JPRS ID: 8518 TRANSLATIONS ON USSR POLITICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL AFFAIRS

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JPRS L/a5ia
15 Juna 1979
~
TRANSLATIONS ON USSR PQLITICAL
AP~D SOC I OLOG I CAL AFFA I RS
(FOUO 7/79)
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JPRS L/e5ie
15 June 19 79
~ TRANSLATIONS ON USSR POI,ITICAL
AND SOCIOLOGICAL AFFAIRS
(FOUO 7/79) _
CONTENTS PAGE
IIVT~RNATIONAI,
Participation of Milit ary in Af`ro-Asian Revolutionary
Process
(G. I. Mirskiy; VOPROSY FILOSOFII, No 3, i979) 1
N~7.'IONAL
E`~hnographer Reviews Study oP Nationalities Questions
(Yu. V. Bromley; ISTC~tIYA SS~t, No 2, i979~ 16
RDGIONA.L
Ethnosociological Investigation of Culture and ~eryday
Life in Uzbekista.n
(Yu. V. Arutyunyan, S. M. Mirkhaeilov;
~ OBSHCHESTVENNYYE NAUKt V ULBEIQSTANA, No 1, 1979) 33
- a - [III - USSR - 35 FOUO)
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�
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INTERNATIONAL
PARTICIPATION OF MILITARY IN AFRO-ASIAN REVOLUTIONARY PROCE5S
Moscow VOPRCSY FILOSOFII in Ruesian No 3~ 1979 ai~ned to press 6 Mar 79
pp 91-108
[Article by Profesaor G. I. Mirskiy, doctor of historical eciencea, chief
of the Economics nnd Politica of beveloping Countriea Department, Institute ,
of World Economy and Internationa.l Relations, USSR Academy of Sciences:
"The Role of the Army in the Social Development of Aeian and African ~
Countries"] ~
[Text~ Z
The collapse of the imperialist colonial sysl:em has had a eignificant
effect on the development of human aociety. V. I. Lenin's prediction that
"time ia coming when all of the people of the East will take part in decid-
ing the fate of the ent~.re world"1 has come through. The colonial system
dieintegrated under the powerful b~ows of the national liberation movement
in the Asian, African and Latin American countries. L. I. Brezhnev has
said the following: "On the whole, the colonial syetem of imperialism in
ita classic forms can be considered completely liquidated."Z The economic,
' political and cultural problems of the developing countriea are attracting -
the conatant attention of Marxist researchers, and it is becoming increas-
ingly obvious that any analysis of the political situation in the develop-
ing countries will be incomplete without a study of the role played by the
armed forces in the political life of the former co~onial and dependent
countriea. This is due to the following fact. ,
One of the most remarkable features o� the contemporary development of the
Asian and African countries--perhaps the most prominent feature--is the
paramount role of the military in sociopolitical life. One does not have
to be an expert to know of the countleas military coups taking place in
one after another of the former colonies; all one has to do is read the
newspapers. During the pos~war period, there has been open intervention
by the armed forces in politics in Indonesia, Eurma, Pakietan, Bangladesh,
Thailand, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, North Yemen, Lebanon, ~
Egypt, Sudan, Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Ethiopia, Somalia, Ghana, Mali, ;
Nigeria, Uganda, 'Che Congo, Zaire, Madagascar, Chad, the Central African
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ItepubLic, Benin~ Tngo, nurundi, Upper Volta nnd Sicrru Leotte. The urmy
hus not acCed npenly ae an independenr poliCicnl furce in Inc~in, 5ri Keny~;
~ the Philippines, Malayeia, Singapore, Saudi Arabig~ Kuwait, Tuniein~
Liberia Senegal, the Ivory CoaeC, 2ambia and Malawi.~
Tanzania, Guinea, ~
~ 'fhe ratin of two to one s~eaks �or itself. ,
The widespread naCure of thia phenomenon in Che developing countries provides
food for thought: After all, direct and open intervention by the army in
- politics, if we take European hiatory as an example, is gn oliticalnforceh~
rule and nnC the rule. Naturally, it is, by its naeure, a p
and the military power strucCure is pnrt of the system of gov~ernmenCalocr e
~ pnwer and a tool of the ruling claes. V. I. Lenin wrore about the hyp ~ Y
of Chose who declared that "the army should not be involved in politics."
The direcC control of the government, however, cannot be a function of the
armed ~orces, and if this occurs it meana that something has been disrupted
� in the gysCem. In Asia and Africa the exception ie becon~ing the rule, and
if we add Latin America, where noC a single country has escaped miliCary
coups, active participaC~fon WertihWOU dyseemptoibeca1naCuraletendency.~11
the way to the aeizure p + ,
And it ia precisely this, The fact is that neither the natural tendenciee
of capitalist society nor those of socialist society arHeremiteislnecessary
cable to the former colonian and dependen~ =~untriea.
to immediately make ewo atipulations: In the L~xst place, this does not
in any aense eignify recognition of aome kind of special path which would
supposedly lead neither to socialism nor to capitaliam b~t to some kind of
new structure: Some developing countries dre taking the path of capitulism
(although in apecific, non-Western and "non-clasaic" forma) whil~ oChers
are moving toward eocialism. In the second place, there is already a group--
' as yet, small--of countries which are governed bq avant-garde parties guided
by Marxiet ideology (Angola, Mozambique and some others), and in these
countries some of the Cendencies characteristic of socialist society ghow-
gradually developing, at least in the potential aense. On the whole,
ever, one of the factors which makes it poasible to include all of the de-
veloping countries ii: a apecial category is precisely their backwardness or
lack of development (the "disease of underdevelopment" is the reeult of
colonial exploitaCion)+riallthigndesocially oreculturally) developedbsociety.
standards of the indust y~
It is precisely this "underdevelopment," which is particularly reflected in
the absence of strong "basic" classes capable of achieving social hegemony--
the bourgeoisie and the proletariat--(basic in relation to another society-- -
that is, the developed bourgeois society), that lies at the basis of the
foll.owing curious and important phenomenon: 'Ifao sociopolitical forces--
socialism and capitalism--are actively influencing the development of the
liberated countries, but not one of them k~as an adequate social base in the
majority of these countries as yet. World capitaliam is backed up in the
developing countries notwhichucinbyrincipleelshouldlbe8the agentaof capitalist ~
� induatrial bourgeoisie ( ~ P
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develnpmenr) as by the bureaucrgtic bourgeoisie, r~preaenCing the etaCe-
capitalietic etrucCure (a kind of "surrogate" bourgeoisie), while the
enci~liat tendency ia aupported in the ma~ority of the progresaive etates -
ChgC tiave freed Chemselves of colonial dependence not so much by ~he
proletariat~ which is only now becoming a"class for itaelf," as by the .
revolutionary democrats, an anti-impe~rialist and non-capikalist force ChaC
ie not proletarian and not Marxiat but is, to a large exCent, petty bourgeoia
and nutionalistic.
P'or Chis reason, something that represents an exception to the rule for the
induatrially developed bourgeoie society ia becoming the rule for the under-
developed society. The incomplete clasa differentiation and Che �ragmented _
and chaotic nature of the aocial structure are creating the neceasary pre-
requiaites for an unprecedented increase in executive authority and the
power of state agencies which are capai,le, as K. Marx and F. Engel~ demon-
etrated, of temporarily~ under certnin historical conditiona, reali.ze their
inherent Cendency to rise above society, to alienate +themselves from it
and to dominate it. The poseibility of a relaCively independent governmental
authority, the role and ambitione of the bureaucracy~ the "artificial caste
system" and other related issuea have been diacussed in aeveral clasaical
worke of Marxism.5 This state-bureaucratic caste cannot be examined in
isolation from ita military v~riety, from the ruling clique in the army-- ~
that is, the military bureaucracy. "The organized force of the ntate, the ~
army"--this, according to Engels, is one of the two deciding forces in
politics.b This occurs in societiea where the main clasaes exiat in a atate
of equilibrium, at which time the army can maintain "its own supremacy" over
the public in general,~ and to an even greater extent in sociezies where
these classes are weak and undeveloped, in an atmosphere of incomplete clase
differentiation which gives the army an opportunity to temporarily play an ~
independent role, and sometimes even the deciding role. Naturally, in
either case the army ob~ectively promotes any course of socioeconomic de-
velopment which is in the interest of certain classes~ even if these are '
still in the potential or embryonic stage. By their actione, the military
(this refers primarily to officers~ who are generally obediently followed
by the soldier masses) are always "working" toward a particular future
course of social development, even when these actiona appear to be autonomous.
The struggle between two opposing tendenciea--the tendenc,y to serve the
interests of the dominant class and the tendency to alienF~te oneaelf from
society and to rise above classes--can be traced throughout history, includ-
ing the history of Europe. As soon as the class of strcng and independent
property owners rose and achieved supremacy, the first tendency began to '
prevail and the second began to abate. Proof of this can be seen in the
- weakness of the centralized authority at the height of the feudal era in .
Europe.
T_his did not occur, however, when the pre-capitalist forms of ownerahip in
the ~ast were prevalent. As a result of the absence of an economically
dominant class and as a result of the multiple structure, which made it
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rot~ ~~rr ~c rt~i, usr, oNt,Y
- i?npuseib:Le for the c1~as ~f large property ownere ~o domictuCe t1~e entire
acnnomy ar acty Cime~ ~~gvorable eituation Conk shnpe for th~ riee of Ghe
' c~ntrnl. executive authority. In ~ society with no clearly defined dominnnC
clees nnd a prevalence of amull producere who have been included in the
~y~tem of cfipiCallst commercial production only Co t? �lighk exCenC nr noC
~t nll, only Che aCaCe is capable af mobilizing Che nece~s~ry resources =
and accumulating cnpltnl (and in the c~ra of th~ technological revoluCion, 6
wtiich ls a�fec:ting ev~n ttie bnckward cnuntries if they nr.~ striving for
industriulization, the need for capital growa imme~isurably and far exceede `
the capabiliCies of the private sector). The economic wenknPSg of privc~te
capitalisr bu~iness pre~erves and nurtures the relc~tive independence of
the superstructure. There is a~rowing tendency toward authoritarianiam--
based on exceasive ec~nomic regulr~tion and exceasive emphasie on the atete.
BuC why i~ this authority usually the military in the developing countriea,
why is iC precisely the miliCary element of the atate sysCem that Acqu~irea
suc~~ significance in it? The facr is that most of these countries do not
have adequate conditions for the stable functioning of an authoritarian R
civili~n authoriCy, which musC always look for support in an exploltative
society Co the sCrong class of private property owners with their economic
power and political presCige. It is thia ~lass that is absent in the
ma~ority of the former coloniea, although not in all of them (for instance,
India). Feudal a~nd semifeudal landowners are rui~~i~Y ofgthernationskofed
by agxarian reforms, and in the overwhelming maj
Tropical Africa Chese landowners never even existed. The induetrial bour-
goieie, as mentioned above, is financially weak and, in addition to this,
cowardly, it has no authority and it has no experience or skill irimarily
sphere of modern business. In many countries, the bourgeoisie (p
commercial) is made up of foreigners--Chinese in 5outheast Asia, emigranta
from Hindustan in East Africa, Arabs in West Africa and so forth; naturally,
this kept the bourgeoisie from gaining authority in the eyes of the native
population. In aeveral countriea, the ~�~vin ~inca ablerofieffectivelyby
cooperating with the colonizers or by p S P
waging an anCi-imperialist struggle. Finally, the role of tradition and
religion must be taken into accour~t. We know t~ivateeenterpriseeliFornB
did not encaurage Che individual to engage in p
example, Islam with its idea of predestination and its justification of
abusea of power was nor a strong stimulus of production acCivity and impeded
individual efforts. Islam, just as Buddhism, did not encourage the indi-
vidual to strive for personal success. Warlords, landowners and bureaucrats,
but not private businessmen, stood on the highest rungs of the ladder of
hierarchical social values. Religion and tradition have not given these
people willingness to take a risk, a thirst for perlieslprecisely togcapital,
desire to save and accumulate capital (and this apP gnd successful
or resources put in circulation, and not simply to wealth),
capitalist businesA is impossible without Chese qualitieeo leleitherhdid
worked together to create a situation in which wealthy p p
not allow their money to cibankste At best,itheytengagedninatrade oremoved
eatate and deposited it in
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into Che service aphere~ bur they never displayed Any desire or taete for
investmenta in the induatrial aphere, parriculgrly in heavy induatry~ which
ia so neceseary to a young state. Heavy industry remained a sphere ef
governmenC acCivity, and thi,a alone radically diminished the prestige and
sncial significance of Che bourgeoieie.
A weak clas having neither a solid economic base nor authority in society
nor masa support could not give rise to ~ strong authority, and even the
very nature of the state power atructure did noC promote this. When the _
colonizera were leaving, regimes were eaCablished (with their parCicipa-
tion) which were copiea of the political eyateme in the former mother
countriea--that is, bourgeois-parliamentary regimea. But ~uet as the
bourgeoiaie in the ma~ority of liberated counCriea was a"quasi-bourgeoisie~"
the democracy which was calculated and "programmed" for ita supremacy turned
out to be a pseudo-democracy. This "democracy," which was brought from
outeide and transplanCed in unprepared soil, which was noC backed up by
tradition and which had not been achieved through centuries of aCruggle for
civil rights and freedoms, became, under the conditiona of domination by
the "quaei-bourgeois" nouveau riche, a charicature of even the customary,
bourgeois democracy of the West, which is itself a far cry from real ~ustice
and equality. The struggle betWeen political parties deteriorated into
unprincipl.ed bickering between factions, cliquea and clans; the most ecan-
dalous carruption spread irrepresaibly; the incredibly inaolent new elite,
which was cynical beyond belief, which had already been decayed through and
through even at tt+e time of ita birth and which had inherited and absorbed
the vices of a1L exploitative clasaes known to history~ grew rich in full �
sight of everyone and zealously anatched at luxury and the "sweet life."
In many countries, the state arena was swarming with political pygmies,
greedy and impotent individuals fighting each other for a piece of the pie.
The puny and aickly system needed only the slightest push to collapae and
disappear forever--so it is no wonder that in some African countries two
companies of soldiers were enough to turn the entire regime upeide-down
along with its whole gang of inercenary ministers and demagogue-parliamentarians?
During the very first years after the declaration of independence, however,
the defects of the "borrowed" civilian system became completely apparenC,
and it also became obvious that many regtmes were.incapable of coping with
the tremendous tasks facing tihe liberated country, which was poverty-
stricken, wretched and in desperate need of everything--currency, machinea,
workers and food. The national liberation revolution is often called the
"revolution of rising expectations." The masses believed that the "golden
age" would return after the departure of the foreign oppreasors. They
believed the leaders who promised them this. But miracles do not happen,
and the reconstruction of a backward economy with a structure crippled by ~
the colonial yoke, the creation of a modern developed economy and the resolu-
tion of problems in connection with employment, food and accumulation and
other problema within 3ust a few years are not within the power of any
authority, particularly the kind of authority left behind by the colonizers,
who had chosen kindred spirits in advance to serve as the new elite--an
elite with virtually no concern for the public interests. The wretched
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rox orr cr.~nr~ usL c~tv~,Y
rate~ and reaulrs oC econnmic progress g~ve r:lse tn aevere digillu~ionment~
which was intensitied by the scandalous growth of soci~l contr~ste and Che
irrCpr~s~ible widening oE the gap beCween the top-level bourgeois bureaucraCe
and the people, and they evenru~l.ly led to widesprend ~znd Aevere nocio-
politicul crisis. The need fox change was tot~lly obvious to everyone, and
ir was in thie aCm~spt~ere, ag~inst Che background of Che exCre?ne weaknees
of civ ilian polieical inatitutions nnd the abs~heenecessary changeanwould
tional. mactiinery cap~ble oE gunranteeing that
be achieved by non-violent~ m;ith~Chte~decayedrund~diacredited~regimee ~nly
f,orce capable of doing aw y
'rherefor~, Ghe countless militnry coups in Che former colonies are a naturnl
result of the exrreme political instability which results from mounting
social t~~nsion, and tt~e lar~er, in turn, is primar3.ly due to absoluCely
unsatisfactory results in the area of economic development and Che elev~?tion
of rhe pub:Lic st~?ndard of living, the bankruptcy oi Che pseudo-democraCic
political syst~m, mismanngemenC and corruption. 5ince Che massea were not
organiaed and there were no strong and authoritative masa political organiza-
tions with fl pro&iateichan1etand contr 1rChe fa~eeofWthe nationa un~~ue op-
portuniry to init 8
In addition, Chere was the extraordin~rily strong influence--which was also,
in general, favorable for the acCiviZation of Che army--~f pre-bourgeois
re:lations and pre-capiCalist social forms, primarily communal relatione, `
which hav~ tradiCionally fostered a strong central authoriCy in the backward
society (we should recall thaC K. Marx sa..~. that "the idyllic Communalm
munities...were always a fi~o doswithfthegemergence~andmestablishment of
trad itions had very little
even the rudimentary democratic institutions or with the arousal of the
initiative o~ the masses; rather, they aided in the cultivation of passivity
and the habit of relying on "elde.r.s," on the heads of the community--that
is, the bosses. Under present conditions, it was easy for Che "new military
bosses" to Cake advantage of Chis gpfosteredg~aternalismions, which was
antidemocratic in general and s~hich P
In Tropical Afrlca, pre-capitalist relations also give rise tn the dreadful
evil of tribalism, the militant and irreconcilable local form of nationalism
which has severely threatened the integrity of the state in some countries,
and this motive has played an enormous role in substantiating the reasons
for military coups. Finally, one other phenomenon deserves mention: '~e
sharply increased role of the state in all spheres of social and economic
life led ta a situation in which the social prestige of a career in tEnglish
civil service or the armed forces radministratorsli� aAmilitaryiuniform or
expert on African affairs, writegower bureaucracy."~
a civilian suit became the new p
II
Despite all the similarity of th nt differencesiint the natureaandtgoalsuofe~
. lying causes, C~here are significa
the groups of officers who have established military regimes in Asia and Africa.
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Here and further on, ~he word "army" will signify ~he officer corps, who
nre obeyed virtually without queetion by soldier~ in tt~e overwhelming
mu~oriry of cases. In Aaia and Africa the eoldier ie a semi-liternte young
pe~sanr (usuAlly from the outlying diatricta and from a bACkward tribe) `
who :is happy Chat he has been able, as g result of extremely fierce compeCi- -
eion (r.here is no universal draft, the army is amall and is made up of
volunteers), to enter military service and thereby guarantee himself ~
future career. Because he quickly loses touch with his previous milieu
and because he 3s ignorant in political mattere~ he blindly f~llowa the
officer~, The officers, on the other hand, in most cases do not come from
the proletariat or the peasantry, but ne~ther do they come from Che elite;
they come from the petty bourgeois, middle and intermediare strata, they "
~re ttie sony of minor employees, teachers and smull landowners, and most
of them are not from the capital but from the provinces.l~ This, inciden-
Cally, is the main reason for their hostile feelings taward the rich elite
in the capiCal--feelings which cause the officers to apprave of r.he iden
of overthrowing the government and rulers imposed on the country by the
colonizers,~l
The attitude of the petty urban bourgeoisie, parCicularly the provincials~
toward the elite in the capital stems fr~m a long-established stereotype.
As an ideal, it arouses envy, but because it is unattainable~ it arouaes
hatred. On the other h=znd, as if in compensation, the ideal is contra~ted
with virtue, which is extolled in every way possible during the period of
the military coup. The bourgeois society of the capital is completely made
up of degenerate, amoral, egotistical and cosmpoliCan parasites. For this
reason, moral simplicity is extolled, as well as piety, rigoroua honesty
- and the tradiCions of mutual assistance which go back go the patriarchal
~ peasant virtuea.
The consequences of this sociopsychological phenomenon are two-sided. Qn
the one hand, hostile feelings develop for ehe corrupt antinational caste, _
for large landowners, for financiers and, in the Arab countries, for the
aristocracy. On the other hand, all of this arouses contempt for parlia-
mentarism, for parties and for democratic atandards in general. Parlia-
mentary maneuvers, party intrigues and eloquent rhetoric--all of theae
attributes of "liberal democracy" are alien to the officers, who are taught
discpline and order, in the spirit of subordination. Besides this, officers
pride themselves on their nationalism and patriotism (indeed, after the
masses become disillusioned with the mercenary and antinational "civilian"
elite, they look upon the army as a symbol of national spirit and the
personif ication of incorruptibility). Patriotl.em and anti-imperialist
nationalism prompted the actions of Nasser's"Free Officers," the Iraqi
officers in 1958 and the Yemeni officers in 1952.
- These sociopsychological characteristics of the officers contribute to mis-
trust in independent action by the masses. Nationalism and anti-imperialism
can coexist with extremely limited and mediocre social ideas, an antidemo-
cratic spirit and petty bourgeois anti-intellectualism. A limited and
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roa o~rtcz~., us~ ortLY
nnrzow outlook, a lack of trusk in anything new and different, seagnntion,
religious pre~udices nnd firmly enCrenched confnrmiCy give rise Co a
8119p~C~Ot.lg attitude toward democrats and communiste. _
'1'he new, enormous, complex and multifaceCed world, the gates of which hnve
suddenly been opened wide for the backward society, i~ frightening and
seems incomprehensible ~nd strange. This ~ives riae to .~n instinctive
need for simplicity and stnbility and the des~.re to preserve ~11 that is
traditiottal, custom~ry and comprehensibl~, to preserve primitive moral
values and Cime-honored beliefs. Military training teaches the person to
mistrust thenrizing nnd a broad outlook, and the habit of relying only on
"one's group" wlthin the framework ot the barrnck-room conspiracy does not
promote contact with the massea. The belief in the need for conCrol over
pollCical thought and, consequently, over parties is enforced. There is
growing fear that the masses, under the influence of pernicious parCy agiCa-
tion, could fall into "error," and this gives rise to a fear of the masses _
and a fear of parties and to a paternalistic approach toward the people,
who "need to be led." This is also the reason for ttie desire to "conduct
a revoluCion from the top" and for the belief in the special misaion ~f the
army, which sometimes evolves into tendencies Coward elitisC and corporate
isolation and toward Che enforced institution of barrack-bureaucratic
methods of contrnl.
All of this ~pplies ro the more developed countries--in Asia and North
Africa--but it could becnme applicable to the countries af Tropical Africa
- in the future.
We will now analyze the motives and goals of the military's action in Asia
and Africa. AC first glance, there would seem to be two main variants:
The first is a purely FaCriotic attempt to liberate the nat.ive land from
imperialist domination and from the power of the internal reactionary forces :
associated with impexialiam; the second is the fiasco of the "civilian" '
regimes set up after independence has been won. Right-wing reactionary
coups, however, have also taken place in the Afro-Asian world and in Latin
America (Ghana and Bangladesh). The first type (Nasser's "Free Off icer
Corps," the Iraqi military in 1958 and the revolutionary officers headed
by Qaddafi in Libya in 1969) does not require any special explanation and
is already a thing of the past. In this article, as could be discerned
from the very beginning, we are investigating the second variant, which is
still of topical interest even today. Here it is quite easy to distinguish
between two "sub-variants": One of them is the coup that takes place
entirely at the top level, in which the military acts to pr.event social
upt~eaval at a time of crisis and srrides to preserve the conservative course
by overthrowing the civilian regime. This applies Co the coups in Pakistan,
Thailand and several countries in Tropical Africa (Nigeria, Togo, Sierra
Leone, the Central A�rican Republic, the initial coups in Datiomey and
others). The military leaders heading these coups have no penchant whatso-
ever for social revolution; most of them are men who once served in the
English or French armies, who fought in the colonial wars in Indochina and
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Algeria, who were trained in English and ~rench military instiCutea, who
'have been asaimilated into the "European" r~~ilieu and who are accuetomed
Co looking at thinga Chrough the eyes of a white ot�ficer, dietinguiahed
by his bourgeoie conservative viPwa and anticommuniat pre~udices. An ex-
ample of khis kind of off icer ca,n be seen in the miliCnry leadere who
overthrew Kwame Nkrumah in Ghana in 7.966, even though this coup itaelf
was of a different nature--a "preventive-counterrevolutionary coup," close
ro the acCione taken by the Latin American military leadera againet the
leftist regimea.~4
This description applies to Tropical Africa. In PakiaCan, Thail+and and
Indoneaia the coups were carried out by military leaders of differe*?t
views, but with no less antipathy toward democracy and revolutionary aocial
change~ Juat as in aeveral Latin American countr.ies, imperialism here is
trying to deal with the abaence of a suf�iciently "reliable" and etrong
local bourgeoisie by using the army as a kind of "substitute," as a sur-
rogate bourgeoiste capable of setting the wheels of capitalist development
in motion. The army is supposed to provide a"cover" for the development
of the bourgeoisie and to assist this class to comp~ete the establiahment
of itself as the leader tn society. Thi~ reliance on miYitary regimes ia
apparently one of imperialiam's latest attempts at the artificial creation
of favorable conditions for the establishment of capitaliam in the develop-
ing countrles.
Revolutionary military coups are of a fundamentally different nature (for
example, the ones in Burma, Syria, Iraq, Benin, the Congo and the Malagasy
Republic). The group of Burmese military-revolutionaries headed by Ne Win,
the Syrian Ba'ath military and the Congolese, Beninese and Malagaey revolu-
tionary officers, whos~ evolution began witih anti-imperialist nationalism
, and a desire to modernize the economy and improve social conditions,
logically and eventually arrived--as Nasser once did--at the realization
that only socialism could become an alternative means of national rebirth,
liberation from imperialist exploitation and the achievement of social
~ustice. Theae are revolutionary democrats in uniform. They are not
striving to perpetuate the military regimes as such, but regard the army
as one of the elements of the national forces f ighting for the progressive
transformation of society. In the Congo, as was pointed out by Denis
- Sassu-Ngesso, first deputy chairman of the Military Committee of the
Congolese Labor Party, a fierce struggle resulted in the "triumph of the
thesis of the army which is constructed and perceived as a political force
and the position of which reflects the class struggle in society.... Now _
the CLP has a firm structure in the army. TherE ia not a single unit with- -
out a party cell. Besides this, socialist youth organizations are active
in the army. The army in our country is an integral part of society. And
it is natural that, when the structure of the people's government was being
established, military men were elected deputies of municipal councils and
the councils of provinces, regions and so forth."13
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~
'~herefore, thh pol~cy nf th~ l~tp ~tat~ gnd party leedpr, Ma~or Mnrien
~ Ngou~bi~ who demand~d that th~ army "be revolutie~~ry" and ~n~titut~d n
The
cnrpe of polieical commissare, ~r~t~~iforiMilitaryp~ducAtionCwa~~bping
~rmy~ ie �.~a~ ~treeged when the Cen
egtnbliehei~ mu~t be ~imulean~ously ~ polieical, milit~ry and productive
nrs~~nisc~~
In any discusei~n af the rel~rion~hip betwpen th~ army and the r~volutionnry
r~ling party, eome mention ehould also b~ 01Rdp nf the experiencp in T~nzaniaT-
= one of Che few counCries in which the socialist orientetion was not chosen
by the militgry and where nn military regime hae exieted. The problem of
the org~nic incluston df ehe army into a eociety heeded by gn avent-garde
pgrty i~ ngturally of greaC imporCance in thie country ae well. The Tanzanian
army le rnmpler.c~ly under the ~url~diction uf th~ ruling party and ie, ag it
were~ a component of the pgrty etructure. 5ervicemen are aleo party membere.
'The post of po].itical cnmmieear of the armed forces was created with ehe
rgnk of colonel, and a party cell headed by a company commander wae formed
in cech comp~ny. Military recruitment ia carried out beo~le eachhyegrefort
of the ruling party, which detaile around 1~000 young p p
military servic~ on the recommendation of pnrty organizations. Aftpr a
3-month training period, some of them are sent to work in agt~iculture~ eome
nre asaigned to construction pro~ectel~nd the rest are sent to eerve in the
regular army and on the police force.
By annuuncing their choice in favor of eocialiem~ the military revolutionarie~ _
proved that the army could play a aerioua progreseive role in the developing
countries under certain conditions. To put it more precisely, it ie not
the arruy in itself :hat doee thia. but its revolutionary wii~ of common
After all
soldiers, acting in alliance with other progreasive forces. +
the military reg~vitabletclasa8differences~n~'This be omesnmoet appereneh
which conceals ine
after the military takea power. _
The army frequently enters the political scene wearing the glorious halo of
"saviour of the fatherland." The military leaders decl~re their intention
to put an end ta internal struggle and reatore national unity and honor.
Many people are convinced that a new stage has begun in the nation's history
and that. from now on, this nation, hfaded by a military government which
etreases the importance of integrity, duty and patriotism, will move~ with
all forces united, toward prosperity. During this process, the military
government is naturally considered to be temporary: the off icere ~+ill put
everytning in order, will put an end to everything that is slowing doWn
development and splitting the nation, will guide the state onto the true
path and will then return to the barracks.
There is no need to speak here of how governmeat turns outeto beelesayefurn
out to be. In most cases~ a military g
fective, lesa stable and less temporary than it seems to be in the beginning.
The reasoas fer rofessionalsbackgroundgofnofficerseforgthe~management ofress
the inadequ~t p
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~t~t~ ~ffgirg wh~n they di~cua~ rhe fgct~r~ c~ntributing t~ Che failure of
miliC~ry regim~g.lg Actually~ thi~ ie nnt ehe main fartor, glChough it i~
true that the ~erict army ~~ylp af ~p~rgtion~ b~ged on ordpr~, thp le~k df
exp~ripn~e in work with the ma~ees and inrompetencp in ~conomir end goci~l
mg;tere e~riouely complicete th~ pfP@CC~Vp functidning nf thp new euthoritiee.
guc th~ ~~eence nf ehe mgtt~r ig to bp found ~1g~where.
In ~ het~rogpn~ou~,~~p1iC gnriety withnut g cle~rly defin~d leading forc~~
th~ nrmy do~g ~pp~ar tn be the p~rtirulgr factnr nf national unificatinn
~hich i~ c~p~ble of gubordinating individu~l gnd group interpgtg tn the
CUtOt~Oft interegte and of guaranteeing unitpd actinn. But rhig ie an illuginn.
'The ~rmy e~ such ig only th~ apparent leader o: ~nciety. The gggumptinn of
power by the military doee not solv~ th~ problpm of finding n fnree cep~bl~
of nrg~nizing ~nd leadinq a unit~d front, within th~ framework nf which nll
nati~nal, pgtridtic gnd anCi-imp~rialist forcee c~n b~ unified end the mr~seee
c~n be mobilized fnr ~truggle tn attain th~ gnal~ of the new etage in the
natinnal libergtion revalutian. 'I"his force ehould not eimply represpnt
vgridu~ pooulacion gtratg ~nd g~cic~l elem~nte and be "ngtionwide" in thi~
epnse, it mugt alsd be etrnngly "motivgted" ideologicglly and it must have
a preciee idenlogy and program and a eufficiently ~trong sorinl basia of
aupport. 'Ihe army does not h~ve ~11 of thes~. _
The ideologicgl motivgtion of the nfficer corps might coneist of nationaliem,
_ patriotiem, profesalonal solidarity and a dislike for intrigue and corruption.
All nf thig is not even enough for the attainment of the objectives mc:ntioned
above. And the army ie ev~n more incepable of doing anything further~ with
the pa~gible exception of some individaal elemenCg of the militnry. Thig
problem ig connected with the social and ideological heterogeneity of the
military men, who, despite all of their corporate epirit, solidarity and
discipline. cannot represent a unified social group with its own integral
ideology. This does not contradict the indisputable, in our opinion, theais
concernin~ the pdgsibility--for a certain length of ti~e--of relative au-
tonomy on the part of the army in the developing countriea. This autonomy,
however, is more passive than poaitive or conetructive. -
When a nationwide crisis comes to a head, during the course of which events
can threaten~ in the first place, the state iteelf and, in the aecond place,
the army as a privileged institution, the military acte as a united force.
But as soon as the time cnwes to do constructive work after the assumption
vf pos~er, the heterogeneity of the military become~ totally apparent. It
becomes clear that the monaliChic nature of the army is nothing more thAn a
myth. It is only held together by a common threat. When the thrcat is
removed, it becomes evident that even among the officers there are rightists
and leftists~ moderates and radicals, representatives of the same ideological
politic~l current~ which exist in "civilian politics." And this i$ not
simply a matter o~ the army being a"chip off the block of society"; this
is not entirely correct, becauee in the military service the membera of
d:fferent classes and social gtrata come together, acquire neW traits and
~erge into a single organiam. A standard corporate outlook is developed. .
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~o~ o~~ici~. us~ nr~.Y
- ~ven when nfficer~ eome from the lowe~t population gCrate, the "relative
~hare" accounted for by the heritag~ they have received fr~m Cheir f~milie~
~nd their gocial environment in Qarly childhood is not very gr~at in moet
C~~~g in comparison to th~ huge amdunt of profeseional training Chey hQ~h~
be~n given during their long years in the iestiture ~nd the barracks.
procee~ of unification goes quite far and quite deep. In moet naeea, the
~orporation a~eorb~ and a~similatee membere of various e~cial ~traC~~
Somett~ing elee ig of impnrCanc~: Thig ~tandard corporat~ ~utlook ie Con
narrow, iC cov~rg an exceegively limited gphere of theory and practice and
it ig nnly eufficienr for a dQmonerraCioe of eolidarity in a crigie~ but
le ~ompletely inadquat~ for the accomplietunent of conetructive eocial,
political and government taeks. tiheChEr they wish to or not, the officere
hgv~ tn m~ke use of rhe ideae gnd programe of civilian politicinne. After
th~ afficera have become accugtomed to political activity, they em~rtge
from the barracks~ circulate in the civilian milieu and are ~ncreasingly
influenced by certain parties~ factions or representativee of varioue eocio-
political curr~nts. They tiealize thaC cerCain Ca~ks are facing them and
that their purely profeaeional and military ideology of solidarity is no
longer eufficient for the performance of these ta~ks. They look for an
answer tu their problemg in the traditional political environment~ and the
answers they find~ naturally, can vary dramaCically. It ie difficult to
_ predict the particulgr individual.s to whom a specific political line will
appeal--it is poseible that the gLnost forgotten "social heritage" gcquired
prior to military eervice will once again play ite role here~ but it is
probable that eocial tiee eetablished throughout life and contacte with
various circles of the civilian intelligentsia will be even more eignificant.
Naturally, the development of society and the dynamice of its contradictions
are extremely important in thia area. In any caee, the unity of the afficere
ia eroded. All of thia either leada to the eatablishment of relative equi-
librium between varioua factions and groups in the military, not one of which
ia capable of gaining the upper hnnd~ and the subsequent loae of power by
the military through a proceas o~ "mutual extermination," or to a situation
in which one particular faction bends all of the others Co ita will or
eliminates them. But this is no langer government by the army as such, but
by one of ita groups, acting in the interesta of certain "civilian" groupa
or some particular variant of sociopolitical development. In principle,
this does not differ from the cuatomary political struggle of civilian
forces. The "purely military" regime ceases to exiat at this point. The
army--or, more precisely, the triumphant faction of the army--move~a to the
right or ro the left and finds a more or lesa specific basis of eupport
in society, a~though it might formally continue to act on behalf of the
nation as a whole.
The triumphant army group, in an alliance With cnr~heng~easaoffdomesticlanddy
has a more or lesa integral political platform t
foreiga policy. W~.th the entire military under its control (since all other
military factions have beer. eliminated), it holds all the power. It hae a
monopoly on armed strength and a monopoly on force~ s~t~ich wa~ not acceeaible
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~OR U~~LCIAL US~ nNLY
tn ~ny of Che civili~n political groups figheing for pow~r prior to the
arrival of the military. Thi~ give~ the militery ~ tremendou~ gdventage
nnd providee it with a unique npportunity fnr leaderehip in goriety~ We
will repeat that tha role o� l~ader ia taken on in this cgee not by the
army ae a whole, but by the victorious military faction in an alliance ~
with kindred civilian factions. It muet be said that thia kind nf combina-
tion of g monopoly on phyeical and military force and the aupporC of quite
inf~uential g~c~a?. groupa can, given the preeenc~ of a definite politic~l ~
courae, permit the authoriries to implement their choeen line quite re~o-
lutely and purpoeeft~lly and to guarantee relative etability within the
coa?~try. 'The eCrength of thp regime is directly proportional to the
inten~ity of the preceding political struggle and the aeverity of the
defeate euffered by oppoaing factione. It is not surprieing that the mili-
tary regimea with the moet "eeniority" are regimes like the one in Indonesia
(established in 1965), which came into being during the cnurse of a crieis
marked by the unprecedented upsurge of leftist parties and groups~ followed
by Cheir overthrow--that is, regimes establiehed in an atmosphere of the
fierceat internal struggle. There can certalnly be no diecusaion nf "natural
nationel lpadership" in these cases~ aince the social forces reflecCing the
intereats of the ma~ority o� the population have been phyaically excluded
from the political scene. These regimes (which are no longer military~
gtrictly apeaking, but military-civilian), which the preaent regime in
Zaire (also a long-lived one) resembles~ repreeent the intereate of the
new privileged bourgeois bureaucratic groupe that are hoping to ally them- ~
selves with foreign capital.
.
Other variants of political action by the military~ however~ also exiat.
In Ethiopia the feudal monarchy was liquidated and the proceae of profound
social reform was begun on the initiative of a revolutionary military ~
organization which had gradually gained predominance in the atmed forcea �
and then conducted a radical purge of all elemente connected with the ~
emperor's regime.
In Afghanistan, military leaders with revolutionary inclinationa overthrew
the regime of the top-level aristocracy at the request of the National
Democratic Party on 21 April 1978. The victory of the progresaive forces
was also made possible by the fact that revolutionary tendenciea managed
to gain a toehold in the army.
The tendency toward the "interruption" of capitaliat development and the
inveatigation of new avenues, which inevitably leads to a choice in favor
of socialism, only became prevalent after many influential representatives
of the armed forces began to aupport it. Under the guidance of military ~
revolutionary groupsy which had allied themselves with progreseive civilian
forcea, the unity of the general public was ensured and the idea of a
national alliance became a fact. ;
On the whole, it must be said that it is one thing when, under the conditione
of a pro-imperialist, feudal, antihumanitarian or corrupt regime, honorable
and patrio~ic ~fficers eatablish their own coatrol in order to save their
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ngtive land and put gtt ~nd eo oppre~gion, bnckw~rdtte~~ nnd degradntion.
BuC it is quiCe ~nother metter when Che military initiaCea the process nf
profound sncial reforms in a counCry which has alrendy won independence~
Ln principle, there is n diff~rence (although there does not h~ve to bp)
betwe~n miLieary men acting ~s nnCiongl revolutionarie~ nnd a~ social
revolueiongrie~. The �ormer do noe npc~~~grily becnme the latter~ While
the "national revolutionary character" of patriotic offi~ers in tt~e dev~lop-
ing cnunCrie~ could be called uncondieional, their "socigl r~volutionary
chareat~r ~.s conditional and selective. It would be a serious mieteke tn
cell the army ae guch the leading force in the anticapitaliet revolution
gnd the leader of society in countries with a eocialiat orientation.
'fhe only condiCion which can guarantee the truly progreasive development of
the liberated countrie~ ie the organization of the m.~ases gnd the cregt.ion
of a progregeive pgrty wirh a scientific socialiat platform. Thie kind nf
party can guide the army and assist in transforminK it ir.to a people's ~irmed
�orce devoid of "elitist" and caste biases.
FOOTNOTE~
1. V. I. Lenin, "Poln. sobr. soch." [Completed Collected WorksJ, vol 39~
p 328.
2. L. I. Brezhnev, "Leninskim kursom. Rechi i stat'i" (Following the
Leninist Course. Speeches and Articles], vol 6~ Moscow~ 1978, p 590.
3. This does not include the small atates, most of them islands. None of
the categories include Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Biesau and the
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, where the revolutionary democratic ,
regimes were established not by the army, but by a party headed by
armed liberation forces. "Army intervention" does not necessaxily mean
a military coup, it can also mean an attempted coup. Besidea thie, the ,
limited length of this article does not allow for the analyais of the
role played by the military in the polit~cal life of LaCin America,
where 550 military coups, not counting unsuccessful putsches, have
taken place in the last 150 years.
4. V. I. Lenin, Op. cit., vol 12, p 113.
5. See K. Marx' "The First Drafts of 'Civil War in France,"' "The Eighteenth
Brumaire of Louis Bonapar~e," "The Class Struggle in France from 1848
Through 1850" and "Revolution in Spain," F. Engels' "Revolution and
Counterrevolution in Germany" and "The Constitutional Question in
Germany" and other works.
6. K. Marx and F. Engels, "Works," vol 21, pp 446-447.
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7. Ibid., vol 12~ p 413.
8. Ibid., vol 9, p 135.
9~ R. First~ "The Barrel of a Gun," London, 19?'0, p 112.
10. In the armies of Indoneeia, Burma and EgypC~ 25-30 pexcent of the
generale and senior officers were the eone of g~ervicemen and civil
servante and 28-30 percent were member.a of the urban and rural petty
bourgeoisie ("Zarubezhnyy Voetok i sovremennoet"' [The Foreign EaoC
and the Present Day~, Moscow, 191~?~ p 443.
11. The "known democratization" of the power etructure, including the
officer ^.orpa~ has been discussed by B. G. Gafurov (s~~ his book
entitled "Aktual'nyye problemy sovremennogo nateional'no-oevoboditel'nogo ,
dvizheniya" (The Current Problems of Today's National Liberation
Movement], Moscow, 1976, p 69). ~
12. One of the organizers of Nkrumah's overthrow~ Colonel Afrifa, wrote of
how he was influenced by hia atudies aC England's Sandhurat MiliCary
Academy: "I spent the beat yeare of my life in Sandhuret.... I am a
great admirer of the Englieh wa,y of 11fe and the Engliah legislative
syatem" (Afrifa, "The Ghana Coup," 1966; London~ 1967, pp 49, 27).
13. PROBLEMY MIRA I SOTSIALIZMA, No 4, 1978, p 45.
14. Commandant Marien Ngouabi, "Le Role de 1'Armee Service Presidentiel de
Prease et 1'Informa~tion," p 12.
15. "Au Pouvoir du peuple--armee du peuple," Brazzaville, 1910, p 8.
16. J. M. Lee, "African Armies and Civil Order," New York, 1969, pp 149-150.
17. For a discussion of this topic, aee K. N. Brutenta~ "Sovremennyye
natsional'no-osvobaditel'nyye revolyutaii" [Contemporary National Libera- ,
- tions~, Moacow, 1974, p 244.
18. See "Le Role extra-militaire de 1'Armee dans le Tiers Monde," Paris,
1966, p 409; PANORAMA, Rome, 4 October 1973; B. Vernier, "Armee et '
politique au Moyen-Orient," Paris, 1966, pp 109-110; and othera.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Pravda", "Voprosy filosofii", 1979
~
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NATIONAL _
'
E7HNOGRAPNER REVIEWS STUDY OF NA710NALITIES QUESTIONS ~
Moscow ISTORIYA SSSR In Russtan No 2~ 1979 pp 58-67
(Article by Academician Yu. V. Bromley: "Toward the Study of the 6asic
Stages and Oirections of National Relations tn the USSR"]
[Text~ The successes of the Communtst Party of the Soviet Union in the
implementation of the basic principles of the Leninist national policies
are an achievement that~ as L. I. Brezhnev nated~ "can Justlfiably be
placed on the same level as victories in the building of a new society ln
the USSR, in industrialization~ in collectivization and in the cultural
revolution."~ Nevertheless, even in a developed socialist s~ciety which
sees as its goals for the future the development of ali peoples in the USSR~
the convergence and strenghteneng of uR:ty among them~ friendshlp and
brotherhood~ and the formatton of an inte'rnatlonal wort.d view~ the necessity
rema(ns to constantly consider national factors in the practice of sociallst
building. This consideration is unthinkable without the broad utilizatton
of sctentific achievements and prtmarily of those branches that have as their
subJect the study of complex and multifaceted national phenomena~ ~
int~rna~tonal relations and processes encompassing a broad spectrum of ,
subJects ranging from economic and state and legal to psychological.
It is apparent that the most important prerequisite fo r an analysis of modern ;
natinnal and international processes and for predicting the tendencies of
their future development is the study of their historically-directed national
experiences.
During the 1970's a number of works were published presenting a historiographic
evalu2tion of the study of a number of aspects of national relations in the ~
USSR. However, until now there has been no summary of their inter-
disciplinary study. Moreover, at various stages of the historical ascent of
our society the study o~` national relations had its own special features .
arising from the tasks of socialist building as well as from the development
of these very relations and also of the scientific disciplines studying them. ~
This article attempts to indicate some of the common landmarks in the history ;
of the study of nat3onal relations in our country by the representatives of ;
various societai disciptines. The study unavo~dably ts of a preliminary nature. ~
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Already during the per~od when Sovlet hlstorlcal sclence was in its beginning,
when on the basis of the works of V, I, Lenln, the decisions of the 8th, lOth
and 12th congresses and other party documents on the national question
the ftrst works on national relatlons were publlshed~ wrftten mainly by activ~
participants in the Great Octnber sociallst revolution and active perty
members~ the necesslty arose to deal not only with socio-economlc and pollttca)
aspects but also with legal aspects relating to natlonal-state bullding~
national-ethnic aspects relattng to demarcatiQn~ language aspects relating
to the literacy in an illiterate people~ etc.3
At the end of the 1920's and into the 1930's the study of national relatlons
proceeds within the framework of civil h!story. Here the study of a newly-
develop ed problematics such as for example the hlstorical process of '
industrialization is accompanled by an examtnation of questions oF
eliminating the economic Inequalittes of previously backward peoples~ of
elimjnating a multi-structure~ of forming national cadres oF the working class~
etc.4 individual attempts are being made to study cultural changes that have
taken place in the lives of kolkhoz peasants of various nationalities tn the
USSR. The first steps are being taken to examine natlonal problematics
within a generalized scheme. Nere most attention is directed at the history
of national-state building and primarily at the formation of the Unlon of
the SSR. During the first decade after the war the exploration of these
themes becomes even more extensive.5 As ts Justifiably noted in
historiographic literature, the works of these years ~"in examining
the formation and development of nations and nationallties quite often
speak of the development of economics, culture and national state tn general. ~
There is no clear division of the national aspects in the lives of the peoples
as compared with the social."6
In approximately the late 1950's a new stage began in the study of the
history of national relations in the USSR. it is related to the publication
of the Complete Works of V. I. Lenin, where for the first time there was the
printing of works such as, "On the Formation of the USSR" and "On the Question ~
of Nationality or of Autonomy," and to the publication of the decisions of the
CC CPSU dedicated to the 90th and 100th annfversaries of V, i. Lenin's birth.
It is also rel.ated to the expansion of the source base for the topics. This
stage is char~~cterized by two tendencies that are rooted in the preceding
period. On the one hand there is increasing specialization in the study of
the development of nations and on the other hand--the isolation of purely
national subjects as the purpose of study (or in other words, national
processes and concepts as changes occurring in nattons not only as a result
of internal developments but also because of external interrelationships
among themselves).
A great deal of attention is given to the assimilation of the Leninist
ideological-theoretical legacy on the national ,ques~ion and to the elucidation
of the historical role of V. I. Lenin in the development of the Soviet
multi-national state, the national state system of the USSR and the solution
of national problems.~ Participating in the study of various aspects of
national processes are specialists on the history of the USSR, on the history
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. of the CPSU, on phtlosophy~ law~ economics~ llterature~ ltngulstics
and on cthnography.
During the 1}50's and 1960's the histories of all the union republics~ most
autonomous republics and oblasts were writeen~ At this time civil htstorians
and phllosophers continued9the work of studying nerional culture and the forma-
tion of socialist nations. Slgnificant attentlon was given to the
elucidation of the role of the CPSU tn the implgr~entation of Lenintst
principles of natlonal pollcies in our country. A number of important
aspects of thisdt~e~m~heehistorcuofenatlonalWStateubuildingpin,theeUSSR.~~~
editions devote Y
Documents from the 23rd, 24th and 25th CPSU congresses ard from the 50th -
annlversary celebratlon of the formation of the USSR encour~;ed the
continued development of work on national relatlons in the USSa on a
level ~f developed socialism.~2 Our historians (ncreased their study of
the various aspects of cooperation and friendship between the peoples of
our country~ of their social and c~l~tural convergence~ of questions on the
international training of workers. They turned to the criticism of
bourgeois falsificators of the hlstory of national relatthes elaboration~of
There was continued study of the role of V. I. Lenin in
important questions in n~~ional relations~ including the problem of ;
national-state building. The stu~~t of national relations in the countries
of socialist cooperation was begun.
Our lawyers made a considerable contribution to the elaboration of a national
problematics and primarily to the study of the creation and development of
the USSR, the formation and developmen~ of the sovereignty of the Soviet
state~ to questions dealing with the constructive bases of interrelattons
between the state and union republics and to the study of the development
of state-legal forms and principles of soviet federalism. Works on thc
history of the state and the law have been published in all union republics.
A summary of th~~ is presented in the three-volume "History of the Soviet
~ State and Law. In recent years the elaboration of the aforementioned
themes has continued. New and valuable material is being introduced.
An example of this is the extensive collection of documents entitled,
"The Formation and Development of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics."
in the mid-1960's economists began to take an active part in the study of
nationat problems. Now we already have considerable specialized literature~a
on equalizing the level of economic development of the peoples of the USSR.
In this area insufficient study has been made of the following questions-- ,
the formation of republic budgets, the mechanism of the effect of economic
processes on spiritual life, etc. ,
The last decades have been noted for the increassdof the USSRntheirseffortshe '
area of the study of the languages of the people
are being directed at the elaboration �5 ofrdevelonmentt~,f s cialsfunctions
as w e l l a s a~2~ h e s t u d y o f t h e p r o c e s s e P
of languages. This is the a~proach taken in the four-volume co l lec t ive wo r k
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entitled~ "The L~ws of Development of Llterary Languages of the Peoples of
the US5R,"Z~ Slnce the second half of the 1960's and especially in the
1970's attention has increased to the study of the processes of bilingu ltsm22
and the interrelattonships of the languages of the peoples of the USSR.~3
The first very important steps have been mad~4to study the nattonal-
cultural characteristics of speech patterns.
Dur(ng the last decade the study of the cultures of the peoplas of the US~R
has become very Important. Here, whereas the general characteristics of
natioral culture were presented, as we saw~ mainly wlthin the framework of
civil history as well as In the combined works of philosophers~~5 its
indlvidual components were studied by a whole series of spectal disctpllnes. ~
Llterary critlcism traditionally played a leading role, Of course here we
must mention the leading work of the early 197~6s~ the six-volume
"History of Soviet Multl-National Literature." From the polnt of view of
national problematics in this fundamental research the disclosure of the unity
of devPlopment of the multi-national soviet ilterature is especially valuable.
This unity is revealed in all the full~ess of its national-historical
embodlment in each literature~ in the diversity of the ?~nost varied of its
_ forms as determined by the age of the literature~ the pertod in which (t
became a part of the general literary process~ its traditions~ its regional
ties~ i.e. by everything that determines the individuality of each
literature. During the 1960's and 1970's many volumes were pubj~shed on the
history of the dramatic theater~ music~ fine arts~ cinema~ etc.~ In these
as in many other works dedicated to the art of the peoples of the USSR during
the Soviet period a great deal of attention is given to the problem of the ;
relationshigabetween the national and international in the art under
discussion. In such works researchers focus their attention on how
works of art reflect and express national moments while at the samo time
artistic cultural works become actual aomponentS of national processes and
national relations~ only becoming the property of the maJority of one or '
another rationality, penetrating into its daily life and its everyday `
consciousness.~9 Unfortunately, this real participation of art in the
national process is hardly studied at all.
As we know, the social cultural level is within the field of interest of
ethnography, which in the post-war. years began to give a great deal of
attention to changes mainly in the village population. Nevertheless, for a
long time ther~ was no rese~:rch done on the relationship between mores and
customs and the national p~�ocess.30 This work has begun only in the lasi
decades. Nere ethnographers give greate~~ attention to ethnic (ethnic-
cultural) aspects of national processes, elucidating them mainly on the
basis of materials relating to traditions and customs. Recently scientists
have dealt with the question of the penetration of occupational standards
into everyday life and of their fulfiliment of actual ethnic functions.
Ethnic-social research done in recent decades to a certain degree encouraged .
the elaboration of this aspect of the problem. T~~ ethnodemographic study
of national processes in the USSR has also begun.
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In characterizing the speciallzed and so called "componential" study of
national problematics it Is essential to mentlon the psychological aspect
of questlons of national and ethnic self-consciousness which began to
be more greatly developed during the 1960's and 1970's. There Is a certatn
amount of divergence on these subJects. There ~s obviously a necessitiy to
continua the empirical study of specific spheres in which the natlonal
peculiarities of the psyche are exhibited. ~
On the whole even thls cursory survey quite evidently shows how much has _
been done during the last decades by the representatives of varl~us branches
of social science in the area of the study of varlous aspects of national
' problematics.
Already in the mid-1950's and especially in the 1960's there began to be felt
a need for works that would show the main directtons for the development of
national relations while isolating national problematics in the form of a
sub,ject for specia' study. In accordance with this need there is a tendency
to produce generalized descriptions of national processes in the USSR,
The role of the pioneers in this undoubtedly belongs to our philosophers and
mainly to specialists in the area of scientific coromunism as wetl as to
party historians. The aforementioned tendency has its roots in the precedin
eriod when it was expressed in collective as well as individual monographs.~5
P
To a definite degree this tendency gave rise ta and encouraged the wel -
known dlscussion of " ation" in the Journal VOPROSY ISTORII during the second
ha1F of the 1960's.3g In the course of this discussion the complexity of
national phenomena became clear and attention was drawn to some aspects of
national problematics that prevlously had remained in the shadows (for
example~ national self-consciousness~ the correlation of the ethnic and
strictly social in the national). In connection with this we must mentlon
the discussion about ethnicity in the pages of SOVETSKAYA ETNOGRAFIYA.3~
It is true that the circle of participants (as well as readers) in this
discussion was significantly smaller and thus its results are revealed more
slowly and right now are affecting mainly the research of ethnographers.
Among the general works coinciding wlth the 50th anniversary of the USSR
we should specially note the collective work of the Institute of Marxism-
Leninism of the CC CPSU, "Leninism and the National Qt~~stion Under Modern
Conditions," which is already in its second printing. The main role in
the creation of similar general works as previously belongs to philosophers �
and specialists on the problems of scientific communism and to party
historians. Ethnographers have also made an important contribution to the
publication of such studies. I have ih mind the work "Modern Ethnic
Processes in the USSR," which has also gone through two printings.39
In aii of these works the national is characteri~zed in its indissoluble
ties with the international. At the same time the further strengthening .
of the internationalizing tendency under conditions of developed socialism
in the development of nations and nationalities in our country required
intensive attention. The result of tofseWnewthistoricalncommunitytithe Soviet
series of works devoted to the study
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people. The first works of this nature appeared In the mid-1960's to the
early 1970's, but extensive publications on these themes have appeared in
recent years.4o A new stimulus for the elaboration of national problematics
was the preparation for celebrating the 60th annlversary oF 0 tober~
Includi~g scfentlflc conferences ~devoted to this annlversary.~~ Hcre a
significant step was ta~C~n to elucldate national relations under condlttons -
of deveioped soc(alism~ The increased attention to the study of nationa)
relattons (r~ our country that is characterlstic of the modern social
sclences was expressed in the intensiflcatlon of studles of the varlous
aspects of national relations43 as wel) as~ and this is especially
vital~ in the strengthening of the tendency toward tnter-disclplinary
cooperation. This tendency appeared quite obvlously In the publication
of a coilective work by the Institute of Hlstory of the USSR
Academy of Sciences entitled~ "The Soviet People--A New Historical
Community of Peoples." Workers of other scientific institutions of the
USSR Academy of Sciences (Institutes of Government and Law~ of Philosophy~ ~
Lingulstic~,World Literatvre, Ethnography, and so forth) participated in
the preparation of this work. The interdisciplinary approach was clearly
evident in the aforementioned "Modern Ethnic Processes in the USSR."
Aithough this work was wr(tten by the workers of a single scientific :
institution (Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences)
it examined not only ethnocultural, but also ethno-linguistic, ethno-social
and ethno-demographtc aspects of national processes as well (in connection
with this we should note that frequently one and the same scientist can
simultaneously be a specialist in various branches of knowledge and that
his scientific profile by no means is determined by his association with
one or another scientific institution and especially not by that with a
primary vuz specialization). In the development of inter-disciplinary
_ cooperation on nationa) problematfcs a special role is plaved by the ,
Scientific Soviet on National Problems of the Section of Social Sciences
of the Presidium of the USSR Ac~demy of Sciences, which has already been in
existence for over 10 years. " :
In the course of the complex research on national ~roblematics it became clear
that it was necessary to move from an establishment of the results of
national processes and relations to an elucidation of their internal .
mechanism, to a determination of the correlatlon between various components
of national processes as well as factors that determine them. This required
massive quantitative data which was partially provided by the population
censuses of 1959 and 1970. In connection with this it became necessary to
expand the base of sources for research by performing specific sociological
research. This was also required by the growing attention4~o the problems
of the individual under conditions of developed socialism. The determination
of the main directions for this type of study was based on the fact that
the most important thing for the understanding of the internal mechanism of
national processes is the elucidation of the interrelations between their
ethnic and social parameters. The new scientific direction studying this tie
is known as ethnosociology. The first studies of ethnosociologists that were
' representative of the science as a whole were conducted in Tatariya t 1967. ;
The results of the studies are presented in a book published in 1973�~5 At ;
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approximately the same time indlvidual specifically snciological s~~dles
relatiod to national probtematics were m~~e in Estonia and Latviya, as well
as among the peoples of the lower Amur. In 1971-1976 the ethnosoclologist~s
of the Institute oF Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences conducted
mass studies according to a single program in Estonla~ Moldavta, Georgia~
Uzbeklstan, Armenia and the RSFSR. Although the geography oF ethno-
sociological studles (s still not,great~ the results are clearly
perceptible~ and not only in the purely cognitive but in the applied plan
as well (I have in mind the various recommendations of ethnosociologists
based on the materials ~f thelr researcfi made to republic practical
organizations). It is also considered essential to propose that ethnosoctology
in no case become simply a study of Just the social parameters of the
nation (without a correlation with ethnic factors) because this would
already be simply concrete sociology. Of course it is also important to
make ethnosociological research complex by coordinating it with other
discipl(nes studying national problematics. This should be done not by
duplication but by specialization and in particular by conducting
specifically sociological studies of natianal aspects in the development of
Soviet art~ literature, etc. It should be sald that it is important to
develop ethno-psychological research of an empirical nature within
ethnosoclology.
In summary all that has been said apparently enables us to confirm that as
a result of the efforts (frequently still separat~) of the representatives
of various social science disciplines a field of kriowledge has developed,~ ~
the subJect of which is the natlonal processes in our country during the
years of Soviet power. A primary task in its development is further cooperation
in the efforts of the representatives of var(ous disciplines, each of which `
examines national processes within its own framework, has its own research
point of view. Therefore one of our most important tasks is the careful
examination of everything that has been amassed by the representatives of
social science disciplines in order to theoretically interpret this special
branch of knowledge. Only theoretical mutual-enrichment ~ill permit us to
more thoroughly understand it and to secure the continued cooperation of
efforts by specialists of various profiles.
FOOTNOTES
1. L. I. Brezhnev, "Leninskim kursom. Rechi i stat'i" ["Following Lenin's
Policies. Speeches and Articles."], Vol 4, Moscow, 1975~ P 5~~
2. S. I. Yakubovskaya, "Basic Stages and Problems in the Historiography of
Natlonal-State Building in the USSR," In book: "Aktual'nyye problemy
istorii natsional'no-gosudarstvennogo stroitel'stva v SSSR" ["Uryent
Problems in the History of Natiohal-State Building in the USSR"],
Dushanbe~ 197~; D. A. Chugayev, "K~mmunisticheskaya partiya--organizator
obrazovaniya SSSR" ["The Communist Party--the Organizer of the USSR"],
Moscow, 1g72;Chugayev"Questions of Historiography in National-State
Building in the USSR" In book: "Torzhestvo leninskoy natsional'noy
politiki" ["Celebration of Leninist National Policies"], Cheb~ksary, 1972~
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V. Ye, Malanchuk, "Istortcheskiy opyt KPSS po resheniyu natslonol'nogo
voprosa i razvitlye natslonal'nykh otnc+shenly v rashey strane"
. j"The Hlstorical Experience of the CPSU on Solving the N~tional Question
and the Development of National Relations in Our Country"], Moscow, 1972; -
M. I. Kulichenko~ "Natslonal'nyye otnosheniya v SSSR I tendentsli ikh
razvleiya"("Natlonal Relations in the ~!SSR and the Tendencies of their
Development"]~ Moscow~ 1972; M. I, K,ulichenko~ "Commemorative Literature
on the Place and Role of the National Questlon in the October Revolutlon~ _
VOPROSY IS70R11 KPSS, 1g69~ No 3; M, I, Kultchenko, "Questlons of the
Formation of the USSR in New Works by Soviet Hlstorians" VOPROSY ISTORII,
ig62, No Yu. S. Kukushkin, "Problems ~n Studying the History of the
Creation of the USSR~" ISTORTYA'SSSa,'1972, No 6; M. S. Akhmedov~
"Some Questions in the History of the Creation of the USSR~'''VOPROSY
ISTORII KPSS, 1973, No 2; I, K. Dodonov, "Ths Creation of t,he Unlon of
Soviet Socialist Republics" in book: "Istorlografiya istorii SSSR"
["Historiography of the History of the USSR"]~ Moscow~ 1976.
3. I. M. Vareykiye~ Ye. 0. Zelenskiy, "Natsional'no-gosudarstvennoye
razmezhevaniye Sredney A zii" ["National-State Demarcation of Central Asia"~~
Tashkent, 1g24; See also: "Yazyki i pis'mennost' narodov Severa"
["Languages and Writing of the Peoples of the North"]~ Vols 1-3~ Moscow-
Leningrad~ 1934; L. M. Zak, M, i. Isayev~ "Problems with the Literacy of
the Peoples of the USSR During the Cultural Revolution," VOPROSY
ISTORII, 1966, No 2; S. A. Tokarev, "Early Stases in the Development of
Soviet Ei.nnographical Science (Igl7-mid-1930's)" OCHERKI ISTORII
RUSSKOY E?NOGRAFII, FOL'KLORISTIKI I ANTROPOLOGII~ Issue 5~ Moscow, 1971;
V. V. Antropova, "The Participation of Ethnographers in the Practlcal
Implementatlon of the Leninist National Policies in the Extreme North
(192~-1930)," SOUETSKAYA ETNOGRAFIYA~ 1972, No 6,
4. L, M. Zak, V. S. Lel'chuk, "Stroitel'stvo sotsializ ma v SSSR.
istoriograficheskiy ocherk." ["The Building of Socialism in the USSR.
Historiographic Study"], Moscow, 1971.
5. For a special analysis of literature on this problem see: D. A. Chugayev~
"The Creation of the USSR (Historiogra~hic Survey)," VOPROSI ISTORII ~
KPSS, 1962~ No 6; M. I. Kulichenko~ ~sy obrazovaniya SSSR v novykh
trudakh sovetskikh istorikov"; S. I. Yakubovskaya, "Soviet Historiography
of the Creation of the USSR," VOPROSY ISTORII, 1967, No 12; Yu. S.
Kukushkin~ "Basic Problems in the Creation and Uevelopment of the USSR
in Soviet Historiography," in book: "Zakonomernostf formirovaniya
sovetskogo naroda kak novoy istoricheskoy obshchnostl lyudey" ("Laws on
the Formation of the Soviet People as a New Historical Community of
People"~, Vol 1, Moscow, 1975; and others.
6. M. I. Kulichenko, "Natsional'nyye otnosheniya v SSSR i tendentsii ikh
razvitiya," p 308.
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V. N. Merkviladze, "V. I. Lenin I stroit~l'~tvo osnov sov~tskoy
natsionai'noy gosudarstvennostl" ~"V. I. L~nin ~nd thp Bullding nf the
Foundation nf the Soviet Natlonal Statp System"~~ Tbilisi~ 1959~
D, A, Chugeyev~ "V. I. l.enin--osnovatel' Sovetskogo mnogonetslonal'nogo
' go~udarstvA"~ C"~~ I. Len(n-~Founder of the Sovlet Multi-Natlone)
State"]~ ~oscow~ 1960 end 1970; S. S. Gitilov~ "V. I. I.enin--organizator
Sovetskogo mnogonatsional'nogo gosudarstva~" ("V. I. Lentn--Ofgenixer
' of the Soviet Multi-Natic+nat State"), Moscow~ 1960; P. A. Azizbekova~
"V. I. Lenin i sotslalisticheskiye preobrazovaniya v Aaerba dzhane"
("U. I. L~nin and the Soclal Transformatlons In AxerbaiJ~n"~~ Moscoe,
1962; V. N. Lyubimnv~ B. Kh. Yu1dashbayev~ L~nin i samoopred~teniy
natsiy" ("Lenin and the Self-D~cermination of Nations"~~ Cheboksary~
1967; Sh. Z. Urezeyev, "V. I. Lenin i stroitpi'stvo sovetskoy
gosudarstvennostf v 7urkestene" ("V.I. Lenln and the Building of the
Soviet Stete System in 1'urkeston"~, Tashkent~ 19b7; S. V, Vtkherev'
"V. I. Lenin o suv~renitet~ soyuznykh respubitk" ("V. I. Lenin on th~
_ Soverelgnty of Union aepublics"J~ Minsk~ 1969; S. V. Kharmandaryan~
"Lenin i stanovienlye Zakavsazskoy Federatsfi" ~';~MniA.eSaydasheva~tion
of the Transcaucasus Feder~tion Yer~van~ 1969~
~ "V, I. Lenin i sotsialistiehesknye~~strMoscowstly6q;?SteBiiBatshev,~ Lenin
and Socialist Building in Yatariya Radzhabav~
"Lenin i Sovetskiy Kazakhstan"~ Alma-Ata~ 19b9; S. V.
"Lenin i sovetskaya natsionai'naya gosuderstvennost"'("Lenin ~nd th~
Soviet Nationa) State System"J~ Dushanbe~ 1970; E. V. 7adevosyan~
"V. i. Lenin o gosudarstvennykh formakh resheniya natsion~l'nogo
voprosa v SSSR" ["V. I. leni~ on State Forms for Solving the National
Question in the USSa"~~ Moscow~ 1910; V~ G. Esalshvili, "V. I. lenin i
Gruziya~" Tbilisi~ 1970; A. N. Mnatsakanyan~ "Lenin i resheniye
natsional'nogo vopros~ v SSSP." ("Lenin and the Solution of the Natione)
Question in the USSR"~, Yerevan~ 1970; S. Z. Zimanov~ "V. 1. Lenin 1
sovetskaya natsional'naya gosudarstvennost' v Kazakhstane" A~~~_Ata~
Lenin and the Soviet National State System in Ka=akhstan"]~
1970; A. Z. Begiyan~ "Lenin i~~ovetskaya natsional'nays gosudarstvennast"'
("lenin and the Soviet Nationai State System"), Yerevan~ 1974; 7s. P. _
Agayan, "V. I. Lenin i sozdaniye Zakavkazskikh sovetskiy respublik"
("V. 1. Lenin and the Creatton of the transcaucasion Soviet ReFubilcs"~~ _
Yerevan~ 1976, and others.
8. M. P. Kim~ "40 ic;t sovetskoy kul'tury" ["Forty Years of Soviet Culture"~~
Yerevan, 1976, and others.
9. See for example: V. Galkin, "Vozniknoveniye i razvitiye sotsialisticheskikh
natsiy v SSSR" ["Creation and Development of Socialist Nations in the
USSR"]~ Moscow, 1952; M� S. Qzhunusov, "K voprosu o formirovanii
sotsialisticheskikh natsiy"v["On the Questton of the Forq?ation of
Soci ai i st Nattons"] , Frunze ~ 195Z: V� K. iGozlov, "0 formi rovani i i
razvitii sotsialisticheskikh natsiy 'v S5SR" ["On tt~e Format;954and
Devetopment of the Socialist Nations in the USSR Moscow~ ~
A. V. Grekul, "Formirovaniye i razvttiye moldavskoy sotsialisttcheskoy
= 24
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netsiy" C"Th~ Form~tlon end D~v~l~pment c~f th~ Moldavian Soctetist
; Netton"~, Kishin~y~ 1955; M. Vakhebov, "Formirovanly~ uzb~kskoy -
sorsielistlch~skoy n~tsil" ("Formetion of the UZb~k Soclalist Nation")~
7ashkent~ 1961; Sh, V. Batyrov~ "Formlrovanlye i razvlttye
- soesielisticheskikh natsly v SSSR" ~"7he Formatlon and Development of
' Socialist Nettons in the USSR"j~ Moscow~ 1962; K. Sabtrov~ 01Tedzhfkskaya
sotslatistlcheskaya natslya--detishche Oktyabrya"C"Th~ Tadzhik -
Sociallst Natton-�Chlid of Octob~r"~, Dushanbe~ 1967~ and others.
10. "gor'ba kommunisticheskoy partii za uprocheniye Sovetskoy vlasti i
~sushch~stvlentye leninskoy natsional'noy polttlki v~redney Aztt t1917-
1925)" ["The Struggle of th~ Communist Party to Consolidete Sovlet Power
and Implement the Leninist Nattonal Pollcy in Central Asla")~ r~oscow~
i956; T. Yu. Burmistrov~ "Bor'ba bol'shevistskoy partii za int~rnatstonel'-
' noye splocheniye trudyashchtkhsya mass Rossll v 1917" ("The Stru~gie of the
Communist Party for the Internationai Unity of Worktng Masse~ in Russle
- in 1917"~, Moscow~ 1957; L. V. Metelitsa~ "Torzhestvo lentnskoy
natsinnai'noy politiki v SSSR" ("Victory of Lentnlst Nattona) Poltcy In
the USSR"j~ Moscow~ 1962; M, I. Kulichenko~ "K~omnunisticheskaya partiya
Ukrainy v bor'be za sozdaniye SSSR" ("The Cortmunlst Party of the Ukratne
In the Struggle to Create the USSR"j~ Kiev~ 1962 (in Ukraintan); M. I~
Kulichenko, "Bor'ba Kommunisticheskny partil ze resheniye natsional'nogo
vopresa v 1918-1929 godakh" he Struggle of the Comnunist Party in
S~lvin~g the National Question During 1918-1929")~ Khar'kov~ 1963;
F, I, Yermakov, "KPSS--organizator bratskogo sotrudnichestva
soveiskikh respubitk v sozdanit material'no�tekhnicheskoy baty
_ knmmunizma~" ~"CPSU--G~,anizer of Brotherly Cooperation Among SovtPt
Republics in Developing a ria:erial-Technical Base of Cannunism"j,
Moscow, 1964; I. I. Groshev~ "Istoricheskiy opyt KPSS po osushchestveniyu
teninskoy natsional'noy politiki" ("Historical Experience of the CPSU
in Implert?enting Leninist National Policy"~~ Moscow~ 1967~ and others.
I1. "Istoriya natsional'no-gosudarstvennogo stroitel'stva y SSSR v 2-kh �
tomakh" ("Nistory of National-State Building in the USSR in Two Volumes"~~
lst ed., Moscow~ 1968-1970~ 2nd ed., Moscow~ 1978.
12. I. P. Zhiromskaya, "Questions on Social and international Unity of the
Soctaiist Society in Soviet Scie~tific Liter~ature," VESTNIK MOSKOVSKOGO
UNIVERSITETA, Series 13. Theory of Scientific Communism, 1972~ No 5;
j M. I. Kulichenko~ "Natsional'nyye otnosheniya v SSSR i tendentsii ikh ~
razvitiya, pp 403-424, 515-530; M. 5. Akhmedov~ "Some Questions on the
History of the Formation of the USSR (Short Survey of the Literature of ~
the Last Oecade~" VOPROSY ISTORII KPSS, 1973~ No 2; R. Kh. Murtazanova~
"On the Historiography of the Lead~rship of the CPSU in the Development
- of Natinna) Relations in the USSR~" NAUCHNYYE TRUDY of the University of
Tashkent, Issue `~22, "Iz istorii bor'by Kompartii U=bekistana za ~
osushchestvelniye leninskoy natsional'noy politiki." ("From the History
- of the Struggie of the Cortmunist Party of Uzbekistan for thE; ;
Impiementation of Leninist Nationa~ Policies"~, Tashkent, 1973;
;
25
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I. Tsameryan~ "Thoroughly Elabor~ting the Problems of National
a~latlona~" KOMMUNIST~ 1973~ No 12; V. I. Ka~'yanenko~ "Razvttoy
sotslali9m: istorlografiye i metodologiya probiemy" ~"Dev~loped
Soeialism: Htstorlography and Msthodology of ehe Problem"~~ Moseow~
1976; "Leninixm i natsional'nyy vopros v sovremennykh usl~viyakh"
("Leninlsm and th~ Netional Questinn Undcr Modern Condlttons"~~ Moscow
1972; "Mnngon~tslonai'noye Sovetskoye gosudarstvo" ("Th~ Multl-Nattona)
~ Soviet State"], Moscow~ 1972; "SSSR--velikny~ sodruzhestvo narodov-
brat'yev" ~"USSR--Gr~at Cooperathon of Brother P~opies"~~ Moscow~ 1972i
S. I. Yakubovskaya~ "Razvitlye SSSR kak soyuznogo gosudarstva 1922-1936"
("Development of the USSR as a Union State"~~ Moscow~ 1972; N1�
Kulichenko~ "Natsional'nyye otnosheniya v SS~R i tendentsii ikh
razvitiya; D. L. tlatopol'skiy~ 0. I. Chistyakov~ "Obrazovanlye Soyuza
SSR~" ("Formation of the USSR"~~ Moscow~ 1972; E. V. 7adevosyan~
"Sovetskaya natsional'naya gosudarstvennost"' ("Soviet Natlonat State
Systert~"~~ Moscow, 1972; P. Tsameryan~ "Teoreticheskiye problemy
obrazovaniya i razviCiya S�~vetskogo mnogor~atsional'nogo gosudarstva"
("7heoretical Probl~ms in the Farmation and Development of e Soviet
Mu1ti-Netional State"], Moscow~ 1973~ and others.
13, See for exampie: I. Ye. Kravtsev~ "Sblizheniye sotsialistichesktkh
natsty v protsesse perekhoda k kortmunismu" ["Convergence of SKiev~ist
Nations in the Process of the Transition Toward Communism"~~
1960; "Problemy sblizheniya sotsialisticheskikh natsiy v period
stroitei'stva kommunisma" ("Problems in the RepFrunzeme1966f Socialist
Netions in the Period of Communist Building"~~
"Rastsvet sotsialistichesklkh natsty i ikh sblizheniye" ("Development
of Socialist Nations and Their Rapprochement"~~ 7ashkent~ 1967~
"Stroitei'stvo kommunisma i problemy sblizheniya natsiy" ("The
Buildin of Communism and the Hroblem of the Rapprochement of Natlons"]~
Kiev~ 19b9; Yu. V. Arutyunyan~ L. M. Orobizheva~ "Sotsial'no-
kul'turnoye razvitiye i sblizheniye natsiy v SSSR na sovremennom etape
["Socio-Cultural Devetopment and the RapprochTorzhestvoaleninskikhhidey
USS~ at the Present Stage Moscow~ 1972~ " -
proletarskogo internatsionalizma. Na materiatakh respublik Sredney
Azii i Kazakhstana." ["The Victory of Leninist Ideas of Proletarian
Internationalism. From Materials of the Republics of Central Asia and
- Kazakhstan"~, Moscow, 1974~ ~~~he Friendshiv~af PeohlesnaOur~Priceless
bestsennoye zavoyevaniye." ' P p
Achievement"], Moscow, 1977 and others.
14. Kh. Sh. Inoyatov, "Otvet fal'sifikatoram istorii Sovetskoy Sredney ~
Azii i Kazakhstana"~~["Answer to the Falsifiers of the History of Central
Asia and Kazakhstan Tashkent, 1962; Kh. Sh. Inoyatov~ "Leninskaya
natsional'naya politika v deystvii" ["Leninist National Policies in
Action"~~ Tashkent, 1973; A� Nusupbekov~ Kh. Bisenov, "Fal'sifikatskiya
istorii i istroicheskaya pravda" ~"Falsification of History and Historical
Truth"]~ Alma-Ata~ 1964; D. Rzayev, Razvitiye natsional'nykh otnosheniy
v respublikakh Sovetskogo Vostoka. Kritika-antikomnunizma v
natsional'nom voprose" ["The Deve1opment bf National Relations in the
Republl.s or the Soviet East� Anti-Communist Criticism on the National
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Qu~stton"~~ Frunz~~ 1968; R, A. Tuzmukhamedov, "Otvet kievetnikam.
Samoopred~ilnlye narodov Sredney Asll I mezhdunarodnoyp pravo"
("Answer to Slander~rs. Seif-Determtnatlon of the Peoples of Central
Asta and Internarlona) Law"), Moscow~ 1969; i. S. Zenushklna~
"Sovetskaya natslonal'naya politika t burzhueznyye istortkt. Stanovlenlye
Sovetskogo mnogonatstonal'no o gosudarstva (1917-1922) v sovremennoy
amerikanskoy Iseoriografl(" ~"Soviet National Policy and Bourgeois
Hiseorians, The Coming-Into-Being of the Sovlet Muiti-Net(onel Stete
in Mnder~n American Htstoriography"]~ Moscow~ 1971; "Fakty t domysiy"
("Facts and ConJectures"~, Klshinev~ 1972; N. M. Kaltakhchyan~ S. T.
Kaltekhchyan~ "L~ninskaya teoriya natsiy i yeye fal'sifikatory"
["Lentnist National Theory and its Falsifiers"]~ Moscow~ 1913;
I, I. Grosh~v~ 0. I. Chechenkina~ "Krittka burzhuaznoy fal'sifikatsii
natstonei'noy politlkl KPSS" ("Crltlclsm of Bourgeois Falslfters of the
National Policles of the C~SU")~ Moscow~ 1974; L. Nagornaya,
"Protiv burzhuaznykh fal'siftkatsly natsional'noy poltttki KPSS"
("Against Bourgeois Fais(flcation of the Netional Policies of the CPSU"~~
Kiev~ 1974 (in Ukrafnian); M. N. Abdulayev~ "Severnyy Kavkaz v
ob"yektive anttkommunlsma" ["The Northern Caucasus as the Ob,ject of
Anticommunism"J, Makhachkala~ 1975~ and others.
15. A. K. Azizyan~ "Leninskaya natsional'naya politika v razvltii t
deystvii" ~"Lenintst National Policies in Development and Action")~
Moscow, 1972; V. Ye. Malanchuk~ "Istoricheskiy opyt KPSS po resheniyu
natsional'nogo voprosa i razvitlyu natslonal'nykh otnosheniy v SSSR"
("iiistorical Experience of tha CPSU on Solving the Natior;al Question ~
and the Development of National Relations in the USSR"~~ Moscow~ 1972;
S. V. Gtlilov, "V. I. Lenin--organtzator Sovetskogo mnogc~natsional'nogo
gosudarstva" ("V. I. Lenln--Organizer of the Soviet Multi-National
Stete"], 2nd ed.~ Moscow~ 1972; V. Ya. Zevin~ "V. I~ Lenin--
osnovatei' Soyuza Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik" ~"V. I.
Lenin--Founder of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republtcs"~, Moscow~
197?~ and others.
16. A, P. ~prtsova. "Sotsialism i razvitiye natsiy" (Socialism and the
Development of Nations"), Moscow. 1973: "Sotsialism i natsii"
["Socialism and Nations"), Moscow, 1975�
17. A. P. Kositsyn, ed., "Istoriya sovetskogo gosudarstva i prava"
["History of the Soviet State and Law"], book 1, Moscow, 1968; book 2~
Moscow, 1968; book 3, Moscow, 1969. \
i
18. Yu. F. Borob'yev. "Vyravnivaniye urovney ekonomicheykogo razvitiya
soyuznykh respublik" ["Leveling the Levels of Economic Development of
U~ion Republics"]~ Moscow, 1965; L. N. Telepko, "Urovni ekonomicheskogo
razvitiya narodov SSSR" [Levels of Economic Development of the Peoples
of the USSR"), Moscow, 1971; S. I. Oganesyan, "Glavnyye napravleniya
vyravnivaniya urovney ekonomicheskogo razvitiya soyuznykh respublik"
["Main Directions for Equalizing the Levels of Economic Development of
Union Repub~ics"], Yerevan, 1971; A. M. Bagdasaryan~ "Ekonomicheskoye
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vyravnivenlye soyuznykh respubllk v protsesse sotslallsticheskogo
stroitel'stva" ["Economic Equallzation of Union Republlcs in the
Process of Soctallst Building"~~ ~ostov, 1973; T, S, Vellyev~
"Vyravnfvantye urovney ekorlomicheskogo razvitiya sovetskikh
respublik" ("Equalizetion of Economic Devetopm~nt of Soviet Republics"~,
Moscow~ 1973; D. A1ladatov~ "Preodolenfye ekonomlcheskoy otstalostl I
vyravnivanlye urovney razvftlya akonomtki soyuznykh respublik"
~"Eiiminating Economlc Backwardness and Equ~lizatlon of the Levels of
Development oF Economies of Union Republfcs")~ Ashkhabad~ 1973~
S. I. Kirke~ "Tempy i proportsii ekonomlcheskogo razvitiya soyuznoy
respubiiki" ["Pace and Proportion of Economtc Development of the Unlon
Republic"]~ Kishinev~ 1973~ Yu. F. Vorob'yev~ "Problemy proportsional'-
nogo razvitiya ekonomiki soyuznykh respublik i istortcheskty opyt ikh
resheniya" ("Problems of the Proportional Development of the Economies ,
of Unton Republics and the Htstorical Experlence of Solving 7hem"),
Moscow~ 1974~ and others.
ig. "Yazyki ,narodov SSSR"["Languages of the Peoples of the USSR"J~ Vol 1~ �
Indoeuropean Languages~ Moscow~ 1966; Vo) 2, TurkiG Languages~ Moscow~
1966; Vol 3, Fi~no-Ugric and Samodiyskiye (Translation unknown)
Lenguages~ Moscow, 1966; Vol 4, Ib~ro-Caucasian Languages~ Moscow~
1967; Vo) 5, Mongolian~ Manchu-Tungus and Palea-Asiatic Languages~
Moscow, 1968.
20. K. Kh. Khanazarov, "Sblizheniye natsiy i razvitiye yazykov narodov
SSSR" ["Rapprochement of Nations and the Development of the Languages
of the Peoples of the USSR"], Moscow, 1964; Yu. D~ Desheriyev~
"~akonomernosti razvitiya i vzaimodeystviya yazykov v sovetskom
obshchestve" ["Laws on the Development and Interrelattons of Languages
in Sovtet Society"~, Moscow~ 1~66~ and others.
21. "Zakoi~omernosti razvitiya literaturnykh yazykov narodov SSSR v sovetskuyu
epokhu" ["Laws on the Development of Literary Languages of the People ~
of the USSR During the Soviet Epoch"]~ Vol 1 Turkic, 'Finno-Ugric and
Mongolian~ Moscow, 1969; Vol 2~ Iranian and Caucasian Languayes~ Moscow,
1969; Vo) 3~"Intra-Structural Development of Early Written Languages~"
Moscow, 1973; Vol 4, Yu. D. Desheriyev, "Razvitiye obshchestvennykh
funktsiy literaturnykh yazykov v sovetskuyu epokhu" ["The Development of
Social Functions of Literary Languages During the Soviet Epoch"], Moscow~
1976.
22. "Problemy dvuyazychiya i mnogoyazychiya" ["Problems of Bilingualism and
Multi-Lingualism"], Moscow, 1972; M. N. Guboglo, "Sotsial'no-etnicheskiye
posiedstviya dVuyazychiya" ["Socio-ethnological Consequences of
Bitingualism"], SOVETSKAYA ETNOGRAFIYA, 1972, No 2; M. N. Guboglo,
"On the Study of the Future Development of Bilingualism in the Peoples
of the USSR," ISTORIYA SSSR, 1978, No 1; "Razvitiye natsional'no-
russkogo dvuyazychiya" ["De~elopment of National-Russian Bilingualism"],
Moscow, 1976. ~
28
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23. "Razvitlye yazykov I kui'tur narodov SSSR v Ikh vzaimosvyazt f
vzalmodeystvli" ("The Deveiopment ~f the Languages end Cuitures of the
Peoples of the USSR and Their Interrelationshfps and Interactlon"]~
Ufa~ 1976,
24, "Natslonal'no-kul'turnaya spetslftka rechevogo povedenlya" [~'Natlonal-
Culturai Specfflcs of Speech Patterns"), Moscow~ 197~,
25. "Komnunism i kul'tura. Zakonomernostt formirovanlya i razvitiya
novoy kul'tury" ~"Communism and Cuiture. Laws on the Formation end
Development of a New Culture."j~ Moscow, 1966.
26. "Istoriya sovetskoy mnogonatsional'noy literatury" ["Hlstory of Soviet
Multi-National Literature"]~ Vol 1~ Moscow 1970; Vol 2~ Book 1~ Moscow~
19~1, Voi 2~ Book 2~ Moscow~ 1972; Vol 3~ Moscow, 1970; Vol 4~ Moscow~ ~
1972; Vol 5, Moscow, 1974, Vol 6, Moscow, 1974.
27. "Istoriya sovetskogo dramaticheskogo teatra" ["History of the Soviet
Dramat(c Theater"), Vols 1-6~ Moscow, 1966-1971; "Istoriya muzyki
narodov SSSR" ["Hlstory of the Music of the Peoples of the USSR"j~
Vols I-4, Moscow, 1966-1973; "Istoriya sovetskogo Iskusstva. Zhlvop(s'~
_ skul'ptura, grafika" ["Aistory of Soviet Art. Painting~ Sculpture~
_ Graphics"], Vols 1-2, Moscow, 1965-1968~ and others.
28. See for example: L. Novichenko, "0 mnogoobrazii khudozhestvennykh
form i stlley v literature sotsialisticheskogo reali2ma"("On the Diversity
of Art(stic Forms and Styles in the Literature of Socialist Realism"]~
Moscow, 1959; G. Lomidze~ "Yedinstvo 1 mnogoobraziye" ("Unity and '
Diversity j, Moscow~ 1960; "Puti razvfttya sovetskoy mnogonatsional'no
ilteratury" ("Ways of Development of Soviet Multi-National Literature"),
Moscow, 1967; A. 0. Ry2huk~ "Natsional'noye i internatstonal'noye v
iskusstve sovetskikh narodov" ["The National and International in the
Art of the Soviet Peoples"j, Moscow, 1970; "Natsional'noye i
internatsional'noye v literature narodov SSSR" ["The National and
international in the Literature of the Peoples of the USSR")~ Moscow~ ~
1973; "internatsional'noye i natstonal'noye v iskusstve" ["The
International and National tn Art"~~ Moscow, 1974, and others.
29. Yu. V. Bromley~ V. I. Kozlov, "On the Study of Modern Ethnic Processes
- in the Sphere of the Spiritual Level of the Peoples of the USSR,"
SOVETSKAYA ETNOGRAFIYA, 1975, No 1, pp $-9,
30. Yu. V. Bromley, K. V. Chistov, "Basic Directions in the Development of
Soviet Ethnography," "Etnografiya v stranakh sotsializma" ["Ethnography
fn the Socielist Countries"], Moscow, 1975, pp 25-26.
31. V. K. Gardanov, B. 0. Dolgikh, T'. A. Zhdanko, "Basic Directions in
the Ethnic Processes of the People of the USSR," SOVETSKAYA ETNOGRAFIYA, ~
1961, No 4; T. A. Zhdanko, "Ethnographic S'fudy of the Processes of
Development and Rapprochement of Socialist Nations in the USSR,"
29
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SOVETSKAYA ETNOGRAFiYA, 1964~ No 4; I. S, Gurevich~ "Snme Problems
in the Ethnic Development of the Peoples,of the USSR~" SOVETSKAYA
ETNOGRAFIYA~ 1967~ No 5; 1. S. Gurevfch~ "The Ethnocultural
Convergence of the Peoples of the USSR~" SOVETSKAYA E?NOGRAFIYA~
1977~ No 5,
32. S. Bruk, "Ethno-demographic Processes in the USSR (According to
Materials of the 19y0 Census)," SOVETSKAYA ETNOGRAFIYA, 1971~ No 4;
V. I. Kozlov, "Etnicheskaya demografiya"["Ethnic Demography"]~ Moscow~
1977~
33� E, A. Bagramov, "Natsional'nyy vopros i burzhuaznaya ideologiya"
["The Natlonal Question and Bourgeois Ideology"), Moscow~ 1966;
S. M. Arutyunyan, "Natsiya i yeye psikhicheskiy sklad" ["The Nation
and its Psychic Makeup"~~ Krasnodar~ 1966; N. Dzhandil'din,
"Priroda natsional'noy psikhologii" ("The Nature of National Psychology"~~
Alma-Ata~ 1971; "Voprosy natsional'noy pstkhologii" ["Questlons of
National Psychology"]~ Cherkessk, 1972; L. M. Drobizheva, "On the
Study of the Socio-Psychological Aspects of National Relations (Some
Questions on Methodology)," SOVE7SKAYA ETNOGRAFIYA~ 1974, No 4;
A. F. Dashdamirov, "Socio-Psychologica) Problems of the Natlonal
Determination of the Individual" SOVETSKAYA ETNOGRAFIYA~ 19~7, No 3�
34. K. N. Khabibullin, "Samosoananiye i internatsional'naya otvetstvennost'
sotsialistichesklkh natsiy" ["Self-Consciousness and International
Responsibility of Socialist Nations"~, Perm', t974; V. I. Kozlov~
"The Problem of Ethnic Self-Consciousness and Its Place in the Theory
of Ethnos" SOVETSKAYA ETNOGRAFIYA, 1974, No 2.
35. See for example: "Sotsialisticheskiye natsii SSSR" ("Socialist Nations
of the USSR"], Moscow~ 1955t P. Tsameryan~ "Sovetskoye mnogonatsional'-
noye gosudarstvo~ ego osobennosti i puti razvitiya"["The Soviet Multi-
National State, Its Characteristics and Paths of Development"]~
Moscow, 1958; M. D. Kammari, "On the Laws of the Development of Nations
Under Conditions of Socialism and the Transition to Communism,"
Journa) OT SOTSIAL~ZMA K KOMMUNIZMU, Moscow, 1962; M. D. Kammari~
- "K polnomu yedinstvu" ["Toward Full Unity"], Moscow, 1962;
~ N. D. Dzhandil'din, "Kommunism i razvitiye natsional'nykh otnosheniy"
["Communism and the Development of Nationai Relations"], Moscow, 1964,
and others (See Item 10 also).
36. voPROSY ISTORII, 1966, Nos t, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12; 1967, Nos 1, 4, 7;
1g68, Nos 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, l0; 1969, No 8.
37. SOVETSKAYA ETNOGRAFIYA, 1967, Mos 2, 4; 1968, Nos l, 4; 1969, Nos 5~ 6;
1970, Nos 3, 6.
38. "Leninizm i natsional'nyy vopros v sovremennykh usloviyakh" ["Leninism
and the National Question Under Modern Conditions"], Moscow, 1972; 2nd
ed, Moscow, 1974.
30
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39~ "Sovremennyye etnlchesklye protsessy v SSSR" ("Modern Ethnic Processes
in the USSR"]~ Moscow~ 1975; 2nd ed,~ Moscow~ 1977,
40, P. Rogachev, M. Sverdifn~ "The Soviet People--New Hlsroric Community of
People~" KOMMUNIST~ 1963~ No 9; "Mnogonatsional'nyy sovetskiy narod--
novaya istorlcheskaya obshchnost' lyudey (tezlsy dokladov i soobshcheniy)."
~"The Multi-Nationa~l Sovlet Peo le--a New Historlcal Communlty of People
(Theses of Speeches and Reports~"~~ Moscow~ 1966; "The Soviet People--
New Historical Community of Peopie," TRUDY MEZHVUZOVSKOY NAUCHNOY
KONFERENTSII (15-Ig OCTOBER 1968) ["Works of the Inter-Vuz Scientific
Conference"j, Volgograd~ 1969; S. T. Kaltakhchyan~ "Leninizm o
sushchnosti natsii i putl obrasovaniya internatsional'noy obshchnosti
lyudey" ["Leninism on the Essence of Nation and the Ways to Create an
internatlona) Community of People"]~ Moscow, 1969 (2nd ed,~ Moscow~
19~6); M. P. Kim~ "Sovetskiy narod--novaya tstorlcheskaya obshchnost"'
["The Soviet People--A New Historical Community"]~ Moscow~ 1972;
M. R. Bulatov~ "Sovetskly narod--novaya istoricheskaya obshchnost'
lyudey" ["The Soviet People--A New Historical Community of People"]~
Kazan'~ 1972; V. F. Panibud'laska, "Sovetskiy narod--novaya istoricheskaya
obshchnost' lyudey" ["The Soviet People--A New Historical Community of
Peopie"]~ Kiev, 1972; V. P. Sherstobitov, "Sovetskiy narod--novaya
istoricheskaya obshchnost' lyudey" ("The Soviet People--A New Historical
Community"], Moscow~ 1972; M. N. Rosenko, "Sovetskiy narod--novaya
istoricheskaya obshchnost"' ("The Soviet People--A New Historical
Community"], Leningrad~ 1973; "Sovetskiy narod--istoricheskaya
obshchnost' lyudey. Stanovleniye i razvitiye" ["The Soviet People--
Historical Community of People. Creation and Development"), Moscow~
_ 1975; M. I. Kulichenko~ "Ukrepleniye internatslonal'nogo yedinstva
sovetskogo obshchestva" ["Consolidation of the International Unity
of Soviet Society"]~ Kiev~ 1976; ,M. Dzhunusov~ "Obshchestvennyy
progress i natsional'nyye otnosheniya" [Social Progress and National
Relations"], Alma-Ata~ 1976; A. F. Dashdamirov, "Sovetskiy narod.
Nekotoryye filosofsko-sotsiologichesk(ye problemy yedinstva novoy
istoricheskoy obshchnosti" ["The Soviet People. Some Philosophical
and Sociological Problems in the Unity of the New Historical Community"~,
Baku~ 1977~ and others.
41. "Sovetskiy narod--stroitel' komnunizma" ["The Soviet People--Builder of
Communism"], Books 1, 2, Frunze, 1977; "60-letiye Velikogo Oktyabrya i
torzhestvo proletarskogo internatsionalizma v SSSR" ["The 60th
Anniversary of Great October and the Victory of Proletarian
Internationalism in the USSR"], Moscow, 1977.
42. See for example: "Natsional'nyye otnosheniya v razvitom sotsialisticheskom
obshchestve" ["National Relations in a Developed Socialist Society"],
Moscow, 1977.
43. See for exampie: M. Dzhunusov~ "Dve tendentsii sotsializma v
natsional'nykh otnosheniyakh" ["Two Tendencies of Socialism in National
3L
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RelaCions"]~ Tashkent~ 1975; "Razvittye yazykov I kul'tur narodov SSSR
v ikh vzalmosvyazl t vzalmodeystvli" I"Development of Languages and
Cultures in the Peoples of the USSR and 7heir Interrelationships and
Interactions"], Ufa~ 1976; E. A. Bagramov~ "Lentnskaya natsional'naya
polittka: dostizheniya t perspektlvy" ["Lenintst Natlonal Policy:
Achievements and Future"~~ Moscow, 1978~ and others.
44. Yu. V~ Arutyunyan, Speciffcally Sociologlcal Study of Nationei
Relatlons~" VOPROSY FILOSOFII~ 196g, No 12; A~ F. Dazhdamirov~
"Natsiya 1 lichnost"' L"Natlon and Indlvidual"~~ Baku~ 1976.
45, "Sotslal'noye i natsional'noye" ["Social and National"]~ Moscow~ 1973~
46. A. i. Kholmogorov~ "Internatsional'nyye cherty sovetskikh natsiy" -
~"Internatlonal Traits of Soviet Nations"), Moscow~ 1970; Yu. Kakhk~ -
"Cherty skhodstva" ("Common Features"]~ 7allin~ 1974.
47. V. I. Boyko, "Opyt sotstologtcheskogo issledovaniya problem razvitiya
narodov N(zhnego Amura" ["The Experience of Sociological Research on
the Problem of Development of the Peoples of the Lower Amur"],
Novosibirsk~ 1973; V. I. Boyko, "Sotsial'noye razvitiye narodov
Nizhnego Amura" ("Social Development af the Peoples of the Lower Amur"],
Novosibirsk, 1977.
COPYRIGHT: izdatel'stvo "Nauka"~"Istoriya SSSR", 1979
8228
cso: 1800
~
~
I
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it~GIONAL
ETHNOSOCIOLOCICAL INVESTIGATION OF CUL7U RL AND EVERYDAY LYFL IN U2BEKISTAN
Taehkant OBSKCHESTVENNYYE NAUKI V UZBBKISTANA No l~ 1979 eigned Co pre~s
15 Jan 79 pp 36-41
(Article by Yu.V. Arutyunyan and S.M. Mirkheeilov]
(.Textj The materials of the 25th CP5U Congress indicate that the development
of the socialiet way of life and of the many-eided Soviet cultuYe ie among
the important prob lems ahoea Working ou~ "requires the united efforte of
representatives of different sciencea."
Fonaerly the etudy of the questione of the life and culture of the peoplea
of the USSR was done mainly by ethnographere in accordance With the principlee
and methoda that had been developed in ethnographic ecience. But with the
aecoud half of the 60's, sociological research hae been increaeingly Widely
practiced in this ephere~ and its methods and materiale have been Widely
penetrating athnographic reeearch af the contem~porary way of life. At the
eame time, ethnosociological reaearch ie also developing.2
Ethnosodolopy ia~ on the one hand~ a subdivieion of ethnography and, on the
other~sociologq; it studiea the interaction of general eocial end epecifically
ethnic phenomena and processes. Most authore consider ethnosociological re-
' search ae research in the comparative plane of the specific n~ture of eocial
proceasea in different ef;anic env~raamnnts and apncial features of ethnic
changes in varioua socia'1 groups. A moet important task of ethnosociolop~?
is the atudy of aeaimilatian of culture by different etrata and groups of
the people, ae we11 as the relatiaa of traditivnal to coatemporsry and na-
tional to internatioa~l in the cultural make-up of a nation, aot~ial strata
and groups within it.
It ia namely among such ethnosociologicsl researchea undertaken bq the Ineti-
tute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciencea that We would includa
works canducted in Uzbekietan within the f rame~?ork of all-union problem re-
search "Optimizatian of the Social-Cultural Coaditione of Development and
Drawing Clossr of the Natiaas ~n the USSR," ahich ia being carried out With
the materials of individual regions of the country.5 One of its most ieipot~
taeke ia to shov the diveraity of the national forms of Soviet culture and to
disclose ite geaeral and particular features in the repub lica aad to delineate
more deeply the perspectives of its development.
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The selection o� Uzbek S5R ea a eub,~ect of ethnosocioloqical reee~rch in the
Central Aeian region ie no accident. The eettling in the Yepub lic of repre-
sentaCives of two large nations--the Uzbek aad the Ruesian (comprieing reepec-
tively 65.2 and 12.5 percent of Che UzSSR populaCion) end aleo of repreeenta-
tives of almoet all Che naCionalitiee and peoples of our counCYy provides
f avorab le poseibilitiee for the etudy of eocial and cultural-everyday life
conditione of the development and dre~wing cloeer together of the natione in
Che USSIt.
The maCerials of the research make it pos~ib le to dieclose the tendenciee of
development of contemporary ethnic and cultural-everyday lif~ proceaeee~ the
inf luence on international relations of the character of the ethnic environ-
ment, contacCe, common character of the territory~ languaqe~ educaCional eys-
tem and several other channels of reciprocal inf luence of natione; to elu~i-
date a number of queetione of development o� international relatione~ espec-
cially interpersonal~ making it possible to ~udge of the raCe end reeulte of
developmenC of the inaternational commuaity in the USSR and of the estab li~h-
ment of internationaliem ae a syatem of views and norros of behavior of Soviet
people; to disclose tha eignificance of cerCain social-cultural and social-
economic conditiona determining national inCerrelations; to discloee the
apiritual make-up of contemporary man--hie needa end intereets~ value orienta-
tions~ use of contemporary culture by the urban and rural population; to
more deeply elucidate the developmental tendencies of the present-day f amily~ I
f,amily and social life and also the formation of new traditians~ customs~ ;
norma of behavior ~nd eatablishnient of atheistic viewe. All this ie of ma~or
theoretical and practical importance, particularly f or optimization of the i
cultural develoment of the Soviet nations. ~
For collection of the neceseary information~ two eourcea were uaed--relatively ~
epeaking, the historic-economic and the eociologic. The neceasary documentary
and atatiatical information, reflecting the general trend of social-cultural .
development of the Soviet people has been and ie being studied according to �
a coordinaCed interrepublic methodology. But the most labor-intensive and
original eource is information obteined as the reault of maee surveq of the
population of a republic according to a program of research common for the ~
country.
The queationnatre clarified basic information an the canditions of life of
the peraon interviewed, such as place of work, position~ and education. ~
Characteristics were recorded reflecting cultural habits, epeech behavior~
level of information; a group of questiana made it possible te relate the
ob~ective characterization of the person interviewed.Co his national self-
consciouaness in order to compile a picture of the significance of individual
f actore in the inculcation of internationalism. Special attention was paid
to a characterization of social-oceupational mobility, recording of employ-
ment and education of the peraon surveyed not only at the time of the eurvey
but also at the beginning of hia labor activity and also the employment of
hie parents.
As a result of analyzing all the statistical information, in 1974 Tashkent- �
skaya. Andizhenakaya and Samarkandekaya oblasts (where 77 percent of the
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populaCion of U~bek SSR livee) were choeen ae sub~ecte of reeeeYCh ae ade-
quaCely repregenting the general tendenciea of !he republic~e eocial-cultural
development. A sampling aggregate in theee oblaete aee foraied eepaXetely for
the city and the tursl populstion. For the mnking up of an urban sea~ple in
the first etage~ ciCiee wetie eelncted (with coneideration beinq given to the
sixe of the raeiding population~ ite ethnic make-up~ eectorial etructure~
funcCional role of the cities and Cheir economic-geographic poeition) and in
rhe eecond atage~ a eelection wras made of Yegpondente (through mechenical
aelecCion from voting liete).
The aize of the urban eample was determined with the help of mathematic~l-
etatieCical methode 1n the number of 2,500 xespondente.6 Thie eampling
aggregate included representatives of both the Us~bek and Ruseian natian (in
proportion to their numbere). For study of the urban population~ there vere
eelected: Taehkent, Samarkand, Andizhan, Angren, Bekabad, Kattakurgan,
Pskent~ Leninek and Shakhrikhau?. In 1976, material wae collected fYOm amang
repreaentativee of other nationalitiee in five cities of Uzbekietan--Taehkent,
Samarkand~ Katakuzgea, Angren and Bekab ad. A total of 729 persone were inter-
viewed. '
The rural sample was made up somewhat differently, which ia to be explained ry
~ a diffe rent syatem of seCtlement and differences in the social and occupa-
tional structure of the rural population. In the first etage of the selec-
tion~ rural rayons were pdcloed out in each oblast, then apecific reeidential '
centers and~ finally,, respondents aere choaen from each social and occupa-
tional group on the basis of household booka [pokhozyaystvennyye knigi).
On the baeis of the differencea in the character of the unite of the eampling
(rayons, residenCial centers~ rural inhabitante)~ apecific characteristice
on which the selection ~ould be b ased were determined at each ateRe of the
sam~ling. For example, when aelectinq rayons~ there were taken into accoun t
tlie relative share of the rural population, its ethnic make-up, ehare of
machine-operator cadres among the employed population, correlation of kolkhoz
and sovkhoz production, level of the rayon's cultural and economi.c develop-
ment and so forth.
The rural sampling aggregate consisted of 1,600 units. Zt~e sa~ple took in
social-oecupational groupa of the Uzbek population in 25 villages of three
rayons of above-mantioned oblasts--Leninskiy, Pekentskiq and Kattalcu~ganskiy.
A comparison of certain indicators for general and aelective agqregates en-
. ablea ua to apeak of the high level of repreaentativeness of the obtained
data. S ampling error in the cities and villages Wae in the limits of �5 per-
cent. Corrective coefficients were used for over-all atatistical character-
ization of the city aond rural population in procesaing of the materi~ls an a
cemputer. In additian to a survey of the population, objective materiale
were beinA collected at the same time, which made it poseible to a certain
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extent Co reflect the envixonmenC and in Che final ~talyeis Co relate in per-
~pective Che eocia].-peychological characterietice Co eocial-economic and
ecological onee.
'itie reaulCe of the investigetion make iC poeeible to characrerixe c~rtain
tendencies of culCural-everyday life processes among Che Yepublic~e U~bek
populaCion.
Analyeis of the state of education~ examine d particulsrly f rom the point of
view of age dynamice atteete Co a profound difference in rhe levels of educa-
tion of the extreme age groups~ especially in rural areas. The oldeet age
group of Che Uzbek rural pnpulation (60 yeare and older), whoae school yeara
were in the pre-Soviet period end in the first years of Che Soviet pawer~
remains ae the much lees literate group.
On the average, but more parCicularly in the younger generation~ the siCue-
tion is undergoing a radical change. The qeneration under 40 years of aqe
for the moet part hae received an incomplete eecondary. secondary or higher
education. 7'hua the leap �rom illiteracy to a eeeondary education (including
incompleCe) educaCion was made in a hieCorically ahort petiod--in two decadee.
Practically all peraona under 30 have a 7-year education, with more than 70
percent of them receiving a complete secondary or higher education.
Thp urban population atarCed getting higher types of education, eepecially
apecializQd education~ about ten years ahe ad of the rural population. On the
whole~ the Uzbek urban popularian ie still ahead of the rural population in
regard to persons with a epecialized and even more ao with a hiqher education.
At the same time, the subetai?tial gap in the education of inen and women has
been overcome. Although the educaCional level an the whole is still la+er
f or the women than f or the men, in the youngnr agee the gap bet~reen the eexee
ia minimal.
There is a aignificant difference in the educational level of the repreaenta-
tives of different social-occupational groups, which is connected firot of
ull with the character of labor. Managers and specialiets of the higheeC
echelon have primarily higher education; middle-level specialiete--mostly a
secondary specialized education~ and higher and medium akilled workera en-
gaged in phyaical labor--incomplete and general secondary educatian (partly
tekhnikum).
More than half of the Uzbeks are oriented taward work requiring a hiRher ed- ~
ucaCion, while the share of parents trying to provide for their children a I
higher education has gram to 91 percent in the cities and 87 percent in the ,
i
country. '
LiteraCure and professional forms �i gortCantnelementagofrculture, withtaimul-
nnd the like) have become the moat mp
teneous retention of the beat elements of traditional national culture--folk ,
dances, music, artietic hendicrafts, folklore and eo on.. ,
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In regard to form~ of use nf free time~ the nrientation in ruxal area~ ie
toward reading~ Watching of television broadcaete and lietening tio radio.
In the city~ wiCh ite greaCer poesibilities for the epiritual development
of the personal3tiy~ the forme of spiritual activit~ are much more divarse.
In those apheres which are roughly equally acceesible to urben and rural. ,
raeidents (televieian~ fine litoreture), the advemtagee of the ciry are leee '
parceptible.
The influence of age~ sex diffarences and belonging to this or that eocial- i'
vocational group is clearly manifeeted in orientatione. We ehould point out
ae a poeiCive influence the roughly idenCical ehare of inen end women assimi-
lating contemporary culture~ Conetantly reading fine literatura~ wetching
televieion broadcasts, going to the CheaCer. But there are still more women
than men~ especially rural areae~ who are not involved in these forme of ,
acCivity.
Raiaing of the level of education end culture eerves as an impoYtant meane
of establishing internalisC views. International contects in the production
and everyday spheres are conetantly being expanded. About one-third of U~beke +
work in collectivea Where no less than a half coneiste of pereone of other ~
nationalities~ while one-third have relatives of nationally mixed maYri ages.
~ Elements of traditional maCerial culture are being rather stablq prese rved,
especially those of them which are leas eub~ect to "competition" from mase ~
industrial production (for example, food). Eighty-aeven percent of urb an ~
Uzbeke prefer national food. But auch orientatione are dicteted laes by '
national habits than by regional natural-climatic features. ~aracterieticdl-
ly~ Uzbek national dishea have also come to be liked by representatives of c
other nationalities living in the republic. .
The persistent exiaCence of individual national elemente of drese is connacted
with preserved tradition, especially in rural localities and with the f act r
that certain elements of dress play the role of kinde of ethnic sy~obols.
While national traditional forme predondnate in the choice of food and sep-
arate elements of dress~ even the older generatia? of the rural population
does not ahar a pereistent interest in traditional fonos when it comes to the
aelection of an interior. On the whole~ a somewhat greater preference for
national dress, interior and food exists among the rural population.
In the emotional apherea of spiritual culture the national are aleo re tained
and nonnational are being assimilated. Among the youth, eapecially the urban -
youth, there is a grawing interest in light~ variety mueic and contemporary
dances. Great popularity is en~oyed by professional mueic, which hae rapid-
ly developed in the years of the Soviet power; persons engdged in culture, ~
including professional musiciane of local nationality, are grawing in
popularity.
The repertoire of professional performere includes both worke of natianal
authors and the best examples of world claeaica. Grawth in the popularlty
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of profeeeton~l artieee is grephic avidance of the ~ttained lavel of lietenare ,
und viawe re, the raeult of inCernationeliet ~duc~tion of the vorkar~ oE our
counCry.
pr~~ervgrion aitd d~v~lopmeat of national forme ~f culture imd increa~ingly
broeder a~eimiletion of the bert o! the n~tionel cuiture eXpend the g~neral
range of culCure of tha Usbek peopi~.
A change in the epiritual e~pect effects life ideals, notions of notme oE
behavior. Ie defining~ for example~ th~ idea of the "good life~" mort of the
per~ons int~rviewed preeent s friendi;~ fa~eily a~nd interaeting Work, including
in thie concepC preetige of occupation a~~a rather high earninge.
Together with tha praeervation and developa~ent of Usbek netional form~ of
culture~ including laaguege~ maetery by Uzbeks of tha Ruesien lgnguage ie
being perceptibly accelerated from generation to generation. Among the
youn~ generetion about nine-tenths of urban daellere kr~ow the Rueeian lan-
guage Ereely.
The general educational echool playg ~ important role in the nNetery of the
Rus~ian Iaaguage by Uzbeks in cities and villages. in response to the quee-
tion of where they learned the Ruesian le~nguage ~ 41.5 peroent of urban and
29.8 percent of rural Uzbeke indicated the echool.
At rhe same Cime there hae been an increeeing tendency of late for represent-
atives of other natioaalitiee living in the republic to learn the Uzb~k laa-
~uage. Of the Ruseian rreidente in Urbekietan 21 pereent of thosa eRed 20-24 ,
speal: Uzbek aad 25 percent of thoee yho are 30 or older do the eaaie.
Survivals of reliqioua outlook and outmoded cuatoms aad ceremoniee are beinP
increasingly el~minated. The position of reliqion is weaker in the citiee
than in rural localities. The larger the cicy~ the emal~er the influence of ,
religion. For example~ in Teahkent the percentage of believeYe ie almoet
one-third less than in small aad medium-eize citiee. The urban environment
ie more divereified in its ethnic and religious featuree, here all oocial
and ethnocultural proceseea occur more actively. ,
Nnong other conditione affectinR aecularization~ an important role belonge
to education aad a person!a eoeial-occupational statue, as wall ae age. While
atwng the older generation~ a significant portion is etill religioue~ among
che middle snd Qepecially the young generation not only in the city but in
the country as well~ the number of believers is being ehsrply reduced. Moat
believere are of older age~ persons engaged in unekille3 physical l~bor.
About 80 perceat of the persans interviewed favored marrisge with its tradi-
tional ceremonies. But this dxs not meaa that all the cuetoaie and rituals
of a~raditional marriage are preferred. More then 80 parcent of the pereons
interviewed were decieively agaiast bride-money (kalymJ as a hareful survival
which it aas necessary to fight against.~
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rha iavestigation ehowad thati the ~pecific cheracter of faa+ily-lifa relatia?o ~
nuong Usbekg wee axpt~emead relativaly rure etrongly than in othar �ghetrar of
life. ~fiera �re to b~ fotmd mor4 oft~en amon~ ther ~xpr?ded~ uu1Ci�ganar~tion
(undividad) fuilie~~ aora childraa and much etrongar trad~tional fardiy ra- .
i~tiane as e whole. ia tha citr 88 p~rc~nt a~d in th~ vi11~Re 92 p~tiaat
of tha parson~ interviwed beliava it nsc~eoary to hwa the cons~nr oE pat+rnt~
bafors beiag teatirird~ vhiah attaeto tc, the durebility of tradieioc~al rel~tion�
betaeen per~nt~ aud chiidren. Treditional alameate are lik~viae ~ora lreeing
in th� rciationa of a married coupla = there ie a predooin~tly nagativa etti-
tude ta+ard divorca~ especiaily in a family with chiidren.
It ie no accident that the nu~bar of divorces par thousand raeidents in the '
r~ptblic dropped from 2.9 in 1940 to 1.4 in 1977.9
'Tha specific charactar of traditionai culture s~nd life, the h~bire and attach-
, menta have aa effect oa the relatively esallar mobility of th~ indip~enou.~
aepacially rural~ population. '
Thus the epacial fea~ureu of lifa ~tyle~ traditioae and peychological aaet
e~oerciee e~ dafinita influenca on the eocial behavior of paopla, vhich has to ,
be mora fully t~ken into account in the practice of acoaooic and cuitural .
. ccaetruction. ,
- NOOTNOTE5
1. XXY e"yesd Kamau~ieticheakoq partii Sove~ekogo Sayu:e. 24 favralya--
5 marta 1976 goda. Stenograficheekiy otchet [ltie 25th Ca~grasa of tha
Comm~miet Party of the Soviet Unioa~ 24 February-5 March 1976. Steno-
graphic Report~. Vol 1. Moeca+~ 1976~ p 98. -
2. See~ for ezamplat Arutyunyaa, Yu.V. ~'ba the Probl~sm of Asei~dlation of
Culture," ISTaRICHESKIYE ZAPISKI~ Vol 81~ Moeca+~ i~68; "Opyt etnoeo-
tsiologicheskikh issledovaniq po materialam Tatarokoy ASSR" (Exparience ~
of Ethnosociological Researche8 on Materials of Tatarekapa ASSR]. Moscau~ i
1973; Kim. H.P.~ "Ailture ae a Subject of Hietoricel Inveetigation~" :
VOPIbOSY ISTORII~ No 11~ 1974; Broaleq~ Yu.V, Kozlov~ V.I., "On the Study
of Contemporary Ethaic Proceases in the Sphere of the Spiritual (~ltura ~
~ of the Peoples of the USSR," SO~VETStUYA ETNOGRAFIYA~ No 1, 1975;
Bromley~ Yu.V., "On the Queetion of the 5pecial Peaturee of Ethnographic -
Inveetigatim of Coatemporaneity~" SaVETSIUYA LTNOGRAPIYA. No 1~ 1977~ s
and others.
3. Braaley, Yu.V. and Shkaratan~ O.I., "Oa Correlation of History~ Ethno-
graphy and Sociologq~" SdVLTSKAYA ETNflCRAPIYA~ No 3~ 1969, p 16; Brom- ~
ley, Yu.V.~ "Etnos i etnografiya" (Ethaos [Ethos ?J and Ethnography~.
Hoscvw, 1973, pp 248-252; saae author, "Ethnogrsphy at the Preaent Stage~"
KOt~tllNIST ~ No 16 ~ 1974, p 71; Drobizhnva, L.N. ,"Ethnoeociological Re-
eesrches of CoatemQeraaeity~" RASY I NARODY, Issue 6, Moeca+, 1976, p :
67, and others. ~
~
~
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~~~K o~~~~ictnt, us~ nNt.Y
4. Arutyunysn, Yu.V. ~"On Certain Tendenciee in the (~ange og tha Cultural
~gca of the Netiost SOVETSKAYA ETNOCttAFIYA~ No 4~ 19 73 ~ pp 3-13; eaane
. author~ "'1'he intarnationai end NaCional Specisl Quality in the Soviet
Way of Lifa" in the bookt "Soteialigticheekiy obraz zhi~ni i voproey
ideologichaako,y raboCy. Po m~terialam Vsesoyuznoy nauchno-prakticheskoy
konforenteii v Kieve (18-20 meya 1977g.)" (The Socialiet Way of Life end
Yrablea~ nf Idoological Work. According to the Materiale of the All-Union
Scientific-Pr~ctical Conference in Kiev (18-20 May 1977)~~ Moeca+~ 1977~
pp 24k-246; Arutyunynn~ Yu.V. end nrobizh~va, L.M.~ "Tt~e SovieC Way of
Life s Ceneral and National Special Quality SOV~TSKAYA E'fNOCitAAP'IYA~
No 3~ 1976~ pp 10-22; Drobi~hev~~ L.M., "f?n the Study of 5ociel-Peycho-
logicnl A~pecte of National Relations (5ome Questione of Methodology),
SOV~T5KAYA ~TNOGRA~IYA~ No 4, 1974~ pp 15-25.
5. Concerning hie program and methode eae: Arutyunyan, Yu.V.~ "Social- '
CuLtural Aapecrs of Development and Arawing Together of N~~lone in the
U55R (Program. Methodg and Perepectives~ Reeearchee)~'~ oOVE'fSKAYA ~TNO-
CRAF'IYA~ No 3~ 1972, pp 3-20.
6. ~'or mnre det~il8 on methode of eampling~ eee: "Sotsial~noye i nateional'-
noye. Etnoeotsiologicheskoye iseledoveniye po materialam Taterekoy ASSR"
(The Social amd Natioaal. Ethnoeociological Reseerch Baeed on the Materi-
als o� Tatarskaya ASSRJ. Moecoti+~ 1973.
7. Lobacheva, N.P. end Tul'taeva, L.A.~ "Traditione in Contemporary Ceremo-
nial Etitee of Uzbeke~" SOVETSKAYA ETNOGRAFIYA~ No 6~ 1977~ pp 32-44.
8. Mirkhasilov~ S,M.~ "The Contemporary Family of the Rural Population�of
UZbekistan~" OBSHCEIESTVENNYYE NAIJKI V UZBEKISTANE~ No 4~ 1977~ pp 36-41.
9. "Narodnoye khozyaystvo Jzbekekoy SSR v 1977 g." (The National Ecanomy of
Uzbek SSR in 1977]. 'feahkent, 1978, p 15.
COPYRIGEiT: Izdatel~etvo "Faa" UzSSR~ 1979
7697
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