JPRS ID: 8246 THE ANTARCTIC: MAIN RESULTS OF 20 YEARS OF RESEARCH IN THE ANTARCTIC

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JPRS lG/8246
26 J~nuary 1979
~
~
THE ANTARCTIC; MAIN RESUL?S OF
20 YEARS OF RESEARCH IN THE ANTARCTIC
U. S. ,jOiNT PUBLICATIONS RESEARCH SERVICE
~
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NOT~
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REPORT DUCUMENTATION ~Lp~roRf N0. z n.cip~.~~'~ Aeo~~~o~ Na
PAGE JPRS L/8246
Tin..nd a~~~~n.
a a.pon o.~.
THE ANTAI~2CTIC: MAIN RESiJIlrs OF 20 YF~tS OF F~S~ARCH IN ~,g ~g
TI~ ANTARCTZC
AutAOrfN i, P~~fomf{ns OrRinitatlon R~pt. No.
A. Avsyuk (edi.tor)
- . hrfettnl~~ OnanliNle~ Nam~ ~nd Addn~~ 1Q Pro~~ef/T~?M/Work Unit No.
JoinC PublicaCin~na Research Service
1000 NorCh Glebe Road i~. co~eti~~cc~ o. a..~ua~ No.
Arlington, Virginia 22201
cc~ `
!y 1Z iponsaln~ An~nlutlon N~m~ ~nd Addnss
- 1!. Typ~ of R~poK i Pnlod Cownd
As above -
i~.
1!. luppl~nNntary Notn
ANTARKTIKA: OSNOVNYYE ITOGI IZUCHENIYA A.NTARKTIKC ZA 20 LET, Moscow~ 1978 �
~
iw.er.ae cumic :oo .w.a.~
The repo.rt contains a collection of papers read at the 2nd All-Union Conference -
on Antarctic Studies. Theae papers bring to light the mar~e 3mportant results
of 20 years of investigations and their applicati~n in exploiting the southern
polar regions as well as pointing out flzrther directions in antarctic reseaxch.
Ai~ticles on meteorology, hydrology, fishing and ruman adapt~tion are included. '
17. oewn~nt M,qal� a.ei+ytor.
USSR Geophysics Huma.n Ir~unity ~
Antarctica Hydrology
International Cooperation Biological Resources
Meteorology Human Adaptation
Y. IMiMIMes/CO~E+~d~d T~nn~
co~n n.+aiao~v 4B~ 6A~ 6F~ ~A~ 8C~ SH~ 8J _
1L AvallaWNry Stat~n�nt 3f. i~eu.iqr Ga~s RAis R~oonl 2L Na af ~a~~s
For Uffic~al Use Only. Limited UNCI,ASSIFIED 170
HumbQr of Copies Available From JPRS, m. s�~?+a c~,.. crn~. v,~a u...~~.
UNCLASSIFIED
~�~�.1p iN In~Miel~en~ M Rer~n~ OIiIONAI FORY 272 (~-77)
- (/ormnly NTIS-DSl
OeparanMt af Canm~rn
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~ JPR5 L/8246
26 January 19'19
y
THE AN~'ARCTIC; MAIN RESULTS OF
20 YEARS OF RESEARCH IN THC ANTARCTIC -
Moscow ANTARKTIKA: OSNOVNYYE ITOGI IZUCHENIYA ANTARKTIKI ZA
20 LET in Russi$n 1~78 signed to press 23 May 78 pp 5-26,
51-74, 8~-110, 132-14~, 226-267
[Selected chapters from book edited by G.A. Avsyuk, Szdatel'stvo
"Nauka", 950 aopi~s, 276 pages)
Cr,NTENTS PAGE
Twenty Years of Soviet Reaeaxch in the Antarctic
~ (Ye. S. Korotkevich, L. I. Dubrovin) 1
Antarctic Research Cooperation on International I~vel Hailed
(Ye. I. Tolstikov) 20
- Statue and Prospects of Meteorological Reseaxch in Antarctica ~
(A. I. Voakresenskiy) 29
_ ,
Reaults of Soviet Research in the Southern Ocea.n
(A. F. Treshnikov) 60
Soviet Antarctic Geological Research Accomplishments Summ~.rized
(M. G. Ravich) 79
Featurea of Atmospheric Circula.tion in Antarctica and of the
Circulation of Southern Ocean Waters
(A. M. Gusev) 94
Studf of the Biological Resources of the Southern Ocea.n
(A. S. Bogdanov, T. G. Iyubimoba) 115
�,M ~ .
Human Ad.aptation and Health in Antarctica
~
~ (N. Fi. Deryape~, et al.) 130
~ State oP Hwnan Immunity Under the F~ctrPme Conditions of Antartica
(R. Yu. Ta~hpul,atov, et al) 1~5
- a - [I - USSR - E FOUO]
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Engliah title ; THE ANTARCTTC: MAIN RESULTB OF 20 ' ~
YF~AFtS OF RFSEARCH 71V TBE Al~fi'ARCTIC j
~
� ANTARKTIKA: OSNOVNY7CE I'rOGY !
Ruasian title .
~UCHENIYA ANTARIQIKt ZA 20 LEr _
Author (s) :
EdiCor (s) : G. A. Avsyuk ~
- i
i
= Publiehing Houae : Nauka ;
~
Place of Publication : Moscow
~
Date ~f Publication : 1.978
Signed to press : 23 May 78
copics.. . 950
COPYRIGHT . Izdatel'atvo ~~Nauka~~, Moscaw~ 1978
. - b -
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.
TWENTY YEARS OF SOVTET RESEARCH IN TH~ ANTARCTIC
Moacow ANTARKTIKA: OSNOVNYYE ITOGI IZUCH~NIYA ANTARKTIKT ZA 20 LET. DOIQ,ADY `
KOMISSII in Russian No 17, 1978 pp 5-19
[Article by Ye.S. Korotkevich and L.I. Dubrovin] ' ~
G
[Text] Systematic comprehensive Soviet research in the southern polar r~gion ~
was begun in association with preparation for and the proceedings of the -
International Geophysical Year (MGG).
Participants in the First Soviet Antarctic Expedition disembarked onto the
icy continenC from the expeditionary vessel "Ob on 5 January 1956. They
, were the first Soviets to have stepped onto the shores of the AnCarctic Con-
tinent. On 13 February the State flag of the Soviet Union was raised over ~
the first Soviet scientific camp in Mtarctica, called Mirnyy in honor of
one of the ships of the expedition of. F.F. Belli.ngshausea and M.P. ?.,~zarev, -
and syaCematic scientific observations began in the observatory. The paths
of the first scientific sled and caterpi.llar convoys le~ into Che inner
regions of the unexplored continent, the routes of scientif.ic reseaxch flights
led over the continent and ocean, and along the coastline of Antar~*~_.ra to
the east and west of Mirnyy, the routes of expeditionary vessels, on which
were made comprehensive oceanographic and carCographic studies.
Soviet expeditionary research on the southern polar region has represented `
a systematic coneinuation of the 3ob began by Russian sailors, who discovered
_ the icy continent, and the accomplishment of the intentior~s o~' leading domestic
scientists who have long been intereste3 in the nature of Antarctica. As
. early as in the 1740's, thirty years before J. Cook's second expedition and
almost 60 yesrs before the expedition by F.F. Bellingshausen and M.~'. Lazarev,
the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov hypothesized that in the southern -
polar region there exist islands and a"~nainland," and gave an idea of the
physical geographical features of these regions brought about by cosmographic
factors. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries to Ant-
aretica were devoted studies by such famous Russ~an scientists as A.I. Voyeykov
- and Yu.M. Shokal'skiy. ~
- Soviet scientists had planned to begin exped~tionary research in Antarctica
as early as the beginning of the 30's. The first plan for the Sovi~t
1
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AnCarctiic ~xp~dition was dev~loped on the eve of the Second International
~ Po1ar Year (1932-1933). Su~gested for emnloyment for expeditionary work
was Che whaling flo~:llla of the Kamchat':a Joint Stock Company. According to
- tr~e sCudy plan worked out, cnlled for were exploratinn nf Che coASe of the
Antarctic Continent and aerial phoCography by means of an airplane with ita
~ base on a ahip, fr~m Ender.by Land in the wese to Che gnuthern half of Ross 5ea
- in the east. In keepit~g url.th an extensive proPram, it was pr.opoaed to make
~ nceano~raphic and hydrographic atudies, as well as glacio.logical, geological
and geomorp.~ological investil.gaCione. MeCi:orolagical and aeroloointed~aseparti-
; tione were tv have been made throughoue the entire voyage. App
cipanrs in the expadition were the famous pnlar researcher R.L. Samoylovich,
Oceanographer A.F. Laktionov and Ceotogist M.M. Yermolayev.
- Unf.ortunatiely, this expedj.tio+t ~o Antigrctica did noC take place, since the
authorities of the Union of SouCh Africa refused to Yender the necessary
_ assistance to the whaling flotilla. In particular, they refused to supply
the f?otil'_~ with fuel.
' Realization of Che plans for expeditionary research in Antarctica became
poasible only aft~r the Great Patriotic War. Our scientioCs began to make
scientific QbservaCions in antarctic waters on veasels of the SovieC "Slava"
[G1ory] whaling flotilla in 1~~hernBOceantandithecAntarctnciCont:tnentibegan
reaearch covering both the So
y to be carried out by Soviet antarceic expeditions only 1~ years later.
' An organizing committee in Che USSR Academy af Sciences headed by I.D.
Papan~?~, prior to the oroceedinga of the MGG, developed an operations plan
for tiie Soviet antarctic expedition. In July 1955 the decision was made to
' ~rr,~nge for the USSR Academy of Sciences Comprehensive Antarctic Expedition.
. General leadership of the expedition was entrusted to the Presidium of the
USSR Academy o~ Sciences, and organization of the expedition Co the Northern
Sealane Central Acminist~ration, which was at that time under the jurisdiction
of the ~lrctic Scientific Research Institute. Associates of this inatitute,
having had much experien~e in conducting sci~entific research in the arctic,
' took an active part in preparing for the expedition.
J For the purpose of coordinating plans and programs for expeditionary work
and for munitoring their fulfillment, the Presidium of the USSR Academy of
Sciences on 16 September 1955 created the Council on Antarctic RQSearch.
Appointed as members of the council were distingutshed scientists ~nd di-
rectors of institutes and institutions having taken part in antarctic re-
search.
Later, on 10 O~tober 1958, the Council on heaUSSRcAcadearch~fwSciencesghwas
and in ~lace of it, unaer the auspiceR of mY
organized the Interdepartmental Commission on Antarctic Studies (MKIA). This
was cauaed by the transfer af all functions relating to organization of the
_ expedition from the Academy of Sciences to the ~urisdiction of the~USSR Min-
istry of th~ Maritime Fleet. The main goal of the MKIA remained coordination
oY acientific research on the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean.
2
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tn the beRinning the USSR Academy of Sciences Comprehengive AnCarcCic
Expedition (KAt:) consi.~ted o~E two Rectiona--conCinenCal and sea. Theae
were eeaentinlly Cwo independent expeditions. The first perform~d studies
on the continent year round, and the second conducted research f~rotn expedi-
tionary vesaels in coasCal antarctic waters and on the open aea. After the
' rhird expedition the amount of acienCific research performed on shipa wao
conAiderably reduced, as Che resulC of which the sea section ceased to e~tiat
~ as an independenC expedition, and beginning wiell the fourth expedition ~
(1958-1959) only the naval detachment was working aboard ship.
. A further change in Che struct.ure of the expediCion took place in 1962,
when Che Eighth SAE [Soviet Antarctic Expedition] was divided 3nto winter
and seasonal expeditions. The staff and structure of the winter expeditiion
remained basically as before. Enlisted for the seasonal expedition were all
teams having conducted tiheir studies during the summer season, regardlesa of
whether Chey worked on board ahip or on the continene. ~
~ In 1958 or~anization and leadership of the SAE were entrusted to the Arctic
Scientific Reaearch Institute, which from this time beg~n to be called the
Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research InsCitute (AANII). At the same time
began to be published the INFORMATSIONNYY BYULLETEN' SOVETSKOY A~NTARKTICIiESKQY
EKSPEDITSII [Information Bu1leCin of Che Soviet Antarctic Expedition], and _
the collec~ion PROBLEMY ARKTIKI [Problems of the Arctic] produced by the in-
stituCe reccived the title PROBLEMY ARKTIKI I ANTARKTIKI [Problems of the
Arctic and Antarct~c]. Soon after complPtion of the proceedings of the firsC
expedition began to be published TRUDY SOVETSKOY ANTARKTICHESKOY EKSPEDIT5II
[Proceedings of the Soviet Antarctic Expedition], and from 1960 the collection
ANTARKTIKA [Antarctica].* '
For 19 years the main expeditionary vessel of Soviet antarctic expeditions
was the specially equipped expeditionary vessel "Ob built in 1954. Parti-
cipants in the expedition and cargo were transported on board this ahip to
Antarctica, and scientific observations were made on board it on the open
sea and along the coast of the icy continent; in addition, it was used for
piloting other vessels through the ice. In 1975 to replace the "Ob ~ame
the scientific expeditionary vessel (NES) "Mikhail Somov" (fi~ 1), specially �
built for Soviet antarctic expeditions. In 1967 the AANII scientific research
vessels (NIS's) "Professor Vize" and "Professor Zubov" began to take part
in antarctic expeditions. In addition to these vessels have been used diese~.
electric motor ships of the ice class, passenger motor ships, tankers, re-
. frigerator ships and cargo moCor ships. In recent years the scope of studies
and the staff have been increased to such an extent that more than .five
vessels are required to provide for an expedition. For example, the 22nd
. *This collection is prepared by the Interdepartmental Commission on Antarctic
Studies.
,
3
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SAE was sent to AnCarctica on seven st~ipa : Che NES "riikhai~. Sou?ov," Che
NIS "Profesaor Zubov," the die~el electric :,,otor sh3ps "K~pitan Gotskiy"
and "Penzhina," the pasaenger. motnr ehip~ "Bashkiriya" and "Fstoniya" and _
the tanker "Gelendzhik."
Caterpillar.vehicles (eractors, tawing vehicles, cross-country vehicles) are
used for land route re3earch and various transportaeion needs. For long
_ trips through inCeriur regions of the icy con~inent the powerful "Ia?ar'kov-
chanki" snow car.a firat delivered to Antaratica in 1958 have ahown themselves
to be especially good. !
;
~ e~v-e~rq .+r-^- ^.w.~.~.~e"1'7~r":",~ n;.,'^T" : - . ~ ~
N r S 1 't 15 '~t ~h1~'~j 1 ; ~ ~ - '
- '~~:i.. ,M ~ Y~ r : ?'t ~`~f'~ ~~~:j~d~j ~~i~t} 1 ~ ~~~T~ ti ~ ~ ~ ' ,
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Figure 1. The NES "Mikhail Somov" and NIS "Professor Vize" in the
Antarctic Ice
From the very first daqs of operation, on Soviet antarctic expediEions exten-
sive use has been made of aviation, witheSta dihelico ersearerbeing arried
~ tica is impossible. By means of airplan P
out reconnaiesance explorations, aerial photographic surveys, radar measure- ,
- ments of the thickness of the ice cap, ice reconnaissance and other studi~s.
~
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_ In addition, airplanes and helicopters are being uaed for transportaCion
� purposea, too, such as for supplying the tntracontinental Voatok Station,
for unloadinA vesaele, for traffic between stations, etc.
o~
For Che purpose of performing systemriCic stationaxy observations, Soviet
anCRrctic expediCions have created a network of scientific stations in
different regions of the conCinent. At firse, in keeping with the inter-
national agreement within the scope of Che MGG, scientific atations were
created in Er~st Antarctica south of the coasC of the Davis and Mawaon seas.
- In creation of scienti~ic stations the Mirnyy obaervatory (fig 2) w~s used
as a base. So, as the result of the first aled and tractor trip into the
inCerior of ~Che conCinent, in May 1956, 375 km south o~ Mirnyy was opened
the first intracontinental station in Antarctica--Pionerskaya.
n~
yt"rr ~ ~ '~L~Sr 'f ~ 1 ~ .i ~ a } ' ~ 'p i. ~ ~ ~ ~~75~~~~i~h~ ~T~i~ V ~t*~ , i'"'~
. ~r r t+ fY. i. ~p} ryr.~~[~~"ta ~~ri a r t r~`~ii ~z�:
v~ . ~ i 'i i =~Mi= ~ ~yt , ~ 3t . ~~t~~.~ ~YYi+d+..~ ~ ~t ~ liT~ ~ Ya~~
4 f ~ ~ i ~ ~ . ~ Y tY~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ; r `C~; ~
rx,~~; . : ~ ~ ~~y.~y~~'... ~ `~3 F~;a~~+~.~. Hr ~ ~ "t
~,~t 1 ,,A a ~.'i ~ ~ . ~h ~r ~ ~ ~f ~~~f~.
. (1~~ , ' :''~f a " t~~~~ I r ~f - r ~dF~ p~~ ~~fi~~i ~0i"lt'~~;~~
! k
~ ~ Y R r . h�~` r,."~�4t~!By Y t~. r.*F'~ 'r`'4
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s ~~A f L kti, i ~ tv:~ t ~4 ,~.1-r'`, i t't~i ,
Z~"'1'~"~-'y~y'`'~~'i t 4 t~ ~ ' iR'
_ ~ ` ~
~'S . ~ F 7" i 1~ ~ ~L~l~~ . ;N ~'~t "a=M'ti.'. F ~Y3 j,>
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~7ti~'r+ ~~M .~rd, r ?,'�b s~._
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Figure 2. Ztao-Story House at Mirnyy Station
In the spring of Che same year (in October) at Bunger's Oasis on the coast
of Wilkes Land was created the Oazis station. In 1957 in the inner regions
of East Antarctica were opened the Vostok-1 and Komsomol'skaya stations, and
at the end of the year Vostak Station, located in the area of the South
5
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FOIt OI~I~ICIAi, USE ()NLY ;q,.
GeomagneCic Po1e. In Febru~ry 1y58 in the central part of East Antarctica
appeared one more aCarion~-Sovetskaya~~and in the m:tddle o~ December a sled
and carerpil].ar convoy, traveling more than 2100 km, reached the most retriote
ppint of tihe continent from the shore, where the temporary Pole of Inaccessi-
bility station arose. So, for the purpose of making scientific observations ~
according to the program of the MGG, Soviet antarctic expeditions during the
period 1956-1958 created eight stations, and oniy two of them were located on
the coast, whi~.e the remainder were situated in the most hard to reach regions,
- characterized by exceptionally severe natural conditions. -
In March 1959 on the coast of Dronning Maud Land was opened the Lazarev seation,
and two yeara later in the same area the Novolazarevskaya station. In Februaxy
1962 in Enderby Land began conatruction of the Molodezhnaya station. It _
began to operate steadily in January of the following year. This station has
been expanded each year and it soon was transformed into one of the largest
acientific settlements in Antarctica, with a powerful radio center, rocket
sounding station and computer aplendidly equipped with scientific instrumenCa-
~ tion areas and laboratories. In 1971 Molodezhnaya (fig 3) became the Soviet
Antarctic Meteorological Center (AMTs) and the main base for Soviet antarctic
expeditiona. Then ~;ere opened two more stations: in 1968 the Bellingshausen
station on King George Island (Waterloo), and in 1971 the Leningradskaya sta-
tion on the northern ~oast of Victoria Land.
~ *
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Pigure 3. General View of Molodezhnaya Station -
p
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In addition Co longterm operating scientific sta~i~ns, Soviet antarcCic ex- '
pedi~i.ons created temporary~ and seasonal ~cationa, which have been uaed ta
make ahor~term statf.onary~ observationa or have served ~ts bases for season~l
field atudies, gor example, in hhe winter o~ 1960 in the area of Mirnyy three
temporary etations were in operation for more than two montns: L~ruz'.:h~ (on
the Wesr Ice Shelf), Mir (on Drygalski Island) and Pobeda (on glacial Pobeda
Island). In 1972 the ~odruzheatvo base was created on Amery Ice She1f, to
provide for an extensive group of geological-geophysical and cartogr~phic -
studies which continued for three summer seasons. Tn 1973 the temporary
~ Rusakaya staCion arose in West Antarct�lca on Che coast of Marie Byrd Land.
~ Although 136 years had passed aince the mowene of the discovery of Antarctica
by the First Russian Antarctic Expedition of F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. _
' Lazarev to the beginning of the MGG, and the icy contiinent had been visited
_ during this time by many expeditions from various countries, very little was
- known about the nature of the South Pole continent and antarctic waters. The
- outlines of the contine:nt's shores had been entered approximately on charts
for a great dietance. The thickn~ss of the ice cap was estimated from in-
direct daCa. F~ven the altitudes of the surface of a great portion of the
continent were ctnknown. Measurements of the thickneas of the ice had been
made at one comp~ratively not too great coastal section--in Dronning Maud _
Land--by the Norwegian-Swedish-British expedition (1949-�1951). No data extst.,ed
an the relief of the bedrock surface of the continent, almost completely
concealed by a thick ice cap. Geologists of various expeditions had made only
a reconnaissance exploratton of relatively not too great areas--of not more
- than three to seven percent of the continent's area free from ice. Regarding
the regions of East Antarctica where Soviet gsolagists later launched their _
studies it was known only that they are camposed of ancient gt?eisses and `
, diatinctive graniCoids. At this time geological charts of these regions did
not exist; in place of them on geog~aghical sketches were indicated only
points where these rocks had beEn discovered. At this time a total of only ~
a few scie,itific stations were in operation. on the coast of Antarctica, and
there were none at all in the interior of the continent; therefore, estimates
of the climate of Ant~rcti~a,especial?y of its inn~r regions, were also made
- ~ chiefly from i~direct data. ~
Very little was known also about geophysical ptienomena~in this section of
our planet. By this time scientists had at their disposal only fragmentary
~ information relating to geomagnetism, buC even then there existed no precise
= idea of the permanent magnetic field, nor of the spatial d3stribution of mag-
netic variations~ There was entirely no knowledge about the gravitationt~l
field in Antarctica and about its seismicity, not to speak uf phenomena iz
the ionosphere and phenomena ass~ciated with cosmtc rays. Little was known
. ~ aliouC the hydrolo~ic and ice cycle of antarctic coastal waters or about the
fau:~a and flora of Antarctica. Therefore it is no wonder that during the
period of the MGG, when various stc~,~ies were launc:hed in the southern polar
region, conducted in coordination by expeditions from 12 countries employing
modern technical facilities and equipment; such an extensive amount of sci-
ent~ific~data was collected in Antarctica as had not been able to be collected
over all the previous 100 odd years since the discovery of the icy continent.
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J
- NoK o~~~~tc;~n?, usf: O~t1:Y
Sinc~ ~he very ~trHt dayq o~ operation n~ Soviet c~nt~rctic expeditione
reconnai~s~nce ~xplor~tions h~d be~n be~un, by employing ~tviation, oi
rc~ginnq nd,~ar.ent to tt~~ coagtg] bnr~e . in c~lmo:~t ev~ry fl.i~ht 5oviet re- _
- ~e~rcherg gain4d new f.nformatian. ~'~r. ex~lmpl~, n~s the reeult nf n flipht on
16 Jnnuary 1956, from Mirnyy nlhup, tl~~ coast eaetward tn Kndx Co~~tst, were
diKCnvered m~ny previnusly unknown i~l~nd~ ~nd nutcropcs of becirock, gnd
alterationa were ob~erved in the contour o~ tht~ Shuckletun ICe 5helf~ butit~~
fligl~ts into the in~.:rior of the c:ontinent it wae d~L�~rmined thnt in the
~ inn~r regions of ~agt Mtarcticn tli~ altitude of the ice cap's e~irf.~rp
' r~~~hes 3500 to 400U m. In Dnvi~ 5e~ ~ynd regtons ~d~gcene to the Snuthern
Ocenn regul,ir aeri~l reCnnn~iy:~ance be~~�n to be carried out, which in the
fir~t few yearg of th~ expedition's work was cnrried out monthly, inCluding
during the winCer period. Later, aeri:~l reconnai~snttCe began to be performed ~
during Che n~vigation period y�i~i in the grea of other cot?stal ee~eions.
Since the very fir~t few expeditions there hn~a be~n ext~n~ivp develnpment in
nerial photo;;ruphic survey wnrk, the dat~ of which has u?~de it possibl~ to mgk~
rel.iable ctiarta of many sectiong of the cnast end of mountain regions in the
l.ntcrlor of the c~n~inenr. By menns of aviaCion participants in expeditiong
have m~de geoldgical, glaciolagical, gravimetric, magnetic, meteoro?~ogical,
biological and other obaervations, and in recent y~ara radar measucements of
the thickn~ss of Che ice cap.
There has a~so been extensive development of scientifi.c research by meang ~F
- ground transportation. Soon after con~pletion of constr~eCion at Mirnyy, in
spite of the late fall period, iti April-May 1956 was completed the first
intra~nntinPntr~l sl.ed and caterpillar trip into the interior of tt~e conti,nent,
for ~ di.stance of 375 k~n. Aa a result of this trip was obtained the firar
inEormation on the thickneas of the ice cap, the relief of the glacier bed,
climate features, and a series of data on the nature of the qlacier slope _
southward of Mirnyy. At the end point of this route was crea~:ed the Pioner-
skaya station. This ~ourney, ~raveled under incredibly difficu:.t conditions,
, formed the basis for research on the interior regiona of EasC Antarctica by
means of sled and caterpillar convoys. Participa7~s in these trips as a
rule made the following studies: ~,eismic soundin~ of Che ice cap, detern?ina-
tion of the altitudes of ite surface, magnetic, gravimetric and meteorological
obaervations, and glaciological research. In addition, sle. and caterpillar
convoys were used alsa for the purpose of creating and s~~pp.'.ying intraconti-
nental scientific stations.
Later, in 1957, several aled and caterpillar trips had already been completed,
and one convoy at the end of the year reached the area of the South Geomag-
netic Pole, where the Voatok station Was created. The Third l~nCarctic Ex-
pedition expanded even more extensively cross-country reaearch in the interior
of the contfaent. Its participants completed a~ourney from Mirnyy to the
area ~f the Pole of Relative Inaccessibility~ traveling a route more than
2100 k~n l.ong. As a result of acientific observations made on this 3ourney~
interesting infarmation was obtained on the thickness of the ice cap and the
relief of the glacier bed, as Well as data on meteorology and geomagnetism
in the vast expanses of East Antarctica.
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N'(lk (1F'N' iC' f AI. II51: ~1NLY
P~rti~ip~ntg in ehe knurth cA~ in ehe sutnm~r gen~nn n~ 19~9-~g~d Campleted
th~ intr~conCincnCgl Mirnyy ~ 5outh ~'die - VogCok 5C~Cion ~ourn~y, out- -
~tanding in e~rm~ of ie~ ~i~niPicanre (1pngCh of ~h~ rdut~ gbduC %4000 km).
On thie ~o~rn~y for Che fir~t Cim~ wer~ ug~d eh~ power~ul "Kh~r'kovchank~"
enoW c~te,
Of the oCh~r wo~t eignifiC~ne ~1~d ~nd G~terpill~r ~nurn~y~, from Ch~ eci-
entific gCandpnin~~ m~nrian ghould b~ m~d~ of th~ journ~y from Voeeok Stgtion
ehrough th~ Pole of inacc~~~ibility to Molodezhn~y~ Seation, eompl~eed in ~
1964~ nnd aign ehe ~ourn~y undere~ken by the 12eh SA~ in eh~ ~ummer g~~~~n
of 1966-1967 ~long eh~ Molddezhnay~ - pol.~ nr In~ccp~~ibility - plgtd InCrg-
contin~nC~l Station (USA) - Novdla~~revgkny~ route. 1?uring Ch~ roure~ of ~9
24-hour periods researchere eurmounted more than 3400 km, and the rout~ -
paeeed mginly through areae not previou~ly vi~it~d by man.
In the period frdm 1971 through 1973 ext~n~iv~ compr~h~n~ive g~ologic~l-
geophysical end cartngraphie-geodetic work (employin$ ~~rig1 photngraphy)
wae pprformed in the ar~a of Am~ry Ice She1f. In 1976 on ehe ~flchner I~:p
_ Shelf was creaC~d the tempor~ry bruzhn~ya etation, repr~~enting a bag~ for
carrying out a wide complex of geological-geophyeic~l and cartographic-geo-
detic etudiea in the vast region of th~ Filchner and Ronne ice ahelfg, the
rock massifs eurrnunding them, and th~ ad~acenC water area of Weddell 3ea.
So, during the past 20 yeere crosa-country research on the continent (geologi-
cal-geographic, aerial phoeographic grrveys, biologicAl, glaciological, etc.)
by Soviet antarctic expediciona has been carried out along the greater part
of the coASt and in the interior regiong of ~gst Antgrctica contiguous to it.
During the pariod of this work geologicel land groupg eurveyed rock ouCcropa
- on the coaet and in the inCerior of the continent. 5ovieC scientigCs having
taken part in foreign antarctic expeditions surveyed many regions of West
Mtarctica and of the islands situated near it.
The routea of aled and caterpillar convoys of Soviet antarctic expeditione
have led along the vast expansea between Novolazarevskaya Station in the
west and the Mirnyy - Vostok - South Pole line in the east. On the moat
difficult ~ourneys over the boundless snow-covered expansea of the central
regions of the AnCarctic Continent, at high altitude and in constant freezing
weather, in 20 yeara eled and caterpillar convoys have traveled a total of
more than 80,Q00 km. During th3s period Soviet antarctic expeditions have
made more than 55 long end ahort ~ourneys. In them have participated about
500 people, and the duration of these ~ourneys has totaled more than 2500
24-hour periods, i.e., more than six and one half yeara.
- I?uring the past 20 years from on board the scientific research vessels
"Ob'," "Lene," "Profesaor zubov," and "Professor Vize" about 1500 oceano-
logical stations *~ere set up in the Southern Ocean, as Well as at loarer
latitudes of the global ocean, and m~re than 1000 stations from on board
the flagship of Soviet antarctic expeditions, the expeditionary vpssel "Ob'."
At these etati~na Were made standard measurementa of Water temperature at
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L~c~K c,F~F' IC i A(, c~~t~.
diCfrrent dCpth~, and ~rom tt~e game lev~la were e~ken :~~mple~ of wnter ~or
_ hydrologic nn~lyAig. A~ almogC 700 pr~fncy ~r~r~ e~ken ~peaimeng nf rockg
irom th~ ocenn floor, ~nd at more thnn lU0 pointrs i.natrum~nt nbservation~
were made of the aw~ll and currenes, alung with opCical hydrnlogic obaerva-
Cione. In addition, et ro.~ny poic~ty biolegic~l speeimeng were tnkrn (plankton,
b~nehn~ er.~t ichthyo~~un~?. xor a digt~nc~ of more than 300,OOn mile~ echo '
s~unding meagurement~ ~.:~r~ n~ d~ from thc "Ob'~" the regul.~s of which were
uged tn mak~ r?~ueic :i chr~rtq; for n di~eanc~ o.' almogt 100,Onn mile8 gampleg
of ~ea wat~r werc collece~d for the guspen,lcd mateer contai.ned in it. On
expeditionnry v~~gelg of 5oviet nntnrCtiC expe:litions wer~ mnd~ ~ysCet*,tic
m~e~ordlogical and ~ceittomrr_ric db~aervution~, aerologica] goundin~ was cgrri~d
out, actinomeeri~. gounding b~llonn~ nnd ~,rnb~~ for ~tudytng cogmic rayg in
the ~tratosphere hav~ be~n s~n~ :~p~ rncket gounding of the ~tmonphere has -
been pcrformed~ gnd u~gn~tir :;,.~ervn~iong ~nd a number of oth~r ~Cudiee have
b~~n mad~.
'Che sci~ntiftc: rege~rch progrgms of SovieC antarctic expeditions have ex� ~
p~ndEd evcry yeer (fig 4).
b ~ 0 !0
- - - t� .i~~n rq~ -
._.._s
- - _ _
_ _ ~ ~
~ ~r ~ n~ p . ~
~ ~ ~
t ~o+~ speit~~N~~,_.,..~_.
~ , ~ i i ` .,rYy9r t _ .
~T_'...'_r . i Md~O~lM~~~ .
_~,G'%'~%~~~6.~.,.~~.?,~. r~~ ~ 1 _
;i%lr~ A �r~pa~t~�6C~1~ LS~ ~
~w;+~ Aor~~.~ ~ ~~...r
CtO~~~tto~.A~1Mw~ .Z ~10r~ 9 I tf
, ~oa~ ~~`CoA~ of~c .
� H~~oC ~ni:oct~ �
\ . ~ ~x.
M O~M�CMOT1 ~ COSS?CM~~ ' AA1Mb1
f0 : Y.M~p�~t ~
'r 1 ) ~ ? %:%~e~~v
.
2 1 .P~ : 1 eocro~ noee
~ ` ~~MC'~�
J ~ ~C,~ oepo~oA.e~~al
~ ! ',1~ r~ K,M~O~O n.a~.o~ ~ ~ ,
e +ee=~
~ Z ~ ~ ~p~F~~ � ~ o~~br3lI~LM~~ `
Q, Q~ _ - I _ >
s B ` 1 -
' Q ` ~ 10~-~ ~ Ae�~~rpalera~
~s [~i~
~ ~ ~ /1 r. 0~ Ont ~ _ _
170 Ip 170
Pigure 4. Chart of Operations of Soviet Antarctic Expeditione
(Key on following pagej
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I
~'OEt nF~ICIAL U5~ ONLY
l~~o~e~n r~~~arch ~r~ae; 2-~key oceanogrgphic ~ecLiang; 3�~-roue~~
of k~y eS.ed and c~eerpi~.~.ar r~gear~h convoys; 4~-routeg n~ k~y rese~rch
flighCg; 5-~rouCes wiCh Crigonometric l~veling; 6~~aerial photographic
survey area; 7--areae and some rout~s .fnr radar eounding o# ice cgp;
8--geological r~eenrch areae ~in W~et AnCarctica, section~ survey~d by `
Soviet geologisCa working on the gCaf� df for~i~n ~~cpedieiott~); 9,10--
~ Soviet gnd foreign ~r~eiuna aC which Sovi~e representatives hgve worked;
9--aeCive; 10--alos~d; 11--temporary aeaeiona; 12--areas o~ detailed
~erial survey and oceanngraphic aCudies
Key:
1. To Cape Town 15. Mir
2. Stonington Island 16. Pobeda
3. 8~111ngshausen 17. Oazis (Dobrovol'skiy)
~ 4. Almirenee Brown 1g. Pionerakaya
5. Druzhnaya 19. VogCak-1
6. Lazarev 20. Komsomol'ekaya
7. Novolazarevekaya 21. Byrd
8. Molodezhnaya 22. Vostok
9. Pole of Inacceesibility 23. ltusakaya
10. Atnundsen-ScotC 24. McMurdo
- 11. SnveCskgya 25. Vanda
12. Sodruzheatvo 26. Leningradakaya
13. Druzhba 27. To Chriatchurch
14. Mirnyy
In recenC yeara year-round observationg have been made at eix Soviet antarctic
stationa (Molodezhnaya, Mirnyy, Vostok, Novolazarevskaya, Bellingshaueen and
Leningradakaya). Crosa-country field studies have been made chiefly in
Dronning Maud Land, MacRobertson Land and Princegs Elizabeth Land, and in
the interior of the continent, in the territory between the Mirnyy observatory
. and Vostok Station.
Greatest attention is being paid to a, ~roup of studiea in aerometeorology,
which includea the following kinds of' atudies: meCeorological and actino-
metric obser~ations, aerological sounding, weather service, reception of
eatellite information, rocket air sounding, radar observations of ineteor
trails (IEM [expansion unknown)), observations of radioactivi;*.y of the atmo-
sphere, observations of noctilucent clouds, and ozonometric obaervations.
Continuous, as well as special sporadic, observations are being made in a
number of diviaiona of geophysics: gsnmagnetic, atudies of the ionosphere
and of radio wave propagation, observations of cosmic rays, terrestr~al and
stratospheric sounding, seismic observations and observations of brief-period
fluctuations in Earth's electromagnetic field. In addition, geophysical
methoda are being extensively employed in glaciological, geolagical and
other research.
Glaciological observatione are being made at almost every atation and on
~ourneys. In recent yeare at rhe Voatok atation deep drilling of the ice
11
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~'ott orrl~;tnt, ~s?~. ~~cr~..
cep is being perQormed by th~ tih~wi,ng~through meChod~ SinCe 1975 glaciex
and hydrologic research employ~i.ng dxillfn~; o.E Che ~,ce cap he~ been tak~,ng
place in the arec o~ th~ NovolAZarevsk~ya sCaC~,on~
O~e~nographic res~arcti has Ueen p~rformed in ti~cenC Cimes chi.e,f ly .~r~na on
bogrd expedi~~onary ves~ael:~~ to not too gre~t ~an exeen~ ~t coa~tal ~ntarctic
erations~ and, in add4t�lon, by g~thering and enalyxing sn~ell~,te in#ormaeion
and th~ datg o~ a~r1al ~urveys o~ ehe ice.
In the inge 20 y~ars highly �~aluable tc?tormation has been obCnined on thz ~
stru~ture o~ the atmosphere and a number ~f imporCanr conclu~ione hgve beett
drawn which have diaclosed the ].awa ~f over~ll atmosph~ric circulation ar.d
have been conducive to improvin~ for~cnsts nf the weaeher nnd climaee of Che
southern polar region. Thc~ ~~?ccegses gchieved along Chta lin~ 3n Che firse -
decade have been retl~cted fairly compleCely in studies by Soviet reaearcherg.
The first decade of aeromeeeorological reaearch in Antarcticn has been called
_ by V.A. ;~ugayev the period of descripCi.ve climaCoingy, when each report on
meteorological phenomena was new, often sen~ational. Research in recent years
has been distingui~hed by a tendency to explain the interaction of factors
reeponeible for apecific meteorological phenomena, to give them a quantitative
estimaCe, which.is required for ehifting to a numzrical description of Che
climate and making weather forecasts on a lon~term baeis. For example, from
rocket sounding data at the Molodezhnaya station it has been established that
aeasonal variationa in temperature in the upper mesosphere are of an opposite �
nature as compared with rhe stratosphere. A relatively high temperature in
the ~~^~er mesoaphere is uoually recorded around mid-winter, and the lowest
in tr~ summer, which is caused by the heat balance of these levels. Warming
in the straCOSphere and cooling in the mesoaphere alternate in synchronism.
An analyaia of observations over many years has made ~t possi.ble to reveal
the difference in the content of ozone in the atmosphere in the Arctic and
fn Antarctica during the course of the year and to understand the reasona ~
for thia phenomenon. i
It hae been ~sCablished that the cooling role of Mtarctica as a continent j
extends only to the troposphEre of Eaet Antarctica and to the water area of ;
the 5outhern Ocean contiguous to it. The drift and circulation of cold air :
massea fro~ Antarctica are localized for the following reasons: 1) the ,
amaller aize of the atmosphere above Antarctica reaulting from its cooling;
it equals 99 X.7 X 1015 kg, which is 1.4-fold amaller than above the Arctic;
2) the apecifice of the ciYCUlation mecl~~u?ism above Antarctica, conaiating
in the inflow and descent of air over the high-mountain section and its
flaw at lower levels to the periphery, with subsequent drawing in of a great
portion of this air flow into the antarctic circula~ion cell.
~ Mother yardstick for ineasuring the cooling influence of Antarctica is the
discharge of snow and ice into the Southern Ocean, as the result of Which
cooling of the surface air layer takes place. Just for thawing :he snow dis-
charged into the ocean 1 X 93 X 1011 J are conaumed. ~
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i'Ok UCCiCtAI, UyN OKLY ~
A bnlnna~ r.hnrt I~n~ bCC:n mqde ~or ehe hydrn~logic ayc~,e in Antnrctica~ 2'hr.
eoCa1 nnnua~, adVection o,~ mo~.s~ure eo the coneinent ht~g been d~Cermined ae
2600 km3~ o~ which 2500 km~ are consumed ~or precipieaei,on~ ~hQ icp evapdra-
tion vapor (],6o km3> i~ c~pparenCly drawn o~f by ehe runo~~~ Thus, the
ciimatic runo~~ ie abour 270 km3 of w~ti~r per yegr~
As of the preaene Cime mu~ficienCly r.~ligbl~ charte hgve been mgde for el-
mo~t the entire continen~, based c?n aerial. photiographic aurvey data fnr
~ coaetal regiona and on dgCa o~ crose~country airborne baromaeric leveling
for interior regiona. Now the problem is rn r~fine and deCail tihese charCa
for eapecially important sections, and ir is necessary to update cherta in
regi~ns of considerable changes in glacial ahorea. As Che result of the
cartographic work of 5oviet gnt~rctic expedit~ons and of aero~viaual and
ground aurveys, more than S00 new g~ngrgphical sites named by Soviet re- ~
search~rg have appearad on mapa of Anrnrceicg.
Since the sCart of the work of Soviet anegrctic expediCinns much ~tCention
has been paid to geological-geophysical atudies At ehe present time iC
hae become possible to make ~n exteneive summary of thc geology of Antarctica
~ at~d a aeriea of geological and geophysicgl chaxts.
There has been e~pecially extensive development in recent yeara in compre-
hensive geological-geophysical, aeriai photographic and geodetic seudies in
Aatarctica in the area of the Amery and Lambert glaciers and in the Yrince
Charles MounCains. These have been distinguished not onl~ by comprehensive-
neas (topographical, geodetic, gTavimeCric, magnetic, seismic and geological
atudies), but also by the use of the laCest techniques and equipment. In
particular, seismic depth sounding has been carried out, as the result of
which a crosa secCion has been obtained of Earth's crust and mantle surface
for a distance of 600 km. A detailed geological and a series of geophysical -
charts have been drawn. A detailed study of the profile of the upper Protero-
� zoic complex of the crystalline basement has demonstrated its high saturation
' with iron ore levels. A large-scale investigation of Permian depoaits in
the area of Beaver Lake has made it poasible to construct their complete
profile, in which more than 60 coal beds have been counted. The experience
' of these comprehensive studies has demonstrated their high effectiveness.
Since 1976 similar research hae been begun in the area of Weddell Sea, and
it will be extended later to other regions of Antarctica.
Of course, the presence of a continent in the southern polar region creates
favorable conditions for the study by means of ground observaCions of various
electromagnetic phenomena in the upper atmosphere and in the space about
Earth--~arth's magnetosphere. As the result of stationary geophysical ob-
servations over many years, including research on geomagnetism, the iono-
sphere, lvw-frequency radiation of the magnetosphere, polar auroras, and
coemic rays, new phenomene have been discovered, asaociated t,iith the effect
of solar activi~y on the atmosphere and the space about Earth. In particular,
regular relationships have been established between the aectorial atructure
of the interplanetary magnetic field and Earth's magnetic field--its varia-
~ tions and disturbability, sporadic ionization in the E layer of the ionosphere,
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N'Olt tlt~f'I('IAL t?;;(; ~~,d~.,.
th~ movement o~ c~n nuxor~~ c~l.ertrc~~~t~ .~~id the dynemiGs ok' pa:lnr aurnrus.
A nQw e~~ect has been di,s,covprtd in ehe mo~~il.~eton o~ ga],ncCic cosmic rAye~-
Che influence o~ Che ~un's CoCa1 mn$neCi~ li~ld on coatn~,c rays~
New kinds ot magneCic ~ield pulnationa in ~he polar cap and at ehe geo~
magnetic pol~s have been dt~covered, char~cterizing ehe dytt~mice of pro-
_ ceeaes ar rhe periphery ox th~ magnetosphere and at ies ~u~tl end. Asymmetry
hae been discovered in tihe ?~orthern and southern hemispheres--a different
reaction of the geoma~netic �teld (varineiong and pulanCions) to eh~ influ~nce
of Che solar plasma.
A determittation has been made of ehe distinctive fegeures of the manifeatation '
' of a gubseorm in the generntion o~ polar uuror~ pulsations and of the fore- :
runners o`' a subaCorm in ehe form of magnetic field pu~~ationa of a apecial
typ~ and inten~ity.
Prom etation~ry and field observgeions of ONCh (very low frequency] radiation
was d~scovered the theoretically predicted region (KASP) of direct conCact
of the solar wind with ~arth's atmosphere. An influence was discovered, of
the eectorial atructure of the interplanetary magnetic field on the presaure
field of regions of Earth falling under KASP's. Ground geophqsical studiea
have acted as an important supplement to saCellite data.
In recent years euccessfnl use hae been made of a new meChod of investigating
the ionosphere--oblique sounding along the superlong Molodezhnaya-Moscow
direction. This meChod has mnde it possi.ble to obCain efficiently data on I
the state of the ionosphere which is of great importance in enauring radio ~
communications. A11 the greater importance has been gained by field aCudies ~
on the continent for the purpose of studyi.ng the space-time ~featurea of ,
Earth's magnetic field and its variations (the "Geophysical TesCing Ground"
pro~ect--installation of automatic atations), as well as the ONCh radiation
of the magnetoaphere.
Scientific observations made by the Soviet antarctic expedition have rz-
presented an important contribution to fulfillment of reaearch goals during
the period of the proceedings of the "International Year of the Magneto- ,
ephere." '
In the area of 9tudies of Earth's form, work has been done on making a cata- ,
log of gravimetric points and a gravimetric chart of Antarctica has been
prepared. Based on seismic observations, a seismic zone was discovered
around Antarctica, which has joined zonea known earlier. Antarctica itself
has been proven to be almost aseismic. A atudy of the propagation of seiamic
waves has shown that Antarctica has a continental crust structure. The same
results were obtained on the basis of seismic deptti sounding (GSZ). A study
of microseisms in Antarctica has led to the discovery of the general hydro-
meteorological conditio~ns for their formation. Seismic observations have been
employed in recent times ~or the purpose of investigating the dynamics of
the edge zone of Antarctica's ice cap.
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:
~
- rn~t c~rt~~?CTt1L USI; orr~,Y
.
~or RurCher Advt~nc~g i,n genphY~i.~~~, reee~rch ~.t is nec~ssgry to eee up
sever~l auCom~~ic geophy~icx~. eCn~i,ans w~:~h the i~pnpdiate gendtng o# dal�~
Co a snCe111Ce. SeaCions wi.l~, be see up aC presel,ec~ed points on ~he con-
~inent~ observa~i;on results ~ti which will make i~ poseib~.e t~ obtai.n the
_ first-hend in~ormarion required for di~gno~ing rhe sCaee o~ the magnero- _
aphere, the magneCic ~ie1d and the iono~phere, for ~he purpose of utilixing
it in developing #orec~s~~.ng methods. `
During the t~rst fpw years of op~ration af the Sr~vieti antarctic Qxpeditiion
~ sysCematic etudy was be$un of fegtures n� the hydrologic and chemical
hydrologic cycle of the Souehern OCe~n, tihe retief of its floor ~nd of ehe
ice cgp, and of biol~gicnl reeourcea. As the result of ~heae and aubsequent `
sCudiea, a determ~~n~tion was m~de of rather precise phyeical-geograph.tc
boundaries of the Souehern Ocean, ehe key types of water masses were dia-
tinguiahed and their distribuCion was le~rned, th~ regions of formation of
antarcr.ic wat~rs near the ocean floor were establi~hed, and the f3rst approxi-
mate diagrams were ~bCained for the Circulatinn of. 5outhern Ocean waxers.
It was determined Chat tihe key circulation system of the Southern Oc~:an ie
the Antarctic Circumpolar Currene, which deeermines th~: hydrologic~l cycle
of waCere of the southern polar region. In nddirion to thia a determinaCion
was made of the main features of the circulat~on of ~waters in coasta:l regions
of Antar~tica, consisting in the existence of aeveral ataCionary cyc:lonic
cycles.
On the basis of a atudy of thermal and dynamtc conditions, th~ ma~or frontal
surfacea of the Soutl~ern Ocean were �ound. Tn gddiCion, it became oUvious
thaC the physical paCterns establiahed for the thermal and dynamic canditione
of Southern Ocean waCers cannot be explained within the framework of existing'
ideas on the nature of oceanic processes and must be related ta the nature of
large-acale interaction between the atmosphere and ocean. Besides, remaining
~ unexplained are the key features of the structure of the circulation of
- Southern Ocean waters and Che nature of the dynamics of intermediate and
deep waters; quantitative eatimatea have not been obtained of water and heat
exchange between Southern Ocean waters and the adjacent water areas of other
oceans, as well as reliable estimates of flowratea of waters carried by the
ATsT [Antarctic Circumpolar Current], which are required for hydrodynamical
~ models of global circulation of the ocean.
Theae problems have formed the scientific basis for planning full-scale ex-
periments relating to a comprehensive study of ocean3c and atmospheric pro-
cesaes taking place in the Southern Ocean, the combination of which has re-
preaented the major content of Che "Polar Experiment South" (POLEKS=Yug)
program.
At the present time two full-scale experiments have been conducted within
the framework of SovieC-American cooperation in the field of global ocean
research in keeping with the POLEKS-Yug and AYSOS programs, aimed at studying
~ the dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ATsT) and the Antarctic
Polar Front (APF) as related to atmospheric processes. The results of
15 �
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I~Ok UI~I~fc;1~AI, USi' ~)"~t,`
� ,#ull-scgle expEr~,m~nt~. httve consider~b~,y bra,~~eued exisxin~ ideae regarding
Che ~CrucCuxe nnd dy~nxmica o~ Che AxgT ~n~i ~.tig ~,nCeracti0n w~.Gh Che A~'~~ and
have made i~ paggib].e to deCect by direr.~ mensurecqents a slight countercurrent
ne waeer levels near the ocean ~~.onr in Ar~k~ P~ssaRe~ and Co estimn~e the
energy characteristica o~ ehe a~snospher~. The data obegi.ned have been used
to esCimate flowrstes of the ATe'f in g1oUf~1 mode].s of the nceanTs circulat~on.
Further etudy of Che Southern OCegn involv~g the developmene o~ extengive
rese~rch At 1arg~-scale rese~ing gYOUnds in ehn_ 5cocid S~a, in ~he regions ,
between .Africa and AntarcCic~ and berweett Australto and Ai~earcCica, Ca11ed
Por ere a comprehensive study of pro~.esaes o~ large-scale interaction between I
the atmoaphere and ocean~ as we1~ as a atudy of the atructure und dynnmica
of waters of Che A'PeT and of t':s interaction with the APP. i
Of the achievemenCs of recene yer~rs in the field of gl~ctology, mention ehould
be made of renearr.�,~ on the ice c~p by menns o~ deep drilling, comprehensive
reaearch within the continenC beCween the Mirnyy and Komaomolskaya stationa,
. and also radar soun~-ling of the ice. These aCudies are befng conducted in ,
keeping with the International Antarctic Glaciological Pro~ect (MAGP). As
the reault of an investigation of a 950-meter well ~nd of the sample extracCed ~
from it at Vostok Station, information was obtained on the temperature staCe
of the ice cap, the content of chemical elements in the ice and of isotopea
of oxygen, nnd ather parametera. These data have made tt possible to con-
atrur.t a repreaentation of the contemporary sCaCe of Antarcrica's ice cap
and to reveal.trends in i.ta development. They have msde it possible to pre- i
dict the change in Antarctica'e climate for Che future.
Studies in the area of Novolazarevskaya Station, where a through hole was -
made for the .first time in the ice shelf, made it possible to obtain informa-
tion on the hydrological characteristics of waters beneath the shelf. An ' :
analysis of soil taken from the floor has proven that an ice shelf has
- � existed in this region for the last 10,000.yeare.�
Prom the data of studies made in Che interior of the continent at key ~
Cesting grounda it is possible to explain the rate of movement of the ice
cap. The data of a radar survey made by Soviet antarctic expeditions in
recent years and the data of foreign expeditions (chiefly of the USA and
England) were used to make a new chart of the subglacial topography of
Antarctica. . ~
,
In the future glaciological research in Antarctica will develop along two
main lines: A study will be made of the water balance of Antarctica and of
the paleoclimatology and paleogeography of Antarctica. The development of '
these sub~ect areas will make it possible to approach a solution to the
problem of forecasting the development o~ Antarctica's ice cap and a solution ;
to the question of the balance of ita mass.
The development of glaciological resear~h involves first of all furCher de-
velopment and more exCensive application of inethods of deep drilling the
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rott oc~~~ICIAL usr oNC,v
ice cap and o~ radio~hYsic~l c~~ehods o~ d~~ez~ntinin~ iCs thickne~s and Che
' raCe o~ movemen~ o~ the ice, na we~,l as an an~~.ysis of d~..~~erent ~ortqy ok
- satelli~e inxorn~geion,
~very year dil~erenC bi.olo~ical research programg are cr~rried o~~C, which
cover bas~:cally Che w~~era o,Q the 5ou~hern Ocean, ~roof has been gotten o�
the abundance and variety o,~ orgdnisms, not only ~n the open se~, bu~ also
~ in rhe coasCa~. zone covered wiCh aea ice. As the rez,ulC of y~ar-round
diving investigaeiona high~.y abundan~ da~a have been obtained relating to
boCtom-dwelling biocenoses and biocenoses associaeed wieh sea ice. Exceed-
ingly inCeresting are microb~ological studies made .~or the firse time in the
Southern Ocean,.which have demonatraCed the very 1ow density of the bacterial
population and the feasibility of using the bacteria method in separating
waCer masses.
Much interesting data has been obtained as Che result of reaearch over many
years on the ecology and life cycle of seals and birds.
Studies have been made to a considerably lesser extent on biocenoses of dry
land, but here, tioo, great successes have been achieved. Seudies have been
made of bird coloniea, the vegetarive cover, and of b3ocenoses of lakea. .
At the present Cime we have a rather complete idea of Che floral abundance
and plant combinations of AnCarctica. Confirmation has been given to dat~i
~regarding the exceptional poverty of dry land biocenoses, but at the same
time was found the capacity of organisms to adapt to extremely severe con-
. ditiona previously conaidered unsuiCable for their vital activity.
At each antarctic station, in addition to treatment and prevention work,
medical research has been conducted, including a group of physiological
- , studies of higher nervous activity and of other functional systems of the
~ body in the process of adaptation; experimenCal hygienic and medical biological
studies sa applies~to questions in space medicine; study of the adaptation
mechanism; studies of changes in the functional state of the central nervo,~s
system under conditions of the influence of extreme factoYs; a study of the
' influence of prolonged isolation on the psychological and social compati-
bility of participants in the expedition; and a group of hygiene and sanita-
tion studies relating to studying residenc:es, the water supply and nutrition,
and to other questions relating to general and communal hygiene at Soviet
antarctic stations. ' ~
In addition to the above-mentioned studies, physiciares at all stations have
been carrying out a~rogram of obaervations relating to a study of environ-
mental pollution in Antarctica.
More than 40 institutions in our country f~ave been taking part in th~ develop-
ment of antarctic topics or have been utflizing in their own scientific re-
aearch the data of antarctic expeditions.
In 20 years almost 9000 people have taken part in Soviet antarctic expeditions,
of which 3400 have wintered at stations, about 2000 have participated in
seasonal research, and more than 3600 have been crew members of expeditionary
vessels.
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t~~o~t orrtc; r.nt, u:~t: c~rii�~
AseociaCes p~ Soviet anCarGkic expediCi.ortyi ~.r~ keeping with rhe acientific
exchange progra~, have been particlpt~nt:~ '.u ~he anearcti,c expeditions o~
- ~oreign coun~ries, x'wenty--on~ Sov:tet scienkist~ have warked on expeditions
' by Che USA (at Che McMurdo, LiCC1e America, Byrd and Amundsen~5coet sCariona
and on the expediCionary vesscl "El~anin"), Great Britafn (at the Stonington
aCation)~ and ArgenCina ~he Almirant~ Brown sta~3un)~ gi~d several people
have Caken part in ee~?sotial ~ie1d studies ~
ScientisCs fron orher coun~riea liave worlted un Soviee ~ntarc~ic expeditions.
- They have conducted resenrch at yCntious and on expeditionary vessels Rnd hnve ~
taken part in crose-country invesrigations on c.he continent. In 20 years
more than 70 foreign scientists have Cal~.r-.n parC in the winter operations of
SovieC antarctic expeditions, r?n~; in seasonal operat3ons about 40, and more
than 10 different foreig~~~~~:~:ers, newspaper correspondents and television
and film personnel. They represented 14 countr3es: B~xlgarta, Hun~ary, the
GDR, the Mangolian People's Republ~.c:, Poland, Czecho~lovakia, Rumania,
Auatralia. Great Britain, Argentina, the USA, France, Japan and India.
Over the last 20 years nore than 4000 articles on a11 branches of science
represented in the programs of Soviet antarctic expeditions have been pub- .
lished in vttrious publications. Dozens of monographs have been created on
the most important problems of science. In 1969 publication was completed
on the first two-volume atlas of AnCarctica in the world, which was based on. ,
data of scientific researcti pezformed by Soviet antarctic expedirions. More
than 60 volumes of TRUDY [PROCE~UINGS] of Soviet antarcCic expeditions have
been issued, and more thr~n 90 issues of INFORMATSIONNYY BYULLETEN' SAE an.d
16 ic~~es of ~he collection ANTARKT~KA.
The researct~ conducted by Soviet antarctic expeditions during the past 20
years can be arbitrarily divided into two periods. Zhe �irst period, which
~ continued up to the mid-60's, was distinguiahed chiefly by general recon-
naissance studies. During this period many new geographical sites were dis-
covered, geographical charts were refined and for many areas the first re-
liable ones were made, the first ideas were obtained regarding the nature'
of interior regions of~East Antarctica, etc. This period concluded with ~
the publication of trie two-volume atlas of Antarctica, in which the results
of this research were summed up.
The second period is characterized by an in-depth study of natural elements,
components and phenomena in Antarctica. As the result of research conducted
during this period, monographs~and detailed scientific developments have
appeared which have shed light on the geology and deep structure of Earth's
~ crust in several regions of Antarctica, cycle chsracteristics of the ice cap, ~
the dynamics of waters and the ice cycle o~ the Southern Ocean, atmospheric
~ processes over Antarctica, various geophysical~phenomena, etc. During this
period fundamentally new methods of research begau. to be developed, which
have broadened to a great extent the capabilitiea o~ studying the nature
of the southern polar region. Under this heading come radiophysical re-
search and, in partfcular, radar sounding of the ice cap, the reception of
satellite information, etc. In addition, during this period medical research
has achieved extensive advances.
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(~OIt OI~ I~ [C iAl, US1: ~N[~Y ~
Ar ~he pre:a.enl ~lme !.a b~~i~inl,ng thc khJ,rcl period q,~ re~earch in AnCarct�ica, ,
charac~e,riseic of wh3ch ia Che Accomplishmenr of vasC comprehen~ive~ o~ten
interna~ional, research progra~s, such as ehe xn~ez'nation~tl G].aciological
Pro~ecC (I~AG~) ~n which~ in addiC~.on Co Soviet scientists~ are taking part
sciantisrs ~rom ~he USA, Aus~ralia, ~ngland and ~'rance, the Polnr ~xperiment
(POLEKS-Y`ug), being carried out ~ointly wiCh ehe USA, comprehensive geological-~
geAphys3cal and cartogrAph3c etudiea in the area of Weddell Sea, etc.
' Data accumulated as the resule o~ research on the nature o~ AntarcCica, as
. well as the experienee of expeditiionary work, have made it possible Co bpgin
mastering ~ha southern polar region.
A clear example of ehe practical uti~.izatian of scieuCific data has been
. Che ~ydrometeorol~gical service for the operations of people in Antarctica, _
and, primarily, the furnishing of informfltion and shortterm weather fore-
casts to commercfal and expeditionary vessels and aircraft. At the Molodezh-
naya AMTs 1ongCerc~ weather forecasts hr~ve begun to be issued for a short .
period in advance (three 24-hour periods, maximum). Ships sailing in the
ice zone axe supplied with information on Che staCe of sea ice; forecasts
_ of ice condit{ons have begun to be made.
Climatic data and information on ice cap conditions are being utilized in
designing and constructing various kind~ of structures (bu:ildings, under-
ground services, airfields, etc.). In particular, for the first timp in-
stxuctions have been developed for creating a takeof.f and landing str~p on
the snow covering for wheeled airplanes.
Based on medical research and the experience of expeditionary operations,
clothing designs h2ve been developed, along with nutrition standr~rds and -
.housing equipment. Based on geophysical research, forecaats are being made
, of the�state of the magnetosphere and ionosphere and of conditions far. radio
~ wave propagaCion. Tn particular, a forecast has been made for the reliability
of radio communications in terms of the hours of the clock for seven ma3or
~ ~ microwave links. -
Especially extenaive use has been made of the results of oceanographic and,
- primarily, of hydxologic research in mastering the biolo~ical resources of
the Southern Ocean. Proof has been given o~ the feasibility of a fishing
and shellfishing industry. -
~ In carrying~out measures of any kind in Antarctica, especially on the main-
land, it~must all the time be remembered that Nature in the polar lands
reactis exceptionally sensitively to human activities. It is easily violated
. and is restored with great di~ficulty. In order not to inflict irreparable
harm on Nature, on expeditions a study is being made o~ the in~luence of man .
nn the erivironment and measures are being taken to lessen this influence.
Great successes have been achieved in 20 years of research in Antarctica.
But every year scientists are con~ronted with new and newer, sometimes more
dif~icult, problems than be~ore, both in the line o~ scienti~ic research and
of mastering the A,~ttarckic Contt.n~nt artd the $outhe~n Qcean~ ~he xesources
- of which axe enor~qous.
' COPYRIGHT: ?.zd$tel~s~vo Naulca, 1.978 19
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~ HOTZ OI~P''LCl'AL U5[: ONLY
' i
. I
I
ANTARC'fIC RESEARCH COOP~RATION ON INT_LnNA'PIONAL LEVEL HAYLED '
Moscow ANTARKTIKA: OSNOVNYY: ITOGI x7UCHENIYA ANTA'RKTIKI ZA 20 LET. DOKLADX
' KOMISSII in Ruesian No 17, 1978 pp 20-26
[Article t+~ Ye.I. Tolstikov: "Antarctica--the Continent of Peace"]
' i
[Text] The ~oint work of scientists from different countries in Antarctica
ie a graphic example of how, by unit:Lng the efforta of scientista of a number ~
of countries, it is possible to solve~relatively quickly scientific problems ;
for the solution of which one country would require dozens of years. ~
~I
~When the decision was m~de to hold the International Geophysical Year, sci- ,
entisCs from many counCries turned their aCtention to Antarctica, the least '
studied area of our planet. It was clear that it was impossible to solve ~
~ problVms on the global acale without having arranged~fox a definite syatem ;
o.~ g~uphysical'observations in the extreme so uCh of the globe.
Scientists from 12 countries expre4sed a desire to arrange for research in ~
Antarctica. The Soviet Union got the most difficult and least studied region. ,
� Soviet scientists assumed the obligation of settfng up stations inside Che' ~
' continent in the area.of the geomagnetic pole and in the area of the Pole of
Relative 'Inaccessibility. This was a courageous decision, since neither thL !
condiCions for nor the methods of setting up these stations were known. !
These obligations were based on the immenae knowhow gained by Soviet polar ~
. ~ explorers unuer the complex conditions of the Arctic. � ,
. . , ,
From the very beginning of the work on the sixth continent very warm friendly
relations were formed between sclentists of different countries. , ~
. . ~
_ ~ The scientific work in AnCarctica required coordination. ThaC is why the ~
~ Scientific Council on~Antarctic Research (SCAR) was formed in 1957-1958 by
the International Council of Scier.tific Alliances (MSNS). The duty of SCAR i
~ was to develop programs and coordinate re~earch in Antarctica, both between ~
countries and with special scientific, alliances (e.g., with the International ,
~ Gec~logical Alliance, the Geodesy and Geophysics Alliance of the World !
Met;eorological Organization, and the International Biological Alliance). ~
;
� The members of SCAR are countries taking par.t in the Antarctic Treaty and ~
, actively doing research in Antarctica, and international alliances united . ~
, I
~ ~ 20 ~
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I~OIt UFrICLAL U5[, ONLY
by MSNS ttnd 3nCereaCed in dning researcli in Antarc~ica, as well as the
World MeCeorolog-Ical. Or~anl7ation. ~nr.h counCry and nlliance y~nds one
~ repreaentative each ro SCAlt.
SCAR iasues annually a bulletin representing a report on its Activities,
as we11 as shedding ligh~ on pta~or achievements iu studying AnCarct~.cn.
In addition, SCAR publishes the sc~.enrific resurts af symposia which iC
conducts.
~ SCAR is a very usei'ul inLernariona~. scientific instituCion, which does much
work associated with research on Antarctica. The Soviet Union is represented
in SCAR by the USSR Academy of Sciences, which is a permanent member of SCAR.
- For.the developmenC of programs and the coordination of scientific research
_ in Antarctica, in our country has been formed the InterdeparCmen~al Commi~sion
on AnCarctic St~sdies under the auspices of ehe USSR Academy of 5ciences,
, to,which has been entrusted the func,tii~ns of the Soviet Committee for Antarctic
Studiea. The permanent Soviet representative in SCAR is USSR Academy of
. Sciences Correa,ponding Member G.A. Avsyuk, chairman of the Interdepartmental -
. Commissi.on on Antarctic Studies.
The Interd~partmental Commission on AntarcCic Studies has 10 representatives
in SCAR work groups. They represent leading scientists in different fields
of science.
An important place in the activities of the Soviet National Committee for
Antarctic Studies is held by information operations. For this purpose the
Soviet committee disseminates reports on foreign research, scientif.ic sym-
~ po~ia and conferences, and also writes and publishes in English an annual
report to SCAR on the activities of Soviet scientists in Antarctica. Also
- published annually i~�~the special collection ANTARKTIKA in Russian, in which
are printed reports a~d articles on the most topical problems relating to
antarctic research.
' The Soviet committee does a greaC amount of work associated with corres-
pondence between work groups and the SCAR Bureau, mainly with regard to
program problems, as well as in connection with carrying out various measures,
sessions of ineetings and symposia, in particular.
We polar explorers can be proud of the fact that the friendly relations be-
tween scientists of different countries working in Antarctica were conducive
' to the.fact thaC the Antarctic Treaty was concluded in December 1959 by the
governments of AusCralia, Argentina, Belgium, Great Britain, New Zealand,
Norway, the USSR, the USA, France, Chile, the Republic of South Africa and
Japan.
~ According to this treaty, and in the interests of all humanity, Antaretica
must henceforth be utilized exclusively for peaceful purposes and must not
. beeome an arena or sub3ect of international controversies. In its territory
21
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~~c~k n~~t~ rrin~, ~t;;i: ~~~t~,~
it i~ forbiddeci eo ~nrry uue any me:~~ur~o of n mil.ityry natut'e, nUClenr
~xploeinn~~ r~ttd ehe burinl d� r~dioa~eiv~~ .~adL~~ 'The treaey c~11n fdr
rc~~arCh in AnCnrcCica to b~: exclur~i.vely df u peaceful ti~ture.
It ig impd~~ible for th~ vnse aren nf Mtnrcticg ndt to interc~t n11 Cnun-
tries frvm the vi~wpoitit o: m~inea~ning p~ac:r.. Our e~untry, t~kin~ Chi~ intn
nccnunt, ha~ ~dh~rc!d t.u eh~ posi.tinn nf- ~dlvin~ thi~ prabl~ra on the b~~i~ of
~n ggreemant be:twecu n11 interegted cnuntricg with mueu~l allnwgnc~ Eor their
righrs and inr.rr.~gCg. gut prior tn 1g58 ~ome Cuuntric~ wune~d to ~olv~ eh~
. problem.of tl~~ l~ggl. gtatu~ cC Antnratic~? ~~paraCely.
Seven countrieg (Cregt E~ritain, Augtra].:a, New zegl~nd, Kr~nc~, Norw~y,
Chile c?nd Arg~nCinn) mxcle unitr~ter~l cl.:~ims to gecidr.g in thi~ region,
covering a toeal of ~boue f~~:~ ~'ifth~ n~ the gr~o of Antgratiic~.
The~e countriee jugti[i~d their claim.q with diff~rpnt kindg nf hi~eoricgl,
geographic~~'_ end l~gnl congidernriong. por exampl~, ~ngland gnnouna~d itg
claime becnuge ieg gub~~cts hnd di~Cdvered a number of eerritorieg in Ant~
~rctica. Chile and Argentinn cited the f~ct ehnt they hgd inhprit~d th~
rights of Spain ed the land~ locaeed gdueh nf th~ Straie of Mngellgn. In
nddition, they pointed to the terrieorinl proximity di their countrie~
ro these r~gions o� MCarcticu. AustrnLig affirmed it~ right by the prnximity
of AntnrcCica to it and, in conn~ction with chi~, ieg gre~t ecdnam~c and
~trategic importance. prnnce and Norway eubmitted cl~img on the btai~ that
certain landa in Antarctica had been diacnvered by th~ir citizene. But thie
sectorial division of the 3ixCh Continent Would h~ve ignored the rightg and
inter^:~ts of other countriea, of the U3SR and U5A, in particular.
Attempts at a aectorial divieion of Anterctica Were fraught arith the danger
' of trangforming Antarctica into n region of rivalry gnd internarional con-
flicts. .
The question of the legal statua of Antarctica was raised several times.
But special attention on the part of the global community was attracted
to Antarctica's fate in connection With the holding of the International
Geophyeical Year. Scientists of 12 countriea took parC in scientific re-
search in Antarctica in connection With the MGG (International Geophyaical
Year]. Our country get up aix stationa in various areas of Antarctica.
During the period of the MGC countries Which hgd laid claim to sectors did
not oppose the creation by other countriea of basee in regions of Antarctica
Co which the Eormer had laid clgims.
Cooperation among scientiete of difEerent countries during the courae Qf
the MGG exerted a considerable influence ori the solution to the problem
of the situation of Antarctica in the international scheme of thinga by
the summoning o! a conference of interested countriea.
The SovieC government thought favorably regerding the USA's guggeation to
aummon the Conference on Mtarceica. Invited to the conference aere only
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P`Ok (1N'1~1CtAL l!5~: ~~Nt.Y
thn~e C~untrieg taking ~n active p~rt i.n scientific reae~rch on the Sixtti
Continent~ The ConferenCe on Antarc~tca opened un 15 Or.tnber 195g in
Wg~hington and concluded with the ~igning on 19 necetnber of the yemE yettr
nf the tir~t Intern~tional. Aritfarctic Treaty in history. Ag ~lready menti~n~d,
th~ fund~m~ntdl principleg di thi~ tre~ty are the t~tiliy~tidn nf 1~ntgrctiCa
fdr p~~r~fu1 purpo~e~ ~lone, and fr~~ednm in gciantifi~ resr ch.
~
`1'h~ Ant~reti~ Tr~~ty dne~ not place ttny one cnuntry pnrticip~ting in it in ~n
advnntgg~nug pdgitidn in the ~ue~ridn di territnrial claimg in Ant~rcti~~.
mhp bel~nce cr~at~d by the tre~ty in v~rioug pogitions regnrding th~e que~Cidn
of t~tritori~l ~l~img in thig r~ginn cc~n nnd ghauld engure the r~gli~gei~n of
th~ fund~mene~l prinaiples nf tt~e tre~ty.
Th~ Ant~r~tia Tr~aty went into E~fpCC on Z3 June 1961. Joining the er~~ty
were poland, Czech~~l~vnkig, nenmark, Che NeCherl~nds ~nd ~rnzil.
Uuring thi~ period were held eight ndvi~ory meeCingn, gt which gpe~ific que~-
eion~ were digcugged ~nd reCOttunendations were made.
~h~ ~irst Advieory Meeting (C~nberrn, 10-24 July 1961). It wag deemed gd-
vig~ble Co re~ommend ehnt the governmentg of cc~untries participating in re-
e~arch in Mtnrcticn continue the prnctice, fnrmed during the p~riod of the
MGG, of exchnnRing sci~neific informntion, scienCific pergonn~l and plang for
ecienrific operations.
The SeCOnd Advisory Meeting (Buenos Aires, 18-2$ July 1962). Measureg wer~ -
recommended~ contributing to free acc~gs to the publifihed re~ults of reaeareh
in Anterctica, and to regulnr preaentntion of scientific obgervation data at
world dnta centers.
For the purpose of utilizing Antarctica for peaceful purposes alone, at Chese
advieoxy meetinga detailed recommendations were made regarding the regular
and timely presentaCion by countries conducting research in Antaretica of
information on a11 expeditions and stations in Antarctica, on the amount and
. kinda of equipmene, on the number and areas of specialization of personnel,
on scientific equipment, etc.
The T~ird Advisory Meeting (Brussels, 2-13 June 1964). ~leven recommendations
were made. 1'he follrn.?ing are the main ones Ftmong these: information regarding
airplane landing conditicns and Celecommunications, and the recommendation
"On Coordinated Measures for the Protection of Fauna and Flora in Antarctica."
The 1gsC recommendation is very important, since the foundation was formed
Eor the protection of Nature in thia unique region of our planet.
The Fourth Advisory Meeting (Santiago, 13-18 November 1966). Twenty-eight
recoam~endations were made, including recommendations on regions to be especially
prot~cted, temporary guidelines for voluntary regulation of the pelagic seal
trade in AnCarctica, and tourism.
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FOk ~tt~ t~ fit: t~1L ll5t~; ~~Nt,',
'~h~ pifth Adviaory Me.~ting (P~ri~, lB-2g Novemb~r 19b9) ~ Nin~ rc~edm~n~ndgridn~
w~re m~de, including on m~~aures tnr impre~~.~u~ tel~cdmmui~ic~tinn~ ~nd ~n SCAR'~
~ugg~ation~ dn chenging Lhe Cen~or~ry guidelln~g for vdluntnry regulaCi~u of
the p~ingi~ geal tr~d~~
'~he Sixth Advi~nry M~eti.n~ (T~.~kyo, l~-~1 October ~.g7U)~ xift~en re~ommend~tions
were mgde, ineludin~ ni~ ~nCar~tt~ tal~cnmmuni~geinn~, ott improvin~ metec~Yt,logical
op~ratiuns, dn re~~arch dn th~ ahmn~ph~Ye by me~n~ af r~ck~eg, c~nd on coordins-
tion df r~s~grch ;involving Che ut;liz~tion nf r~didigotdpeg~
'I'he 3ev~nth Advi~nry M~eting (We111n;,ton,- '~h Octdber - 10 Nov~mber 1972) .
Nine recnmmendgeinng were tn~de, innlu~~ir~ on the influ~nc~ of man on rhe en-
vironrn~nt, on a r~vi~w of r~gions en bt~ e~pe~ially prnteCCed, gnd nn r~ginng
nf gpccigl gcientific inter.~~-_.
Th~ ~ighCh Advi~ory MeeCing (Oglo, 9-z0 J~nc 1975). RecnmmendnCione were mttd~
on r~gione ~f gQ~cini ~~i~neific intpr~et, on th~ ~xchange of informr~tion, on
ocean resnurces, ~nd on prospecting for mine~r~ls in Antarctic~.
; All theae advi~ory meetings hgve Caken plc~ne :n the spirit nf cooperation, in
the search for compromise settlement~ for v~ry complex problems. The Soviet
government ha~ approved a11 recommendationa m~da.. ie must be regreCted, how-
ever, that individual countriea have sti11 not a~proved certain recommendaCiona,
~ including such an importanC recommendation as '''Coordinuted Measurea for Pro- .
tection of Flora and Fauna." ~
- It shcw:d be mentioned that SCAR is Che acientific 3dvisory agency for the ~
Antarc;.ic Trpaty. Thia organization has contributec' many uaeful euggestions
and recommendations. The Antarctic Treaty ia one digtinct indicator of the
~ possibility of a fruitful solution to highly complex internaCional proble~s
on the basis of mutually taking into accounC the rights and interests of natinns,
and, without doubt, represents a contribution to the tiatter of developing
thorough cooperation among countxies with different pclitical aystema. .
~ The regulationa regarding procedurea in Antarcti~a est+iblished by the Ant-
arctic Treaty in terms of their signi`icance pro~ect bcyond the scope of
this region and can serve as a good example for making similar coordinated
deciaions aimed at the development of peacegble friendly relationa in other
areas of interngtional cooperation.
Fulfilling the obligations aseumed by the Soviet Union Ln connection with the
proceedinga of that highly prominent scientific measure, the International
Geophysical Year, and in every way posaible mainCainir� the apirit of inter-
national cooperation and mutual aid in the southern pc._: region, which later
found reflection in the articles of the Antarctic Treat.y, Soviet polar explorers
from the very first days of operation of Soviet antarc�:ic expeditions (SAE's)
began to establiah friendly contacts with foreign expeditiona at work in
Antarctica. They have taken part in the broad exchanF,e of scientific informa-
tion, have offered scientists from other countries th~: opportunity to work on
24
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f~'Oti ~I~F'tCIA1, U5~ ONLY
eh~ ~tnff nf Snviet ~xpedirinn~, hc~ve ~rrgng~d fn~.' CX.:h~n~e d~ ~~ienti~eg -
wieh f~reign ~xpeditinns, and have alway~ ~ame ed the g~~i~t~nc~ ~f pn1~r
- ~xplore~g ft~om dCher cdunerie~ who w~re fdund in ~ di~~~erdu~ ~ituaCidn.
~
~'h~ exChgng~ of ineC~nrnldgieal infdrm~eion nnd certain gedphyg3~a1 d~e~ b~~~n
~oon gg Ch~ Mirnyy dbgerv~tor~ went into oper~tion (in ~ebruary 1956).
Beginning wieh th~ S~aand SA~, rh~ r~gular ~x~h~nge of ~cienrigt~ be~gn wiCh
~nCareeic exp~ditian~ of the USA.
Over Ch~ p~~t 2U y~~rg 21 Sdviee gci~nrigts h~ve p~reirip~~~d in Che winter
- op~r~eiong c~f fnr~ign expedieinng, ~nd ~ntne p~upie have t~ken p~rt in ~~~enn~1
field ~eudie~. Our r~pr~gent~eives--w~~ther forecMgterg, metedrnlogi~tg, g~o-
phyei~igtg, g~ologiet~ ~nd glgciologtseg--h~ve wdrked ~e the American McMurdd,
Little Amerieg V, Byrd and Amundsen-Scnet ge~eiong nnd un eh~ USA ~xpeditionary
veseel "~le~nin." They h~ve e~ken pgrC in f~~ld r~search, chiefly in varioua
regiong of Wese Antarctica. Irr~gular exchang~ nf ~ci~nCi~tg h~g aleo C~ken
p~.ace with ~xpediCions of dth~r ~ountrieg.
Scientiet~ of oCher countrieg h~ve elgo been working on Soviee antarcCic ex-
p~dieions, part o� them under the arrangpm~n~ for exchanging gcienCiats, and
the dirsctorahip of Soviee anCgrceic expeditions hag offered other~ ~n oppor-
Cunity to do research together with Soviet polar explnrers under ehe treaty
stipulations. Coming under ehe lattpr he~ding are chiefly scienCiats from
eocialiaC countries. In the 20 years more eh~n 70 foreign scientiats have
taken part in the winCer work of SA~'s, and abnut 40 in aeasonal operations.
In addition, more than 10 foreign wrieerg, new~pnper correspondenta, and tele-
vision and film peraonnel have worked on Soviet anrarctic expeditions.
Representatives from e total of 14 countriea have t~ken pgre in Soviet ant-
arcti~: expeditions: Bulgarix, Hungary, the Gbit, the Mongolian People's Re-
public, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Australia, Great Britain, Argentina,
the USA, France, India and Japan.
Joint studies with foreign sc.Pntists ;n SA~'s are being con-
ducCed in a number of gcienc~ programs. They cover glgciology, geophyaics,
geodesy and other diaciplines. For example, in 1964 and 1969 Soviet glacio-
logists and geop'~yaicists Cogether with Prench specialists carried out glacio-
logical research in the interior regions of East Antarctica between the Vostok
station and Mirnyy Observatory, having organized for this purpose a apecial
sled and caterpillar convoy. Beginning in 1963 3oint Soviet-American geo-
physical observations began to be made at the Vostok station. USA specialista -
supplied scientific equipment to the station, a laboraCory was created, and
an antenna was installed for making observations of u2trashort radiowave pro-
~ pagatio~. The research program called for studies in a number of areas. Ob-
servations were made alternately by American and Soviet researchers. All ob-
servation data were duplicated and placed at the disposal of both countries.
Thus, as the result of ~oint work the extent of scientific observations at the
Vostok atation was broadened considerably, and Soviet geophysicists gained
additional valuable scientifi~ data which has substantially broadened our ideas
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(~Ok c11~1~tCfAf, ttSL uNt,1
dn ehe d~v~lnpment t~~ geophy~ic~l prdCe~~e~ ~xk~ng plgcp in the ~r~n df
~~rth'~ South Qeom~~n~ti~ Pole. `Che~e ~1~?r., ~i~ve b~ect ~qed by 5nvieC ~cienti~t~
in th~ir ~~i~ntific ~Cudi~~~
pol~r ~xplor~rg of C1ie lgth SA~ to~k p~rt in ih~ in~t~ll~Cinn nf r~~pond~r~ on
icebprg~, by m~ang df whict~ I~r~nch r~genrch~rr~, utilizing grtifiCi~l EarCh
~~e~11it~~, ar~ ~eudyir~g rhe drift of icebergs in tih~ South~rn Oce~n. ~r~neh
eci~nti~tg are pl~rittg th~ r~~ulte of th~~~ dbg~rva~inn~ nur di~pnggl; ehpy
hav~ been utiliycd in ~ci~neific d~v~lopm~nt~ in dur. phy~ic~~ oc~~nngraphy.
On the initi~tiv~ and wieh the ~~ei~eanc~ nf xr~nah eci~nti~t~s who h~v~ furn- ;
i~h~d eh~ ~ppropri~C~ ~quipmenC, ~e th~ Mdlod~~httgy~ ntaeion c~bgerv~Cidng ~f ~
rediwn ~mgnaeinn are bein~ C~trri~d our for ehe purpo~~ nf n profnund~r gtudy
of large-~cele atmogph~ric circulaLion in Antarceicg. Aa th~ r~gult of thie
ecienelfic cnopereeion, the ;.unch hgva furni~h~d ug with dgt~ from a number of
other for~ign Antarceic ~eatione and, rhus, S~vi~t ~cienCigC~ hav~ g~ined
valuable dat~ for t1~e ~tudy of atmoepheric proce~g~~ in the v~gt e~rrieory of
the gnuth~rn i?~migph~re.
Pgrticipgnt~ in Sov:ict ~ne~rctic expediCion~ Cogether wieh gcientietg from
France, Che USA, Auatr~lia and Great ~riCgin in rec~nt yeara have b~en working
on the InCernaCional Antarctic Glaciology Progrgm (MAGP). ~'his research ia
being conducted by Soviee gcieneieta for the most p~rt in rhe mr~st hard to
re~ch ~nd eevere regidn~ of ~egt Antarctica. As the resulr of this coordinated
re~earch, data have been obtained foz th~ va~t region of eh~ Antarntic Continent
from Dronning Maud Land in the weat eo Victoria Land in the eaet. 'Thia terri-
tory has been covered by a d~nae network of air routes while gounding the
thickn:.os of the ice cap with radar. At a number of points by means of the
latest rgdiogeodetic methods (utilizing navigatiorial ISZ's [artificial Earth
satellites]) a determination has been made ~aith high preciaion of the rate
and~direction of mo~rement of th~ ice. Ae the center of the region gtudied, ;
at the Vostok station, as well as on the coastline in the areas of the Dumont
d'Urville and Casey stations, deep bore holes have been made in the ice cap
With core samples taken. Over the Mirnyy-Vostok section for a distance of more
than 1400 km systematic observations have been made of sno~t accumulation, along
arith other studies. As the result.of these atudies a more detailed chart has
been made of the topography beneath the ice, the morphometric characCeristics '
of the ice cap have been refined, the ratea of movement of the ice have been
establiahed (at a number of aectiona), and data have been obtained on the
structure of the higher-kilometer strata of the ice cap and on its temperature
state, which in turn has made it gossible to solve in a firat approximation
the problem of the dynamic atate of the ice cap and the trend in ite develop-
ment. Qxygen ieotope studiea of a core sample have made it possible to de-
termine key featurea of climatic change during the last SO,OQO to 60,000 years.
Accomplishment of this extend~ive research program became possible only as the
result of the auccessful accomplishment of coordinated Work by scientiats of
five countries, on the basis of the international cooperation called for by
the Mtarctic Treaty. Data from this research have been utilized in the
s~ientific developments of Soviet scientists.
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~~c~?t ot~riCrnL tts~: o~rt~Y
In ~dn~unc:tiun wirh USA r~~e~xcher~, dur ~Cienrigt~ h~ve been t~king pgrt
in carrying due tihe ~OL~KS-Yug [Pc~inr ~xploraeion, ~duth] prog~am, eCc~
In Antnr~tirn Che ex~hxnge nf gc3~nCific infdrm~tinn ig t~~king p1~ce b~Cw~~n
expediCidn~ of diff~rene ngCinttg, including Ch~ SnvieC~ Th~ Mnlodexhn~ya
Sovi~e llne~r~Cic Merenroldgic~l C~nt~r (AM'Ts) is re~eiving we~tlter fn~er~gCing,
~~rolegie~l ~nd m~e~drologie~l inform~~id~t from ~lmo~1: ~11 stations in Ant-
~r~ti~~ ~nd i~ ~~C~iving infnrn~tion frnm grtificigi ~nrrh gne~llie~~. ~n tu~n,
ehe Mnlod~zhn~y~ AM'r~ i~ g~th~ring, proc~~~ing and erangmieeing inrd ehe ~eh~r
(Girrulgtin~g) exC~ngive m~~eornlogi~~1 infdrm~Cinn, in~luding d~C~ from ~a11
SdvieC ~ntgrcti~ ~tationg. Thig inform~tian ig being ueilizpd by vegg~l~
g~iling in ~ne~r~~ie w~t~r~, by met~orningi~~1 ceneerg df Gountries in eh~
~ouChprn h~mi~pher~, ~nd by nirpl~neg. in ~ddiCion, gC Molndezhn~yg we~eh~r
for~e~st~ ~r~ b~ing made gnd er~ngmiteed intn tih~ eeh~r, glnttg with infnrn~tion
on ice condition~ nec~~~ary for exp~dirionery vegg~lg g~iling in th~ ice.
5A~ p~rCicip~ntg, on the requ~ge of farei~n ~xp~di~idn~, h~ve more eh~n o~i~e
Gonduceed g~rial gurv~yg e?~ the iee, Chug m~king ie poggibl~ fdr ve~~~le td
~pproach coaet~l ~t~Cidng nnd to 1e~vp the ice znne. ~o.eign segtion~, tdo,
n~ver r~fuee meteorological fnformaCion needed fnr fligheg nf nirplgn~g nver
rouCe~ wher~ eh~se sCaCiong are lncgeed. This inform~tion is furnished tn ue
eeppci~lly frequently by ehe AusCr~ligns and Japgnese.
A number c~f impertant etudies are being mnde by foreign scientises on th~
~ etaff of Soviet antarctic expedieione, egpecially by scientistg of socialist
countries. For example, highly vnluable geodetic studies which have made it
possible to determine correctly the r~tes and direceion of movement of the ice
cap in the areas of Mirnyy and Molodezhnaya, as well ag precis~ gstronomical
observations at the Vosrdk stgtion, have beem m~de by GUR gciEntiste. Inter-
esting hydrobiological ob~ervations have been mgd~ in the urpg of Molodezhn~ya '
by ecientiets from the Polish People's Republic. As already mentioned, Soviet-
American geophysical gtudies at the Vostok station have proven very fruitful.
Biologists and medical personnel from the GDR have made studies on discovering
the biorhyChms of the human being under antarcCic conditions, and another group
of specialists from the GbR has been involved in srudying refraction, etc.
The participation nf Soviet specialigts in foreign expeditions hgs substant-
ially broadened the capabilitieg of s~ientific rese~rch and has made iC possible
to cover neW areas in Which Saviet gntarcei~ expeditions have not worked, and
to become acquainted with the knoWhow and techniques of expeditionaty operatione
and With the aiodern equipment and instruments used by foreign scientiats for
studies in the southern polar region. For example, Soviet geologists and
glaciologists~ becauae of participation in expeditions arranged by the USA
nnd Great Britain, have been present in many areas of West Antarctica, in
Victorig Land, the Antgrctic Peninsula and its surrounding islande. The data
gethered in these areas has been used in gcientific developments, and the
information presented in reports on the organization of the operations of
foreign expeditions has been taken into account in planning Soviet antarctic
e~cpeditiona.
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t~0it UI~t~ICt~t~ U5t; ONLS'
M~ny in~e~nceg gre known in which pnreicip~nt~ in 5dvie~ ~t1t~YCt~C ~xp~dieione
c~m~ ta eh~ aid nf polnr ~xpidr~r~ of dther :,:.u~~trie~ whn were fnund in ~
calgmitnu~ eitu~tion. For ~xgmple, in Oct:ober 1g58 Suvi~e polc~r ~xp].orer~
~aved fnur pnrticipnn~~ in tih~ Belgi~n Ane~rctii~ ~xp~dtCian whnse airplnne
had an accid~ne in Ch~e nr~n of C~� Cr.y~t~l M~unCeing in Dronning Mnud Lgnd.
Thie rpgcu~ opprgtinn wng ~aur.:e~~fully c~rrirc? n~se Uy elt~ crew of gn LI-2
~irplnn~ under th~ ieadcr~hip o~ Piiot V~M~ Perav, who flec~ out d~ Mi~nyy.
All ie~ p~rCicip~ntg wer~ ~warded the Ord~r df eh~ 5nviec Uninn uttd ~~lgign
ordprg ~nd m~dglg. ~
in Jgnu~ry 19GU ehe pxp~ditidngry v~sg~1 "bb ~~cn~ Cn eh~ n~~i~tgn~e df eh~
Jap~n~ge icebre~k~r "Soyg" Cr~pped in the ic~. Phy~icians df 5~vipt antgrct~.c
expeditiong h~ve mor~ than onc~ r~ndered ~killed medicnl ~~gist~n~e Co p~rCici-
pante in for~ign expedi.Cions at th~ B~llingshausen gtgCion).
5ovipe pol~r explnrern ~rc ~ordinlly re~~ived gt foreign ~Catioris ~C which
th~y mugt b~ pr~~~nt. AugCralign gnd Jap~ne~e pol~r explor~rg ar th~ Mgwaon
- ~nd Syow~ gt~tiong have r~nder~d a~~iat~nCe ed our re~earchera in fligh~e
b~Cw~~n Mirnyy and Motodezhn~ya. A cordial r~cepCinn wag given Soviet ex-
plorerg at the MeMutdo gtgtion (U5A) during the p~riod of the flight of heavy
airplanes ~rom Moscow td Antareticg t~nd ~e tihe Amundsen-Scott station (U5A)
during the period of ehe voyag~ Co the South Pole.
The mutual exchange of specialiseg, rhe exchange of scteutific inform~Cion,
and mutual assietanc~ in expeditionary operations have strengthened the pr~stige
and internationnl authority of 5oviet antarctic expedieions and have promoted
rhe rcin~orcement of peac~ful interngtional acientific cooperation in the
souther~ polar region called for by the Antarctic Treaty. �
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'~tvo Naukg, 1978
8831
CSO: 8144/0459
t
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N'Uk U1~'l~'tCIAI, U5l: ~NLY
STA'i'IJS ANtt ~OSPECmS 0~' M~,'.C~OT~OLO(}~CA~, ~t~S~CH IN AN~AI2~*1'xCA
Moecow AN'rA1tKTIKA: O5NOVNYY~ ITOGI IZUCH~NIYA ANTAItKTIKI zA 2b LET. bOKLAUY
KOMISSII in Russian No 17, 1978 pp 51-74 ~
[Articl~ by A.I. Vo~kre~en~kly1
~Text~ The p~~C 20 yearg of Soviee res~grch in AnegrCeiCn have enriched
meCeorologie~l science with highly v~Iuable inform~tion nn the seructure of
the aCmosphere in this greg and have mad~ ie possible to obtain ~ number of
import~ttt results conducive to progress in knowledge of the ~aws of overall
circulation of the atmosph~re~ in improving weather foreca~ts and in evaluating
the climatic resources of the ~outhern pnlar region.
In a number of atudieg dedicated to the lOth anniversary nf Soviee rese~rch
in Antarctica a complete analy~ig w~g mad~ of the resulta obtained and the
- main guidelinee were formulaeed for further reeearch.
Without dwelling on these resulta, which ~re aufficiently well known both in
the USSR and abroad, it should be mentioned that they all, as in the next 10-
year period, were obtained at the level of modern science.
~ The greateet measure in the area cf acieneific or~anization in recent years
has been the creation of a modern regional meteorological center (RMTs) at the
. Molodezhnaya atation, whose operations are aimed at the acc~mpliehment of tao
ma~or goals:'
1. Obtaining weather forecasting, satellite, meteorological, actinometric,
aerological, ozonometric and other data required for studying atmoapheric
circulation and the climate of Antarctica.
2. Development and making of weather forECasts for the needs of southern
polar stations, antarctic journeys, aviation, whaling flotillas and other
vessels sailing in the watera of antarctic seas and the southern hemisphere.
The following are the key functions.of the meteorological center:
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~b~ ot~~tCr.AL t15t: 4Nt.Y
1~ Arran~ing for ~nd c~rrying oue n combitt~ei~n oi gC~ncl~rd meCedroldgicgl.
~nd aerologicdl nbgervaeion~ ~nd rockee sounding gC Sdviee souCh~rn polgr
etationg ir conformity wiCh Che r~quir~metiCg of the World Me~eornlogical
OrganizgCion.
2. Arrt~nging for and curzyir~g out ecientific tdpi~ inve~Cigneic~n~ in k~~ping
with programs, A~ w~11 ~g obs~rvgeinn~ ~d~ on gLed ~nd trg~tor ~xp~ditiona,
during airplane fligl~ee, nn v~~~~1s, gnd thp lirie.
3. GaChering ~ynd proa~~~ing oC a~rom~C.eorologi~~l. informatidn, both fro~n
~11 eenCiona in Ane~rctica, gnd on rh~ ~cale of Che gnuCh~rn hemi~ph~re;
tran~miasion of ehig inf.orawtinn by radiu en oeh~r meCeorolo~icgl centers in
Antarctice end to eh~ World Mete~,roingicgl Cenrer in Mnecow.
4. Making, analyzing and rranemiteing inen the ~ther different kinds of
w~ather forec~seing chares and "nephoingi~~l flnalysig" chgrtg; develop3ng
we~Cher forc~gats for supplying repdrts Co Che maritime fle~t, avintion and
other tig~srs of ineteorological inform~tion in,AntgrcCica.
At the Molodezhnnya Seation RMTe a rockee air sounding station has been set
up, which operaGeg in keeping with an internatinnal progr~sn. Radar of ineteor
trgils has been begun and ia being gerformed regularly, and camera obaerv~tic~ng
are being mnde of ineaoapheric clouds. The reception and decoding of ~atellite
information have been set up, the data of which are utilized in direct fore-
casting work. Work h~s been completed on the introduction of the "Meteorit"
RKZ [rocket sp~ce probe] syatem for making gerological observations. ~Meteor-
ologic~i obaervations have been begun and are continuing at the Bellingehaueen
and L~ttingradakaya stntions. Wind-temperature and actinometric radio air
sounding is being performed at Che Bellingghaugen station. A number of quali-
tative ~hanges have taken place in the area of ineasuremenea of ineteorological
parameters in the aurface boundary layer and in actinometry. After the in-
- stallation of a Minsk-32 computer at the Molodezhnaya atation, the ma~ority of
obaervations have been processed by utilizing automated aystems. Meteorological
conditiona in the atmoephere over Antarctica's ~aater area are being studied
in their totality from the ecientif ic reaearch vessels "Professor Vize" and
"Professor Zubov." Thus, the last decade has been characterized by great
eucceeaea in the area both of furnishing equipment and of broadening areas of
research.
The first decade of ineteorological research in Antarctica has been called b~
V.A. Bugayev the period of descxiptive climatology, when each report on meteor-
ological phenomena was new and often aensational.
The second decade can be regarded as a period of research on the interaction
of fgctors responsible for specific meteorological phenomena, a period for
their quantitative estimatfon and of preparation for�a numerical deacription
of the climate and for longtena forecasting (Voskresenskiy, 1977). Mention
ahould be snade of the fundamentally important work in this area performed at
the Arctic and Mtarctic Scientific Research Institute, the Central Aerological
Obeervatory and the Hydrometeorological Center.
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ltoekee probe daea h~ve been sunnngrixed in seudies by 5~5. Cay$erov (1973~
1975). Ye tia~ be~n ~~eabli~hed ChgC se~~on~l eemper~~ure variations in ehe
upper m~~o~phere, gccdrding tn rock~e probe dae~ ae Molodezhnay~, ar~ of the
oppoeite ngCure ns compared wiCh the geraeosphere. A relatively high temp~ra-
Cure in the upper meeogphere is usually recorded around m~.d-winter, and the
lowegt in the aumm~r, which i~ deCermined by the heaC balance of theae levels.
Warming in the stratoepher~ and cooling in the m~sosph~re nlti~rnaee ~.n syn-
chronigm, '
G.U. Karimov~ (1975) hae nn~lyzed ehe contene ~nd vari~tions d� gtmospheric
ozone, an imporCane cc~mpon~ne nf tihe aCmosph~re, knowl~dge reggrding whinh is
exCremely neceseary in analyzing processee nf gtmospheric circulaeion and the
dynamice, radi~Cion balance and photochemistry of Che stratoaphere and in con-
eider3ng longterm changeg in climaee.
ObaervaCione over many year~ have made it poas~.b1~ eo reveal a difference in
the b~havior of ehe Coegl coneene of ozone in AnC~rcGic~ and in ehe Arceic.
In pgrticular, Che n~ximum ozone coneent in Che aCmoephere over Anearctica
(350 to 376 X 10-~ cm) beging Co be reached on average two months aftier the
vernal equinox, while in the Arceic ehe ozone maximum is observed before the
entry of this astronomic~L factor. This is explaitt~d by differences in the
periode of exiaCence of polar vortices in ehe northern and southern hemiapheres,
which govern the gdve~eive flow of ozon~. To ehis fact ~re also due the
shorter periode of an increase in ozone in Antarctica before reaching a maximum
in the annual cycle and its aubaequenC drop to mid-level summer valuea.
The perioda for the advenC of the ozone maximum direcCly above AnCarcCica
are shifted to a later period along a line from.east to west (the Mirnyy ata-
Cion in October and the ArgenCine Islands atation in November). An estimate
of the pr~bability of the appearance of a biologically harmful concentraeion
of ozone in the stratosphere of Antarctica (200 mb level) has ahawn that it
does not exceed 29 percent in summer and is practically absent in winter.
The vertical distribution of ozone is highly non-uniform. The ozone content
in the troposphere is on average from two to five percenC, and from 92 to 98
percent in the atratosphere, and not more than aix percent is concentrated in
the layer above 10 mb.
In spiCe of the high scienCific and applied value of these and other studies
devoted to problems of physics and atmospheric circulation not studied pre-
viously, there are a number of greaC problems which have noC found the re-
quired solution. Under this heading must first of all be placed thoae auch
as a quantitative estimate of the reasons responsible for the mechanism of
atmospheric circulation above Antarctica, an estimate of heat, moiature and
energy discherge, and the influence of AntarcCica on the climate and weather
of ad~acent areas and an the circulation of the southern hemisphere as a whole.
At the present time estimates of heat, moisture and anergy ~low are being pub-
lished, to create the prerequisites Por solving these problems ("Materialy
po klimatu..." [Data on Climate...], 1916).
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t~�nn oH~t~ [CIAL US~ oNt,}~
'rh~ climate of Anrarceica, ae ie ChaC of ~n,y geographical nren~ !.g in dirncti
dependence not only on ehe diaCinc~ive fe~a~ures oE the formar.ir,n of thermal
condiCi.on~ nnd ~hu hydrologicnl CyC~.C nbove thc conGinenC, but elso on Ch~
influence of ocean ar~~g on ehe~~ compone~its. The heat accumulaCed by the
oc~an'e eurface gt tropic~?1 l~ritudes is Crangferred to the pa].ar regiona
chiefly on accoun~ of ar.muspheric Attd, Co a Le~ser dag~e~, oceanic circulntion.
Regardlese of the quanci~ntive relaeionship of ~hese far.torg, only atmoapheric
circulaeion is of ma~or importance eo Anegrni:ic~ as g coneinent. Therefore,
a etudy and undursCanding of Aneerctic~'s c1im~Ge are poggib~e only with know- ~
ledge of condleions and ntmnspheric circulatinn above the~waeer area of ehe ;
SouChern Ocean.
It ahould be added that fox sur,r.easful.lnngterm forecasting of the weaCher
~nd climate in th~: southeru pulur region is required�a detailed study of
large-scale inCeracCion berween the oc~an, atmoaphe.re and Antarctica ~s a
continen~.
Geographical ~actora
' In the general geographical scheme o� thinga Antarctica has, we might say,
a unique simil~ri~y tn the ArcCic--ita high-latitude position. In much else
rhese r~giona are almost totally the opposite.
At Che center of the southern polar region is situated a high-mountain continent
covered with ice and surrounded by ocean. In the arcCic region the central
~ poeition is occupied by the Arcric Ocean (equal in area to Antarctica),
surrc;uuded by dry land. The Arctic Ocean receivea, along with radiative heat, ~
a considerable percentage of its heat with currents from the Atlantic and
Pacific oceana~ as well as on account of warm fresh-water runoff from rivera.
. All this governs the great flow of heat from the ocean to the atmosphere.
AnCarctica, on the other hand, being a high-altitude glacial continent, dis-
places the denaeat layers of the lower troposphere, at the~same time excluding
the arrival of warm moist air atreams from oceana. These factors to a con- ~
siderable extent predetermine also the difference in temperature of the central
regions of Antaretica and of the Arctic Ocean.~
AsCronomical~factors influencing the flow of solar radiation in theae two ~
regions are also considerably different because of the perihelion posiCion
of Earth in relation to the Sun during the period of the antarctic summer.
This fact provides Antarctica with a seven percent additional flow of solar
radiation as compared with che ArcCic. '
Becauae of the exceptionally high optical transmittance of the atmoaphere and
the continent's altitude, its surface reaches 80 percent of the radiant energy
arriving at the upper limit of the atmosphere. Thia figure is reduced to 59
_ percent'on the coaet, and becrnnes even loWer on the Antarctic Peninsula. For
this reason the vertical gradient of the radiation flux ia twofold lesa than .
in the Arctic and equals a total of 0.020 cal/cm2�s per.km.
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roti c~rrzcint, us~: oN~,Y
Maximum rndiattot~ v~lues equ~l 29 to 30 kcal/cm2~monCh ~ti ineracnnti.nental
eraeinns, 22 to 24 ae co~stal ~tat~.ons, nnd 14 to 17 kcal/cm~�month at
gtations on the AntnrcCic p~ninyula. Direct radiarion equale 70 percene of ~
Che CoCal rad�laCion flux in cenCral regions, 50 perc~nC on ~he coas~, and
20 t~ 30 pereent on Che Anearctic Pettin~ul~. During rhe sucmner montihe the
total radiaCion on ehe coasC is greater ~han in ehe Arctic by a factor of
1.5 to 1.7, and in ~he spring and fa11, by a f~ctor of 1.2 eo 1,3. 'The
annual totale (95 ~0 1.05 kc:al) are gre~eer ehan in tihe Arctiic by a fgctor of
1.3 to 1.5 and nre compgr~ble eo annual toeals in ehe equneorial zone. These
radiaeion flux values are highly seable from year eo year, and for the purpose
~ nf ensuring meam m~nthly valu~s with a preciaion o� five to 10 percent two and
five yeara of observation of total. radiation ttre eufficient, eix and 30 years
of direce radiation on Che coast and two and four yeara at intracontinent~l
eCntiona.
Aperiodic �luctuaCions in aolar radigtion reaulting from turbidiey of the
atmosphere from aerosols can reach significant valueg. For example, as the
reaulC of eruption of r.he Agung volcano, the direct radiation ar Soviet sta-
tions at the end of 1963 was reduced 30 percent. On ehe whole, ehe v~lues of
nerosol attenuation over the coasti of East Antarctica are negligibly low and
. cannot be paid attention to in eatimating the radiation balance. As far as -
the central regiona are concerned, characteristic of them is the proceas of
formation of nryatals outaide of clouds, which reaulta in considerable aerosol
abaorpCion, reaching 0.3 cal/cm2�min.
At intraconLLnental stations, in apite of the heavy radiation flux, because of
the exceptional conditione for reflection and radiation during the entire year,
the absorbed radiaCion equals 6 to 7 kcal/cm2 during the summer per~od, or
21 td 22 kcal/cm2 per year, which totals the monthly total of solar radiation
reaching Che coast. The existence o� a negative radiation balance predetermines
a reduction in air temperature from year to year. But because of the advection
of heat and the presence of latent heat, no reduction in temperature is ob-
served.
Atmospheric Circulation
Numerous investigations made in recent times have made it possible to get an
idea of the major Craits of atmospheric circulation in this area. The ma~or
elements which form atmospheric circulation over Antarctica must be considered
a circular cyclone zone, the circumpolar uortex and a system of surface anti-
cyclone circulaCion, including flowoff.
Cyclone activity is the conaequence of processes originating in the syatem of
the planetary heat engine ;:!:=^h governs global circulation. In terms of the
entire syetem of ehe planetary heat engine, made up of cold centers at high -
laCitudes and a heater in the tropical zone, the medtum-latitude region re-
presents a zone in which extreme temFerature contrasts are observed. In this
latitude zone occur the realization and conversion of these temperature con-
tra8ts into the energy of cyclonic vortices.
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In Che circulnr cyclon~ zone Che l.ow-pressure suxface c~rette mos.t significant
in the climatic respect ~re situgted in the :.rca of Che L~zar~v and Riiser-
Larsen, Davis and Mnw~on, Rosa and Dellingshauaen aena. Thie circular xone,
representiing a zone of convergence of lower Cropoephere nir mass flowe anJ
runoff~ is one of ~he m.~~ox elementa of atmoapheric c~.rCUlation at medium and
high 1nCitudes ot Che sauCh~rn hemisphere. As wi11 be demonseraCed below,
air running off over th~ conCinent's slopes in the ].ow-prea~ur.e region to the
coast of ~nsC Antxrcrlca is lifted up, forming sections of ineridional circu].a-
t3on. The circul3r zone is constric~ed wit?? an increase in altieude and Cakes
on the form nf a conic surf~ce. ~'he circulnr Nune is C~~.eed in the direceion i
of the cold, i.e., it ref.lects ~he familia~r prope~ties of L�he position of the ~
axee of cyclonic vortices.
In fig 1 is shown the positio*~ ni the axes o� anL�~.cyclones of the suberopical
zone and of cyclonic vorticea having their origin in the area of the Ross and
Lazarev seae. The axe~ of c1lmaCic low-presaure areas having the significance
of centers of ac~ivity of the gtmosphere are positioned along Che 0 Co 180�
meridian and are sl.nnted in the directiion of a cold zone located in Che strato-
sphere.
The low-pressure are~ over Ro~s Sea, forming under the influence of cylcone
activity in the Indian and Australian sector.s of the Southern Ocean, is we7.1
pronounced Chroughout the entire troposphere, and in the sCratosphere becomes
the cenrral part of the circumpolar vortex of the southern hemisphere. This ~
~ low-pressure area must be regardpd as the main center of activity of the south-
ern hemisphere's atmoapher~.
Thc~ low situated in the L~zarev Sea aector has been traced cl.early approximately
to the 1eve1 of Che 500-mb conatant-preasure area, and above this iC takes
the form of a trough of low pressure associated with the main cyclonic vortex
of Ross Sea. The distinctive featurea of,the vertical structure of lows forming
the southern hemisphere's circular cyclone zone are due to various causes.
A possible reason for dissolution of this low in the upper half of the tropo-
sphere is the syatem~of sir circulation. Ie has already been accepted that
in the troposphere of West Antarctica the advection of warui air and positive _
vertical velocities predominaCey while in East Antarctica the advecCion of cold
and subsidence do. The subsidence is localized over high sections of the
~ glacial plateau and conforms to the.central section of an extenaive region of
aurface divergence of currents coverin~ the surface of the continent. The
process of subsidence represents a compensation for this continental divergence, ,
forc~ed by a syatem of surface winds, including runoff winds. Subsidence, en-
� velnping the denseaC lower air layers, exerts a considerable influence on the
formation of tropospheric circulation over the continent. Where the axis of.
~ a cyclonic vortex passes through layers with positive vertical velocities
the vortex is well developed vertically and reaches the~stratosphere, and the
Ross Sea vortex posaesses this property. The vortex whose.axis is directed
into the antarctic Croposphere from the area of Lazarev Sea, app~Dximately at ,
the 500-mb conatant-pressure area, reaches a zone of ~iegative vertical velo- ;
citiea above the continent, which is one of the reasons for its dissolution.
34 i~
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.r___ _ o
Q_` ` ~ i i e
`
~ ,
_r_ o
.
~ o
- - ~ _
- o
. ~I
I rnt
N ~ h n ~ ~
. ~ - - I~
- ~ ~r~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ b
'y i
- - - ' p . .
`)I~
~ _ ~ o :
/I,/~ O ~ J
V~
_ _ 1 '1"~' p~~~
~ / r~.~O ~
~ ~ ~ ,
( - - � ~ nCi
~
~ 0% ~r~~~~
. / i h/ ~ I ~R ~
I - ' ~F\ _ ~1 �p0 ~
/r t~ / ~ ~ '
h /r ~ ~ _ o
~ - --~c-~hha0 ~ ~ - ~ ~
~ ~
- ' � ~ i~''~"O.~H 0 0
. 'L1'
- - ~ Lh o
. i e,h
' . o 0 0 0 o t`~~
N h n b i ~
: ~ ~
~ ?~a
~ ~ ~
' - fj-~ ~
� ~ /
_ L,/ N
~ ~t~ i ~ Si~ .
' ~ ~ ---~--t-- p
� . '
~ ~
� _ p
� �J i i ~~i i i i i i i i i i
0 1
� ~ ~ 4 0 b v, N
Figure 1. Mean Position of Axes of Cli~atic Lows in the Ross and Lazarev
Seast ,
[Key on following page] ~ ~
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t~oK oH~~~ tc;r,~~~, usr: ~rsr.�,
].w-~ex1.,~ of l.nw~; 'l--nxin o~ ~t~btrnpic~l ~nr.icycl~ne; 3~-zone c~f vertical .
divergenCe; 4- ~clirecti.dn hf nir mdv~zn~~,~c; S--i~ur.h~~n~; 6--congt~nC-
prc~e~re areng
Key:
1. LntiCu~e Z. Longttude
'Phig Hketch of the s~p~~tial ~d~itii~nn of. ~ixe~ o~ the circul~r zni~~ ~nd of ~xp~
of inejor luus rc,~uires ttie addieion~l unc+~y:~is ~f l~yer~ which direCtly border
upon tihe surfuc:e nt the lce c:up and in which c;ignc~ of gnticyCl.one circulntidn
have been di~c~v~ted. A~tentinn un th~ p~~~~. uC metearulugigtr~ in consCantly
bein~ pni~3 Co the pr~bl.c:m of th~ antnr~~~ic ~nr.ic~yc:lone. Idea~ r~garding the
antatc~ic nnticyclon~ have not ir~..`requenCly bnen cnntr~dictory. BuC gt ~he
~reeent time we know eh~t th~:~~ ie nn ~tnble qneinyclone ov~r Ant~rCtica. Thi~
hae been diatincCly proven fGr West AntgrCtica by P.n. nsegpenko (L960)~ and
ti~is questi~n will t~c: discu~~ed below with regpect to ~ast Antnrcticn.
1t iq neceseary Co di.ff~rentixte betw~en at lenst two kindg of gnticycloneg
which cun be found .7Love Mtarceica. ~irgt, there are ineCnnces of anticyclone
circul~tion which originut~ over the mainl~nd in the fnr.m of cenCers of not
too great verticnl end horizontul. len~th. Secondly, there are anticyclones
of consid~r~ble verticn? ~nd horizontal lengtl~ having a cnnnecti.on with high-
altitude tropospheric ridg~s which reach Antnrctir.a during r.he intenge deve:lop-
ment of. meridional proc~sses. 7n apite af this, certain writers discuss ant- ~
nrcCic ~nticyclnnes witho~t differeneiating between these two kinda (Astapanko~
1960; Cay~erov, 196G; 7.h~aunv, 1970).
i.er. u, discus~; ~nticyclones of only the first group, since they can appear as
Cl~e result of local anticyclogenesis cat~sed by regtonal features of the continent.
Now we know that many features of surface circulation of air over the mainland
nre of hn anticyclone nature. In particular, Che syeCem of surfnce wind currenta
repregenta an extensive region of horizontal divergence with its origin over
the l~ighest sections of the East Antarctica ice cap. An extenaive circular
surface region of horizontal divergence cannot exiat without verCical compen-
sation, i.e., requires the existence over interior aections of the mainland
of seCtling of air from the layers above. As already mentioned, this type of
settling has been observed over Sast Antarctica.
The exietence of quasi-stable eurface divergence and compensation for aubsidence,
us we know, is a necessary element of an~ anticyclonic circulation syatem.
It is poesible to e~tablish from the vertical wind distribution at coastal
stations of East Antarctica that ~:~e replacement of surface anticyclonic circu~
lation with tropospheric cyclonic can take place on average between conatant-
pressure levels of 700 and S00 mb. But this does not mean that eteady anti-
cyclonic circulntion predominates on slopes of the ma~inland. In analyzing
certain cases of wind observations at Soviet intrncontinental atationa~ S.S.
Caygerov (1964) found that ir. the layer of about 3 km above the surface of the
glacxer both anticyclonic and cyclonic circulation have been observed to an
approximately equal degree. .
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t~Ott (1F'F'ICtAL USi: oNl,1'
~h~ ~bility to ~denti.fy si~n~ n~ Che exigCence o~ nn nntarctic ~nticyclc~ne
ha~ b~come r~ali~CiC by Con~erucein$ chares of the 600-mb aon~tant-pree~ure
level~ i.e.~ of the firAC atandard level which ie not in contact with the
1evc1 of itn hi$hc~t g~cCion~. Ln nnnlyzing AT-500 nnd AT-600 chnrtg fnr
195g-1970 ie w~~ fnund rhnC nnly at 1~v~1 A`C-600 (~ig 2b) nre pres~ure field~
fnund which C~n b~ inCerpree~d as nnricyclonic. Cyclnnic field~ pr~dominaCe
nn AT-SOd chereg ne a11 ~~agnng: Th~ mgin c~nter of thp cyclone r~ginn ig
found t~ b~ in the ~rea oP et~~ Rase Sea ~nd Rdgg Ic~ Sh~1~, ~nd the trdugh nf
low pr~~s~r~ ocCUpies ~a~t AnGarnCic~ (fig 2a)~
Over int~rior ~~cCione of the continenC Che 500-mb constant-preasure level
3~ ~eparaCed from eh~ und~rlying eurfBCe by ~n grmngpheriG ~nyer gbnuC 1~5 Co
2 km thi~k~ Sin~~ cyclonic fnrms of b~riC topogrephy ~~re well pronounced at
AT-S00 and nnriayclonic 1oc~tpd belaw them gC A'T-60b, tihen Ch~ layer b~ew~en
theg~ con~tnnt-pr~sgureg levela (~bout 1200 m) repr~g~nes a erangiCional layer
_ from the low~r anticyelonic to ehe upper cyclonic sygCem. With thig verCic~1
preg~ure �iEld gtructure th~re mu~C b~ n vereically orieneed defarmation field
formed by tt~e po~itive verCicral velocities of rtie cyclonic vortex 1ocaCed on Cop
gnd Che descending currente which are invnlved in compen~ation of gir maeses
running nff along the slopes. Thig field~ as g nece~~gry parC of the inter-
acrion between the rropoapheric cyclonic vortex ~nd the surfnce Wind gyaCem,
repreeentg n lnyer of vereical current divergence.
� In analyzing chnnges in atmospheric preasure and mass at ehe Vostok atation
it was found ChuC the moat dynamic lnyer in which interaeaaonal changes in
~tmogpheric mgss most of nll influence the formation of surface pressure is
the lgyer eonCnined between the 600- and 500-mb levels. 7'his can serve as
one of the characteristica of the verCical divergence layer (Aver'yanov and
Voskresenskiy, 1972).
Por Antarctica it is excremely important to study the mechanism of interlati-
tudinal circulation and of vertical movements on the synoptic scale. A.M.
Gusev (1959) provided a Cheoretical foundation for the pattern of ineridional
circulation.
A singte opinion is still lacking regardiag a quanCiCative eatimate of all
elementa of this mechaniam, eince the few verifications of the pattern have
been baaed on disconne~ted data from several stations with not too great a
number of obaervationa.
Nor the Mirnyy - Vostok - Amundsen-Scott s=.:tion we have estimated the momentum
as the transfer of an air mass from one region to another through a ~nit area
in the horizontal (pVy) and vertical (pW) directions.
To construct a profile of the transfer of an air mass in the meridional dt-
rection over the Antarctic Continent, an analysis was~made of the mean monthly
values of ineridional components of the resulting wind (V ) for each year.
In keeping with the orientation of the section, the valu~s of V characterize
the rediatribution of air between tlie eastern and western hemisp~ieres.
37
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~
l~Olt UI~N'IC1AL tJSt'. ~Nt.'~
� ~ - ._---t . _ - = r' .
� ~ . - - ~ _
~ V' . . . - r
~,.y'r" ' ' ti.-�
~ r ~ _ -
- .""""r~ % _ ~
. ~r � ~r1. - - - Mt
/ r,ri~~ K~ -:17'.`'p`_
~ r = v7-_
- ~ ..r,~ :s ~ - _ _ '
~ ~ ~ - - -
. i ! =
: - ~ � t' ~ 1~ti ~ y ' ~ _ _ - _ _ ~
i ~~f ~~1~ ~ '
vu _ - _ _ t . ~ . _ `v~ ~ ' - � ` _ -
ti ~ ~ --1 .
\ ` ~~R) ~ - - - _
_ ` ` ~ ~1"r \ ' - - -
. ',~~~\M 11
\ I , If~. - ~ ~'_'~'I .
' ~`~+T""`,~,1j - _
Ih1 . . ~'~~Jl~
~ . ti. ` E~ ~:y~~rt~~ ~ - ~-'.S.
_ ~i r . - 18
' . . . - - - N+ y..~~tt~' ~ - ' ~
. . ' . ` ~~.r�rw'~~ _ ~ _
. - � ,l. ~y:~'~~~ ,
_ ~ ~ : _ ~_::~N _ ~
. � IW ISl IYI
_ ~ O �
� ~ _ f0
_ -_-~~T!^_' � ~:i~ ~i~
=~;t;_-_ : ~ Y_x..--
:.i.~';
~�I p Y -
: _ ~ G._.._.~_
~ - - r ~ - - .
-~r~~ - ~ i ~ ` 1~~ ~ ~ !0
- ~.~'~_~4n~ � n L: -
. : ~ . :T
- ~ ,nI�� ~ -
. ' _ r 1. _ ' ~ /
y' f~~_~.� _ ~
- ~�3~, _ _~-~i �
I~n~ ~ _ ' ~ ~
~ - _ ' _ ~ _ 10
~ : ~ - _
=~,.~i-_ _ _
. F /JI. . - , f `-Tr_'_----
~ � .:~C~_ _-..i� ...ect-.,.~-~/`~.. , ..I
. ' ISn . , . , ~c~
Figure 2. Mean Pressure Field of Level at 500-mb fa) and 600-mb (b)
Levels in January 8
. 3
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~Olt d~'~ICIAI. USL ONLY
Ov~r the Amund~en-$COCC gCaCinn thig mdv~ment of m~gse~ ig in ~ccord wiCh
rhz znnal componanC~ df Che reeultitig wind v~lociCy~ ~~r L�he purpo~~ of
~laboraCion of Ch~ serucCur~ o~ rran~fer in Ch~ surf~ce layer, in nddieion
nn analysie wa~ m~d~ of m~gn monthly v~lueg of V for mgny yh~r~ gC Chr~e
addition~l levals in ehe lay~r ~rom EarCh tn eh~ ~irgr con~C~?nC-preg~are 1eve1.
_ mhe gir mas~ tran~f~rrabl~ in ehe m~ridional dir~ction for e~ch mdnth accnrd-
ing Co dgCn of many years ~e ~he 1ev~1 of ~areh gnd ae any etandard con~Cgnt-
pregeure 1~ve1 wae deeermined by ehe equation:
n ~
F ~ IPvn)~ ,
n tdl
(1)
where n is the number of ye~rs, (pV ) is the mean monehly value of ehe
momentum for each year, and p ig Ch~ ~ensity of ehe air, defined as:
p=P/RT.
' Fnr the purpose of computing the velocitiea of verCical movement, we utilized
a method baeed on solv~ng the equation fnr the firsC law of thermodynamics.
The utilization of thia method makes iC poesible to limit oneself to the data
of a single station, which is especially impnrCant under conditions of the
~xtremely slighC aerological illuminance of the antarctic region and deter-
mines the advantages of the method aelected over others.
The heat flux equation, taking into account advective, adiabat3c and non-
adiabatic changea in temperature, has the form:
. aa �-(U aX + ~ a 1-" (Ya - Y) -I- ~
~ b! D
(Z)
(the lerter symbols here are the conventional ones).
Local chaages ir. temperature, (aT/8t)1 ~ 8T/at , are determined from the data
of daily rac~iosonde observation, as i6e difference in the mean temperature of
the layer over a 24-hour period. Advective changes in temperature, (8T/8t) _
_-[U(8T/8x) + V(8T/8y)] , are calculated from tl~e data of a single stationg
by means of the thermal wind equation:
8T ~ 1Tm V~ � ViS3t1R~
`v~ 8 (Z~ - Z~)
_ ~3~
39
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1~'UIZ (ll~l~ IC1A1, US1: O1~L.`r
where 7' in eh~ m~an t~mperature nf the lnyer, R ia thQ Corioli~ p~rgmeeer,
g i~ the ~~C~largtiun of $r~viey~ (72 - 7..,; is the thi~kn~se of ch~ lay~r,
V ~nd V~ ~r~ the velocieies of ehe wLnc~ at tiic l~wer and upp~r boundarip~
o~ Che layer, ~nd a is Ch~ wind rotKtion ~ngle it? ~~rm~ ef aleitude.
Non-adinbaeic char?ge~ i.n Cr~r~~craCurc~, (a7'/~t)~a tl c/Cp , ar~ ncc~~ion~d in
our hypoth~gie by ~hp +�adiaeion f~~ror.
,
'Taking ineo nc:co~_~nC the ~light v~rrinbility circulntion Cdnditidns in the
gouth~rn p~lar reg~on �rom ye:ir eo yenr~ we ehuughe it po~~ible to utilize
ealcu]aC~d d~ta for menn r~onthly rgdi~eian fl.ux in differ~ne eCmospherir, l~yere
e~ high laritudeg in the ~outhern hemi~p`~er~ given in P.h~ "A~rnClimaCic Hand-
book" (1972), in which rgken inro ~ccount ag absorbing ~nd radinting componente
o~ th~ ~tmosphere nr~ watEr v~~por, cgrbon dioxide gng, ozan~, oxyg~n gnd
claudinese, i.e., ttte c:alculaCions muse be cdnsidpred feirly compleee. Th~
difference of these ceiculated data from the ~Ctugl in each specific y~ar
r~eults in a r,~~~ch gmaller error Chgn omiagion of the rgdiaeion factor in eolving
the heae flux equation.
Adiabatic chgnges ir? temperature, (~'~/aC)g =-(Y - Y)w ,~r~ d~finEd as the
remainder of heat flux equntion (2). The veloci~y of vertical movementg we
arrive at from ehe equation:
~ ~ ~ rar 1.
Y.-Y ~ ~
(4j
'I'he resul~s of these calculations demonstrate good agreement of the velocities
arrived at with the sign and intensity of ttie development of atmospheric pro-
ceases.
The mean monthly values nver many yeare of the air mass tranaferred in the .
vertical direction throngh a unit area are calculated in the following manner:
n
F;�= ~ (P'~)r~
n ~S~
where (p'w)i is the mean monthly values of the momentum for each year, and
p' is the mean denaity of the air in the layer.
The results of the computations are presented in the form of sections in the . ~
meridional and vertical directiona over Mtarctica along the Mirnyy - Vostok -
- Amundaen-Scott - Byrd line for January and July (fig 3).
40 �
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F'nit t11~'1~ tCtAl, tt5t; ~N1,Y
~
~ Y~' ~i ~~i iv ~ : d b N
' K;','S'~ ~ry~~ ,~iw `~5 .3:y''
~ ~ ~ ati
.
a l I I I'~ ' ' ~ ~6 ~
' ~ ~ ' i
\ ~I~ e O
i f
~
~ 1\ ~ ` ~ a... / s~ ti ,
~ ~ ~ a. ~ ~
O ~ v. ~ ~ ~ /1
. ~ ,,~.y~'i s' ~ 1~
~ ' i i iy y�~.''' ~
~ , ,
i ~
� ~ I ~ lj~'~~ ;od'~~~~:' ~?b. o -
' ~ ( ~ :~~,~.1~1, ~ F 0 ~
b l~ ' i .,,.~i�,. ~b, o
h , / , ~ ;'I'. t':~~.1: ~ ~ _ ~
~i : ~:~I,~'I. Q
~ ~ ~ : t:1~1:F. o
� - ~i~ ~
~ ~ . ~ ~;r.'~:i, ri � , ~
~ ~ ;J ,j j.~~ ~ t ~ � ~
~~~~'~.~i~i:~.,~�' ~
~ ' ~I , I ~
N ',/�'y ~
: j ~%~.X , ' ,n
: ' � e
00 p
^ 0.~...,.. ~ ~ � ;Q~~~ ~8 ~ ^
~
~ ~7
~ H "~a h O h 0 o O 0 ~ h
y' r1 ~V ^a v~ h ~ 0
i ti "~i ti n~. ~ ~ ~o ~v
w ~v v~ y , ~ ~ tV ~ b ~
I ~ ~ ~ / ,0 ~
;
~ i i ~ ~ . ~ o.
, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ / s
, i . , . ~ ~ ~ e
~ ~ ~ . � y
i ~
~ / � l~";`
:
~ ' ; ' . I � ~ ~ ~ ~r~_ �
;1 . l. ,c. ~
~ ~ ~ , I ::~:I. \ .
. ; ; ; ~ ~ ~ ~ 1�~~ ;~1:1'~ ' ~ ~ e }
1 , ~ ~ ~ O ~1~~ ,`\l~ ~ C
, ~
~ ~ ~
~ " ' . ~ ' ' \ o
~ ~ ` ,I \ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ` ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ i 1 ~ ~ fi
~ l ~ ~ :~s , ~
~ ~ ; ; , % : , \ qC~
' j ~ ~ ~ 1 I ' ~t~ V
1 1 \ 1~ ~ T{~ Z
~ ~ ~ ~ a.
~ i i~~` I lI �;l Q
~ ~ ~ ~ , ~ .
I i~ I I I I � ~y.~ �
i, i ~ : ~ h~ 1
� ; ~y i \ ~1
~ N"~ ~h OO OOh0.0 b p . . ~�va~~h ~ ~O
~'~'1 ~ ti 7 h ~ ~~v ~ b ~ m N~
Z
Figure 3. [Continuation, caption and key on folloa?ing pagej
- ~1
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t~'Ok OF'l~ tCt AL fJ~i: ONI.Y
~ti N N ~ ~ h ~ ~ .
~ ti `a ~ , ~ , , . . .'a,~+~.~�
~ ~'ti.,s::
~~~ri ~ ~t1
_..~---"--�_r- e a
> _ ~
i''~.~''i''~ ~ a 5
~ ~ ~ � ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
�
/ ~ \
. ~l ~ ~ ~ o~
~v w ~o ~o ~ ~;y s ~
~ c~\ ~
~ i
~ ~ i ~ 9'` ,
\V~___~ \tl` ~ !
\ I , , � : , ~r, ?
\ ~
, . ~ . . `V~ ` .
� 1~., ~ f ~.1 ~,�I~~~'~ . ~ . V .
o ~ ~ ..;r~~c.'~ a L
~
...:.,r.~~:~~:"~~~;.;:~:~:t~:~ s
` ~ ' ~o ~ 8
, , ,,...;~;.:;;~~EtR'~~ ; \
. .
� . ;~~-i;..~~~:~:,~~~;tt~'~' ~
::~~~~'~;i~�~~~~'~~~�~''~' ~ ^ ~
~1. ~~1::: ,~:tt';~ ~n
,:;..:~.::~::::~;I~;;~~'~~~~~~:~~~~~,;~.~.~F:l'~~E: � ~e
~;f~+.`,`,~~~ti�b: � . 0
r� ~
,
~ H~ e 'r.
~ p o r, oo poh~. ~
0 ~ "~a h ~ ~ h ~ a h ~ ~S
Z . . ~
_ ~ b N ~ ~ ~ ~ N
w~ d' h 'y O 0 ti ~ ~
i'~ . ~ ~ ~ , . . .
. ~ ~ 1 ~ l �
~ /
~ ~ ~ ~ ' I ` r`~~
.
~ ~ ~ ~ . s
, ~ 1 ( i ~ ! ~^r.~...o ~ ~ ~ ,
~ ~ ~ I IiI ^
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ '
! ? ~ 1 , ^
. ~ 1 1 ~ ~
, , ; , , I f
, 1 ~ ( /
1 I ~ ( ( ~ ~ o
~ ~ ` � I ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 E .
~ ~ ' I' i ~ ':rL .
~ I ' r ~ ~:F.,,~ \ A`
~ ~ I j i ; ~'r'~ � ~ ~ ~
~
~ , ~ � . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~
. , y
- i I . Y'~'~�� \ ` ~ ~p
. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~.t~~~:S ~
' .~2;.~~~�~~'~~.;,~'� ~ ~j~y~,. 4~ ~
� . . ' � . ` \ -~~~1"� ~,'~o ~ v~i
rw \
~ ~ : � ` ~1
if~~''.t:l',a+' = .
� ~.i~`~r~:x~~ �
: i't! � ~ 1iw-1 o a
o � � ; �`'0 0~$ e
. . . , ~
~ o 000 o�r�~
i N "~a 'y ~p h ti "Oa ~ ~ ~ eV
Z ^ ~
~
~ Figure 3. Transfer of Air Mass over Antarctica in January (1) and July (2):
a--meridional (10'3 g/cm2�s); b--vertical (10-6 g/cm2�s)
, (itey on folloWing page] ~
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l~cllt 111~1'tC;lAl, 1t91: c1Nl,Y
K~Y =
l. H, tqb 5~ Amund~~n-S~oeC
2. 5outh laeieud~ 6. Vogtnk
3. Anrarcti~ca 7, Mirnyy
4. gyrd
In Janu~ry (fig 3~, 1) in ehe eropngph~r~ ~nd 1nwe~~ 1~yer uf the ~er~eogph~r~
are observ~d two ma~or ~ir mgsg flowg ~im~d tow~rd on~ anoehpr~ ~r~m r~gidn~
of th~ Pacific Oc~~n rh~ ~ir rrav~l~ through ~he geographi~~1 pol~ and the
Voetok ~t~tion to the c~ner~l re$iong of ~~~e Ant~r~ei~g, Above th~ Byrd
station th~g flow ~xtend~ eo an altitud~ of 12~~ km. In eh+~ ~am~ r~gidn ~r~
obaerved m~ximum vglu~~ df momen~um, r~gching n~~r ~arth'g ~urfacp 516.7 X 1.0~3
g/cm2�~; ae the oppogit~ ~ttd ~f the conein~nt--ehrou~h the Mirnyy gCaCion ~r~e--
eh~ ~ir move~ from r~giong di thp Indian On~~n tn the plnteau. Thee~ meridion~l
'flow~ meet at the plat~au. B~cau~~ of th~ cnnvergence nf mnmentum, h~r~ is
formed e gurplue of mg~~, pgrt of which ie compen~~t~d by th~ runoff nf air
in a thin eurfacp layer rhrough ehp Amundaen-5cott ~egeion are~ ineo the area
o� Che Mirnyy etation.
In higher aCmogpheric layerg ie observed a unified meridional trangfer of
masses from rhe Indian Ocean coase of Antarceicg through the geographical pole
td the Pacific Ocean cogst. Thus, in the s~mmer period, in apite of reduced
temperature contrastg, the pattern of horixonCal air movement in the meridional
direction appears rath~r clp~r. The k~y fegtureg of thia pattern are the con-
verg~nce of masaes in the troposphere over the central regions of East Antare-
� ticg ancl the runoff df air from rhe dntne in g thin surface layer.
In keeping with the p~ttern of horizontal movement of air tnasses, a field of
vertical movement also forms in the atmosphere (fig 3b, 1). For example, in
the zone of convergence above the plat~au are observed descending movementa
~with maximum velocities in the tropnsphere an the order of 0.17 to 0.20 cm/e, 2
ahich corresponde to a momentum in this region of from SO�10"6 to 55�10'6 g/cm .
Ascending movements are observed in the troposphere of the coastal zone of
~ East Antarctica (up to 0.45 cm/s in the 850 to 700 mb layer) and over the
Byrd atation (0.21 cm/g in the middle tropoaphere).
Meri3ional flows generally reach their maximum values in July. The greatest
changea have occurred in the stratoephere. Whereas in the summer period over
the region discusaed has been obaerved a unified flow of masaes from the Indian
Ocean to the Pacific Ocean coast, in the winter air from the Pacific Ocean
predominates over West Mtarctica.
The meridional flo~r of air masses in the stratosphere is most intense in the
region of the coast of East Antarctica where momentum values are almost an
order of magnitude higher (from 35�10'~ to 45�10-3 g/cm2�s) than the corres-
ponding velues typical of the area of the Byrd station (from 2�10-3 to 9�10'3
g/cm2�s). This also explaine the poesible anomalies in temperature conditions
observed nwst often over the coast of East Antarctica. They represent the
prerequisitea for springtime rearrangementa of the temperature and preseure
field in the stratoaphere.
~+3
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~ox o~~tc:rnt, us~ nrr~~�
Th~ v~ertical tr~ngf~r o~ uir ma~geg v~rie~ littl.~ �rnm ~~11 td wintier (fig
3b, 2). The m~~llani~am nf mus~ movement is m~iritai~ed b~~or~, wieh eh~
pr~ddminMnC~ of d~~cending movement� dvei� Lt~~t An~~r~tir_n nnd of ascending
mov~m~ntg, mer~ pronaunc~d eh~n in the fa11, ovEr Wegr Ane~rctice, wh~reby thp
di~tinctiv~ f~ature of th~~e movpmentg i~ an incr~~se in rhe inten~ity of
verkicfll trangfer over th~ ~neire r~gidn con~id~red, ~speria].ly iu th~ ~tr~to-
~ph~r~.
'Phe udvenr of ~umm~r cdnditinng in th~ gtrn*.onphprE ig mogt dfeen ~ccnmpllshed
ehrough region~ of ~~ge Antdreei.ca. In 0-.tob~r the amount of nir tran~ferxed
here from the oce~n is r~duced in ~11 layere nf the aCmo~phere. This tgkpe
place chiefly because oE ~ reduaCion in cyclon~ activiey durit~g th~ ~pring
p~riod ag compared wieh th~ wi.nt~r.. 7he mose intenge air ~xchgnge i~ ob~~rved
in th~ 200 to 150 mb iny~r. In preci~ely this g~ction ef th~ ~ergtosph~rp the
totnL eransfer of eh~ qunnti.ty of air is increa~ed from July t~ Oceob~r. Con-
~equently, here take pl~ce greet meridiongl digturbgnc~~, corresponding td the
procees of the in~ruaion of an aneicyclnn~ from ocenn regione onto the mainland.
~ 'Chp intensifiCation r+E the influx of air in the sergtosphere from eh~ direction
of the Indinn Ocean is compenset~d not only on $ccount of ita partial flowoff
in the direction of West Antarctica, but algn becnuse of the activaeion of
descending movements of ma~s~g, whoge rol~ in rhe formation of Ch~ gpring
circulation cycle ia most significane. Beginning in the upper lnyers of the
stratosphere, intensification takee place in th~ descent of air over ~agt Mt-
arctica, along with the spreading of de~cending movements to Weet Antarctica.
~ Por exampl~, over the Amundsen-Scott gtation ascending movements are recorded
in the apring only in the troposphere. Over the coast o� Egst Antaretica in
the mlddle atratosphere the velocity of descending movements reaches 0.8 to
1.0 cro/s.
In Antarctica's air column up to the 20-km point, the mass of the air on
average for a month equals 99.7~1015 kg, and its variationa over the course
of the year equal two percent. This air mass, becauae of the high-altitude
neture of the continent, is 1.4-fold lower (in comparable areas) than the
mean mass over the Arctic, but Che intensity of air exchange is greaCer in
Antarctica than in the tropical zone of the northern and southerri hemiapherea
and the Arctic aC comparable areas. This fact indicates the large role of
vertical movementa of air over Antarctica and of the low-preasure zone near
the coast in air exchange.
It is aufficient to note that the prevailing figure for Che descent of air
over the continent from a maximum in the 700 to 500 mb layer equala on average
115.6�1015 kg/month. .
The regular receipt of satellite information in Mtarctica begun in 1970 hea
made it~posaible to discover a number of features which have substaetially
refined our ideae regarding the circulation and dynamics of the atmosphere
in the southern hemisphere. Unlike ideas formed earlier, artificial Earth
aatellite data have demonstrated that the zonal paths of cyclones are dis-
tributed over a rather extensive area. The axis of this area, characterized
. 44
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~'Ok c)t~'~ICtAL U5~ nNLY
by ~ m~ximum number t?f pgeh~, pgs~~s ~pproximat~ly ~1~n~ Sg� 1~C~tud~ gouCh,
~ bue not n~gr Ch~ ~on~C, wng ChoughC earlier. ~he ndrth~ern boundary nf
~on~1 p~the o~ cyalane~ migr~e~~ frdm G5 to 50� latitude gouth in the warm
s~a~on Co 35 Co 40� laCitude gouth in th~ cold. ~his face ha~ been refl~ceed
aleo un charCe obegin~d for di~tribution of th~ clnud cever~
In gCudying gCmo~ph~ric proceg~eg in Che ~outh~rn hemieph~re it wgg ~~tabli~h~d
Ch~t here n11 proce~aes can be gen~ralix~d intd ehree forms ~f circulatinn: ~
zon~l nnd Cwo meridion~l. On this b~gis ~Cmd~pheriC procesgeg at high laeitudeg
in the sourhern hemieph~re hAVe been given ~ gCandgrd cla~sificarion. 7'hia
etandard claesification hag made it ro~aibl~ ta ~xt~nd the mricrocirculation
n~thod of weather for~ca~ting of th~ AANII (Arceic and Antarctic Seientific
Resegrch In~tieut~~, ag w~ll gg the hydrodynamic meehod b~~~d dn utilixing ~
apecerum model of the dynamica of planeeary ~tmo~pheriC circul~Cidn, to ehe
high 1~Citudee of the souehern hemieph~re.
Experiments hav~ been Conducted on mathematical modeling of cirCUlgtion in the
southern hemi~ph~r~ at th~ AT-500 l~vel. A det~rminarion wne made of the nature
of the influence of nonlinear factors on the formaeion of a longterm trend in
the developmenC of atmoapheric circulaeinn. ~xperimente in for~cagting AT-500
for eight Co 10 24-hour periodg have been run on the "Minsk-32" computer. The
correctneas of theae experimental forecases ha~ be~n gbout 80 percent.
Th~~l Conditions
The role of the polar regiona ia great in the formation of Chermal contraets
on the planetary ecale, and, consequently, of the intensity of overall atmo-
spheric circulation, aince the greatest temperature ranges are observed in theae
regions.
The mean annual air temperature in the aurface layer along 70� latitude north
and ~outh equals -9.2 gnd -11.0�C. I~urthermore, the annual temperature range
in Antarctica equals 17.1�, whereas in the Arctic it equals 31.6�. Consequently,
the thermal conditions of the coast of Antarctica are more "marine" than thoae
of the coastal regions of the Arctic Ocean. Of course, a great, if not a ma~or,
role in the stability of the air temperature on the coast of Antiarctica belongs
to the foehn effect during.the period of flowoff winda. For this reagon on
the coast of East Mtarctica in the cold aeason of the year the air temperature
ia :ive to seven degrees higher than in the analogoug season in the Arctic.
P.nd in the Warm season of the year in Antarctica, in spite of the increased
influx of shortwave solar radiation resulting from the perihelion position of
. Earth in its orbit, because of the glacier's high albedo, the air temperature
turna out to be nine to 11 degrees lower than that of the Arctic.
The vertical distribution of air temperature has a~ade it possible to determine
the structural features of the atmosphere's composition. At intracontinental
stationa the troposphere is colder than at coastal, and the stratosphere is
warmer in aummer and colder in winter. In the troposphere the difference be-
tween,the mean temperature in January and July in the 500 to 300 mb layer
equals about 12�, and in the stratoaphere reaches 45 to 55� at the 10 to 20 mb
~+5
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1ev~1~ 'The above-mentionad ~e~~on~ fdr t~mper~eure gC~biliey in ehe ~urf~c~
' 1ny~r (edvection of ~ea ~3r ~nd nd~.abgei~ ~~rn.~ming ae it deg~~nd~) r~2~u1t i~
th~ fact that rh~ continentnl ~egtures exp~ct~d in eh~ upp~r tropogphc~re nre _
nor obeerved.
Th~ ~p~tial poeition of isnth~rm l~velg ov~r Antarctic~ h~~ ~ numb~r of w~ll
pronounc~d fegture~. '"lie key d3stin~Civ~ featur~ of th~ therm~l fi~1d of
Ant~rnCica'~ tropo~pl~er~ is th~ ~lope of igdtherm lpv~l~ which ~onCact th~
continenC'g ic~ cap. ~'hie feaCure, as i~ ch~ pr~~encc of a~urfac~ cold cap,
i~ moet cl~arly pronounc~d in etie ~i.?1e~r. '
Chnn~~g in thern~al fi~ld~ in the fir~r t�1f of tih~ f~11 p~riod gre mo~t pro-
naun~~d in the etraCosph~r~, whprn the drnp from J~nuary? to April ~quglg 33�.
7'he temperaCure drop ~t ~grt':'~ gurfec~ r~ach~~ 30�, and in the trnpospher~
- fnur degr~~~ maximum. Ag the reault of thes~ rhangeg by April~a region o� ,
cold forms at eltitudes of abouC 25 to 30 km. There ie pronouncad intenaifi-
cntion of~thiK region of cold in the area of Che tropopguse and in the ~urface
layer. All three of theee rold centers., po~itioned one above th~ othpr~ are _
localixed within the boundarie~ of the mainland, which apparently points tc~ward
Che grawing ro~e of radiation cooling and toward th~ cooling influence of the
mainland.
The form of i8otherm~ in April crentes the impreasion that in the lower strato-
sphere Chere exigte a warm ring eurrounding g column of cold air. This ring
of warm air, which hag been tr~ccd at altitudeg of 10 to 16 km, and haginning ~t ;
about 55� laeitude south, ut altitudea of ~2 to 15 km, is located approxin~tely
over c~:~ continent's coastline. ~
. By mid-winter, over Mtarctica at altitudea of 20 to 25 km is located a strato- ;
apheric region of cold with a mean monthly ~emperature of about -90�. In
~ addition to this region, over East AntarcCica there is a well pronounced aur-
face region of cold with a mean temperature in July of -68� (Vostok etation).
The subsequent aeasonal temperature changes are highly noteaorthy in terma of
the annual cycle. fihe temperature rise process (from July to November) is .
most observed (approximately -50�) at altitudes of 20 to 25 km and (approximate-
ly~-20�) in the eurface laqer on the glacial dome. The slighteet changes
(4 to 7�) are obaerved in the middle and upper tropoaphere.
In the 9~mner the stratospheric Warm-air region i9 situated above 30 km, and
the lowest-temperature region at the level of the tropcpauae (-54�). To de- ~
termine p~riods of seasonal transformations in thermal fields in the lower
etratoephere, we have analqzed the annual behavior of temperature at conatant-
presaure levels of 200, 100 and 50 mb at the Mirnpy? station (fig 4). At these
levels~ in the annual thermal cycle are found periods representing intraseasonal
and interaeasonal transformatiana~ i.e., the appearaace of a vi.nter minimum,
a spring rise in temperature, conversion of lapse rgtes to inveraione, the
appearance of a spring-aummer meximum, a period of summer high temperature~ aad
a fall-winter drop, in the course of Which a reverse takes place ia temperature
lapae rates from summer inveraion to winter.
~ 46
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Usunlly in ~h~ ~nnunl Cyc~~ ~hppc~nr~nceg of cxCrgmp t~mper~tur~ nre -
e~pararect by ~ p~riod n~ ~ h~l~ ~ y~~r, but ehi~ i~ nnt ob~erv~d her~. Accord-
irig Co the mean data ~he appear~nce o~ a minimum x~mp~r~~ur~ ar ~1~. ~qua1-
preesure levels aecure ee very bri~f intervale~-between 5 and 18 Auguet, i.e.,
8bout the middle o~ ~h~ a~eronomi,cal wineer.
'C
~
~ ~O { �'~y L^~ ~~~?'~t~,l
i i i
-so ~ ~ ~ ~ f~
I ~ V'
� ~1 i Y .
' ~ ii~!l
' ,,6c ' ~ ~ ~ i ~
,~i '
; r 3 ?f' ~~~L~
ri~~~~ A ' ~i:i 'j ~il~ if~ ~J~~
-7p i : r ~ ~
~ ~
_ Z~;~~~ r~~~~. r t,ti ~ t
I ~ ; ~ 1 r
-SO ~+~kf 1
v , ~ ~
, � ----t
-'~0 ~ ~ !1 I dI ~
Figure 4. Annual Behavior of Air Temperature aC Conatant-Pressure
Levels of 50 mb (1), 100 mb (2) and 200 mb (3) at Mirnyy
in 1967
The length of the period from the Winter minimum to the spring temperature
. maximum in the 100 to 50 mb laqer equalg on average 108 to 114 daya, which
ecr.ountg to $omewhar~les$ than on~ third af the year. At the 200 mb level
the average length of this period equals 158 days. It is neceseary to note
the gignificant dirferencee in the thermal cycle between the 200 mb constant-
presaure level and the 100 and 50 mb levels. It is obvious from comparing
the behavior of ~:~e temperature in theae layers that during the wara~ season
~ the 200 mb level proves to be the colde~at, whereas in the cold half of the
year it is the warmest. In addition, the period of appearance of a tempera-
ture maxfmum at the 200 mb level comea about 50 daqs later than at the 50 mb
level. This agrees with the knam seasonal features of temperature diatribu- ,
' tion in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere.
Especially promiaent in the annual cycle is the apring rearrangement of
temperature fields in the loWer etratosphere~ Which we will diacuss in~very
great detail. This can be considered the key period for the appearance of
nonperiodic disturbances of the annual temperature cycle. A characteristic
feature of thia period is a very rapid rise in temperature in the lo~rer
� ~7
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eCraeo~phcr~. Thp ri~e in C~~qp~r~Cure in these lnyers ~,s such ehat by the
end of Che eprin~ re~rr~n~~mene ChG t~~mperaCUre h~re r~ache~ values which
gre maximum v~lues gt Ch~ae l~vel~ f~x ehe ~n~ire year, ~lehough Chey occur
in th~ second hel~ oP ehe n~Cxonomi,Cal ~spring ~eason~ and not in ~h~ summer.
'Th~ appearance o� a m~ximum ~emper~Cure is observed ~~e the 100 ~nd 50 mb
CongCgnC-pregsure levels nC middle periods--from 5 Nnv~mber eo 21 December, ~
i.e.. in the eecnnd halE of the a~tronomic~l. spring ~t~son, nnd at the 200 mU
level between lb gnd 25 Jnnu~ry, which arproximaCeLy correapond5 to the middle
of the ngCronomical summer senaon~ ~
A change,of gign in temperurure ].Hp~e rate~ (reversal) glways accompaniee aea-
gonal rearrnngemene~ of gtrntoa~heric: eemperature and pressure fields. Periode
of revergal of temperarure lap~e ratea quite clearly reflect aeneonnl changes
in atmoapheric circulation Caking p1aCe at theae levels.
The proces~ of gpring revereal of lnpee rates must be associated with lowering
of the warm-air region, which, having formed in the higher layera of the strato~
sphere, is spread downward, causing deformation of the stratospheric portion ,
of ~he cyclonic vorCex.
A deCermination was made of spring daCes of the rever.sal of temperature lapae
rates in the layer between the 200 and 50 mb consCant-presaure levels for nine
antarctic atations, from radiosonde observation data for 1961-1970 (the length
of periods for some stations equaled from six Co 10 years). Mean dates were
determined from specially plotted curves.
As the result of an analysis of Chese curves, the following mean dates were
arrived at for tre reversal of temperature lapse rates i.n the spring period ~
in the layer between the 200 and 50 mb levels:
Mirnyy 14 5ep . Amundsen-Scott 8 Oct
Vostok 30 " Halley Bay 14 "
Molodezhnaya 25 Sep Argentine Islands ' 20 "
Novolazarevskaya 4 Oct Hallett 23 " ,
. Byrd 6 Oct
Consequently, the period during which spring reversal of temperature lapse
rates takes place over Antarctica in the 200 to 50 mb layer on average equals
the period from 14 September to 20 October, i.e., corresponds to the first
half of the ~stronomical spring season.
7t can be assumed that there can~be well pronounced seasonal reversals in
temperature lapse rates only at thc higher latitudes. This assumption is
based on the fact that, if the reversal of lapse rates is associated with
seasonal rearrangements of~aCratospheric circulation, then the spatial spreading
of this phenomenon must be limited to those latitudes at which a seasonal
change in sign in atratospheric temperature and pressure ~ields takes place.
To verify these ideas, consideration was given to data for Howe Island for
seven years (1962-1963, 1965-1969}. It was determined that no seasonal re-
versal of temperature lapse rates is observed on Howe Island.
~Fa ~
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Similar temperatur~ data we~~ cpr~sidered fox the Macc~u~x~.e Islands (ap~rox.
54� laCitude s.puth) kor the per~,od 1963~1969. The temperature cycle on the
Macquarl.e Ts~.ands proyed to be more disturbed Chan on Hqwe Tsland, but con-
siderably emoothed out as compared wiCh anta~rceic sCattons. During periods of
apring atraCospheric r~arrangements, which were recorded at higher latitudes,
on the Macquarie Islanda there waa a moderate rise in temperaCure, but no
reversal took place in lapae rates in the 200 to 80 mb layer.
In comparing the data presented ~t is obvious that in the range layers con-
sidered the temperature riaes along the line ~rom low latitudes to high.
The e~rliest dutes of Che reversal are recorded in the Indian-Australian sec-
tor, and Che latest in the Atlmntic sector. We know that during periods of
= spring rearrangement of temperature and pressure f ields in the stratosphere -
' of AnCarctica the center of the stratospheric portion of a cyclone shifts
- into the Atlantic sector. If this pattern does occur, then applying it to
the phenomenon discuased can explain the position of isochrones for the re-
- versal of temperaCure lapse rates in the lower stratosphere.
In spite of the fact that the spring periods of a rise in temperature comprise
a portion of seasonal transformations of Chermal fields, Chey are usunlly con-
sidered stratospheric warmup periods. Therefore, the above-mentioned periods
of a rapid spring rise in temperature and the appearance of a temperature
max~mum must be considered the consequence of stratospheric warming, observed
during spring rearrangement of stratospheric temperature and pressure fields.
During the period 1961-1969, at the Mirnyy, Vostok, Molodezhnaya and Novolaza-
revskaya stations this warming was observed each spring season. Since this
warming (like the reversal of lapse rates) is observed each year, th~s provides
~ an oppc~rtunity to represent it by certain mean characteristics. Taken as
�thQ beginning of this warming is the end of the period of level temperature
lapse rate reversal, and as the end, the time when the temperature reaches
a maximum.
The spring stratospheric warming period exhibits differences from winter
warming. In this connection it is possible for a certain vagueness to arise
. in zxpZainir.g the time limits ;or the phenomenon, since during this period
_ ~ the ri3e in temperature more ~ften does not take place smoothly, but consists
of certa~n fiuctuation3 ove: a considerable range. For example, very typical
~s t:~e year 1967 (cf. ~~!g 4), when at Mirnyy at the 50 mb level from 20 Sep- -
tember through 31 October (42 days) were observed five fluctuations with an
'average range of about 28�.. Usually 3n one of these concluding fluctuations
. the annual temperature maximum is rec~rded, after which the temperature drops
somewhat and during the period of the warm season no longer reaches values
of this sort. The impression is created that the temperature of these layers,
in addition to the seasonal cycle brought about by radiational causes, ex-
periences the influence of certain aperiodic sur~es which create fluctuations
over a wide range against the backdrop of the seasonal rise in temperature.
These surges must berrelatecl to the in�luence of~dynamic factors which arise
during the spring disturbance o~ the stratospheric portion of the cyclonic -
_ . ~+9
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vortex~ 'Ch~ in~luenc~ o~ dyn~miC fa~tor~ durinp, thi~ periad has been
knowled~pd by many inv~~tiggCor~~ :~1Chough tn~y sameCime~ atCnch ~ dif~erenC
eigniPicnncc~ to ir.
The mnniEestntion nf th~ annu~~. temp~rnCur~ maximum in the lower gtr~togph~tie
over Anenrctic~ hgs n r.att~rr broad ~nnge o~ vnr3eti.dn in e~rm.~ of gpac~ ~nd
time. por example, whe~.ea~ the mgximum ie tna~t n~e~n observ~d a~ th~ 50 mb
lev~l in November, the 100 mb l~vel ie i~ ~b~erved in D~c~mber, gnd aC th~
200 mb level in ~'anuary. Ze ie obvinug f rnm ehis thae wieh n r~duet~.rn in
nltitude the time for appearunce of Che maximum ~hifCg tn later periods, i.~.,
ig ~xtended from up en down. 'I'hi~ has been verified by th~ m~~n and ~xtrem~
dat~s of appeaYance of Che temperaCur~ m~ximum.
The m~on length of the pcrioc? :.om revnrsnl of lapee r~C~g in the 200 tn 50 mb
lnyer ko the upp~~rnnce of ehe maximum temperature ge th~ 200 mb ~eve1 is
107 d~y~, nC ehe 10b mb l~v~l 75 dayg, and ~t Ch~ SO mb level 55 dny~. buring
ehis p~riod ~.t~ 76 percent nf the Ga~es th~ temp~rature ~e the 50 mb level rie~g
from 31 eo 40�.
'Che ~pring temperature maximum in thc low~r eCratoaphere is obaerved first in
the Indian-Auatralian eecCor, and then moves in th~ dir~ction of the AtLantic
aector. It ig poggible ChaC ehese ch~racterietic feature~ of the apring tem-
perature cycle in Ch~ lower gcratospher~ are determined by the featurea of
ntmoapheric circulation in rhe Indian-Austral3an secCOr.
It ia obvious,ehnt all rhi~ is the result of a rise in b~roclinicity here,
which e;.;nbliahes thia sector ag the place for the earliest epring disturbance
of the ..ycle of the atraCospheric portion of tha cyclonic vortex.
_ Antarctica's Hydrological Cycle�
As the result of existing climati~c conditions, about 90 percent of the fresh ~
water of rivers, lakea and glaciera on the globe is concentrated in Antarctica.
The dyti~amics of these resources is of extraordinaYily great importance to
the entire globe (Voskreaenskiy, 1967; "The World's Hydrological Cycle...,"
1974). Antarctics 3oes no~ have c~nsiderable sourcea for humidifying the
atmosphere for the purpoae of maintaining the cycle within the range of the
region; therefore, the key role in snow accumulation belongs to the advection
of water vapor from ocean regions.
In the table are given the characteristics of the hydrological cycle for
three regions of Antarctica typical of the ma~or ge~graphical zones of the
continent (Voskresenakiy, 1916). Takic~g into account the relative stability
of atmospheric proceases in Mtarctica, the aseumption was made that each '
aerological atation characterizee a region 280,000 km2 in area (effective
radiua of atation, 300 km). '
A characteristic feature of the ice ahelf zone is, in addition to high evapor-
ation in the summer aeason (10 km3), the considerable aublimgtion of water
. 50
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f~'dlt UF'P'IC1At, U5L ONi,Y
vapor dn the ~ur~nc~ nF ~h~ in~ durin~ Ch~ ~rinter ppri~d, whiCh Cdtnl~ 1g km~,
mhe hydrnl~gic~1 cycl~ co~,~~ici~nte ~or all zdn~s ~r~ nde eoo high (1.Od to
1~U4)~ whiCh ie indic~eive of Che edveceiv~ ~ource of precipit~eion. 'The
~tmoeph~ric drein of mni~ture ceus~d by ~vapor~tion equalg from z~ro in the
ice ~helf xon~ to 49 km3 in Che coast~l zone and r~fl~ces ehe circulation
feature~ of th~se region~. ~h~ r~ei~ of the tota~ atmoapheric removel of
moigture from th~ region Co rhe occurrence nf precipiention poine~ Coward
mild precipiCeCion forming procesee~. In the ice ~he1f zone p/P faceor~
equal 1.00 to 0.9g ae the VosCnk s~atiion, gnd 0.97 gC the Mirnyy ~eation.
CharaCteriseics of Ch~ Hydroingic~l Cyclp in the ACmo~pher~ Over AnCarcC~cu
for th~ Y~nr
Characterietic Ice Shelf Inern- Coastal zone
zone (Lazn- con~i- (Mirnyy gCation)
rev eeation) nental
region
(Vos tok
s CnCion)
Area, km2 ~ 280,000 280,000 280,000
Precipitation, P~ km 80.1 10.4 119.6 '
Atmospheric moisture
content in 0-7 km
layer, W, km3 0.8 0.1 1.0
ToCal annual moisture
transport, A~ km3 444 25 605
AdvecCive precipitation,
P, 1:m3 80.1 10.2 114.4
Precipitation from evapo-
ration from continent,
p, 1~3 0 0.2 5.2
TransiC of moisture acrosa
continent, C ~ A - P ,
~j g 361 15 491
Atmospheric runoff of
moisture cauaed by evapora-
tton from cor.~inent, C2 @ E-
- P, km3 . 0 0.92 48. S
Total remova? of naistuMe in the
atmoaphere from continent, C =
~ C1 + C2, km3 361 16 540
Hydrological cycle coefficient 1.0 0.98 0.97
Note: The concept "precipitation" includes accumulating (aublimation) pre-
cipitation, P = P + P .
accum
Since the zones selected are typical, the advective origin o~ the precipitation
does not cause doubt. The mechaniam for rhe advection of moisture remaina in
51
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n~~d of expl~nation. In fi,g S i~ ghown th~ eoCal m~ridiona]~taoi~tur~ trane- ~
~.~ort av~xaged ~rom d~ily dgCa ~or a p~riod d~ many ye~r~ ~rom Che Mirnyy -
- Voetok - Nnundsen-9cott - Byrd - Arg~ntine xs].and~ ecationA in ~n atmoepheric
column ~xtendi,nffi ~YOm the und~rlying g~r~ace Co 5 km, inclueiv~. The moleCure
traneport fi,gures given here agree wall wiCh ~he exigCing patt~rn of circula- ~
tion over MtarCei.c~. In the winter in the Lropoaphere thc moiature traneport
ie directed ftiosn th~ 'indinn Oc~an toward Antarctica (Mirnyy stiation), with a
max~mum at ehe 3 km level (-1.5 g/kg/m�g). 2n the area o~ ehe Voatok gtation
the treneporC figura equale z~ro. From the dir~~Cion nf the Antarctic Penin- ~
~ulg ie directed a large-ecal~ tran~port of moie~ure, which at the 3 km level ;
equals 3.U g/kg/m~e and reaches the South ~ole.
~
0 ;
� ~?~r ,
-
, . ;
~ ma i
,
-.r J~-
M~ r ' . e.ro ' -
s A.?.r~nh 2 3 ANJ?Aunl'NO~ 4~~aoast 5~ Mr/~rw' i
1~~' ~
/ Q,~ ~ ~qf ~ ~i ? ' ~
~ ~ r
i ~
/ ~~.~j ~ I
_ ~
-~i/ f00 I
~
~a ~t d~ ,
],~i-,~I..,~r 2) 3) ~ri~M?-~w~ y) 5) ~?,o~w++ � :
. I
Figure 5.' Total Meridional Moieture TYansport Over Antarctica (kg/m�s) ~
in January (a) and July (b) ,
Key: ~ ~
1. A:gentine Isla:~de 4. Voatok
2. ByYd �5. Mirnyy
3. Amundaen-Scott b� p, ~ ~
In the diatribution of moisture there is.a diatinctlp pronounced influence .
of orography on the depth of penetration o~ air masses into the continent.
On the West Antarctica side, which is mildly sloping and narrow, moiat maeses
from the ocean penetrate into the interior of the coatinent in cyclonic forma- ,
tiona two timea �urther than in East Antarctica. In East R~tarctica,~by ;
52 .
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virtue df eh~ congider~bl~ height above ge~ leve], ~nd great steepne~~ d~ the
elope, CyC~.Ori@e ~gunlly canndt p~netr~te f~r inCo ehe interior df Ch~ ~dn-
rinene, and thos~ rh~e do ~rp wiehout Ch~ lnwer moge moigture b~aring e~cCinn.
In [he gummertime rhe digtri.buC~.on of m~ridional er~n~part is practiCarly
m~intainQd compl~tely~ ~ut there is ~ chan$~ in rhe propdr~ion of cnmponenC~
in the transport~ Wieh a ewofold increga~ in th~ ~tmo~ph~ric mnietur~ Cnneenr
ehe merid~.onaL compon~nr o~ tih~ wind v~lncity ig reduc~d, ~nd on Che whol~ Che
tr~ngport of moi~ture in ehe eropogpher~ r~m~ing eh~ s~me a~ in winC~r.
Zonal Cranspore of moi~Cure ~videncps ~ di$tin~Cly pronounned ~nnual cyc1~
and i~ reduced drageically from ~oggtg.l regiang inro rh~ inter3dr of Ch~ ~on-
tinent.
It is of speaific inC~re~C t~ ~gCimnte ehe amount of duegid~-cloud precipiCgCion,
g phenamendn widespregd in Anearctica. Th~ exigeing me~hani~m for m~ridional
_ cirCUleCion cdntinuougly supplies r~lgtively warm and moise ocean air eo th~
- upper tropoephere nnd lower strnCogphere. The moisCure rontent neer Che under-
lying gurface ig exceprinnally 1ow becnuse of rhe 1ow Cemperatur~. Thue,
humidity inversion is created, which is ob~erv~d prac~ically all ye~r. Be-
_ cause of deacending mnvementa, "moigt" air masses r~ach eaturation, and the
crysCals formed fall to the surface. This phenomenon is wid~spread in Cerms
of time and space, and, in spite of negligibly low 24-hour figures (lesa than
0.1 mm), about 60 km3 of waeer falls over Antarctica annually.
. '
i
j .1=1600 c~a/10 L'=t70 ~
I ~
~
~
1 ~
1 j
1 ~
i P+~20 1) , i
e~
i ~ ~
X ~ = Ea 16J ~
s ~t
Y
Pigure 6. Diagram of Hydrological Cycle in Antgrctica (km3): A--advection
of water vapor; P--precipitation in the~form of sublimation
of water vapor atsthe surface; Pk--precipitation on account of
crystals; P--precipitation from advective water vapor; P--
total amoun~ of precipitation per year; c'--transit advection
of water vapor; C--annual extent o~ evaporation
xey: '
1. P
s
53 .
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t~ut~ t11~ t~ t t: ~ At, rt:;t, ctNi,t'
In ~ig 6 ln qhown ~t i1lrt~r~m d~ thn hydrnln ic~l cyet~ in Ant~rctlCa. We
hav~ ~r_e tnCnl ~nnunl ~dveceion ge Z600 km~, i500 km~ nf which go~q tnward
precipitaCion. Water v~pnr frdm ev~poratlon (~,60 m~) ~.H gpp~r~ntly renu~ved
by runo@f, end clc~ud formaCi,on prorc~g~g (degc~nding mov~m~n~s) hgv~ Pvolv~d
but ~lighCly in Antar~ti~a. Thug~ climatic runo~`f equals gbdue 270 km3 c~f
w~e~r p~r y~~r, which ~qu~7.~. dne t~nth of the entire t~~tn1 c~E r~dvectinn plus
~v~porgtion. 'Twenty-th:ce hundrQd cubic kildm~e~r~ ~re wiLti~r~un frdm ehe
glob~l ltydrologicgl cycl.e Co maintnin ttte 250b km3 c~f pr~ci.p:it~Cion Whi~h
fall~ on Antgrctacn. '~h~ problem of thp r~rurn of thi~r wgt~r tn eh~ global ,
oceen hag not ;+~t b~en ~rpaCnd fu~ly. O~i th~ whol~, Ant~rcei~~, which com-
prieee about 2.5 perc~ne o� the toC~1 t~r~~ ~f ~arth, nnnually can~um~g nbduti ~
gix parcent of ttte ~urplu~ moi~tur~ detiv~red ~.nt~ th~ aemogpher~ by ehe glob~l
ocegn~
Tha Cooling Role df Antarcticg
~ o ~
~
r _
- ,
_ _ _ _ ~
~ - -
_ r-.~ - ~
J'f
- ~ '
- . -
- _ _ - \ ' ~ ~
_ - ~.~i .
,
~ I \ t
_ _ ,
I
~ - M~:_ _ _ ~
- '
" - ~
~so ib ~so +
~
Figure 7. Deviationa o~ Mean Mnual Values of Air Temperature in the ~
~ 1-5 km Layer at Points on the Coordinate Syatem, From Mid-
Latitudc Values
,
54 ;
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t~c~lt r~I~F'It,tAt, ityh: nNt,Y
in gtudying ehe ehermdl ~ycle d~ the ~emo~phere nt high lgtitud~~ in th~
eouthern h~migph~re, the quepeion ~rig~g a~ the ehermgl inf~u~n~e o.~ Ant-
araei~n dn rt~~ gCmn~phere nnd dc~an. V~A. Bu~~y~v (],967) sCet~d ChgC Chig
qu~~rion ie o~ gr~aC inCeregC ,From eha vipwpninc df both knowl~dge and prg~-
tirality,
L~t u~ di~~u~~ Chig prdblem, ~tilixing d~Ca on devietion~ o~ air e~mp~r~turp
figureg at po3ne~ nn th~ g~ograph3e~1 ~yge~m of codrdin~e~~ from th~ mid-
laCieud~ v~lup in thp 1-S 1cm layer (fig 7). The gpatial diaeribution of
air C~mperature deviaCion figureg m~k~~ ie pos~ible to poine out we11 prd-
no~ncpd are~s of d~vigtion wieh diff~r~ne ~ign~, pneition~d gymmperiCglly
in rel~tion eo th~ Ant~rceic Conein~nt~ Ie hgg eurned ~ue ChgC for th~ 1~wer
tropoeph~r~ ar mod~r~t~ ~nd high 1aCitud~~ in Che Aelaneic-Indinn gector nega-
tiv~ devi~eione are characCeri~tic, and po~itiv~ for eh~ I'arific Ocpan ~ector.
I~'rom thig it ie po~sib~.e to se~ Chat Ch~ 1ow~r tropogpher~ ~s ~hown to b~
consid~r~bly colder in the Atlant~.c-Indian s~ceor that ge th~ sam~ latieude~
in the pacific Ocean sector.
It ig po~eible to grrive gt an explanatidn fnr thig distribueion nf centere
of deviaCinn by comparing th~ relaeive pogition of latieude circl~s and ieo-
hypaes nf the 700 mb constane-presgure level, which can be considered Che
midpoint of thie lgyer. Igohypaes on the mean annu~l AT-700 charC deviate
from 1~titude circles in suc~ a way that in the Pacific Ocean sector the ad-
vection of air tgkes place from low lat~tudeg ro higher tiheae transport), and
in the Arlantic-Indian sector there is a well pronouncec~ meridional component
running f.rom high latitudes Co lower (cold transport). ConaequenCly, the po-
sition of centers of deviation in temperature with different aigns in terms
of the mid-latitude temperature ia found to agree with the predominating forms
of tranaport in thie layer. On this basie it can be said thae the 3nfluence
of Antarctica as a source of cold is most pronounced in the Indian sector.
3'he position of zenea with the thickest ice cap in Antarctica and with the
maximum extent of ice during the year agrees completely with the position of
cold advection zones. Attention should be paid to the great ruggedneas of
the coastline of Antarctica in areas of location of heat centers and to the
comparatively mild features of the coast of E~at Mtarctica where the cold
center is located.
Another estimate of the coolirig influence of Mtarc~tica is repreaentt~ci by the
expenditure of heat in the equatorial zone to compensate radiational cooling.
This figure has been estimated at approximately 5.25�1022 J. In addition,
as indicated above, about 9�10`~ rons o~ anow are removed from the continent's
coastline into the sea, for the thawing of which it takes 1.93�1011 J. Of
course, these are ~ust rough estimates which will be re�ined in the future,
but they indicate Antarctica's significant role in the atmospheric energy
balance. .
Conclusion
Since Antaretica ia a key heat sink region in the Earth-atmoaphere system,
meteorological conditions in this region will become more intelligible in
55 .
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t~01t cit~t~'tC1AL lJ5N, hNt.,l'
r~la~idn td ~ cqn~ider~tidn ehe th8rm~1, mni~ture ~nd ener~y bnl~ne~ ~nd
o~ ehoe~ phy~iC~~, pra~~~se~ wh3~h ehey det~tmin~. 5tgrCin~ ~rom Ch~s~ pr~-
mieea~ Ch~ cnain objeeCiv~s in Che ~rea o~ eh~ m~eporology o~ thf,g r~gion c~n
b~ ~ormuleC~d in eh~ foliowing m~nn~r:
1. R~~earch on th~ radiatiou balance and d~v~ldpmene hf n ma~1~1 ~f ~~Cand~rd
actinometric atmosph~r~. Th~ ~dlueidu ~d thie probL~m involve~ gn ~xt~n~iv~
combinat3on of ~tudi~~ in eh~ fr~~ atmogpherd which ig aleo of ind~p~ndenti
~ciQnCific and ar.plied ~ignificenc~ (temp~~:aCur~ pr~fil~g, waC~r vgpor, carbon ~
dioxide~ oxon~, cloudine~e~ gero~ol~).
2. ltesearch on rhe gtatigeical structure of mQeeorolagical fields and dev~lop-
ment of cliroatological "eeandard~" fdr the purpose of forecasting ~nd etudying
contemporary climatic tr~and~. ~
3. tt~eeerch on the mechgnigm far cirnulgtiun (vert~.cal movementg and hdrixon-
' tel flowe) of preasure formations and on the quaneiCgtive characteri~tics of
the atmonpher~'~ ma~~ balancp.
4. Rasearch on thermxl ~nd energy transpore~ both within the gcope of the
region itaelf, gnd at iCe oueer limiCs, for th~ purpoee of a quanCitative
eatimate of the role of Antarceica as a he~t and energy ~ink, and on the role
of descending winds, ~tmospheric fronts, cyctoneg, anticyclonee and ~et streams ~
in the energy bglance. '
5. tteaearch on the atmo~pheric hydrological cycle, and deeermination of the
role of :,ntarctica as a region for the runoff of atmoepheric moisture. 7'he
influen..e of the cryogphere on the climate and weather of various regiona.
ttesearch on continental ice and anow as climate indicatora. ,
6. Development of models of climate and atmospheric circulation as means of `
forecasting cli~te changea on a longterm basis. ~
Accompliahment of thia program will enable us to come considerably cloeer to ~
a quantitative estimate of the role of Antarctica in overall atmoapheric cir-
culation. The resulta of recent reaearch preaented briefly here have demon- ~
strated the posaibtlity of new quantitative eatimates of conditions and pro- ~
ceases in the atmosphere of Antarctica and of its influence on ad~acent terri-
tories. ;
4
Bi,bliography ~ ,
1. Aver'yanov, V.G. und Voskreaen~kiy, A.I. "Certain Fcatures of the Annual ?
Preseure Cycle at the Voatok Station," TRUDX SAE, Vol 60, 1972.
2. Artem'yev, A.N. "Interaction Between the Atwoaphere and Underlying Sur- ~
face on the Mtarctic Plateau," TRUDY SAE, Vol 66, 1976. ~
+
. _ 56
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CO[i Ut~'~tCIAt. USt, hNLY
3. A~eappttk~, ~'~U~ "Atmo~~~r,nyye pr~C~~~~y V vy~nkikh ~hfrat~kh Xuxhnogd
polU~h~ri~?~" (Atm~~ph~ric Prneegg~~ ge High La~itud~g in ehe S~vehern
H~mi~ph~r~], Mo~cow, Ixct~eel'~eva !~N S551t, 1960.
4. "At~a~ Anearkciki" CA~1a~ of Anearccica~, Vo~. 1, Mogcow and t~eningrad,
GUGK Ma SSSR, 1g66; Vol 2, Leningrad, Gidrom~t~oizdat, 1969.
5. Uolgin, I.M., ~d. "Aeroklimatich~skiy ~pravnchnik An~arkeidy" (A~roe~.im~eie
Handbook for AnCarneica], gooke 1 and Leningrad, Gidrdm~eQOixd~C, 1964.
F
6. Guterm~n, I.G., ed. "A~rnklimaeich~ekiy gprgvdchnik kh~rgkteriseik vetra
~ v uxl~kh kn~rdinaendy setki Yuzhnogo polu~hxriya na izobaricheskikh po-
verkhnosCyekh" (Aeroclimaeic Nendbook nf Wind Characteri~ticg gt Poine~
of the CoordinaC~ SygCem of Che SauChern N~mi~ph~re at ConsCant-Preeaure
Levels~, Moscow, Gidromeeeoizdat, 1972.
7. gugayev, V.A. "ACmo~pheric P~'OCl'gS~S in Anearktik~" in "Oenovnyye itogi
izuch~niyg Ant~rktiki za 10 lee" (Key Resules df Ant~raeic Reg~~rch Over
a 10-Year Periodj, Mogcow, Nauka, 1967.
8. Voskreeenskiy, A.I. "Re~ulte of the Meeeorological Observations of the
piret Air ~xpediCion eo Antarctica," TRUDY SAE, Vol 37, 1964.
9. Voskreeenskiy, A.I. "Snow Accumulation in ehe 5ection of the Glacial
Slope from Mirnyy to the 100-km Mark," INFORM. BYUL. SAE, No 63, 1967.
10. Voakresenskiy, A.I. "Centere of Condensation in the Area of Mirnyy,"
TRUDY SAE, Vol 38, 1968.
11. Voskresenskiy, A.I. "The Moisture ContenC in the Atmosphere of Ant-
arctica," TRUDY AANII, Vol 327, 1976.
12. Voskresenskiy, A.I. "MeCeorological Studies in AnCarctica Over a
20-Year Period," INFORM. BYUL. SAE, No 95, 1977.
13. Voskresenskiy, A.I. and Lysakov, E.P. "The Mechanism for Winter Meri-
dional Circulation Over Antarctica," PROBLEMY ARKTIKI I ANTARKTIKI, No
46, Leningrad, 1975.
14. Caygerov, S.S. "Aerologiya polyarnykh rayonov" [Aerology of the Polar
Regiona], Moscow, Gidrometeoizdat, 1964.
15. Caygerov, S.S. "Issledovaniye sinopticheskikh protsessov v vysokikh
sloyakh atmosfery" [Study of Synoptic Processes in High Layers of the
Atmosphere]. Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1973.
16. Gaygexov, S.S., Zaychikov, B.P., Kalikhman, M.Ya. and Fedorov, V.V.
"Vozdushnyye techeniya v mezosfere Antarktidy" [Air Currents in the
Mesosphere of Antarctica], Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1975.
~ 57
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L7, Cu~~v, A~M. "'~h~dr~tiC~1 ~~tt~rn nf Air Ci~rulatinn ~ver MearcCicn"
in "Klimne AnCsrkeiki" ~Th~ C11n~te or ~lntarceic~j, Mo~~ow, Geogrgfgiz,
1959.
18. Dolgin, I.M. "S~m~ ItEault~ of Met~orologicnl and Aerologicnl Research
i~ AntarcCicn Duri.n~ che p~riod 1956-1966," INI'Oit~t. llYU1., S~, No 57, 1966.
19. zhdanov, L.A. "Aemoefernyy~ proCs~gsy nad Vo~COChndy Antnrktidoy"
[AtmespheriC ~roC~eg~g Ov~r ~g~C An~arceir.n], MngCOw, N~uka, 1970.
�
20. Karimova, C.U. "Atmogpheric Ozone in Che P~lar Itegions," TRIfiX AANII~
Vol 333, 1975.
21. Li~ogurskiy, N.t. "Te?ap~ratura i t~irkulyat~iya vozdukhg v~tr~tosf~r~
Antarktiki" (Temp~raeure and Air Circulgtion in th~ SCrgtagphere of
Anearceica], Leningr~d, Gidrometeoizdgt, 1916.
22. Cuterman, I.G. and Voskresenskiy, A.I., eda. "Materialy po klimatu i
Csirkulyataii svobodnoy ~Cmosfery nad atran~mi Yuzhnogo poluahariya"
(Data on Climar~ and Free Atmoapheric Circulation Over Countriea in the
SouChern Hemiepherej, Vole 1, 2 and 3, No 1, Moscow, Gidrometeoizdat, '
1976.
23. "Mi:~voy vodnyy balana i vodnyye reaurey zemnogn et~gr~" [Global Hydrolo-
gical Cycle and Weter Resources~, Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdgt, 1974.
,
24. ~,.~rov, V.N. "Atmosfernoye pitaniye lednikovogo pokrova Antarktidy" ~
[~~cmoapheric Feeding of AnCnrctica's Ice Cap], Leningrad, 1975.
25. Rusin, N.P. "Some Resulta of and Prospecta for Research on the Meteoro-
logy of the Surface Air Layer in Antarctica," INFORM. BYUL. SAE, No 58, :
1966. ,
26. Khanevskaya, I.V., doctor o� geographical aciencea, professor, ed.
"Sredniye znacheniya temperatury, davleniya i plotnosti na atandartnykh ~
vyeotakh v uzlakh kartograficheskoy setki nad Yuzhnym poluahariyem" ~
(Mean Valuea of Temperature, Pressure and Density at Standard Altitudes
at Pointa on the Cartographic Grid Over the Southern Hemiaphere~, Part 3, '
Moscow, Gidrometeoizdat, 1972. � !
27. Tauber, G.M., Makerov, Yu.V. and Nazarov, V.S. "On the 20th Anniversary ~
. of Soviet Hydrometeorolbgical Research in Antarctica" in "Antarktika ;
(Dokl. Komissii za 1967)" [Antarctica (Report of the Commisaion for 1967)], ~
Moscow, Nauka, 1969. ~
. ' ~
28. Treshnikov, A.F., Voskresenakiy,'A.I., Savchenko, V.G. and Timokhov, L.A. j
"Natsional'naya progratmna nauchnykh issledovaniy SSSR v mezhdunarodnykh ;
, ,programmakh PIGAP. Polyarnyy eksperiment-Sever (POLEKS-Sever) i polyarnyy
eksperiment-Yug (POLEKS-Yug)" ['i'he USSR National Scientific Research ~
~
� ;
i
58 ,
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t~idit ht~'rICtAL U5C ONLY
Prugram in In~~rn~einn~l ~rd~r~mg af P~GA~. ~niar ~xp~rim~nt North
(POL~KS-S~v~r) ~nd polnr ~xperi~ane Snueh (pnI,~K5-Yug)j, Sovtet ~IGAp
Commi~~ion~ Leningrad, 1g76.
CO~YR~GNT: izd~tel'sCVO Nauka, ~97~
8831
CSO: 81G4/0459
59
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~n~ o~ric tu. us~ dxt,Y
R~SUIlrS OF' SOVI~T R~S~'J1RGH IN mHE~ SOi~:t~ktN OC~A.N
Moeaow ANTARKTIKA: OSNOVNYYI; ;.COGI IzUCt1LNIYA ANTARK'fIKY ZA 20 L~T. Df1tt1.ADY
KOMISSII in Ru~s3an No 17, 1978 pp 82-95
t
~Article by ~1.~. TreshnikovJ
[Text~ Research in keeping With the progr~n?for the Intern~Cional Geophyeical
Year (MGG), in terma of itg ecale and exceedingly imporr~nt acientific value,
hae laid the foundation for a new period in studying our planet. Yr? keeping
with a unified and predeveloped program, reeearch has been begun on phenomena ;
in ~arth's crust, the atmoephere, space, and the eeas and oceane. Sixey-five
countries.have taken part in thig research. An important posiCion in the
MGG's plans hae been asaigr.ed to studying Antarctica, as the least etudied ,
area o~ Earth. In the Soviet Union the organization of research in MtarctiCa
and ita accompliahmenC have been entrusted to the Cumbined Antarctic Bxpedition,
specially created in 1955 under the auepices of the USSR Academy of 5cienc~e.
The interest of Soviet acientiste in studying the southern polar region Wae
underatandable, aince many natural phenomena on the globe cannot be underatoAd
without obaervations in Antarctica. Information on hydrometeorologi~al and
geophysical proceases in this region was quite acanty, and on geographical
mape a consideYable part of Antarctica was a white spot. Shipe eailing in
the waters of Antarctica made hydrometeorological observatione far from the
continent's ehores, being afraid to call for an extended period at the sea
ice zone aurrounding the continent. ~
An important place in the plans of Soviet antarctic expeditiona, in addition .
to research in Antarctica, has been occupied by observations in the watera :
of the Southern Ocean. _ . ;
Unlike reaearch conducted on English vessels o~ the Discovery Committee, re-
~ search during the time of voyages by vessels of the Soviet antarctic expedi- ~
tion, the expeditionary vessels "Ob'," "Lena," and others, covered not only ~
the norChern, but also the southern regions of antarctic watera, including
the floating aea ice ~one.
Ei0 .
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~dit O~~tCtAL 11~~ ONt,Y
'~h~ followin~ h~v~ be~n Ch~ main db3e~eiv~~ nf Snviee gritg~'Ct~G ~xp~dieinn~
in r~~p~rah nn w~e~r~ n~ th~ 3outh~rn Oc~ent
1. Diecovering tt~~ nature a~ Che th~rmal ~nd dyn~mic ~yCle nf ~oueharn poler
wnCera, and o.E w~ter and he~e exeh~ng@ wieh ad~~eent ~~$ions o� the g~obal
oe~~n ~ad eh~ ~em~~ph~r~.
2. Studying th~ hydrological cy~1~ o~ Anearctica'~ ~h~1~
3. Studying ice eonditidn~ ~nd f~~tur~~ df eh~ di~tribueion df ireb~rge, ga
We11 a~ th~ phy~ical-m~nhgnic~l prdpprti~~ df ~nterceic iG~. -
4. Studying the circulaeion nf gurfac~ ~nd deep w~t~rg.
S. Gethering in~trum~nt duen nn elem~nt~ of wave~ in w~t~rg of th~ Southern
Ocean, $nd ~tudyin$ Ch~ir r~l~tion~hip Co wind and i~~ ednditione.
6. Studying the g~olo~ical gnd mnrphologi~el ~erucCure nf th~ dCean flonr,
and making e hydrographiC ~urv~y nf coastel regidn~ of Antgrctica.
7. Studying the zonal digtribution of f~una in w~ters of Che Southern Ocegn.
8. Studying featureg of geophysical phenomeng in the Southprn Ocean.
Thus~ in the program for anr~rctic marine expedirions were concentrated all
the nwst important gnd leaet atudied questione relating to the hydrology of
the Southern Oceen. Also paid attention to was the uneven dietribution of
obaervations of the So~thern Ocean aater area made prior to the etart of the
MGG.
Before the mid-50's a picture of the hydrological cycle could be drawn only
for certain regions of the Southern Ocean. The Indian and Pacific Ocean
sectors remeined poorly atudied. The region locaeed aouth of 60� latitude
south waa almost not covered by hydrological obaervations.
The resulte of oceanographic regearch done during the voyages of the expedi-
tionary vesael "Ob and other veasela of SAE's [Soviee anarctic expeditions)
begun in 1956 and continuing every year thereafter have been a great contri-
bution to the oceanography cf the Southern Ocean. ~
The main area for 5oviet hydrological resegrch has become the Indian aector
of the Southern Ocean, Where observations have covered both coastal and
ocean areas, and this research has been conducted from ahips and airplanes
(aerial ice surveys) and at antarctic stations. Most studied in the hydrolo- -
gical respect, as the result of the work of Soviet antarctic expeditiona, are
Davis Sea and Prydz, Alasheyeva and Leningradskiy bays.
Deeparater observations on the open sea have most frequently been made by
making hydrological profiles, the majority of which interaect the Southern
Ocean in a meridional or near meridional dire~tion.
61
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~o~ n~i~tr,rAt~ U5L" ONLY
I~i~Ceen timeg hydrologic~l gCudies hnve been made on the cross section r~long
~0� longiCud~ eael ~rom A~rica to AnCarricn. Ob~erva~ions have been made
foux timee each on ehe ~?remAnrl~ (WesCert~ Australln) ~ Mirnyy ~nd New Zealand - ~
Antareticn crosa eectiona. DFaerving of ~tCenrion are two hydrological crosa
~eetione made by the ~xpeditionary vease~, "Ob i,n the Yndian sector on ehe
firs~ ewo voyages. One of them in~ersecCs ehe Indian ncean from the Antarctic
coa~C to Che Gul~ of Auen, and Che n~her fxom Antarctica to Che B~y of Bengal.
SI~ vessels hgve mgde a aomecohat lesser nUmber o~ ob~ervc~Ciona in the Atlantic ,
and i'gCific Ocean secCorg of the Snuth~rn Ocean. Zn ehe Pacific Ocean aector, '
in addiCion to the cross section beCween Ncw 'Lealand nnd AntarcCica already
mentioned, observations hnve also be~n m.~de on cros~ sections along 160� and ~
109� longiCude wese, on a cros~ sec~ion from Easter Islnnd tn Soueh America, ,
and in the region of the Snu~'. American coase. In the Aelantic aector studiea
have b~en made on cross section~ in Drake Passage, from Dr~ke Passage to -
Monrevid~o, gnd glong 30� longitude west.
'I'he grentest amounC of oceanographic observations waa made by 5A~ vesaels--
the expediCionary vcs~els "Ob and "Lena"--during the first three expeditions,
i..e., right during ttie time the InCernaCional Geophysical Year was held, the
Yeur of International Cooperation, and the Tnternational Year of the Quiet
Sun. During this time, in addition to hydrological observations, research ~
was conducted on marine biology and geology nnd studies were made of wave ~
activiey, currenCs, eea ice and iceberga, the topography of the ocean f loor, ~
opCical hydrological characteriatica, etc. Trips were made Co the little-
studied shores of AntarcCica and Chey were described.
After :he end of the MGG the amount of physical oceanographic observationa in
the Southern Ocean was considerably reduced. Ma~or attention was paid to
studying the hydrological cycle and ice conditions of coastal regions of
Antarct~~r.- With the slighteat opportunity studies were also made on standard
meridional crosa sections. Beginning in 1968, in addition to the expeditionary
vessel "Ob'," the acientific research vessels "Professor Zubov" and "ProfesAOr
Vize" began to take part in Southern Ocegn research.
During the past 20 yesrs SAE vessels have set up in watera of Che Southern
Ocean ~bout 1500 hydrological stations, of which about 1200 were from on
board the expeditionary vessel "Ob'." On each voyage to Antarctica en-route
measurem~nts were iaade of the temperature and salinity of the ocean's surface
layer.
While SAE vessels have been sailing in the Southern Ocean hundreds of thousands
of miles have~been Craveled while making aonic depth ~i~lding measurementa, and
dozena of thousands of hydrometeorological observations have been made. Mea-
surements o� ocean currents by means o� EMIT [electromechanical measuring
equipmentJ have been made for a distance of 35,000 nautical miles. At 26
hydrological statians~ by means of BPV [expansion unknown], measurements have
been made of currents at deep levels, while recording current elements for as
long as 30 24-hour periods. Elements of waves have been measured at 140
. 62
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rc~ii c~a~t~'rc; i ni, t?~i: c~Nt,v
atations, and 155 wave records and 980 stereoscppic images a~ waves (sCereo
- photographs o~ wavea) have been made. At more than 500 sCations samples of
ocean floor s~ediment have been gatt~ered; more than 200 measurementis have
been made o~ the thl.ckness o~ marine sediment by the sef,smo~acouatical method;
and more Chan 300 ~eographical stat~,ons have been seC up. ExpediCion biolo- .
giats have col~.ected more Chan 4000 plankton and about 400 bottom sampler and ~
trawl samples; 7300 apecimens o~ fish have been recorded. On ~he 11th SAE
for the first time in Ahtaretica biological studies were made by using an
- aqua~ung. On many ~ourneys oP the exped3.Cionary vessel "Ob a cartographic
aurvey wc~a made of the coastline, covering more than one third of the pPri- -
meter of Antarctica. It must be s~ressed that research conducCed in the
Southern Ocean.on SAE vessels has been performed at a very high methodological
1eve1.
In recent yeara more and more exCensiv~ use has been made of computer techno-
- logy in oceanographic research. "Minsk-22" and "Minsk-32" computers have
been installed on.the AANII [Arctic and Antarctic Scienti#ic Research Tnatitute]
vesaels "Profesaor Zubov" and "Professor Vize," which have been at work every
year in the waters of the 5outhern Ocean. Because of thl.s there has been an ~
increase in valume, quality has improved, and the time required has been
shortened for estimating oceanographic characteristics.
It is hard to overestimate the scientific importance of the observation data
which has been gathered and of the research done. Without exaggeration iC
can be said that during the last 20 years we have learned 'about the nature
of AnCarcCica immeasurably more than during the entire preceding hisCory of
studies on it. Soviet researchers on the Southern Ocean have published dozens ~
of scientific reports, monographs and articles on naCural phenomena in Che
southern polar region. The ma~ority of these have been published in TRUDY
SOVETSKOY ANTARKTICHESKOY E}CPEDITSII [Proceedings of the Soviet Antarctic
~ Expedition], in the collection PROBLEMY ARKTIKI I ANTARKTIKI [Problems of
the Arctic and Antarctica], in the INFORMATSIONNYY BYULLETEN' SOVETSKOY
ANTARK'TICHESKOY ~KSPEDITSII [Information Bulletin of the Soviet Antarctic Ex=
pedition],.in the 3ournal OKEANOLOGICHESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA [Physical Oceano-
~ graphic Research] of the Interdepartmental Committee on Proceedings of the
MGG, in the collection ANTARKTIKA [Antarctica], and in other publications.
But the fullest reflection of the results of comprehensive study of Antarctica
is found in the two-volume Soviet "At1as Antarktiki" [Atlas of Antarctica].
In it is presented a long section on.the oceanography, meteorology and biology
of the Southern Ocean ("Atlas Antarktiki," 196f~, 1969).
In "At1as Antarkt~ki" are presented the results c~ many years of research
on Antarctica conducCed by scientists of dif~er~nt countries, and especially
by Soviet scientists. ~'his atlas marks the end o~ the stage of elementary
study of the nature of Antarctica.
Below are presented the main scienti~ic results obtained by Soviet researchers
in the Southern Ocean. .
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F~oEi ni~ r cc; t n~. ~ts N c)NLI~
ReE;~;rdtny, t:he i3ounduricg che Southcrn Oce~n
Chnrncterisric of the Sc~uthern Ocean t:~ the absence nf r~ny dl~Cinctive morpho-~
l.n~icat ar orograpt~ic bounclnrtes wlth ~he youl�hern ~ecCions o~ ad~acent~ oc~ane,
nnd CIIQTEPOr'E.' Che quesCinn d� isolnCing Ch~ vaHt oc~an ar~n aurrnunding MC-
urctlc~ c~g an independenC occ~n he~ for n 1on~ Cime rem~ined modt.
Ob~ervntionH mnd~ in ~~cenC years in nntnrrric waters hgve d~mon~trnCed ChaC
Che ~outher.n hal~~~~g nf Ctie AelanCic, Indinr, and 1'ncific ocennR (soutt~ of 4n
to 45� latit:ud~ sourh) represc~nt c~ unifi::d independenC phygical geographical
regiott of. the global oce~n, dieCinguished b~� unity and peculi,~riCy of naturnl
procegsca:~. 'M~ere�ore, eh~ isolatinn nf the Southern Ocean as xn independenC
oceun doe~ not raise doubCs now. Re~cnrch conducted in the Souehern Ocean has
noe only proved the c~rrecen~~~.~ of igolaeing it ne an independen~ ocexnr but
t?~~~ nlyo made it pos~ible to preciaely define its naCural norehern boundaries.
Pr~viously meny researcher~ took the zone of antarctic convergence ~s the
boundc~ry of ch~: Southern Ocean. But, as research has shown, the chni.ce of
r.his znnc~;.?s rhe boundary of the Southern Ocenn is ~n unfortunate one, since
it runo tt~rough Che ~uuthern hnlf of Che Antarctic Cireumpolar CurrenC (ATaT).
And ir is preciaely the Antarctic Circumpola~ Current, exeending from the
antarctic divergence in the south to the aubtropical convergence in the north,
which in easence forms all the~key feature~ of the hydrological cycle of the
. Southern Ocean. Thus, only Che subCropical convergence, representing the
northern boundary of the ATaT, c.an be considered the natural boundary of the
Southern Ocean.
However taking into account the facr that the position of subtropical con- -
v~rgen~^ variea over time and is not always sufficienCly distinctly marked, _
Ln determining the boundariea of Che Southern Ocean used in the Soviet "Atlas =
~?c~tarktiki" use was made of a principle making it posaible to draw boundaries
conventtonally by taking into account local orographic features, but with a
maximum approximation of the position of subtropical convergence (Kort et al., .
1964; Treshnikov, 1968). ;
Eiydrography
In the cartographic and hydrographic reapect, the least studied up to recent
times has been the coast of East Antarctica. Here coastal regions abounded
in "white spats." Based on a cartographic photographic scrvey of the antarctic
coastline, the depiction of t'~e coastline has been considerably refined for
a distunce o� more than one third o.f the perimeCer of Antarctica. Dozens of
new geographic p~~nts have been discovered (mountains, glaciers, islands, ~
bays, and the li~ce). From the results of this research new nautical charts ,
have been created for the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean.
Sonic. depth finding mess~rements have made it possible to refine coneiderably
the relief of the ocean Eloor and to find a number of previously unknown troughs
and prominences. The continental shelf of Antarctica has been outlined and a
study hns been made of its morphology. In certain regions of Antarctica ice
ahelvea shut off the greater part of the continental shelf. A characteristic
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?~c~it ~~i,rcc:ini. ~15c: orrr.Y
fenCure o~ AnCnrcCi~n'~ cont~nenCa~, ~hclf iq th~ f~ce eh.~tC it is sunk deeper
(ne mu~h ns 5U0 m) theii nround aCher cdtttinenC:~ (2n0 m m~~ximum) . Thi~
occn~i~ned by Che total. ~ubmcr~ion a~ Antnrcticu under Che inf~.uence o~
Che gignnCic ic~ lo~?d.
In many ~reas o,� AttCarc~ic~'s shelf Soviee regenrchers t?~ve found nnrrow
inerashelf channels wi~h depehs as great as 2000 m, As explnined by 5nvi~C
$eoldgieCs, tlteir fnrmaC~on hgg ~aken p].ace dn ~ccount df Che crncking of
~arth's crugC during vertical eeceonic movementis o.f the AnearcCic ContinenC `
under the influenc~ of a chun~e in Che thickness of Che ice cap in Che Qu~t~r-
nnry Per3.od (Treghnikov, .1963n) .
Study by Sovi~t researcherg in eh~ ~oa~t~l area of Antarcricx of the configurA-
tion nf Che coastline, Che relief of ehe ncegn floor, currenes, weter masges,
and ice cottditions has revenled rhe individueliCy ~nd igoYaeed na~ure nf a
number of regions of Mtnrctica. As the resule of a ehorough analyaig of
datn :.uCained, ar the presene eime on the map of Anearcticg on a gection of
Che coasC from 0 Co 113� longitude west have nppeared new land-locked seas,
angwering all the requiremenCs made for the concept "lanu-locked sea." These
are Che Lazarev, Riiser-i.arsen, Kosmonavty, 5odruzhestvo and Mawson aea~ �
("AClas AnCarkCiki," 1969). Just recently the sug~estion was mnde of singl~r~g
out n new independent sea--Somov Sea, so named in honor of the famou3 Sovie~ -
polar researcher M.M. Somov. ~
Marine Geology E
From dnta of research on Che underwater topagraphy of the Southern OCECtY1 ch~;rea _
have beem m~de of Che types of topography of the floor of the Indian and Pacific
~ Ocean sectors. Based on a study of the composition of soil samples it has
been established that in the region of Che anCarcCic continental shelf, the
cocttinental slope and the peripheral section of the ocean bed iceberg deposits
predominate, foLming around the continent a belt from 500 to 1000 km wide,
and in the deepwater section of the Southern Ocean, biogenic deposits.
In long soil cores was discovered a recurring alternation of sedimenC associ-
ated with fl.uctuations in climatic condiCions. The analysis of data has made -
it possible to study the history of Che climate and glaciation of Antarctica,
as well as to at the present time come near to solving the problem of geneCic
classification of the topography of the floor and of sediments over a vast
area of the Southern Ocean.
Oceanography
Physical oceanographic research in the Southern Ocean in the last 20 years
has made it possible to a considerable extent to refine and elaborate existing
ideas regarding the circulation of waters and to reveal the system of currents
at deep and floor levels, and also in little studied coastal regions. Based
on new patterns of water circulation constructed by Soviet scientists, it
has been determined thaC the key circulation system of the SouChern Ocean
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~ ~blt d~F'ICIAL U5~ nNLY
i~ Ch~ MCarceie Gircumpo],ar CurrenC, whiCh gov~rns ehe hydroldgiCal cyele
of water~ o~ the eouthern polar r~gion (Kort, 1963; Tr~~hniknv, 1964~ 1966).
Thie current is remarkably et~ble and i~ w~ll evolv~d in terms o.f d~pr.h gnd
width. The width of ~he ATsT varies from region to reg~on from 300 tn 1500
miles, and itg depCh of innnersion ~rom 1500 to 300U m. A charc?ct~risCic
feature of the ATeT i~ ite aeymmeery, i~e~~ itg configur~eion, which ie
irregular and doee not fall in line witti the erend o~ pgrallplg. Tha furthest
distance of it~ current ~`ro~n the ~hores of Antarceica is obgerved in the
Atlantic seceor of the Southern Ocean, dnd the ~horeegt in the easCern half
of the Paci�ic Ocean sector.
The resulte of dynamic analysis of observaCion datg, ae we11 ae inetrument
measurementa of currents, shou i:hat Che velocities o� th~ Antaretic Ciraumpolar
CurrenC are relaeiv~ly noe too high; even in the narroweat s~crian of the
Soueh~rn Ocean-~in Drake Passage, where velocitiea are maximal--they do not
exceed 100 c~/s.
Tt~e structure o� ttie ATsT ia raCher complex. As ~ rule, the current ia a
mulCiple one. IC is inCeresting that the wider the ATeT is in a specific
region of the 5outhern Ocean, the more multiflow it is and the alower are
the velocitiea of currents obaerved in its atreams.
Aa the reault of recent research, the hypotheais has arisen regarding the
exietence in the Southern Ocean of a floor-level countercurrent, whieh has
been followed at almost all longitudes of the ocean beneath the mainstream
- of.the :~~T (Treahnikov et al., 1966). .
_ A determination has been made of the key features of water circulation in
coastal regiona of Antarctica. Around the AnCarctic Continent have been ~
discovered some instances pf stationary water circulaCion lore~e~. in areaa -
of cyclone localization. It has been hypothesized that the coasCal antarc~ic
current consists of the southern peripheriea of these inatances of circulati.ai~.
Branches of thia circulation directed northward from the continent remove -
floating ice and iceberga to northern latirudea. This explaina the relatively
rapid washing away of eea ice from a�number of regions along the coast and
the formation of evacuation zonea, which makes it poasible for vesaels to �
penetrate into coastal watere relatively easily.
The first eatimatea ha~?e been obtained of water exchange and heat exchange
between the Southern Ocean and the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. It
has been establiahed; in particular, that the Atlantic zone is a zone for
- warming and replenishing waters o~ the Southern Ocean. The Indian Ocean
is a neutral ocean in relation to the Southern, while the Pacific Ocean zone
represents a zone for the discharge by the Southern Ocean o~ part of ite
water (Treahnikov et al., 1966). ~ ~
Data on water transport in the Southern Ocean testify to the fact that the
MtarcCic Circumpolar Current represents a very powerful ocean current of
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~
t~c)tt o~1~iCtAL U5~ c!Nt.Y
th~ g].~bnl, ace~n~ In terms q.~ the gmount oE waeer trnneported by it (~bout
Stl0 km /h) , Chis eurrent surp~~s~e~ gix- tn ci~hr.Fold st~ch ~i power~t~~ curr~nt
n~ the Cul~ 5tre~m,
Phyaical oceanographic ~tudies o~ re~ent ye~rs h~ve shown that the velocitie~
of the A'TeT nnd, COng~quenClY, Ch~ Crgnspnrt of w~ter by eh~.~ current, undergo
eea~nnal and lan~~~rm v~7riaeiona. Chang~~ in tih~ r~ee o~ flnw of the ATsT -
in Cime can rea~h 4b per~~nC. High varigbiliey in Che velncitieg nf currenCs
~nd wnt~r tr~neport figureg ig observ~d in rhe nnrthern half of the AntgrceiC
Circumpolgr Current, while in ttie ~outhern half tliis vari~biliey appears
chiefly bQCause of chang~q euking place in eh~ etrureur~ of etie currenCg
themeelves (Treahnikov ~e gl., 1970, 1972).
In the lggt 20 y~nrg, simultan~ougly with rege~rch on curr~nes, gtudies have
been made of water mas~eg of the Souehern Oce~n. Th~ k~y waeer mas~es of Attt-
arctica and their ittteraction were reve~led ldng b~fnre the beginning of the
MGG (Makerov, 1956; DeaCOtt, 1937; 5werdrup et ~1., 1957). It was established
that thp entire d~pth of the waters is divided into thre~ types: surfgce ant-
arctic, warm deep and floor-1eve1 antarcCic waters. Observations of recent
years have verified thie division and have m~de it possible to add to, refitt~,
and in some caseg to shed new light on the sCruceure of w~ter masses and the
key patCerns of space nnd time distribution of hydrologicnl characteriatics
and the factors causing them. These data have also made it possible td de-
termine the reasons for and areas of formaeion of different water masaes and
the routea along which they spread, which ig exceedingly imporCant in studying
the thermal influence of waCers of the Southern Ocean on wat~rs of neighboring
oceans (Maksimov, 1961; Klepikov, 1963; F'omichev, 1965; "Atlas Antarktiki,"
1969; Grigor'yev, 1972).
' Before the start of the MGG, because of the lack of the necessary observation
' data, charts of the distribution of liydrol.ogical characteristics in the
Southern Ocean were constructed according to the principle of smooth inter-
polation oE isolines between the zone of antarctic convergence and the coa~.t-
line of Antarcticu. New charts ~onstructed from the daCa of observations at
a raCher denge network of oceanographic stations have shown that clearly marked
zonality in the distribution of hydrological characteristics in surface waters
is observed noC in Che enCire Southern Ocean, but only in its northern regions.
In the coastal regions of Antarctica the distribution of hydrological charac-
teristics has been shown to be exceedingly complex--azonal. Here are observed
. large tongues of cold waters which extend far northward, and relatively warm
waters heading toward the shores of Antarctica ("Atlas Antarktiki," 1966, 1969).
The main factors responsible for th.~ complex azonal distribution of hydrological
charr~cteristics in coastal regions of thE Southern Ocean are the processes of
atmospheric circulation and water circulation and the distribution of drifting
ice.
In recent years, with the accumulation of hydrological data in the coastal
zone and a de~per analysis of it, the question has arisen regarding the
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N'Ok f1N't~'ICIAL U5~ hNLY
di~eir~ceion wiChin Ch~ boundaric~ q,~ the ~ntnxceic region of one mor~ watpr
rype--~he1f w~t~r~. 'The~e waeere dr~ loCgred on th~ continenC~l ~h~elf, in
regione directly ~butCing the coaer of Ant~rcticg. Xn Certns o~ eh~ir origin
ehelE wat~rg represent modified antarctic surf~ce wat~~re from the wintertime
r~nd are distinguished by v~ry luw xemper~Cures and very hi$h ealinity.
~xtreme valuee of Chese chgractErietic~ (~empereture below ~-2,0�~ galinity
aboue 35.00 percenC) can be observed within ehe range of the gntarc:ti~ region
only in shelg water~. Th~y are cauged by supercooling of waC~re in regiong
of sr~tionary ice cl,earinge~ and nlso by ehe influence of ice ahelvea.
A careful and thorough etudy of eh~lf watets is the key en diecovering the
gecreC of th~ gene~is of floor-level anCarceic waterg. Te ia precisely sh~lf
warers, and not eurface anCarcti~ watara, as was thought earlier, which together
with warm deep watere parCicipaCp in the formarion of floor-level anearctic
watera. And if the mechaniem for the formntion of theae waters ig still not
compl~tely c1eA: at the present time, then the fact has already become indis-
putable that theee watera form not only in Weddell Sea, as has been asaumed
for n long Cime, but ~lso in the Rosa and Davia aeas, in Prydz Bay~ and in a
number of other coasCal regiona~
tn connection with the "widening" of the boundaries of the Southern Ocean
northw~rd to the zone of subtropical convergence, the efforts of scientists
have been directed toward inveatigating two more water masaes of the Southern
Ocean located within the boundariea of the aubantarctic region: subantarctic
surfuce and antarctic intermediate watera. Special attention has been paid
to studying this, since it has been established that these watera, as do ant-
arctic floor-level waters, extend far beyond the boundaries of the Southern
Ocean northward (right up to 60� latitude north) and exert a great influence
_ on thermal conditions of waters of the global ocean.
A thorough inveatigation of the circulation of waters and water masses of the
Southern Ocean has made it possible to consider from a new viewpoint the mechan-
ism for the formation of fronta.l zones and their structure and geographical
location. Besides refinement of the boundaries and structure of the earlier
known subtropical and antarctic convergences, as well as of the antarctic di-
vergence, the subantarctic divergence and a number of other intermediate frontal
zones have been discovered. Season~l and longterm variations in the position
of frontal zones have been revealed. At the present time in research on frontal
zones there is still a whole series of unsolved questions concerning primarily
their formation and structure (Ivanov, 1961; Botnikov, 1963, 1969; Kort, 1967;
Buynitskiy, 1974).
There is the opinion that the origin of frontal zones in the Southern Ocean
and their geographical position are due chiefly to atmospheric circulation.
Recent research has shown that atmospheric circulation plays a definite role
in the formation of this frontal zone, but by no meana a ma~or one. Its ex-
istence, as the ma~ority of scientists think, ia related to the movement of
deep and floor-level waters.
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rc~FZ ~~~t~~tr.r.f~t, (IS~ ~N1,Y
~he zone u,~ nn~urctic divergence i~. oE a disCinctive nature. According to
the dat~ nf obgervntinng by 5~vicr nne~rceic exp~dieinns it h,~s b~ei~ deCer~
mined th~e ~hig Frant~~l zon~ dneq nne repreg~nC n continunua regton for ehe
c?~cent o.~ watera, but ia d~C~ce~d in Che form o~ spoes nC Che c~nters of
cyclonic cyclee, This conclusinn h~e been veri~ied ~1go by ehe re~uleA of
hydrobiological observaCiona.
- Sea Disturb~nce
On Che baeis of inqtrument and vigual observneions of, sea disCurbnnce, ideae
have been arrived At regarding the ~eaCures of wave fnrmaeion in differ~nC
climate zones of Che 5ouehern Ocenn, along with informaeion on ehe poes~ble
values of wave elementg ("AClag Antarkeiki," 1969).
It hna been determined that the key feature of Southern Ocean waves is their
great heighC and steepn~ss. In some areas the height of waves regches 25 Co
30 m. This feature of aen disturbance is expla~tned by rhe relaCively nbt too
great wind acceleraCion caused by the horizontal dimenstnns of pressure forma-
tions passing over the ocean. The main areas nf seeady ~eneraeion of storm
w~v~s are located in the zone of western transport of air masses, more pre-
ciaely, within the range of 40 to 60� latitude south. In this zone have been
found five climate regions wiCh highly inCense storm seas. These areas are
directly associated wiCh regions of hegvily developed cyclone activ3ty.
I It is inCeresCing that in~the Southern Ocean a region of highly violent storm
aeas is found in the Indinn sector ~ith ite ceneer around Kerguelen Island.
To the east is found a New Zealand area of intense storm activity with its
center between New Zealand and Antarctica. In the Pacific Ocean sector such
a region is found approximately between 100 and 130 to 140� longitude west.
Two more regions of heightened storm activity are found in Drake Passage.
Observation data hnve revealed seasonal variability in the intensity of sea
disturbance in the Southern Ocean.
Ocean Tides
Ebb and flow phenomena have been studied relatively lirtle in the Southern
Ocean because of the widely spaced network of observation points.
Because of Chis we have only a very general idea of the nature of tides in
this ocean ("Atlas Antarktiki," 1969). Near the coast of the Antarctic Con-
tinent is observed the predominance o~ irregular diurnal or purely diurnal
tides. In some regions the nature of tides changes to irregular semidiurnal.
On Che open sea the diurnal components are few and tides are of a semidiurnal
or irregular semidiurnal nature. The maximum values o� high tides vary near the
antarctic coast from 1.4 to 3.5 m. The high tide figure is somewhat lower
in the open section of the Southern Ocean.
New data on tides obtained at the time of the MGG and in subsequent years
have made it possible to refine considerably the cotidal charts for the
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FroK a~~tr, t,~ us~ nrttY
Snuehern O~~gn~ to n~k~ important nd~u~rments Co o~r id~a o,~ Ch~ nntur~ of
propag~tinn d~ tidal wnve~~ nnd to ~xpluin e number of ~~ntures of tides '
in rlte coaeta~. ar~a oF Mtarceicn. i-
Sea Tce '
U~ring th~ period of wc~rk done by the Soviet antarcCic expeditinn att immense I
group of observation~ of sea ice has been mAde. ~ce observaeions gre made
regularly on expediti,onary veseels, at co~etal antarctic atations and from ~
ice surveying aircraft. Prom obdervations made priar to 1962 aumrnariea have j
been made in which information ia given on ice condieions, glong with chgrta
of ehe seagonal variability of an~arctic ice (Treshnikov, 1963b; "Atlas Ant-
nrkeiki," 1966, 1969).
i
Further obaervaeione have made it posaible to eatablish ehat the drifting of ~
ice in the antarctic region is in keeping wiCh Che fundamental patterna of
trnvel of s~~rface watere and aCmoapheric circulation and ia chiefly of a zonal ;
nature (Ye~kin, 1969; BuyniCskiy, 1973). BuC the circulation of ice has a
number of distinctive featurea (Romanov, 1976). Along the shores of Antarctica ,
~ ice drifta in a general westward direction; north of thia zone there takea
place the removal of ice in th~ north and aortheaeterly directiona, and then
Che ice is drawn into the easterly drift system. Several strong cyclonic
drift syst~ms have been distinguished, whose positions match the pointa where '
climatic cyclones atation themaelvea. A precise determination hae been made
of the reasons for and the areas of formation of stable accumulationa of drift-
ing ice--ice massifs. .
It t~as also been observed thae ebb and flow phenomena and aea disturbance
influence the formation of channels and open water patches in the ice zone
oF the Southern Ocean. During the period of three to �ive days after an
astronomical syzygy (a full moon or new moon), in the ice cap are formed long
channels up to 40 to 50 m wide extending approximately in ttie latitudinal di-
rection para11e1 to the general coastline.
In recent years in the practice of Soviet antarctic researcb more and more
extenaive use has been made of satellite information', which makes it possible
to obtain informaCion on the distribution of sea ice in hard-to-reach and
litCle studied areas.
tt has been learned from satellite observation data that the ice content of
the Southern Ocean, as an indicator o~ which has been used the area of the
expansion of the ice cap in August-September, is related to forms of atmo-
spheric circulation. The predominance o~ a zonal ~orw of atmospheric circula-
tion is accompanted by a low ice content, and the high recurrence o~ a meridi-
onal form is asaociated with a high ice content in the Southern Ocean. And
in only one instance hae~the predominance o~ the meridional form been accom- ~
panied by a low ice content.
Against the backdrop of an overall increase or decrease in the ice content of
the Southern Ocean in some sectors of Antarctica is observed opposition in
;
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ulCerqCiott of Che sC~C~ uf Chc~ ice. 'Che ~re~L~~t inter:~ulu~il changes in Che
position of Che edge of ~tte~~rcric ice in Au~ugr-Sepeember are obeerved in
Che easC~~n hn],~ o,~ Rogs SeM and in Amundsen 5ea, the 5coi:i,a Sea, in secCor~
of 0 Co 50~ ~,qngi.tude eask (Che Lazt~r~v, Itiiser-I.araen and Kosmonavty seas) ,
and 100 ~0 160' longi~ude eas~ (~he Maweon and d'Urvi~.le yeas)~ 'Ifie posi~ion
of the ice edge in Chese are~s yaries ~rom year eo year ~rom 100 r.o 250 m~.les,
nnd Che ice con~en~ chnnges in synchronism and accounts ~or a mn~or percentiage
of interannual variaCions in Che ~.ce cottCettt o~� the 5ouChern Ocean.
Slight variations (0 to 100 milea) in Che position o~ the ice edge in August-
September are observed in secCions where opposieion in a change in ice conCenC
is characterigtic. Thege ~ections vary in terms of lengCh from year to year,
and their posiCion cc~n shift eo rhe east or wese. On average they ~re located
in the following sectors: 15� longitude west to 20� longitude east, 60 to 100�
` longi.Cude eagt (rhe Sodruzhesrvo arid Davis seas), 160� longieude east to 170�
longiCude weat, and sporadically in the area of Ct~e Scatia 5ea.
V.Yu. Vize (1944) adv~nced a hypothes~.s regarding Che unidirect:tonality in
fluctunCiona in Che amount of arcCic and anCarcCic ice. Ir was demonstrated
ChaC Che change in disCance along the meridian from the Mirnyy station to the
edge of the ice in Auguse-September correlates with the ice content of the
Greenland and Chukchi seas. The ahape of the curves asserCs that definite
agreement in these changes is observed only in Che Indian-Atlantic sector and
in Che Greenland Sea, but in genernl they are out of synchronism wiCh variations
in Che ice content of the Chukchi 5ea. The features revealed tesCify to the
complexiCy of the dynamics of the ice cap.
Preliminary research has shown that elemenCs of an association are found in
changes ii~ the state of the ocean ice cap in the Arctic and Antarctica. BuC
the mechanism of this associaeion, to the same degree as the interaction of
ice caps with overall circulation of Che atmosphere and ocean, is to a great
extent unclear and requires further research.
Icebergs
Icebergs exert a considerable influence on Che hydrological cycle and ice
conditions of the coastal zone of Antarctica. The distribution of icebergs
probably does not undergo considerable changes from year Co year. It is set
under the influence of steady factors, among which must be placed the station-
ary location of key areas for the production of icebergs, the general patterns
of the circulation of the atmosphere, surface waters and ice, and also the
configuration of the coastline and the relief o~ the ocean ~loor.
The boundary ~or the dispersal o~ icebergs almost agrees with the ~ront of
antarctic convergence. The dfstribution of icebergs takes place in conformity
with the fundamental rules characteristic of the distribution of ice. The
density of icebergs is reduced with distance from the shore and on the open
. sea it does not exceed three. A reduction in the number of icebergs takes
place on account of intense melting and disintegration, as well as of their
dispersal as rhey advance into northern regions.
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A comparieqn has been made beCween the size o~ iceberge and Cheir geograph3cal
~ location, and curvee have been plotted t`or ~i~e probabi],itiea o,~ iceberg lengChe '
and heighte eouCh and norCh o~ 65� latirude soueh.
i
Marine Biology~ I
Exrenaive observaCion data gathered by Soviet anearctic expedieions have made
it poeaible to make grear etri,dea in the development o~ a number of big prob- I
l.eme relating tc+ the marine b3ology o~ ehe Southern Ocean. Included under ~
this heading in particular are auch problems as that of biopolarity, latitude
by latiCude changea in fauna, patterne of vertical zonality for fauna, biolo-
gical typea of fauna, etc.
Quantitgtive and qualiCaCive :haracteriaCics have been obtained for the zonal
diatribution of plankton. For the fireC time in Antarctica a quantitative '
study has been made of ocean-floor fauna from bottom sampler specimens. It ~
has been learnad Chat one o# the most characCeriatic biological features ia
Che high variegation of its ocean-floor classificationa with relative monotony
of underwater topography at depCha from 100 to 500 m, resulting in the absence ~
of dietinctly marked vertical zonality. The main background of fauna on the ,
antarctic ahelf ia made up primarily of organisms which do not serve as food ,
for fiah (more than 60 percent).
In the collections which have been assembled there is a number of new apecies ~
and even genera of animals. The many subtropical apecies found among antarctic i
fauna Cestify to the connection between deep watera of these regione. It has
been eA*.abliafied that near the ahores of Antarctica there is rather abundant.
waCer ~lant vegetaCion--more than 100 varieties. ;
~
Ichthyological reaearch has also made important contributions to our knowledge ~
of the apecies composition, ecology and distribution of antarctic ichthyofauna: ~
New previously unknawn apecies, genera and families of fish have been dis- '
covered. Leukemia has been determined in nine apecies of fish. It was found '
that the greatest variety of ichthyofauna species is observed in the northern ~
seas within the range of the upper 100 m of the ahelf, and near the shores of ~
Antarctica it shifts to a depth of 300 to 500 m.
. i
The ocean-depth routes for the penetration of certain northern groups of fish ~
into the southern hemisphere have been discovered and verified. Among these ~
have been identified fiah which come to the surface in the zone o~ antarctic ~
convergence. So, specific species o~ fish can be indicators o� different i
water masaes. Syatematic observations of the distribution of sea birds,
pinnipeds and whales have made it possible to give a~zoogeographic description '
oF watera of the Southern Ocean. ~
~
In summary it cqust be said that the sc~enti~ic~development of oceanographic
observations made in the Southern Ucean during the past 20 years has brought ~
many important, interesting and valuable results and has to a considerable
~ extent enriched our~knowledge of the nature of thia section o~ the global
ocean. ~ . '
~ ~
_ i
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Tn ~ddition, Ch~ prpc~sging and ~nu~.y~iy o,~ av~ilab],~ observ~ti.on dgea h~ve
made it possib].e to point out new problems which must be qo],ved in fuCure ~
eci~nCific nnd ~xpeclltionexy r~Henxch in Che SouChexn Oce~n,
AC the present time ehere hxs been exceptionally ~ieCle study of questiong re-
lating eo th~ interaction beeween ice shelves nnd the wttrers flowing around
them, Co ehe reaeone and condiCions ~or Che �ormation of cold ocean-.~loor
waeers, rU the thermal 3n~~.uence of the So~ithern Oce~n on waters of ad3ac~enti
oceana, and to the ~nfluence of.Che ocean on a~moepheric circulaCion. There
hAS been liCtle sCudy oi' ~he variability of hydrologi.cal characCeristics over
time. There is atill no clear idea o~ many processes originating in waters of
the Southern Ocean and of the fnctors causing ehem.
At Che same time it has become obvious th~?t many processes originating in
wuters of the Souehern Ocean are directly related to atmospheric circulation,
and therefore can be explained on~y on Che basis of ~ thorou~ti atudy of ehe
interacCion between the atmosphere and ocean. It was ~or this purpose that
the Polar Experiment (POLEKS) scientific program was developed. ICs aim is
to study the large-scale intieraction between the atmosphere and ocean in Che
polar regions and their role in the formation of the energy balance of the
aCmosphers-ocean system, and Co reveal the mechanism forming longCerm changes
in hydrometeorological processes in the Arctic and Antarctica.
A study of the hydrological cycle of Che SouChern Ocean and of the circulation
of waters and of their influence on changes in weaCher and climate condiCiona
on Che global acale is called for in the "POLEKS-Yug" [Polar Experiment South)
program (Treshnikov et al., 1973).
In keeping with this program, research in the SouChern Ocean is aimed at
solving the following problems: 1) the dynamics of Che Antarctic Circumpolar
Current (ATsT) as a componenC of overall circulation of the global ocean;
2) balances of energy and mass and other elements of the Southern Ocean;
3) the mechanism for the formation of antarctic ocean-floor waters and its role
in global circulation of the ocean.
Expedition~try research for enacting this program was begun in 1975 on the
scientific research vessel "Professor Zubov" and was continued in 1976 on
the scientific research vessel "Professor Vize" (Treshnikov eC al., 1975).
Of course, expeditionar.y studies carried out in keeping with the "POLEKS-Yug"
program by u[ilizing a single scientific research vessel could not embrace
with their research both the entire set o~ goals set and the entire water
area of the Southern Ocean. There~ore, all efforts on these expeditions were
concentrated on carrying out one of the key experiments of this program--
"Dynamics of.the Antarctic Circumpolar Current." The area for research selected
was Drake Passage, since this region fs one o~ the most interesting ~rom the
viewpoint o~ the dynamics o.~ the ATsT.
In keeping with the main objective of the experiment, the expeditionary
operation program included a number of divisions, the maior ones of which
~ ~ 73
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were a etudy of the space-time serucCure o~ Che A'~aT and disalosal of th~
main causea governing ite dynamica; obtainiag data ~or veri~ying exisCing
mode].~ for circulaC~an of watere in the research areg; a quantitative estimat~
o~ water and heax exchange in Drake Passage snd of their variations ov~r time; ,
n aCudy of e~all~ and mediumt�ec~le apace-Cime variab~,lity o~ phyeical oceano-
graphic fields in Che passage; and a number o~ other problems.
;
Setting aeide a diviaion for veri,#ytng existing models for circulation of j
watere in Drake Paeeage ae an independent division was dictated by the j
difference formed at the pregent ~ime in views on the atructure of currenCs ~
vertically. ~
I
The queation is Chat among researchers on the Southern Ocean for n long time ~
the opinion hae exiated that tt~a AnCarctic Circumpolar Current--the strongest
current in the global ocean--has evolved vertically to very great depths, and ,
in certain regiona down Co the ocean f loor. But in recent years, based on ;
daea of est~!maCee of currents by utilizing hydrodynamical models, the hypathesis ~
has been advanced that in Che Southern Ocean beneath the Antarctic Circumpolar
Current there exists a strong aircumpolar countercurrenC, which equals the ~
ATsT in ita rate of flow (Treahnikov et al., 1974). The same thing has been i_
indicated by an analyais of Che distribution of water masaes in the reaearch i
area. The nature of the diatribution of velocities with depth contradicta
the conclusion regarding the equivaleace of rates of flow of the ATaT and of ~
rhe countercurrent underlying it.
To disclose the actual patrern of currents in the Southern Ocean, longterm ~
- inaCruw~nt measurements of currents are required, by means of recorders in- (
stalleu in self-contained buoy stations (ABS's). The taking of instrument ;
measurements of currents, as well as the performance of a hydrological aurvey ~
in Drake Passage, have been a compouent part of the plan for full-acale research ~
on Che "POLEKS Yug-75" and "POLEKS-Yug-76" expeditiona. ;
An analyais of the apace and time atructure of currents in Drake Passage
has indicated its complexity. In the passage it is possible to distinguish
three current streams, the central o� which i~ the mainatream of the Antarctic .
_ Cir.cumpolar Current; this can also be divided. The northern stream represents
the currents of Cape Horn, and the aouthern, the.currents of Bellingshausen
~ Sea.
1'he central stream of the ATsT falls in �line with the position o~ the Antarctic
Polar Front (APF), in the area o� which are observed marked temperature lapse
rates, salinity and other~physical oceanographic elements to considerable
depths. In this region can be formed meanders and vortices. Meandering of
� the stream and the formation of vortices are associated with high horizontal
lapae raCes in the ~ensity and velocity of currents and wi,th the influence
on the ATsT of the complex topography of the ocean ~1oor in the region of the
passage. ~ ~
~ The general direction of currents in the entire 0-2500 m top layer is north-
easterly. The origin of vortices and meanders results in.complication of the
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nCtual pnetern ~nd the pregen~c in certain ~re.~s o~ gtreamg with n reverse
direction, which h~ve more th~n once been taken for countercurrents in makit~g
individuel cro~s ge~tinn~ nr in~erum~nr obqerv~;ti~ona~
In rhE lower 3Ub0~~500 m iny~r i~ obg~rv~d ~ r~laeively wc~~k nc~~n-~loor
curr~nt direcCed weeeerly, which h~g been veri,~ied both by ~alculneione ~nd
insrrument observation~.
The opinion hg5 exisCed nmong acieneists ehar Che AnCnrctic Circumpolnr
Current is of wind origin. ~ut the naeure of eh~ AnCnrc~ic CirCUmpolar Current
ie closely relaCed tn ~h~ zonal rhermal inhomogeneiey of thc souChern hemi-
~phere, which i~ intien~if.ied by t~mpernture contraet~ bptween Ar?tarceicn nnd
the oceans aurrounding it. The good nlignm~nt of Che nx~~ af the ATsT and AP~
is expl~ined by the common th~rmodynamical re~~on for their nrigin nnd is
aupported by dyngmic interaction betwQen meridiottal and zonal atmospheric
circulation in Che area of the maximum of ATsT velocitiies, which is responsible
for the relative intensific~tion o~ both phenomenn.
As calculations hxve qhown, tihe ma~or shift 3n ehe menn ~limate position of
the ATaT and APF from strict zonality is nasocia~ed with the asymmetry of
the position of Antarctica in relation Co the pole, with the geometry of Che
ahorea, and with the topography of the floor of ehe Southern Ocean.
- The resulta of the expedition's obaervations were t~ken into accounC in drawing
up the Soviet variant of the program for ~oint Soviet-American research in the
Southern Ocean for the next few years. AgreemenC on Che need to carry out
this research was achieved at the decond session of the Soviet-American United
Commission for Cooperation in the Area of Reaearch on the Global Ocean, held
_ in Moacow from 27 through 30 May 1975.
Soviet proposals ca11 for carrying out an international combined expedition
with a force of 10 to 15 vessels in the entire waCer area of the Southern
Ocean, placing anchored current meters and temperature gauges in a number of
areas of the Southern Ocean, including in Drake Passage, and making oceano-
graphic studies in Davis Sea and Weddell Sea, relating to the problem "Formation
of Antarcti~c Ocean-Floor Waters," including a hydrological survey and the
placing of buoy atations. .
Succeasful accomplishment of theae measures will be conducive to a deeper
understanding of the processes of interaction between the ocean and atmosphere
and will create the prerequisites for developing numerical methods of fore-
~ casting the variability of hydrometeorological elements ~or di~~erent periods
in advance.
Bibliography
1. "Atlas Antarktiki" [Atlas of Antarctica], Vol 1, Moscow and Leningrad,
GUGK MG SSSR, 1966.
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2. "AClae Ar~taxkeiki," VoX 2~ Leningrad, GidrometeoizdaC, 1969. ;
3. gornikov, y.N~ "Geographical Location of khe Zone of Antarcttc Convergence
in the Southern Ocean," IN~ORM~ B'YUL~ SAE, No 41, 1963. '
4. Botnikov~ V.N. "New ~ronral Zonea of Che Sou~hern Ocean," TRUDX SAE, Vo1
S0, 1969. ~ '
5. Buynitekiy, V.Kh. "Morekiye 1'dy i ayebergi. Antarktiki" [Sea Ice ~nd
~ Iceberge of AnCarcticaJ, IzdaCel'stvo LGU, 1973.
6. BuyniCskiy, V.Kh. "On the Na~ure vf Che AnCarctic Convergence," INFORM.
BYUL. SAE, No 89, 1974. , ~
7. Vize~ V.Yu. "Oanovy dolgosrochnykh ledovykh prognozov dlya arkticheakikh
morey" [Fundamentals of Longterm Ice Forecasts ~or Arctic Seas], Moscow, -
Izdatel'aCvo Glavsevmorputi, 1944. .
8. Grigor'yev~ Yu.A. "Tsirkulyatsiya vod i vodnyye massy v tikhookeanskom
aektore Yuzhnogo okeana" [Circulation of Watera and Water Masses in tt~e
Pacific Ocean SecCor of the Southern Ocean], abstract of candidate's
dissertation, Moscow, 1972. ,
9. Yeskin, L.I. "Sea Ice of the Southern Ocean" in PROBLEMX ARKTIKI I ~
ANTARKTIKI, No 31, Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1969.
10. Ivanov, Yu.A. "Frontal Zonea in Antarctic Waters," OKEANOLOGICHESKIYE
ISSLEDOVANIYA, No 3, Moacow, Izdatel'atvo AN SSSR, 1961.
11. Klepikov, V.V. "Hydrology of Weddell Sea," TRUDY SAE, Vol 17, 1963. ;
12. Kort, V.G. "Water Exchange of the Southern Ocean," OKEANOLOGICHESKTYE
ISSLEDOVANIYA, No 8, Moscow, Izdatel'stvo AN SSR, 1963.
13. Kort, V.G. "Genesis of Prontal Zones of Che Southern Ocean," INFORM. ~
BYUL, SAE, No 65, 1967. ~
14. Kort, V.G., Korotkevich, Ye.S. and Lednev, V.G. "Boundaries of the '
Southern Ocean," INFORM. BYUL. SAE, No 50, 1964.
15. Makerov, Xu.V. "Key ~eaturea e~'the Hydrolo$ical Cycle of Antarctic .
Watera," ANTARKTIKA, No 2, Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1956.
16. Maksiwov, I.V. "The Sauthern Ocean and Antarctica," OKEANOLOGIYA, No 4~,
1961
~ 17.. Romanov, A.A. "Ice Conditions ~or~Sailing in Wstere of Antarctica,"
TRUDY AANII, Vol 335, 1976. ~
76 ~
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roK ori~ICl:/1L usL o~n,Y
_ 18. Treshnikov, A.I~'. '~I~orpho:i,o~fcal OuCline o~ L,and-Locked Seas of -
Antarctica," TRUAX SA1:, Vn]. 17, 1963a. `
19. Treshnikov~ A.~. "~eatures oR Ice Condi,~ions ~.n the Antarctic Ocean,"
TRUAY SA~, Va~. 21~ 1963b.
20. Treshntkov, A.~. "Circulation o~ Surface Wa~ers o~ ~he AntarcC~.c Ocean,"
' INFORM. BXUL. SAE, No 45, 1964.
21. Treshnikov, A.F. "Ten Xears of Soviet Research in Antarctica," PROBLEMY
ARKTTKI I ANTARKTIKI, No 22, Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1966.
22. Treshnikov, A.F. "Circulation of Waters and Dri~ting of Ice in rhe
Southern Ocean" in "Osnovnyye problemy okeanolog3i. Doklady na plenar-
nykh zasedaniyakh" [Fundamental Problems in Physical. Oceanography.
_I Papers Delivered at Full Meetings], Moscow, Nauka, 1968.
23. Treshnikov, A.F. "Winter Operations in Antarctica 3.n 1973," METEOROL06IYA ~
I GIDROLOGIXA, No S, 1974.
24. Treshnikov, A.F., Maksimov, I.V. and Gindysh, B.V. "The Great EasCerly
Drift of the SouChern Ocean," PROBLEMY ARKTIKT I ANTARKTIKI, No 22, Lenin-
grad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1966.
25. Treshnikov, A.F., Grigor'yev, Yu.A. and Belinskaya, L.A. "The Problem of
Longterm Variability of Currents in the Cross Section Along 20� Longitude
East," PROBLEMY ARKTIKI I ANTARKTIKI, No 33, Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat,
1970. .
26. Treshnikov, A.F., Shamont'yev, V.A., Grigor'yev, Yu.A. and Belinskaya,
L.A. "Seasonal and Longterm Variability of Hydrological Elements in
the Cross Section Along 20� Longitude East," PROBLEMY ARKTIKI I ANTARKTIKI,
No 39, Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1972.
27. Treshnikov,. A.F., Girs, A.A., Baranov, G.I. and Yefimov, V.A. "I~royekt
. programmy Polyarnogo eksperimenta yuzhnoy polyarnoy oblasti" [Draft of
the Program of the Polar Experiment in the Southern Polar Region],
Leningrad, 1973.
28. Treshnikov, A.~., Baranov, G.I. and Kornilov, N.A. "Circumpolar Counter-
currents of the Southern Ocean," PROBLEMX ARKTIKI I ANTARKTIKI, Nos 43-~4,
Leningrad,, Gidrometeoizdat, 1974.
29. Treshnikov, A.~., Sarukhanyan, E.I. and Smirnov, N.P. ~'~'olyarnyy eks-
~ periment-Xug" [~he Polar Experiment South], Leningrad, 1975.
30. Fomichev, A.V. "Water Masses and the Vertical Structure o~ Antarctic
Waters," TRUDY VSESOYUZ. NAUCH-ISSLED. IN-TA MORSKOGO RYBNOGO KHOZYAYSTVA
= I OKEANOGRAFII, Vol 57, 1965.
77 .
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31. Ue~con, C~~.Ft. '~The t{ydrology of th~ 5outh~r,~t: One~n," nX5COV~RX 1t~~0RT,
Vol 15, 1937.
32. Swerdrup~ H.., ,lohnson~ M. nnd I'leming~ R~ "The Oceane,'~ ~rentice-H~11,
Inc,, ~nglewond C11fEa, N.J., USA~ 1957.
COPYRICHT: Ixdatel'stvo Nguka, 1978
8831
CSO: 8144/0459
,
.
,
78 ~
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t~ott ctt~'1~'ICint, Ust: nNLY -
50VI~'T ANTARCTIC GEOLOGICAL R~5~ARCH ACCOMPLI5HM~NTS SUMMARIZ~D
Moscow ANTARKTIKA: OSNOVNYYE ITOGI IZUCHENIYA ANTAItK'TIKI ZA 20 LET. DOKI,ADY
KOMISSII in Ruseian No 17, 1978 pp 132��1~i3
[Article by M.G. Ravich: "Soviet Geological Researcli in Anearceica"]
[Text] Geological and geophysical studies in AntarcCica have been carried
ouC since the beginning of 1956 by associates o� the Scientific Research
InatituCe of ArcCic Geology and the Sevmorgeo Scientific Production Geo].ogical-
Geophysical AssociaCion of Che USSR Ministry of Geology. The aub~ect of
these atudiea has been primarily territories of Che conCinenC (Antarctica)
free from ice, making up about 800,000 km2 (together with glaciers separating
rock strucCures), since the total area of rock outcrops per se does not exceed
6000 km2. Over the past 20 years geological-geophysical teams of the Soviet
antarcCic expedition have made the following ma~or studies:
1. Geological mapping of Dronning Maud Land (central section) on a scale
of 1: 1,000,000, covering an area of 60,000 km2, and of Enderby Land on the
same scale, covering an area of 50,000 km2.
2. Geological mapping of the mountain settings of the Lambert Glacier and
Amery Ice Shelf (Prince Charles Mountains) on a scale of 1: 2,000,000,
covering an area of almost 250,000 km2. "
3. Geological exploration of the Yamato and S~r Rondane mountains (eastern
half of Dronning Maud Land), covering an area of more than 70,000 km2.
4. Geological mapping of the Humboldt Mountains on a scale of 1: 200,000,
~ covering an area of 2000 km2.
5. Geological mapping of Bunger's Oasis on a scale of 1: 100,000, covering
an area of 400 km~.
6. Seismic depth sounding of the crust of the crystalline basement of the
Antarctic Platform, along the following cross sections: a) 425 km in the
aren of the Novolazarevskaya station, and b) 550 km on Ingrid Christensen
Coast (from the Vestfold Hills to Beaver Lake).
79
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7~ An nernn~gnetic eurvey of variou~ e~rritories nf ~aeti AnC~rcCicg on
ecnles of 1: 1,000,000 and 1: 2,000,000, c~ver~.ng an area of mor~ th~n
1.2 million km2, and, gccompanying it, aiY-landing seiemogravimetric etudiea -
and radar sounding of the ic~ ahe11.
8. tteconnaissance geudi~g of c~rCein regions of West AntarcCicg, on the
~eaff of American and ~ngliah antarcCic expediCione.
9. Studiea on Che geology of shelves in ~a:~t MCarctica.
In the y~arb which have pasaed 10 sub3ect areae have been developed, of which I
the ma~or are the following: 1) the Pre-Cncnbrian of ~ast Antarceica; 2) Che
crysealline basement of the Antarctic Platform; 3) the Reeveg and Lower PaleA-
zoic of cne AntarcCic Platform: 4) geology and petrology of Marie Byrd L~nd
and Eighta Coast; 5) proceasea of sediment accumulation in the Indian aector
of the Southern Ocean in the Upper Pleietocene and Holocene; 6) a geological
map of Antarctic:a on a ecale of 1: 5,000,000; 7) geology and deep aCructure -
of MacRobertson Land and Princesa Elizabeth Land; 8) metamorphic and magmatic
comp].exea of WesC Antarctica (development work of this type is aontinuing).
Aa the reault of the atudiea carried out, more than 250 arCicles have been
published on differenC aspecCs of the geology of Antarctica, and five mono-
graphs have been publiahed (Ravich, M.G., Klimov, L.V. and Solov'yev, D.S.,
"The Pre-Cambrian of East Antarctica," 1965; Ravich, M.G. and Solov'yev, D.S.,
"The Geology and Petrology of the Central Section of the Mountains of Dronning
Maud Land," 1966; Ravich, M.G. and Kamenev, Ye.N., "The Cryatalline Basement
of the Antarctic Platform," 1972; Grikurov, G.E., "The Geology of the Antarctic
Peninsul.a," 1975; Lopatin, B.G. and Polyakov, M.M., "The Geology and Petrology ~
of Marie Byrd Land and Eights Coast," 1976). In addition, 21 geological mapa ,
have been made for the "Atlas Antarktiki" [AClas of Antarctica] on scales of ;
1: 100,000 to 1: 20,000,000, which were publiahed in 1966 and 1970. In ;
1969 was published a tectonic chart of Earth'a polar regions, on a scale of .
1 : 10,000,000.
Ma3or Results of Research
I
Topography ' ~
The subglacial topography of Antarctica is quite varied .~nd is cha~racterized
by a combination of differently oriented mountain ranges and vast lowlands _
and depression basins aeparating them. This topographical contrast is caused +
by alternating tectonic movements of blocks of the mainland which are trans- ~
formed in addition by agents of physical erosion characCeristic of the glacial
wasteland. '
East Antarctica represents a continent which for the most part bulges up
steadily: Its mean height above sea level is about 400 m. In the eastern ~
half of this continent there are two lowlands separated by a relatively
moderate-size rise. The base of these lowlands is sunk about 100 to 300 m
~ 80 ~
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b~low sea 1eve1, and c~rtai.n senCions repre~ette depreseion bn~ins ~s much
ne 1500 m deep, '1'he rise in ~he form of a ridge is from 200 eo 500 m high,
and cerCain peake on it ~re as much na 1500 m high. The rioe, exCt:nding,
with breaka, almose 2000 km, i.~ broken up vy f'aults, nlong which is formed
a fearhering s~ries of grabens, whinh gives ~he ridge a sc~lloped character.
In rhe very center of ~ust Antarctic~ ia subglacial mountninoue connCry occu-
pying an area of not leas than 500,000 km2 (fig 1). The largese are the
Gamburtsev Mountaine. They are formed by two ind:ividual blocks whose peaks
ar~ covered with n rel~tively ehin layer of ice with n toCal ehickness of
900 tn 1000 m, whi~.e ehe thickness of ehe ice cap here, in rhe center of ehe
conCinent, n~t 3nfrequently reaches 4000 m. The largest block consists of
the radial sysCems of Che range, which merge ar their roots and form a gigantic
figure remir.iscent in ahApe of the fooC of a gigantic prehistoric animal. �
The surface of the Gamburtsev Mountains is serongly dis~ointed and ia similar
to young mountaina of the alpine type. Peaks reaching 3000 m in height above
aea level could noC rise above the conrinent's ice cap and have been forged
by the powerful glacial waste. The other, smaller, block is made up of par-
allel ridgelike plateaus wiCh a amooth and mildly sloping peak type of relief.
Their height does not exceed 1000 to 1200 m, and rherefore the ice cap above
them reaches a thickness of two to 2.5 km.
The western section of East Antarctica is a vast pla3n, raised slightly above
sea level and divided by relatively narrow troughs. Only at its frontiera--
on the continent's coast--do craggy mounCains rise, "piercing ti:rough" the
Chin ice cap 300 to 500 m thick.
In contradistinction Co East Antarctica [Greater Antarctica], more than 65
- percent of the territory of West AntarcCica [Leaser Antarctica] is sunk below
sea level. Actually it is a gigantic ice shelf with large archipelagos sealed
into it. The largest of these is the Antarctic Peninsula, whose mountain
chains extend more than 1000 km. In the center of West Antarctica there is
a rocky upland about 400 km long, which abutts an even longer ridgelike broken
range. And, finally, in the coastal sreas of Marie Byrd Land there is a
rather extensive plateau occupying an area of 500,000 km2, with peaks more -
than 3000 m high.
Like the horn of a rhinoceros, crowning Antarctica in the northwest, extends
among the glaciers the mountainous archipelago of the Antarctic Peninsula.
Its northern half is a narrow cuC ridge with heights of 500 to 1000 m, bordered
by countless coastal islands. Its southern half is a wide mountain range
500 km long with heights form 1200 to 2500 m. Some peaks reach 3000 �i, and
the highest peak of the Antarctic Peninsula--;Iackson Mountain--is 4200 m high.
The majority of peaks rise above the ice cap. On the Antarctic Peninsula
rock massifa free from ice make up about eight percent of the land, i.e.,
considerably more than in remaining sectior.s of the continent.
The central massif includes the Ellsworth and Whitmore mountains and ;;maller
uplands. Its absolute heights do not exceed 2500 m and are usually covered
with ice. Only certain peaks rise above the glacial shell hundreds of ineters
81
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~OEt nI~'CiCIAi, USF.' ON1.Y
and ev~n kilcmete~s, including a mounCain c,riCh an absolute height of 5140 m,
r~presenting the highese point in AnCarcCica. Typical o# tihe higher mountaina _
~s an nlpine type of relief, and of eubglacial mountaina, a mildly aloping
peak type.
o ~ x
y
01 ~I~ ~
~a~`
~ ~ ~,�J,~~~4~fr'~~~~rp~~e ,
~ w ~ -
~ i~~.t~~ YrF~A' \ ~ ,
11 "Z~C1~ , , . MQe~A~w~w~~ 60 j
/ ~ I I~~I~., ~
~ e a. % MoPE~ ~>f~~ I ~ .~tli!~ ' ,~:,~.~,rc~~ "'~s~~~. ,
i ~ l.~~' .~~r sE u f( I~~~i P u;:.y~ eiia~~i~~;.t~r'~,
. 7.,,~ ;,'~4j~ +y:
~'3.7a,en~,+ c~~~ ' '~;P,iI I C III'~~ II~,4~>f,r, .~'i~;v;:~;~ ~
�i'IT, Y. J,`. -1..;1 ~i I /
:�~J.;~4~,~, ,~t~~~,~~~I, '~1 I ~I~+ Y;..~~~ l'~ .
y,,N ' ~ I I I I It \
~ A ~ ~ s~h' itJ '
^1~~~,~ ,,,.,a~.~~. . : ~ ~ ,y ,
/ ~i' or~ .;1� MY i;~; j~, I .r:4;~~ r~'"
~ ~ ~{'v~.:~ ~
I �1 , f~ ,'.;~A~~~r~' l~II'' ''~3~13~~:C: .dj4 A{Y~'~k^,~.,,
~ pl ,~�'4 i � a ~~i i�;
' ~"1 '~1'~�.N11i:1r' ~I ~\~Ar`."\ ~ ~V
1 S ~'r .r~t ~rt3',~~ t:~ e 'i`'� ...w.~~~~M~n~`~~~~~~~.
~ ~ $ ,r~ � e ~~i;:;' P+ u, i}�Y~?1 6e~f'~� ~ ~
~ "~.~15
~ ,
' ~'?,a~'~t'�~ ;,~~.~4~~~1;~1 ';~I~ ~
~ 9~� a.9�;; a~,' ..�a,, ~ yo
~ 1 m~/I~�l;o~':3A fltrAi,~~}i~A~ilt` j~ i J,:i ~;i r.~ .~'MMpMwA
i ~ .~';y.,,~.;~ ~Lll.{.:~.~ ~"~'s~ `Ii HoMGOron~oNa~ .
1 ~ ~ " ~�:`K.^.'`~i~~ ' 1'. i. ~ ~
1.~ .y oCtoMry
~y, . : . , ~;y� j� i ~ . : '
. ~ , . . ~�:r:'.titi~;''.,
.s , ~ ~ ~:i�'
'AH ~AP.K,T'H.,1A'c ~A~N.'1`;l?F~K:T;N;/1;A;~;' ~
� . 7'..
~ ~rl;'~' '
i M� ~.u~~~� ~lM4�'. '
I M YM~
? ~ � '~'~~J~�'~af0~ ~ ;
~ '~~Jpii~i~Mly;� :~'�ZtN.II� .
- i 'j;~:rly �
~ ~ ~ M O P E `~'m '
ie~ po~~~ ; . , ;
~~c~:
_ Ly:~+] ~ `k:~�:?4%s:;~%� .
��i. ' ~
s ~i.. ~0p 0 ~00 _ S00 11~Ow
- - - - - - - - ~
ISO fE0 ' 1S0 ~
Figure 1. Diafsram of Subglacial Relief of Antarctica. Made by
G.A,. Znachko-Yarovskiy. Height above,sea level: 1--
gr~aater than 1000 m; 2--500 to 1000 m; 3--0 to SOU m; '
b~~iow sea level: 4--0 to 1000 m; 5--more than 1000 m ,
,
Key: .
1. Antarctic Peninsula 11. West Antarctica ~
2. Weddell Sea 12. Lambert Glacier ~
3. Novolazarevskaya 13. Vostok
4. Molodezhnaya 14. Komsomol'skaya
5. Dronning Maud Land ~ 15. Mirnyy ~
6. Enderby Land . 16: Rosa Ice Shelf.
7. Bellingehausen Sea li. Transantarctic Mountains
8. Filchner Ice Shelf ' 18. Ross Sea . .
9. East Antarctica 19. Victoria Land ~ :
10. Ellsworth Mountains ~
~ I
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The coastnl maseif is ~ vttst volcnnic p1~Ceau wieh heighCs of ~ few hundred
meCers, covered with a glgcial she11. Only Che conical peaks oP extinct
volcannes, reaching heighte o~ 4000 m above sea 1eve1, rise many hundreds _
of inetera above glaci.al. fields.
As a whole, WesC Antarctica is a slightly wavy plain lying 500 to 1000 m
below sea 1eve1. Beeween its rocky archipelagoa there are deep depresaion
baeins whoee floor is aunk 1000 to 2000 m below aea 1eve1. 7'herefore, West
Antarctica cannot be considered, as EasC Antarctica is, a conCinent, but
representa a gigantic shel� region covered by thick aCrata of ice; furthermore,
it is noC possible to exclude the exiatence of an intermediate water bed be-
tween the floor of depresaion basins and the ice cap.
And so, the antarctic glacial waste, if the glacial shell were to be removed
from iC, would look to Che reaearcher's eyes like a heavily dis~ointed con- _
Cinent with numeroas mounCain ridges and plains, deep depression basins and
' plateaus. This continent is sunk below sea level at its frontiers and is
pressed down by dozena of millions of tons of ice. IC is surrounded by Che
gigantic ice ett~lves of the Ross and Weddell seas, which occupy about two
million square meters, and the ice fields, close to Chem in structure, in
~ West Antarctica, occupying an area of more than three million square meters.
SCratigraphy
~or the first time a stratigraphic diagram has been made of the early Pre-
Cambrian, which makes up the crystalline basement of the Antarctic Platform~
whose thickness, according to geological observations and GSZ [seismic depth
sounding~ data, is about 40 km. The crystalline basement consists of 11 series
of inetamorphic rocks, which can be correlated for the entire continent. The
most ancient Raggatt and Thule series, whose Chickness exceeds 12 to 15 km,
are made up of rocks with an absolute age on the order of four billion years
(determined by the lead-isochrone method). These are the oldest rocks of
the globe. They form exceptionally stable blocks of the crystalline basement,
of the granite-gneiss dome type, and are represented by quite distinctive
ultrametagenic mesoperthite granitoids (enderbytes, charnockitea and granites
per se), formed under conditions of high degrees of a granulite environment.
Strictly Lower Archean rocks make up two other series of the same age--Condon
and Hay (thickneas of 10 to 12 km each), encountered also only in stable blocks,
where they clothe domes of the most ancient rocks. They are represented by
standard vestigial granitoids of charnockite and graiiite~ composition, which
alternate with abundant fields of migmatites. In thes~~ series for the first
time have appeared carbonate rocks--granulite-environment calcifers. Along
with numerous stacks of basic-composition dipyroxene crystalline schists,
characteristic also of the two preceding series, there has been some develop-
ment of garnet-sillimanite-cordierite crystalline schists with an acidic
alumina composition. On the whole, raw vulcanites of average an1 basic com-
position make up more than 60 percent, and sedimentary terrigenous rocks not
more than 20 percent, while carbonate depos3ts make up five to 10 percent
83
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,,i
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[~Ol~ Ul~l~'ICTAL U51, bNLY
of Che COCnl volume or Archean strata. The ase o~ charnockiCes of theee
seriee, determined by the lead-isochrone m~ti~od, is rhree to 3.3 billion
years.
Upper Archean deposits are spread to a maximum over the boundaries of rhe
cryetalline basement af rhe tlnCarcric Platform. They form exceptionally
, mobile blocka of the baaement which p~trticipate ~n Cectonic and metamorphic
procesaea, not only Chose having f~rmed them, buC also 1aCer procesaes having
tnken place in tha Lower and even in parC in Che Middle Proterozoic. There-
fore, quite characCeristic of ~hem are polymetamorphic rocks of an original
granuliCe and superposed amphibolite facies, represented by cryatalline achiaCa
of both a baeic and acidic alumina composition, through which there has been
intense developmenC of migmatites and less vesCigial granitoids of charnockite
composition. Among these atr~~L appear thick atacks of calcifers and quartzites
and zones of typical granulitea. Numerr~us determinations of the absolute
age of these rocks by the potasaium-argon method have given 500 to 550 million
yeara; infrequent deviations go back 2 to 2.5 billion years. The most re-
preaentative Humboldt series in Dronning Maud Land reaches a thicknese of
eighC to 10 km, while the Laraemann a;ad Reinbolt series, probably of the same
age, in the Prince Charles Mountaina h.zve a thickness of as much as seven tio
nine kilometere each.
The higher-lying I~ower Proterozoic deposits differ radically from the Archean.
They make up geosyncline-like zonea which formed by that period among Archean
interdomal structures and are distinguished by the following featurea: a)
the structure of original volcanogenic-terrigenous deposits (sedimentary
deposi::, predominate over vulcanites), among which can be distinguished
~ eugeosy > ~C ~
ttt r ~.,~`~~~~r
~ ~ ~ ~11 7~' ~ti ~
~
I r~~ii~~� ~ :..~'i r~~~i~~
~
~~~11~',~1 ~~~~r~\% ~
i ~ ~ .
t
~ � nr~ ~u.~ -
.
~1111 ~~1' J
rt 11 ~1 ~`jii
t
_ ~i ii~t t~ 1~ ,c ~'~Jj1..
~ J 1~~~.,~~ 1~t1i ~ ,a~'', ~~,~//~/1
ll ~ ~1 ~ J
J z o,r, /
' ~ ~ ~~'ri? , ~ J ~~t~. l
~ ,1 ? ,~r~~t~f,~~,~~~,c,~1~-,~~ 1~~''~
~ ~ \ ~t ~ `~C ~ ~~i~
~ ~ 3~ ~ ~i/
~ ~ \ ~ ~if/ ~
~ ///j
~ t~ i/ ~
~so ien tw
Figure 8. Vortex-Type Currenta in thE Southern Ocean
Key:
1. South Pole 2. Antarctic Circle
Th~ vortex circulation loop ia the most difficult to explain and estimate.
~fiere ve have te tu... to ata~ospheric vorticeg--cy?clone loops, aince the reasons
#or th~ir origin can be sho~n? to be the same from the formal etandpoint.
103
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FOR OFFTCIAL USE ONLY
~o o ~
n EpH - NDNB P~Ed4Mp Mtaaiaxa ~
a+btP�-~ -
_�j:: =-~=~:r_ + '
_ _ ~ `
W :a~~~a1=+~~ ,
~
J, -
~~~M , _ -
. ~ s: I .
r Ei 5~ ` ~A ~ ;
~ - - IU.[~ul a~aot
F'
i ` 11
, : .
r, G:,~,;tC
_ ;
- .r~
_ S , !
I~1 i~+~�'-'_,:~_.w...- 1
" 1~ ~
- r~,A G '
- ~ .
- ~ ~~.`r'~ _ _ - Q'~~ '
- - - ' ABCS ~ ,
tiso t~~ ~ ,
Figure 9. Diagram of the ~o~nation of the West Wind Drift Current ~
(Antarctic Circumpolar Current): V--wind; D--surface
dri�t current; F--total drift current flow; K--slope of
ocean level; g--gradient current; S--total surface current
Key: ~ ~
1. Subtropical convergence 4. Antarctic Circle
2. Madagascar . 5. South Pole
3. South America 6. Australia _
We recall that cyclone vortices in the atmosphere were regarded above as
~ internal gravitational waves breaking down under conditions of rotation at
the interface o~ layers of air of different denaity.� Obviously, vortex ~
currents:can originate in this manner in the ocean, too, if there exiat there ;
interfacea between layers of water of different denaity and relative movement ,
of these layera. It is also obvious that, as the result of the greater density
~
104 `
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of wneer as eompnred wl.eh air and the ~,ower reln~~.ve ve~.oc~ties ~?s compnred
wl.th in rhe a~moaphere, vorrex waves in rhe wntier will be smaller than atmo-
spheric wavea. Lines o~ convergence and divergence on the surface o~ ehe
, ocean represant the beginning of inter~aaes betiween dif�~rent waeer masses.
These interfaaea mre then rraced at di~ferenti dep Chs. Yn the case of the
aritarctic divergence is observed an exxreme sudden change in the density ancl
relative velacity of rwo different water masses. IncidenCal~.y i~ is precisely
in rhis area that vorCex currents are concentrs~Ced in the Southern Ocean.
so u :o '
r.
~1~~%~-r~ -
*,3'~s~p~~-_~ o~~'~~~~'to0~0
0 0 ~.-_~.~,_y ~
60 u i ~-C4=~- ~ - ,
_~`AL'O:P.E V ~1.._' .~~~0~ T
, .Y~j(;EJlJI A ~
t y ` _
_ ~ ! V~,: v NAtON
, ~
- o - '�t~~�
~ / V
~o_ _ ~ ~
_ V IOtYYi GOJOC
~
~~~~Y J,.,'~a Y,~..~~. _
MOPE ~~roti
-POCCA
~ - ~
120
60 -
- `
ISO IEO 150
, Figure 10. Diagram of the Formation o~ Coastal Circulation of Waters
~ Around Antarctica
Key:
1. Antarctic Circle 5. Gradient current ~
2. Weddell Sea 6. S1ope o� level
3. Surge 7. South Pole
4. Surge 8. R~~. Sea
105
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Fnk UF~ICIAI, U5~ C~HLY
I.~t u~ t~ik gpme mdre nbnut the cyGl~ of inee.rn~i w~v~~ ut~der differ~ne cnc?-
ditione~ With a gre~t ~iff~ren~e in eh~ den^ity of ewo l~y~r~ of ~luid, th~
wgvee will be more ~eeb1~, nnd very high relaCive velociCieg are required for
them Co reach high range~ and be~in tio bre~k down. In the oeher ~xtrem~ cnee
i when the differ~nce in densiey approaches z~ro and a relaxive velocity exiets~
~11 wgvpe w111 breek down nt the very start of their formation, crpeting small-~
gcgle turbulence~ Congequenely, 1arg~ wavee and l~rge vorCicee cdrreaponding
tn thpm can form only with definite relarively not tioo high differencee in
deneity and vulue~ for th~ relativp velocity, corresponding to them, of the
two layere of axr or waeer. But guch a purely wgve-type pattern will erise
only upon the condiCion of homogeneity~ in termg of deneity, of the two con-
taCting layerg of fluid su~d of their interfacing horizontally. If the intpr-
fxce ig inclined~ then this inclination muet be counterb~lanced by som~ other
type of forc~. In the case of the abeence of thie force, density convQCtion
will originate.
We will not bp concerned here with caees of w~ve motion taking rotation into
account end develnping a11 the more under conditionB of dengity convecCion.
A etrict solution to such problems 2s exceedingly difficult.
Mathematical Model of Large-5cale Voreex Circulation in the Atmosphere� of
Anearctica and in the Waters of the Southern Ocean
- The above suggests that vortex winds and currents can be rel~ted al8o to
another cause--horizontal large-ecale convection in the atmoaphere and ocean,
. developing under conditions of Earth's rotation. We will attempt to clarify
this queation, employing experimental data and theoretically. Let us imagine
an ~nnutar vessel whoee vertical walls are formed by two coaxial cylindrical
~urfaces of different radius. If the inside aall is cooled and the outside
heated~ then in the annular space filled with fluid will originate convection
with cloged lines of flow in terma of radii. At a certain depth of the fluid
an interface c+ill occur. Cravitational waves cannot arise at this interface
on account of convective motion, aince the relative velocities of the two
layera are not great and are directed along the radii, along which there ia
no space for "acceleration" of a wave. If this vesael begins to rotate~ then
the interface is twisted and the linea of flow deviate from the radial di-
rection and take on a periodic wave nature. It in preciBely tr,ces of auch
linea of flow which have been detected in experiments by R. Yid~e (Hide, 1958)
and D. Pultz (Fultz, 1951) at the interface. The transformation of wave lines
into closed cells arith a vertical axis. Which ensues with a certain Rossby
number, testifiea to the fact that the circulation becomea close to two-
dimensional in the now level plane; in this plane, consequently, the equation
of diecontinuity is also closed. Strictly epeaking, this patCern of circula-
tion ahould arise in a vessel of infinite height, when the influence uf the
bottom disappears. Thus, gravitational vaves can ariae in anaular taaka,
rotating and not rotating~ only with a sufficiently intenee relative velocity
of the two layers along the circwaference of the tank~ not cauaed bq means of
convection. It ehould also be mentivned that gravitational aaves and vortices
corresponding to them muat as a rule be ehifted in relation to the circum-
ference, and the convection cells must remain stationary if there is no
circular motion cauaed by another reason.
106
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~
1~'UIt dH'1~ tC1At, U5~ bNLY
~or the purpd~~ df cnn~tructing a m~rhemaeicai m~de1 0~ thi~ proCe~s, it
i~ poggible to u~e the ~y~t~m df equaeion~ of eh~rmohydrodyna~icg in the
Bou~~ine~q gpproximaeion. in etudi~g by V.V. A1ek~eyev~ T.G. Akimova and
A.M. Cueev (Akimova ~t al.~ 19'74, 1975; Alekeeyev ~t al., 1975)~ t~ie non-
lin~ur syetem wge srudied analyCically for the purpnee of determining the
number of vortices and wg~ aolved numeric~lly for th~ purpns~ of ~CUdying
the proc~g~ of th~ir devhlopm~nt in the aemo~ph~re. A solueion wae found to
the plane probl~m, corresponding to a certain nros~ ~eCtiion of a cyl.indricel
veeeel of infinite heighC. Ie wae verified by the inaignific~nt influence
of the verttcal componenC of ehe large-g~gle conv~ction eeudied on ieg overall
vnrC~x nature and the number nf vortiCp~. But fundamenCal difficulCies do
noC gri~~ in solving the three-dimensional problem numeriCglly, either.
~r
b)
~
~ T= 0 1JB00
~ ~ J2000 ~
/
fO100 ~
~ ~
/
B400 ~
/
Rr ~ ,
6600 ~ ~
~ ~
~ 4000 j f
B ~
1
. ~ . T�0 J000 ` 2 i~
T: ~ . J
1100 Z 4 6 B f0
1~ yutAO eusptti
Figure 11. Mathematical M~odel of Atmospheric Circulation: a--cross
section of ~?essel formed by t~+o coaxial cylinders; b--
dependence of number of vortices on Crashof number: 1--
r~ ~ l; R~ 1.5; 2--r ~ 0.85; R~ 1.5; 3--r ~ 0.75; R=
~ 1.5; c--vorticee ~?i~h steady-state convect~on conditions.
C~. text for letter symbols.
xey:
1. Number o~ voxtices
107
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~
It ie possi.ble CO Wr~,Ce in the ~ollowing n?anner the eyetem o~ equations in di-
meneionle~s ~orm in polnr coozdinae~ee~ de,~ccibing the eteady-etete motion of
n viecoue incompreeeibie fluid between tw~ coaxial cylindere o! inPinite hpight
with radii o! r~ and it ~fig lla), roteC7ng with a coneeant identical angular
velocity o! t1 : '
0 p~ pv - GrT; div u~0; p~ ~T ~ Y~?n
~
. ~ ~
ahere y ~ ~ . Gr ~ (R "''y ` (T, - 7'') ~
+ s
r In
~o
- ~
ia the Craarof number, where T~ 1~ T1 ~ 0 are th~ temperature of the
outaide large cylxnder and the ~nside sm~iler cylinder~ reepectively, written
in certain dimeneionlese units. As we aee~ the temperature of Che surface
of the ineide cyxinder is lower than the temperature of the surface of the
outeide. The eame cflnditione were impoaed also in the experimente of R. Hide
(Hide, 1958) and D. Pultz (Fultz, 1951). Similar conditione occur in nature~
' too: The atmoephere near th~ ghores of Mtarctice ia colder than Che atmo- '
sphere of more northern latitudes eear the boundary of the outer loop o:~ cy- ;
clones. Pr ~ v/X is the Prendti number (v repreaents the kinematic modulus
of viscoaity; X ia the coefficient of thermal conductivity); v2(r,9) aad
- v(r,9; are th~ radial and zonal components of the velocity, reapectively;
TQr,6) is the deviation in temperature from a certain equilibrium value; ~
p(r,A) is the overpressure of the fluid (the deviation fro~a its etatic value); ~
aad n and ~ are individual operators. Ueed as bouadary conditions aere ,
the conditions of impeno~eabilitq and adheaion~ and for the temperature, its
conetancy at boundaries. An added coadition is the conditioa of coatinuity '
of all functions vi.th reapect to angle.
The integral aharacteristics of thn syatem studied are the numbers of convection
cells--the number of vorticea. For the purpoae of determining their dependence
on the Graehof nua~er it was shown to be conveaient to utilize the principle ~
of leest eff~ct. In geaeral. the variation priuciple for theae problems aas :
euggested by V.V. Alekaeyev (Alekaeyev and Aleksandrov~ 1973). The dependence
of the number of vorticea on the Grashof number for three variaats of the
ratio of redii r aad A ie shovn in fig llb. Ia fig llc is shovn the
ring of vortices Qrising in the comectioa system st�died. There a~so is
sham the system of coordinates choaen. Ia fig llb are plotted three curves
correaponding to the values of radii r~ aad R, given in dimeas~onless
valuea.
The sit~isum value of the Graahof number on each curve correepoading to the ~
range of the dioeaaion aelected, aud, aare precisely, to the vidth of tbe ring
vhere comrection developa, correaponds to the most probable number of vorticea
106 '
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~OCt O~FICIAL U5E 4NLY
�or eh~ cnnditions impp~~d. ze is obvioug eh~t the v~lu~ o~ Cr n grnwg
attd the nuipb~r o~ cy~,con~~ ~,ncr~aae~ with g reduct~on in ehe wid~i n� the
convection �tng. These regulte accord well wieh reality~ Lee us comparp
ehc~m with Che number o� cyclonee originating in the atmosphere around Ane-
arctica. From daCa given in riETEOROLOGICH~SKIY BYULL~T~N' (Meteorological
Bull~tinj (1958), in 3anuary (Ch~ summer) the latitude diff~erence betweEn
the ingide and out8lde radii of rhe cyclone region equals approximately 22�,
and the differ~nce in air Cemperatur~ ae itg boundarieg equal~ approxi.mately
22�C. Here the number of cyclones equals ~ix. In July (the winter) the
cyclone ring region is narrowed down Co 18� in laCitude, and the eemperature
difference aC the boundaries reaches 40�C. The number of cyrldnes observed
~quals seven. In spring, when thp cynlone reginn expgnds to 26�, and ehe
temperature contrast ie reduced Co 32�C, the number of cy~lones ig reduced
to five. Of cuurse~ this ~s a question only of the agreement of Che order
of magnitude of numberg calculated and observed~ as well ae of agreement in
the overall trend. BuC thi~ doea testify to the face ChaC the model suggested
correctly refl~cte the key features of the phenomenon sCudied.
Let ua dwell now on one diecrepanay between the Cheory a?~d reality. The
theory indicates that, under steady-seate conditions, the number of vortices
muet be even and equal 2n. In nature, however, are bbaerved both an even
and odd number of cyclone vorticea around AnCarcCica. But thig discrepancy
ie only an apparent one. We become convinced of this in a short while.~ below,
when we give the reaulta o': calculations of the development of convection
over time with different modes of ie characterized by different Graehof -
numbers. The number of vorticea dependa essentially on R- r~ , eince
this parameter entere Che equaLion for Gr to the fourth power.
Por the purpose of studying chan~es in the mode of convection in cylindrical
veasels, taking place over time and under different conditions, consideration
vas given to non-ateady-atate equations written for a rotating ayatem of ~
polar coordinates:
~ (a v - - p~ v~v -2 (i2v) ~T I~ (~~~1~
(u C) T~ X,AT, di v v= 0.
(2)
The symbols uaed here are the former; in addition, p0 represents density,
S is the coefficient of thenaal expaneion, and t2 is the vector of the
angular velocity oP rotation.
Applying the rot opetiation to the firat equation o~ system (2), introducing
the fla+ fuaction, and its total tetaperature, it Will be posaible to
arite it in dimensionlesa form in the folloving manner:
10~
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FOIt O~~ICiAL US~ ONLY
' a~~p i a~ , ee~ . z~
- ~ ss+~ + - ,
ar ?~ao a~ a, ao ao
ar ! r~ . a?' . ar 1 ~ ~ eT T' " T' .
ar ?~dA d~ dr d(1 J Pi r~ in ~R/ia) dA' ~3)
Here the traneition to ditnensionlegs varinbleg ia executed by means of the ~
foilowing relationehips:
T s~Ti _ T~~ r,~ ~~(R -.o)~ t,~ ~~(R - ro) r'; +p s wp'; A~: A'.
v
where valuPS with primeg represent dimensionlesa variablea. Primea after
the respective trane�orms of equaCion (3) are omitted. Gr and Pr in
syatem (3) are the Gr~shof and Prandtl numberg already familigr to us, the
expreseions for which are vritten above. ~
For the convenience of solution, introduced into syatem (3) ie also the
syL:~ol A~r ~ Where ~ representa vorticity on axia z. Thus, the
solution to the problem boils do~m to eolving a syatem of two quasilinear
aecond-order partial differential equationa with boundary conditions of the
first kind, aad to the Dirichlet problem. At the bouadaries are maintained
the prc~ious conditions of im~eraieabil!ty, adheeion and constancy of tempera-
ture. :hi~ syetem has no analytical eolution. We ~ri~l not daell here on ;
the proceea of ita numerical eolutxon. We aill ~ust preaent its results.
In fig 12 are ahcnm lines of flow and isotherms at different moments of time.
In the first numerical experiment with Gr ~ 6000 , the artificiallq imposed
insignificant disturbance firat, increasing, results in succesaioa in the
appesrance of two, three and, finallq, four vortices. This state, as demon-
atrated by further calculations, provea to be stable. In the aecond experi-
ment, conducted ~rith Gr ~ 8000 , preciselq this atate (four vortices) vas
used as the initi.al. Further calculations shor~ed that over a specific periad
of time one vortex is split in tWO, and via a mode with five vortices the
system gradually passes into a eteadq state with aix vorticea. Thus, an odd
number of vortices in the atmosphere of Antarctica ahould testify to in-
atability in the aynoptic conditions of the atmosphere. This phenomenon vas
also noted in experimente bq T.V. Bonchkovakaqa (1962)~ couducted by using
rotating phyaical medels of the atmosphere o~ the southern hemisphere.
Numeroua synoptic charta made from observationa in Antarctica demonstrate
that the number of cyclones observed around the continent at different times
of the qear varies ~rom five to 12. In T.V. Bonchkovakaya's model Were ob- ,
, serwed five to eight vorticee. The Crashof numbers, represeating similftude ;
criteria, co~puted ~or different natural conditions and condttions o~ the
phqsical experiment varied fram 5000 to 12000, i.e., were cloae to those
vitb vhich a calculation vas made bq uaing the mathesatical nodel. All this
con~is~s their sisilaritq to nature.
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g~ ~ b)
' �4~?
�q~t ~
~ -k~
~
, ~ C~
~ v . ~
. �P~" i! -:i ~ ~ ?
1 J
~ � ~ ~ ~~l O rC, !'J
Q
4~
C:~{%~ \
4
~ -
~ ~ ~
.
\ 0 0
t: � ~ ~i
` ~ !1
~ �ir ~�t, 14~~ 4~ ~I/
� f~ SI
~ ~ ~
� ~ ~f
~ ~ O/
t~ ' ~C/
_ o~ 0
II R ~ ~
� ' 0.5.
~ He,rY. 2~ 3) ~
. a-~ a
~ ~
~o ~ , , ~ ~
~ a~ ~.~~,,�.q` ~
1~0,9 ~~e% ~ ` ~ 9
~ `n..~b...~�
~ ~ ~ � 4 ~
~c,e ~ ,ri~.~ i ~s ~
~ ~ ,~O"~ ~
~ ~ ~.C ~ T Oi
~ 0,7 p- j !0
~ ~ ~ ? / 6
0,6 J ~l! ~~l ; ~ 4) ,
b�~~ d
O,S /O s
0,4~sRrn~rP ~ Ydl !I d ll ID' I d ~ IP P 4 0
daruru J966e. /967t. J96Bt
o---bt a--~~ d---~y a--aS
Pigure 1. Dynamic Variations in Erythrocytes, Hemoglobin and Leukocytes
in the Blood of Polar Explorera as a Function of Solar Acti-
vity: 1--solar activity, kcal/cm2; 2--Hb, g%; 3--erythro-
cyte count, million; 4--chromatic index; 5--leukocyte count
Key:
1. Chromatic index 4. Q, kcal/cm2
2. Erythrocytes, million 5. Prior to expedition, 1966
3. Leukocytes, thousand/ml -
The chromatic index curve (cf. fig 1) practically imitates the hemoglobin
content curve. During the period of the polar night in station essociates
was observed a drop in the chromatic index with an unchanged erythrocyte count
~5~
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M'Uk t1N'F'IC1AI~ USI: ~NLY
from 0.93 � 0.06 (b~for~ ehe exp~ditian) eo 0.74 * 0,02 (P ~ 0.05) in
Augugt (the ~i~eh month o~ the wine~ring g~dainn), i.~., hypochrowic anemia
wAS obeerved. The ieukocyte count (cf. ~ig 1)~ hav~ng incr~eeed i,n the
firet two months of Che ~tudy ~rom 5.35 + 1.34 thouRand/ml in Leningrad en
8.7 + 2.7 thoueand/ml (P ~ 0.001)~ later~fiuct~ated ~rom 7.5 + 1.9 thoueand/ml
(P <
0.01) in November (th~ e~ghth month of the wint~rin~ session) to S.n +
~h 2.4 thoueand/mi in Aprii ~rhan passing through the tropice ~fter completing
th~ expedition.
In �our polar explorera (BPV, IAI, PNV gnd ShpN) leukopenia was observed,
emounting reepectively to 3.1 to 3.9, 4.3 tc~ 3.2, 4.4 to 3.2 and 3.3 thou~~nd/
/ml~ but it vas observed c~nly for the ppriod of one or two monChe in the
~econd half of the expedition.
~ ~/i
i0
so
~c
~'0
t0
!0
..~--Ac~~ ~~i~'a ~
bC d-
� ;0--`~
` I r n
~.Q..�~~~~'~f~~~~'~Qsft~
~;wr'~`~+~r~ r-~ ~r � ~a ~ ~ r 1 ~ ~ r
�~e~.
lo----o ~ o-o r o-~-o~ o-o ~~---d s
Figure�2. Dynamic Variationa in the Quantitative Ratio of White Blood
Form Elementa in Polar Explorera: 1--stab neutrophils;
2--segmented neutrophils; 3--eosinophils; 4--lymphocytes;
' S--monocytea
Key:
I. Prior to expedition, 1966
From the vieWpoint of characteristics of the immunological state o~ the ~
body of a polar explorer of considerable interest are data obtained from
atudying the icukocyt~c blood count (fig 2). In the ~irst few months of
1' i2
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h'bk C1M'i~'IC1A1, US~ ONLY
the ewdy wa~ ob~~rved ~om~ ~h~,Rt i~n th~ 18ukoeyt~C b~,o~d c~unt to the l~fe,
i.e., th~r~ took plac~ an i.ncr~~A~ in, e~tab neutrophi], leukocyte~ from 2.0 +
+ 1.6 percene Co G.0 ~h 2.8 p~rc~nC (p ~c 0~01) ~~h~ number o~ ~egrr~need ~
nputrophilic granulocytes, Qoginophile and lytaphocytie~ remeined unchanged,
and the number o~ ~onocyeee aae lowered only ~lightly, from 8.0 * 3.4 percent
td 6.0 + 1.1 percent (P ~ 0.01). By October, i.e., in thp second half of
th~ expedition, the numb~r of etgb n~utrophilic granulocytes return~d to eh~
or3ginal level, 2.0 M i~3 percent, wheregs the numb~r of ~egment~d granulo-
cytee wae lowered to
47 + 9.8 percene (P < 0.05) against ~ background of
eosinophilia, 4.0 � 2.2 percent (P < 0.05) and lymphocytos3s, 39 + 7.8 perc~nt
(P < 0.05). RelaCive lymphocytoeis and moderate neutropenia wer~
maintained
to the end of ehe expedition and were normglized only after returning home.
It ehould b~ mentioned that in passing through the tropics after the expe-
dition elight eoeinophilia wae observed (4.0 + 2.1 percent, P< 0.001), and
~pon returning to Leningrad it reached 8.0 + 2.4 percenC, P< 0~001, whereas
the number of monocyte~ dropped euddenly to 2.0 + 1.2 percent, p< 0.001.
In 5eptember a reduction in the relative numb~r of gegm~nted neutrophillc
granulocytes wa~ observed in three aeeociates: in BPV--42, in NAYu--44 and
in SOK--44 percenC (absolute numbera equaled, respectively, 1302, 2024 and
3433, i.e., in BPV and NAYu the abaolute number of segmented neutrophilic
granulocytes wae also reduced). In two associatea was determined an increase
in the absolute number of lymphocytea (BPV-48 and SOK--43 percent), although
their abeolute number was within the limita of the norm. Absolute and rela-
tive monocytosis were observed in NAYu and SOK.
In October similar changes in the ratio of white blood form elements were
observed in nine station aesociates, in Nover~ber in five, and in December
in three.
Table 1. LeukocyCe Count in Polar Explorers at the Vostok Station During
the 15th SAE [Soviet Antarctic Expedition]
Initials of ' Months
explorers III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
Wp 8800 9500 10200 6050 12150 7050 10000 7550 8500 8800
LFN 10350 10350 11600 11400 10450 7750 9200 11400 13100 12600
SVI 7950 5950 9100 8100 8400 9350 9850 6700 9450 9050
pNN 7950 9550 10950 7950 6600 9450 11250 8500 9450 9100
VNI 4850 4750 4650 3555 4600 3450 3560 4600 5750 5650 _
SPA 5400 4000 6250 3400 5650 5200 4100 3400 4650 4650
WA 4500 4900 2800 4500 4050 3550 6400 4750 4500 6700
From table 1 it is obvious that in polar explorers there occurs basically a
redistribution o~ the ratio of relative values of leukocytes, while their
absolute amounts remain within the limita of the accepted physiological norms
(Denshchikov, 1969).
~ ~53
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~Ott n~CICiAI, U5~ ONLY
Ae already menC~,oned ~bova, a~ Che Vostok inkr~contin~neal antarctic etation,
located at ~ heigh~ oP 3450 m above eea ],evel., an add~.C3on~1 ~acror in~lu-
encing the hwpan body is hypoxi.a (the atmoephexic pres~ure equals 450 mfla Ng);
there#ore, the body of a pol~r exp].orer, of course, reaponded to hypoxia by
an inereaee ~n the hemoglobin contenC from 14.6 gx in Leningrad (reference '
point) to 20.4 gX i~n July (middle o~ Che wl.nCering seasion). Kowever, aC ~
thie atation~ ~uat ae at the Novol,azatievskaya sta~~,on, wag observed a definitie
reduction i,n hemoglobin by the end o~ the ~our-~mdnth polar night--from 20.4 +
+ 0.33 gX in Jul~ to 19.5 + 0.43 gX (P a O.GO1) in Auguet (eigheh monCh of
the winCering eeaeion). ~
In five stntion aseociares was observed a more pronounced reduction in hemo- '
globin content at the end of Che polar night: in W~--from 21.2 to 17.4 g
percent; in GTKh--from 22.0 t~ 2~.2 g ercenC~~and inNUNNr~from~19~4 to~l7g8 g
percent; in SPA--from 20.0 to 18:0 g p
percent.
Z'he resultg obtained in etudying the red blood have shown that the level
of the content of hemoglobin in the red blood is found to be in direct re-
lationship to solar octivity, and that even at the Voetok atation, where the
key effective factor influencing the content o� hemoglobin and erythrocytes
is hypoxia, the absence of solar acCivity somewhat lowers the hemoglobin level.
Dynamic atudiea of Che leukocyte count at the Voatok station have shown that,
just as at the Novolazarevakaya sCation, in the f irat two monChs of the atay
of polar explorere at the Vostok station the leukocyte count increased from
6026 (r^_ference) to 8000 + 48.3 (P < 0.001), then, lowered somewhat, varied
~,tithin the range of 6210 to 7480. It was estxbliahed in the procesa of observ-
ation that, of the 23 people af the station's team, in 16 no significant
fluctuationa in leukocyte count were detected for the entire period of the
expedition, while in four polar explorers (WF, LPN, SVI and FNN) leuko-
cytosis Was observed almost ateadily. In three explorers (BNI, SPA and WA),
on the other hand, leukopenia was observed for the greater part of the ex-
peditionary period (cf. table 1). '
It ahould be mentioned that in not one of the groups of explorera mentioned,
be it the group with leukocytosis or with leukopenia, was there any complaint
of feeling bad. The pronounced leukocytosis and leukopenia in polar ex-
plorera at the Voatok atation are probablq the consequence of an adaptive
reaction of their bodies to the influence of the extreme factors of Antarctica.
In this case the changea in the leukocyte count probably indicate changes in
the leukocytic blood count, which can be reflected either by a redistribution
in the ratio o# white blood fona elements, oY in an increase or decrease in
any of the structural forms of leukocytes.
Studiee of the leukocyti,c blood count at the Vostok station have shown that
beginning in the first few uwnths of the expedition thexe takes place a shift
of the blood count to the le~t, acc~mpani~ei~ ~creasedccontentriss~aaintained
number o~ atab neutrophilic leuko y
1' i~+
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r~,ght up to ehe ],~et monCh o,� ~h~ expedi,x~.on, v~xy~.ng ~xom 304.0 ~.n the fi.r~t
month, t:r ~.91.7 i.n the m~,dd~e, and Co 292 ~0 in eh~ 7~aet ~non~h o~ the exp~die~.on.
In the ~txeC two monthe o~ Che exped~,ti,on (~anuary and ~ebruary) wae observed
also an increase i,n the conCent o~ eegmenCed neuCrophi.ls~ to 4636~0 and 5040.0,
respecrively. xn the remaining mon~hs this wae reduced and kepe at the same _
l~vel Grith slight var~aCions up Co ~he end o~ the expedi~ion.
In ehe firee (January), ~ifCh (May), aevenCh (July), llth (November) and 12th
(December) monChs of Che expediCion eosinophilia was observed, equaling, re-
spectively~ 228.0, 219.0, 299.2, 220.5 and 219.0. For the entire period of
the expedition, i.n polar explorera ae the Vostok station monocytoais was ob-
served, varying within the range of 496.8 to 608.0. Inaignificant changes
were obsexwed in polar explorera with regard to the lymphocyte count.
Attention is drawn by the fact that, against a background of intenaified
poiesis of atab neutrophiLic leukocytes, the number of mature forms is reduced
beginning with the third month of the expedieion. Probably, mutual infection
of stat~.on asaociatea by repreaentaeives of their micro;,ial flora is con-
ducive to the maintenance in the peripheral blood of these explorers of a
large number of aegmented neutrophilic leukocytes, and upon Cermi.nation of
this mutual infection the need for their phagocytic function dropa because
of the abaence of an attack by bacCerial antigens, and they are either de-
poaited in the spleen and bone marrow, as was demonstrated in gnotobionts
(Bogga et al., 1960), or their intensified destruction takes place.
It is probable that the exCreme factors of Antarctica exert an influence on
leukocytosis. A demonstration was given above of the influence of the cold
effect as an inducer of erythropoiesis (Savchenko and Maksimova, 1974).
An analogy can be drawn with leukopoiesis, too. It has been shown that in a
great number of polar explorers aC the Vostok station increases have been
observed (in absolute numbers) in the total number of leukocytes, and their
atab and segmented neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes and lymphocytes, over
the accepted phyaiological norms (Denshchikov, 1969); these indicatora have
been shown to be very low in a smaller number of explorers.
The number of explorers at the Vostok atation with deviations from the norms
for the content of different forms of leukocytes to one side~or another makes
it possible to assert that under the extreme conditions of the Vostok station
intensified poiesis of stab neutrophils is observed in the greater number of
explorere, whereas there have been considerablq fewer explorers with an in-
creased number of segmented neutrophils.
But what can be the cause o~ the restructuring of the ratio of white blood
form elements? TC is probable that a human being, finding himself in the
abacterial environment of Antarctica, in a new group o~ people in which each
individual has his own microbial flora, is subjected to infection from re-
presentatives of the microflora of each member of the group. The body reacts
to this infection via its immune system, in particular, by a shift in the
blood count to the left, i.e., leuokopoiesis is intensified. But in the
155
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~~OR U~~ICIAI, us~ oxLy~
ma~ority o~ exp~diCion a~soc~ates pxonounced e~groented neuCrophilin is not
observed~ in epiee oE th~ fact that coneide:sbly more etnb neutrophils arp
l~ deCected !,n ~he blood Chan the accepted phy~ioldgical norms. The datn ob-
tnined make it poaeible eo suggest thaC under the i,n~~.uence of th~ extreme
conditione o~ Antarctica leukopoiesis of ehe human body is intensified on
account of an increase in the number of etab neutrophils, eoainoptiilia and
monocyCoeis. SegmenCect neuCrophile~ whosc~ number prnctically doea noe ch~nge
or is reduced, serve ~s an indicaCor of a reducCion i,n the bacterial antigen
load on rhe macro-organism, and they either are deposited in the cells of the
bone marrow and apleen, es was demonstrated in germ-free animals when they
were subsequently infected with micro-organisms (Boggs et al.~ 1967), or
they are deatroyed.
One of the remarkable properr.'~s of neutrophilic leukocytea is their ability
to phagocytize micro-organisms. This properCy is a leading one in Che macro-
organism's struggle againat infection of bacCerial origin and comes under
the heading o: the body'e non-specific resiaCance factora, the level of this
resistance being able to vary in relation to the effect of very different
environmental factors and Co the state of Che macro-organiam.
~~a~,.~l~ �i. 1~ NMa~,~~
>sc ~ zy ~co . ,
i i ~ g~ b, 46 ;
~ ~ BO
f 1
f00 ~ ~ 16
` i j 60 ~ 1t ~
~ ~
'r ~ ,1 a0 ~ e
~ ~
.JO ; i . B !
: ' 20 f '
-
t
~ ~.ll 81 a I D ~ I l ~ ~F ~ ~ P~a' I ~ ~ I ~ ~
% 1~ ~G'~eNt
!00 ' !6
~ C~
SO a
.'l 1~..
~ ~ r
i-~ ~ ~ � .
~I p~BP~~~?ID~II ~ .
~ ,
Figure 3. Phagocytic Activity o~ Granulocytes in the Blood of Polar
Explorere: a--12th SAE, Novolazarevakaya station; b--13th
SAE, Novolazarevskaya station; c--15th SAE, Vostok station;
1--phagocytoais; 2--index ~ ~
Key: .
1. Index
1'i6 '
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~O[t O~~ICIAL U5~ ONLY
'I'he dyn~m~.ce o~� th~2 ph~gocy~ic activi.ey o~ th~ granu~,ocy~~~ o� poi~x explor~r~
duxing the pexi~d o~ eh~ 12kh SA~ ~e rhe Novolgz~rev~k~y~ ~C~tiion ar~ ehown
in .fig 3a. Where~g rhe beg~,nnin~ of Che study phagocyxos~,e amouneed to
86.6 perc~nt~ and the index eo ~.9, ~hen ~.n Auguse iC was reduced to 13.3 per-
centi, and the phagocy~oais index ~0 5.6. Tn December ,~our people arri.ved
~t eh~ aeatiion ~rom the s~~~P d~ ~ n~w r~placem~nt group o~ explorerg, who
had the snme r~ducad ind3,caeore of phegocytii,c aceiv3Cy (13 percene) and
phagocytos3s index (5.8). The low indicator~ o~ Che phagocyeic acCivi~y ot
blood granulocytea is probably expleined by the fact ~hae prior to arr3ving
nt the atation tihe members of the new expedi~~.on hgd been on Che dieael elec-
tric motorship "Ob ~or a period of four monthg (ieolated group). A etudy
o~ phagocytic activity and of ira index in rhe next two month~ of Ch~ com-
bined etay o~f the new minigroup (four people) and of the group who had al-
ready wintered Chere (12 people) revealed a new increase in phagocytic acCi-
vity to 61.7 percent in the group who had atready ~rl.ntered there and to 60.0
percent in the newly arrived group (January), wirh indices of 6.0 and 5.7,
respectively. In February the increase in phagocyeic activiey continued to
71.6 percent in the group already there and to 73.8 percene in the newly
arrived group, with indicee of 11.6 and 11.3, respectivEly. In March was
obaerved a reduction in the activity of phagocyeosis to 46.5 percenC in the
group already there and 45.7 percene in the newly arrived group, with indicea
of 7.6 and 7.0, reapectively.
A study of the same indicators in action in 16 polar explorers of the 13th
SAE at the Novolazarevskaya station indicated identicgl changes in activity
and the phagocyCosio index, consisting in a curve of the eame nature. It is
true that the diseinguishing feature of this change is the absence of an
increase in phagocytic acCivity and its index at the end of the expedition,
as was obaerved in the preceding 12th SAE, in spite of the fact that at the
end of the 13th SAE a new group arrived (35 people) (fig 3b).
The results of research on the phagocytic activity of blood granulocytes in
polar explorera at the Novolazarevskaya station during the period of the
12th and 13th SAE's make it possible to form the opinion that in a single
group staying for an extended time in isolation there occurs a reduction in
the activity of thie important indicator of the non-apecific resiatancs of
the human body. As demonstrated by the results of reaearch conducted during
the 12th SAE, upon contacC between a newly arriving group and the group al-
ready there, in both groupa an increase in the activity of phagocytosis can
take place. It is probable that this phenomenon can be explained by mutual
~ infection of the two groups by representatives of the microbial flora of the
asaociates coming into contact, as the reault of which an induction of
immunity takes place in the exp].orers, which had been lowered from the pro-
longed stay in the practically abacterial environment o.f Antarctica. Appa-
rently two months is su~~ic~ent for mutual i.n~ection by representatives of
the individual microflora of each associate in the $roup, after which there
again ensues a reduction in the level of resistanae in the group. Based on
the data obtained, it is possible to suggest that in a larger group of
asaociates such a comparatively rapid reduction in the phagocytic activity
of neutrophils can be absent, since, for mutual infection by representatives
1! ~
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~Ott U~'~tCIAL US~: ON1~Y
of th~ mi~roh~,a~.,f~o~~ o~ each o� Che a~eqc~,~t~e a~ ~ l~ar~e grdup, ~ iong~r
Ci,n~~ !,s x~qui,z'ed ~ox tih~e body eo b~com~ imm~~n~ingi~~lly ~~~CCU~CpmBd~~ to r~-
pxoeent~eivee o~ the mi,cro~lora o~ et,~ti.an col],engueg ~
An example o~ Che possibi.li~ty o~ thie hypoehesi,s can be repra~~nted by etudies
on phagoeytoeie aceiv~Cy end ~,ndex ~,n b~,ood gr~nulocyeQg among rh~ group ~f
poiar expior~re at Che VoeCok ineracontinental ~~atiion du~cing th~ p~riod of
the 15th SA~, made up of 23 peopie. The reeules o~ ~hese atudi~~ ~re ehown
in gig 3c, wh~rE it ie obvious thnt upon ~rrival at the Voatok station in
January the phagocytoeis activity and index equaled respect~v~ly 86.4 percent
and 4.84. In the next monCh an iecreage in thea~ iedicators Continued eo
93.4 percent and 5.92. In March, i.e., in the third month oE ehe atay of thp
explorers at the etetion, a reduction in the phagocytoaig aativitY and index
took place to 29.9 percene 3:id 0.74, respectively. Such low indin~tors of
phagocytogie~ with n slighC iecre~se in June to 51.2 percene and 1.99, werQ
cmintain~d for the entire polar night, i.e., up to August, and beginning in
Sept~mber there oacnrred an 12cingNovembeYe$~PhagocyticVgctivityiwaeinoCx~
reaching 83.3 percent and 3.9
increaeed furth~r, While the phagocyto~ie index continued to increase to 5.11.
As is obvious from the reaearch results cited, phagocytic activity of blood
granulocyte8 at the not too large Novolazarevskaya etation and the intracon-
tinental Vostok atation aYe dietinguished from one another by the nature of
the dynamic curvea. In the amell gr~up at the Novolgzarevekaya etation the
phagocytic activity of neutrophils wae reduced, probably as the rea~lt of
the effect of the isolation factor and the8~iontig~l~ich there wagra_rele ively
in th~ cnvironment, while at the Vostok at , .
large droup~ the immune system of the explorers wag influencoamicnradiation,to
the practically abacterial environment, appar~ntly by high
magnetic diaturbancee and a longer polar night. Remaining unclear is Che
rea9on for the increase in the phagocytic activity of leukocytes in the
second half of the expediti.on beginning in August, if antigens of bacterial
origin are considered the inducer of phagocytic activity.
An attc~mpt has been made to explain the changes obaerved in the phagocytic
activity of blood granulocytes by changea in the content of lysozyme in the
blood serum of polar explorers. In addition to ite antibacterial effect,
lysozyme atimulates the protective powera of the macro-organiam and under
its influence the phagocytic activity of blood granulocqtea is intensified.
Studies of 1n~81y~atoktst tiondduri
g theptime ofptheel5th andm17th8SA~'s.
intracontine
The results of studies of the lysozyme activity of the blood serum of polar
explorera during the period of the 15th SAE have shawn tt~h88eh~nnerent~e
lysozyme is aub~ect to fluctuation and changes in a tt~ro-p
first phase is repreaented bq a atat~at~cally reliable inc~asp ~li~ p~ent, ~
ately upon arrival at the etation in March~ 2.92 � 0.20 ,
as compared with normal indicators of 2.35 + 0.10 Y/ml, and a tendency to~aard
a reduction in the accepted norms in April and May to 2.19 + 0.10 Y/ml, P>
> 5 percent and 2.03 + 0.13 Y/ml, P ~ 5 percent, reapectively. The second
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~
1~C)tt t11~t~tCtA1~ tJ5l. hNt~Y
pha~~ i~ ~~pr~~~nG~d by ~n ~,n~r~~~~ i,n J,y~~~ym~a ~ctivi,ey ,~rom Jun~ ehr~u~h
Oceob~r, v~r~aG3on~ ~,n ~h~ ~m~unt o~ lyeoxyfq~ wi~hi,n eh~ r~ng~ of 2.67 ~ 0.13
to 3~14 ~ 0.2S Y/m],~ 5 p~rc~ne, ~nd ~ r~duetion in 3,e~ amoune in th~ lagt
few mon~he o;~ the eeay aC ehe ~Cae~,on ro i,~92 ~h 0.15 Y/ml, P~ 4 p~rcene~
A~tiudy o~ Ch~ lysdzyi~e tt~~iv3~y o~ fihe blbod gerum of polar explnrers made
at eh~ Vostot?, eta~ion during ~h~ period of thQ 17eh SA~ ehowed that ehe nm~unt
of lyaozyme increagad by th~ end of ehe winreri.ng sees3,on, r~ach~.ng 3.0 + 0.3
Y/m1 3n Decemb~r. In the ~irgt monrh of the winCerin~ ~esston ~.t~ l~vel equ~l~d
2.0 + 0.3 Y/m1 (tabl~ 2).
Table 2. Indieatorg of th~ 'Immunologieai tt~a~eivity of polar ~xplor~r~ ~e
th~ Voerok Se~eion buring eh~ P~riod of th~ 17fh SA~
Indicator Monehs
II III IV-V* V-VI
B1ood 1y~o-
~yme, Y/m1 2.0�0. 8 2. 2�0. ~ 1. &h0. 3 p.~.n . 2
Bacterial ac- "
tivity of
blood serum,
titer 18�5 ~0+22 32�5 7g+27
Staphylo- ~ ~
coccic a-
antitoxin~
AE/ml 0.97 1.17 1.00 0.81
logA, mgX
(norm 90-
450) 12~.6�11.3 131.6�10.4 135.9�9.5 145.1�10.1
logG, mgX
(norm 800-
1800) 1228.0�121.0 1246.5�104.8 1202.7+118.6 1062.1+103.7
logM, mgX -
(norm 60-
250) 95.5�8.3 88.0�9.4 87.6�8.3 89.5�8.3
VI-VII VTI** VIII IX
Blood lyso- 2.0�0.2 2.W~0.2 2.3�0.2 2.0�0.2
zyme
Bacterial ac-
tivity of
blood serum 56�14 57i~22 100+45 116�36
Staphylo-
coccic
antitoxin 0.91 0.75 1.00 0.85
logA 137.7�9.9 132.3+10.5 127.6+10.6 122.1+10.1
logG 937.7+80.6 1120.9�126.7 1090.9�94.5 1233.8+127.9
logM 83.3�8.8 82.8+7.8 87.2�8.5 76.1+8.6
*Vaccination ~rith staphylococcic anatoxin, three ampoules per day.
**Revaccination with anatoxin once,.three ampoules, from 26 Jul Co 10 Aug.
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~UR (lrl~ ICiAL USC ON1,Y
Tabie 2. (conti,nued~
Xndicatox l~onthe
~ xx xxx z
Blooa lyeo- ' ~
zyme 1. 8-h0 . 2 2. 4~F0 . 3 3. 0+0 . 3 2�&FO � 3 ;
Sacteriai ac-
tivity oE
blood eerum 54~h18 83�38 68 70�34 ;
Staphylo- ~
coccic
antitoxin 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.85
lo gA 121.3+10.6 119.6+10.1 123.1+10.8 129.2+11.2 ,
logG 1110.5+111.7 1049.5+84.1 983.8~73.7 993.0+82.9
logM 79.9�8.6 76.1�8.1 93.1+10.0 86.2+8.1
Unlik~ the date of other auChors (Zhukovakaya and Likina, 1966), no correlation
was obaerved between an increase in the contenC of lysozyme in the blood serum
. and an increaee in the phagocytic activity of blood granulocytea, but, on the
contirary, an inverse relationahip was obaerved: With an increase in the content
of lysoxyme the phagocytic acti~Yity of neutrophils wae reduced.
Lysozyme hae a direct relationahip to the bactericidal acCivity of human akin. ~
The extent of bactericidal activity of the skin of polar explorers varied
- for the length of the stay on the expedition. For example, at the Voatok
etation during th~ period of the 15th SAE in the firat month of the expedition
the average nwaber of deposited colon bacillua colonies equaled 32.4 per 30 ;
min; then the bacCericidal activity of the dermal integuments increased, :
correspo;~'ing to a reduction in the number of colonies to 3.2 to 3.4. A ~
marked reduction in the bactericidal activity of dermal integuments was ob-
served in November, when from the forearm were sawn~up to 110 colonies/cm2.
In fig 4 is ahown the bactericidal activity of dermal integuments in polar
explorera at the Novolazarevskaya atation during the time of the 12th SAE.
It is obvious that if the bactericidal activity of dermal integumenta is ,
determined by the content of lysozyme, then its quantity in the blood serum
and dermal integuments must be intercorrelated. ~
Immnunoglobulins are an important indicator of humoral immunity, which plays
a ma~or role in human infect3oua and non-infectioua pathology (fig 5). A ,
dynamic atudy of immunoglobulins A, M and G in the blood aerum of polar ex-
plorers at the Vostok etation during the period of the 15th SAE showed that ,
in a group of aesociates consisting o~ 23 people variationa in serumal IgA
throughout the expedition were atatistically unreliable. Prior to the ex-
' pedition, in Leningrad (reference), IgA in them equaled 148.3 + 10.2 mg per-
cent. A tendency tos,ard an increase in ita content was observed beginning
in the middle of the expedition (155.3 + 12.2 mg percent). By the end of the
explorera' ataq at Che station there occurred a drop in the level of IgA below
the indicatora obtained prior to the expedition (134.1 + 7.7 mg percent), and
_ ;
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~ ~oK oFrzciaL us~ oKr.Y !
beXow ~he 3,nd~caCOra; ohxa~ned ~,n ,~anuary ~nd ~'ebxua,ry o~ khe ~ollowing year
(1k2.5 ~ 21,.7 m~ percent).
~ I 0 R 8 P B Yll ,F~ !I . I .d Id I d
N P -
~ 4
O ,
O ,
0 60
u ,
. ~
, _ , � .
>00 ~ 1
1 . v--~a 1
Figure 4. Change in Bactericidal Activity o� the Skin of Polar Ex-
plorera During an Expeditions 1--at Vostok station; 2--at i.
Novolazarevskaya staCion ~
Key: '
1. Number of colonies, cm2 ~
Mr,9. 1) a) b~
�a0 Igs �
1f00 , I9~
900 �
~ IgR ~ . ' � ~
!4a ~ ' 19p
iza
� 100
' .a,~ � 3~ 4~ rgM . . ~ 3 4~9M .
/lanp Nonim~e /InnapHe~uJtNe /lonAOM~AM046 //OIlAPNO/t!!IlM1
. J 4,~6 7 B 9f0 11 11 1314 , 3 43 S 78 9)OA11IJ
~ner.�eJuyua ) A'onuvecmBa. ,aet. 5 ) .
Figure 5. Content of T~mmunoglobulins in Blood Serum of ~olar Ex-
plorexs at yostok Station: a--duzing,l5th SAE; b--during ~
. 17th SAE
Key: �
l. mg % ~ . 4. Polar day
- 2. Prior to expedition 5. Number of montha
. 3. Polar night.
1.61
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~0~ UNpICCAL U3L ONLY
The quantity o.~ xgM began to increeee immediati@ly g~x@r ~xrivni o~ the ex-
piorere et tha Atat~,on (108~6 h 8~4 m~, perc~n?:) na compar~d r?ith the referencs
�igure (86.8 + 7.5 tng percenr~ 5 parc~nt), trel~,ab~y l,ncxsae~d during
M~y-Septe~aber
~rofq 113.6 � 9~7 ro 118.9 ~h 10.2 mg paxcenC~ ~ ~ 3 to 4 p~rc~nt~
end then gradually aas reduced to ehe origine~ ~iguras, 8~.0 + 26.6 mg psrcant~
P> 5 percent. The quantity o,! xga~ having relia6ly ~.nereaeed in May (ehe
~ifth month o~ ths etay at Che er4Cion)~ remained reli~ably high to the very
ead o~ the expedit~oa~ 1531,0 � i6o~1 mg perc~nt~ P M 5 pQrcent, 1435.3 + ,
+ 103.6 mg percene, P~ 4 parcant~ with a norm o~ 1202.6 � 26.4 mg patcant
(cf. gig Sa).
Similar etudiee of Ig mude during Che 17th SAL at the Voetok etation in a
group of 27 peopie produced indicgtore diffaring from thoss obtained during
the 15th SAE (cf. fig Sb). ACr example~ the 1eve1 of IgC aas lowered during
Che period of the polar night (lrom April through August)~ from 1202.7 + 118.6
to 1090.9 + 94.5 mg percent~ and to~eard the end of the explorers' stay at
the station wag observed tha maximuin drop in tl~s leval of this immunoglobulin
to 993.0 + 82.9 mg p~rcent. The cnntant of IgH during the period from Pebruary
through July dropped gradually from 95.5 + 8.3 to 82.2 + 8.3 mg perceat~ and
its maximum reduetion vae obeerved in September-Novembati (76.1 7.7 mg per- .
cent). The content of IgA on average vas maintained at tha normal physiolo-
gicai level (127.6 + 11.3 mg percent); oaly a slight iacreaee in it aae ob-
served during the period of the polar aight (to 145.1 � 10.1 mg petcent). -
i
M analysis nf the nature of changee in the content of immunoglobulins in !
several associates st the Vostok atation during the pariod of the 15th SAE ~
ehowed !het in the proceee of the human body's adap~atio~ to the seveze con-
dition~ of Mtarctica the level of lomuaoglobulina ia the blood aerum ia _
eub~ect Co considerable individual variatious. Por e~ple, in four ex- ;
plorera the incrense ia the isvel of I~C, detenained to oae extenr or aaother ~
in aii membera of the group, aent beyond the raage of variation of the geae-
rally accepted phyeioi~gical norma for this imuuaoglobulin. This rise ensued
eith~x i~onediately after arrival at the etation (table 3) aud aas malatained
for the extent of the entire expadition, or after several moatha of etaying :
at the etation. The high iserel of IgG agreed aith a~ increase ia the coateat ;
of IgM (aithin the raage of norinal phys~ological indicatore) aad Mith the :
tendency toward an ineresee in the amouat of IgA in these exploters.
But in some station asaociates s sporadic iocrease ia the level of IgC ia �
epeci~ic moaths ot the ainteriag ees~ion vsa accompaaied bq en increaee aot
only in IgM, but also ia ~gA. ,
A stay over the couxse of a year uader conditioaa ia Aatarctice resulted in .
the manitestatioa o~ dif~erent, not in~requentiq oppo~ite reactioas with
regard to a change in tbe level oi i~uioglobuliua ot di~~ereot claaaes. :
Por exaaple, ia UNN vaa obaarved a drop in IgA aad xgG beiov the lidt~ of ,
. the accepted ' physiological s~ot'os (table 4) .
. l.de
~ ' POit OYpICIAL USE 0~1LY +
.
~
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apk f)N'M'JCiAt. US}~: QN1,Y
Tabla 3. Ch~nge ~n the Contenr o~ ZgG in the S~.ood Serum o~ ~o].er Explorers
at the Yo~tok Station Auxing the ~.SCh S~, mgX
NMMUe~n~ 2 Mee"u~
n�~"p"N~u'~ I III IV V Vt VII VIII IX X ~ Xt XII
3)CBC l972 2'f00 2?~48 23fl0 i872 2102 t392 i2l0 1227 i330
4) CK~ 1987 2880 1872 l6i5 1440 f9$7 - Z~i b7 2390
5) Y8A i440 408tl 2707 2880 ZO74 l788 f788 !90! i97i i444
6)~rB 1~44 l498 1094 Z248 20i8 2t8~~ 2074 20y4 2tS74 2074~
Key: m
1. Initiale of explorer 4. SKG
2. Monthe 5. WA
3~ SVS 6. PGV
Table 4. Change in ContenC of Immunoglobulina tn Blood Serum of UI3N Durin~
the 15th SAE, mgX r
~
NrwyMO� Mee~rw ~
rA�dr~"~, 111 Iv v I vt vlt I vUl ( tx I x xi _
/gA 78 87 67 59 ?8 85 82 72 82 ~
IQO 380 432 432 ~32 805 490 ' 432 682 &7g
/~M !09 i27 !ZO 85 78 78 84 !09 72 ~
]
Key:
1. immunoglobul~.na 2. Months :
Table 5. Change in Content of Tmmunoglobulins in Blood Serum of YeVI During -
15th SAE, mgX
HMYyNO~ ,
rllOCrYn M 111 I IV V V! I Vll IX ( X Xl Xll
/a 69 67 79 G9 89 89 58 5i 56
a i238 i5Z8 i238 l238 i279 if32 i)34 l4ii !4~!
/a M 49 49 46 48 48 d~ 43 58 58
Key:
1. Imaaunoglobul~na 2. Months
The results obtained have ahown that i.n eome asaociates of the station's team
a non-identical adaptive reaction of the body'e immunological state wae ob-
eerved: In sou~ this involved an increase in one of the classes of immuno-
globulins and a reduction in others, and vice~versa. It should be meationed
~ that in the station'e graup three aasociates had low IgM indicators even in
1.63
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the rnference per~od in 1,eningxad (42~5~ 42~5 and 51~0); hypoimmunoglobulin-
amia with regexd to IgM can pxobably be ~xt~luin~d by de,f~,ciency of the lymphoid
eyetem.
Tha question o~ Che increaee in the contenC o~ IgM and IgC during the period
of the polar night require~ an explanation~ e~nce ir i~ not known ahat acte
ae an inducer o~ the s~nCheeie o~ theee innaunoglobuline.
bivision of the team of aseociates at the Vo~tok sCAtion during the 15th SAE
(23 people) on the basis o~ frequency of participAtion in antaxctic expeditione~
into two group~--the first group coneieting nf 11 people taking part for tF~e
fir~t time, and the gecond of 12 people taking pare more than once--showed ChBC !
no eubgtantial differencee in the extent and nature of the chnnge i.n the lavel
of incaunoglobulins were ob~err-ad. But in explorera of the firsC group Che ;
early period of adaptation (March) wae accompanied by a slight drop in the
levela of IgA and IgC, while in explorers of the second group was observed an
incr~ease ~n theae imu?unoglobulins immediately after arrival at the etatioa.
In addition, before the expedition a reduced level of IgM was determined in
some associetes of the firet group, and for the exCent of the entire wintering ,
session there was tracecl a Cendency toward a change in this class of immuno-
globulina at a lower physiological level as compaYed with analogoue indicaCore
in explorera of the second group. Apparently adaptation of the human body to _
chnnged climatic conditione ie accompanied by an increase in the level of
immunoglobulina and in the humoral defenae mechantem index,antlin people having
- repeatedly taken parr in antarctic expeditions the proceas of restoring immuao- _
_ logical reacCivity begins earlier.
_ A well�known antigenic stimulua of lymphoid tisaue is represented by ~micro-
organisme~ of internal human microflora with the products of their vital ac-
tivity. A atudy of the dynami.ce of the content of the ataphqlococcic alpha
antitoxin in the blood eerum of polar explorera (fig 6) dur~ag the period of -
the YSth 5AE at the Vostok station showed that during the time of the exgedi-
- tion no important variations occurred in the alpha aatitoxic activity of t~~
- blood serum of explorers; it equaled on average 1.0 to 1.5 AE/m1. A atudy �
of the level of the ataphylacoccic alpha antitoxin in polar explorers at the '
eaiae station~ during the tim~ of the 17th SAE showed that for the extent of
the entire period its quanitative content was'not changed, equaling on average
0.75 to 1.2 AE/ml, in spite of peroral vaccination and revaccination With
staphylococcic anatoxin. ~
~ Thus, the conclueian can be dra~n that the minimal content of micro-organlsms
in the coastal regions of Antarctica and th~ir total abeence within the con-
tinent reeult in a quentiCativ~ reduction i,n human microbial flora. This
phenomenon is prob~bly explai,ned by the eliatination o~ saprophqtic forms of
microbea. "3iaplification" of the specific campoaition of ~ticrob~.al flora ,
reaults in lowerin~ o~ the level o~ reaiatance o~ the human bodq, the indica-
tors of which are an incr.ease in the amount o~ conventionallq pathogeaic flora,
a tendency taward leoul~copenia, and a reduction in the phagocytic activity of
blood granulocytes. The reduction in the level of resistance of the human
164
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body obvious],y expiaine tha "eeedi,ng" o~ hun~n dermq~ inCagumentg with r~-
preeenCativea o~ aonvent~ona],ly pathogenic ~~,orA o~ the upper reepira~ory
trecCS ond ~he aiani~esCaCiqn o~ in~ecCioue di,sea$ee o~ endogenoue etiology.
At/~u 1) .
.{0 '
r~'w,, ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~yr~\
~o ~
~ J~ d T~~~ d S ~7 Zi' ,J .1C
Pigure 6. Staphylococcic Alpha Antitoxin in Polar Explorexe at the
Vostok 3tation: 1--duri.ng the 15th SAE; 2--during the
17th 3AE
Key;
1. AE/ml
It is interesting to note th~t quantitative disturbances in the microbial
flora o� polar explorera are noe accompanied by a change in the biological
propertiea of the tqpes of microbea studied, which remaia practically at the
level of the reference data (pathogenic propertiea, carbohydrate utilization,
virulence).
It is obvious that from the environment micro-orgaaisma conetantly enter the
- human body and are destroyed by its immune powera, aad only as the reault of
a drop in the level of immunity taking place under the influence of extreme
environmental factora or diseaee can a change in the strain representation
of human microbial flora take pla~e.,
The results of research in dynamica, on the non-specific and epecific immunity
of polar explorers during an expedition, have ehown that the non-apecific
resiatance of a polar explorer's body is lowered by the end of a wintering
sesaion in an isolated group, and in order for there to be an increase in
some of its indicators it is necessary that a new antigenic stimulus eater
this group, in the form of people from g new station replacement group with
their own microbial flora.
In view o� the .fact that the alpha untitoxic activity of the serum, pertaining
s', ' to apecific antistaphylococcic immunity, reliably does not change, it can be
~ asaumed thatthe increase in the content of ~gG and IgA on the 15th SAE and .
their periodic increases d~tring the time of Che 17th SAE are th~ consequence
oE non-speci#ic etimulation of the human lymphoid systen~. But this increase
. can be caused alao by bacter~al antigens o~ other conventionally pathogenic
microbes which have not been considered in this atudy.
~65 .
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~Ott Q~~ICtAL US~ ONtY
'~he inanunologica~ repxdering o~ the humAn body u~id~r ~xtrem,e conditions ie
i,ndica~ted both by a rsducC~,on og ehe 1eve1 of nnn-epaci~ic rea~etance, and by
Che mani~eetation o~ epeci~fc i,a~aunologir,~1 reepona~ tieactione. The con~e-
quence o~ a Yeduct~,on ~.n Che leye~, of n hua~n being'e non-epeciPic reeiatance
ie obv3oumly seeding o~ his body with repreeentaeivee o~ hie own microflora,
reeulting ~,n the orig~n o~ 3ntecti~,ou~ d~,eeaeeg o~ endogenous etiology.
An gnalyeie o~ the rnaulCe ox research conducted in Mtarctica and on groupe
of teeCere in gr~und experimenCs while imitgCing the conditione of flight into
epace hae made it poeeible tor ua to adva??ce a hypotheei~ regarding the poeei- ~
bility of an endogenoue etiology ~or poetoperative purulent infectiona ie ;
surgical warda. This hypothesl8 hae found verification in the practice of '
- health care, in~analyzing poeCoperaeive purulent infecCione in a group of ,
n~uro-oncological patienrs. ,
The active stimulation of the apecific immunity of neuro-oncological patients
with the etaphylococcic anatoxin created pawerful antietaphylococcic immunity
and ehowed g pronounced clinical effect, reducing fourfold the number of ;
postoperative complications.
Research an the state of the immune syatem of the human body under extreme ,
conditiona will help to reveal the pathogenesis of poasible endogenous in- ~
fectione and to develop intelligent ways of preventing them.
Bibliography ~
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in the Coaetal Zone of Antarctica" in "Materialy k konferenteii 'Akklima-
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2. Ventaenostsev, B.B. "Changea i.~ the Peripheral Blood in Polar Explorers
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' Krasnoyarek, 1966.
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FOR OPFICIAL USE 0~'I.Y
i
~
~
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FOIt O~~ICIAL US~ ONi~Y
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suida~rikaanae Antarctic basis, 1960," SOUTH AFRICAN 1~D. J., Vol 36, 1962.
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I~'0!t UH'I~ICIAL USL UNI.I'
19. Me~ i,Q, R� H� and ~irito ~~T ~ L~ ~ B. "Body ~luid Diatxibut~,on ~,n the Papua
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Pole Mti,gen Depr3,vaCion~ ' ANTARCTIC J. U.S Vol 9, No 4, 1974~ ~
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" Lnmunoglobuline During South Polar ~solation" in "Proc. SCAR/IUPS/IUBS '
Symp. on Human Biology and Medicine in ehe Antarctic," Cambridge, ~
~ngland, Sept 19-21, 1972. Ed. O.U. ~dholm and E.K. Gunderson, London, i
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22. Orme~ T. and Beaton, J. ''Haemotologic Changes Caused by Hypothermia in ~
Hamsters and Rats," CANAD. J. BIOCHEM.~ Vol 40, 1962.
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COPYRIGKT: Izdatel'stvo Nauka, 1978 ;
8831 ;
cso: s144/o459 ~
. ~68
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