount of this research has grown sharply; the f~ther,
~he more frequently an.~:sver more specialized approach to this problem is -
practiced. Projects devoted i~o individual aspects of disarmament are becom-
ing typical. Even laxge r~sE:rach projects, including doctoral dissertations,
_ ~brace as a rule only ind~vidua,l aspects of the problem. Such an approach
is fully justified. It .reflects the noticeably growing complexity of the
questions connected witrl:~.lsarmament (which in the aggregate can bE settled
with sufficient completeneas only in multi-volume reseaxch projects~ and the
pressing need to examine them more carefully and deeply.
The present work also does not pretend to be a comprehensive embracing
of international legal disarmament questions. A comparatively limited circle
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of subjects is touched upon in it. Primary attention is concentxated on
those which have entered most deeply irito the axea of i.nternational law
and which axe being actively developed both in inter:~ational forums and on
the pages of scientific publications. We talk about the problems of banning -
systems of mass destruction, especially the three "classic" varieties of
these systems: bacteriological, chemical and nuclear. Recently, basic work
in ths creation of new international legal documents is taking place in
~ this axea, and it therefore continues to attract a lot of attention from
researchers. There are quite a few large scale and complex interr:ational
legal aspects here which require the great attention of jurists. It is also
interesting to trace the historical evalua,tion of the views on questions
concerning $~e bann'. ~f systems of mass destruction. Now, the demands to
guard humanity agaiust ~~arbaric systems and methods of waging wax, whicY:
were expressed by past t~,inkers, resound with special urgency. This is the
general content of this work whose primary aim is to exa,mine a number of
_ pressing international legal disarmament problems.
Chapter 5 ~ P~.rt 2
The Paths in the Ewolution of Disarmament Law
And so, an active process in the formation and improvement of disarmament
, law has recently taTcen place. 'rhe final goal of this process is clear: ~
the abolition of arms. However, the ways to specifically develop it can
be different and change during different stages depending on the specific
situation.
As an illustrations one can cite the course of the examination of disaxmam- -
, ent questions during recent decades. For example, whereas the beginning of
the Sixties the task of preparing a treaty on general and complete disarm-
ament was proposed as the primary one, the direction of the work subsequent-
ly changed somewhat. The overall goal of achieving sweeping disarmament _
preserved its fundamental importance; however, the centex of ~avity in
practical work shifted to the area of partial disarmament. The preparation
of various urgent b~~t more limited in con~snt--measures became the main
and predominant one.
These measures primaxily relate to modern systems of mass destructions
- bacteriological, chemical and nuclear weapons. The workin this direction
has already brought appreciabl.e results. The convention on the complete
banning of bacteriological weapons can ser.ve as an example. At the present
time, the preparation of documen+..s on the complete banning of chemical
weapons is taking place. Steps oY no sma11 importance are being taken on
a bilateral basis to limit strategic arms and to lessen the threat of a
nuclear war by concluding agreements primaxily between the USSR and the
United States. During recent years the range of questions, on which dis-
cussions are being held, has been noticeably expanded. For example, such
questions as the banning of new systems of mass destruction which might be
created in the future~ have been a.dded to their number. This is a very
- S
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important and long-range initiative whose appearance was brought about by
the very cour:e of scientific and technical developments. It will undoubt-
edly have an appreciable effect on the course of further disaxmament work.
Thus~ the preparation of international ag~.~eements on eliminating systems of
mass destruction has now definitely become the main avenue in disarmament
= work~ This avenue has been filled with intense practical work and unceasing
searches for new agreements.
The successes which have been achieved in this area axe primarily conne~ted
with the USSR's consistent stxuggle to solve the fundamental disarmament
question s. During recent yeaxs, constructive Soviet proposals, which play
a dominant role in definin~ the concrete paths leadir.g to disarmament, were
put forth on a11 the enumerated aspects of disarmament. These pertain to
question s on the complete banning of chemical weapons, to problems of nuc-
leax disarmament, and to the task of banning new systems of mass destruction.
The fact that the 60th anniversary of the Soviet state was celebrated with
new ir,itiatives in this area is especia?ly symbolic. It is sufficient to
cite, for example, such steps (which have been discussed in greater detail .
- above) as the proposals foz� a simultaneous halt by all states in the pro-
duction of nuclear weapons. These proposaZs constitute an entire system of
measures ai~ned at advancing the cause of nucleax disarmament.
The stress on nuclear disarmament is thoroughly justified f'irst of a11 by
the faet that nuclear systems occupy at the present time the main place in
the arn:s race which has been unleashed by imperialism. They have taken very
deep -roo t in modern weapon systems, and therefore, any effective disarmam-
ent program cannot, naturally, fail to give one of the main places to them.
However, this of course must not exclude from view other systems of mass
destructicn which are also related to the ca~egory of primaxy disarmament
aspects. It is unnecessarv to justify the need, wrich was demonstrated by
comparatively recent international events (such as the war in Vietnam), for
the urgent and complete banning of chemical weapons. It is equally~ incon- -
testible that the time to seriously think about preventing the creation of
- new systems of mass destruction~ which are even more destructive than exist-
ing ones, has now matured. _
wh::~� ras been said permits the prospects for the development of disarmament
law to be understood. There is.now every justification for concluding that _
the development of this law will in the ver~r neas future primaxily take
pl~ce along the line of more fully and comprehensively banni.~g modern sys-
tems of mass destruction. This is now the dominant avenue in disarmament
work. I t is leaving a decisive maxk on the progress of further internaiion- ~
_ al legal development in this area. Of course, at the same time the possi-
bility of the parallel examination and solution of several other questions
such as, for example, a reduction in the arms and axmed forces of states,
is not excluded. Howeve~, the center of gravity is~ as before, on quest-
ions concerning the bannirsg of modern systems of mass destruction.
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When speaking about the caxdinal directions in the struggle for disarmam-
ent, it is necessaxy to talk about the fact that now (as was pointed out
above) the final goals of this struggle have been defined ~ufficiently -
clearly in an international legal respect. This is an aspect of the
matter which is of no.small importance. The accelerated movement to devel-
~ op specific disarmament measures places on the agenda the question of +!:is
movement's prospects. Here, it is appropriate to emphasize that the USSR
has always devoted significant attention to the formulation of a long-term
disarmament program having a sweeping nature. So~riet initiatives in this
direction are universally known. We are talking, of course, about~ ~he Soviet -
proposals for abolishing systems for waging wax. They were heaxd in the
UN at the end of the Fifties and somewhat later receiveu detailed elabora-
tion in the Soviet drsft tr~aty on general and complete disarmament which
was proposed in Maxch 1962.
The draft was a document of fundamental importance which reflected the
Soviet state's approach to the disarmament problem. It emphasized the _
USSR's readiness to move to a sweeping sol~ation of this problem if other
states also expressed their agreement to this. The Soviet draft treaty on
general and complete disarmament is a step-by-step plan for the complete
' abolition of systen~s for waging wax over the course of several years under
strict and effective international control. The exceptional accuracy and
concreteness of the approach to the task of implementing complete disa_~n-
- ament make the Soviet draft a significant and viable international document.
The need for such a sweeping disarmament plan is indisputable from the
point of view of the basic needs of the contemporary international situa-
tion. Now~ life requires more tha.n ever before that a way be found to save
mankind ~om the terrible threat, which the availability of an unprecedented
arsenal of destructive systems which states have at their disposal, is
creating. This arsenal is being improved with unpara.lled speed and its
further build-up is f'raught with an unprecedented threat to entire countries
and peoples. From this comes the necessity to find ways to radically
change the situa.tion which has been created.
The Soviet draft treaty on general and complete disaxmament is oriented in
- this direction. Of course, it is not necessary to approach in a simplified
- fashion the opportunity for a quick implementation of this plan. Its
discussion has shown that Western states are still not ready for practical
steps in the direction of complete disarmament. However, the very idea of
the Soviet draft has exerted an indisputable effect on modern international
relations. Essentially, i.t has begun to be accepted as the final goal in
disarmament work and there~y has attached even greater purposefulness to
all this work.
This process is also noticeable in the area of international law. The idea
of complete disarmament has been fixed in international treaties a~ the end
- result toward which the disarmament measures now being developed axe direct-
ed. Here~ it is appropriate to recall tha.t in 1959 the UN General Assembly
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unanimously approved Resolution 1378 (XIV) which contained an important
statement declaring that "the question of general and co;nplete disarr~ament
is the most impor~tant question facing the world at the present time."2
This general thesis was developed fur-ther in many subsec~uent assembly
resolutions. As a f'resh example, it is possible to cite the call to carry
out "disarmament measures, especially nuclear disarmament measures~ keeping
in mind the achievement of the final goal--general and complete disarmament
_ under strict and effective internatior.al control" which was incorporatecl at
, Soviet initiative in the declaxation on deepening and strengthening the
relaxation of international tensions3which was unaniJnously approved by the -
32d Session of the General Assembly.
The fact that analogous statements have also received clear-cut reinforce-
ment in international treaties deserves special attention. Earlier in this
chapter appropriate extxacts from the nuclear weapons non-proliferation `
treaty and several other in+ernational agreements were quoted. It is not
difficult to continue them. For example~ the preamble to the treaty on
banning the placement of nuclear weapons ar:d other types of weapons of mass
destruction on the sea and ocean beds and in its depths expresses the con-
viction of the part~.es that this treaty "is a step on the path to a treaty
_ on general an~ com~,lete disarmament unr~er strict and effective internation-
al control". A statement close to this thought is contained in the _
preamble to tY~e convention on banning the development~ production and stock-
piling o.f bacterioiugical (biological) and toxic weapons and their de~truc-
tion; the determination of the participants in the convention "to contri-
bute to the achievement of a general and complete disarmament under strict
and effective international contxol"5 is expressed in it.
The quoted treaty statements cleaxly con~ey the thought that general and _
complete disarmament is the final goal towaxd whose achievement th~se dis-
armament agreements~ which axe already in effect.and those being prepaxed,
are directed. This means that the proposition ~~rhich states the final ~
- result of the disarmament work now taking place has received treaty rein- ~
Forcement in modern international law. This is undoubtedly an important
_ evolution which contributes to practical movement in this direction.
It is possible to say that i.nternational law in this sta~e of its develop-
mer~t is alraady pointing out to states the prospects for sweeping disarmam-
ent. Of course~ one cannot oversimplify the proposition by mai.ntaining that
international legal norms already exist which require states to implement
ge7cral and complete disazmament. These norms still do not exist. We
talked about this earlier in this chapter. However, internaiional law
clearly orients states towards the working out of binding agreements on
complete d3.sarmament. The importance of such propositions is rather great.
They test3fy to the fact that the concept of general and complete disaxmamet
has received authoritative international legal confirmation and that it is
now being ac~epted as the a,L~ost universally recognized goal of disarmament
work. Al1 this, of course, has no small significance for the general
orientation of the practical work in this axea.
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Thus, International legal developments, have already led to a rather cleax-
cut strengthening of the general goals in the struggle for disarmament.
During recent yeaxs, the or~anizational forms for achieving these goals
have also been systematically dismissed. Speci~l attention has been att-
racted to the use of more effective methods to solve disaxmament problems.
We are talking here primasily about a world disarmament aonference, that is~
- about the widest and most representative forum of states. '~he idea of
calling such a conference has already been nurtured for many years. The
opportunity to itivolve practical.ly a11 states in the modern world in the
examination of disa.rma,ment ~aestions is considered to be one of the basic
advantages in using such a forum. This method has not been practiced in
the past but in the opinion of many states its use can open up new oppor-
tunities for forward movement in the cause of disarmament. The Soviet
CJnion and other advocates of the call for a world disarmament conference
are guided by these motives. It goes without saying that ~the convening of
such a conference in no way excludes but on the contrary assumes the con-
tinued functioning of the Committee on Disarmament and the other orgarxs
already worki.ng in this area.
The campaign in favor of calling a world disarmament conference showed
_ itself at the beginning of the Sixties. The struggle to achieve this g~a1
has undergone two stages in its development. The first stage pertains co
the Six ties.
The socialist countries which are invaxiably trying to use all possible
~ ways to abet the implementation of disarmament, came forward with a ca].1
to create a world disarmament conference. The meeting of the Political -
Consultative Committee of the Warsaw Treaty membar nations which was held
at the beginning of 1965 wrote in its communique: "The Warsaw Treaty
member nations support... the ca11 for a world disarmament confer.ence."6
The idea ~r the calling of such a conference was also proposed in the _
UN. The Soviet delegation~ declaring that the canvening of a world dis-
armament conference with the pa~ticipation of a11 countries in the world
would be responsive to the situa.tion which had taken shape, and calling
upon the Linited Nations Organization to include itself in the task of
preparing for such a conference, offered a proposal on this question during
the 19th Session of the General Assembly.
'Ihe determination�of a large number of states to achieve the convening of
a disarmament conference was convi~cingly demonstrated during the 20th
Session of the General Assembly. The Soviet delegation offered a concrete
proposals to organize such a conference in the middle of 1966 in Geneva
or some other place accepta,ble to a11 pasticipants. In doing this, the
Soviet Union particularly emphasized the~urgent necessity to attach a
truly world nature to the conference and for this purpose to attract a11
states to participate in it, including those who axe not UN members or who
are being artificially kept away from disarmament negotiations. Considering -
the need for a universal nature for this conference, the 5oviet Union
~ proceeded from the necessity to call it outside the limits of the UN.
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During the wor;; of the 22d Session of the General Assembly it turned out
that the overw~ielming majority of UN mem bers supported this iciea. It is
signiiicant that the draft resolution on calling a disarmament conference
was presented in the name of 43 states. -
Or~ 29 ~iovember 1965, a plenaxy session of the General Assembly adopted
- Resolution 2030~XX on convening a world disarmament conference; 112 votes
were in faVOr of it~ one state abstained, and not one voted against it.
The resolution pointed at the paramount importance of disarmament for the
- modern world and also the urgent need to exert further efforts aimed at
achieving an agreement on general and complete disarmament with effective
inter.national control. Havir~g recommended the convening of a world disarm-
amer~t conference, the resolution pointed out that all the countries of the
wu.rld re~a.~^dless of inembership in the UN should be invited to it.
Th~_is did the struggle begin wi~hin the UN to ca11 a world disarmament
cor~ference, This period can be considered to be the first stage of this
stru~;gle. It concluded with the adoption of the mentioned resolution by
-the 20th Sessiori of the General Assembly. However, this resolution was not
realized since opposition to this initiative was display~ed by a number of
Western powers and the PRC which prevented the implementation of General
Assembly F.esolution 2030~XX.
I~ater the Soviet Union continued to consistently see to the calling of a
d~s~smament conference. In 1971, it again Gupported the calling of a world
con~'erence to examine disarmament questions in a11 their scope. Such a
~roposal was introduced by the Soviet iJnion during the 26th and subsequent
- ~ess~.ons of the General Assembly. The assembly repeatedly supported it~
cal].ir.g ior the necessasy practical steps to be taken immediately.
: A special committee for prepaxing for the confe~ence was cxeated within the
�c~r~eral Asse;nbly; however, its practical work had no results. The PRC -
a.:~~d some Weste~n states actively interfered with the work of callin~ the
~onference. The Soviet Union more than once directed attention to this
s~;a+,e of affairs. A. A. Gromyko~ the mirlister of foreign affairs~ said
r~~~a,rding this duxing the 29th Session of the assemblys "The boycott of
this important measure by some states contradicts the clearly expressed
dc~s:.re of the overwhelming majority of UN members."7 Numerous General _
A:~.;F;;~~bly resolutions have clearly expressed the interest of the overwhelm-
ing majority of UN members in convening a world disaxmament coriference.
This situation forced even the enemies of convening the conference to moder-
ate their position. This was reflected in the adoption of a compromise
proposal for holding a special session of the General Assembly devoted to
disarmament as the first step in the mentioned direction. This proposal
was aimed at beginning practical movement towaxd the preparation of a `
world disarmament forum.
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The 31st Session of the General Assembly unanimously adopted Resolution
31/189 on calling a special assembly session on disarmament. It pointed
out that the "continua,tion of the arms race threa`tens internation~ peace
and security and also diverts enormous resources which axe extrem ly necess-
axy for economic and social development."8 The special session wals called
upon to serve as an intermedia:.y stage on the path to the subsequent con-
vening of a wor~.d conference. The Soviet Union and other socialist count-
ries continuously pointed out in the UN that the session should be regard-
ed not as a substitute for the world conference but as a measure preparing
the path for its convening. In order to carry out the necessary organiza-
tional preparations~ a Disartnament Center was created within the UN Secre-
tariat at the beginning of 1g77�
The Soviet Ur_ion proposed a detailed program for conducting the special
assembly session devoted to disarmament. It was set forth in a USSR
Minister of Foreign Affairs letter to the UN Secretary General. The letter
particularly emphasized the need to carefully and thoroughly prepare for -
the sessions, and that its decisions should help the disarmament negotiat-
ions already taking place. Coticerning the content of the special session's
work, the USSR expressed the opinion that the session's agenda should
"provide for a braod exchange of views on the disa,rmament problem both with
respect to the basic approaches to this problem during the present stage
and wi-th respect to the basic directions in the primary efforts of states
in this axea, having in mind the achievement of the main and final goal of
all efforts in the area of disarmament general and complete disaxmament."9
On the threshold of the special session, the USSR proposed a new long-range
initiative which provided for the further spread of the struggle to solve
- a wide series of disarmament questions. L. I. Brezhnev announced: "The
time has come to think about completely halting the further qualitative and
- quantitative grow~th of weapons and armed forces of states possessing a large
milltary potential, and by this to create conditions for their subsequent
reduction. Specifically~ we are addressing an appeal to discuss a program
to implement the following measures over a definitely limited time: Stopping
the production of all types of nuclear weapons; stopping the production
and banning ali other types of weapons of mass destruction; haltin~ the
creation of new types of conventional weapons with great destructive force;
and the repudiation of enlarging armies and increasin~ the conventional
weapons of the powers who axe permanent members of the Security Council and
_ the countries allied with them by military agreements."10
- The introduction of this detailed program by the Soviet Union once again
emphasized that there exist quite a few specific areas to which arms limit-
ation meas~es must be spread. It goes without saying that not a11 the
enumerated questions can be quickly regulatsd. However, all of them can
find a satisfactory solution within a reasonable time if the good will of
states is directed towaxd this. The importance of the Soviet initiative
is especially great because it cleaxly points out the possible deviation of
practical work on disarmament for the very near future. Such a concrete
definition of the prospects was called upon to contribute to an actua.l
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increase in the effectiveness of the work in this area and the mobilization -
of th~: states' efforts to insure progress in the matter of. disasmament.
T'he UN General Assembly special session on disarmament took place in New
York during May and June 1978. Al1 UN members participated in it. Essen-
tially~ the session was the most representative forum which ever discussed -
disarmament questions. This fact forces one to regaxd it as yet another
step of no sma11 importance in the task of involvingt~e widest possible
circle of states in the examination of disa,rmament questions. The session
undoubtediy m2.de ~ definite contribution to the solution of such a very
important task as the creation of the most powerful front possible of
peaceloving forces who came out in favor of implementing disaxmament.
The task of working up specific disarmament measures did not face the
General Assembly special session. It was called upon to formulate the
funda.mental principles wh~ch would lie att~e basis of further practical
work in the axea of disarmament, and to determine the main directions of
forward movement in this vitally important work. The fact that such a
concreie de~inition of both the immediate and the long range tasks in the
disarmament area is now an extremely timely matter, is not subject to doubt.
It will help to unite and stimulate the efforts oi all states who are
interested in implementing disarmament, and to raise the practical effect-
iveness of work in this area.
The Soviet Union presented a specific program of practical measures designed
- to define the general and cardinal direction of fl~rther disarmament work
dur.ing the special session. The proposal for a complete halt to the further
qualitative and quantitative growth in the arms and armed forces of states _
possessing a laxge military potential was its heart. The practical imple-
mentation of this program was worked out in detail in Soviet proposals.ll
This ini.tiative played an extremely noticeable role in the work of the
special session. Essentially, it formed the skeleton of the final document
which was unanimously approved by the session. On the whole, decisions
of the session formulated a broad and useful program for work in the dis-
armament asea which was adopted by the UN members on the basis of a consen-
sus. Undoubtedly~ this program will he?p to stimulate a general movement
in the directi.on of delivering mankind from the arms race and the dangers
ccr~nected with it. -
Meanwhile, it is impossible not to speak about the fact that the special
s~ssion once again exposed and confirmed the presence of forces~ hostile
to the cause of disarmament, in the world. These are not only the aggress-
ive imperialist forces which axe interested in speeding up military prepaxa-
tions. China, which was trying to force through its not unknown Maoist
thesis that apparently only the USSR and the United States should disarm
but a11 other countries on the other hand should urgently arm~ appeared in
the role of an axdent enemy of disarmament duringihe special session. This
position~ aimed at justifying the militasistic policy of the PRC leadership
and its expansionist desires, was a new confirmation of Beijing's hostility
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to the cause of disarmament. It is widely known that China invaxiably
comes out against the resolutions adopted by the regular sessions of the
General Assembly on disarmament questions and is not a gasticipant in one
of the international arms limitation treaties now in effect. This policy
was also continued during the special session of the General Assembly on
- disarmament where the PRC did not take part in approving the concluding
document. Thereby~ it demonstrably disassociai~d itself from the ba.sic goals
of halting the very dangerous arms race goa,ls which were supported by
p~actically all peaceloving humanity.
Nevertheless, the work of the special session of the General Assembly
distinctly showed that'the idea of disarmament enjoyed very wide support in
the world. The concluding document in whose preamble the ~a,sk "to lay the
foundations of an international strategy of disarmament",1` which was adopted
by it~ eloquently testifies to this.
The concluding docwnent of the special session is a de:ta.iled resolution which
embraces p~atically a11 the basic aspects of the disarmament problem. It
touches upon both the general questions connected with the nat~e of dis-
. armament's role in ensuring international security and upon concrete m~asu~es in
_ this area. The document consists of four sectionss an intxoduction~ a
declaration, an action program, and recommendations relative to an internat-
ioz~al mechanism for examining disa.rmament questions. On the whole, the
document is the most deta.iled of all the resolutions on disa.rmament questions,
ever adopted by the UN General Assembly.
The leit-motif of the aoncluding document is the thesis on the necessity to
use disarmament measures as a reliable guarantee of international security.
It is pointed out in the Introduc~ion~ "The time ha,s come.,. to begin search-
ing for security through disarmament~ tha.t is~ through a gradua.l but effect-
ive process which will begin with a decrease in the present arms level" (p 1).
This ta,sk is justifiably linked in the document withthe development of'the
relaxation process in modern int~rnational relations. Naturally, the arms
race~ which continues the competition in stock piling systems of destruction,
contxadicts this. The declaxation on this sub3ect saysi "Now as never before,
mankind faces the threat of self-destruction as a result of the c~t~tiuing
state of affairs in accumulating on an enormous scale the most destructivE
wea.pons ever produced. Already existing nuclear weapons are more than suff-
icient to destroy life on earth" (p 11~. ~e declaration proves very thorough-
ly the thesis that the continua.tion of the arms race would have multi-~ided
negative consequences for peace and security.
"The primary tasks and measures in the area of disarmament, whose implementa-
tion states must begin in short order so as to halt and turn back the arms
race and attach the necessary impulse to the efforts aimed at achieving
genuine disa.rma.ment leading to genexal and complete disarmament unde.r effect-
ive international control" (p 43)~ are stated in the "Action Program"
section. The central place among these measures was given to nuclear
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disa.rmament questions, On this score, the general grogram boils down to the .
following three items~ (a) halting the qualitative im~rovement and develop-
ment of nuclear w~eapons, (b) halting the ~oduction of nuclear weapons,
delivery systems~ and the fissionable materiale for making them, and (c) a
combined step-by-step program for the gradual and balanced reduction of
nuclear weapon and delivery system stock-piles (p 50). The halting of
nuclear weapon tests by all states, new agreements between the USSR and the
United States on limiting strategic axms, agreements on p~eventing the use of
nuclear weapons, the creation of z~nes free of nuclear weapons (especially
in Africa and the Near East), and reducing the danger of the spread of nuclear
weapons to a minimum were specially mentioned among the specific nucleax
disarmament measures.
The "Action Program" devotes quite a bit of attention to questions on banning
other types of weapons of.mass destruction. A cal]_ to all sta.tes, which
have still not done this, to join the 1925 Geneva p~otocol and the convention
on banning the development, production and stock-piling of bacteriological
(biological~ and toxic weapon supplies~ is contained in it. The complete
and effective banning of the development~ production and stock-piling of
chemical weapons is mentioned as one of the most urgent tasks. Another press- -
ing measure is the banning of radiological wea,pons.
The propositions concerning the prevention of a qua,lit~.tive arms race which
are in the "Actlon Program" are of fundamental importa.nce. In this connection~
trie ta,sk "to take effective steps to avoid the danger and prevent the appear-
ance of new types of weapons of ma.ss destruction based on new scientific
nrinciples anci achievements" (p 77) was formulated.
I� is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the "Ac:tion Program" cleaxly
~oints out the need to prevent an axms race in all areas where it can pract-
i.~:a11y develop. The pro~am especially mentions in paxticular such aspects
this problem as banning the military use of systems to affect the environ-
ment and preventing an arms race on the bottom of the sea and ocean and in
~pace. The importance of limiting and reduciz~g conventional arms and armad
f~r~es is also pointed out in the program. This task was formulated, in
~z�~i~ular, ~rith respect to Europe where the importa,nce of achieving a more
str~.ble situation "on the basis of approximate equality and Fa,rity and on the
~:.:,i s of not harming the security of a11 sta.tes" (p 82~ is pointed out. The
UN :;onference which was planned for 1979 on banning or limiting the use of
specific types of conventional ~reapons which could be considered to be extrem-
Ely bxutal or to ha.ve a non-selective effect ~~as mentioned as one of the inter-
national forums called upon to contribute to the limitation of conventional
weapons.
A whole system of ineasures, aimed at creating a general atmosphere favorable
+,o disarmament and im.proving the understanding of disarmament's role in
the cause of strengthening peace and international security wa.s set forth
- in the "Action Pro~am". For this purpose, the conducting of a number of
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scientific research projects (including the interconnection between disarir.-
ament and international security), expanding the dissemination of information
about the danger of the arms race, intensifying research in this area, and
taking in~ernational steps aimed at improving the understanding of disa,rmam-
ent problems (in particular, a world education congress ~n disa~mament plann-
ed along the line of UNESCA) were planned,
In the concluding document's section devoted to the mechanism for examining
disarmament questions~ important organiza.tional measures aimed at a general -
speed-up in achieving progress in the disarmament area were set forth. Among
them~ it is possible to pick out a number of ineasures for strengthening the
UN role in this area. Included in these is the attachment of a systematic
and deeper nature to the examination of disarma.ment questions within the
UN. For this purpose~ it is provided that the first committee of the General
Assembly will in the future busy itself only with disarmament questions and
the international security questions connected tirith them. Besides thiso a
_ Commission on Disarmament composed of all UN members was created. This
commission will be "a deliberative orga.n subordinate to the General Assembly
whose duty includes the examination and.introduction of recommendations on
various problems in the area of disaxmament and observation of the sta.te of
affairs connected with the decisions and recommendations of the special sess-
ion devoted to disarmament''(p 118). Practically speaking, this reorganizat-
ion of the Commission on Disaxmament was aimed at converi:ing it into an
actively operating internationa.l orga.n for examining disarmament questions.
' In general, all the propositions in the mecha.nism section are essentially _
aimed at improving the results of disa.rmament negotiations. This also relates
to the planned prosperity for convening a second special session of the
General Assembly devoted to disarmament (the period for convening it is
subject to being determined somewha,t later). The propositions concerning the
reorgan3.zation of the Committee on Disarmament--the ba.sic working organ
within which international treaties in this area are prepared are another
item of no small importance.
This reorga.nization primarily concerns expanding the compositions of the
committee. Henceforth, participation in the committee will be open to the
fiv.e nuclear pr;wers and 35 other states. Subsequently, the composition of
the committee (it is also necessary to note this as a new item~ will be
reviewed periodically. The fixst session of the Committee with its new
colnposition began work in Geneva in Januaxy 19'~9, P'rance took part in it
for the first time~, Among the new committee members were Cuba, Alge rta,
- and Sri La.nke.. ThE PRC ~s included in the composition of the committee;
however, the chair of its representative is still emptyo
The propositions concerning the orga,nization of the committee's work in the
future also deserve attention. The following items are among them: The
committee's work will,be conducted on the basis of consensusi the committee.
~rill work ~ut its own procedural rules; the UN General Secreta,ry wi11 appoi.nt
the committee secretaxy after consultations with the cor,unittee; the chair-
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manship will rotate on a monthly basis among all committee members; the
committee will draw up its own agenda, considering the recommendations of
- the General Assembly and the recommendations of the committee members; the
committee will report annua.lly or more frequently to the General Assembly~
and committee documents will be senti~ the members of the UN on a regular
basis; sta.tes which are not members of the committee will have an oppor-
tunity to submit their proposa.ls to the ccmmittee on questions which are
the subject of discussion in the committee~ and participate in their discuss-
ion; the committee will invite sta.tes~ who are not members of ito to exgress
their point of view during the examination ~f questions which are of special
interest to these states; and plenary meetings of the committee will be
open if there is no other solution.
As it is not difficult to see, many of the new rules will be incorporated
into committee practices for the first time. This pertains, in particularo
to such items as the chairmanship grocedure, appointment of the secreta.ry,
the strengthening of ties with the UNo and the open nature of plenary sessions.
_ All these changes wnre in grinciple ma.de with the aim of attaching greater
representation and effectiveness to this operating organ.
_ Among other organizational measures aimed at improving work in the disarmam-
ent area, it is possible to single out the propositions concerning the -
strengthening of the UN Center on Disa,rmament a new link in the UN
st~ructure which was created not long before the convening of the special
session of the C,eneral Assembly on disarmament. The expansion of the research
and informational function of this center is provided for. In addition,
~t is proposed tha.t the UN General Secreta.ry set up a consultative council
consistin~ of outstanding figta~es~ selected on the ba.sis of their personal
~:nowledge with a consideration for fair ~eographic representation, to give
advice on va.rious aspects of research in the area of disarmament. On the
~ole, the strengthening and expansion of the mechanism existing in the UN
~`'or examining disarmament questions was provided for in this way, Page 122,
which states~ "A world conference must bc~ convened in the shortest appro-
priate time with a universal composition and with proper prepa.ration," -
d~;serves special mention. This point confirms the goal for whose achieveme nt
the USSR and other peaceloving states have striven for a number of year:.
A:~ ~~,s ~.lready pointed out above, the importance of this world forum would
be very great. It is capable of providing a new and powerful impulse to
all work in the disarmament area. Therefore, the inclusion of this point in
the concluding document of the special session of the General Assembly was ~
called upon to pave the way for a very rapid convening of this very important
maasure.
- This in general outline is the content of the concluding documento In general,
it once aga.in convincingly empha.sizes the understanding which is growing
throughout the world of the importa,nce of disarmament as a wa,y to strengthen
peace~ Tne program of practical measures in the disarmament area, which is
formulated in the document, can exert no small influence on the general course
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of subsequent work in this direction. It is importa.nt to empha.size here that
many constructive initiatives of the USSR and other socialist countries~
which are capable of really advancing the cause of disarmament, f ound~
_ expression in the concluding document. For example, this pertains to the
. area of nuclear disarmament and the ba.nning of al'1 other (including new)
systems of mass destruction. The gresence of the~e propositions w3.thout a
doubt attaches quite a bit of useful direction to the concluding document.
This document, without any doubt, will occupy a prominent place among UN
decisions on disarmament questioris. Therefore~ on the whole the wurk of
the special sesion of the General Assembly is justifiably assessed in the
world as a useful contribution to the cause of the disaxma,ment strugglea
Despite the recommendation nature of the concluding document, the session
wa.s undoubteclly a very timely and important measure.
It is necessary to mention that a NATO Council session~ wholly devoted to
whipping up the arms race, wa,s held in Washington during the work of the UN
General Assembly's special session on disarmament. It took place under
the badge of developing plans to strengthen the military prepaxations of this
military bloc; in particular, decisions on strengthening its air and naval
forces, increasing the number of ~Imerican troops in Western Europe, and rais-
ing the military budgets of the NATO member states were worked out. The
actions of the NATO member sta.tes were assessed by peaceloving humanity as
a deliberate demonstration of their attachmenttn whipping up the arms race
and increasing tensions.
In this connection. L.I. Brezhnev's words resound with enormous force= "The R
leaders of a number of NATO's leading countries, especially the United States,
clearly do not wish to display a constructive approach to the solution of
alisarmament tasks. How otherwise can one assess the holding of a NAZ~O Council
session in Washington where a new long range arms program wa.s adopted at
the sa,me time that the opposite how to bridle the arms race was being -
discussed in New York during the UN General l~ssembly's special session."l~
Such actions by the imperialist circles once again remind one of the exist-
enoe in the West of influential enemies of disarmament who are exerting
efforts to disrupt the process of relaxing tensions which has begun to be
seen and develop new turns in the arms race. Of course, this policy very
seriously complicates forward movement in the cause of disa.rmament.
The struggle for disaxmament is ta.king place in a complicated and difficult
situation. Forward movement here is possible only on the ba.sis of overcoming
the stubborn resistance of the imperialist advocates of the arms race. Each
of the internatior,al disarmament agreements achieved up to now was the
result of the p~poseful and stubborn struggle of the USSR~ other socialist
states and many peaceloving countries. In the future, it is necessary to
expand the stxuggle to develop new and even more effective disarmament mea-
sures.
This task is acquiring special importance and prospects under the conditions
of establishing a climate of relaxation in international relations which
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contributes to deepening the multi-faceted cooperation between states of ~
different social systems. Under such conditions, the prospect of the dis-
- armament str~;ggle promises and ever more appreciable ~uccesses. Object-
ive opportunities are thereby created for the further and ever more active -
de~elopment of disarmament law.
The slogan of supplementing political relaxation with military relaxation is
on the agenda. of international life as an urgent practical task. Of course~
it is impossible to diminish the difficulties in solving it, On the path
to disaxmament, there are many obstacles crea.ted by the policy of aggressive
imperialist circles. L. I. Brezhnev points outi "The actions of the milit-
aristic circles of imperialism, eovered by the false thesis of the 'Soviet
threat', are pushing the NATO countries onto the clangerous path of further
building up w~eapons arsenals and increasing military expenditures, are a
real and ever growing threat to peoples' security. The policy of the gresent
Chinese leadership is also hand in glove with these forces."14
Nevertheless, the movement in the direction of disarmament is becoming
stronger, achieving ev~r more appreciable results. The growing power of the
- forces ~f peace is finding expression in this. It is attaching a steadfast
and irreversible nature to this movement and ma.kes it an integral feature `
of modern international life.
F00 TNOTES
l. Cf. "50 let bo~by SSSR za razoruzheniye. Sbornik dokumentov"
[50 years of the USSR's Struggle for Disarmament], pp 481-506.
"Rezolyutsii, prinyatyye General'noy Assambleyey na, chetyrnadtsatoy
sessii" [Resolutions Adopted by the General Assembly d~ing its 14th
5ession1, p 3. '
3. PRAVD!?, 20 December 1977.
4. "Sbornik deystvuyushchikh dogovorov~ soglasheniy i konventsiy..."
[Collection of Treaties, A~raements and Conventions in Effect....]
28th Editian~ p 43.
.5a Ibid.~ 31st Edition, p. 58. ~
6. "SO let bor'by SSSR za, razoruzheniye. Sbornik dokumsntov," p 590.
7. IZVESTIYA, 25 September 19?4,
8. PRAVDA, 23 December 1976.
9. Zbid., 3 March 1977�
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10. Ibid, 26 April 1978.
11. Cf. A. A. Gromyko, "0 prakticheskikh putvakh k grekrashcheniyu gonku
vooruzheniy" [About Fractical Ways to Halt the Arms Race~, Moscow~
1978~ P 20.
12. Cf.text NOYOYE VREMYA~ No 28, 1978, PP 36- ~8�
13. PRAVDA, 26 June 1978.
14. Ibid., 2 February 1979�
COPYRIGHTe "Mezhdunarodnyye otnosheniya", ~979
8802
CSO~ 1800
19
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_ INTERNATIONAL
REVIEW OF BOOK EDITED BY GROMYKO ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Moscow ISTORIYA SSSR in Russian No 2, Mar-Apr 80 pp 178-180
[Review by G. F. Kim and I. D. Koval`chenko, corresponding ~.embers of the
USSR Acadzmy of Sciences, and A. M. Khazanov, of the book "Istoriya
diplomatii" edited by A. A. Groaryko, I. N. Zemskov, V. A. Zorin, V. S.
Semenov and S. L. Tikhvinskiy, second editian, Vol V, book 2, Politizdat,
1979, 49,000 copies, 766 pages]
[Text] The 1960's and `70s will go down in the history of international
relations as a period filled with turbulent and compl:x events and severe
in*_ernational crises, as a time of profound and rapid changes in the ~
shape of the world. The most perceptible feature on the frontier of the
'bOs and '70s was the consistent policy pursued by the USSR and the other
socialist natians to strengthen peace and the security of nations, a
policy maCerialized in the process of detente.
The book being reviewed sheds light upon the most important problems of
international relations and diplomacy in the '60s and '70s. As in pre-
vious volumes of this major study, the main focus is upon key issues of
USSR foreign policy and the development of international relations during
- the period studied. The contents of the book are a:ranged according to
problems and areas: along with explaining questions of international
ralations in the main areas (Europe, the Near and Middle East, A�rica,
Latin America, and so forth) it also discusses a number of international
problems and circumstances, without a knowledge of which it is impossible
to form a sufficiently complete and correct concept of the nature of
international relations during the period considered (various aspects of
the struggle for detente, the nonalignment movement, the UN and problems
of maintaining peace, and so forth).
We believe that it was precisely this arrangement of the material which
has permitted the authors thoroughly and comprehensively to investigate
the entire system of contemporary international relations. Central among
the issues covered in the book are questions pert~Lning to the struggle
waged by the Soviet Union and other nations of the socialist cammonwealth
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for the intensification of the process of detente in international rela-
tions, for cessation of the arms race, for disarmament and for peace and
the securiCy of nations.
- The persistent and systematic struggle conducted as a part of socialism~s
diplomatic efforts in the 1960's and `70s, made it possible to resolve
many peaceful settlement issues in Europe. The result was a transition
from an area of "cold war'~ and confrantation to detente and cooperation. -
The policy of detente helped strengthen the principles of peaceful
coexistence and ser~Lously hampered the efforts of imperialist groups in
_ the West to renew the "cold war" against the socialist nations. -
The book stresses the fact that decisions coming out of the 1975 Helsinki
Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, the convening of which
- was made possible by joint or coordinated actions on the part of the
socialist nations and demonstrations by extensive social forces, as well
as by the development of trends toward realiam in the policiea of the
Western nations, were highly important for the strengthening of peace
throughout the world and for the spreading of detente to all areas of the
globe (p 145). The 5 years which have gone by since the Helsinki Con-
ference have shawn that the foreign policy of the Soviet Union and the
other nations ir~ the socialist commonwealth steadfastly adheres to the
principles underlying the Helsinki agreements. They consistently speak
out in favor of expanding steps to strengthen mutual trust in Europe and
to reduce military confrontatian between the socialist and capitalist _
states. In the years which have passed since the Hekinki Confe~ce we have
been able to achieve substantial normalization of relations between the
socialist and Western nations and, what is especially important, a certain
stability in relations between the USSR and the ~nited States. All of
these complex processes in international affairs have been explained with
sufficient eompleteness in the book which is the subject of this review.
A significant portion of the book is devoted to an analysis of interna-
tional relations in Asia and Africa. We would like to make special -
mention of this fact, since this is essentially the first such complete
and thorough coverage of issues pertaining to the step-up in the foreign
policy activities of Asian and African states and to their growing
influence upon the development of international relations. This new
development in contemporary internatianal affairs is a result of far-
reaching structural changes produced in the system of international rela-
tions by the collapse of imperialism's colonial system. The book traces
the development of the diplomacy of the young Asian and African states
and describes its struggle to strengthen the political and economic
independence of those nations and to bring the liberated states onto the
world scene as equal members of the international co~nunity. Their large
and positive role in all contemporary international life is to a great
degree the result of the sincere support received from the states of the
socialist commonwealth. It is, therefore, perfectly natural that one of
the important aspects of this book is provided by an analysis of relations
between the USSR and the liberated nations.
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The b ook convincingly shows us that the Soviet Union~s cooperation with
the national liberation movement has diverse forms, the most important of
which are political and moral support, economic and iinancial aid and,
final ly, military coope ration and support when the peoples of the Afro-
Asian nations need such assistance to achieve political independence or
to def2nd it against the 'encroachments of the imperialists. _
Relations between the USSR and the liberated na~tions are conceived
primarily as the all-round and disinterested fostering of complete decolo-
nization and independent development by the socialist power and the
estab lishment of a new type of equal and mutually beneficial interna-
tional relations. The existence of this factor, to be specific, the ~
existence of the USSR and the other socialist nations with their constant
readiness to provide support for the national liberation movement, is
creating a fundamentally new climate in international relations and
forcing the imperialist pawers to take this into cansideration in their
approach to mutua~ relations with the developing nations. _
As the book shows us, the economic, political and military strength of
the USSR constitute the main obstacle to imperialism's neocolonialist
expansion and, furthermore, that it has in many cases forced the impe-
rialists to refrain from the use of force and crude dictating with respect
to the developing nations.
The book also describes a number of cases in which the Soviet Union,
fulfilling its international duty, has cone to the aid of the peoples
of Asia, Africa and Latin America, the victims of imperialist aggression.
_ Specifically, our nation provided such assistance to the Arab peoples, to ,
Vietn am, Angola, Ethiopia and other nations in the 1960's and '70s.
The authors thoroughly expose the neocolonialist policy of the United
States and other imperialist pawers during the period discussed. A
characteristic feature of this policy was growing intervention into the
internal affairs of other people.s in the most diverse areas of the world.
In tliis process, imperialism has counted mainly on the conflicts which
exist between the developing nations. Taking advantage of these conflicts,
the West has attempted to place those nations with progressive,
revolutionary-democratic regimes into the most difficult economic and
political circumstances possib le.
Along with imperialism, the present Chinese leadership is exerting an
extremely destabilizing influence upon the situation in Asia and through-
out the world. In a detailed analysis of the foreign policy of the PRC,
especially its evolution in the 1960~s and '70s, the authors of the book .
show how Beijing has gradually stepped up its search for ways to achieve
a rapprochement with the imperialist nations as anti-Sovietism has
increased. "Beijing`s criticism of the United States became increasingly
milder, and the llth CCP Congress held in August 1977 and the February-
March 1978 session of the VSNP [All-Chinese Assembly of National
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Representatives] actually sanctioned an invitation to the United States
to taice part in a Lmited anti-Soviet front, which was issued in plain
terms by Deng Xiaoping in October 1977" (p 416). Those sections of the =
b ook dealing with relations between the CPR and the USSR and the Mongoliar_
People's Republic, as well as the imperialist states, and with interna-
tional relations in various regions of the world reveal the antipopular,
great-power, expansionistic essence of the foreign policy and diplomacy
conducted by Beijing, which is attempting to become close with the more
reactionary forces on the anti-Soviet and antisocialist platforma
At the same time, the b ook stresses, the intrigu~s of imperialism an~
Maoism and their allizs, aimed at imposing neocolonialist control upon
the peoples of Asia and Africa, are encountering increasingly determined
resistance. Relying upon the growing support of the Soviet Union and the
entire socialist commonwealth, the liberated nations are taking more
ac*_ive stances in the struggle against the dangerous provocations of
imperialism and its accomplices, which are sowing hostility and distrust
among peoples and provoking international con.flicts which thre~ten peace
throughout the woY�ld. The fact that far-ranging, positive changes ax~
occurring in the international situation in Asia has been borne out by the
collapse of the aggressive SEATO and CENTO blocs (the former in. 1975 and
the latter in 1979), the eliminatian of American military bases in Irany
expansion of the nonalignment movement, the step-up in the struggle bein g
waged by the developing nations to restructure international economic
relations, and so forth.
_ The authors provide complete substantiation for their conclusion to the ~
effect r~at "the intensification of the str�uggle being waged by socialism's
peaceful forces for detente and disarmament and for the continued strength-
enir~g of principles of peaceful coexistence among states with different
social systems, the successful ending, with the assistance of the So~riet
Union, of a number of armed conflicts in Asia, the final and complete
victory of the peoples of In~3ochina over the American aggressors and the
establishment of relationships of friendship and broad cooperation between
the majority of Asian states and the USSR and other socialist narions--all
of these anri other positive advances occurring in international af�airs in
1960's and '70s have opened up new possibilities for the strengtk?ening of.
peace and security in Asia" (p 351).
This book is the first in Soviet historiography to summarize and analyze
experience in international relations in the East during the past two
decades and to make absolutely obvious the fact that the liberated states
are becoming more and more profoundly cognizant of their national
interests and taking increasingly determined action against imperiali.st
pretentions, no matter what form they take. This has been demonstrated9
among other ways, by events related to the struggle being waged by the
Arab peoples against a separate Egyptian-Israeli agreement, by the revo-
lutionary changes which have occurred in Iran, Afghanistan, Nicaragua and
other countries, by decisions coming out of the sixth Conference of ~Ton-
aligned Nations in Havana, and so forth.
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This book will make a substantial contribution to the study of the history
of international relations and diplomacy. It will undoubtedly serve as a
reliable aid for diplomats, scientists, instructors, students and propa-
gandists and for all those interested in international relations.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo Nauka, ISTORIYA SSSR, 1980
11499
CSO: 1800
~
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NATIONAL
FEDOSEYEV DI3CUSSES STRUCTURE OF SOVIET ECONOMY
_ Mosco~r VOPR05Y FIL030FII in Russian No 2,1980 pp 3-15
~rticle by P. N. Fedoseyev: '"Theoretica.l Problems of 3ocioeconomic Develo~~-
ment of Soviet Society in the Pr~sent Stage,'~ based on a report read at the
(~eneral Assembly of the USSR Academy of Sciences of 13 December 19797
/~eat~ In his speech at the November (1979~) Plenum of the Party Central Cam-
mi.ttee, General Secretaiy of the Party Central Coramittee Leonid rl. ~yich
Brezhnev pointed out that the party has great hopes for the activa support
of rnar scientists and especially the US3R Academ~ of 3ciences, the republi,c
and branch academies, and a11 scientific research institutes in solving the
cvrrent problems confronting the national ecornom~r.
The problema of achieving optimal interaction of scientific-technical progress
with socioeconomic development are of vStal irr~Qrtance to the future intensive
rise of the national econo~rpr. Acteaally, solution of the economic arxi soc3al
problems to a great extent depends upon how effectively scientif~ic and tee~r~d.-
cal advances help to accelerate the gro~rth of labor productiv3.ty arid of the
Whole national ecoriaa?~. And in their turn the rates of scientif3c-techrdoa7.
progress are deternri.ned not by the latter ~ s internal. lo~c alone, but to a
critical extent by the socioeconrnnic condi.tions as we]1. The whole series of
comple~c and variegated links characterizing thie interaati~on is to be refZec-
_ ted partic~il.arly in the General Program of Scientific-Technical Progress,
whi.ch is being prepared by the U3SR Acader~r of Sciences, the US3R State Com-
mittee on Science and Technolo~,y~ and USSR Gosstroy on behalf of t~he central
organs.
1. 3tructural Improvement of the U3SR~s Econombr
Zhe key problem of socioeconomic development is that of the proportions and
ratea of socialist production. Planned dev~elopment of the sociali.st national
econo~r accord3ng to the Marxi.at-Leninist theory of reproduction permits pur-
poaeful regulation and direction of the structural changes in the economy in
conformity with the various historical stages. At all stages of socialist
construction the party and state have regularly emphasized questione of
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structural poli cy. The party has always proceeded from the principle that =
~~the economic erowth rates, the possibilities foi~ the accumulat3.ons essential
to economic development and the people~s greater good heavily depend upon the
proper solution of structural problems.'~ (1) -
In the first years of socialist conetruction the problem of i~roving the na-
tional economic structure was resolved solely in favor of accelerated develop-
ment of heavy industry. The vast economi.c rmeasures that strained all the re-
sources and forces of the people made it possible to place the national econo-
~r on the path of modern industry and to make rad-Lcal changes in its stracture
in a very brie.f historical peMod. ~ile in the initial period of aocialist
construction most of the national income came from agriculture, now over 60
percent of it is produced in industry and construction.
The nation has become a modern industrial one, covered by a network of elec-
tric power stations. New cities and industrial centers have been created
and large new regional-industrial complexes have been formed. The vast and
rapid growth of the USSR~s industrial po~rer is evidenced by comparing it w3.th
the grow~h of the industrial output of the most developed capitalist country,
the United States. In 1913 the USSR was behind the United States by 7 times
- in steel smel.ting, and now it is ahead by more than 20 percent. We were mir~
- ing 2 timea less coal t~han the United States, but now it is 11 percent more.
Our total oil extraction was 7 td.mos less than that of the United States, and
now it, is 33 percent more. Our cement output was 8 times behi.nd the U.S. to-
'tal., while no~r it exce~ds the latter by 65 percent. We are now producing 2.3
timea more tractors than the United 5tates. (2)
The accelerated growth of the machine building compleac and of power engineer-
ing brou~t about major structural. ck?anges in heavy industry. Between 191t0
and 1978 the machine building and metal ~rorki.ng outputs increased by 63 times
and that of electric power by 25 timee. This made it posaible to increase the
ca.pi.tal-labor ratio and the power-worker ratio by mar~y t~imes. From 19l~0 to
1978 the power= worker ratio ~s increased nearly 7 times in industry and by
mor~ than 11.~ times in a~riculture. (3)
'rht~nks to the pro~ressive processes in the econw~y, an adequate technical-
material ba,se for developed socialism was created. This permitted a definite
char,ge in the existing proportions in the national econo~r in the form of a
greater share of the resources allocated to consumer n~eeds. While in 1970
th~ resources allocated to the conaumption fund, calculated in terms of the
existing prices, amounted tv 70.~ percent of the national incoms~ in 1978
th~y came to 73.7 percent. In the Eighth P`S.ve-Year Plan the increase in the
conswnption fund amounted to 64 percent of the total absolute increase in t~he
national incoms, while in the Ninth Five-Year Pla.n and t~he first 3 years of
the tenth one it exceeded 80 percent. Some approximation of the growth rates
of production groups A and B is a good ~i~n, as ~rell as the considerable gain
in the share of heavy industry in the output of conswner goods. (4)
- In the last few years the results of the party~s consistent policy of ma~or
redi.stribution of accumulations in favcr of the agrarian sector of the economy
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have been conspicuous. Until the start of the Ninth Five-Year Plan the groxth
rates of the main productive capital of agriculture lagged behind the corres-
pon~ing average index for the national econom~, but they have been exceeding
it for the last few years.
- There have been major shifte 3n the social structure. The worldng claea hae
increased by 7 times ~inae 1926. The demands for acientific-techn3.ca1 pro-
gresa, education and health protection have enormously augtnented the intelli-
gentaia. The nwnber of workers engaged in largely intellectual ~ork haa risen
t'Y'omm 3 million in 1926 to 37.5 million, or by 12.5 times. The agricultural
population has considerably diminished. lhiring the years of Soviet power the
proportion of the urban population has increased from 18 to 62 percent, with
an absolute increase of 132.5 million peraone. (5)
qll. this has intensified a number of social problems, such as housing and sub-
sistence especially. To describe the extent of the housing construction need-
ed to meet the increased demands for dwelling apace in the citiee, it is suf-
ficient to say that the increas3 al.one in the U9SR~s urban population in the
years of 9oviet power equals the enta.re present popul.ation of the citie$ of
~hgland, France, Italy, 3weden and Denmark together. The USSR has built 3.3
billion cubic meters of dwelling space, but the demand for comfortable hous-
ing is still far ~om fully satisfied.
The food problem has also taken a neW form. Although the gross agricultural
output has increased by 3.6 times, regular supply of the public with high-
quality products is sti11 one of the most serious problema. The fact muat be
considered that the pro~portion of the population employed in agricultural has
_ declined from 75 to 21 percent. While in the past one agricultural worker
had to produce for t~o persons, now it is 11 peraons, and thia ha+s required a
pronounced increase in labor productivi~ty (6) and the capital-labor ratio.
Naturally the CPSU Central Committee is heavily emphasizing consolidation and
further development of the technical-material hase of agriculture and itb
more effective use.
And so th~ structural changes that took place in the national economy radical- _
lp changed the na~ure ~f production, ,~as~cally strengthened soeial unity, and
extended the scope and possibilities of solving the current and long-range
socioeconomic problems.
At the same time the resulting n,ational economic atructure is not fu11y meet-
ing the requirements of the econamic strateg,y and social policy in the pres-
ent stage, which are constant concerns of the party and state. The consider-
able gro~rth of machine building makes it neceasary to determine its exact lag
behind the requirements of the national econon~y, especially in the matter of
curta~ling the norms for use of underproductive manual labor. The poxer out-
- put is irisufficient for the growing ta.sks of raising the poxer-worker ratio
and supplying the social, cultural and living neede of the public. -
The taska of technical irnprovement of product~.on call for accelerated develop-
_ ment of the sectors that determin~e technical progreas. But as contrasted with
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the previous period, the rapid growth rates of the new technology and indus-
trial equipment must be met without retarding the growth rates of the sectors
producing consumer goods. Expressed in terms of economic procedure, the pro-
blem of correlating the growth rates of these t~ro subdivi.sions of social pro-
duction at the present stage consists of ineeting the ~rowing demanda for pro-
duction means on an intensive rather than an extensive basis. This problem
is urgent because the output of uneconomic production means keeps increasing
the specific outlays of rax materials to makp the products for final consur~-
tion, to the detriment of the economic effectiveness of production. The
growth rate o~' the Soviet econor~r are increasingly limited by the growth rates
' of the extxactive sectors.
Because of the predominance of the extensive factors of production ~owth, the
latter~s high inputs of materiale are one of the main reasons for the decline
of the growth rates and qualitative indices of economic deve.lopment. Whi1e the
average annual increase in used national incorne came to 7.1 percent in the -
Eighth Fivs-Year Plan, it Kas 5.1 percent in the Ninth and 4.2 percent in the
lOth Five-Year P1an. The falling growth rates of the national income are ac-
companied by a steady and also considerable increase in the nolume of fixed
productive capital and pt~ysical worki.ng capital uaed in the national econor~.
~ahile the : atio of the growth of the national income to that of fixed produc-
tive capital in the Eighth Five-Year Plan was about 1:2, in the Ninth Five-
Year Plan it was 1:3.4, and in the first years of the l0~th Five-Year Plan it
is already l:1~.2. This sl-iows how the capital-output ratio is declining. (7)
Although there has been some appro~dmation of the growth rates of the first
anc~ second subdivisions, the declining effectiveness of production is widening
thE gap between the growth of production and that of consumption. This dis-
crepa.ncy is the main cause of the steadily growing imbalance between th.e pub-
zic~s cash incomes and their cnmmodity purchases.
'"he ~xperience of the last few years has shown that an overall increaee in the
~~ut.put volwnea of fuel,,raw materials and materials, while seeming to be the
siirrolest and most convenient way oi� providing the national econolr~y Wl.th pro-
duc~t,ion means, actually tends to aggrava,te the shortage. The fact is that the
ex+,,x~active sectors of production consume the most capital and labor, and their
e~ansion requires large qua.ntities of energy, mecha,nisms, machinery and tr~-
t~:�.ri.als and increases the volunu~ of shipping. This confronts the national eco-
;~omy with a nery serious problem. The demands for production means are in-
cr~ased, and the efforts to meet them on an extensive ba,ais are inadequate.
The imbalance (shortage) of sheet metal is on the increase~ despite a consid- -
erable ~ain in steel srnelting, and the fuel-ener~y requirement i~ being met
w1.t.h great di.fficulty even with steadily growing nolumes of fuel eactraction.
A11 this bears out the stand taken by Lo I. Brezhnev at the 21~th Party Con-
gress to the effect that the extensive factors for growth have been exhausted
aru~ the role of the intensive factors must be developed in every possible way.
3hift from Extensive to Intensive Methods Is UrgQnt
~he difficulty with the strategic shift to the intensive method of development
is that the current needs are exerting pressure on the long-range undertald.ngs.
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The nex and effective system of machines and perfected industrial processes
can appear in a few years, but raw material, fuel and energy are needed to-
day. Now the ma~r. ab~ectine of scientific development and the art of plan-
ning is to reorganize the econom~q in operation, so to speak. Whi1e making a
~ecisive effort to expedite technical reequipment and intensification of pro~
duction and to conserve energ,y, fl.iel, metal and other kinds of raw mater3.al,
the party also coneiders it necessary to provide for the future development
of the fuel and raw material base and metallurgy, as we~l as other industria]. _
sectors. Meanwhile the general effort to enhance the effectiveness an~i qual-~
ity of opera~ions and to introduce intensive methods of economic dev~elopment
is to determ~ne the future rates arHd proportions of socia3ist reproduction in
keeping with the structural changes among and within the aectors.
Of courae it is easier to put off planning and the start of the radical change
in plazini.ng from one year to the next or from the current fice-year plan to
the nex one on the pretext that all the proport~.ons and resources are alreac~y
'~tied up.~? But this approach does not solve the urgent problems and mere],y
postpones and complicatea thera. It is a question of developing and immediateT
ly ing~lementing the nex conception of economic groxth with heavy emphasis upor~
intensive developmsnt.
But ~hat does intensification mean? The nature and criteria of the intens~ve
type of growth have not yet been clearly defined in science or in economi.c
- practice. Often intensification means ar~y production inerease through additi~
ona]. inveatmenta in ~ixed productive capital regardless of the correlation of
the invested resources and the end results. For exang~le, a gain in live ].a~bor -
productivity made by increasing its capital-labor ratio is often interpreted
as a factor for intensification even when the saving in live labor does not
cover the outlays for its equipment, or in other words when the total outlays
per w~it of finished output are increased. On this basis a gain in national
income made ~rithout 3ncreasing the number of workers is considered an expres-
si.on of intensified product3on, although thi~ gain is made by an overezpendi-
ture of pa,at labor, that is the labor outlays to create the producti~n means.
But the fact is that intensification of the econon~r is not solel,y a matter of
lower outlays of live labor with an increase in its capital-labor ratio. It
also requires reduct~on of the output-capital ratio and the material iriputs of
production. According to K. Marx~ methodology, there can be no intensi.fic~-
tion of the production process unless the total output is increased not by e~c-
panding the ~field of production~ but primarily by uae of effective labox r~e
sourcea.
~ In considering reduction of the production cost of machines per unit of their
productivity, which is eqzzivalent to reduction of the output-capital rati.o of
production, Marx directly pointed out that under conditions of technical pro-
gress nthere is no necessity of an absolute increase in the operating capital
production costs.~~ (8)
The viex is sometimes heard that technical progress is inevitably accompanied
by an increaae in the output-capital ratio, which conflicts with the vier~r~ c;:f
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Marxist theory F~nd with historical experience. K. Marx also pointed out in
- " Capital" that with scientific and techn~ical progress the old machines~ tools
and devices are replaced by more effective ones that are cheaper in relation
to the aniounts of work they perform. '~Production of machines by means of ma-
chinea reduces t,heir production coat in re].ation to their outpute and their
performanoe." (9)
In the present stage technical improvement of production and the rapid econaa??-
ic growth rates require considerably faster development of the technically ad-
vanced sectors of industry, such as electric power engineering, electronics,
the most effective types of machine and instrument building, and the other
sectors that determine technical progress. As for the traditional sectors,
such as extraction and processing of natural "rax materials and production oi
construct3.on materials, the requirements of the national econon~y for the pro-
� ducts of these sectors can and should be met by reducing their specific con-
- sumption norms.
As we lrnoW~ the proportion of past~ materialized labor in the total social
product nox exceeds 60 percent, and it comes to 80 percent and more in the
processing aectors, while that of live labor is about 15 percent. Therefore
reduction of the material iriputs and the output-capital ratio of the product
is important not only from the standpoint of improving the current cost ac- _
counting indices of production alone. The fact is equally important that low- ~
ering the specific outlays of fuel, raw material and mateMals and raising the
_ capital-orutput ratio are the most effectiv~e way of rationalizing the propor-
_ f.3.ons and enhandng the role of the intensive factors for gro~th as well as
~-practicable way of~ ;~vercoming the marYpower shortage. -
IInder the present cir~~umstances reduction of the material inputs in production
is to becanne one of �the criteria for evaluating the scientific-technical lenel
of pr~duction in ar;y sector and in every enterprise. As L. I. Brezhnev point-
ed out, "Conserving rax materials by improving production in the processing
induatry is much prefera.ble to additional production of the same quantities
of x~aw materials. A mere 1 percent reduction in the material iriputs in the
national product is equivalent to an additional increase in the nati.onal ir~
come amount3ng to 3-!~ billion rubles." (10) ;
I:~�the past the trend toward reduction of material inputs was obstructed by
eva.luation of the enterprises~ and sectors~ act3vity according to volumes of
grosa output, a great part of which conaisted of the raw materials, material.s
and manufactured goods procured from outside that xere used in production.
The new economic mechanism appro~ved in the Decree of the CPSU Central Commit-
tee and the USSR Council of Miniatera of 28 July 1979 eliminatea this drax-
back in cost accounting. When the poasibilities of economic gror~rth througk~
the extensive factors (and especially through additional ma~ower) are sharply
curtailed, the proportioned and balanced quality of the national econon;y
should prav~ide for the a1.7.-around intensification of production snd especial.~y
}�he accelerated growth of labor product3.vity.
The main ob~ectives of inq~roved proportioning of social production are clearly
defined in the party decisions. These are better proportions of consumption
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and accumulation in the national income, provision for coordination of a7,]. un-
its of the agrarian-induatrial complex, further development of such industria].
sectors as fuel and energy~ metallurgy and machine building, ad~ustment of
transportation and the production and social substructure, and reorientation
of capital investaments and scientific-technical progreas toward more complete
use of exi.sting resourcea far purposes of increased production of consumer
~oods.
But clearly improvement of the r~urposeful planned management of the prnporti-
one of social production requii~es not only prompt elimination of the detected -
discrepanciea but especiall.y provision for anticipatin~ and preventing the
appearance of nex disparities, and so far economic theory and planning activi- -
ty have not been very successful in this respect. Therefore the mai.n nation~l.
task of economic science is to provide for more reliable and realistic corre-
lation of the proportions of social reproduction in tho plans for national
socioeconomic development.
3. Irr~rovement of Planning and . Special-Prograin Methotls
Change in the proportions of social production is required by the ob~ective�
necesaity of intensified production, and it depends upon improved developmex~t
of special pro~ram methods in planning. Use of these methods helps to scien-
tifically substantiate the whole aystem of ineasures needed to carry out the
long-range plan assignmentsj to coordinate these measures in time, to corre~
- late them ~,rith the needed resources, to determine their immediate and long- ~
= range consequences, and to assign responsibilities for implementation of t1~e
- pro~am as a whole and of its various caa~onent parts and stages. 3pec3a~1,A
pro~am m~thods of planning are a fozm of planned management that helps to
; subordinate current adminiatration to solution of the long-range development-~
. al problems of social product~ion.
It is now necessary to specify the principles of specia,l.-progra~n planni,ng in
theory. Sr~cialist planni.ng has always resolved vital problems purposefully
and provided for such vast programs as the plan for nat~ional electrification,
the creation of heavy industry, especial]y the second and third coal-metal-
lurgical centers and the enterprises of the Kursk magnetic anomaly, the re-
clamation of the virgin lands, the transformation of the central nonchernozem
zone, the construction of the BAM /~aykal-Amur T.~ank Line7, etc. Now that
th~ national econorqy has reached colossal proportions an3 the scal:e of plan-
ning has vastly increased, expansion of the scape of program-purpose plam~ing
methods wi,th use of co~uting equipment has becarae an ob3ective and even vital
necessity. Of course it is not a matter of increasing the number of programs
but of a qualitative change in the approacn to planning that requires radical -
reorganizatian of the methodology and method.s of planning and administration~
and Lenin~s idea of the uniform state economic plan has been and remains the
leading principle of managem~ent. But this means that the plan cannot be the
mathemati cal sum of the variou~ individval programs. Totaling the separate
programs would not be socialist planni.ng but the sa-call.ed programming that
is more and more widely used in the West in government regulation of the eco~
nomy. In socia].ist management purposeful programs must be based upon the
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requirements of planned development of the national econrnr~y and they must be
component parts of a uniform sta.te plan.
The problem of balanced development of the whole national economQr becomes pari-
ticularly urgent in connection with expanded special-program P1~~ activi.-
ty. As we lalo~a, the problem of correlating an~1 diatinguiehing priorities and
balanc3.ng has always been acute~ and now it ia becoming still more urgent.
I,arge-scale programs usual.ly require heavy, long-term capital investments tak-
lr~ a number of years to pay off~ and it is clear that overloading a plan with
expensive programs can make balancing difficult and delay economic growth. In
his time K. Marx foresaw that proper ciistribution of invest~ments betwaen long
and short term objectives of economic turnover under socialism would ha.ve to
be one of the main principles of planning.
Use of the potentials and advantagea of special-program planning depends not
only upon the soundness of the special programs themselves but also upon
their close correlation with all parts of the national economic plan. If this
correlating is not done carefully enough, the special-program method can lead
to arbitrariness in planning with bad effects. Therefore coordination of the
programs w.~th a]1 parts of the pl.an for socioeconomic development is particu-
~ 3rly important, and it is al.so important to make a ra.tional select3.on of the
programs included in the plan and to distinguish in their composition the in-
t~rmediate ai.ms and sta.ges of their implementation, which also facilitates
i~heir correlation with the other parts of the plano
An overall special program is expected to subordinate the ac;ti.vities of the -
ma~y organizations implementing it to a single purpose. Therefore its success
hsavily depends upon impraving the ways and means of regulating implementation
of the programs and especially upon specifying the organs coordinating the op-
eration and bearin~ full responsibility for the end resultso Sound scientific
:ecommendations are also needed in this area. As L. I. Brezhnev remarked at
Lhe 25th CPSU Congress~ '~It is important in each case to have specific organs
and specific people bearing full responsibility anci coordinating all efforts
within a given pro~ram." (11)
Development of ~ocia~i.st economic integration requires closer coordination of
~he ~eneral programs of our state plan with the long-term special programs for
c._;::.taboration with the friendly CF3~IA countries on both a bilateral and a mul-
ti:lateral basis.
The scientists' contribution to development of inethods and forrnation and im-
plementation of the overall special na.tional ecanomic programs depends on the
rnunber of main directions of development of seientific studies and expansion
of their practical result,s.
Special empha.sis shou1.d be placed on the following problems requiring intens-
- i~e scientific treatment: _
First, proportioning and balancing can be achieved if all plan decisions are
strictly confined to the limits specified in the plan of financial resources,
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which swrunarizes the total production reaources subject to diatribution and
use. Hence the necessity of improvd.ng the methods of compiling the long-
range financial plan and correlat.ing it with all the planned proportions of
reproduction.
Second, an in-depth stuc~y is required of the ob~ectiv~el,y neceasary correla-
tions in the proportion9 and developmental rates of the various intereectori-
al blocs and sectors of the national economic complex in the light oP experi-
ence in the development of our country and other indust.rially developed coun-
tries. The practical results of these studies will indicate the standard -
correlations allowing for the specific developmental conditions of production,
which can be used in planning and control to substant~iate the proport3ons
specified in the plans.
Thisd, a system of economic indicators must be devised that will make it pos-
sible to detect discrgpancies in the earliest stages of their formation and `
to take prompt measures to nip them in the bud. And finally, more careful
consideration should be given to the problem of coordinating the various main
ob~ectives of scientific-technical progress, use of capital imrestments, and
development of praportioning. Nox for example special emphasis should be
placed on develapment of the most cozrq~lete and comprehensive proportioning to
expedite development of the social and production substructure.
It is clear fro~r? the foregoing that solution of the problem of maintaining
and impro~ving planned proportioning heavily dependa upon the quality of eco-
nomic analysis of the condition and develapment of our national econon~r and
upon discovery of nex potentials and reserves for intensive production growt,h. :
Rationalizing methods of assim~lating ne~ areas has great possibilit3es. The
now prevailing practice of placing their economic resources in economic circu-
_ lation suffers from the defect that the rates and scales of capital inv~estment
in areas of new industrial assimilation greatly exceed the rates and scales of
production growth.
It is no secret that departmental disunion in development of the productive
forces, especially in the newly assimi].ated industrial. regions of Siberia and
the Far East, causes ma.r~y unpxoductive outlays with a bad effec~t upon the na-
tional indices of production effectiveness. Investigations of a number of
ne~rly created enterprises in the eastern regions sho~r that although they atre
located in direct proximity to economic natural resources, their effectiveness
is considerably beloW that of coanparable enterprises reanote from fuel and raW
material sources. This is primarily due to their higher specific initial aut-
lays. It i~ taken for granted that the greater outlays on capital constructi~
on are caused by the severity of the climate and the remotenesa of these re~t.-
ons fro~m communications~ and of course there is soane reason in this. But thQ
fact is eqnall,y significant that in the organization of consfi.ruction each de-
partment not only builda the main plant for itself but also performs all the
operations to imprave the territory and to create the producti.on and nonproduc-
tion substructure independently, ~,rithout cooperating ~with the other depart-
ments. Therefore the initial outlays for these purposes amount to 70 percent
of the total volume of ca,pital investments. The loW effectiveness of the in-
itial. and current outlays and the difficulty of staffing the plants with
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stable personnel are holding up the developmental rates of the productive
forcea in the eastern regi.ons and thereby complicating the problem of supp~y-
the national economies of the US3R and the countries of the socialist camp
with fuel and raw ma.terial.
The only way to overcome these unfavorable trends is to i~rove the organiza-
tional-economic conditions for developing the plants in the newly assimilated
industrial regions. F~ctension of the r3.ghts and development of the initiative
of the lacal goverrrment and adndsistrative organs in the economic mar~agemerrt
of the territory urbder their jurisdiction and el.imi.nat~ion of the departmental
barriers ~rill not only perndt more harmonious development of the economies of
the union republics and economic regions but also strengthen the ties between
them for the further social solidarity of our people.
Particular Problems of Improving Economic Management
Some o.f the exi.sting reserves for intensification can still be pointed out.
First of all, in the extraction of useful minerals the prc~portion of them
left in the ground must be sharply reduced. Residues of this kind have reach-
ed 1~0.~0 percent and more of the total volume of reaerves on balance. In the
total of more than 6.5 billion tons of useful minerals extracted by the entire
extractive industry, the losses amount to 2.5 billion tons. Of these 500 mil-
lion tons amounting to 5-7 billion rubles have been eliminated at the present
levnl of techno~.ogy, and science has now recommended maray new methods for cdm-
nlete ex~loitation of the resources that should be introduced.
In the processing industry, t3.mely and regular renavation of production equip-
ment is the most important reserve for increasing the return on capital. Ac-
cumul.ation of obsolete and worn-out assets in the sectors prevents 3.mprovement
of the econoraic indices, ties up great manpower resovrces, and necessitates
excessive outlays for repairs that are often on a low technical level, xhile
renovation of the equipment produces rapid and effec~ive results.
I=~,adical imprclvement of the structure and technical standaa,ds of machine build-
in~ and its output has became urgent. It is necessary to overcoane the fragmen-
tation of machine building, whereby !~5 percent of the nation~s whole inventory
of rnetal processing equip~nent and no less than 5 million workers are employed
i.n mach~.ne shops and sections of nonmachine-building plants to repair and make
nonstandard, someti.mes handmade equipment. According to the economists~ fi- .
gures, t:air labor prod.uctivity is 20 percent less and their capital-ouput
ratio is 25 percent lower than those of the specialized machine building en-
terprises. More intensive specializat3.on, cooperation and concentration of
rrjachine build3ng are long overdue, as well as introduction of guarantee servic-
ing and repair of all kinda of prod.uction equipment.
It would be expedient to emphasi.ze such an important factor now as the time
of use of equipment. The cost of equipment is constantly going up, and under
these circumstances its use on one shift for only 5 days a~reek~ as it often -
_ happens in marxy enterprf.ses, is unquestionably an extravaga.nce. Clearly or-
garrl.zation of the planning of production, labor, the ~ork day and the work
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_ week to obtain ma}dmum use of fixed production capital should be more specifi-~
ca]1y subetantiated and considered. For example, machine tools with program
control carnzot be allowed to operate for only a few howra a day. Not even
the wealthiest society can afford that.
Ing~roved balancing of the national econo~r is the main requirement for obtai.n~
ing regular production, upon Which effective use of manpo~rer and all other re-~
sources ultimately depends. In manQr enterprises as much as 50 or even 75 perp
cent of the entire output is produced in the last 10 days. This is because
the enterprises determine the rnunber of ~rorkers just for the last 10 days and
consequently the use of manpower is far from effectively planned in advance
or overtims is used, which increases production costs. Losses of working t3m~e
during shifts are sti11 heavy. According to the time studies of the ~rork d.ar,y
made in a number of enterprises of various industrial sectors, the regular
workers spend an average af only 50-70 percent of the total working time on
perf ormance of the shift ~ s task.
For purposes of maxtmum use of labor resources and productive capital., transi-
tion to advanced forms of labor organization, especially brigade methods, must ~
be expedited by all means. As a rule introduction of brigade methods of labor
organization malces it possible to raise labor productivity by 8-20 percent and
to reduce the personnel turnover by 1.5-2 times.
Faster assimilation of new capital has great possibilities for raising the
capital-output ratio. The annual acquisitions of new capital amount to the
impressive total of 10-12 percent of the whole volume of existing capital.
By the present standards it takes from 1 to 3 years to assimilate it throu~a-
- out the various plants, and the acttial time of assimilati~n exceeds the stand~
ards by 1.5-2 times. By the present accounts~ the production lag in new en-
_ terprisea in the first years of their operat3on amounts to !~5 percent and
more, and this means a marked reduction of the capital-output rati.o and the
economic ~ro~rth rates. _
- Organization of scientific studies and the planning and financing of scientific -
institutions are still flawed by backward thinking in terms of extensive
growth. During the post~ar years the number of scientific workers has been
increased by about 10 times but their supply of equipment, their capital-labor
ratio so to speak, has lagged considerably and this is i.nterfering with the
growth of the scientific institutions~ effectiveness. Unfortunately this par-
- ticularly affects basic scientific research. In preparation for their recent
meeting the cammissions of the US3R Supreme Soviet po3nted out that the USSR
Acade~ of Sciences jointly with Gosplan and the Committee on Science and
Technolopr has prepared a general program to aecelerate scientific-technical
progress. ,~mong its measures it is i.mportant to provide for all possible rie-
velopment of basic research.
5. Improvement of Social Relations
The ~aniform system of socioeconomic pla,nning not only of the production process
but also of all social activities has been consolidated. in developed socia~ist
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society. The content of social contacta has been enriched by the grrowing gen-
eralization of socialist production. The concentration, centralization and
specialization of production along with the development of intersectorial con-
tacts i.n the national econmr~r directly affect the development of socialist
cooperation of labor and ca11 for the moet effective methods of involving .
the workers in management and consequently of enhancing the role of t1:e work-
Ers collectives and public organizations in fulfilling the socioeconomic
tasks confronting our whole society.
The regular process of development of socialist production relations is mani-
fested in the great social changes made in the course of approximating the
two forms of socialist ownership and establishing the complete social hamogen-
eity of our society. Regrett.ably the scientific institutions have not yet pro-
vide any accurate instruments for determining the quantitative and qualitative
parameters of mar~y social phenomena occurring in our society. Needless to say,
without these measuring instruments it is difficult to discover the actual
trends of social development and to influence them in planned fashion.
To be sure this does not mean that the indices of soci.al develapment now used
in planr~.ng (improvement of workers qualifications and. profession skill.s, gen-
eral educational and cultural leveZ of the population, improvement of housing,
cultural and personal living conditions.and medical care, and mar~ others) do
not reflect the processes implemented. by planning in society as a whole and
in the republics~ oblasts~ krays~ cities' villages, structure of the sectors,
e~c. But the task clearly consists in presenting all these indices as a
whole and mainly in proper correlation with the tasks for production develop-
ment, �or capital construction~ and for improvement of their effectiveness.
The ro].e of the social factors that must be more completely reflected.in the
planning system is apparent from the example of such a huge social undertaking
as eliminating the essential social differences between mental and physical
work. As we lrnow, one of the vital requirements for thi.s is oeercoming the
re~mnants of the old division of labor and especially eliminating heavy manual
labor, which still plays a relatively large part in the total social labor in
our national econorr~. kre can compute the economic effect of the conversion
af marnaal to mechanized labor more or less accurately. But the social effect
~t the changes in labor is no less important in the critical area of social
ac:tivi.ty, which determi~es the changes in all other areas.
Gradual e7.3.mination of the social differences between city and village is an-
other enormous task that is being successfully accomplished in our society.
As we lrnow, a developed program for this was provided in the decisions of the
July (1978) P'lenum of the CPSII Central Committee, which includes extensive
measures to raise the agricultural workers real incomes, to develop their cul-
tural services, to improve their general educa.tion and occupational-technicaY.
tral.ning, to develop their housing and serv,i.ces construction and other mea-
sures to enhance rural working and living conditions.
_ Conversion of agri.cultural to a type of industrial labor by great changes in
the technj.cal-materiaZ supply of agricultural labor and improvement in the
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social form of agricultural production by way of agroindustrial integration
is.~n important aspect of this process. Determind.ng quantita.tive and qual.ita-~
tive criteria for implementation of social changes in the developed sociali:~t
society would make it possible to devise a more specific special-purpose pro-
~ram of social development at oach stage. The ma,3.n consideration is that we
coul.d make considerable progress in purposeful control of these processes,
It follows from the foregoing that we must consider the socioeconomic pxo:eN~
ses in a state of change and development and determine their intex�ac~ion as
campletely a.s possible. This also concerns the problem of correla~t~ng pradv c~
tion with requirements and especially that of developing and educating t~he
truly reasonable demands of the public. There has been an increas~.r,g output
of literature on this sub~ect in recent years~ but the exi.sting ~aorks provide
no convincing answer to the most pressing question for the theory a,r_d prac vi~e
of social managementr What are the criteria for rea.sonable demand~ and. wha:t
are the w~ys of forming them in a socialist societ~t
Now that the scale of management is vasta7,y enlarged and the netw~oxk ~f economic
interconnections is becoming increasing~.y cc~anplex, dense and ramif:Led, the irr~
por~,ance of such aspects of production activity as labor discipli.na, orgarri.za-
tion, order and regularity of the labor process is enormoualy ix~cxQased. These -
factors for hig~ standards of labor and production are indispens~ble to suc-
cessful economic development. On the other hand unscientific labcr organi.za-
tion, lack of responsibility for labor efforts, stappages of ma.chir.~s and equ3p~
ment, and late or incomplete deliveries inevitably undermine lak~or discipline.
3uch phenomena as excessive personnel turnover, poor labor discipline, shirk~
- ing~ dru,nkenness, and forced layoffs of the labor force alterrua.ting wi~h eqv~l-
1y ur~justified crash work feed and foste~ each other.
The main problem reqviring iirur?ediate solution is heightening respons~.b~.].it~~ an
all levels for the state of labor and official discipline in production co].~e~
tives. There is need of theoretical substantiation of the rights, ta,sks and
obligations of production collectives in the matter of relationshipa related '
to labor discipline. As L. I. Brezhnev remarked in his speech at the November
(1979) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, "The socialist econamir, s~s~em is
inconceivable without consolidation of the centralization principle. At� the
- same tin~e in both politics and economics we need democratic centra73sm offPr-
ing broad scope to initiata.ve from below, the initiative of kolkhozes~ ~ov3{hoz-
- es, enterprises, associations and local organizations. This follows n~t on~y
from our ideology but also from economi.c necessity." (12) L. I. Bre~k~ns~r~s
speech a18o stressed the need of extending the rights of the workers collec--
t3.ves in combatting violations of la.bor discipline, laxi.ty and slac~n~sa, De-
velopment of organ~i.zational and legal measures to enha~nce the role of tkie
workers colTectives in production management is an 3mportant task fbr oux eco~
nomi.sts, sociologiats, and workers in legal science.
The scientific works on labor problems often anticipate and draw p.rema.ture
conclusions that work has alrea~y become a first necessity of li.fe ux~der pre~
sent conditions for the ~reat ma~ority if not all Soviet people. Bufi, th:Is is
still a great social problem. There are sti11 categories of people ~aho work
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_ carelessly or are entirely di.sinclined to do socially useful work. Tighten- -
ir~~ socialist labor discipline remains a vital task~ and it also has i.mport-
ant psychological aspects. It is necessary to stuc~y the principles of ps,ycho-
logical regulation of labor activity, problems of occupational orientatj.~n~
selection and inst~ruction, and questions of formation of a healtY~y moral-psy-
cholo~;ical climate in workers collectives. _
Tmproved planning and management demand further development of socialist com-
petition, which is also a ma~or factor for the greater effectiveness of the
economic mecharri.sm itself., The nex system of compiling the annual plan from
_ below, from the production associations (enterprises) is chiefly im~ortant.
tiere the workers collect~ves~ rights and initiatives must be extended to the
~reatest extent, especially by Way of adopting counterplans. At the same ti.m~e
this system requires more careful substantiation o~' the pledges taken in or-
ganization of competition~ more intensive stuc~y of the economic bases of the
counterplans. Integration of cc~etitian and cost accovnting is to become a
vital condition for encouraging workers collectives in their effort toward
end results and output quality.
In the ninth and tenth five-year plans competition of neighboring enterprises,
arganizations arui plants was expanded. This form of compet3.tion is an effec-
tive way of closer coordination of sciez~tific and design organizations with in-
dustry and agriculture, and of using mass initiative in the effo.~�t to apply
' scientific advances to product3on.
in pursuance of the decisions of the November (1979) Plenum of the CPSU Cen-
tral Commi.ttee, socialist corrcpetition was w:tdely detreloped in the U3SR in hon-
or of the 110th anniversary of Lenin~ s birth, for successful completion of
the five-year plan ar~i worthy preparation for the 26th QPSU Congress, so that
19a0 will be the year of shock~ Leninist work, There is no doubt that Soviet
scientists will make a great creative contribution to the Soviet people~s
c�reative activi~cy and to construction of c~ist society.
FOOTNOTES
1. ~'Materials of the 2l~th CPSU Congress,'~ r~oscow 1971, p 58.
2. ~'D1at~.anal Economy of the USSR in I978~M Moscow 1979 pp ~t9, 61.
3. Ibid. pp 1i9, 11~2, 98, 102.
- LG. Ibid., P 387. .
5. Ibid.~ pp 7~ 9. _
- b. Ibid., pp 363, 393.
7. Ibido, PP 33, 3~, 36, 1t1..
8. K. Marx and F. Engels, "Collected Works,~i Vol 21~, p 400.
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9� Ibide~ Vol 23, p 401�
10, L. I. brezhnev, "Questions of,�Econondc Management of the Developed
Socialist Society~~' Moscow~ 1976, P 297.
- 11. 'M~terials of the 25th ~PSU Congresa~r Moscow~ 197b, p 61.
12. L. I. Brezhnev, "Speech at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Commi.ttee of
27 November 1979,� Moscow, 1979, p 26.
COPYRIGI~ : Izdatel ~ stvo "Pravda'~, "Voprosy filosofii" 9 1980
5~86
cso: isoo
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NATIONAL
DAGESTANI JURIST FOR FEDERALISM, AGAINST 'FUSION'
Moscow SOVETSKOYE GOSUDARSTVO I PRAVO in Russian No 12, 1979 pp 3-10
[Article by Prof A. M. Khalilov, doctor of law and head of a department of
Dageatan State University: "New Stage of National-State Building in the
USSR"]
[Text] Among the urgent problems of the science of law is a study of the
regular patterna of the development of Soviet federalism, the forms of the
use of national sovereignty under the conditions of mature socialism in
accordance with the results achieved in the sphere of national relations ~
and the paths of improving so~~.alist democracy in respect of these relations.
The development of the enumerated questions on the ba9j.s of the experience
of national-state building which has been accumulated and which is constant- -
ly being enriched will proceed in the direction of an increase in the role -
of the USSR, expansion of the union republics' participation in the settle- ,
ment of questions of union jurisdiction and an increase in the republics' '
roie in the leadership of economic and social development on their terri-
tory. The consolidation of the international unity of the Soviet peoplea,
the comprehensive development and rapprochement of all USSR nationa and
" nationalities and an improvement in legislation in this field are occurring.
Content and significance of national sovereignty in the developed socialist
- society. With the building in our country of a developed socialist society,
i.n which a new historical community of people--the Soviet people--has
evolved on the basis of the rapprochement of all classes and social strata,
the legal and actual equality of alI nati,ons and nationalities and their
fraternal cooperation, national statehood has continued to be perfected in
inseparable connection with the strengthening of union statehood. The de-
velopment of Soviet statehood incorporates the increaaingly full embodiment
of the interests of all peoples of our country, the further burgeoning of
the nations and an organic combination of the national and international
where in the international principle plays the leading part. It is not a
question of the withering away or winddown of the national statehood of
, the USSR peoples. The strengthening of the international principles of
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national atatehood ia occurring. "The sociopolitical unity of the Soviet
people,'0 L. I. Brezhnev said at the Extraordinary Seventh Seasion of the
USSR Supreme Soviet of the Ninth Convocation, "by no means aignifies the
disappearance of national distinctions."
Every nation and nationality is an integral part of the unified Soviet peo-
ple. The content of national sovereignty under the conditions of the exist-
ence of this historical community of people is expreased in the fact that
all nations and nat~onalities of our country, becoming increasingly aware
of the very great advantages of the fraternal union of a11 the peoples and
their international unity, are rallying increasingly close together in a
unified union state and strengthening the Soviet federation--the USSR. The
further strengthening of the state-legal relations of the:Soviet nations re-
presents a sequential process; it is precisely along~ the path of the can-
solidation of these relations, evidently, that national sovereignty under
the conditions of the entire period of developed socialism will be realized,
in the main. For this reason the opinion of Che experts in the science of
government who deny a further strengthening of the state-legal relaCiona
of the Soviet nations and nationalities in the period of the building o�
corrununiam seems uz~ustified,. Expressing such a viewpoint without ad~quate
grounds for it, D. L. Zlatopol'akiy claimed that "stronger state-legal re-
lations of the Soviet nations than those of today cannot be created.* I
believe it is impossibZe to disagree that our country's nations and nation-
alities, having created and strengthened their national statehood within
the framework of the Soviet federation and remaining sovereign, wil.1 dis-
play concern to strengthen it and have the right to consolidate their rela-
tions in all spheres of life, including state-legal relations. It is com- _
mon knowledge that an ob3ective procesa of the gradual comprehensive rap- '
prnchement of the socialist nations is occurring under the conditions o� com~
munist building, which is established in CPSU documents and speeches by its
leaders. This rapprochement is occurring in the economic, sociopolitical
and cultural spheres.
A moat impoxtant :aan3festation of the further rapprochement of the nations
in the political sphere is the strengthening of the state-legal relations
of the socialist nations and nationalitiea. As the CPSU Central Committee
decree "Preparations for the 50th Anniversary of the Formation of the USSR"
pointe out, "under the conditions of communist building the development of
- national relations is proceeding along the lines of the utmost atrengthen-
ing and perfection of the voluntary alliance of socialist nations." This
means that national so~Tereignty serves the peoples of our country as a means
not only of the burgeoning of the nations but also of the atrengthening
*SOVETSKOYE GOSUDARSTVO I PRAVO, No 8, 1970, p 147.
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and perfection of their state union and state-legal relations. This is
also the content of national sovereignty in the contemporary period. At
the same time national sovereignty is manifested in the development of the
principles of Soviet federation and the forms of national statehood and in
unowerving obaervance of the principles of socialiet democracy in national
relationa.
~
All Soviet nations and nationalities are united in a union multinational
state--the USSR. They have been convinced on the basis of their experience
of many years' standing what rich fruit cohesion in the USSR has afforded
them and what tremendous possibilities it will open in the futu~e, in the
course of the building of the communist society. The 1977 USSR Constitution
de:acribed the USSR as a unified union state (article 70). Consequently, it
is a federative sta~te in which a high degree of cohesion of all nations and
nationalities has been achieved. The material basis of this unity is our
economic system. As article 16 of the constitution says, the USSR economy
is a unified national economic complex embracing all elements of sonial
production, distribution and exchange on the country's territory. The cohe-
_ sian of the working people of all the country's nations and nationalities
in a unified union state is the greatest determining factor and dependable
guarantee of their further all-around prosperity and the strengthening of
t:~eir sovareignty and international unity. It secures for them the most
favorable conditions for free, comprehensive political, social and cultural
de~~elopment with regard for national peculiarities. Whence it follows per-
fectlq clearly that the Soviet nations enjoy their sovereign rights under
present conditions by way of the strengthening and perfection of forms of
their. national statehood which have fully ~uatified themselves and, chiefly,
by the way of consolidation of the USSR and its international unity.
Development prospects of the Soviet federation at the eurrent stage of com-
munist building. We shall examine the question of the role and prospects
~ of Soviet union and national statehood here from the aspect of the main di-
rectio:~ of the development of the Soviet society's political system--the
furl-her spread of socialist democracy on the basis of the example of na-
tional relations. Linking the question of democracy with the self-deter-
mination of the nations, V. I. Lenin wrote that "it is imposeible for
victorious socialism to hold on .to its victory and lead mankind toward the
- w.:t:-iering away of the state without the implementation of democracy in
full. Therefore when it is said that self-determination under socialism
is redundant, thi.s is the same nonsense, the same helpless muddle as if
sameone had said that democracy under socialism is redundant."* It is now
d.Lfficult to image Soviet socialist democracy without f~deration and na-
tional statehood. Soviet federalism and national statehood are the mani-
festation of socialist democracy under the conditions of our multinational
state. The democratism of the Soviet state is conditioned by the fact that
*'V. I. Lenin, "Poln. sobr. soch." [Complete Works), vol 30, p 128.
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it expreases the will and interests of the workers, peasants and intelligent-
sia and the working people of all nations and nationalities of the country
(article 1 of the USSR Constitution). The fact that the Soviet state ex-
presaes the will and interests of the working people of all nations and
nationalities of the country attests Soviet state power's direct connection
with the solution of the national queation. Occupying a central place in
the political system of Soviet society, r~ur multinational atate insures the
active participation of the working people of all nations and nationalities
in the administration of social and state affairs, including national-state
_ building and the organization and activity of organs of the USSR, the union
and autonomous republics, autonomous oblasts and autonomous okrugs. The
citizens' increasingly extensive participation in administering the affairs
of the state and society, which is dealt with in article 9 of the USSR
Constitution, also presuppoaes participation in the solution of the most im-
portant questions of national-state building, which was graphically confirmed
by the natiornaide discussion of the drafte of the constitutions of the USSR
and the uni.on and autonomous republics.
Article 9 of the USSR Constitution cites an improvement iu the state ap-
paratus among the paths of a further spread of socialist democracy. This
signifies primarily an increase in the role and an improvement in the work
of the soviets of people's deputies insofar as it is precisely they which
are the fullest embodiment of the democratism of our state. And this prs-
supposes an increase in the role and an improvement in the organization and
activity of the USSR Supreme Soviet, the union and autonomous republic
supreme sov2ets and the local soviets. The strengthening of the legal basis
of state life (articl~ 9 of the USSR Constitution) is to be effectad by many
paths, including tha~ of the precise and unswerving observance and perfec-
tion of the rules of law regulating national relations, the democratic prin- ,
ciples of Soviet federaliam, all national-state building and the equality of
the citizens, irrespective of national and ra~ial origin.
Proposals were aubmitted during discussion of the draft of the 1977 USSR
ConsCitution on the abolition of the federation and liquidation of the
union and autonomous republica.* Their profound erroneousneaR waa revealed
*There have been statements in literature before that federation has ex-
hausted its mission, which attest an underestimation of the role of unian
and national statehood at the current stage (see I.M. Kislitsyn, "Voprosy
teorii i praktiki federativnogo stroitel'stva Soyuza SSR" [Questions of the
Theory and Practice of the Federative Building of the USSR], Perm', 1969;
P.G. Semenov, "The CPSU Program on the Development of Soviet National-State
Relations," SOVETSKOYE GOSUDARSTVO I PRAVO, No 12, 1962, p 25; and V. I.
Kozlov, "Soyuz svobodnykh i ravnykh" [Union of the Free and the Equal),
Moscow, 1964, pp 56-57). These statements have been ~ustly criticized (see
E. V. Tadevosyan, "Sovetskaya natsional'naya gosudarstvennoat [Soviet
National StatehoodJ, Moscow, 1972, pp 194-195; A. Agzamkhodzhayev, Sh.
. Urazayev, "SSSR--sotaialiaticheskoye gosudarstvo sovetskikh narodov" [The
USSR--The Socialist State of the Soviet Peoples], Tashkent, 1972, p S1;
and others).
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in L. I. Brezhnev's report at the Extraordinary Seventh Session of the USSR
Supreme Sovie~ of the Ninth Convocation. Failing to understand what is _
meant by the new historical community of people--the Soviet people--cer-
tain persons proposed introducing in the constitution the concept of the
Soviet people as a new nation. Speaking of the unwarranted nature of such
proposals, L. I. Brezhnev observed: "The Soviet people's sociopolitical
unity by no means signifies the disappearance of national distinctinns....
The friendship of the Soviet peoples is indestructible, and they will con-
stantly grow closer together in the process of communist building.... But
we would be taking a dangerous path if we began to artifically accelerate
this ob~ective process of the nations' rapprochement. V. I. Lenin warned
insistently against this, and we will not depart from his precepts."
The authors denying the role and significance of the Soviet federation and
the forcns of national statehood at the current stage attempt to ~ustif.y _
their opinion, in particular, by the fact that the "ethnic merging of the
nations" and a procesa of the "denationalization" of the Soviet republics
are underway. But in reality, despite the migration o� the population and
other demographic processes, there is an increase in the number of people
of the basic nations of the union and autonomoua republics, as all the re-
cent population censuses in our country testify. Moreover, the strength -
of the nation which has given its name to the republic ia increasing in the
union and autonomous republics, as a whole. Statistical data point con-
' vincingiy not to a"denationalization" of the Soviet republics but to the
fact that the republics are an important form insuring the comprehensive
development of the nations and a form of the solicitous consideration of the
interests of each nation and the working people of all nations and nation-
alitiea of our country. Therefore the multinational composition of the
Soviet state cannot fail to be taken into consideration in state-legal
building and cannot fail to influence an improvement in national-state .
building in our country. It is not fortuitous that the new constitution
has a section entitled "The National-State Arrangement of the USSR" in-
atead of the chapter "The State Arrangement of the USSR," which was in the
1936 US5R Constitution. The appellation of the section of the 1977 Con-
stitution emphasizes the role of the national factor in the organization
~f the Soviet state. -
1'he Communist Party has always aspired to the rapprochement of the nations.
_ Under the conditions of socialism, particularly mature socialism, the con-
solidation of the sociopolitical, ideological and international unity of
the nations and nationaYities is occurring with the preservation of the
nations and national disctinctions within the framework of the unity of the
union sta*.e. Thanks to the democratism and international character of Che
Soviet state and its socialist federalism, all the nations of our country
have achieved all-around prosperity and not only legal but also actual '
equality. The Dagestanskaya ASSR may be cited as an e~mple. A formerly
backward outlying area of Russia, after the Great October Socialist
Revolution Dagestan became a flour{shing republic with an industrial-agrarian
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production structure. CurrenCl.y as much industrial output is produced in
10 days here as Dagestan produced 40 years ago in an entire year~ Large-
scale agriculture supplied with modern equipment is developing auccesefully.
The greatest results have been achieved in the cultural sphere. Whereae
prior to the revolution anly 17 Dageatania had higher education, there are
now tena of thoueands of highly skilled specialists working in the republic
economy. More than 2,500 science workers, including over 100 doctors and
approximately 1,200 candidates of sciences, are working in WZ's and scien-
tific research establist?ments, and it has its own branch of the tJSSR Academy
of Sciences.
The achievement by the peoples of our country of actual equality and the -
blossoming of all spheres of social life are contributing to increased
guarantees of national equality and national sovereignty and its scientific
use. The wealth of experience of national-state building and the triumph
of the Marxist-Leninist world outlook and the ideas of international fra-
ternity--all this is contributing to the theoretically substantiated solu-
tion of the problems of national-state building.
Attention to the interests of all nations and nationalities and the streng~h~ _
ening of the friendship and mutual trust between different nations and na-
tionalities of the country are insuring a successful struggle against the
vestiges of nationalism. V. I. Lenin pointed to this fact: "Our experience
has created in us the indomitable conviction,that only tremendous attentive--
ness to the interests of different nations removes the grounds for conflicts,
removes mutual distrust and removes the danger of any intrigues and creates
that trust, particularly of workers and peasants speaking different la.ng-
uagea, without which peaceful relations between peoples or any successful
development of everything that is valuable in modern c~vilization are ab-
solutely impossible."* It is precisely the genuine democratism of the So-
viet national-state arrangement which insures the harmonious combination of
the interests of the whole people and each nation and nationality indivi-
dually, monolithic unity and the friendship of the peoples. The CPSU Cen-
tral Committee decre~e "Preparations for the SOth Anniversary of the Forma-
tion of the USSR' states that "the union of socialist republics is the moat
viable and accomplished for of the organization of a multinational state
harmoniously combining the interests of the whole society with the interests
of each nation."
The preamble to the new USSR Constitution says that Soviet power~has done
away with national enmity forever and that a society of the high organiza-
tion, ideological convic~ton and consciousness of the working people--
patrio ts and internationalists--has been built in the USSR. Together with
*V. I. Lenin, "Complete Works," vol 45, p 240.
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such of its institutions recorded in the USSR Constitution as the principles
of the social aystem and policy of the USSR and the state and tl~.e individual
the national-atate social system and policy of the USSR and the state and
the individual the national-state arrangement of the USSR is an embodiment
of socialist democracy. Article 70 record8 the federative form of the state
arrangement of the USSR and its basic principles, including the free self-
determination of the nations and the voluntary association of equal Soviet
socialist republics. Thus the following are recorded constitutionally:
a) the union nature of the state--"a union state formed on the basis of the
principle of socialist federalism..."; b) the unity of the state and its
multinational character; c) the formation of the USSR as the result of re-
alization of the right to free self-determination of the nations; and d) the
voluntary nature of the association of the republics and their equality.
The interests of the country's comprehensive, progressive development demand
the centralized solution of the most important questions and at the same
time presuppoae the independence of the republics in the solution of a while
number of vital questions, including those engendered by the specific fea-
tures a.nd national peculiarities of this republic or the other. The role
and significance of the USSR, which unites the efforts of all the republics -
for the succeasful accomplishment of the tasks of communist building, are
increasing. The strengthening of union prinicples ie reflected in the USSR's
competence recorded in the cunstitution (article 73). The total number of
questions under the USSR's ~urisdiction has increased compared wi~.h the 1936
~;onstitution, and the content of certain former powers has been made more
_ concrete and has been amplified. Here is an example of this concretiza-
tion and the insertion in the constitution of rights established earlier
only by current legislation. According to the 1936 USSR Constituion, the
determination of national economic plans came under the USSR's jurisdiction,
but now it is a matter of the elaboration and approval of the state plans
of the social and economic development of the USSR and the approval of re- -
ports of their fulfillment. Earlier the constitution spoke only of a uni-
fied IJSSR state budget ard the report on its fulfillment, but now of the
- elaboration of this budget. The 1977 Constitution records existing and
determinea new rights of the USSR. For example, in the sphere of state -
t~uilding and administrative-political activity determination of the USSR's
state border and protection of its borders, defense of sovereignty, deter-
m,nation of the general principles of the organization and activity of the
republic and ].ocal organs of state power and administration and the unity
of legislative regulation throughout the territory of the USSR; in the
sphere of socioeconomic building implmenetation of a unified socioeconomic
plicy, leadership of the country's economy, determination of the main direc- .
- tion of scientific-technical progress and general measures for the intelli-
gent use and conservation of natural resources and determination bf policy in
_ the sphere of prices and labor rerauneration; and in the sphere of interna-
tional relations bhe USSR's relations with foreign states and international
organizations, coordination of the union republics' relations with foreign
atates and international organizations and so forth have been secured for
the union.
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In determining the competence of the USSR the 1977 USSR Constitution has not
closed the list of its powers. Paragraph 12 of article 73 also attributes
to the competerce of the USSR "the solution of other queatione of all-union
significance." The Law on the USSR Council of Ministers (article 18) de- _
termines that, within its competence, the USSR Council of Ministera directe
and coordinates the activity of the union republic councils of minieters.
, There was no such rule in the 1936 USSR Conatitution or in current 1eg-!ela-
tion, although the relations of these bodies have developed in prPCisely
this direction.
Democratic centralism in national-state building does not deny bvt gresupposes
an increase in the role of the union and autonomous republics in communiet
building. This occurs because union statehood is developing in tn~ep~rable
connection with national statehood and because the strengthening ~f u.r.jon
principles in state building also presupposes an increase in the xole ~f
the integral parts of the USSR--the union republics and autonomous r.epubltcs
incorporated therein. The fundamentals of the legal position of the uniar_
and autonomous republics are also recorded in this field in the 1977 USSR
Constitution. Thus the right of a union republic to participate in dec3ding
questiona under the,jurisdiction of the USSR and in the USSR Supr~me So-~
viet, the USSR Supreme Soviet Presidium, the USSR Government and cther
bodies of the USSR,which was in fact in effect, but which was nat rec~rded
in the 1936 USSR Constitution, ia provided for. The union repc~blic inaure~
comprehensive economic and social development on its territory and con~
tributes to the exercise of the powers of the USSR on this terr~.~ory and
implements the decisions of the highest organs of state power and admin-
iatration of the USSR. In the medium of their highest organs of state power
the union republics have been granted the right of legislative initiative
in the USSR Supreme Soviet; they can submit proposals to the USSR S~preme
I Soviet and USSB Supreme Soviet Presidium on presenting the mosz important
questions of state life for natiorlwide discussion. I~i accordance with the
Law on the USSR Council of Miniaters, the union republic councils of min-
iatera participate in the USSR Council of Ministers' settlement of q~.ces-~
tions under its jurisdiction and submit proposals on questions ~f a~.l~
union eignificance for examination by the union goverment. The gcveriunents
of the union republics have their own permanent representations attached to
the USSR Governmenti (article 18). The current legislation of the p~st ?0-�
plus yeara has proceeded, in particular, along the path of an increase j.n
the number of questions being decided by the central authorities of state
administration of the USSR in conjunction or following coordination c~ith
the union republic councils of ministers. With regard for this, tk?e Law
on the USSR Council of Ministers establiahed that the USSR Council of Min-
isters insures the necessary interaction between the union republic c~~n-
cils of ministers and ministries and state committee of the USS~ ar!d ~~her
~ bodiea under its jursidcition.
The 1978 constitutions of the union republics record their righr_s which,
although exercised by them earlier, had not.been recorded constitutioitally.
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Thus according to article 72 of the 1978 RSFSR Constitution, the following
come under RSFSR ~urisdiction: conformity of the constitutions of the ~
autonomous republics with the RSFSR Constitution, determination of the pro-
cedure of the organization and activity of the republic and local bodies of
state power and administration, pursuit of a unified socioeconomic policy,
leadership of the RSFSR economy, scientific-technical progresa and the imple-
mentation of ineasures for the intelligent use and conservation of natural
resources, environmental protection and the safeguarding of hiatorical and
cultural monuments. The RSFSR Constitution records a rule of fundamental
importance: the state plan of economic and aocial development of the RSFSR
incorporates the basic indicators of the plans of enterprises, establishments
and organizations of union ~urisdiction on the territory of the RSFSR (art-
icle 154). This rule graphically illustrates the union republics' increased
influenc~ on the activity of enterprises of union significance for the pur-
pose of comprehensive economic and social development on the territory of
each republic.
The new USSR Constitution and the 1978 constitutions of the corresponding
union republics record the rights of the ASSR: to independently decide ques- -
tions under its jurisdiction beyond the limits of the rights of the USSR
and the union republic; participate in deciding questions under the juris-
dictj.on of the USSR and union republic through organs of state power and
administration of the USSR and union republic accordingly; insure compre-
hen3ive economic and social development on its territory and at the same
tiuie contribute to the exercise on this territory of the powers of the USSR
and the union republic; and implement the decisions of the higher organs
of state power and administration of the USSR and the union republic (arti-
cl.e 83 of the USSR Constitution, article 70 of the RSFSR Constitution). The
- appreciable broadening of the rights of the autonomous republics is also ex-
_ pressed in the fact that they have been granted the right of the final adop-
tion o� their constructions and the right of legislative initiative in the
union republic Supreme Soviet (articles 72, 108 of the RSFSR Constitution).
the main development trends of the Soviet federation were expressed in the -
CPSU Central Co~ittee and USSR Council of Ministers decree "An Improvement
j.n Planning and an Intensification of the Impact of the Economic Mechanism
un an Increase in Production Efficiency and Work Quality." This decree
~m,~~asizes the need for the more rational combination of sectorial and ter-
rirorial development. The USSR Gosplan, in particular, is entrusted with
insuring the concentration of forces and resources on the fulfillment of
the most important al.l-state programs. TY!e USSR ministries and departments
are obliged to improve the elaboration of draft plans of the development
of ~he sectors broken down by area and e~camine them in conjunction with the
union republic councils of mtnisters, notify them of the control figures
and basic indicators of the draft plans and approved plans for the produc-
tion associations and enterprises of union jurisdiction situated on the
r.erritory of the corresponding republic and insure that the enterprises of
the sector forward the basic indicators of the drafts and plans to the local
and republic planning commissions.
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In turn, the union republic ~ouncils of ministers mur~t formulate and sub-
mit to the union authorities their proposals on the draft plans of the
enterprises and associations of union ~urisdiction. The union and auton-
omoue republic councils of ministers have been entrusted with the compila-
tion of conaolidated five-year and annual plans of the production of local
conetruction materials and the manufacture of conaumer ~oods and plans
of houaing-municipal aervice and cultural-social construction and also with
supervision of the fulfillment of these plans. The plans for the locaticm
and development of national economy sectors under the ~urisdiction of union
ministries and departments are elaborated by them with the participation of
the union republic councils of ministers with regard for the observations
of the autonomous republic councils of ministers with regard for the obser-
vations of the sutonomous republic councils of min3~ters and local soviet
iapolkoms. A1.1 this is atriking testimony to the strengthening of union
principles, the increase role of the union and autonomous republics in in-
_ suring comprehensive economic and social development on their territory
and the broadening of the republics' participation in deciding questions
of union ~urisdiction.
The ~oint efforta of the Soviet republics, nationa and nationalities within
the framework of a unified union state are esaential for the accomplishment
of all the tasks of atate, economic and sociocultural building and for pro-
moting the rapprochement and further prosperity of all nations and national-
ities. As the 1977 Constitution records, the USSR embodies the state unity
of the Soviet people and rallies all the nati~ns and nationalities for the
~oint building of com~unis~ (article 70). Thua the strengthening of union
statehood is inseparable from the development of national statehood. This
is a single process of the perfection of Soviet statehood. The CPSU Central
Committee decree "Preparations for the 50th Anniversaa-~ of the Formatic~
of ~he USSR" states that the developed socialist society which has been
built in the USSR "insures the comprehensive development in inseparable
unity of union statehood and,the natioaal statehood of the republics on the
basis of the principlea of democratic centraliam and socialist federalism and
Soviet socialist democracy...." Whence it follows that communist building
presuppnaes the further perfection of national-state building in the USSR.
The Soviet multinational state at the current stage is developing along the
path of the intensification and extension of socialist democracy and the
enlistment of all citizens--working people of different nations and nation-
alities of the country--in administering the affairs of society and the state.
Being the embodiment of socialist democracy, the Soviet federation insures
the accomplishment of these tasks. The perfection and full use of Soviet
national statehood is an integral part of communist building. And, move -
over, a guarantee of auccess in the solution of the problems which arise
here is the Soviet union state and the fraternal cooperation and mutual
assiatance of all the peoples of our country, which are contributing to -
rapprochement and the strengthening of their international unity. _
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo Nauka, Sovetskoye gosudarstvo i pravo, 1979
8850
CSO: 1800 END
49
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200090011-8