JPRS ID: 8314 TRANSLATIONS ON USSR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

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• Collection: JPRS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00850R000100030017-9
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• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 70
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• Sequence Number: 17
• Content Type: REPORTS

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i ~ ` ~ ~
6 MARCH i979 CFOUO 9r79) i OF i

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_ ~PRS L/8314
6 March 1979
.
~
TRANS LAT I OP~S ON USS R S C I ENCE AND TECHNO LOGY
BIOMEDICAL ANA BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
CFOUO 9/79)
U. S. JOINT PUBLICATIONS RESEARCH SERVICE
FOR OFFI CIAL USE ONLY
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~
B16LIOGRAPHIC DATA 1. Rrpixt No, 2 ^~~r- Rrrip~
j~~~
~~d
A~resNion Nt~.
SNEET ,tt~ItS t,/ 8314
I. n e an u t~t e S~ Kcpott ate
~1'W~NSLA'1'TUN5 UN US51t 5CI~NCL ANn T~CHNOLOCY 6 March 19 79
IiIUMIsULCAL ANU IiCHAVIOltAL SCTCNC~S, (FOUO 9/79 ) b~ -
7. Auehor(~) ~
8. Ner(orming Organization Rcpt.
No.
9� Per(orminR ()rKrnituion N~me �nd Addrese 10. F'ioject/Task/Work Unit No.
,loint l'u~licut{ons Research Servtce
lUUO Nc~rth ~lebc KOfI(~ 11. Conrrsct/Gtant No.
nri i~,~;eun, VirginLa 22201
12 tiponeotinR Ura~niz~tion N~me ~nd Addreas 13. Type o( Neport 6t Period
Covcred
/~5 a'1VOVl` -
11. I
15. tiupplemen~ery Notes
16. Ahatncte
'I't~~~ rc~~~ort contalns information on aerospace medicine, agrotechnology, bionics
;~nd bluucou5tics, biochemisery, biophysics, environmental and ecological -
~~roblems, food techn~logy, microbiology, epidemiology and immunology,
marin~~l~iolo~;y, nilitary medicine, physiology, public health, toxicology,
rcidiobIoloby, veterinary medicine, behavioral science, human engineering,
psycl~olo~;y, psychiatry and related fields, and scientists and scientific
organizationa in biomedical fields.
= 17. Key porde ~nd 1)ocument Ao~ly+is. 170. De~etipeon
USSR Medicine
_ Aerusp~ice Medicine Microbiology
Agroterhnology Physiology ~
t3iology Psychology/Psychiatry
Isc?t~~ny Public Health
I~:picl~~miulogy/lmmunolc~gy Radiobiology
Ilum;in I:ngincering Toxicology ~
~larin~~ 13iology Veterinary Medicine
176. 1~1~ntJi~r~/(>pen�F.nded Tetms
17c. t t riA't'1 1� i~ IJ/(,roup 2~ S 1''. ~ 5.1 ~ 6~ 8A
I8. Av~il~l,ility titatem~nt Y9.. Security Class (This 21. o. oi Pagcs
I~or OI~I~ici:il llti~~ Only. 1,imitcp~i.mum eCnbLlizn~ion of n].1 p~rnmeeerH for proces~~tnp. Figures 1~nd
_ 'l L1.luHtrc?te ~I~~~ truuH.lenc cl~urc~cterlHt.Lcc+~ wlilcli nr~~ clc~r~~ to exponcntli~l -
~ and Cransient funcrions of a:~irsC order aperiodic component. For this `
reason, the trans:Lent process can be approximated Co a combination of two
- elementary components: the component of net lag and first order aperiodic
component, i.e.:
ro `ld~t~ +~(r)=Ko�U-T), -
where To is the ob~ect time constant, s; ~ is the regulated parameter =
(volume), m3; }t is the regulatory operation (disturbance), ~n3/s; T is the
lag, s; Ko is the transfer factor of the qb~Pct, mg/(m9�s) gnd t is time, s. _
- pn~ ,~6 '1,2 /0,2 lk,k !$0 116 15? 7 B d1,~f ,~OtdO,' g n
~ -r-~--r---~T-"i"_""~'"`i~.~_.. ~0
- Ni~ ~ Line of new establ.value 153 m~?
Lin of in . 3.a 1 ~
Ta ls,i .
Ita esta is e va1140 m3 ~'i2 ~ 2
- ~,ts =
,
~ Aisturbance -I,I,10''n'~~ 14e- ~ ~
~~1 ~II,L10''+lQIO'n/~ ~ys ~ isturbance~l,J.lO n/~ ;
41~ 110''=1Q10''n,~l -
I,fO ~yy
11A 2' l42 �
11~ y~~~ ~ ~ 3~ I c T~ine of init.valuu, 140 m3 '
~~s Line of new establ.valu~127 m /4D - i~�~ ~a-� ~~i -
~~Jb' 1,2 ID,B 14,4 /B,U ?IG ~S,Z 7B,b J2,4 JQOt;O;,s
Figure 1. Figure 2. ,
- Transiert ch:aracteristics, with Transient characteristics, with
- u = -1.1�1Z'3 n3/S u = +1.1�10-3 ID3/3 -
1) experimental 2) estimated
The obiect's transfer factor was determined from the values of the coordi-
nates of ~he experimental acceleration curve and magnitude of 3ump-type dis- -
turbance, using tk~e following formula:
ku = _ ~ ,
IA~v,~ �~n) _
where is the new establlshed value of regulated parameter, m3; ~~o~ is
the regulated parameter at tite time of addition of disCurbance, m3; u~o is
the value of regulation before addition of disturbance, m3/s and U~ is ~he _
same after addition of disturbance, m3/s.
7
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:
In Che specific case of ~.3 m3and u=�1.1�10'3 m3/s, transfer �actor
Ko = 11:~31�103 m3/(m3�s). From the experimental acceleration curve, we
determined To = 22.8~102 s and T a 11.88�103 s. 6ubstituting ehe obtained
_ values of the coefficients in equation (1), we shall obtain a differential
equation describing the transient process of change in volume (level) with
~ump-type change in delivery of wort Co the fermenter:
i l, 88 ~ 10~ q~ (1) _
- = 11, 81 � (t - ~c) . (3)
The general solution of this equation is:
~(!1= ~ 11,61 � 10~� X
~-22,e , to+
x(1-e ii,sa�iw)-h~P~o~. ~a~
= Coincidence of the experimental curve and exponent, representing the solu-
_ tion of the typical equation with constant coefficients taken from the
experimental curve is proof ~f the accuracy of approximation of the tran-
sient characteristics to the standard differential equation. -
The choice of regulator and estimation of the system for automatic regula-
_ tion of yeast suspension level in the fermenter were performed in the `
following manner.
- Since the ratio of lag to t�~me constant of the ob~ect is low and the time
constant of the objecC is high, one can use a two-position regulator in the ~
. SAR. In the presence of lag in the system and symmetrical static charac-
teristic of the regulator with a zone of ambiguit,y, the ~luctuations of
the level will be: -
_ D 1! = 21~ To 1'
where d= 1 cm, half the ambiguity zone, and Q is the regulatory action -
constituting 50% of the nominal value. From the strur.tural dimensions of
the fermenter, we find a ratio of level to volume of 2.35 cm/m3. For this
reason, Ko = 11.81�103:2.35 = 27.'i~�103 cm (m3�s).
Thus, the level fluctuatio~s constitute ~H = 7.7 cm, i.e., 3.5 cm in rela-
tion to the nominal level. The fluctuation period is:
8
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TK ~ ~ Ct K Q, _ 1,21 ~ to~ a, ,
The ~r~quency nf switching Che regul~tor per hour wi11 be:
n ~ . K�Q = 5,9 ~ G.~
2 ~o To KoQ
_ Ag a re~ulr of thie investigaCion, a schematic diagram w~a proposed far
auCo,matic regulation of level of yegat auspension in a fermenter (Figure 3).
T!:~ 5AIt congiets of a sensor 1a, ~~gtrum~nC fnr level m~aeuremenC 16~
~ontainer wiCh w~ter 2, type R9=z40 reg~lator le and regulator valve 12. The
column of fluid in co~Cainer 2 openg and close~ accesg for air to the
_ connecting pipe 3 going to regulator e. Connecting pipe 3 is insCalled
-~n Che container 2 cm from the preset level of the column of liquid in the
container~ corresponding to ~ normal levei of yeasC suspension in the
fermenter. The regulator va'ive, 200 cm in diameter, is set to allow the
yeast suapeneion Co pass into the flotation devi:e. There is an electric
motor to Che pump in the hydraulic regulator, which is triphasic and has a
~ower of 0.13 kW; iC drivea the pump continuously. After establishmenC of _
Che ~et le;?el, air passea :nto connecting pipe ~ and the pump does not pump
oil. When t'ne level of thE yeast auspeneion drops~ the fluid level in 2
risea shutting off air, and the pump does not pump oil, as a result of which
~ the regula~or valve closes and the level of yeast auspension rises. This
' procese of regulation continues until Che level in 2 drope aad air paeaes
into pipe 3. The process of level regulation is a fluctuating one.
2~ air 3 ~igure 3.
Schematic diagram of eya~tem for
1~~ automatic regulation of yeast
or, suspension level
~
du i ?
~ ~ ~ ~ 2 1) fermenter
~ ~ ~ ~ la) level sensor
, o=: 16) level measuring insi:rument
1r flota- 2) container with water
tion ~a 3) connecting pipe
device
-------r--~ le) type R9-Z40 regulator ~
16 26 36 ~ ~ 12) regulating valve
� . ~ 2a,26) suspension pasgage sensors
u~ ' ~ 3a,36) suspension use measuring
n, ~
_ i I instruments
i_~~~_`J
9
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U~e nf the ~ystem for ~utdmnr.ic level r~gulation in indu~eri~l fermenters
ne Che itaxldgskiy Hydrolyeig-YeasC Planr revpnled Chat it works stgbly ~nd
wiCh sgtigfgctnry precigion. Th~ megn gnd m~ximum devigeion~ of level nf
- ehe yeggt suapension from the apecified level consCiCute tl-2 cm,
- respectively.
Conclugtong
i,
A gtudy,was made nf dyngmic ch~racC~rieeiCg of g fermeneer ag an nb3ecC of
gutomatic control. An approximaCinn was made of the Cr~n~ient Characeeris-
tic~ in the wort delivery--yeast suspens3on level channel in the apparatus.
- Ie was determined that it is purpoaeful to use a twn-poeition regulator of
level in indusCrial fermenterg. The analyeia made of Che s~aCem of automaCic
cdntrol of auspenaion lev~ls in induatrial fermenterg 600 m in size can be
used in degigning analogous ob3ects. The schemar.ic diagram of SAR for yeasC
guspension level was deecrihed. the SAIt operateg stably, and this meeCg the
technological epecifications. The maximum deviation of ye~et suspension
level from the specified level is ~2 cm.
B~$LIOGRAPHY
- 1. zvyagitt, N.; Barashevich, V.; and Subbotin, B. "Automat3on of the
Yeast-Cultivation Process," GIDROLIZNAYA I L~SOKHIMICHESKAYA PROM-ST' -
[Hydrolysis and Wood Chemical IndusCryj, No 7, 1971, pp 24-26.
2. Firkovich, V. "Automation of Hydrolyais Industry and Sulfite .~lkali
Processing," Moscow, Lesnaya prom-st', 1969, pp 209-215.
3. Balakirev, V.; Dudnikov, Ye.; and Tsirlin, A. "Experimental Determination
of Dynamic Characteristics of Industrial Control Ob~ects," Moscow~
Energiya, 1967.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Lesnaya prom-st"', "Gidroliznaya i lesokhimicheakaya
prom-st"', 1478
10,657
CSO: 1870
10
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IN5TItUM~NT5 ANU CQU II'MLNT
- UDC: 615.47,002.237+615.47-65.011.46
M~AN5 0~ IMPROVING EFFICI~ICY AND QUALITY OF MBDICAL EQUIPM~NT PRODUCTION
Moscow MEDITSINSKAYA T~KHNIKA in Rusaian No 5, 1978 pp 6-10
[Article by Yu. M. Tsentsiper, Medoborudovaniye Scientif ic Production
Associ~tion, Moscow~
(TexC] The mosC important task for enterpriaes that manufacture medical
e:quipment, as well as for Che enCire industry of our country, is to fur-
ther intensify production, increas~ iCs efficiency snd quality of product,
= and ultimately meet in �ull the requirements of public health with res-
pect to medical technology th~t meeta modern apecificaCions.
IntPnsification as a reault of refinement of technology is one of the main
~ forms of intensive development of existing production at the atage of
refinement thereof, and this is the atage that is predominant in medical
equipment planta.
The Medoborudovan3ye [medical equipment] Scientific Production Association
(NPO), some of the achievements of which are discuesed in this article,
is making a contribution to the solution of these problems.
There are a number of specific distinctions in th~ construction of inedical
- equipment, aside from prop erties inherent in products of general machine-
building: certain specifications for consCrucCion materials, higher speci-
fications for reliability of constructinn, quality of finishing and others.
The use of progresaive structural materials is one of the means of increas-
ing the efficiency of prc~duction and quality of inedical equipment.
In the next few years, rolled steel and aluminum alloys wi[h higher purity
of surface finish will be used on an increasing scale at enterprise~ that
manufacture medical equipment. Thus, starting in 1978, cold-rolled curved
sections will be used, instead of the hot-rolled angle sections used
~reviously, will be used at the Dnepropetrovsk :~dical Equipment Plant
for the manufacture of inedical tables. This will improve the quality of
the tablea and lead to a substantial reduction of laborfousness of manu-
facture thereof, as a result of total elimination of work dealing with
cleaning surfaces before painting. At the Pe*~za Chemical Disinfectant
11
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~quipmenC Plgne~ tnbl~s for paCho~naComic~l examingCions are being manufgc-
Cured gince 19~6 wiCh tihe u~e nf highly poli~hed gCainlpgs gCe~l sh~eeg.
~xpre~~ly the uge d~ gu~h at~~l mad~ it possible en tngnuf~eeur~ eheg~
Cableg, ~ince Che purity requiremente of their working ~urfnces are high
gnd the d~~~~n gnd configuraCion of the rable are euch Chne the use of
ordinury meChode of final poliehing and Crimming could nor m~ee these re-
quir~ments.
Modern pnlymers will also find increasing application in the congCructian
- of inedical equipment in the very near fuCure. In 1978, The Doechatoye
Mediaal ~quipment Plant will etart running a hi~h:.y mechanized line for Che
menufaceure of eupporC componentg (seat, back, arms of inedical chairs and
wheelchaira) raade of integrated foam polyurethene. The outeide eurfgce of
these parts will aimulate leather. ~nhancement of estheCic featur~e of _
the products, substantial reduction of labnr input and, finglly, greater
sophiaCicaCion of production (the production line for ehese components
cnnsCituCes one of ehe latest achievemenes in the technology of proceasing
polyn,~re) will be the result of introducC~on of new material and Cechnology.
Of defintCe interegC is the fuCure re~lacement of inedical table panels,
presently manufactured of atainleas steel, with panels made ~~f ornamenCal _
_ paper laminated plasCic material. The savings realized with regard to
scarce stainlese ateel, the high hygienic qualities of such panels, modern -
gppearance a~d progressive manufacturing technology leave no doubt as to
_ the deairability of such a change.
In general, the most pressing problems are the onea dealing with the use of _
stainless steel. Its increasing ahortage, the change to the use of nickel-
free or low nickel contenC steel inatead of traditienal tyFe 18-8 nickel-
chrome steel~ which has high technological qualities, puts difficult
tasks to industry.
On the one hand, it is imperative to find methods that wou2d permit cold ~
atamping of nickel-free and low nickel content steel, welding and finishing
thereof and, on the other hand, it is apparently neceasary to make some
structural alterations and replace stainless steel with bimetals and other
materials. Much attention�is given to solving these problems in the
Medoborudovaniye NPO.
The increasing use of progressive methods of shaping parts atock is an -
important means of inzreasing efficiency of production.
For the last few years, the Medoborudovaniye NPO is working on introduction of
cnstinb from smelted patterns at medical equipment planCS. In 1977, this
technology was introduced at the Yelets Medical Equipment Plant for the
manufacture of stock for components of operatin~ tables, hoists, carts and
other medical equ:pment. In 1971, this plant produced over 18 tons of
castings, and this figure will increase by several times in the next few
years.
12
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~
In 19~9~ ~erieg prdductinn of componenCs df gnesthegi~ and regpirntion
equipment by the method of cttaeing �rom smpl.Ced p~Cterno wae begun aC
lhr. KrnHndgvt~rdeyee~ Leninkrnd Pr~duCtion Anedcintion (LPO). CEforts ro
munuCuCturc~ Crnm purtN c~C th1H ~qutpment by oth~r mcthnd~, ln pnreiCUlnr
presdure-die ca~ting, w~re un~ucc~~~~u1. -
T~ie Medoborudov~niye NPO developed gnd handed over ro ehe Krnsnogvnrdeyee~
Aesociat~.on noC only Ch~ Cechnoingy for manufgcturing r_he pgrCs, but complex -
equipment, sn Cher Che ~nt~rpri~e wae able Co master aeries producCion in
e shorter Cime.
In 19~9, sections �or casting from amelted patCerns will be set up at the -
Dog~h~toye Medical ~quipment P1ant and Kazan' Medical Apparatua plant.
The projeCCed ~conomic effecC of adopting Chia progressive eechnology will
~onstitute over 20,000 rubles p~r y~ar at the Dogchatoye Plant. Thia method
of casCing from carbon and sCainlegs steel will be used to manufacture
stock for part~ of gynecological tebles, operating tgbles, medical beds and
other equipmenC. Sta3nless steel ie used extensively at this plant, so
that Che uee of steel acrnp to caet parte is an example of a reasnnable
solution of the problem of saving metal.
Preg~ure-aie casting and chill [permanent mold] casting of parts n~ade of
~luminum alloys are practiced rather exCenaively at medical equipment planta. _
The obtained purity of surfaces and precision of dimensions, in spite of
the romplicated shapea of the parts, high productivity of the process--all -
theae advantages of precision casting resulted in ita occupying firmly
the leading place in the production of stomatological and other medical
equipment at the Bologda and Doschatoye medical equipment plants,
Krasnogvardeyets LPO and other medical technology plants. The output of
pressure-die casting increased by more than 1.5 times in 1977, as compared
to 1971. -
Manufacture of parts using thermoplast and thermosetting plastics is one
of the other methodE of progressive ehaping that occupies a moat important
place in the manufacture of inedical equipment. With each year, the output
of plastic parts is increasing at the Volgograd, Doschatoye, Yelets and
other medical equipment plants. The enterprises are essentially outfitted .
witt~ modern technological equipment. There has been some growth, though
not to the required extent, in inetrument shops. The volume of production
of plasCic parts at medical equipment plants also increased by more than
1.5 times in 1976, as compared to 1971.
Processes of manufacturing permanent joints, welding and soldering, are
important in the production of inedical equipment. In the last 5-6 years,
all medical equipment plants have changed to welding in an environment of
shielding gasea~ including ~~emiautomatic welding of low-carbon steel in
an environment of carbon dioxide and argon-are shot welding of steinless
steel. Th~re has also been a aubstantial improvement of the quality of
, aelded seams, with decrease in volume of trimming and increase in productivity
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of proces~~~, ns rnmp~red to m~nu~1 ele~tric-arC w~lding. In Che ye~rs of
Ch~ 9rh Five-Yegr Plan, Che level of m~chanizaCion of welding wdrk in this
br~nch of indusrry h~s riseti frnm 47 tn 54%.
How~ver, goldering ig becoming the prevnlene tendency in Che manufaceure of
mediCnl equipmene in the lending induserial cnuneri~s of Che world, and
iC yields smooCh segms, withouC pores and pits.
High-CemperaCure soldpring wi11 algo be mastered in the nexe few year~ at
_ Soviee medical ~quipment planea. Un1~ke ehe methodg used by foreign firms,
- where goldering is g~nerally performed manua].ly wieh a gas-�lame burner,
highly producCiv~ conveyer furnaces will be u~ed at our er~Cerprises. Thie
is relgted to Che relaeively high series production of iCems, and the
need for utmoet mechanization of l~bor and increase in ~ophistication of
production.
Work has been done aC Che Medoborudovaniye NPO to develop nptimum designs of
soldered parta and experimental modelg have been manu~actured. The Uoschatoye
Medical Equipment P1ant, which will be remodeled in the next few yeara, will
be Che firgt plane, at which furnaces for nigh-Cemperature soldering will be
installed. This knowhow will be rransfer.red to other plants in the future.
- Mechanical processing occupies a leading place, wiCh regard to ita volume,
among other technological proceases of manufacturing medical equipment.
mhe change to increasing use of automatic and semiautomatic lathes, intro-
duction of group procesaing methods, as well as gradual introduction of -
- benches with digital program control will be the main tendencies in this
direction. It is quite obvious that it ie only through this route that it
- will be possible to achieve greater efficiency of production under conditions
where the shortage of manpower and, particularly, machine (or lathe~
operators is constantly increasing. One of the methods of cold plastic _
deformation, rolling hydraulic cylinders with a roller, is a highly effective _
- process in the manufacture of hydraulic systems of inedical equipment. This
process, which is being introduced at the Yelets Medical EquipmenC Plant,
along with the specialized section outfitted with precision metal-cutting
equipmenC and test stands, will make it possible to improve significantly
the quality and reliability af hydraulic systems, whi~h do not meet the
specifications for all parameters at the present time.
Henters for resuscitation tables and those used to clean up neonates, developed
at the Medoborudovaniye NPO are of great technical interest. These heaters
consist of a Getinaks (plastic insulator] plate, with a vacuum-sprayed
spiral-shaped resistance consisting of several layers of various materials.
All the advantages of these heaters--uniform heating over the entire field
' of the heater, low energy consumption and considerably smaller size as com- _
pared to the known tubular heaters--uarrant the belief ti:at there is great
promise to their use.
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~he medicul equipm~nt ittdugCry devoCes special aCCenCion Co elecCroplating,
p~inting gnd v~rnishing processeg. In ehe nexti �ew� yeara, Che vae~ in
~leCtropluting shopa wi.ll be replaced by modern ~tiCntt?~Cic electroplgCing
unieg, Ct~~ d~velopmenC gnd asaembly of which ~re being perform~d by ehe
_ Medoborudnvaniye NPO, in gC~ord~nce wiGh the Cechnic~l gpecificgC~.ons of
Che A11-Unidn Scieneific Regearch znsCiCute of Medical Inserumene Mgking.
WiChin 5-7 yeerg, ~11 medical equipmenC planCs w311 be ouCfiCC~d wiCh ehis
modern technoingical equipm~nC.
In Ch~ pain ehops, insCead of chambers for CradiCional painCing ~nd varnish-
ing, ehere will be complexly mechanized lines for gpraying epoxide and
other finishes in powder �orm, consigtene with ehe modern worldwide tettdency ~
of development of finishing teahnology. _
~
Alregdy in 1978 th~ firsC such ehop is to be sCarCed at Che bnepropetrovsk
Medicnl ~quipment P1ttnC. The use of polymere in powdpr form w311 improve
r.he appearance of the producte, ehe finish will be long-lasting and the
finishing process will be more efficient.
Considerable attention is devoted to mechanization of processes of assembling =
and testing products aC the Medoborudovaniye NPO. Tn the last few years,
conveyer lines hnve been developed for assembling and testing sCerilizers
- at the T'yumen' P1~nC, for assembly of inedical equipment at the boschatoye
_ and Yelets plants. The x-ray television unit installed at the Tyumen'
- plant for inspection of welded seams is a graphic example of how ehe
modern achievements of science and Cechnology are applied in indusCry.
Work dealing to refinement of the technology of assembly and testing of
products, and development of inechanized production plans will be included
_ in the plans of Medoborudovaniye NPO in the next years as well.
At the present time, two-thirds of the work done by Medoborudovaniye NPO
is directed toward technological preparation of production, refinement of
technology, raiging the level of inechanization and automation of main and
~ncillary processes. The main task is to move from the development of
individual processes and individual types of technological equipment to
composiCe solution of all problems pertaining to intensification of produc-
tion of inedical equipment. This includes apecialization and organization
of labor, as well as setting up highly mechanized sectors, shops and
enterprises on the basis of modern technology. The solution to these
problems is a guarantee that the objectives of the medical equipment
industry will be reached.
COPYRIGHT: "Meditsinskaya tekhnika", 1978
10,657
C50: 1870 "
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N~UItUSC ILNCI:S
COhSCIOUSN~S5 ANU ~VOK~D ~I.~CTRICAL ACTIVI'I'7t TN TH~ C~REBRAL COItT~}t
Moscow ZHURNAL VYS5t~EY NERVNOY DEY,ATEL'NOSTI in Rusaian No 6, 1978 pp 1151-1159
[Report on Che plenary session of Che 25Ch Conference on Problems of Higher `
Neurologic Activity, Leningrad, September 1977 by E. A. Kostandov, Central
Scientific Reaearch Institute of Forensic Psychiatry imeni V. r. Serbskiy, ~
Moscow]
['laxt ~'1'I?c ~~hysiolo~;ists wlio stu~lics hif;her neurolo~ic activity
i?~ mari is cons~;~ntly ,7nd ~n~voiclat~ly confrontecl ~,~i tli the pro-
i~l~m of consc:iousness. lie stuclies tlie statc of "clear conscious-
ness" in man wl~n nnt only perceivcs tlic si~;nals presentecl to }iir~
f?ut also arl~itrarily clecides on a cliosen reaction hased on liis
conscious evaluation of tlie sul~ject, I~i lcldition to the rliysi-
olo~ist's attempts to exI~lain tl~e functioninfi of tlie central
r~ervous systei;i for one or anotl~er psycl~ic activity, lle strives
to dispense witl~ tlie use of "subjective" concepts of conscious- -
ness. '1'l~e role of co~iscious~iess in a neuro>>l~;~siolo~;ic anproacli
- to tlie function of tl~e morc comj~lex structures of tlie l~rain is
frec{~~ently not consiciereci. In tl~ese stticlies, conscYOUSness is
considered to be a sul,sicliary "sul~jective" pl~enomenon ~,~hic}~ does
not effect the "ol~jective" electrophysiolo~;ic and biochemical
i~rocesses in more comrlex structures of the i~rain. It is in-
~lisputai~ly reco~;niz~d tl~at co~isciousness is connected ~yith the
materi:~l ~~I?ysiolo~ic 1~rocesses t~~l~icl~ occur in morc comrlex l~rain
struct~irc~. I~owcvcr, wc know little about tliem. Presently, we
are stuJyi~y~ t}~e critical c1~an~es in cortical processes whic}i
~ire connectecl to perce~~tion of stimuli.
Information lias been Fatherecl on the specific senso'rv path~~ays
in tl~e rel~ted projectional zones of the neocortex. ~These data
apply to both a cor~scious and unconscious state of the subject.
'1'tius, evokeel electric;il ~~otentills for auditory, visual, and
somatosensory stimuli are re~;istereci in t}~e related cortical
16
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~~rn,jec:tiinn7l rc~ions in incliviclt'~als in ~l~;~tlrn~~ ~ener,7l n7rco5is,
' thrit i:; in ti rom~~lc:ticly ~inc:onsciouti st~7t~ (18, 2(1). Iturin~, }iys-
lc~ric:;il c~r 5u~;~,C`til:Ctl IIy~1110tiC an~stlicsia o(' tl~c ccr~hrr~l cortex,
an evokC~l ~~~tentiul i:~ clrvelo~ecl fur external si~;nals w}iich ~are
_ coml~lcte.Ly wlparcciveel by tlie subj~ct (17, 24, 25) . t1 conaitionecl _
communic~~tion C~� bc prnclucecl using unporccivccl extcrnll si~nals
(G, J) , n1i tliese ~acts indicate tl~at perception of a si~nal
~loes tiot just occur in tlic c~rrespondin~ ~rojection~l ancl asso-
- ci~tiv~ cnrtical zanes. In all rrobability, an additional neuro-
lofiic mcchanism exis~s ~ohich enahles perception of a signal. This
� mGCh~nism must l~ritig ,71~nut integration nf neuron~l actfvity in -
v7rious p,~rts of tl~e cerel~r~l cortex ancl suhcortiCal structures, -
,~ncl provides tl?e most optir~al conciitinns �or I~erception of the '
si~;nific~i?t externa~ phenome~ia at a given moment, !Ve kno1~~ a1-
most notl~in~; about t}iis neurolo~ic mcclianism ~vliicil is a sifinif-
icant part of thc physiolo~ic hasis of perception.
- I)u*'iTl~; expcrimcntal studi.es on tlie ~~}iysiolo~ic meclianisms of. tlie
''unconscious" we ~o~~~iua~a tliat in orcler to solve tl~is ~roblem, .
, it is necessary to exi~lain tl~e critical cl~anfies in tl~e hrain
processes involvecl in perception of stimuli. ivitl~out a concept,
111 he it I~yrothetical, of the neurolo~;ic process ~~}iich fiuaran-
tecs or accom~~nics ~~crcei~tion of cxternal stimuli, it is diffi-
cult to propose atty kincl of explanation for t}te p}iysiologic basis
of unconscious psycliic plienomena.
The method of averaged evoked potentials was the instrument that made it pos-
sible for us, along with Yu. L. Arzumanov, to study the characteristics of
the spatial-temporal configuration of the electrical activity of different
_ regionc or sections of the cerebral cortex. SubjeCts were exposed
to visual stimuli which they were able to i~erceive and to stimu-
li wl~icli they did not perceive but wl~ich evokecl autonomic and i~io-
electrical reactions. Recnrclinfi of tlie average evol:eci potential
((1VP) ~aas conclucted clurin~; tlie process of generating and stren~-
tl~eninfi temporary connections formed in the brain in response
to ui~}~erceived and perceivecl visual stimuli.
The text sub,jects (20-40 years old) ha~? in the past committed illegal acts,
.in the ma,jorit,y of cases out of ~ealousy, and during the period of our research
were in a difficult life situation. ;tVl' was recordc~t for visual
stimuli coml~ineu witli key words--"neutral" ones (arm chair,
stairs, table, etc.) ancl "emotional" worcls (treason, ~~~ife,
_ sliame, etc.) wl~ich corresponclecl to conflict situations for t1~e
test sut~jects.
In onc scries of ex~~cri.ments, ~aord stimuli ~~cre non-associativc,
tf~~t is e~isy for tl~e test sul~ject to }~erceive. In t}lese cases,
we ol~servecl in tl?e occi~~ital rc:f;ion clear cut cliverfience in tl~e
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amI~lituciinal tcm~ioral characteristics of. t}ic evokecl response to
nCUtral ancl cmntional words. 'I'he late positive evoked potential
(compotlent P300) is cl~velopecl ~oith a significantly sliorter l~tency
. period uncl is essCnti~lly ~;re:~tcr in amplitude tI1111 tlic j~Oti~ptii~j
acvclo1iccl Cor i~cu~r71 ~vorcls. 'I'l~is differrnce is n~tecl o�ly for
thc c:om~~onc~it 1'3UU; tl~c curlier w~vcs n~ IIVI' clicl nnt chan~c. Tlius,
thc late neb~tive ~v~ve N20U (1zti~ncy periocl o~ approximately ZUO
milliseconds) for emotional stimuli essen~ially does not differ
:Erom r~~~~onses to neutral words.
,
Sifinificant difCerences in tl~e ar~plitudinal and temporal parame~
_ ters o~' an evoked potcntial to neutral and emotional words was
notecl ~itl tlie vcrtex.
~
Consec~uently, 1C~].Vi1t1011 of ~Ile cortical cvokecl t�esponse to a
pcrccivecl, visual, emotional word stimulus occurs in tl~e occipi-
tzl re~ion, not in the anterior re~;ions of tlie cerebral cortex.
- In resE~onsc to a I~c:rceptil~le stimulus for a~;iven modality, ac-
tivation of cvokecl ~~otcntial is localized in scope. It is also
- limitcd in timc because tlie 1atE positive potential,,with a la-
tency i~eriod of only 3()0 milliseconds, is altered. In anotlier
_ serics of cxpcriments, certain neutral and emotional ~~ords ~verc
usecl as stimuli, but unl,ikc the previous series of experiments,
_ thcsc ~oorcls were not perceivecl by tlic sul~ject. Tlic ~;~st sub~
jects could not reacl them because they tivere s}lo~~n on the screen
for a very short time. ~s expected, we noted that the test sub-
jects saw t}~e words "dimly", "iveal:ly" in t}ie flasli of li~}lt on
the screen.
In resl~onse to aii urrcrceived word, a small l~ut clear late evaked
cortical response is registered. The response reflects tlie sig-
- nallin~ significance of t}ie ~aord stimulus wliich corresponds to
the emotional experiences of the test subject. Tliis relation-
ship is expressed in t}ie amplitudinal differences between tlie
potentials for neutral ancl emotional words. iiowever, in con-
trast to the ex~~eriments with perceived words for a~iven cir-
cumstancc, the siz~c of thc late positivic evoked response to an
emotiorial stimulus, in comparison to tlie Potential for a netitral
worcl, is ~.~rcater in tlic occipital and vcrtex rc~;ions. Another
clifference is seen in t}~e su~stantial differences in amplitude
of tlic late nefiative wave N200 for neutral and emotional stimu-
li. I~or emotionally sifinificant u~lperceived words, this com-
ponent of UVI' as wcll as thc 1'300 wave is larger in amplitude
- in tlic occipital ancl vcrtex zones. -
'I'(~us, activation of an evokecl cortical response, caused l~y an
- emotionally sigriificant unperceivecl semantic stimulus, is cliffuse.
f~or a given stimulus, activation occurs in tl~e perceiving cor-
tical zone and in the anterior tialf of the cerebral cortex.
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~
llnlike the response to a perceivecl stimulus, clurin~ unconscious _
I~erCeption of tlie ~oorcl stimulus, activation is nQt limited to -
to the w~?ve witli ~ 1~tency period of ab~ut 300 milliseconds, hut
also involvc:s tlie earlier neg~tive oscillatiic~n.
~n~lo~ous topograp}~ical di.f�erences in evol:ed cortical activity
for perc~iv~d and uni~crceived stimuli must be considered in -
- stuclyin~ tlie clevelopment or associative, tempor~ry connections
in ti}~c vi.sual sensory system, Test subjects were presented tivo
stirnuli in sec~uence with a puuse between tl~em of 100U riillisecon~ls: _
_ t}ie first stimuli--a pictui�c of 1I1 ~rro~~r nointed in a certain d~.-
rection; the seconu stimuli--dif�erent neutral anci emotion~l words
= shown on tlre same screen. The picture of the arrow poi.nted in
one ciirection was com~inecl witli neutral ~vords,ancl tlie same arro~~~
pni~it~cl i~i anntlier ciirection was combinec~. ;~itili emotional tioords.
In one series of ex~erimetits, tlie clifference in arrow clirecti~~n
- ~,~as lar~c and cusy to reco~;nizc. Tt wns also easy to I~erceivc
tlie scmantic content of tllC second stimultxs--tlie neutral or em~-
~ tional warcl. Givcii the occ~xrrence of a temporary c~nnection be-
tween these perceivecl visuzl stimuli, changc~s in evo~:ed potential
for t}ie first pair of stimuli tivere aml~i.fiuous ~nd, to a certain
- extent, clcpendecl on t}?e emotional si~nificance of the secQnd
stirnulu~. Thc aml~lituclc of tlle evo}:ed potential for the first
stimulus--tlie picture of tlie arro~o--~vas clearly decreased in
_ coml~arison to tl~c notential f:or tliis sa~:e stimulus when s}io~,~n
in isolation. T}~e clecrease in t}ie evoked cortical response for
the firs~t stimulus was ohserved both in test~. where d neutral -
, ~r�orcl was used as tlle second stimulus and in tests usin~ an emo-
tional word. 1)epr~ssion of the evoked response can l~e exPlained
by concepts al~out the role of. counter temporzry connections in
_ cerebral cortex activity (2, 4). 1Vit11 multiple consecu~ive com-
- binations of two indiffcrent stimuli (in our experiinents, the
ricture of an arrow combinecl ?aith a neutral worcl) , direct re~
sI~onscs to tl~em are sunpressed and, in the opinion of i.S. Rcri-
taslivili (4), counter connections are clevel~ped ~~rhicli inhibit
_ cortic;~l reaction to the first pair of stir~uli. -
'1'here is a substa~itial clifference between evaked potentials ob- -
taiticcl in tests using ncutral and er~otional stir~uli: tlte late
~~ositive component P3U0, registered for the picture of the arro~v
comhineci with an emotional word, develoPs ?ti~ith a shorter l.atency
reriod a~icl is largcr in size tlian tlie comi~onent registered for
picturc of. a� arrow coml~inec] witli a ncutral word. : y examining
:ictivation of tiic latc cortical respoiisc to a stimulus combinecl
witl~ an criotionally sifinificant wor~l, ioe were al~le to explain
- the function of. the meclianism for counter temporary connections.
~Ye will discuss tliis further in more detail. Presently, we are
int~rested in another impor~ant cl~aracteristic of the above men- _
tioncd ciianges in evoke~i potential for the first stimulus paired
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with perceivecl neutral ~nd emo~ional words. T1i~se ch~nfies ~re
relativcly localized. '1'}iey are obsrrved in tlie visual re~ion, -
that is in the zone to whicli both stimuli are clirectly addressed,
and do no~ occur in tlie vertex, tiliat is in the anterior ~arts of
~ tlie cercl,ral cnrtex. (~esults of the second series of. ex~~eriments
indicnted that the localized character o� the changes in evoked
activity iri response to tlie emotional component o~ tlte second
associative stimulus was observed only in those instances ~vhen
_ it~ seu~antic content was perceivcd. In the second series of
tests, a~:cmporary connection between unperceived visual stimuli
was ur~covcred. Tl~e stimuli and experimental conditions ~verc
_ iclcritical to tliose in tlie �irst series with tti~o exceptions :
clianges iti t}ie clirection of the first stimulus (the arrow) ~~ere
so minute that t}ie test subjects did not perceive them, and the
sema~itic content of t}ie second stimulus was not perceived be-
cause it was clisplayed on t}ie screen for a ver~~ s}iort time.
Ii? tliese tests, tlie la~e ~vokeci potential for tlie f.irst rair
of stimuli was clearly climinished ~ohen thc word was emotionally
si~riifi~~int. Ci~anges in the evoked response were noted noL only
in tl~c visuril rcgions of tlle brain, as seen in tests ivitli per-
ceived stimuli, l~ut also in the vertex, l~otll tlie ar~plitude of
t}ic com~~onent I'30l) ancl tlie liegative ~,~ave whicli preceeded it
wcre diminished.
_ 'l'lius, we observed temporary connections between unperceived
visual stimuli. Chan~;es in evoked cortical activity,whicl~ occur
as a result of tlie formation of tlicse connections, are not limited
to tl~e visual cortcx and are more diffuse than in instances wllen
- the combined stimuli were perceivecl. One would assume that t}ie
_ difference in cortical xesponse to the first stimtilus ?aas de-
termined by tlie fact t}iat the subject did not perceive it, fiow-
evcr, t}iis assumption was disproved by the results of tests in
- which this stirnulus was also not pcrceived, while the second
semantic stimulus was well perceived; In these clses, the chan~es
i~i tlic evokecl potentiai for the first stimulus were analogous to
tliose w}iicli occur in experiments with completely perceivecl sti-
muli (1) .
Consec{uently, the nature of the evol:ed cortical activity, given
formation of a sensory temporary connection, to a larfie extent
clepencis on perception of tlle second associative stimulus. Tl~is
in~icates t}ie valiclity of our concept regarding the cl~anfies in -
c ortical activity tvliicli develop in response to tlie effect of the
- first comhination of stimuli. These changes are deterr~ined by
the effect of tl~e counter temi~or~ry connections.
(:lian~es in the evoked cortical res~~onses to perceived and un-
perccivccl emotional worcis, evidently occurs as a result of. addi-
tion.zl "rionspecific" ir~pulses from tlie structiires in ~vliic;i neuro- -
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ir~
logic mcc}~ariisms f.or nefiativic emotional re~ictions ~re inte~r;~tec.l.
- 7'llese s~ructures are inco:porated in wl?1t is unclerstooel to l~e the
- "limbic sys~em". In a series o� stuclies on anim~ls, scientists
showecl ~I~e influence of tlie functional stlte of the limhic system
struc~ures nn thc evokecl I~otenti~l, re~;isterc:cl for sensary stimu-
1 i, iii thc: neoc:ortex. Itt e:c~~eriments Conclucted l~y Sierra and
I~uster (3U) on electrical s~imulation of the liippocampus 7nd ~my~;-
clala, thc amplitucle of prolon~;ecl l.atent visually evoked potentials _
of tlie cerebral cor~~x w~s increasec~, l~erendin~ on its intensi-
ty, stiiiiulation of tlie ~osterior hy~otlialmus can catise t>otll ac-
tiv~tior~ and iriliil~ition of visual corticzl electrical responses
(3, 1~)) . ~Vitli stimulation o~ tl~e sep~um, the am~litude of the
evokecl response of tlie visual cortiex to li~lit flas}ies is dimin-
- is}ied (27) .
1'~c fourta tliat tlie antic}iolinergic substance, amizil, prevented
local changes in the occ.ipital region as seen in the amplitu-
dinal-temporary paramcters of tl~e late positive ivave P300, e- _
v~kecl in resronse to perceivecl emotional ~vorcls, It clid not alter
ttie evokect i~otentials in the vertex. This confirmed our concept ~
about the role oE aaclitional local acti.vation of the limt~ic system -
structures in ~~servecl clianges o� rotential. In animal experi.-
ments, it was shown that amizil inhibits cholinergic meclianisms
_ in tlie limbic system for defensive reaction (7,8),
It is known tliat the activatiri~; (and inhibitinb) i1-lfluences of
tlic limhic system on the.neocort~x are accomplished b}? the ac- _
tivatinF (ancl inl~il~iting) systems oF t}ie mesencephalonic and
- tlialamic reticular formations, altlioufi}~ it is not exclusively
a direct influence (17,26).
In multiple stuclies, it has }~een establis}ied t}iat the activa-
- tin~ influence of tlie nonspecific reticular structur~s in ttie
cerebral cortex lias a dual nature--local and diffuse. T}ie diffuse
inflt~ence is accomplished by tlie mesencep}ialonic activating sys-
tem, ancl t}ie local, l~y t}ie nonspecific strticttires of the t}~alamus.
_ Recently, a~reat cleal of attention has been directed at explai-
- ninf; tlic neurolo~;ic meclianisms for local activation of t}ie neo-
cortc:x anci tlieir pli~~siologic role in tl~e or~aniz~tion and per- _
Eormarice of ~i be}iavioral reaction.
Lon~ a~o, clinical ncurologists noted that consciotisness is re-
t:iined follo~vin~.; rescction or clisease of any more or less re-
_ strictecl part of tl~e cerebral cortex, but it inevitably dis-
- a}~pcars if, as a result of pat}iologic influences, tlie dience-
~~~ialon is cut (23) , llnderstandinR t;ie clirect role of. tlie reticu-
- lar formation, in rarticular t}ie nons~ecific part of tlie tlia-
lamus; ii~ ttie activation of t}ie cerebral corte:c allol~~s researcl~ers -
21 -
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- to it~tc~;ra~c tlicsc ~linic~l. f;tc~s I>y ~liy;;ioln~~ic ri~~pr~,icli. -
, ~i~i~~, ,i ~ r�~~~� c ~i~~~~~~,~i~,~,~:;~ r ~~~~~ti~� ;~~t ~ ~;?L; r ti~~~
:~~~c~il'.i~ Systcin c~C tlic: ~lir~I1C~~)I?I11011--ra strtic~tirc wliicli is CC1Il11CC- -
~C(~ ti~1tll ~11 T)~2't5 ar t~1C cerel~ral COT~C:C--].@Cl 1'en.field ~2~~
to cnnstruct th~ tl?eory of the central Ci1CCi1~lFlipI11C system. 7'l~is
tl~eory li,is beeri rcJ~eltedly SU~)~CCt to criticisri l~cc;,7usc it clen~
tlie rulc oL tl~c c~1Ci1C~))I1i11011].C structures in lii~~ier inte~ratin~?
mech~nis~ns involv~cl in tlie accom~~lislim~~nt of coiiscious zctivitti�.
I~:e consicder the tl~eory of tlie central encepli~ln>>.ic: system to be
u�ten~blc in rclationship ~o the definite re,~ulatin~ role of tlie
ccrebral~ cortex iii tl?e ar~ai~ization of consciot~s exrerieilce. Iri
:iclditidri, wc CSIl not if;nore tlic ricli clinical ancl j~liysiolo~;ic
factual,iuaterial, accwnulatecl clurin~; neur.osur~;ic11 operations. ~
_ Iti~ithout clouht, these clata ~ttest to the key r~le oC dience~lia-
lonic ~ictivating nons~ecific strtictures in conscious.~ess,
- Tn hi~her vertel;rate animals, esPecially in primates, electro-
_ ~;ra~liic ex~~ression o� local activation can l~e seen in tlie c~e-
~ layecl evokecl currents of cortical I~otentill. 5l:initer (31) re-
corclecl tl~c clel:iyecl tie~ative J~otential in tl~c ante: i~r re~;ions
- of' tlic cortex oC cats hy stirnul7tioi~ o.f. tlic vctitrol~teral nu-
cleus o{' tlie tl~alamus; ~ structure associated ~~ith tlie hehav-
ioral reaction of. selactivc attentioil. Rehert (2~) ol~servecl in
~nonkeys tlic devclorr~ent of de? ;ci nc~;ative potential in the pre-
mator cortex, i~i tl~e micldle p; of tlte tlialarius, zn~l zn tlie
cauclate nucleus, cluring the P.~use between ~~~arning and trifi~ering
si~;nals, tl~at is, in conditions wlien the monke~~ should focus his
attentio~i on a fortlicomin~ trifi~ering stimultts. Fus~ex ancl
lllexancler (21) recorclecl in monkeys an evol~eci neuronal reaction
_ i n t} i e r anu lous Prc fronta l cortex and in the dorsomedial nu-
- cleus of ttie t}ialamus during a delayed, instrumentally condi-
tionecl, feeding reaction. Tliese autliors c~nclu~iecl tliat the
neuro~ial activity w}~icli t}~ey describecl was tl~e l~asis for tlie
clevelo~~nient of tlie delayed negative potential and was connectecl
with actively focused attention on information wliicl~ must t~e rc-
tainecl in tlic mcmory for future utilization. The ~~rell kno?tim
works of G. ilolter (16) ancl others descrit~e conditioned delayecl
_ negative waves. In ma~i, t}iis W1VC devclops in the neocortex in
TCS[)OI1SC t0 COIl(~1t10I1S W~11C~1 rec{uire 1Ct1VC attention. I~CCOT-
ai~i~; to tlie cl;ita or G. Uolter (15) , one o� t}ie cllaracteristics
of tliis clelayecl potential, whicli is registered clirectly on tlie
cere~ral cortex in man, is its strictly expressed local charac-
ter. '1'fie local c}iaracter of a clelayecl negativ~~ potential was �
notecl botl~ in our tiaork a~id in t}ie studies of I:. G. Iirilinfi. T}ie
evokecl cortical electric activity ilivolved in the process of
speect~ activity was exarninecl in tliese stuclies.
t'!}icn a worc~ is pronotinced, a delayed negative ~aave develops in
any part of tlie cortex of the left }iemisphere. T}iis evave can
be comparec] to tlie potential for preparedness wliicli is developed
22
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~~nK n~rtctnL us~ orrLY
in thc niotiv~tin~; zonc n~ the cortex clurin~; ~~~rform7r~ce df. nii -
.~rl~itr~ry mntidn.
~uvinus ~ncl suUtlc incliCes of loral activ~ti~n cun be s~en in
c:l~,~n~~s in um~~litudin~l ttiid tem}~or~l pnramet~rs ~dr tlic 1~tC
~~nsitiv~ w~vr~ t1~C Cnmjjnt~ent i'300, df ~n evnl:ecl nnt~~jti~1. This
17tc 1~otcntial ~levclot~s iti res~~ons~ to th~ r~f~~et ~f sigt~ffi~~ttt
stiiuuli WI11CI1 .Li11Cit ~ tCiit~tive t'~~Ct~dtl or fnCUS tlt~ attentinn
of tili~ inclivi~lu71, Civ~n i�rCCrtinn of si~;tiifiCant visu~l stimu-
li wl~~rt tl~e test stihj~~t is nnt perfnrmin~ ~inoth~r ~rUitr~r~? uc-
tivity, Chang~s ii~ tl~e r~UU w~vC ~r~ not~cl m~inly in tl~c dCCipl-
t~l cortic~l re~ion (~2,23~24). Tl~is was dcte~t~~1 in nur rr~-
viotisly nicntionCcl ex~~Criments usin~; p~r~eivecl emoti~n~1 s~m~nti~
stimuli.
~'?'e ,7rc Cnceci witl? an cxtremcly aif~i~ttlt I~ut interestin~ qu~s-
tion: ~ivcn pcrc~ptinn aF :~n crnotion7l scr~7r~tiC stimulus~ in
?~rh~t munn~r ~n~l l~y w1~iC1~ ncurningi~ mc�ch7nism is thc t1~a1~MiC
_ nonspeCific systcm involvccl in loC~l activ;~tion ancl li~:~~~~isc,
~;ivcti unconscious nerCeption of tlcese stimul i~ l~o~r is the ~li�fuse
r~ctivatc~l systeri of. tl~c mesCnCephalonic ret?cul~r system involv~cl"
_ Iti'c ~re not in a~iosition to I~rovicle a st~friCiently com~il~tr ~n-
stocr to this clucstion, but we Can nresetit a physiolo~iCally l~asecl
I~ypotl~c:;is to ex1~lain thc cnrticofug~l m~Cl~~nisr~ of tl~e nonsrcCi-
Fic systeris involvc;cl iii the ~irocess of unCOnscious and cnns~ious
_ ~~crceJ~tio~t.
~lccorclin~ to our liyrotl?csis, nctiv:~tioii of temJ~or~ry connections
betwcc� the rcceiving elements of thc Cerehral cartex ~nd the
motor speech region, involvcd in rerrcntion of an~~ external si~-
nal, has crucial si~i~ificance. Tllis concept l~as f~eet~ confirmed
by thc multiple studies of R. Sperry and his colleaRucs (32, 33).
Their ~lata iridicate tl~at it is im~ossiblc for test suhjects to
vcrl~alizc arid i~crccivc stimuli if t}~c visual infnrmatinn is rc-
ccivccl only I~y tl~c ri~;t~t Ijemis~~t~erc kitl~ot~t involvrr~ent of tlic
iuotor s~~~eCl~ r~~;ion. ~nalysis and synt}icsis of semantic si~nals
occ:urs in the ~;nostic sreecl~ zone nf Loth hemisrheres (mainly
in tl~c ri~;l~t I~~n,isnliCre) . Ti~cse siFn7ls are not perceived if
thc ncrvous imrulscs trom tl~is zone arc not transmittcci to thc�
motor sj~eech re~;ion; that is, if activation of temporary conn~c-
tions bett~cen tl~ese cortical zones does not occur.
7'hc ai f fcrcnrc,~iotrci in our exrerir.~ents, in the evo},ec: activity -
for ~~crccivc~l ancl unrcrccivecl scmlt~tic stimuli clcarly attcsts
to thc i~ivolvrm~nt nf t1iC corticofufial rieciianistr,s in rii~ non-
- specifir imt~ulsution of cortical rcaction. ~nly aft.;r rrelimi-
nary :~nalysis of tl?c irr~~act on tl~c cortcx of tl~c scroantiC pro-
pcrtics of tl~c visual stimuli usc~l in our ex~~criments were we
_ able to eliscern t'~e non s~~ecific influence of er:otionally
23
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~
~Ott O~~ICIAL U5t~, dNLY
o+;n I r I~~.~~~~t Ht tmul 1 ai~ tlic~ rr. r~l~ rri 1 ~nrti~.t r~i~~l i i~~l~r. tli~ "~1rr~Crjt i-
I~i i ity" ril' ii t~~nr~l ~;t imul~i~;, lii~clniil?tr.~lly, tlir. n~iti~r~~ ~i(' tl~r Itrftl-
;;~~~c~ifi~: iiifl~~~uc:r nii tli~ tli~~l;~mic tiiicl i~r~ii~ :~tCn~ ~truCturry iy
~lc:tcrmin~J ~y C~rti~d~u~:~1 in~rul~~s. TI?e clifferenc~ 1?etwr..~n
~hcs~ in~lu~nc~s is n result nf thc s~m~nti~ contcnt of thC sti~
- mUli. In th~ ~~~~hrnl cortex~ there are structural-fun~tioiial ~
cl~m~ti~s wtiieh, i~~ nll prohFihility, ~rc thC sntir~c d~ simili~~'
cnrtir:ofu~~1 influ~nCes.
l~ scri~s of ~x~~crimr.nt;~l r~sults, ~bt~ined ~n ~nim~l studies,
points tn tli~ p3"~5et1CC~ in tli~ CCrCtit'nl edrtex of structur~l
n~eCh~nisms involv~d i~i r~rform~n~~ of a direc~t~d reflex (5, 14).
'I'hc ~~tiv~ting mCCh~niSms for a directed re~etion ~re lnc~ted in
thc sCCOnd~ry Cortical zon~s~ ~~lj~cent to ~ssociation~l ~ields.
l~~ith cl~~tric~l stimulation of ~h~s~ pnints on th~ GerteX~ inte-
~I'~t~t~ t~li'CCLCt~ ~'~~CLlOtt5 dCCU~' W~11C~1 ~1TC S11t111~iT t~ t~105C S~C11
in n~tur~1 stimulation ~f rcc~ptor:~. This ele~tri~~l stir~ula-
tion rei~tfdrees thc ~ctivatin~; it1flUCriCC5 of t1~e reti~ul~r sys-
tcm in thc Cnrtcx. f'reviously leurned cortic7l ~ctivnting mecha-
nisms nre iri~~;ereel clurin~ thc formation of a t~mporary connec-
tion wl~cn ttic rcrrbral Cort~x is stimul~tccl by irracliation. in
Cascs whcn stimuli arc perCeivcd, that is, wh~n the structur~s
of thc mntor srecnc ~enter ar~ temrorarily ~onne~tccl, tri~~ering
of tlic; cortical activatin~ mcc}~anisms for focused attention oCCUrs,
7s wcll ns activution of tlies~ mechanisms loc~ted in other rc-
~;ions of the Urain. 1:voked cortico�u~~l impulses stimul~te th~-
~ lamic rr,cci~anisms for focused attention ~ whicl~ in turn leacls to
tl~c clcvclopmcnt of local "nor~specific" activating influanccs.
Thcsc influCnces selectivCly raise, for a given moment, tlie level
of "creative" excitability of p~rts af th~ ccrehral Cortex. t~'e
tl~inl: tl~~t witl~ tl~e ~icl of this cortico-thalamo-cortical mecha- _
nism for a counter connection, involvecl in tlie structure of a
ter~rorary connection, tlie cerehral cortex creates the optir~al
cnnditions for botli conscio~is reconiiition af a signi�icant si~-
n~l stimulus and ncrforman~c of an aclequatc arbitrary reaction. _
U~~r data on evokcJ notentials inclicate th.t tlie abovc Mentioned
mc:c:h;i~~isr.~ for local activation is not involvecl in the formation
of .7 temrorary c:onncctioi~ Eor 7n ur~pcrceivecl external stimuli.
(n nll ~~robability~ tl~e tem~~orary connection i~etween motor speech
e:nrtic:al structures is not activated or �ormed. Fvidently, tl~ese
~~~ecl~anisms~ locate-."t in the secondary cortical zones of analyzing
- structures, for ac�tiva~ion of a clirected reflex are involveJ in
tl~e systen~ for tem~:^rary connections. As sl~o~~n in animal experi-
mcnts, evokccl rorticofu~al imrulses stimulate tl~e nonspecific
strtiCtures of tlie mesenccphalonic system, as a result of ~.hicli
tl~c ~li fCuse "~ions~~c:cific" ~nfluences of the mesencephalon on
thc crrcl~ral cortcx are strcny;thenecl. :~e oi~servc~l this effect
in ti~e form of ~liffus~ chan~es in amplituek~ o: tl~e late cortical _
~
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M'Ott U[~~LCtAL USL ONLY
CVdItC~~ j)dtClltltll in rest~ nnsC tn un~~cr~civc~l Cmdtinri~lly sigt~i-
_ fiCni~t wdrel stiniuli. 'rl1is scl�mC, 1.~~5cc~ d~ mnclCrn nei~rorhysin-
ln~;i~ cdrlC~pts, ~ildws Sri~ntists to visu~liz~ tl� neurdinRic
- mCCli7nisms ii~v~lvccl 111 tl~~ ~nrticn] clyn;~mi~s ~f "tionspcCifiC"
~1ctiv~tion o~ tl~e ccrcUral ~ort~x. In sdmc ~;~srs, ~~~iv~tic~n
i:~ loc:,71 ancl i~i ~tli~r~, ~liff'u~~, cl~pcnclin~; on the nerce~~tibility
nf~ thc si~iiallirt~ stimulu~;. -
`i'hc ~d11Cel1t that 1~~~1 ~~~tiv~tiion hf tli~ CereUr~l ~ort~x is de-
t~rmined I~y tlic si~nttling si,+nifir.~?tcp of t1?~ p~rreived stimul~is
wl~~~li ~Id�~in~t~s psy~ci~ic aCtivity ~t a~iv~n r~nm~nt w~$ Confirme~l
~~y stu~ic~s ~n Corti~~lly Cv~~~:e~l ~leCtric activity i~i lienltl~y r~~-
tur~ inclividu~ls ~urin~ l�rE;~,rn~~nGr of ~ chos~n voluntary motor
r~nctinn ~11). lZcrordin~ of r~,verage evok~d rotential~ was eon-
cluc~tc:~l cluring tests usin ~hy;ically similar visual stimuli with
ai~fcriii~; si~n~lin~ si~n~fic~n~e: itt one v~ri~nt, tlic stimul~i~
was ~nly a warnin~;~ hut tl~e C}10].C~ nf re~etion w~s determined
i~y tl� ch7r~cter di tl~e activating signal; in another varixnt
, tliC wurnin~; stimulus clet~rminecl the choic~ of reaCtion. '
;1i~alysis di tltc late I~ositivc w~ve r3on incli.Cate~l th.~t a warnin~
_ stimulus~ whi~h cletermines thc choice of a r~~ctien, evokes an
cl~ctrical response which, in the anterior re~;ions of ti~e ce;re-
ur~l cortex, f~as a lar~er ~~otential responsiveness to stimuli
of an~7loFous pliysie~l force. llowever, t}iis cortic~~l rep,ion does
n~rticip.~te in thc rroCess of choosin~ a rraction. A similar
cliffcrcnCC in size of evol:ecl response was not observc~l in thc
~rCi~~ital rc~ion.
I:vidcntly, tlie sizc of tl~e Comronent I'30(1 in anterior re~*ions of
- t1~e cerebral cortex cietermines local activation of the cerebral
c:ortex. Tl~is local activation of t}~e cortex at a~;iven instance
is nrobah'ly tl?e essential component in, the neurologic mecl~anism
needecl to nrepare an~l organize "tl~e commancls" si~nalled ~y tl~e
Cnvironi~ient, for ~erformance of a motor act. Tliis exrl~ins tlie
clian~cs 1I1 an evoked resnonse observecl in the anterior rep,ioi~s
of thc ccrcbt�al cortex iii which, accorclin~ to clata from ncuro- -
1~sycLologic stuclics on r7ticnts with or~anic clisorclers of the
frontal lol~c, a f;oal oriented motor activity is or~anized (12) .
Itcsults of t17e two ~~rcvious]y mentioned experiments,usin~ per-
ccivc:a stin?u1i, clcarly sl~ov: t1~at t1~c cortical topo~rapl~ic plie-
nomcnon for .~ctivation or inhibition oE late evoked responscs is
~Ietcrminecl ba tlie si~nal significance of stimuli ivhich dominate
- cortical activity at a~;iven moment. l~;l~en it is necessarv to
sclcct a rea~c2ion, in rei~onsc to vis�al stimt~li, activation of
ti~c cortcx occurs in the antcrior rc~ions. If a Pcrccivin~
function elominates, tl~en local activation is observed r~~inly
in tlic: related ~~erceivin~ cortical zone, to ~~~1iic1~ tlie ~;iver_
stimulus is acldressed. Tlius, durin~ ~erformance of conscious
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~ox n~~tcint. us~ oNLY
;lctivf t'y~~ thc r~si~ltin~; 1nca1 n~tiv~tidn nf ~liC ~~rcl~r~l ~a~tex
l~~s ~ ~yn~mic: ch~r~~trr~ clcti~rmin~d l~y tili~ si~;nxl si~ni.~ic~n~~
o~ tl?~ stimuli nttcl hy th~ rreclnmin7nt ~rUitrary activity. -
- itiy nn m~~ns do we COnsiclrp thc cl~scribed rnrtiCn-t11al;~mo-cortic~l
m~~lt~itism fnr fnCUSC~l ~tt~r~tioii to he the substruCturc e~f. ~~ns~i-
ousness ~ as is ~ssum~cl in ~I~~ ~~ntr~l encerh~ldniC th~ory of I;'.
I'Cnfi~ld. It~tli~r, w~ viCw it as tl~e ~lement in t}ie Compl~x br~in
syst~m ~rliich guarant~es c~ns~ious ~xp~ri~n~c in I'1~11,
It r~pr~~rs to us that th~ quot~d Cxperiment~l results it~diCttt~
that moclcrn psyChdpitysiologie ~nd electropliysinl~~ic methods of
resc~r~h prnvicle a physioingiC approacli with wI1~C11 to study the
mnst rompl~x rroccsses of higli~r neurologi~ ~ctivity in m~n. llow-
~ver, w~ r~~kn~wlcdg~ th~t our und~rstandin~; of a11 th~ intricacie$
of th~ physinldgiC meCh~ni~sms for cons~ious ~nd unconseinus ~xper-
i~nce in tl~e human mind r~m~ins incnt~rlete. ilow~v~r~ tliese ex-
perim~nt~l finciings ltlc~lC~LC th~t I.P. 1'avlov's icler~s un the
physidln~y o~ consciousness w~i~e incieed proph~tiC. Clettrly
t~ncl~rst~nclirig tl�t consciousne~;s is ~ function of tlie entire ~
~�~~rel~r~~l ~~ort~x~ I.r. Pavlov stressecl the clynamic character of
loCal chnn~cs in brain resronse. ife wrote: "If it would b~ possi-
l~lc to see thr~u~li the sku11 and if the sitc:s in the cerebral
c:ortcx c~f ortimal excitabil;"ety werc illuminated durin~; stimula-
tion, we would catcli si~ht of tlte thinkinR Conscious individual
ancl woulcl observe th~ co~ist~intly changing contours of the li~lit -
spot~ surrounded by the shadotived expanse of the rest of the cere-
bral cortex" (13).
BII3I,IOGRAPIIY
1. Arzumanov, Yu. L. .lournal o� higlier ncurologi.c activity, 1974
~ volumc 24, tdo S, rage 917.
2. Asratyai~, L'.A. Journal of ~~~^hnr .,~~.M..losic activity, 19G9,
volumc 1J, ;do 2, ~~a~c 1J5.
3. liakl:~v~clz}~yan, ~.C. Autonomic re~ulation of electrical acti-
vity in tl~e Urain. i,eningrad~ "Science", 1967.
4. l;critasl~vili; I.S. In t}ie book: l~dorks of the Institute of
Pl~ysiology imcni I.S. licritas}~vili. Tbilisi, I'iil~lication of
tlic Ccorginn SSR Acaclemy of Scicnces, 1JSG, volume 10, pafic 3.
5. l~crit:~slivili, I.S. In tl~e l~ook: Cafirskiye [trord unknown] dis
ctissions. Tbilisi, "Ntets�iyerebt~" [expznsion unbnown], 1~~63,
volumc 4, pagc 111.
26
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~d~t O~~ICIAL U5~ dNLY
G. C~rshuni~ C.V. Pltysi~lu~y j~urn~1. USSR, 1946, vo1~1m~ 3~,
~o. 1~ ra~~ A3. .
11'yu~h~nnk, k. 1'u. nnd Ch~plyAine, S. it. Jout~n~1 of ltii~h~r
neurologic a~tivity~ 1J7n, volum~ 2d~ No 1~ pa~~ 176.
g. I1'yuch~nnk~ it. Yu. ~nd Yelis~yeva, I1.G. Journ~l of hi~h~r
_ n~urolo~;ic ~~tivity, iJ~7, volum~ 17, Pdo 2~ p~~~ 330.
J. Kost~ndov~ r.A. und Arzumanov~ Yu. L. Journal of higher
neurolofiic uctivity~ 1g74, volum~ 24, No 3, pa~e 465.
1U. host~ndov~ I;.A. ~nd I3rilin~, ~.G. Journal of hi~her neuro-
lo~iC aCtivity~ 1973~ volum~ 23, No 5, pa~~ J3~.
11. KosCandov, ~.A. and Vs~zhnova, T.PJ. Jnurnnl o� higher neuro- _
1o~;ic nctivity, 1J76, volume 2t~, No G, pn~e 1123.
- 12. Luriyu, l1.it. Itigltcr cortieul function in m~n. ~�~O5C01J~ E'uhli-
~:~tion of riCU [rtoseow State ~Iniversity] , 1nG2.
13. i~avlov, I.P. Comrleted collected works, 1951, vol~ame 3, bonk
1, p:~ fic 121.
14. Sokolov, I:.N. In the book: Cagrskiye (~+~ord unknown] discus~sions.
Tbilisi~ "Ptetsniyereba" [expansion unknown], 1J63, volume 4,
pnfic 183. ,
15. Uolter, C.ll. In the book: Problems of tlie dynamic localiza-
tion of the brain. rloscow, 1J68, pa~e 194. -
1G. tlolter, G.U. The living brain. r(oscow, "k'orlci", 1J6G.
17. 13cck~ l:.C., I)ustman, It.L'. and 13cie,r, L�rC a. Clin. Neuro-
riiysiol. ~ 196G~ v. 20, ir'o. 4, I~. 397. ~
18. Cclesia, C.C. a. l~uletti, G. I:1iC. a. Clin. NeuroP}~ysiol., -
1J71, v. 31, No. 6, P. 603.
19. Clii, C.C. a. rlynn, J.P. ~EG a. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1968,
v. 24, .Vo. 4, 3~3.
ZU. Uomino, l~.r. Anesthesiology, 1~167, v. 28, p. 184.
21. ruster, J.~i. a. ~lexander, C,.i:. Science, 1971, v. 173, p. G52.
22. Garcia-Austi, ls'. ~ l3ogacz, J. a. Vanzulli, A. }:FC a. Clin.
Neuropl~ysiol.~ 1964, v. 17, h'o. 2, p. 136.
27
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~~c~ n~~~cin~, us~ ~rr~,Y
23. Goff, i?'.It. I~1: Attenti~n in Vcurorl~ysinlo~y. i.c1. C.ti, I:vans
~ncl '1'.13. Mulli~llttnd, t.ondnn, 1~~i9, p. 1(i~.
2A. il~llicl~y, ~.ri. a. ri~snn~ A.11. LL'G n. Clitt. ~curn~hysinl. ~
1~G4, v. 1G, Nn. 3, 11. 314.
2S. L~vy, it. I~ehr~m, J. L'EiG ~ y Glin. Ncuro~hysiol 1h70 ~ v.
2J, Nn. 4, 1~. 4UU.
2~i. Ll~n~~s ~ 1~., Av~ncl~no~ C. lteinoso-Suttr~s, r. ~ci~ne~, 1~177,
v. 1J5, vo. 42~U, p. 794.
27. Lorcns, 5.A. a. Iirown~ 'Cli. 5. ~xptl Neurol.~ 1J67~ v. 17~ ~o. 1, _
p. 3t'i, -
28. 1'~ni'irlcl, IV. i'rinC~ton University I'ress, 1~rinCetott, New .1er-
s~y, 1J75~ p. 123.
2!t. itcbcrt~ C}~. 5. 1:EiG. n. Clin, rtc~ror~?ysioi., 1972, v. 33~ No.
i 4, n. 3'3J.
3U. Sierra, G. a. I~uster~ J. i~t. 1:1iG a. C~in. ti'europ}~ysiol., 1968,
v. 25, vo. 3, p. 274.
31. Skini~er, J.L. I:LG a. Clin. i~curopl~ysinl., 1J71, v. 31~ No. 3,
r. i~~.
32. Sperry~ R.11'. In: 13rain and conscious exrerience. I?erlin--
ilcidelberg--i~ew York, 19GG, p. 298.
33. 5~~erry. It.ir. a. GazzaniRa r!. In : 3rain ~�techanisms underlying
speecii and lanfiuage. Tid. C.li. riillikan a. F.L. Darley, New
~ Yor~: and London, 1967~ p. 108.
34. Sponi;, 1'., Ilaider~ '~i. a. I.indsley, I).i3. Science, 19G5, v. 148,
?~;n. 3668, p. 3J5.
COPYitIGll'I': Izdatel'stvo "~Jauka", "Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy deya- -
- tcl'nosti"~ 1978
!l13'J
CSO: 1870
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~dit O~~ICYAI, US~ ONLY
N~URn5CICNC~S
TN~ STAT~ 0~ pROSI'~CTS Fdtt THE LONG T~1tM SCI~NTI~IC PItOJ~CT ' B12AIN' TO
51'UDY THE MECHANISMS 0~ HIGH~R NEUROLOCIC ACTIVITY
- Moscow zHUItNAL VYSSI~~Y N~ItVNdY D~YAT~L'NOSxI in Ituggi~n No 6, lq7g pp 1143-1150
[Iteport on the 23rd Ses~ion of tii;e Scientific Council, 17 April 1978,
L~ningrad by A. Asratygn and P. V. Simonov, InstiCuCe of Higher Neurnlogic
ActiviCy and Neurophyeiology, USSR Academy of Sciences, materials presented
by M. G. Ayrapetyants, U. C. Gasanov, N. G. Lopatina, V. V. Ponomarenko,
N. F. Suvorov, K. V. Sudakov, and M. M. Khananashvili are used in the
reportj
['Cext] Ti~e long term scientific projeCt "i~rain", undertaken to
stucly tl~e meclianisms of l~ighcr neurolo~ic activity, rerresents
one of tl~e creativc clevelo~ments stemming from tl~e work of I.I'.
Pavlov. 'I'he latest achievements in gener~l ncuropliysiology an1
modern experimental techniques applied to this study are based
on his futidamental ~:orl,. Tlie indepth elahoration af fundamental
scientific questions in tlte field of }iigher neurologic activity
is relevant for education, psychoneurologic clinics, rational
organization of labor, the practice of animal 1~usbandry, and a
wholc scries of otl~er fielcls, w}~ich l~ave major arplied signifi-
cance for our cou~itry.
In tliis report, ?~re clo not intend to fiivc an exl~austive summary
- of all tl~e most si~;nificant results, obtained by sot?iet resear-
c:hers in this scientific fielci, nather, we will focus on the
rr.sults wl~ich illustrate the basic directions of the scienti�ic
project "l3rain" ancl kliicti reveal tl~e current stlte of researcl~
and its futurc prospects.
Piecl~anisms for learnint;, activatinQ, ~nd inhiUitinfi conditioned
reflexes. In studies on meclianisms for conditioned reflexes, re-
searcl~ers }iave concentrated on analysis of systematic neuronal
activity ancl on tlie iclentification of synapses whic~i can modify
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~ncl ~ut~'ti~nally unitc diff~r~nt neurdns (IVN1) [Insti~utie of -
Ili~1~~r ~N~urnlo~i~ I1Ctivity attd i~'eurnpl~ysioingy, U5512 ACadcmy of
SC3enCes; I~rnin Institutr, U5512 Ac~demy of Meclical Sciettces; I~ -
[Institu~tc nf I~hil~sn~hy~~ Ykrnininn SS[t Ac~demy of S~i~necs;
Institu't'~ of l~sy~hnlof;y, 1IS512 A~~demy of SCienC~s; Ti:~! (~nstitut~
df ~:picle~uiology ~nd I~lict~ol~iology~ ~ USSii Academy of ~t~di~~l 5Ci-
enc~s; r~iGU [MosCOw 5t~te Univ~rsity]; und LG(J [Lenin~racl 5t~t~
Univ~rsity]). Investigntors ~stablishc:d the sp~~ific forms of
nrg~nizution of n~uronxl rnicrosystems in ~he cortic~l rrnjecti~n
zones of the Urain durin~ p~rformance of Cnnditioned reflex r~-
actions by funCtion~lly differentiated cells initiatiion of nsso-
ciative changes in t}ie population of cortiC~l cells, and functional
union of neurologic elem~nts from different ~reas of tlie cortex.
- i)ata were obtained on the sel~ctive plit~l~ility of synaptic path-
= ways of ~ortical neurons using mathematic~l ~nalysis nf synartic -
~Ctivity in ovCrall rCSponses. 5tudi~s on in'dividu~l n~uronal
projection z~nCS of the Cortex demonstrated tl~e specificity of
sequentii~l conditioi?ecl reflex response. T}~is specificity controls
t}~e rc;or~~nization of ncuron~l activity in response to various
stimuli.
'Cl~c operation oE hilat~r~l (direct and reverse) conditional sig-
nals ii~ tl~c activation of a conclitioned reflex wxs demonstrated
by recording neuronal activity in cortical responses to signal
ancl reinforcement stimuli. The further elaboration of the "polar-
ization" and "ncuroRlial" liypotl~eses for how temror~~ry nervous
si~nals are completed is of interest. New experiment~l evidence
- has l~een obtainecl whicl~ indicates the usefulness of these hypo-
tl~eses, originally proposed Uy soviet scholars.
A series of studies on neuronal mechanisms for conditioned re-
- flexes was useci to analyze neuromediatoral activity (IVNI) 1nd
- NF~, U551: Acaclemy of Sciences; Jirain Institute, USSR ~cademy of
htedical 5ciences; and ~1GU) . Iteor~anization of cortical neuron
activity for a conditioned reflex occumed wlien remote sip,nals
were combined witl~ local applicntion of norepinephrine and ace-
telcl~oline, causin~; tlie conditi.c~ed reaction of t}ie neurons to
opnosc the usual response to apPlied rharmacolo~ic "reinforce- -
ment". 1 t w~s sl~own tliat ti?c; cl~oline sensitivity af cortical
ncuror~s clc~~en~ls on ti~e si~naling (1~ositive or inhibiting) sig-
nificancc of tl~e conditional stimulus. Associative clianfies in
neurotial activity can also occur ~~~}~en tlie action of two mediators
are combined witl~ cliametrically opposed effects. Ly studying
tl~e neuroCl~emical ~ases for traininfi, scientists liscovereci in-
formational excl~anfies of ineml~raneous proteins, tl~e a~pearance
of new ~nti~enic cliara~teristics in tl~em, and cl~anges in tl~e
activity of thc ~~rotcin nctworks in tlie synaptopla~m. 1lclditional
~lat:i wer~ obtaineJ on tl~e involvemrnt of catecliolaminer~ic mecl~-
anisms oF tl~e l~rain in tl~e performance of a conditioned reflex
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~ncl thc rolc o~ scrotnn~r~ic mrcl~,~ni~?~,~; i~l j~c~:ir~('nrCin~; th~ re-
sponsc. '1'l~c ~~rntcin Cont~nt nf thC neurnns of the motiv~tin~;
C0~'LCX ~ncl tlic I1111~1bC7fl1~)ll~ is alt~recl by th~se prncess~s.
itc~ently, yCicntists stuclyin~; th~ m~~r~structur,nl hr~ses ~'dr
conditinned refl~x ~Ctivit}? h~ve ~ocuse~l a~;rc~t d~~l of ~tt~n-
ti~n ~n tr~ininj, tl� limbi~ sy$t~m (IVNiI ~nc1 iJ~, U,~51: llc~cl~my
dC 5C i~n~~s; 13rtiin I115ti1tiUtiC~ U5512 Acttdemy nf. ~t~diCnl 5Ci~nccs) .
5tticly n[ the si~~ti~l or~~niz~tidn di tl~e n~urr~lo~;iC I~roc~ss~s
involvcd in tl~~ rerEdrm~nce n~ ~~dnditidnccl rc~lex rcvr~lcc~ t~i~
_ rC~ul~tin~ in~lu~nc~ n~ tlie Yiml~ic struCtures dn t1~e function~l
rrlatinnsl~ip of' cliff~rent purts of thc cerehral cortex. It w~s
cl~monstrntecl tliut tl~e sel~ct functional conn~Ctinns of tl~e hippo-
campus and caucl~te nucl~us ~oi,tli tl~e proje~tion ancl ~ssoci~tivC
rc~ions of tlic nao~ortcx are determinecl by tlie st~~~ nf. condi- -
tionecl r~flcx rrinf~rcemcnt. 1~'ith r~inforcemc~it~ the frequ~ncy
oE the tiicta rhytl?m is ~lter~d~ ~s evidenced liy a l~igli deRrce n~
cnhrre�ce in i,ii(~ rec:ordin~s.
StuJy of thC p,eneralizltion of conditioned reflexes, illicitecl
l~y clirect ~lectrical stimiilation of limbic strt~cttires w~s v~ry
fruitfi~l for an~lysis of the functional interrelationsl~ip between
thesc structure~. Studies showed that coml~inin~ direct el~ctric;~l
stimulation witl~ feec~ing or clcfensive reinforcement for limbic
training c~mpl~tely altcrs this reaction, whicil ~ras caused pre-
viously by stimulation of Certain limbic structures.
Simultaneous stimulation of rhythmic and permanent currents at
two hiPpocampal sites, from which tl~e phenomenon of self. stimu- _
lation can be illicitecl, allo?vecl scientists to differentiate
between tiie "motivational" and "reinforcing" comronents of an
experimentally inclucec~ self stimulation reflex. -
One can hope that further studies of the mechanisms for activa-
tion of conciitioliecl rcflexes ~ nn the m:~cro~ ancl mi~ro-structural
levels, and tl~e utilization of cellular analogs for temporary
_ si~,nals ancl conclitionecl reflexes in invertebrates will leacl to
understanding tliose membraneous-synaptic and intracellular ex-
clian~;es wl~icl~ are ti~e Uases for tr~ining. _
- ?~euronliysiolo~ic I~ases for intc~rated l~e}iavior. Tl~e study of the
neuropliysiolofiic ~ases for goat-oriented behavior is one of the
most important creative clevelopmentsstemminR from the work of -
I,I'. 1'avlov, for wl~om ti~t terms "tii~}icr netirolog~c activity" and
"I~cliavior" were synonymous. navlov repcatedly assertcd that
lii~;lier net~rolo~;ic activity is a resul~ of. interaction of the most
com~~lex unconchtbneJ reflexes (instinc:ts), conclitioned reflexes,
ancl thcir diverse systematized forms (for example, dynamic ster~o-
ty~~es) . In man, tl~is proce~s is s~en in tl~e comnlex functional
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.
= truinin~ fnr mcCl~~nisms df sre~ch and tliou~ht proc~ss~s,
13uilclin~; on thCSC fundumentul theor~tiC~l nssumrtions of I.P.
1'avlov~ scientists gt th~ IVN~1 ttnd PJF~ USSR Ar~demy of Sci~n~~s
obtained new experimental ci~t~ which rein~nrced Concepts of l~ow
tlic p}iysiolo~ic m~cl~~nisms for motivat~d b~h~vior are a result
of a compl~x interaCtion U~tw~~n vital unCOnditioned refl~x~s
and v~rinus kinds o~ ~onditioned stimuli (dir~ct ~nrl Counter-
cnnditipnal sign~ls). Inv~stigutors p~id pttrticular attention -
t~ ~ounter-COnd~tional si~n~ls, that is the in�lu~nce of th~ un-
conclitinnecl refl~x on the functinn~l stat~ ot th~ brain structures
whiCh reeeiv~ ttie conditional signals, rel~ted to the ~iv~n t~ncon-
ditionecl ~eaction: the sign~ls for food, wutcr, 7nd ~void~nce of
rainful.stimul~tion. 'I'hey alsa studied the motor ~pp~rtttus in-
volvCd in behavioral ~~ts. Tt w~s shnwti tl~~t t}~ese counter-eon-
ditiionecl siRnals Can httve a tonic cl~ar~cter~ ~u~r~ntecin~ strict
sclectiv~ respanses by thc anim~l tn multiple external stimuli.
/1s a result, tlie bel~~avinr of tl~e ~nimal beCOmes active and goal-
' nricnted. 7'he whol~ ~~attern of U~h~vior, illicited in response
to a~iven set of f~~tors~ allows scientists to measure the non-
re~ul~tecl opposition td motivttted behavior caused by the reflex -
principle of bruin activity. Tliis li.ne of researcl~ builds on
tl~e works of I.Df. SeCh~nov and I.I'. P~vlov.
t:xperimcnt~l d~ta were compiled at the IV~p and :VT', USSR Academy
of Sciences on tl~e fundamental role of four l~rain structuxes
(frontal section of t}~e nedcdrtex, l~i.ppocampus, amygdala~ and
- 1~ypoth?almus) in thc gcnesis of emotional reactions and in the
organization of beliavior. Tliese four structures form two sub-
systems, one of which (hypotl~almus and amygdala) selects the pre-
domina~it needs by evaluating the subdominant competetive motiva-
tions~ ancl the second (tl~e frontal cortex and hippocampus) eval-
uates tl~e probability of satisfying these needs for a given si-
tu~ltion at a given moment. It was shown that the frontal cortex
orients bcl~avior to signals with a high probability for rein- -
forcement. Tl~e liippocampus is responsible for reaction to the
si~nals for im~~rol~able events. Exreriment~l neeci informational
scl~emes for integratecll~rain activity allows scientists to syste-
matizc in tl~eoretical terms an enormous amount of factual mater-
ial, related to tt~e function of. the limbic system and to propose -
concertual scl~emes f.or tlie organization of vehavior, na~turally
suE~erim~~osecl on tl~e anatomical structures of the brain.
- Usin~ moclcls for feeding and defe~sive behavior of nestlings and
homing bel~avior of cats, evidence was obtained regarding the most
significant natural stimuli w}iich determine the innate forms of
i~el~avior ancl t}~cir subsequent dynamics rclated to training pro-
ccsscs. Informational ancl encrgetic parameters of t}~e apparent
stimuli and ttieir connection with t}~e visually specific sensi-
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tivity of animals wcr~ d~tiermined. The rol~ of impulse nCtivity -
of
neurons i.n tl~c somatosensary cortex and tho reticular ~orm~- -
tion of the brttin st~m in the process of kititen clcvelopment was
stucliod. On the basis of the dattt, th~ ch~r~c~eristics of acous-
tical activity of these Cells wer~ aefined, typical forms of th~ir -
_ electriCal dischar~~ were clxssified, and the ev~~lution of pot~n-
_ tiial ~or action was traced. An original method ~vas d~vised to
evaluntc the geom~try of n d~veloping neuron. -
'l'I~e onto~c:nic ~pproacl~ to thr study of brain ~UI1CLlOri in children
ttllowed researcliers to explain the ~;radation ~nd heterochronism
of involvement of various parts of tl~e brain in tlie processes of
perception ancl ~titention ancl the role of the cortical lobes ~~rhich
_ mature later~ in the org~nization o~ adequ~te reaction to extern~l
action (Institute of Child and Adolescent Physiology, ArN USSI'.
[USSr Ac:ademy of red~fioAicai Sciences ) .
Stucli~s on tlte neuropl~ysiologic l~ases for goal-oriented behavior
Ucing conducted by a number of scientific ~roups are basea on P.
K. ttno~:hin's theory of the functional system. Some nf t}~ese studies
are bein~ conduct~d at tlie following institutions: Institute of
h'ormal I'liysiology~ USSR Academy of r~fedical Sciences; individual
l~boratories at tt~e Institute of I~ediatrics, I1SSR Academy of ~1edi-
cal Sciences; I~irst Lh1I [Leninfi:ad P~!edical InstituteJ. T1ie se- -
quence for storing ancl remembering results of actions wl~ich prc- -
ceecl stimuli to reinforce feecling behavior ~ras demonstrated ex- -
- perimentally. An hypothesis was formulated on the structure of
the "receiver" wl~icli interprets tlie consequences of an ~ction.
At t}ie basis nf this theory is an assumption that the traces o�
the reinforcement stimulation remain fixed in those neurons wliicl~
are selectively involved in motivational stimulation.
13y examining }iuman activity durinfi workin~ conclitions, scientists -
founcl ways to coorclinate tl~e physiological rhyt}ir~s of man witli
work rliyt}ims. Tl~ey also derived a series of indices t~ cl~arac-
terizc tl~r. de~rcc of resistance of the functional state to the -
~~rocess of iristillin~; working liabits. Study of r~:G r}iytlims in
conclitions af social isolation durin~ sinulation of I~rolon~ed
s~~ace fli~lit ancl in polar worl;ers in the ~lntarCtic, allo~~red scien-
tists to trace tt~e clyraamics of the functional state in a cyclc~
;~~I;~1?t:~tion and readaptation. f~or a study of tlie systcm of man-
mact~iric, gr.ou~is of reorle were selected accorclin~; to t}~eir pre-
clominant mecl~aiiisms for coring with disturl~ances anci distractions.
I;y this s~lection process, orerators ~rere classified accorciin~
to typc of copin~ meci~anisms.
l:xrerimental patl~ology and tiierary for 1?i~l~er neurologic activity. ~
llntil rccently, this scientific fielcl, basecl on the wor}: of I.i'.
_ 1'avlov ancl his colleagues, was clezrly uncier-developecl,
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_ r~lthou~;l~' th~ ~clv~tt~os in modern neurophysioYogy were extreme~y
udvantageous for its furtlier development. 7'he theoretical and
pructic~l signific~nre of this scientific ~ield can be seen'in
tl?e rroject "I3rnin"'. ~t the present time, data are avttil~ble
wliich conclusiv~ly point to tl~e fttct that giv~n dif�erences in
th~ quality ancl d~grec of complexity of t}ie f~ctors ~~hicl~ lead
~ to pathology in higher n~urologiC ttctivity of m~n ~nd animals,
thc resulting putl~npliysiologic stresses in m~n and animal are -
vcry similar. ror example, con~ents o� norepinep}irine and sero-
toniM can bc altered in br~in tissues given a depressive st~te
in humans ~nd monkeys subject to so~ial isolation. It also h~s
been shown that mnn and higher animals, given a similttr patl~o~
logic state~ respond similarly to the therapeutic influences o�
the s~me drug.
itccently, it has become ospecially apnttrent that the success
and practical value of studying experime~aral rathology of higher
neurologic ~ctivity, to a largc extent, d.epends on selecting
models in which to adequately examine tl~e etiology and pathogen-
esis of neuroingic disturbances in man. ~nalysis of clinical data
points to two critical factors in the qenesis of neurosis in man:
motivtttionul conflicts arising within the sphere of interpersonal
relationsliips, a~icl tl~e cl~ronic need to make decisions without
sufficient time to digest nll tl~e information required to take
a course of action. This stuation is 5ometimes referred to as
"informational overlo~d". In fact, sucli an "overload" indicates
a lack of uvailable means required to solve the given problem, that
is to satisfy the need.
Intensive studies are being conducted at IF, GeorRian SSP. Academy
of Sciences; IVND and NF, USSR Academy of Sciences; I~hi, IISSR
Academy of biedical Sciences; Institute of Normal P?~ysiolopy, USSR
Academy of rtedical Sciences; and IF.P and T[Institute of Fxperi-
mental }'athology and 9'lierupy], IISSR Academy of r,tedical SciPnces
(Sukhumi) to find an animal model in whicli to stud~? experimental
patliology of higher neurologic activity, the principle ca~ses for
wl~icl~ are seen in neurotic diseases in man.
It l~as t~een fou~id tiiat doRs, raised without litter mates durinR
early stafics of their onto~enesis, are characterized by a signi-
- Eicant clegree of ai~erration both in mechanisms for regulation of
~motion ancl in function of short term memory. In t}iese animals, '
it is casy to produce prolonged cxpcrimental neurosis. It is also
clifficult to reinforce trainin~ in these animals. Increasingly,
otl~cr methods are bein~; used to disrupt the normal social rela-
tionsl~ips. 'I'hese include creatii~~ Rroup stress by a threat of
painful stimulation, providinfi signals for afigressivc and de-
fensivc stimulation in othcr animals of thc same specie~ and
so forth.
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Overstress o~ thc .functional abila~ties of the nervous system.
is acl~ieved l~y sucli experimental methods as Rradually increasinfi
the burdens on the function o.f short term memory, testing delayed
rcactions, eml~loying rrobability reinforcement, evaluating ability
tn work out complict~teel dynumic stereotypes, usin~; conrlitionecl re-
t'lex rc;ii~forcemcnt on clissimilar reflexes, and sn fort}~. -
_ ~ multif.aceted anulysis of different functions and systems in an
organism is a very rroductive way to study experimental neurosis:
elisturl~ances i~i sleep s~ructures, brain vasculature, the relation-
ship between neuromecliators in brain tissues and ~~e ripheral blood
supply, ancl tlie micromorphological ciisplacements in various sec-
tions of t}ic ccreUrum. Simultaneous an~lysis of c}ianfies in many
f:unctions during the process of development of experimental neur-
osis lias importnnt practical significance for elaboration of
metl~ods for early cliagnosis and for monitoring the ef�ectiveness
of ther~peutic measures.
Ilaving clinically establislied tlie role o� debilitating influences
wliicli enable tl~e development o� neurotir. disea~as, scientists are
now stt~dying tlie effects of e xposure to ionizin~ radiation, chro-
nic n~ise ancl prolonged liypokinesis on bcltavior. Experimental
clata liave been obtained on the role of genetic factors whic}~ de-
termine i~redisposition and resistance ta emotional stresses. -
5tudy of the dynamics of carcliovascular function in different
genetic strains of rats exPosed to experimental stress, enabled
_ scientists to establis}i precise rrognostic criteria for distur-
bances in cardiovascular function. It has been shown that t~'iaster -
rats, resista*~t to cardiovascular disturbances, liave a predispo-
sition to disturl~ances in the acirenalizing ennervation of t}ie
stomacl~. Stimulation of thc medial a~lterior brain hundle (t}ie
system for "rewards") in rats substantially weakens the reactions
oF fear and agression, increases ex}~erimentally inducecl activity,
ancl in situatior~s of conflict, facilitates tlie c}ioice of t}~e _
correct reaction. One meclianism for inhibiting emotional reac-
- tion to pain involvcs strengthenin~; t}~e resistant influence of
.t1~c ccntral ~ray matter of the brain.
In clitiical conclitions, it is apparent tliat tliere is a relation-
sliir t~etween the state of Psycl~ofienic cliildliood and tlie psycho-
~cnic ancl actual course of l~ypertonic and ulcer diseases. It
has been shown that increasing the arterial pressure in Patients -
witl~ tiypertonic diseases correlates witl~ characteristic changes
in tl~e structure of evening sleep and interl~emispheric interac-
tioi~.
lVitli tlic dcvclopment of rescarch in the ficld of experimental
pattiology and tl~erapy for higller neurologic activity~ it has
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l~ecomC possible to concluct a series o~ scienti�ically organized
meetin~s such as thc joint meetin~;s of the Rureau of the nepart- -
ment o� Pl~ysiolo~;y~ (1SSR Acaclemy of Sciences and the Pte~3ica1
l;iol~~;~.~~' ~ivi.sion, USSR ~cademy of P~tedical Scierices, and a meeting
to cri`tiically an~lyze nco-fr~uclianism.
In li~ht~of tlic evidc~it revitalization of intexest in the problems
~f exnerimentttl patl?olo~y in higher neurologic ~ctivity which,
thanks �~o the multif~cetecl collaborative project "I~iterbrain",
t~~s bee~i~' observed among neuropliysiologists and clinicians in
socialist countries, we consider the general level of worl; in
Lhis field to Ue still inadequate. T}ie level of development
does not correspond to tlie practical importance of the prohlem.
6Ye }iope that the mutual interest in this problem 1~y two academies--
USSIt /lcademy of Sciences and Academy of hledical Sciences-- ivill
enable furt}ler p~rogress in tlie development of ~his field, inclu-
dinfi more widespread use of monkeys as tlie most effective model
Yn which to simulate human patliology.
T}~e genetics of liiglier iieurolofiic activity and innate forms of
beliavior. 5tudies on tlie genetics of Ueliavior have been conducted
at six scientific researcli institutions in our country: Ilistitute
- of Pltysiology imeni I.P. Pavlov, L'SSR Academy of Sciences; Insti-
tute of Cytology arid Genetics SO [Sil~erian division], USSR Aca-
derny o� Scicnces; llepartment of Liology, P~iGU; the Department of
L'iolofiy, LGII; Iiistitute of Iireeding and Genetics of Agricultural
- ~nimals; Institute of General and I~edagogical Psycliolo~;y, USSR
_ ~PN [~cademy of Pedafio~ical Sciences].
1'lie c}iaracteristic feature of soviet research on t}ie gene~ics of
beliavior is the elaboration of questions on the mechanisms which
influence genes for be}iavior and their relation to activity of tlie
~ nervous system and the enclocrine glands. Research is also f.o~used
on tlie role of t}ic nervous system and neurollormonal factors in
_ the realization of the mutat~on process and in microevolutionary
tr~nsformatioiis. -
Stuclics on the ~enetics of the human nervous system by utilizing
- "t?~in" mctliods inclicatecl t}ie clependency of certain EI.f; components
of clifferent sectioris of the l~rain on genotypes, /1 depenclenc}~
on ~;enotypes was estal~lis}iecl for particular extrapolated refle:ces
in micc and rats.
1)ata on tlie genetic deI~endency of reactivity to stress in the pro-
cess of clomestication of wil~i animals enlarfied upon researcl~ in
tliis area. Specially l~red ~~opulations o.f. mice anc~ rats, obtained -
l~y clouble crossbreeclin~ according to reactivity to stress, ~aere
stuclied. I:xamitiation of the influence of ~enetic polymorpllism on
stress sensitivity during pregnancy for differential breeding of
36
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~'dit d~~ICtAL US~ ONt,Y
~emales incli~utecl ti~nt rC~~tidn tn stress Cnn 1~~d td climin~tinn
rcrt~in g~noty~j~s ~al~i~i~ ~re mnre ~u~~~ptiihle tin str~ss. This
rr:~aCtion tn sFr~ss s~rves as factar wlii~h inflt~~n~~s the ~~netic
structurc n~ t}~~ fdlldwin~ ~cn~ration ~nd p~rtiicipat~s in th~ pro-
C~ss df miCr~cvolutiinn.
5cl~rtion studi~s dn thc threslidld of ncurnt~us~ul~r exeit~bility
in ~~ts have b~~n ~om~~lct~d, i)iffCr~nCes l~~twccn strains ~~ith
lii~li und low ~xCitability app~nr~cl in th~ seCOnd ~en~r~tion nnd
wcrc rct~ined t~ th~ s~mC d~~r~e in the six~h ~~n~ration, It was
shdwn th~t this cliverg~nce betw~~n stir~ins is no~ n~c~mp~nied by
~ divCrgCnC~ in a number of morphologic indiees (f~r example,
wci~l~t n~ the ~t~imal) related to nutritionttl cdnditions during
ontoRenesis which could h~v~ ~n effect on thc general tonicity
of thc n~rvous systcm. U~vplopm~nt nf a strain of rats ch~rac-
terizCd ~y thresl~old of ~xcitability of its effector section,
is requir~cl for further ~en~tic ~nd neurophysiolo~ic and Ue}1~-
vioral ~nalysis. SuCh a str~itt could b~ used tn simulate differ-
ent pnt}~ologic states ~f the nervous system and c~n serve ~s test
objccts for thc study of the effeCts of pharm~cologic prepara-
tidns. '1'he stucly of characteristic bchavior und physiolo~ic in-
diCes in interspccies crossbreedinfi of sturReon showed that the
cl~aracter of motor aczivity and adaptation to ~~linity of the
wat~r was inherited tlirough the meternal strain. filaboration of
this Concept, in addition to its theoretical si~nificance-�ex-
planation of ti~e role of the nucleus and cytoplasm of the oocyte--
also has prnctical sibnificance. These data are needed to cre-
_ ate scientifically Uased conditions for industris~l and reservoir
breeding of sturgeon.
(:urrent experimental worl: on tlie project "13rain" must be combinecl
with continual upgrading of the theo~etical and methodolofiic
levcl of research in pro~ress. Re~ently, a series of reports
appearecl which, witl~out grounds, criticized the science of higher
neurolo~ic activity Uy contradictin~ the ac}iiever~ents made in
psycf~ology. Current advances in understandinfi the physiolo~y of
hi~l~er ncurologic activity are often seen by authors of suc}~ ar-
ticles as being too simple and fascile. For example, Il'enkov, ~
in r~viewing tlic current "widely disseminated concept" of higlier
neurolofiic activity in man wrote the follo~~ing: " This concept
ran I~c applicd to anythinfi, such 1s to training whicli is used on
circ:us animals: workin~ with innate ("unconditioned") reflexes,
_ liuildin~; on tjiem to Produce new kinds of "conditioned" re�lexes.
Traincrs l~egin wit}~ the "first" set of rcflexes (innatc) and
tl~en I~uild a"seconcl signal system" upon them by usin~ spoken
commanJs. In thc end, a man is obtained" (Communist, 1977, No 2,
pa~;e 72) . Unfortunately, I:. I1' enkov not once provicles a refer-
cnc:c for.such statements as "widcly disseminatcd conccpts"~ -
- "mythical hunt orientecl reflexes", "scientifically base~~ prej~i-
37
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~~o~ o~~rcr.nt, us~ dNLY
tI1~C5 ~ cle~or~ti~cl hy tcrmindla~y di th~ ~~n~tiCS ~n~l pI1y5~0~Oj~y
lyf ~11~;I1Ct' n~rvdus ~rtivitiy"CWC aU~~~ ti}~~ ~n~~bul~ry nf th~ t~utliors, -
1:.A. , 1~.5. i~~r ~I~c ndn-specialist rend~r in this field~ p~r-
usal ~E 5L1CI1 urtiClc~s ~ivCS ~n entir~ly unfnvor~bl~ impr~ssien ~f
th~ Cheor~tienl 1~vC1 nf r~s~arch nn lii~her n~urdl~~i~ a~tivity.
`I'his s~icntific toiji~ is subj~~t to qu~stion. Ir thr opinion of
V.1~. ZinGh~nko ~itd M. K, r~1~m~rduslivili "mental evants ~ in f~Ct,
dc~ur not in thc h~ad as ncurdphy~iolngiC ~vents, but ~row and
unfold in ~xtr~ccrebral ~nd transrndividu~l rC~lity ~nd in qugsi-
scientific fathoming of existenc~" (C~uestions of rhiiosophy~ 1J77, -
No 7, paAc llg). ~lcrnrdin~ to V.r. Zinchenko and T1.l~. ;~t~m~rd~sh-
vili~ ~.~eurologic rcpr~sent~tion of the nature ~f inent~l activity
"cre~tes thc banal id~a th~t this unique renlity, th~t is psychic
r~~lity, is 1oc~t~d in the sCOp~ di the brain ~~s it was previously
thou~ht td b~ in thC scop~ of th~ he~rti, liver, etC. !~'cll thett, _
it is c7sicr to ~s~rihC the property of ohje~tivity in ~vcryday
Consciousness td th~ ncuron~l mech~nisr~s of the b r~in, tn find
in tl~c~n tl~n infnrination~l Cotit~inin~; rcl~tionshi~~s ~ and to assert
thc ohjcctivc naturc of brain 7ctivity~ than to admit the rcality
nf th~ sul~jc~tivo, ~isycholo~ic chhracter of mcntal activity and
morcdvcr, to recognize the dcpendcncy of inental activity on space
aric! timc" (~ucstions of rhilosophy, 1977~ No 7, j~afie 110). tlgain,
witl~ tiie ex~~eption of a sinRle reference to the controversial
articlc by Pt.hl. Kol'tsova, we c~n not locate in the cited litera-
ture concrete statements by those authors with whom V.P. Zinchenko
~nd ~t. i~. ~t~marclashvili are in dispute.
It is clear that unsupported references to "disseminated concepts"~
"everclay consciousness", "mechanical thought" by these anonymous
opponents deprive our discussions of the productivity which is
possible only wl~cn clear and precise formulations of the theo-
retical positions of both the supporting and opposinR viewpoints ~
arc given.
IVe arc approacliin~ t1~e 150 year anniversary of the birth of I.Di.
5eclienov wl~o, in the opinion of I.P. Pavlov, was tlie �irst sci-
entist to suggest a new arproacl~ to this fielcl. I!is work pro- -
viclecl a~~lace for ti~is imrortant field of physiologic research
in tl~c study of tlic livinfi orRanism. Scientific study of a
I~ifihcr ncurolo~ic activity is one of the most promising develop- `
ments to come out of the sc3entific-tec}~nical revolution both
in its p}~ilosopl~ical and applied implications. iiy understanding
tl~esc answcraUlc but extremely difficult problens, we will bc
- ablc to continuc our research.
C~i'Y(2IGIt'f: Izdatcl'stvo "Nauka", "Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy
deyatel'nosti", 1978
J13~ -
CS~: 1870
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~Oit O~FIC~N. U5~ dNLY
- PHY5InLOCY
;
l1 MUI:I~IIULUGIC ,",7'UUY Uf~ /1ll121's~l/1L CL/1N1)S c)r ~;,1'1'S /11~Tf;I: rLlGii'1' UN
'I'llli ISIU;;n'1'1:LLI'l'[:5 'CU5~~IU~-G05' ~\VU 'Cn5~~105-7~2'
Lr.nirit;r:,~l A12KlIIV /1NAT0~tII, CISTULOGII I EbiI3RTOLOGII rIo J, 197~
~~t~ ~u-~~
(~lrtic:lc l,y Yc. ,'1. :;;ivi.n7, Institute nf liinmeclical 1'rablems,
~ U:~:~I~ ~~linistry of II~a1tI~J
~'rcxt ~ 5tuay of ti~c~ a~lr~nal glancls of rats, plaCecl on biosate-
1lites, is interes*.in~; because tiiese ~lancls are sensitive indi-
cators di t}ie effect of the stress factors of fli~~it an~l tlie
a~laptive cai~~~cities of an or~;anism. 7'l~e first morrholofiic
stucly of aJrenal glancls of mammals (mice ~nd rorpoises) after
sliort term exposure to ~~ei~;litlessness ?~as coneluectecl by ~'.G.
Petrukliir~ (19G2) . In ttniMals s~criFicecl 2-3 clays aft~r flight -
on a satellite, sci~�tists ohservecl acute plethora of tlie aclre-
nal glancls, clerletion of ti~e cortical lipids, mild }:emorr~~aging -
in thc mcclullary matter. Thirty days after landinfi, the adre- -
nals I~~cl a normal structure. No structural c}ian~es were ob-
servecl in tlie adrenal filands of mice placed on board the space -
s}~ip .lpollo-17 (Urdy, ,1.P1., Itrizzee, l:.lt., arid Samorajski, T.
1:)75) .
~)ata arc ~~rescntecl iii ti~is rcpArt to corrclltc morpholo~ic mani-
festations of tl~e ~iclrenal ~;l~ncl re~ction ovservecl in animals
cluril~~ tl~e first J-11 I~ours ancl tliose o}.~servecl tr~o clays after
~~rol~n~;ecl resiclence in conditions of irei~;litlessness.
' i~iatcrials an~t metl~ods of. i~ivestigation. 1'lie basic ex~~erimental
conJitions on tlie i~iosatellite are ot~tlinecl in the article by
Yc. I 1 ina ancl co-autl~ors (1976) .
5tuclies were concluctecl on aclrenal filarids from animals sacrificed
~)-11 liours, 43 liour:~ (2~) rats), ancl 25-27 clays (17 rat_,) after
comrlction of sPace fli~hts of 1~).5 days clt~ration ("Cosmos-732")
ancl 22.5 days cluration ("Cosmos-605"). Controls for each of the
39
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~nK n~~~tr,tnt, usr nNt.Y
uhovC n~r.nti~iiccl ~roups ~~erc provided by s~Cri~icin~; ~n equ~1
number nf animals f.rbm rclatea lancl cxperim~nts w1liCli simul~teci
tl?r Conclitions o~ fli~lit~ ~nd by using rats r~t~ined in viv~rium.
i~'ist~r lin~ r~ts wer~ used for the ex~~~rim~nts on the biosatcllit~
"Cnsmos-GUS" ancl 51~I~ lVistar lin~ r~ts w~re us~cl fnr tll~ bios~t~l- -
lite "Cosmns-7t32".
~1c~r~na1 ~l~nds wer~ dissected from f~ti C~lls, wci~l?ecl~ ~ncl f.ixcd
in 13nuins snlutinn ancl c~lcium formnl. Lipids ~~~re stained 1~~~
licr~;'s metliocl, f~t red 0 and suda~i Ulack l3 stains. Cliolestrol
w~?s exar~ined by 51iu1'ts' metliod and viea~ed in polxrized lipht.
~lclrenal ~lxnds of animals from the "Cosmos-605" satellite were
s`ucliccl in morr clet~ i.l::. Catecholamin~s and the medull~ry ~natter
o~' tl~c aclrenals ~vcre examined by h}~illarp-Kl~ekfel't r~action. Tlie
islct cells w1~iCli secrCt~ nort~dren~line ~r~re studiecl by 1:renko's
metliocl. Tl~c nctivity of the l:rebs cyCle enzymes (cleliyclro~en~ses:
succin~te, m~l:~tc, isocitrate) uncl the pentose shunt (dehydro- _
f;enases: ~;lucos~-G-phosphate ~nd G-phosnhofiluconate) arerc me~- _
surecl iii Cryostute~l sectio~is of unfi.c~d tissue. Activity nf
the 3(J:)-sterol-clel~yclrogenases was determined by t~.~ttenber~;'s
methocl ~~l~ich was modified by Allen (1~G0) . Karyometry was con-
cluctecl on cells from the fasicular anc~ Rlomerular zones and from
tl~c n~eclullary matter. Using tlie tracin~ anparatus !'tiA-6, outlines
of ti~e cell nuclei were traced (l0U cell nuclei fro~ eac}i zone
werc enlar~eci 2,OOU times) , their long and short cliar~eters were
me~sureJ~and nuclear sizes were calculated accorclinfi to standarcl
methods (Kliecin, Ya. Ye., 19G7).
l:xperir,~ental results and discussion. ~1 definite increase in
adrenal weiglit was observed in rats sacrificed 9-11 I~ours after
fli~}~t on the'Cosmos-782" in comparison with animals from the
land c~~eriments and controls retained in vivarium. The adrenal
~;lancl wei~;l~t was not altered in animals from lanci experiments.
Accor: infi to general l~istologic structures af the cortex :~r~d in-
cliviclual relatecl zones, the aclrenal ~lands of rats from tlie fli~l~t
~;rou~~ ~icl not cliffer substantially from tiie glands of rats re-
tainecl in vivarium. '1'I~e glomerul~r zone i~as ~rell defined for
its wliole rerimeter a~icl was composed of cells frorn vacuolized,
almost colorless, cytoplasm. The subglomerular la~�er, composed
o� cells from t}ie eosinopliilic: firanular cytoplasm, ~,ras examinecl
in all animals. Sections from tlie fasicular zone }iad a radial
ali~nment and the cortex had ~~enerally uniform structure. The
external zoties werc composed of cells from vacuolized cytoplasm,
w}iereas tlie miclclle an~l internal parts of t}te section were com-
~~o~e~ of cells prin~i~~ally from eosinonliilic cytoPlasm and even
ineliviclual vacuoles. The reticular zone was narro~a and pletlioric;
its cells contained individual vacuoles. In the capillary lumens
of tf~e cortex, se~mented nuclear leukocytes tirere often oUserved.
40
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~dit d~'~ICIAL U5~ dNLY
- Tm6nNUe t
' l.� MIICCY NHa1104l4HNKb/ ItpMC H~ fIOAltNbIX H H8~lMHMX ~ItCf1lpNMCHtO~
y 3. 4~lecce
iu-
a. ~ 6. 7n~.cc. Noa.
`~~~(OCMfk~i01~ ~~1IfIl~ IIq4C4N11NUp fltlqlVIINN01
ph~~ � (Nf IUO f 5~~~(CtNUC~dO~~ yNCA i (MPIIW r
MA'MY TNIIA) MpYC M~C~SI TCt10~
t ~ (Ai ~ M?
8:. ~-t I 4 noc~e nuhera 12 16,4~0,6�� I--2 cyr nocne nnn~ra IS 18,3~0~5~~
~ Pi~ ~,001 P1~ 0,001
9': ~--11 U noc~e OKON~ p~ ~ n,~l 15. p~ ~ ~~~I
1~-2 cyr nocne oKONya�
48HIIN Hi13f~11101'0 HNq NB,ICMt~0~0 Ot161T8 15 12,Ot0,b
ondra i^_ 13,2~0,4 ~~io~pNw~~ KOHTp0116~.6 15 13,0~0,~1
~pg~iaap~twfl Knnrpo~b 12 13, I~0,5 28-27 c r r~ocne no�
175 cyr nocye no.~eta I I 1~1,6~0,6 neTa .y, XI.. 12 12,6~0,~1
127ri cyr nocne n~;oi~. 2G-27 cyr noc ~e oKOH.
4ANNA HA3@~IHUPt1 48HIIN 8~ e~iF~orn
one!ra . 11 13,~lt0,3 onwra . .~~s~ ,
13Btie~p~i~t8 tioi~tpoab II 12,6t0,4 BN1f8PNN~I kONTr0116],9 12 12,6~0,3
ZU. n P e y 8 11 11 e: ~ocTO~epttWe p831111411p; . Pl - AOCtOBepHOCTb p83J11141111
~~c~cAy no~eti~b~w~ rpynnaaui N pl108pNN~1 KONTp011fr1~ j(p~tOBC(1HOCT6 pa3:it1411~
ae~c~y nonett~w~ui t~ ?~aac~www~ ~KCnepu~ieHta~ni.
21~� 8 Ta6nNUC npuee~eHa ~iacca NA1110484N{IKOD ~cex ~c?iooTU~x, NOXOj(110tllitXCR
3KCf1CpNMEHTC.
Table 1
Kcy.
.
1. Wc;i~lit of aclrenal Flnnds of. rats from flifiht ~nd lancl tests
2. "(:osmos-782"
3. Number of rats
4. Nlciglit of aclrc~ials (mg/100fi body weiglit) (~~ffm)
5. "Cosmos-605"
6. Number of rats
7. 1'+c~ifiht of adrenals (m~/100g body weight) (ritm)
8. 5-11 }~ours after flig}?t
J. 5-11 liours after completion of land test
10. Controls retaineci in vivarium
11. 25 clays after fligi~t
12. 25 days after completion of land experiment `
13. Controls retained in vivarium
14. 1-2 clays after flight
1S. 1-2 days after completion of land test
1G. Controls retained in vivarium
- 17. 26-27 clays after flight
18. 2G-27 clays after completion of land test
1~. Controls retained in vivarium
20. PJote: ~*significant dif�erelices. n--si~nif.icance of ciiffer-
er~ce between fligiit groups and con~rols retained in vivarium;
1' --si~nificance of differencss between fliglit and land tests.
21. *27'i~c weiglit of adrenals from all animals,suhject to tl~e ex-
rcrimcnt, are ~~resented.
l~aryometry of cells from the glomerular and fasicular zones
sl~owecl a significant increase in t}ie size of nuclei from tlie
41
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~Oit O~~ICIAL U5~ dNLY
. cxtCrnnl CnsiCUlar lnyers in r~ts ~rnm thc fli~ht ~roup in cnm-
~~urison witl~ c;ontrnl ~i~~iu~uls from lancl ex~~~riments nncl tl~~~~ rc-
~t?in~cl ii~ vivarium C'1'ablc 2) .
Ta6nHUa 2
O61tM flAtp IfdQTOK IIy4N090A 30qW IfOp61 H8J~I104l4NMKOM Itp1~IC N3 f10J1lTNY%
N Hp~lMHYX iNCtllpNMlNYb~� '
. 5 6 ] ~
~�~!(ncwoc~~d7. yNCAb dseMNM~e~ � �Kocwoc~60S+ 4NCno V6~YKMAeP
Kpuc ~M ~ M~ Kpuc (M ~ M)
8.9--I I y nocne nonera 5 130,b~4 1�� 21c~i~ nocne noneTa 6 t43,0~4~7��
_ n< t~rclcn frori thc skc~cton lcacls to cl~nn~es in
mincr;~1 nic;tFil~oli.sm, n~~i?ifc:stecl by tli~ clev~lopment of osteopor-
os is nf t}ie spongy sc~;m~nts nf lon~ tubul~r sl�;cletal bones ~nd ~
- pcriostcocytic ostcolysis di tl~em.
5tudie:~ of skelc;t~l museles (I1'ina-(~~kuyeva, Ii.1. ~t al~ ~ 1~17~i~
1J77 a,b) inclicate~i tl~~t differcnt muscles hnve dissimilnr -
functional res~onses to the ~ff.ectis nf sp~ce f.li~;1~t. Thus, in
musCles of tlic posterior extremities, tfie maximum loss in m~ss
w~s noted in thc soleus ,~u~c1e:~; t~ a lesser extent this was s~en
in tl~n gnstrocnemius muvcie; and in the qu~dricep muscles of
thr Ecmur nnly n tendcncy towards decreased m~ss wtts detie~t~d.
'I't~c musclc mass in thc ~nterior extremities, for cx~mple the
biceps of the shoulcler, was not alterecl. In all muscles of
tl~c E~osterior extremities ~ signs of tl~e development of muscle
fibcr atro{~}iy were ot~served microscopically. In functionally
diffcrcr~t muscles, tl~ese signs werc m~nifested in clifferent
cle~;rees. in contrast to t}ie compositc muscles, in t}~e red soleus _
111U5CLC eclema associatecl with proliferation of connective tissue
cclls occurre~l in lcldition tn atrophic ~rocesses. In the edema-
tous zone, scgments of the r~uscle fiber underwe~it deatl~ ~nd
brcakJown. Correl~tion of the results from studies on t}ie soleus
muscles in rats after flight, with d~ta on these same muscles
su~jectecl to l~ypokinesis, suAgested to us that changes in tlie
muscle occur at tl~e e~tcl ~f flig}it.
?~e consicler the prevalence of atrophic chan~es in tite skeletal
muscles to be related to reduction or even complete removal of
the static burclen from the muscle, experienced durin~ weight-
lessness. Data from rnultiple experiments on the effects of
restricted mobility during hypokinesis indicated the correct-
n~ss of t}~is Conclusion (Portu~alov, V.V. et al., 1968, 1971, ~
1J75), as well as tliose dra~on from tlic previously mentioned
cx~~crimcntal lancl tests.
c)tl~er associated meclaanisms take part in the genesis and develop-
ment of c}iang~s in thc orientation-motor apparatus of an or~an-
ism. ~t tl~e present timc, it is difficult to establish a direct
connection between tl~e level of afferent information transmitted
ta muscles from t)ic cciitral nervous system and t1~e nature of
muscle metabolism. !1 deficiency in proprio- and intsroceptive
imrulses creates a"stimulation deficit" in tl~e nerve centers
anct altcrs botli t}~c nerves and tissucs innervated hy tl~em durin~ _
tropl~ic: hrocesses (Cl~erni;;ovskiy, V.N. , 1960; 1!ogendovich, ~t. R. ,
1~70, and othcrs). It appears that tlie deprivation (complete or
parti~il) of motor function, whicl? occurs durin~ sPace fligl~t and
� 51
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~C~~ tlt~'~I'.CIAL U5~ ONLY _
clurin~; c~rtaii~ enrth ~nn~litinns ~ le,7ds tn a dCfiCit in thC
- functiori nf rel7tccl i~rni� strurtur~s nnd to sui~s~e~uent distur-
b,inc.~s iii the nutritidn of tl~c skclce~l mus~ul;~t;ur~c and l~oncs.
It~Ccrcnc:c shoulcl nlso b~ m~dC to th~ f~Ct th;~ti ;~1onr r~itl~ rc-
Juc:tidn i� ~~ropridc;~rCiv~ im~~ulsatioti (qu~�~itntivc ancl qti~li-
t~tive) ~ ~istnrtion nf ;~n~;i~rereption with possible reciistri-
butinn of l~loo~ in ti~c organism of thC r~t n~curs during Flight.
in E~Ct, mnst rccc:~itly it has bcen demonstrated in studirs of
t1~C f;~stroCneinius muscle tlint ~luri?~g fli~llt ~ si~nificanti d~- -
' ~rCas~ in th~ numl~er of functionin~ capillaries occurs (f;~p-
lanskiy~ A.5., 1J7t~). We disagree witl~ Kapl~nskiy's under- -
stuncling of the gen~si5 of these displttcements. IIe relates these
nb5~rvccl chan~es ~o ~ decrense in the kinetic burden on thc muscles
wi~ilc w~ attach carclinul si~nificance to r~movttl of the st~tic
burclcn.
Obscrvations conducted durinf; tlie early period after completion
of s~acr fli~;ht (4-11 ltours) revealed a definite ~lecrease i~i the
protcin content of tlie cytoplasm of motor neurons in t}~e sPinal
corcl at t}ie level of tlie luml~ar region, a decrease in the pro-
tcin Content and itV/1 in the major sensory nerve cells in the
spinal corcl ganglia located ~t tliis level~ ;~ncl a ~~;c.:ease in
tli~ content of w~ter-solublc protcins in t}~e structur~s of tl~c
~rny and white matter of the spinal corcl and intervertebral
_ ~~nglia. Tl~ese cl~anqes can be i�terrreted as cytoc}~emical mani-
festations of a deficit in intero- and proprioceptive impulsation ~
~lurin~ tl?e time of fliglit (Corbunova, /1.V. et al., 1976, 1J77,
1J78). 1'hus, the chan~es d~tected in the early period after
fli~}~t (a-11 liours) in protein and RNA metabolism in nerve
structures involvecl in the signal reflex arc must be viewed as
the response to removal of the static t~urden from thc orienta-
tion-motor apparatus, wliich enables the or~anism to adapt to con-
clitions of weightlessness. Similar displacements in the gray
_ matter of the cortex in the sensory motor zones of the cerebral
cortex were not cletected concurrently. 'The later indicates
tl~at aclaptation to wci~litlessness occurs mainly at the levcl of
tt~c si~nal reflex arc.
Itic n:cntionecl prcviously tl~at resiclencc in ~~~ei~htlessness inevi-
tai~ly leads to ~levelorn;ent of atrop}~ic and particularly dystro-
p}~ic cl~an~es in skeletal muscles. It is cle~r t}~at with distur-
I~ance of t}ie structural orRanization of muscle tissues, norr~al
muscle mctabolism l~ecomcs impossit~le. Inciceci, in tlic early
pcriocl aftcr fligi~t (4-43 lioi~rs), t}ic spcctra of thc isoenzymc
!,I)(I i?~ tl~c 5o1CU5 musclc r~i~ratc from "cardiac ty}~c" to "inter-
mecliatc" (I'ctrova, ~l.~f, et al. , 1J7G, 1J77) . Tl~e nature of
thesc cl~an~cs in s~~ectra of the isocnzymc I,DlI indicatcs that an
increase in tlie glycolytic ~rocesses of tlie soleus muscle occurs
durin~ spacc fligl~t. Until recently, it 4ras difficult to prove
52
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that th~ funCtintt Unu structural organization of tissucs is under
tl~e striCt contrnl oi' the nervous systcm. In n?ulti,~le exrcriments
nn thc tropliiC influCnCC nf th~ nervous system on muscle, described
in studies pul~lishecl Uy V,5. I1'in (I1'in, V.S., 1964; I1'in~ V.S.
ct ~1.~ 1JG7, 1~72, 197S), it was demonstrated that any type of
datna~~ to nerv~ ~ang:;iu ZCA(~5 to disturbances in muscle nutrition.
I~c observccl chanfies in the nature of muscle m~tabolism in rats
subjcCt to flight conditions. Uuring weightlessness, in addition
to c}ianfies in t}ie structure of sifinal reflex ares, alteration of
t}~e trop~iic inter-relationsi~ip bet~veen the nerve ~nd muscle occurs~
producin~ modificntion o� the metabolism in the later.
'I'lio results nf experimei~ts~conducted on the hiosatellite "C,osmos-
J3G" by V.ri. shvetz to study ectopi.c osteo~enesis,reinforced
thes~ concepts of tlie nature of neurotropl~ic changes wllich de-
velnp in skeletal bones during ~oei~htlessness. T1~ese studies
showc:d that ;residcnce in weightlessness did not si~;nificantly
influence tllE: processes of remociellinfi anei ne~r formation of ec-
' topic bone. i~ased on tliese d~ta, we consider that changes wl~ich
occur during weigl~tlessness in tlie morpl~ologic parameters of
skeletal bonrs, such as tlieir mi�eral metabolism, are determined
mainly by clis,turl~a~ucs caused 1~y the deficit in motor function.
tvliat otlic;r important clian~es occur in an organisr~ clurinfi Fliglit?
Ubservations }iave been accumulated in the literature ti~l~icli state -
tliat a clecre~se iri he~~tato~~oiesis occurs in co~iditions of ~~�ei~lit-
lessness. J.T. Lllis and coauthors (1~75)~ ~~~orking Wltll mice
sent on the :~pacesliip "Apollo'; relate this decrease to liypoxia.
Itesults of otir investigations~ obtained from biosatellites from
the "Cosmos" serie~ wherc atmosplieric conditions were identical -
to tlte eartli's, ~llowed us to establish a causal relationsllip
betwecn t}ic o~bserveci cl~anges--depression of erythropoiesis--
and decrcase in t}ie size of the fuiictional load on t}ie orienta-
tion-motor apparatus (V.r~. Shvetz and PortuQalov, !T.V. , 1J7G, 1~77)
In animals d~rin~ the carly periocl after orl~ital flifiht, a com-
rlex of structural cl?anges appeared in the ltypothalamus-pituitary-
aelrenal cortex. system which determines development of ttie pro-
tective, acla~~~ive, a~icl compensatory reactions (Savina, Ye.A.,
_ 1J77; Savina, Ye. and coauthors, 1J77). Pdeurosecretory cells
in tiie supraoptic nuclei of tlie hypotlialamus l~ecame increasin~;ly
active, tl~eir nuclei increased in ~ir~ensions, and the perinuc-
lear zone of tiie majority of the cells was ex~~anded. The con- -
te~it of neuro.secretory granules in the cells ~oas lowerec~ in
comP~rison wi~tfi control animals. In the pituitar}~ gland, the
numUcr of Iler;ring boclies and the density of neurosecretory
granulcs wcre diminislied, i3ased on tliese data, we consider
tt~at all tlie enumerated cl~anges are causeci hy factors which are _
53
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~CtivstCcl ~t ti~c; tin?e of sntcllitc l~i~ciin~ aiicl return to cartl~'s
~ravity. '1'}?c aelr~nal gl~ttcls iticrensecl in wei~;ht in comparison
with tlic c:ontrols. '1'here was ~ lii~li content of liricis in thc
~;loincrul:~r zones or tl~c adrenal cnrtex ancl si~;niCicantily lcss in
tii~e interi~ul lay~rs oi the cortex--indications nf localize~i cle-
lipoiclization in tlie slieaf and reticular zones. '1'he de~ree of
manifcstation aiid clistribution of this process varied in differ-
ent animals. '1'lic absence of a sud~nphobic zone ancl the presence .
of hypertropltic cells in the fasie:ular and reticul~r zones was
_ ~lso noteel. In other worcis, in fli~ht rats, two types of chanfies
were notecl in the adrenal glands: acute clian~es ~~~hich possibly
clevclop ciurinfi re-entry to earth, and clian~es resultinfi from
prnlon~ecl residence in fligl~t conditions (Savina, Ye.A., 1J77).
l:xamination of ~l~c lymi~hoid or~ans of rats 2-2~1 hours after _
fli~;ht revcalecl a clecrease in tlie weifiht of thespl~en and the
- tliymus ~;lacl ancl a tendency toward decrease wei~;ht of the in-
~;uinal lymphatic nodes. Aficrosconic analysis of. tlie spleen
sliowe~l ~liffusc neutrorhilic infiltration, hyperplasia of the
wl~ite ancl re~l 1~u1Ps, a decrease in t}~e numver and climensions
of tlie lyu;phoid follicles ancl their light centers, ~nd 1 de-
crease in the number of erytliroid her~ofienesis sites, In the
~ early period after lanc~ing massive l~reakdoian of lympl~ocytes ancl
accumulation of nuclear debris occurrecl in tlte cortical material
- of thc tl~ymus ~land. Twcnty-four hours after fligl~t, t}ie corti-
cal substance of t}~e t}iymus, for all practical purposes, containeci
no lymplioid ele~uents. Tlie distinction hetween tlie cortical and
~neciullary matter in tlie glancl tissue was prescrved. T}ie lymplta-
tic nodes, as well as the spleen and tliymus, underwent involu- _
~ tion (llurnova, G.iJ, and co-authors, 197G, 1J77). Rot}i Soviet
ancl ~\meric:an scientists (L. Y.raft) comment on t}ie acute deple-
tion of lytnpliocytic elements in tlie inguinal lymphatic nodes.
Tl~us, in the lymphoici organs,as wcll as in the hypothalamus-
pituitary-aclrenal system, displacements of t~vo tyres t~~ere
noted: ti~e first type iias an "acute c}~aracter",suc}i as tlie break-
down of lymphocytes in the cort~.cal matter of the thymus arid
neutrophilic infiltration of the srleen; the second type is
c:liaracterized l~y atroj~hy of lymrhoicl follicles and tlieir light .
centers in the spleen and lymphatic nodes, recluction of the
c:ortical matter in t}ie ti~ymus anct inFuinal lymp}iatic nodes, etc.
'1'l~e first typ~ ~f cl~an~c represents morpholo~ic manifestations
of acute stress ancl freyuently clevel~ps in a periocl o� fi-24
liours after cessation of tl~e factors n~liicli cause it. In studying
tl~e effects of s~ace fli~;lit, scientists s}iot~ld consider tlie
c:ompl~x of. reactions ti~~l~ic}~ accompany l~iosatellite landin~ ancl
_ J~assa~e from weightlessness to eartl?'s gravity. I{ypoplasia of
lymplioicl tissue, wi~icl~ causes decreased i~~eight of lymphoid or~ans,
clcvclops early and is evidencc of the influcnce in the earl}?
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r~
- stat;~~' ol' :;~~t?c;C fli~;lit of those fa~tors 1J~11C~1 cause stress
(I?urn�~v~, G.N. r~n~l co-uutliors ~ 197E~, 1977) . -
5i~;~is' of strc;ss rc~Ctio~?s in otlier �unctional systems of an
organi~5m liave been observecl. I~i the stom~c}i, tllese si~ns appear
in the .Eorm of decreased content of neutr~l mucopolysaccharides
in tl~c ~ob1Ct cells in tite neck o� the fundic gland, and reclucecl
~~o~ulatio~i of lymt~l?ocytic elements in the 1'eyer's p~tclles of the
small intestines (Sliul~ich, M.C. and co-aut}?ors, 1~J77). In thc
liver, fatty iniiltrates, causecl by mobilization of lipias, occurs,
(Yakovlev~, V.I., 1977). II1 t}ie myocurdit~m, increased activity
o� phosphoryluse A and R occurs as a result of an increase in .
adrei~alinc content (ICaplanskiy, A.S. anci co-autliors, 1977) .
llccumulation of neutrophilic lcucocytes ~re seen in lunR capil-
laric:s (V. I, Yakovleva).
Y;i. Vinnikov and co-autliors (1978) noted cli~n~es in t}~e inner
ear structures responsible for b~lance. The authors relate these
chan~es on tl?e one h~nd to clisturbances,producecl by weifihtless-
ncss, in calcium metal~olism ~~itliin the system of tlie otolit}i-oto-
litliic membrane, ancl on the other }iand to local disturbances in
circulation ancl ciraina~e o� endo- ancl perilympli. 'I'}ie otoliti~ic
_ memlirane, wl~icli l~ael a granular structure in t}ie contt�ol rats,
= acquirecl a Relatinous character after fli~ht and adjoined the
surface o� ti~e receptor erithelium of the utriculus. Immobili-
zation of the otolitliic memt~rane resulted from the effect of
the G-force durin~ lancling. Otoconia, often c}iaracterized by
tlie presence o� multi-sided crystals ~oit}? alternating liAht and
dark granular substances, haJ an oval-sphericalshape. A compo-
nent of tliis otoconia was vacuolization. Stasis of the capillar-
ies and c~d~:~t1 of t}ie connective tissue developed. In the mem-
braneous labyrint}i, tiie most obvious chan~es were seen in tlie
receptor cells ~rraii~ed ~rithin acutely vacuolized cup-s}iape
ncrvic endings. Tlius, changes in tlie vestibular apparatus in
_ aiiimals is cletermined by the effect of fliglit factors suc}~ as
weiFlitlessness and G-forces.
Stuclies on tlie retina of the eye, conciucted by tlie American
_ investi~ators 1).1:. Pl?ilpott, Ii.Corl~ett, and others, indicatecl
tl~at a contribution to tlie total effect of s~~ace flig}it on an
or~ai~isn~ is macle by the flo~~ of the more Leavily charaged par-
ticles of tlic so~id propellant Z equally 6-23. In tl~e early -
periocl z�ter f.ligl~t, necrol,iotic and necrotic clianges of the
nticlei occurrecl in tlie external and internal nuclear layers of
tl~c retina. IIl t}~e area wliere external segments of the rods
contact with cells of. t}ie Pi~;mented epitl~elium, c}iannels of
ui~ to 2G-28~a i~i len~tli were oUserved.
AJclitional researcli clata inclicate tliat tlie fundamental }iisto-
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lo~,ic fiiicl cytocliemical cl~~ngcs, W}11C}1 occur durin~ orbit~l fli~}~t~
of. 1~.5-22.5 clays c~uration, nrc deti~rn,incd on tl~c onc 1i~nc1 l~y
Jeprivation of motor function, ancl on tlie othor l~;~ncl hy thc de-
vClopment of non-sPecif.ic reac~ioiis to stresses whicl~ intensif~�
clurin~; inclividu~l parts of LI1C tr~'ectories of space f1i~;liti
- (clurin~ li~t-off and re-entry) .'I'~ie resul~s of the binsatellit~
Fliglit o~ "Cosmos-J3G" attCSt to tl~c Corrcctness of: our intcr-
I~r~tations of tl�?e ~~~~i~v1c aati~. ror this fligl~t, animals were
l~laced in a centrifugc which created a constant operating speed
of about 1 g.
Preliminary data fromstudies on 1on~ tubular bones, concluctecl
by I:.Pi. (lolton, suggest on the basis of indirect inclices, the
~reservation of norm~l or close to normal mineral metabolism
in rats placecl in tt centrifuRe.
7'he results of cytoclicmical, hiometric, and histolo~ic st~idies
on muscles of the ~nterior anclposterior extrer~ities in rats
t~lacecl in a cer?trifuge, sugRest tliat the use o� artifical
- ~ravity ciuring co~iditions of weiglitlessness impecles tlie c~evelor-
inent of tiie atropliic processes and metabolic