PRELIMINARY REPORT ON RUSSIAN EDUCATION TRAINING AND RESEARCH IN GEODESY AND CARTOGRAPHY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79-00202A000100050001-1
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 110
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 27, 1998
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: September 26, 1952
• Content Type: REPORT

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PRELIMINARY REPORT ON RUSSIAN EDUCATION, TRAINING AND RESEARCH IN
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Abstract
General Introduction ........................ 1
Sources ..................................... 4
I. Education and Training in General ....................... 7
A. Lower Education ..................................... 11
B. Intermediate Education .............................. 13
C. Higher Education .................................... 15
II. Cartographic and Geodetic Instruction ................... 23
A. Universities ........................................ 23
B. Other Institutions of Higher Education .............. 35
C. Special Schools of Higher Education .................
1. Moskovskiy Institut Inzenerov Geodezii. Aero-
38
fotos"yemki i Kartografii (MIIGAiK) ............. 38
a. Program of Instruction ...................... w
b. Definition of Aims .......................... 44
c. Faculties - specialties ..................... 44
d. Enrollment.......... ........................ 46
e. Facilities .................................. 47
f. Staff ....................................... 48
D. Entrance Requirements to Institutions of Higher
Education ...........................................
E. Textbooks of Geodesy ...............................
F. Intermediate Education in Geodesy and Cartography...
III. Research
49
52
54
A. Central Scientific Research Institute of Geodesy,
Aerial Surveying and Cartography (TaNIIGAiK)....... 66
B. Academy of Sciences U.S.S.P......................... 74
C. Other Academies. ................................... 84
D. Main Directorate of the North Sea Route
(Glavsevmorput') ................................... 86
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Page
I
. E.
Arctic Institute .................................
86
F.
I~Vdrographie Directorate .........................
88
G.
Mining - Geological Directorate ..................
88
H.
Arctic School ....................................
89
1.
Arctic Intelligence ..............................
89
IV.
Appendices
A.
List of References.............................
90
B.
Rules of Admission to Institutions of Higher
Learning of the U.S.S.R. for 1950..... .........
92
C.
List of Russian Textbooks of Higher Geodesy.......
100
Figure 1 - System of Training U.S.S.R . ................... 11 a
fiable I - Geographic Faculties ........................... 28
Table II - Advanced Degrees in Geography and Related
Sciences ....................................... 30-31
Table III- Program of Instruction......................... 41
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This paper is a preliminary discussion of the Russian educational
and training programs in science and technology. Part I describes the
general organization plan for the school system, beginning with the
elementary classes and ranging to those of institutions of higher learn-
ing. Part II deals in greater detail with training and educational pro-
grams, educational and research institutes, publications. research and
technological results in the fields of special interest, - geodesy and
cartography. Some attention is paid to the history of the development
of the Soviet educational system, especially as it affects the status
of present scientists and their work.
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Adequate analysis and evaluation of any aspect of both the 8ussian
scientific actuality and potential must be prefaced by as complete compre-
hension of the basic fundamentals of Russian life. philosophy, mores, and
history as is humanly possible. May investigators have already become
aware of the extreme complexity of Russian science and industry and the
many difficulties attendant to the problem of solving the Russian riddle.
Perhaps the greatest obstacle, however, encountered by all American scien-
tists and technicisns is a lack of appreciation or knowledge of certain
more or less intangible or little understood factors which are integral,
parts of Russian development in all fields. Of vital and urgent importance
are the answers to such questions as, - "How is it possible that the Russ-
ians have been able to develop the 'A' bomb so rapidly?", "How is it possible
that Russian technology and industry have produced the MIG-157" - and more
specifically related to,our present field of investigation, - "What con-
ditions made the extensive mapping and geodetic programs of the U.S.S.R.
during the past twenty years possible?". The answers to these and similar
questions being asked by many intelligence, scientific, research and develop-
ment groups in this country Inveriably are to be found, in whole or in part,
in these so-called "intangible" factors.
Time, apace, or scope of this project - or knowledge of or research by
the staff of this project for that matter - do not permit exhaustive descrip-
tion of these intangibles. Indeed, except in so far as they specifically
relate to the more or less definite problems of analysis of Russian scientific
achievements in geodesy. photogrammetry and cartography or in the technological
phases of development in these fields, no report can be made on them at this
time.
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For the purpose of this project, therefore, two such factors must
be considered as important. The first, that of training and education
of both scientific and technical personnel, will be described in a pre-
liminary way in this report. The second, that of the Russian standards
of living, their system of "norms", and the effects of the Russian politi-
cal system of unchallenged obedience to government upon science and tech-
nology may be grouped in a category which might be termed the "Russian
philosophy". These factoXcpd5alof necessity, be part and parcel of the
final evaluation reports dealing with the specific items
of our contract.
A thorough knowledge of the educational and training programs of the
U.S.S.R. is absolutely essential for complete and accurate evaluation of
any Russian science or industry potential. A tendency to compare numerical
? statistics - U. S. ton to U.S.S.R. ton, U. S. ships or pianes to U.S.S.R.
ships or planes - has been carried over into the scientific field too often
by some analysts. Such analyses fail to comprehend the underlying signi-
ficance of Russian programs in the educational and training fields or to
realize what has been and is still being accomplished in the matter of
developing scientists and technicians in many fields. That geodetic or
cartographic knowledge and "know how" in the United States equals or ex-
ceeds that of the U.S.S.R. is undoubtedly a true statement. However, this
fact, by itself, would be a most dangerous one on which to base our own
future geodetic and cartographic programs, smug in the belief that ours
is a superior ability. The really significant part involves the answers
to such questions as, "Will the Russians produce scientists capable of
not only equalling the work of scientists of other nations, but who can
also make those original contributions on which the further development
t..
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of science and technology depend?" How many scientists and technicians are
being graduated in each field per year?" What are their educational and
training requirements as compared with ours?" What is the quality of their
work?" "How many universities teach these subjects?" What are the Russian
plans for future programs and what fields of science and technology are being
emphasized. and why?"
The following report, data for which was obtained from open source
material only, is a preliminary statement the purpose of which is to answer,
in part, some of these questions as they pertain to the problem of evaluating
and defining the Russian potential in the fields of geodesy and cartography.
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Experience gained
during the last
five years has indicated that certain general conditions always obtain
in all phases of the study of Russian science
and t_V51A64
conditions. described in detail in earlier reports
are sufficiently well-known now that exhaustive treatment and descriptions
are unnecessary for the purpose of this report. Major items, however,
may be stated briefly, as follows:
1. Difficulties encountered in the collection of Russian data.
a. Incompleteness of U.S. library holdings of Russian
scientific books, serials, periodicals. etc,
b. Lack of consistent library cataloging procedures.
c. Lack of competent personnel, - translators. ab-
stracters. or scientists who read the Russian
language.
d. High security classifications attached to several
projects and materials dealing with the various
phases of the Russian problem have resulted, per-
haps necessarily, in further complicating the
collection of basic material.
2. Difficulties caused by the Russian modus operandi.
a. Lack of competent editing it Russian publications.
b. Issuance of Russian decrees pertaining to the dis-
semination of their scientific data.
c. Changes in names and character of research and pro-
duction facilities, including publications.
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d. Changes in scientific or scientific-political
emphasis in the Soviet Union.
e. Differences between United States and Russian
definition of "Science" (Nauka) and associated
differences in classifications of sciences,
educational and research programs.
Items (a) and (b) apply to all scientific effort in Russia. Items
(c) and (e) also always apply but, of course, vary considerably in detail
with the particular sciences under investigation.
3?
Difficulty in distinguishing between and categorising research,
training, and industrial facilities, along with associated personnel and
publications.
Tedious and painstaking work over an extended period by many hundreds
of individuals, both here and abroad has resulted in the collection of a
considerable amount of information on various aspects of Russian science.
Various groups and agencies have prepared partial or complete translations
and abstracts. This report wi172&*tie ~ito correlate and digest all open-
which pertain to the fundamental problem of scientific education and
training in the Soviet Union with specific emphasis on educational programs
in the fields of geodesy and cartography.
Perhaps one of the most obvious and consistently representative state-
ments that can be made concerning the availability of scientific source
materis.1s is that, prior to the year 1941, detailed information of both a
theoretical and specific nature was available to all those who sought and
read it. Publications of all types could be had for the asking. From
reports of this period (1319-1940 inclusive) a rather complete history
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of the development of theoretical and applied science and educational
programs, curricula, etc. can be reconstructed. After 1940 (1941-1947)
there followed a period in which Soviet science went through considerable
political and scientific change, new programs resulted from war experiences
and sciences not previously supported by the government received new impetus.
Some curtailment in the amount of scientific and educational work resulted,
although not to the extent that might have been expected as a result of
occupation, destruction and re-location. During this period, publications
of a scientific nature, though still available to this country, were not
obtained in as great abundance hers and those that did were of a less
specific and comprehensive nature.
The most serious hiatus. however, resulted from the Russian ban on
the export of all scientific data in 1947- From this time to the present,
specific scientific data is almost entirely lacking. That information
which has been obtained is of a general or theoretical nature and ig frag-
mentary and often contradictory or otherwise confusing. Additional data
published between 1941 and the present continues to trickle into this
country. As more and more of this information becomes available, some of
the uncertainties mentioned in this report will undoubtedly be removed.
For the period prior to 1941 the best source of information on geodetic
and cartographic programs and methods is the Russian professional journal,
"Geodezist", which contains many articles on the subject of training as
well as the chronicle of events in the system of the Main Directorate of
Geodesy and Cartography (Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii i Kartografii and
denoted as GUGK henceforth in this report). Apparently in December 1940 this
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Journal was discontinued and was supplanted by the "Sbornik Nauchno-
Tekhnicheskikh i Proizvodstvennykh Statey po Geodezii, Kartografii.
Aeros"yemke i Gravimetrii" (Collection of Scientific Technical and
Production Articles on Geodesy, Cartography. Aerial Survey and Gravi-
metry, henceforth as Sbornik NIPS) published by the GUGK. No definite
statement has been found to date as to the reasons for this change.
However, so far as we are concerned, the change was for the worse since
articles are much less detailed and the chronicle of events is almost
absent.
Another valuable source of information for the period up to 191+0
is the two-volume work, "XX Let Sovetskoy Geodezii i Kartografii", (20
years of Soviet Geodesy and Cartography) published in 1939 in which de-
tailed reviews of various branches of geodesy and cartography are given.
After 1940 we must rely on the less comprehensive information pub-
lished in the Sbornik NTFS as well as information found in reference-
books, textbooks, encyclopedias, miscellaneous periodicals, monographs.
etc., to which reference is given in the text of this report.
_I. ETNCATION AND TRAINING IN GTNERAL
Training in geodesy and cartography is part and parcel of the com-
prehensive Russian system of training and it is necessary before we treat
the specific problems of geodesy and cartography to say something about
the system as a whole.
The central theme of Russian education has always been the "kadry".
The importance of the "kadry", (that is, cadres) scientific and technical'
personnel, was realized by Lenin immediately after he assumed power.
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Imperial Russia was relatively poor in scientific and technical personnel.
Moreover, much of the existing personnel was opposed to the Communistic
government and therefore was either annihilated or driven abroad. Lack
of suitable personnel made speedy recovery and industrialization of the
country after the raves of World War I and the revolution very difficult.
In fact, only the liberal employment of foreign engineers and technicians
saved the situation. However, the Soviet government clearly realized that
it could not depend forever on foreign help and very consistetly carried
forth a program of providing the country with native expert personnel.
A most striking expression of this attitude was given by Stalin in his
report to the 17-th Congress of the Communistic Party. January 26, 1934.
SpeakinG of the development of Russian industry during the preceding three
years, he said:
"But of all achievements of industry during the period covered by this
report we must count as the most important achievement our success in educa-
ting and training thousands of new workers and new leaders of industry. We
have produced a whole new generation of engineers and technicians and hundreds
of thousands of qualified workers who have mastered the new technology and
advanced our socialistic industry. There is no doubt that without these
people our industry could not achieve the results of which we are so proud.
We have the data to show that during this period factory and mill schools
produced 800,000 more or less qualified workers, and universities, techno-
logical schools and technicums graduated more than 180,000 engineers and
technicians. If it is true that the problem of the cadres is the most ser-
icus problem of our development, we must admit that our industry is begin-
nine to solve this problem.'
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This is not a chance quotation from Stalin. One can collect dozens
of similar quotations from his speeches, as well as from speeches of other
leaders of the U.S.S.P. With such an attitude prevalent in the ruling cir-
cles, rank and file educators took up the theme and published innumerable
books on general and technical education in which the experience of other
coup-tries was analyzed, criticized and compared with the U.S.S.R. experience.
There were (and perhaps still are) sever.1 periodicals specifically devoted
to the problem of the cadres. such as "Za Promyshlennyye Kadry" (For Indus-
trial Cadres), "Kadry Sovetskoy Promyshlennosti" (Cadres of Soviet Industry),
etc.
The general attitude toward scientific and technical personnel may be
summarized as follows;
(a) The social position of scientists or technicians in the U.S.S.R.
is extremely high. They are the elite of the country regardless of their
political faith so long as they do not commit an overt act hostile to the
regime. During the war they were given special privileges in regard to
food, clothing, shelter, etc. Many of then were exempted from military
service. During the siege of Leningrad young scientists were evacuated
to Lake Ladoga, while the rest of the population was left to starve.
The government evidently takes the attitude that scientists and engineers
are of the greatest importance to the national economy. Tet the slightest
criticism of communism is severely punished regardless of the status of the
scientist. This was especially true during the great purges of 1935-37 when
many outstanding scientists were shot.
(b) There is a very elaborate and apparently effective system of
supplementary trh.ining no matter how high the position of the scientist
is, such as refresher courses, periodic reviews of activity, etc. No
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scientist or engineer is allowed to "go to seed".
(c) There is a very efficient system of competition in science
and technology.excellence of performance being highly rewarded by
various prizes, medals. decorations, etc.
(d) Teaching and research in science and technology are very
closely connected. In various universities and instructional institutes
a great deal of research is being done. In purely research institutes
some training is offered in post-graduate work.
(e) All researrch. teaching and training is closely connected with
political life. There is no such thi - as neutral science.
The organization of Russian education and technical training is a
very complex subject not to be fully explained in a few pages of a report.
We can hope here to give only enough background for the discussion of
training in geodesy and cartography in Russian institutions. Comparison
of Russian sources of 1946 and 1950 shows that considerable changes in
Russian education took place in this interval, and undoubtedly are still
taking place.
In general, the Russian system of training has three subdivisionst
1. Nachal'naya Shkola, (the "Beginning" School) more or less equiva-
lent to the American Xlementary School.
2. Srednyaya Shkola, (literally the "Middle? School) equivalent to
the American High School.
3. V eshaZa Shkola, (literally the "Higher" School) of university
and college level.
There are, however, in Russia many schools for which no American equiva-
lent can be found. In this category for instance, are the technicums (about
3,500) which exist for almost every industry and technology which the Russians
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include in the system of Srednyaya Shkola. Many of these should be con-
sidered as of a Junior College level and definitely of higher caliber
than our so-called trade schools. In this report the Russian classifi-
cation is adhered to and technicums are classed in the system of SredBZ M
Shkola.
hig. 1 shows the various types of schools in the Soviet Union, the
age groups represented in each, the political unit to which each age
group is assigned, and the normal flow of students from one type of school
to another.
The level of compulsory education in the U.S.S.R. in 1946 was the
elementary school of four years for children of 7 to 10 years of age.
However, this level was supposed to have been raised to the seven year
school; that is, up to the age of 14. In 1946 this educational level
was obligatory in cities and towns, but apparently not in the whole
country. (Medynakiy, F.1., aarodnoTe Obrasovaniys v 88SH, 1947, p. 20.)
In this paper we are concerned only with those aspects of lower
education which supply skilled workers for factories and industrial es-
tablishment*. After a very complicated history involving many stages
and plans for the training of skilled workers the Russians have finally
developed a system known as the FZO (Fabrichno-Zavodakoys Obucheniys)i
that is, Factory and Kill Training). A special ministry, Kinisterstvo
Trudovykh Rezervov (Ministry of Labor Reserves), is in charge of the
FZO, and publishes a periodical, 0Proisvodstvsnnoye Obucheniyes ('Produc-
tion Training').
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Kindergarten
_17
is
19
20
23
25
26
27
Suvorov
10-year and
School Nakhimor
Schools
Primary
Universities
Instructional
Institutes
Instructional
Academies
POST GRADUATE
Candidate
Universities
Instr.Inatitutes
POST GRADUATE
Doctor
Universities
Instr.Institutes
POST GRADUATE
Candidate
7-year
Military Institutes
POST GRADUATE
Doctor
Military Institutes
POST GRADUATE
Candidate
Academies of Science
Research Institutes
POST GRADUATE
Doctor
Academies of Science
Research Institutes
Night School
b. and
Correspondence
Courses
at
Universities,
Instructional
and
Special
Institutes
up to
Age
45
IL
represents normal flow of students
POLITICAL
Komsomol
Party
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Adolescents of 15-16 years of age not attending the regular high
school or any other specialiied school, are drafted for a period of from
half-a-year to one year depending on the character of the training. They
are assigned to training schools at factories and mills, are supported by
the government and, after graduation, distributed according to their
specialties.
In addition to the FZO schools, there are two other-types of schools
also administered by the Ministeratvo Trudovykh Rezervoy. They are:
(a) Remeslennyye Uchilishcha (Trade Schools) with a two-year training
period for every line of technology and industry.
(b) Zhelezodorozhityye Uchilishcha (Railroad Schools) with a three-
year period of training.
Up to 1946, soars 2,250,000 of workers had received this training.
The demand for qualified workers was still so great that the entire program
was accelerated and, for the fourth Five-Year Plan, the following norms
were adopted:
1946
450,000 to be trained as skilled workers
1947
760.000
1949
980,000
1949
1.090,000
1950
1.252.000
Total
4,440.000 workers.
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B. INTZRMZDIATZ =DOCATION IN GS AL
In addition to the ordinary high school (Sredayays Shkola) there
are in the U.S.S.R. numerous schools of specialized training known as
"tekhnikumy" (technicums), "uchilishcha" and "shkoly" (both latter terms
meaning schools). Generally speaking, teehnicums give technical and
agricultural training, uchilishcha offer instruction in education and
art, and shkoly in public health. However, there are many exceptions
to this rule.
General supervision of this system is given by the Ministry of
Higher Biduwation, but financial and administrative aspects are handled
by the corresponding ministries and directorates.
Young people enter these schools with a seven year record of high
school; that is, at the age of 14-15. The term of instruction is from
3 to 4 years. However, students with a complete high school record of
10 years may also enroll in a technicam. In this case, the length of
instruction is abbreviated to two years.
Nothing definite can be stated as to the status of these schools.
The situation varies considerably in different branches of science and
technology. The eleven technicums in the system of GUG$ are discussed
in detail later in this report. The conclusion derived from a study of
these is that they are certainly above the level of the American high
school and correspond better to the American Junior College of specialised
training. Whether this statement is true of technicume in general is im-
possible to decide without detailed study. It is to be noted that the
Sred yaya Shkols is administered by the Ministry of Znlightsent, whereas
technicums, etc., belong to the system controlled by the Ministry of
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Higher Education. Therefore, it would seem that the Russians themselves
consider technicums as of a somewhat higher level than ordinary high
schools.
The purpose of technieums is to supply technicians to carry out
work under the direction of engineers. Russian educators assert (Me ski ,
loc. cit., pp. 157-158) that intermediate technical education is not a blind
alley out of which there is no exit. A graduate of a technicam can, for in-
stance. enter an institution of higher education by passing a special exam-
ination after serving three years in the practice of his specialty. Zs-
pecielly talented young people (up to five percent of the total) may be
released from this compulsory service to institutions of higher education
immediately after graduating from a technicum. (See Appendix B).
The list of technicums, uchilishcha and shkoly as of 1948 is as follows:
(Srednlye Spetsial'nyye Uche.bnyyyee Zavedeniya SSSA, Moscow, 1948).
lubber of Technicums
1.
Mining and Fuel Industry
96
2.
Metallurgy
58
3.
Power and Electrical Engineering
167
4.
Chemical and Rubber Industry
34
5.
Light and Textile Industry
56
6.
7ood Industry
110
7.
Lumber and Paper Industry
53
S.
Labor Reserves
21
9.
Polygraphic Industry
4
10.
Construction
151
11.
Transport
149
12.
Communications
19
13.
Geology, Geodesy and Meteorology
21
14.
Industrial Technicums of Various Types
51
15.
Agriculture
550
16.
porestry
22
17.
Economics and Law
235
18.
Zducation
701
19.
Cultural - Zducational Institutions
73
20.
Art and Crafts
194
21.
Public Health
635
22.
Physical Culture
43
Total
3.442
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According to the latest data (prav'ochnik dlya postupayushchikh v
!MsA!je UchebWe Zaveeddeniya., 1950) there were 849 institutions of higher
education (Yysshaya Shkola) In the U.S.S.R. in 1950. Another source,
Titul'n isok Yysshikh Uchebnykh 1946, gives for 1946 only
792 institutions. This means that in a four-year period the number of
institutions of higher learning in the U.S.S.R. Increased by 57. This is
a very significant fact requiring no further comment.
Neither of these sources mentions the institutions of higher learning
connected with various defense and military organisations. There are at
least 30 of these.
The primary task of all of these institutions of higher education is,
of course. instruction and training of students. Nevertheless, considerable
research is also being performed. apparently differing in amount from insti-
tution to institution. The main decree pertaining to research work at the
institutions of higher education is that of SU of February 18, 1944, No.
179, supplemented by several others, This decree defines the purpose of
research work as followes
(1) Development in the institutions of higher learning, scientific
personnel who are not afraid to depart from the old, conventional, scientific
methods and who are able to strike out in new directions.
(2) Participation of professors in research necessary for national
economy and defense of the country and in further progress of science and
culture in the Soviet Union.
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(3) Improvement of scientific statue of professors.
(4) Instruction of students in the formulation and solution of
scientific and technical problems and the selection of the most promising
students for research work.
There are many forms of encouragement given for research work per-
formed at institutions of higher learning, such as prizes. citations.
additional renuzeration, etc. The general idea seems to be to prevent
professors from scientific stagnation and make them participate in the
scientific and industrial life of the entire country.
Decree No. 2000 of SNR dated November 1, 1937, defines the normal
working day for the teaching staff of institutions of higher learning as
six hours. Out of these six hours professors and teachers depending on
this status mist devote from 2.25 to 3.50 hours to working with students
with remaining time to be devoted to research and improvement of teach-
ing.
There is no question that research in institutions of higher education
is encouraged in every way by the government. There is also no question
that in some institutions a great deal of research is being done as is
evidenced by the fact that almost every such institution publishes its
own serial or serials. Some of these,such as the publications of the
Moscow and Leningrad Universities, are very imposing. However, it may
well be that even with the best of intentions professors simply cannot
find time for research because of the demands of their primary responsi-
bility of teaching.
Recent discussions in Russian literature distinctly indicate that
the amount of research done in the institutions of higher learning is not
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as great as envisaged by the government. For instance, in discussing
the training of geographers at universities, V. N. Sementovskiy (VoZosy
Geoff, Sbornik 2a. 1951. pp. 56-82), states that duties connected with
teaching take 80 to 90 percent of a professor's time, not the 50 percent
planned. For research an average professor has only 10 to 20 percent of
his time. On the other hand, N. I. Aleksakov, (Yestnik Shkoly,
1951. No. 5? pp. 34-36) reviewing the situation at the Moscow Institute
of Mechanical Ingineers, comes to the conclusion that lack of research
simply means lack of organization. Describing measures taken to increase
research at his institute, he states that in 1948 scientific personnel had
been working on only four topics, but that in 1951 54 research projects
were underway.
The detailed organization of these numerous institutions of higher
education underwent many changes during the 1917-1950 period. At present
the most important institutions are under the supervision of the Ministry
of Higher ?education, U.S.S.R. (Ministerstvo Vysshego Obrazovaniya, SSSR).
This Ministry has eleven main directorates (Glavnoye Upravleniye) to which
the corresponding institutions are assigned. Thus 32 universities and six
institutes are in the Main Directorate of Universities, etc. For the year
of 1950 they were divided as followss
Directorate of No* of institutions
1.
Universities .
38
2.
Polytechnical Schools
25
3.
Machine Building Schools
28
4.
Mining and Metallurgy Schools
22
5.
Chemical Technology Schools
17
6.
Civil Ingineering Schools
23
7.
Light Industry Schools
8
8.
Forestry and Wood Techn. Schools
12
9.
Agricultural Schools
71
10.
economic Schools
27
11.
Law Schools
10
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There are many other ministries and directorates of the U.S.S.R. as
well as ministries of individual republics to which other institutions of
higher education are assigned. Of these, at least from the point of view
of numbers. ministries of enlightment to which 374 pedogogical and teachers
institutes are assigned. and ministries of health which account for 72
medical institutes, are especially important. Regardless of what Ministry
the educational institution is listed under, the Ministry of Higher Educa-
tion exercises definite control over programs of instruction, the general
educational setup and especially in the award of advanced degrees.
In contrast to this network of educational institutions there are
some 1,000 research institutes whose primary, and often the only, activity
of the staff is research. Such institutes are attached to the
(a) Academy of Sciences U.S.S.R., or to the Academies of Sciences
of individual republics. In this system alone there are some
300 research institutes, the main Academy accounting for some-
thing like 60 institutes.
(b) Other Academies (such as the Academy of Agricultural Sciences)
and universities.
(c) Individual ministries, independent bureaus and directorates.
The research institute attached to the Main Directorate of
Geodesy and Cartography is known as the Tsentral'nyy Nauchno-
Issledovatel'skiy Institut Geodezii, Aerosayemki i Kartografii
(that is, Central Scientific-Research Institute of Geodesy,
Aerial Survey and Cartography). The organizational scheme
of such institutes is a very difficult thing to unravel due
to frequent changes and lack of recent Russian sources. In
n
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1935 for instance there were 127 research institutes in the
Comissariat of Heavy Industry. This eomiaeariat was replaced
in 1946 by a number of ministries and the institutes were
accordingly redistributed. It should be noted that research
institutes connected with various ministries of ,defense have
only identifying numbers and not even names. Stich, for in-
stance, is Research Institute No. 108 which was attached in
1946 to the Comissariat of Electrical Industry. The highest
number so far encountered is No. 627. also assigned to the
Ministry of Electrical Industry. The whole problem of num-
bered research institutes is part of the system of secrecy
in science and technology which is such more striking in the
U.S.S.R. than in any other country. One might say that science
in the U.S.S.R. is an iceberg, the larger part of which is
hidden from sight. Conversation with recent refugee scientists
indicates that almost any research institute would have a
secret department.the work of which is not known to the general
staff of the institute. Indeed, references are made to this
secret work in official publications. Projects are sometimes
listed in which work has been carried out but the results with-
held from publication.
The Ministry of Higher Education exercises control over
some research institutes, regardless of their affiliation.
through a system of advanced academic degrees and professional
titles. This is done through the 9ysshaya Attestatsionn,aya
gomiseiya (Supreme Attestation Committee) of the Ministry.
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By decree No. 464, of March 20, 1937 the following academic degrees
were established:
(1) Candidate of Science, approximately equivalent to the American
Master's Degree.
(2) Doctor of Science, approximately equivalent to the American Ph.D.
These degrees can be taken in 18 specified branches of study, the
official designation being not simply Doctor of Science, but Doctor of
Technical Sciences, Doctor of Geographical Sciences, etc.
People (aspirants) working for the advanced degrees are assigned to
various specified institutions of higher learning as well as to some re-
search institutes. The list of these institutions and research institutes
is given in decrees of SNB No. 464 and No. 55g. In 1946 there were 216
institutions which could grant degrees of both candidate and doctor, and 130
which could grant only the degree of candidate. The number of these institu-
tions is rapidly increasing. From a report on the activity of the Vysshaya
Attestatsionnaya Iomissiya for the academic year of 1949-50, (7u. A. Zeaskova,
Vestnik Vyashey Shkoly, Vol. 9, 1951, No. 6. pp. 21-41) it is seen that the
number of institutions in the first group was 470 and in the second, 278.
The fact that the university or research institute does not award the
Doctor's degree, but merely recommends its awarding which Is actually done
by the Vysshaya Attestatsionnaya gomissiya,is also noteworthy. On the other
hand, the award of the Candidate's degree is made by the Institution in which
the study was carried out, but must be confirmed by the Vysshaya Attestat-
sionnaya Komissiya.
In 1949-50 the Vysahaya Attestatsionnaya Iomissiya conferred 484
Doctor's degrees and 4,536 Condidate's degrees were awarded by different
institutions.
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Rules governing training for advanced degrees (aspirantura), lists of
institutions and specialties in which aspirants may work for a degree.
etc. may be found in a special publication s_epirantura Vyeshikh Uchebnykh
Zavedeniy SSSRs. 1949.
Decree No. 464 also establishes professional titles in a two-fold
sequence, one for institutions of higher education and the other for
research institutes. They are as follows:
Institutions of Higher Research Institutes 9mlifications
education
Professor Professor Doctor's degree
Starshiy Nauchnyy Sotrud- Candidate's degree
nik (Senior Scientific
Aide)
Assistant Mladshiy Nauchnyy Sotrud- Diploma of Instruc-
nik (Junior Scientific tion of Higher
Aide) !ducat ion.
The title of Professor, Dotsent and Starshiy Nauchnyy Sotrudnik are
conferred by the Vysshaya Attestatsionnaya Zomissiya upon recommendation
of the institution of higher education or of the research institute. The
other titles are conferred by the particular institutions to which the
person is attached. In 1949-50 the Commission conferred the titles:
Professor 571
Dotsent 1811
Starshiy Nauchnyy Sotrudnik 1546
This description, of course, does not give the complete picture of
the Russian educational and research organization. Besides the official
titles described above there are many employees who are simply called
teachers (prepodavateli) of various types as well as special assistants.
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The peculiar difficulty in following careers of Russian scientists
is the fact that they are connected with several organizations. One and
the same person may be listed on the staff of half a dozen institutes.
This is to be explained by the low pay of professors who had to have
several jobs in order to stay alive as well as by the rapid expansion
of the educational and research institute system and consequent lack of
qualified personnel.
However, with the introduction of a standardized system, this multiple
employment is to be permitted no longer according to the decree of March 6
yy E ~tsK7`rc r .T slert~~ y''sG c'
1944 (-Vrashaya Shkola, Osnovj'y4stanovleniya, 1945, p. 289). u It would
55 4
appear that the Russians consider that they helve finally
solved the problem
of sufficient scientific personnel.
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II. CARTOGR PHIL AND G30D3TIC INSTRUCTION
Cartographic and geodetic training in the U.S.S,R. Is offered in such
general schools of higher education as universities and technical institutes
as well as in specialized schools of geodesy and cartography. The difference
in the point of view between these two types of schools is the emphasis on
theory in the first and on practical applications in the second.
At universities the larger subdivisions are known as "faculties"
(fekul'tet) each of which has a number of "chairs' (kafedra). The chair
consists of a chairman, usually a senior professor with a doctor's degrees
and a number of other professors, dotsents, teachers, etc. Generally,
cartographic instruction is given in the faculties of geography, instruction
in geodesy in the physical-mathematical faculties. Detailed data concerning
university training in geography is available, but our information pertaining
to geodesy is less voluminous. Although it is probable that some instruction
in geodesy is given at all universities, only two of them (Voronezh and Lenin-
grad) are listed as offering advanced degrees in that science. In addition,
three universities (Moscow. Kazan' and Leningrad) offer advanced degrees in
gravimetry.
A. UNIYNRSITIBS
Sourcest
(1) N. N. Baranskiy, Geog r aficheskiy Pri` ip v Organizatsii Geografich-
askogo Isncheniya Territorii (The Geographical Principle in the Organisation
of the Geographic Study of the Territory). Yoprosy Geogaafii, Yyp. 23, 1950,
Pp. 19-56.
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(2) L. A. Salishchev, 0 Postvke Vysshego Kartograficheskogo
Obrazovaniya v SSSR (On the Status of Higher Cartographic Training in
the U.S.S.R.). Voprosy Geografii, Vyp. 25, 1951. PP- 93-97-
(3) pravochnik dlya Postu ayushchikh v Vysshiye Uchebnyye Zavedeniya
Soyuza SSR (Handbook for Students entering Institutions of Higher education
in the U.S.S.R.). 1950-
(4) N. S. Podobedov, 0 Postanovke Geograficheskikh Rabot. etc.
(On the Organization of Geographic Work, etc.). Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 16.
1948. PP- 57-69.
(5) Y. A. Salishchev. 0 Pod otovke Ladrov Geografoy (On the Training
of Cadres of Geographers) Vestnik Vysshey Shkoly 1951, No. 7. pp. 5-14.
(6) Various sources as indicated in the text.
The search for data concerning the training of geographers in the
U.S.S.R. takes us back to 1584 when geography first began to be taught
at universities. In 1910 at St. Petersburg a Geographical Bureau was
established to coordinate the teaching and research in geography. In
1916 an Institute of Geography was opened in St. Petersburg and existed
until 1924 when it became the Geographical Faculty of Leningrad University.
$ven then the institute was a very large organization. In 1920 it had 16
chairs, 22 laboratories and 715 students (Voprosy aeografii, Vol. 3, 1947,
pp. 206-209). At the present time there is no special institute of geo-
graphy for training of students outside of universities. It is interesting
to note that the re-establishment of such a central institute is now advocated
(Source 1).
The contribution made by universities toward the mapping and charting
of the U.S.S.R. can by no mans be neglected. They train teachers of geo-
graphy for schools of higher education, research workers for the Academies
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of Sciences and research institutes, as well as professional cartographers
for organizations engaged in mapping activities. In addition to training
of students, an impressive amount of research is being done at universities
on the problems of geography, cartography and astronomy in its geodetic
application.
The necessity for employment of trained and experienced geographers
to collect and edit cartographic materials was realised as early as 1924.
and in 1936 professional geographers were added to the staff of various
aerogeodetic establishments. Since than several orders have been issued
by the GUGY finally culminating in No. 321 order of October 29, 1945.
This order defined the character and contents of geographic work in connec-
tion with the mapping of the territory as follows; (Source 4).
The work of the geographer would consist of
(1) Preparatory investigation, collection of available materials. etc.
(2) Field work for the purpose of interpretation of aerial photo-
graphs, editing of maps and compilation of geographic descriptions.
(3) Collection and transcription of geographic names.
(4) Laboratory interpretation of aerial survey material.
(5) Editing of compiled sheets.
(6) Preparation of geographic descriptions.
In regard to the last item it should be noted that by order No. 101
of the GUGK of May 9, 1944. geographic descriptions must accompany all
topographic surveys and be uniformly arranged according to headings on
climatology, geology, relief, hydrography, soil and vegetation and animal
life. Source 4 states that in 1948 all aerogeodetic establishments possessed
a large number of such descriptions.
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Russian writers maintain that the training of geographers can be done
only at universities. Indeed, one of the resolutions of the conference of
senior workers of the GUGK on May 23-26. 1945 called on universities to
establish the necessary facilities to train geographers required by the
GUGY (Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 13, 1946).
Although exact data are unavailable, the number of geographers directly
connected with the GUGK must be rather large, and must number at least 100.
In 1945 there were five geographers at the Moscow Aerogeodetic Establishment.
This number was considered to be "utterly inadequate" (N. S. Podobedov,
Sbornik NIPS, Typ. 8. 1945, p? 92)? Even in 1945 the total number of geo-
graphers in the system of the GUGY, judged by the above figure. must have
been 50 to 60. In addition, it is known that other mapping agencies such
as the Doyenno-Topograficheskaya Slushba (Military Topographic Service),
the Glavsevmorput' (Main Directorate of the North Sea Route) and many other
local agencies employ geographers for cartographic purposes. Therefore, it
is probable that the total number of such geographers may be at lease 500,
and probably many more.
Can the country furnish so many professional geographers? There can-
not be much question that it can and does, although exact figures of enroll-
ment and staff at individual universities are not available. We do know,
however, that 1,113 degrees in geography were granted at Moscow Univeristy
during the period of 1917-1950. Of these.478 were conferred during the last
five years or approximately 100 each year. In 1950 5,250 students were en-
rolled in the faculties of geography of all universities. The annual output
of geographers must be then in the neighborhood of 1,000 per year (Source 5).
It is to be remembered that the period of training in Russian universities
is now 5 years.
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These estimates are in agreement with those of the attendance at
the 2nd All Union Congress of Geography, January 25-31, 1947. At this
meeting 544 delegates attended, 90 percent of whom were university teachers
or research workers. Among these were 34 members of the Academies, 140
doctors of science and 226 candidates of science. The present membership
of the All Union Geographic Society is over 4,000, most of whom are pro-
fessional geographers.
Certain statistics concerning the university training of geographers
are noteworthy. Of the 33 universities in the U.S.S.R., 26 offer geographic
education in six general specialties. The following table gives the notat-
ions adopted for these specialties:
1. Physical Geography
2. Zconomic Geography
3. Cartography
4. Climatology and Meteorology
5. Hydrology
6. Geomorphology
Lach of these six specialties consists of several further specializa-
tions of which Moscow University offers eleven. A total of thirteen separate
specializations are offered in Soviet universities.
Physical geography is taught at all 26 universities and economic geo-
graphy at almost all. The specialty of most interest for the purpose of
this report is that of cartography taught at 9 universities. A very recent
discussion by one of the most outstanding cartographers in that country
is available (Source 2) which discusses the entire problem of training
cartographers in the U.S.S.R. The author maintains that the training given
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to future cartographers at special institutions such as the Moscow
Institute of Engineers of Geodesy. Aerial Survey and Cartography pro-
duces good technicians able to make a good map if furnished the necessary
material but that the selection and analysis of material can be done only
by geographers trained at universities. The difference, then, between the
two types of training is that of form and content.
Geographic Faculties
University
Specialties
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Azerbaydzhanskiy (Baku)
2. Belorusskiy (Minsk)
3. Voronezhakiy (Voronezh)
4. Dnepropetrovekiy (Dnepro-
petrovsk)
5. Terevanskiy (Yerevan)
6. Irkutskiy (Irkutsk)
7. Lazanekiy (Kazan')
8. Iazakhskiy (Alma-Ata)
9. Kiyevskiy (Kiyev)
10. Latviyakiy (Riga)
11. Leningradskiy (Leningrad)
12. L'vovskiy (L'vov)
13. Molotovskiy (Molotov)
14. Moskovakiy (Moscow)
15. Odesskiy (Odessa)
16. Rostovskiy (Rostov)
17. Saratovskiy (Saratov)
18. Sredneasiatskiy (Tashkent)
19. Tbilisskiy (Tbilisi)
20. Tomskiy (Tomsk)
21. Uzbekekiy (Samarkand)
22. tTral'skiy (Sverdlovsk)
23. Khar'kovskiy (Mvir'kov)
24. Chernovitekiy (Chernovitsy)
25. Viltnyusskkiy (Vil'nyus)
26. Tartuskiy (Turtu)
* ?
*
* a * ? ?
* a
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The most striking characteristic of Russian geography. like Russian
science in general, is its directness, a directness toward a single goal.
Many samples may be offered to illustrate this point. At the above-men-
tioned 2-nd All Union Geographic Congress almost every paper (of which
there were over 200) dealt with specific applications of geographical
methods for mapping of natural resources, exploration of marginal terri-
tories, cartography, etc. Special emphasis is placed on the interaction
of ran and nature, and pointed toward Soviet attempts to better control
nature. Volume 23 of the serial, "Toprosy Geografii" (1950). is devoted
entirely to the subject of "Nature of the Steppes and of Forest-Steppes
and its Transformation.* The theme appears to be to define the role of
geographers in this national project. The Institute of Geography of the
Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R.. is bitterly criticized for its detachment
from this problem of the control of nature.
The character of training in geography given at universities is best
known for Moscow University. Here emphasis is on practice. Large and
small expeditions are sent to all parts of the country. After the war
these included large expeditions to Eastern Siberia, the Caspian Depression
and the Central Chernosem Region. The results of these expeditions were
published as follows:
Eastern Siberia - 12 papers, totaling 500 pages.
Caspian Depression - 12 papers, totaling 400 pages.
Central Chernozem Region - 15 papers. totaling 1.000 pages.
In 1950 16 aspirants, 127 senior students and 55 members of the
staff participated in these expeditions. Response of local agencies
to the results of such expeditions appears to be quite enthusiastic.
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In 1949 the ispolkom (governing body) of Irkutsk Oblast' petitioned the
Ministry of Higher Education and the Moscow University administration to
allow the Geographic Faculty of the university to continue its work of
exploration in that province "since the complex study of nature and economy
carried out by university expeditions is necessary for the rapidly expanding
industrial economy of Eastern Siberia" (Source 1).
Much the same picture of activity could be drawn-for the Faculty of
Geography at Leningrad University, although perhaps on a somewhat smaller
scale.
The relative strength of various geographical faculties can be judged
by their right to accept aspirants for the degree of doctor or candidate
of science. The list of subjects in which aspirants can do work reads
somewhat differently from the list of specialties.given in Table 1. The
following (Table 2) represents information extracted from "Aspirantura
Vysshikh Uchebnykh 7.avedeniy SSSR" (1949) and gives a list of universities
authorized to give training for both doctor's and candidate's degree (D)
in specified subjects or only the Degree of Candidate (t). The number
given to each university is the same as that of Table 1.
Advanced Degrees in Geography
and Related Sciences
1.
Azerbaydzhanskiy
X:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
2.
Belorusskiy
Y:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
3.
Voronezhskiy
D:
Economic Geography
Y:
Climatology; Cartography and Geodesy
7.
Xazanskiy
D:
Y:
Physical Geography;
Climatology
GraYimetry
9.
Xiyevskiy
L:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
10.
Latvivskiy
X:
Geography of U.S.S.R.; General Physical Geography
11.
Leningradakiy
D:
Physical Geography; Economic Geography;
Botanical Geography; Geomorphology; Hydrology
of Land; Cartography; Climatology; Oceanography;
Geodesy and Grevinetry
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TABLE II(cont'd)
12.
L'vovskiy
K:
Physical Geography
13.
Molotovskiy
it
Physical Geography
14.
Moskovekiy
D:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography;
Cartography; Gravimetry
16.
Rostovskiy
K:
Economic Geography
17.
Saratovskiy
K:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
18.
Sredneasiatskiy
D:
Physical Geography;
Economih Geography
19.
Tbilisskiy
D:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
20.
Tomskiy
K:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
23.
Khar'kovskiy
Y:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
25.
Vil'nyusskiy
Y:
Physical Geography
27.
Mosk. Ped. Institut
im.
Potemkina D: Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
28.
Hoek. Ped. Institut im. Lenina Dt Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
Except for scale the structure of the Geographical Faculty of Moscow
University is probably typical of all universities. The faculty consists
of 14 chairs under chairmen who are not necessarily the strongest specialists
in the subject. Each chair has, in addition to a chairman, four or five pro-
fessore, dotsents or teachers. The total number of persons in the teaching
and research staff was 95 in 1950. The faculty is headed by the dean
(K. K. Markov) who is also chairman of the paleogeography section. rav-
ochnik dlya Fostupayushchikh Y Mostovskiy Universitet v 1949 lists the
following chairs and chairmen:
1. General Physical Geography (Professor B. P. Orloy)
2. Physical Geography U.S.S.R. (Dotsent A. I. Solov'yev)
3. Physical Geography of Foreign Countries (Professor A. S. Barkov)
4. Economic Geography of U.S.S.R. (Professor Yu. G. Saushkin)
5. Economic Geography of Foreign Countries (Professor I. A. Yitver)
6. Geomorphology (Professor I. S. Shchukin)
7. Geodesy and Cartography (Dotsent P. V. Denzin)
8. Hydrology (Professor S. D. Muraveyskiy)
9. Climatology (Professor B. P. Alisov)
10. Botanical Geography (Professor V. H. Sukachev)
11. Geography of Soils (Professor I. P. Gerasimov)
12. Paleogeography (Professor K. K. Markov)
13. Geography of the Arctic (Professor V. G. Bogorov)
14. History of Geography (Professor Y. A. Salishchev)
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The faculty of geography also includes a research institute of
geography (Nauchno-Issledovatel'skiy Institut Geografii) and three geo-
graphic stations for student training.
The relationship between the research institute and the faculty of
geography is not quite clear. Apparently. personnel is much the same for
both with a few additional people assigned to the institute with research
duties only. Of the 65 participants in expeditions of the Moscow Univer-
sity organized by the faculty of geography and by the research institute,
13 hold the title of "sotrudnik", implying research duties only (Voprosy
Geografii. Vol. 25. 1951- p. 11).
Detailed information on the structure of geographic education is not
as available for Leningrad University as it is for Moscow University. In
a discussion of the work of the faculty of geography at Leningrad (Vestnik
Leningradskogo IIniversiteta, No. 5 1951) 17 members of the faculty are
mentioned. The total number of the members of the faculty must, therefore.
be more than 17. perhaps 30 or 40, but, at any rate, smaller than at Moscow.
The dean of the faculty is professor S.S. Yusnetsov. The Leningrad faculty
of geography has its own research institute known as "Geografo-aconomichs-
skiy Institut", the work of which apparently emphasizes economic geography.
One of the participants in the discussion was a "Starshiy Nauehnyy Sotrudnik"
(Senior Scientific Aide). a research title.
The problem of geographical education in the U.S.S.R. is apparently
now quite acute. The Ministry of Righer.Education established a commission
to look into the matter and some of its recommendations are available (Source
5). One difficulty is undoubtedly the lack of qualified personnel to give
proper instruction to so many students. In 1951 the staff of geographical
faculties of universities included 61 doctors and 131 candidates, of which
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one half were either at Moscow or Leningrad universities. Assuming the
same ratio of doctors and dotsents to other instructors as at Moscow
University, the total number of instructors in geography at all univer-
sities must approximate 340. This gives the ratio of students to instruc-
tors as between 15 and 16, which is considered quite "inadequate". The
suggested remedy is to separate instruction at universities into two cate-
gories. one for teachers and another for prospective workers in research
institutes and production establishments. This latter training will be
given only at the strongest universities - Moscow, Leningrad, Kazan' and
Tashkent.
Table II lists degrees in gravimetry and geodesy which are conferred
by faculties other than those of geography. The contribution of univer-
sities to the subject of gravimetry has been very large, especially before
the war. The universities of Leningrad. Moscow, Kazan' and Tashkent (Sred-
neaziatakiy) are especially important in this respect. In 1949 the chairman
of gravimetry at Moscow University was professor L. V. Sorokin. one of the
outstanding gravimetristo in the U.S.S.R., especially known for his undersea
measures of gravity.
Another connection of Moscow University with geodesy is through the
Astronomicheskiy Institut in. Shternberga (Sternberg Astronomical Institute)
where an amazingly detailed study of the methods of determination and of
variation of astronomical time is being carried on.
The problem of research versus teaching is as acute in Russian univer-
sities as anywhere else. In large centers like Leningrad and Moscow a great
deal of research is accomplished by the university staff. In provincial
universities the situation is probably not as favorable for research. At
least we have the complaint of a geographer from Kazan' (V. N. Sementovskiy.
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Voprosy Geografii, Vol. 25, 1951) that much more time than the stipulated
50 percent must be devoted to teaching activities and less to research.
In order to give a rounded picture of Russian training in geography
mention must be made of the Pedagogicheskiy Instituty (Pedagogical Insti-
tutes). These institutes are primarily designed for the training of
teachers for high schools (srednyaya shkola) but considerable research
of local significance is carried on in some of them. This research re-
sults in such items as guide-books, detailed investigations in the geo-
graphy of individual regions. compilations of bibliographies, etc.
Of the many pedagogical institutes, 143 have faculties of geography.
Two of them in Moscow (Table Ii) can even accept aspirants for the degree
of doctor of geographical sciences.
Teachers' institutes (uchitel'skiye instituty) prepare teachers
as elementary school instructors. Of these institutes, 238 give instruc-
tion in geography.
The total number of students majoring in geography in both types
of institutes in 1951 was 22,500 (Source 5).
Russian authors attach extraordinary significance to the availability
of so many persons with a geographical background. The two volumes of
'Voprosy Geografii", No. 23 (1950) and No, 25 (1951),are largely devoted
to a discussion of the role of teachers of geography in regional studies
(krayevedeniye) and in inculcating students with the idea of man's mastery
over nature. In the words of S. V. Yalssnik, a noted glaciologist at
Leningrad University, 'geography used to mean the study of landscape;
with us geography is control over landscape."
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B. OTaR INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
1. Khar'kovsk& Inzhenerno-Stroltel'NZ Institut (Thar'kov Institut
of Civil Engineers), Kharkov, Sumakaya No. 40.
Prior to World War II this Institute was very active in the training
of geodesists. Its faculty of geodesy was described as being one of the
three geodetic schools in the U.S.S.R. (Geodes exist, No. S. 1940), along
with the Moscow and Novosibirsk Institutes of Engineers of Geodesy. In
1940 the Khar'kov Institute of Civil Engineers graduated 59 geodesists.
For the school year, 1940-1941. the following enrollment figures were set:
Moscow 400 students
Novosibirsk 150 "
Kharkov 75 "
After the war the faculty of geodesy at the Khar'icov Institute of
Civil Engineers was apparently abolished. It is not mentioned anywhere
in recent literature.
2. Moskovskiy Institut Inzhenerov Zemleustroystva (Moscow Institute
of Land Surveyors). Moscow, Ulitsa Kazakova No. 15.
This institute has two faculties, one for land surveying and the other
for geodesy. The description of its training in geodesy reads, "the engineers
should be able to conduct land and aerial photographic surveys of large farm-
ing territories and prepare special maps".
3. Leningradakoye D sshe a Arkticheskoye Uchilishche (Leningrad Higher
Arctic School), Leningrad, M. Qkhta, Zanevskiy, No. 5.
Nothing is known about this school beyond the fact that it is in the
system of the Glavesevmorput' and offers higher degrees in hydrography,
astronomy and geodesy. The training of geodesy is obviously connected with
Arctic Surveys.
4 E y
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4. Timirjazevskaya SelIakokozyaystvennaya Akademiya (Timiryazevskaya
Agricultural Academy).
Very little is known about the geodesy curriculum of this Academy
except that in 1946 a Yafedra Geodezii was included in a description of
the Academy's activities (Sei'skokhoz stvennaa Akademiya imeni IC. A.
Timirjyazeva. 1946).
Later references note that the name of the Academy was changed to
Moskovskoye Ordena Lenina Sel'sko-Yhozyaystvennaya Akademiya imeni Y. A.
Timiryazeva (Kudy pop yti uchit' sj , 1951), Novoye Shosee, 51, Moskva.
This reference does not list the subject of geodesy in its curriculum.
Presumably, geodetic work had been restricted to land use surveys of some
sort but nothing is definitely known at this time. The Academy is under
the direction of the Ministry of Agriculture.
5? L'vovs SallskokhozZMstvenyy Ins t (L'rov Agricultural
Institute), L'rov, ploshehad' Tura, 1.
A source dated 1948 (r V se Sel'skokhozyaystvennaya Shkola v SSSR)
lists this institute as offering a "Speciality" in geodesy. A later refer-
ence (Yuck poyti uchit's-a. 1951) does not include the subject in its curri-
culum. By this time, too, control of the Institute's affairs had been trans-
ferred from the Ministry of Agriculture to Glavnoye Upravleniye Sel'skokozya3r.
Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedeniy. Geodetic work of the institute probably was
much the same as that of (4) above.
6. Voronezhakiy Sel'skokhozyaystvennyy Institut (Voronezh Agricultural
Institute). Voronezh, M. Lomonosova. 29.
Information on the geodetic activities of this Institute is exactly the
same as for (5) above.
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7. Omekiy Se1'skokhozyaystvennyy Institut (Omsk Agricultural Institute
Omsk, Staraya zagorodnaya roshcha.
A reference dated 1950 (Spravochnik dlya postupayashchik v tuzy SSSR
v 1950) states that this Institute still offered a speciality in geodesy
at that time. Except that this institute is now under the control of
Glavnoye Upravleniye Sel'skokhoz. Vysshik Uchebnyk Zavedeniy, little is
known about the training given here in geodesy.
9. Voyenno-Inzhenernaya Akademiya imeni V.V. Yuybysheva. (Military
Engineering Academy) in Moscow.
This institution trains engineers for the army. It -is known that it
has a department of geodesy and cartography, but very little about its de-
tailed activities has been found. Several books, however. published by
this academy have been found and they indicate considerable research in
geodesy, cartography and photogrammetry.
This and the following academy is listed among those institutions
authorized to train students for advanced degrees.
9. Voyenno-Vozdushnaya Akademiya imeni N. 1. Zhukovskogo (Military
Air Academy) in Moscow (not to be confused with a similar academy in Leningrad).
This academy publishes a "Trudy" of which No. 102 appeared in 1944. Bone
of this serial is available. The notice describing its contente,however,in-
dicates considerable interest in the problems of geodesy and photogrammetry.
10. Vo enno-Topograficheskaya Shkola (Military Topographers School)
in Leningrad.
This training school for topographers has a status lower than that
of the Military Engineering Academy.
Total enrollment in these three military schools in geodesy and carto-
graphy must be rather large, on the order of about 1,000 people. Annual
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flu
graduation of engineers specializing in geodesy should thus be in the
neighborhood of 200.
The total number of engineers in geodesy, cartography and photogrammetry
in the U.S.S.R. is undoubtedly large, approximating 12.000. This would ex-
clude civil engineers carrying out cadastral work. ordinary surveyors, tech-
nicians. etc.
If we restrict our attention to the post-revolutionary period we have
the following pieturet
Graduates of the MIIGAiX 6.000
n n n NIIGAiK 1.000
rhar'kov Inzh.Stroit.Inst. 500
Other civilian schools 500
Military schools 4,000
Total 12,000 graduates
C. SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF HIGHER TDUCATION IN
GEODESY AND CARTOGRAPHY
At the present time there are two institutes for engineers of geodesy.
aerial surveying and cartography. one in Moscow and the other in Novosibirsk,
which are designed primarily for the training of scientific personnel in the
fields of geodesy and cartography. Until 1946, both institutes were directly
under the GUGK but are now listed in the system of the Ministry of Higher
Education. In organization they are very similar but the Moscow Institute
is much larger and of a higher standing than the Novosibirsk Institute.
1. Moskoveki + Ins titut Inzhener'ov Geodesic, Aerofotos"yemki i Lartografit
(MIIGAiK)
Moscow. Gorokhovskiy Pereulok, No. 4.
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This institute has a long history. It was founded in 1799 as
Konstantinovskiy Mezhevoy Institut (Constantine Institute of Surveying)
which name it retained until 1917. Between 1917 and 1930 it was known
as the Moskovekiy Mezhevoy Institut. In 1930 the part of the Institute
dealing with Cadastral Surveying became the Institut Inzhenerov Zemleu-
stroystva and the Faculty of Geodesy of the Mezhevoy Institute was re-
organized into a new institute called the Moekovskiy Geodezicheskiy In-
stitut, with five departments: astronomic-geodetic, photo-geodetic, carto-
graphic-geodetic, geodetic instrumentation and municipal planning. In
1936 the institute was given its present name and its present structure
generally.
The history of this institute is, of course, very involved and need
not be dealt with here. It is enough to say that the emphasis between
1799 and 1917 was almost exclusively on practical surveying. There was
very little research work in,or even teaching of, higher geodesy. Never-
theless. as is true of almost any institution of higher education in Russia.
after 1905 rapid development toward the improvement of both the quality and
quantity of teaching and research took place in the institute.
Despite this inadequacy in teaching facilities the institute. before
the revolution produced such first class geodesists and cartographers as
F. N. Irasovskiy, A. S. Chebotarev, M. D. Solov'yev, V.V. Danilov, and mashy
others who were able later to organize and direct teaching and research in
geodesy on a much larger scale. This situation is typical of Russian reality.
The few scientists and engineers of the old school who remained loyal to the
government were given the means and opportunity to organize teaching and re-
search in their specialty and were able to produce an entirely new generation
of scientists and engineers.
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a. PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION
Programs of instruction, revised several times, were finally con-
solidated in 1938. These programs, with but few changes, are still in
force. These changes were due largely to the introduction of additional
subjects to be taught which in turn necessitated an increase (in 1949)
of the length of the period of instruction from 4 years. 8 months to 5
years, 6 months (Sbornik NTPS. Vyp. 24. 1949, pp. 83-84).
The list of 62 subjects taught in 1939 (XX-Let, Vol. 1. 1940,
pp. 382-383) is organized under four faculties, of which the cartographic
faculty has three departments. They are as follows:
1. Geodetic faculty
2. Aerofotogeodetic faculty
3a. Cartographic faculty, cartographic-geodetic department.
zb.
3c. "
map compilation department.
polygraphic department.
4. Optical-mechanical faculty.
In the following table this information is condensed into 18 areas
of instruction and the number of hours of instruction is given in each
faculty or department according to the above scheme.
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T A B L N I I I
PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION
subjects Departments
1 2 3a 3b 3c 4
Political Science
380
380
380
380 380
380
Foreign Languages
250
250
250
250 250
250
Physical and Military Training 290 290
290
290 290
290
Mathematics
741
612
417
417 527
702
Physics
196
290
164
164 173
288
Chemistry and Photography
88
242
152
152 563
126
Drawing
136
122
253
344 536
164
Geodesy and Astronomy
1022
677
755
524 -
207
Geography and Geology
158
85
664
664 -
Cartography
148
150
505
837 367
-
Applied Optics
-
68
-
- -
438
Radio
68
-
-
- -
Geophysics and Gravimetry
256
-
-
- -
-
Photogrammetry and Aerial
Surveying
285
962
200
81 -
132
Statistics and Economics
-
-
-
119 -
-
Map Technology
-
-
-
- 1060
-
Technology of Metals
-
-
-
- 222
1529
Organization of Production
179
102
138
95 140
100
Total
4197
4230
4168
4317 4508
4606 hours
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This program of instruction was somewhat modified in 1943, but the
number of the faculties remained four. The change amounted only in taking
the department of cartographic geodesy from the Cartographic Faculty and
putting it into the Geodetic Faculty as one of the two specialties, the
other specialty being Astronomic Geodesy. The Optical Mechanical Faculty
was renamed the Geodetic Instrumentation Faculty.
In 1950 a reorganization (Ruda Poyti Uchit'syn, Moscow, 1950) more
or less reverted to the 1938 scheme. The four faculties were the same
as in 1943, but the Geodetic Faculty had two specialties, the Astronomic-
Geodetic and Surface Geodesy; the Cartographic Faculty also had two special-
ties, Map Compilation and Map Production (corresponding to the Polygraphic
Department of 1938).
The scheme of instruction of 1938 is the latest detailed scheme
available at the present time. The plan of 1943 introduced, not a charge
of emphasis, but an overall increase of instruction hours in key subjects
according to specialties. The percentage increase of the hours is described
by Zubakov and Zakatov (Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 6. 1944, pp. 49-56) as follows:
Geodetic Faculty: Astronomic-Geodetic Specialty
Gravimetry: increased 37 percent
Geophysics: increased 100 percent
Cartographic Geodesy Specialty
Geodesy: increased 28 percent
Higher Geodesy: increased 14 percent
Field Astronomy: increased 66 percent
Compilation of maps; increased 23 percent
New subjects introduced: Field cartographic-geodetic work
Application of geodesy to engineering
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Aerophotogeodetic Faculty
Mechanics and Instrumentation: increased 62 percent
Aerial photography: increased 59 percent
Physics and Applied Optics: increased 15 percent
New subject introduced: Applications of Aerial Surveying
Cartographic Faculty
Geodesy: increased 50 percent
Geography: increased 12 percent
Map Editing: increased 50 percent
Geodetic Instrumentation Faculty
Geodesy and Practical Astronomy: increased 70 percent
New subject introduced: Geodetic Instrumentation 186 hours
Aspirants for the degree of "doctor" or "candidate" of technical
sciences may work in the following specialties (Aspirantura V sshikh
Uchebnykh Zavedeni_y SSSR. Moscow, i~42, p. 65):
1.
Astronomy
2.
Geodesy
3.
Higher Geodesy
4.
Gravimetry
5.
Field Cartography
6.
Mathematical Cartography
7.
Compilation and Editing of Maps
S.
Map Production
9.
Map Design
10.
Photogrammetry
11.
Aerial Surveying
12.
Instrumentation
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it i
13. Applied Optics
14. Specialized Technology
15. Physical Geography
Each of the above-named specialists requires the existence of a
chair, involving one professor (chairman) and several other professors,
doteents, assistants and teachers. In fact, in 1939,ten of the chairs
in the list (No. 1-3; 6-7; 10; 12-14) are mentioned in addition to the
chair of mathematics in which no aspirants were allowed, and a general
statement is made of the existence of 24 chairs '(7X Let, etc., Vol. 1,
1940, p? 397)?
In 1949 (Sbornik MTPS, Vyp. 24, pp. 83-84) two new chairs were es-
tablished, one in applied geodesy and economics and another in the or-
ganization of geodetic and cartographic production. The number of chairs
at the present time may well be 30.
The latest statement concerning training aims (Kuda Poyti Uchit'sya,
1950) reads somewhat differently from that appearing in the same handbook
of 1947. Apparently no stabilization in the definition of aims of geodetic
and cartographic training has yet been achieved and further changes are
possible. In 1950 we have the following specifications:
c. Geodetic Faculty, Astronomic-Geodetic S ecialtx. The training of
engineers is based on the fundamental study of the problems of higher
geodesy. theory of the figure of the earth, geophysics, gravicsetry and
practical astronogy.
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Geodetic Facult , Surface Geodetic Work. The training of engineers
is based on a study of physics, mathematics, geography and engineering.
Engineers of this specialty should be able to conduct investigations
for large engineering projects, such as railroads and highways. canals,
hydroelectric stations, irrigation and drainage systems, etc.
Aerophotogeodetic Faculty. In the training of engineers in this
group, mach emphasis is placed on physics, applied optics, mechanics.
geodetic instrumentation, geodesy and photogrammetry.
Aerophotogeodetic engineers are expected to be prepared to conduct
both field and laboratory geodetic and photogrammetric work for the pur-
pose of preparing large scale maps.
Cartographic Faculty - Compilation of Maps Specialty. In the training
of engineers in this specialty much attention is paid to cartography, as
well as to geodesy and geography. The engineer moist be able to deal with
already available material which should be selected, analysed and used
for the compilation of maps. He should also have a sound foundation in
chemistry, physics and polygraphy. Such engineers usually find employment
in the map compilation departments of cartographic factories.
Graphic Faculty. Production of Ma s S ecialt . In this group,
the emphasis in training is on cartography as well as on colloidal chemis-
try and polygraphy.
Geodetic Instrumentation Facult . Here, training is based on the
general engineering course, obligatory for all engineering schools, as
well as on courses specifically dealing with geodetic instruments.
The engineers are expected to be highly qualified experts in the
construction of geodetic instruments and other optical and mechanical
apparatus used in cartographic and geodetic production. Such engineers
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are generally employed in factories making precision instruments.
d. ENROLLMENT
Detailed figures for the enrollment in this institute for the
period, 1919-1939, (XX Let Sov. Geod. I Yartografii, Vol. 1, p. 400
1940) are:
1919 66 students
1926 67 students
1933
125 students
1920 70 "
1927 50 "
1934
175 "
1921 185 "
1928 53 "
1935
190 "
1922 24.6 "
1929 90 "
1936
125 "
1923 256 "
1930 220
1937
260 "
1924 105 N
1931 250 0
1939
310 "
1925 no data
1932 175 "
1939
420 "
The above figures total (assuming an average enrollment for 1925
and including 100 students in night classes) about 3,500 students ad-
mitted. It is stated that in the period between 1919-1939. 2.500 en-
gineers were graduated from the institute, a figure representing about
70 percent of those entering. This may be considered an unusually good
record.
Annual enrollment for the years of 1940-41 was planned to include
400 students, and this figure probably remains about the same at the
present time. Adopting this figure as the number of entrants, and 70
percent of these as graduated, the annual graduation would amount to
about 290 engineers, or 3,640 for the period 1940-1952. With the definite
figure of 2,500 for the period of 1919-1939, it is evident that the Moscow
institute alone has contributed to Soviet geodesy and cartography no fewer
than 6,000 highly qualified engineers.
These figures. imposing as they are, consitute only part of the
picture. The system of correspondence training (zaoochenoye obrazovaniye)
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and night schools is very well developed in the U.S.S.R. Correspondence
training was especially prevalent before the war when the lack of experts
was keenly felt, but even now there are some institutes of-higher educa-
tion which give only correspondence training. The idea behind these schools
is. of course, to provide technical education for those who for some reason
cannot become full-time students. Paralleling this training for advanced
degrees. special courses were established for fully qualified engineers
wishing to become acquainted with newer methods and developments in their
specialty.
The Moscow Institute of Engineers of Geodesy, along with other in-
stitutes, established such courses in 1938 (Geodesist, 1938). The response
was immediate and overwhelming. In less than two months over 700 appli-
cations were received, and the enrollment had to be closed. These cor-
respondence courses existed for some time and then were discontinued and
have not been mentioned since the war. Apparently the lack of engineers
was relieved by the establishment of another institute in Novosibirsk in
1940.
The MIIGAiX appears to be very well equipped. It has a special
library of over 240,000 books, an astronomical observatory, applied optics
and printing shops and 28 laboratories and exhibit rooms. It is emphasized
that all available publications in foreign languages are systematically ac-
quired by the library. and there is a special staff of consultants on duty
in the library to assist students in the English, German, French. Italian
and Spanish languages.
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The institute has its own serial publication "Trudy" of which none
has reached this country. In 1950, Vols. 3-8 were issued, comprising
altogether about 500 pages.
The difficulty in establishing the exact identity of each member of
the staff of the MIIGAiK is that it overlaps very largely the staff of
the TsNIIGAij, (Central Research Institute of Geodesy, etc.), even now
despite the decree of 1944 prohibiting such overlapping. During the
period of 1939-1950, 66 persons were definitely connected with the MIIGAiZ
in either a teaching or research capacity. How many of these people are
still at the institute and how many new people have been added since, is
impossible to establish. The reason for this is very simple and applies
equally to all sciences. Russian authors, by design or by habit, very
rarely indicate their academic or institutional connections when they
publish a paper. This information may or may not be contained in the
text of the paper, and in many cases the precise connection of individuals
is unknown.
During this same period the staff of the TeNIIGAig consisted of 155
people,18 of whom also appear on the staff list of the MIIGAiK.
The latest available reference (Kuda P ti Uchit'sa, 1951) is not
helpful in this respect, stating simply that the teaching staff is large
and includes five distinguished workers of science and industry, and 17
doctvre of science. This would total 22 people, probably mostly chairmen.
The entire teaching staff is certainly not less than 60 or 70 persons.
%W so tl'
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In 1940 the director of the MIIGAiI was A. I. Mazmiehvili, not a
distinguished figure in Russian geodesy. It is not known whether he is
still director. The strongest figures in research on the staff are in-
variably also connected with the TaNIIGAiY and will be discussed in that
connection.
Novosibirsk Institut Inzheneroy Geodezii, Aerofotos"yemki i Lartografii
(NIIGAiK), Novosibirsk, Ulitsa Potanina No. 27
As has been stated before this is a much smaller institute than the
MIIGAiX. It is listed as conferring higher degrees in the following spec-
ialties:
Higher Geodesy
Astronomy
Photogrammetry
The Institute publishes its own "Trudy" of which Vol. 1 (1947) and
Vol. 2 (1948) are known to be in existence. The editor of thee* "Trudy"
is Professor V.V. Popov, probably director of the NIIGAiI.
D. ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS TO INSTITUTIONS OF
HIGHER EDUCATION
No report on the educational aspects of Russian training would be com-
plete without some reference to requirements for admission to schools of
higher geodetic and cartographic education. A book published in 1950 by
the Ministry of Higher Education, Spravochnik dlya Postupajushchik v Vysshiye
Uchebnyye Zavedeniya So za SSR v 1950 ~., pp. 5-9, gives a detailed list of
such requirements. Appendix B of this report is a detailed translated ab-
stract of these rules. For the purpose of this paper, however, only those
features of most significance to geodetic and cartographic training are
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included in the body of the report, as follows:
1. Accepted in VUZY - Citizens of USSR of both sexes from 17 to 35-
- in Correspondence and Evening VUZY (divisions) - without
definite age-limit, provided they have completed an intermediate education
and successfully passed the examinations set up for those entering these
educational institutions.
Note: - (a) Persons who have graduated from tekhnikums or other
intermediate specialized educational institutions comparable to them,
will be accepted in VUZY provided they have completed the 3 years' pro-
duction experience established by law after completion of the intermediate
educational institution. Such experience is not required of those enrolling
in correspondence and evening VUZY and divisions nor from those included in
the upper 5% of those graduated from each tekhnikum as well as from those
people who, at the close of a tekhnikum, are participating in the three or
more years program of active military service.
(b) In accordance with decree No. 426 of the Sovet of Ministers of
the Union of SSR of Feb. 1, 1949, it has been decided to temporarily accept
for a period of 5 years, for the first course of teachers' instituteelwith-
out preliminary experience by the enrollees those who have completed peda-
gogical training schools under the direction of the Ministries of Education
of the Union Republics.
II. Those people who, at the close of intermediate schools. have
been awarded gold or silver medals. "For outstanding successes and exemplary
conduct". will be accepted in institutions of higher learning without en-
trance examinations, provided that, first of all, there shall be admitted
those awarded the golden medal and next those awarded the silver medal.
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Also without entrance examinations will be accepted those persons
who have completed tekhnikuras with a rank of "excellent" those included
within the upper 5% of those graduated from a tekhnikum or a three-year
intermediate medical school and who enroll in institutions of higher
learning according to their specialty within 2 years, including the year
of completion.
III. Those enrolling in higher educational institutions, with the
exception of those mentioned in paragraph 2. shall take entrance examina-
tions depending upon the specialty of the higher educational institutions
1. In VUZY and faculties of machine-construction, metal-work.
metallurgy, mechanics. electrical mechanics, electrical technology,
energetics, communications, mini. oge 1o, oil, aviation, geodes.
hLdrometeorolo6z. 2ydrogra , auto-transport, railroad, water transport.
forestry, chemical technology. cinema-engineering - in the following
subjects:
a. mathematics. b. physics, c. chemistry, d. Russian landuage and
literature, e. one foreign language (English, French or German);
2. in VUZT and faculties of history. jurisprudence, eo ra , library
science, and also in pedagogical faculties of pedagogical institutes - In
the following subjects.
a. history of peoples of the USSR. b. geography, c. Russian
language literature;
3. those enrolling in teachers' institutes shall take entrance
examinations in the following subjects:
a. in the natural science - geographic division - a. in Russian
language and literature, b. geography, c. chemistry;
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b. in the ysice-mathematics division - a. in Russian language
and literature, b. mathematics, c. physics.
IV. Entrance examinations shall be given in accordance with the
programs approved by the Ministry of Higher Education of the U.S.S.R.
V. Persons who have received an unsatisfactory grade on the written
examination in the Russian language or the language, in which the instruc-
tion in the given VUZ is carried on, shall not be admitted to further
examinations.
E. TEXTBOOKS OF GEODESY
(Exclusive o Gravimetric extbooks)
25X1A511 impressive collection of Russian textbooks of geodesy has been made
An itemized list is given in Appendix C of this report.
A study of these and a comparison with American, British, German and Swiss
texts, reveals some rather significant and illuminating facts.
Russian geodesists have published at least,
1. five textbooks of higher geodesy, four of them between 1941 and
1951 and written by such outstanding geodesists as Rabinovich, Chebotarev
and Krasovskiy;
2. a tremendous nine-volume set of reference books dealing with the
higher aspects of geodesy, photogrammetry and cartography (1941-1949);
3. four textbooks of "Lower Geodesy";
4. ten "apecial type" textbooks, dealing with such subjects as
naval geodesy, agricultural geodesy, engineering (several types) geodesy,
architectural and aerial geodesy, geodesy for auto road construction, and
geological geodesy (1948-1950);
x
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K
5, a book outlining the "norms" for each phase of geodetic work
(1949), and
6. numerous field instructions, manuals for triangulation, gravi-
metry and photogrammetry.
25X1A5a1
7. In addition to the above, has located six geodetic
textbooks of both "higher" and "lower" geodesy published since 1947 by such
"iron-curtain" countries as Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia.
This is a staggering array of the scope of Russian educational activity
in this field and appears even more impressive when it is remembered that
the two most famous. but outdated, English language geodetic textbooks (by
Roamer. 1930 and by Clarke, 1850) used by present day English speaking
geodesists, have only in the last year been brought up-to-date by Brig.
Bomford's new text. The only possible way to make direct comparison be-
tween Russian and American geodetic texts of "higher geodesy" is to collect,
analyze and combine the numerous monographs, books, and scientific papers
published on various aspects of the geodetic sciences by the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey and other federal and military mapping agencies. The addi-
tional fact that until 1951 there was no U. S. university or institute teach-
ing advanced courses in geodesy, of course explains, in part, the paucity of
American textbooks (or even textbooks written in the English language) and
makes the task of comparing with Russian work that much more difficult.
The problem of inter-comparing American and Russian textbooks of the
"lower geodesy type is somewhat easier, if we assume that American textbooks
on surveying (civil engineering, route surveys, railroad right-of-way sur-
veying, etc.) are essentially comparable to Russian textbooks of "lower geo-
desy".
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A detailed discussion of a feature-by-feature comparison between
American, British, German and other foreign texts of geodesy with Russian
textbooks is beyond the scope of this paper. However, several general im-
pressions and comparisons may be briefly outlined as follows:
1. Russian textbooks are written in great detail - to a far
greater degree than those of any other nationality.
2. Descriptions of all types of geodetic instrumentation are
exhaustively treated in Russian texts. Such subjects are merely
touched on in the American literature.
3. The type of material presented in Russian texts suggests
that students of the subject in the Soviet Union are subjected to
a much more rigid indoctrination in such allied sciences as mathe-
matics. physics. and astronomy then is usual in the United States.
In this respect, indeed, their education at least equals and, in
some respects, even exceeds that of German training.
4. Russian textbooks in all sciences offer valuable clues to
trends in both Russian science and Russian education. They also
occasionally give concrete positional data not published in other
media available to this government.
F. INTERMIATE EDUCATION IN GEODESY AND CARTOGRAPHY
SOURCES: (1) Sredniye Spetsial'nyye Uchebnyye Zave deniya, 1949, pp. 107-8
(2) XX Let Sovetskoy Geodezii i Kartografii, Sbornik Statey,
A. N. Baranov. ed., 1939, Vol. 1. pp. 404-417
(3) G. K. Zubakov and P.S. Zakatov, Sbornik NTiPS. Vyp. 6,
1944, pp. 49-56.
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The necessity of having personnel intermediate between a skilled
worker and an engineer has always been felt keenly in Russia. Gradually
schools something like Junior colleges of specialized training have been
developed. It is worthy of notice that the Russians do not consider these
as institutions of higher learning. Their organizations, programs, length
of instruction, however, leave no doubt that they are on a much higher level
than U. S. trade-schools. Students graduating from these schools receive
a diploma as a technician (tekhnik). In 1948 there were ten such schools
generally known as "topograficheskiy tekhnikum" (reference No. 1) under
the direct supervision of the GUGK (Main Directorate of Geodesy and Carto-
graphy).
1. Kieyvskiy Topograficheskiy Tekhnikum Kiyev,
Glubochinskiy Per. No. 6
2. Leningradskiy
Leningrad, U1. Saltykova.-Shchedrina, No. 45-a
Specialties: topography, cartography
3. Moskovekiy
Moscow, Klimentovskiy Per., No. 1
Specialties: topography, cartography
4. Novosibirskiy
Novosibirsk, U1. Krylova, No. 24
Specialty: topography
5. Semipalatinsk-iv
Semipalatinsk, U1. Uritskogo, No. 19
Specialty: topography
6. Tashkentskiy
Tashkent, Shakhrizabskaya ul., No. 113
Specialties: topography, cartography.
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7. Tbiliaskiy
Tbilisi, U1. Marra, No. 27
Specialties: topography. cartography, road construction.
9. Tomskiy
Tomsk, U1. Rosy Luksembure, No. 13
Specialty: topography
9. Chkalovskiy
Chkalov, U1. 9-go Yanvarya. No. 23
Specialties: topography, cartography
10. Moskovskoye Aerofotos"yemochnoye Uchilishche
Moscow, Gorokhovyy Per. No. 4
Specialties: photography, photogrammetry, photo-topography.
The history of these technicums is explained in detail in reference 2.
In 1920 only two such schools existed. one in Leningrad and another in
Moscow with an enrollment of 100-120 in each. At the end of 1930 the
following technicums were in operation:
Moscow Tbilisi Semipalatinsk
Leningrad Saratov Omsk
Kharkov Sverdlovsk Khabarovsk
Novocherkassk Tashkent Mogilev (since 1932)
This network was designed to take care of geodetic and cartographic
needs but was,nevertheless,soon almost wholly destroyed (1932-33). The
purely geodetic and topographic technicums were absorbed into a larger
system of geological and hydrological prospecting technicums. Geodetic
service was merged with hydro-geologic service (1933-44). All this is
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ascribed in Russian literature to "sabotage of the enemies of the people".
Later in 1935 geodesy and cartography were again separated, merged
into an independent service and incorporated in the system of NXTD. By
that time the only four geologic-hydrologic technicums remaining in opera-
tion were re-organized into independent topographic technicums:
Leningrad Tomsk
Tbilisi Tashkent
In 1939 these four technicums gave instruction in the three following
specialties: topography: graduates (tekhnik-topograph) were expected to be
able to conduct theodolite surveys, to establish simple geodetic control
for aerial photography, to analyze relief from photos of all scales and to
carry out leveling of IV-class. Bodes t graduates (tekhnik-geodezist)
should be able to execute field observations and computation of coordinates
of II-class supplementary triangulation networks, to handle traverse work
of II and lower classes and to establish all the necessary control for aerial
photography. cartography: graduates (tekhnik-kartograf) should be able to
compile maps from available material and to substitute as technical editors
of maps.
The length of instruction for these specialties was 3 years, 10 months
(or 11 months, depending on the specialty). Enrollment was open to persons
with 7 years of elementary and high school (that is, generally 15-16 years
of age, corresponding to the American junior high school level). All stu-
dents in topographic schools took the following general.subjectst
History of the U.S.S.R.
180 hours
Leninism
60 "
Political science
100 "
Total
340 "
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Instruction in basic subjects was organized as follows:
Topographic Geodetic
Cartographic
Mathematics
440 hours 440 hours
384 hours
Physics
246
"
246 "
227 "
Chemistry
85
n
85 "
146 "
Russian
324
"
324 "
329 "
Germen
206
"
208 "
209 "
Economic Geography
60
"
60
6o "
Total
1,363
"
1,363 "
1.353 "
Instruction in professional subjects:
Topographic
Geodetic
Cartographic
Geodesy
516 hours 556 hours
270 hours
Photogrbphy and
phototopography
270
N
150 N
85 N
Geography. geology.
geomorphology
303
N
330 "
404 N
Topographic and carto-
graphic drafting 409
409 "
474 "
Cartography
100
"
302 N
Organization of
Production
40 "
54 N
Practical Astronomy
-
S0 N
Technology of Map
Production
-
227
Total 1,638 hours
1.565 hours 1.816 hours
In addition to all this. students were supposed to take field work
and training in production practice. as follows:
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FIELD WORK
Topographic Geodetic Cartographic
1st year 10 weeks 10 weeks 10 weeks
2nd year 11 6 "
3rd year 11
PRODUCTION PRACTICE
3rd year 13 weeks 13 weeks 15 weeks
Total 45 weeks 45 weeks 31 weeks
There is no detailed breakdown of this instruction according to
years. If we consider the reasonable scheme:
Academic work 36 weeks
Field work 10 "
Vacation 6
52 weeks
we find that the student must take from 3.341 to 3,529 hours of academic
work in three and one-half years or 126 weeks. This would mean a load of
26 to 28 hours per week. If this figure is accurate, the intensity of
training in academic subjects at these levels is very much higher than
in any American Liberal Arts college where the normal load for students
is supposed to be 18 hours per week.
Such thorough and long training programs conflicted with the urgent
demand for technicians and in 1938 an attempt was made to condense the
course of instruction in geodetic technicians into two years. This was
found to be possible only if matriculating students had the full ten-year
high school credentials (that is. 18 years of age). In 1939 two groups of
topographers at the Leningrad technicum were being trained to test this
plan.
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Apparently this attempt was abandoned for in 1947 (Kuda Poyti Uchit'-
sya, - reference books for prospective students for the Moscow region) it
is o.afinitely stated that the acceptance of students to all technicums is
based on the 7-year high school certificate.
Since, in 1937-40, the supply of technicians was inadequate to supply
the rapidly developing economy. at least two short-cuts were attempted in
the training of geodetic technicians, both of which were abandoned by 1939
as not meeting the requirements.
First, some promising young people were assigned as apprentices to
learn one particular branch of geodesy or cartography in a period of 6 to
7 months. This attempt resulted in one-sidedness and confusion of students.
Secondly, at the end of 1937- in order to supplement the number of
technicians produced by the schools in Leningrad. Thilisii, Tomsk and Tash-
kent, special training centers were established at Aerogeodetic Establish-
ments (Predpriyatiya) with three years of training to be added to the nine
or ten years of the Srednaya Shkola. Graduates of these centers could take
special examinations and qualify for the certificate of a technician. The
advantage of this system was the participation of the student in actual pro-
duction. It was found, however, that this idea did not work because of a
dearth of qualified teachers, equipment. textbooks, etc. In 1939 all of
these training centers were either abolished or developed into independent
geodetic technicums.
In perusing the literature one is struck with the Soviet desire to
change the situation overnight. The late thirties and early forties were
times when not only complicated geodetic instruments were hard to get,
but ordinary paper and pencils were scarce. Yet under the whip of the
five-year plans geodetic education had to be provided no matter what the
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cost and the coat was human life. Obviously mistakes were unavoidable
because of lack of knowledge, experience and general chaos. Yet the
immediate reactions to all of these failures was to "hunt for the culprits
who deliberately sabotaged geodetic training". Such culprits are named on
every page, as "enemies of the people". ......."in the pay of capitalistic
countries". ......"the ones who suggested the merger of geological, hydro-
logical and geodetic service into one unit", etc. What happened to these
unfortunate individuals is impossible to ascertain. It is safe, however,
to assume that Russian geodesy, as well as other sciences and industries,
lost many talented and devoted people.
In 1944 (reference 3) seven topographic technicums (not named) and
the Moscow School of Aerial Photography (organized in 1939) are listed.
In the seven technicums the total enrollment was 1.267 students and in
the Moscow School of Aerial Photography the enrollment was 306 students.
The description of training agrees with that of 1939, except that
gravimetry is mentioned. Emphasis is on practice, theory being taught only
to the extent that practice might be better understood. The amount of train-
ing waal
Theoretical work 1.156 hours
Practical and
Laboratory 1.196 "
Total 2,352 hours
Field work 43 weeks,
closely agreeing with the schedule given for 1939. Evidently this training
was administered in a 3 years, 10 months period since a fourth year term
is specifically mentioned.
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For 1347 we have the following information (Kuda Poyti Uchit?sya,
pp. 164-165) concerning the two Moscow technic=s:
In the Moscow Topographic Technicum the length of instruction was
3 years 7 months, except for students who had completed the full high
school 2 year curriculum. Apparently both persons with the 7-year cre-
dentials and 10-year credentials of high school were admitted, but the
latter were credited with general subjects as described above. There
were only two specialties. one in topography and the other in cartography.
In the Moscow Aerialphotosurvey School the length of training is
said to be 2 years. S months but no further details are available. Appar-
ently this means a requirement of a 10-year high school certificate for
admission.
In the 1947 list of technicums a very interesting development is
apparent. The specialty mentioned most often is either that of topography
or cartography. What has become of the geodetic specialty? Apparently it
was abolished between 1944 and 1947 and geodetic technicians are trained
in some other way. This gap in our information is important and every
possible effort should be made to fill in this loose end.
The same source gives general rules of admission. The limiting ages
for both sexes for admittance to technicums are 14 to 30 years for full time
students. For part time students (that is for students already working in
production) there is no age limit. There are entrance examinations in the
Russian language and literature, mathematics, on the constitution of the
U.S.S.R. and special examinations depending on the character of the technicum,
such as drawing for architects, etc. Prerequisite education must be the
certificate of 7 years of high school, but apparently students with educa-
tion obtained in the 10-year period of the Srednaya shkola are also ad-
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mitted with corresponding credit in general subjects.
Students must pay tuition with the exception of veterans, children
of veterans. etc. The amount of tuition is unknown. However, all students
in technicums are given scholarships of one of two categories. According
to a description of this system, topographic technicums should be in cate-
gory (a) (Higher paying) with scholarships amounting to
1 year - - - 125 rubles per month
2nd year - - 150 rubles
3rd year - - 175 rubles
4th year - - 200 rubles
These scholarships are cancelled if the studexit's grade is less than
3 (corresponding to "C" in the American system) in any subject. For students
having a perfect record of grade 5 (corresponding to "A"), all scholarships
are automatically increased by 259.
It is stated that the ruling of February 10. 1943 dealing with the
improvement of instruction of students is also applicable to technicums.
What this ruling is, is not known at the present time.
Practically all technicums have dormitories. dining rooms, etc. The
only limitation for women so far discovered is that they are not accepted
in the aerial photography department of the Moscow Aerophotographic School.
The system of incentives is strongly developed in technicums just as
it is in all Russian schools. Apparently the "appeal of work for the re-
construction of the beloved fatherland". etc., is not enough and definite
financial encouragement is provided.
There is no evidence here. or anywhere in the Russian system of
education, of assignment to any particular institution. The student is
apparently free to enter any school he chooses where he can meet basic
Fa1
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requirements. But what prevents the student after completion of the
course in a topographic technicum from leaving that profession? Appar-
ently nothing except the requirement that the student must serve for
three years in the profession he chooses and in which he graduates.
After that, if he has a certificate of the 10 year high school, he can
enter any university or technical college just as any other student might
That such a procedure is possible we have evidence of in a letter
of a recent "D.P.". A. L. Belkin,now working at this Laboratory. After
graduating from a Krasnodar high school he entered the Krasnodar Topo-
graphic Technicum (not mentioned in any of the above quoted sources) from
which he graduated in 1925. After participating in topographic work he
entered Leningrad University in 1931 and graduated from there in 1935 with
a degree "learned geographer-cartographer".
It would seen then, that a number of the better graduates from topo-
graphic technicums go on to improve their education elsewhere and are thus
lost to the system as technicians. It is impossible at the present time
to establish the number of such departures but a figure of 10% of graduates
seems to be a reasonable one. This might be considered as a leak in the
Russian geodetic education system.
We have then,as of 1948, a total of
9 technicums with enrollment of
1,629 students
Moscow Aerial Photography School
306
Total 1,935 students
About one-fourth of these would presumably graduate each year, making
the total production of geodetic-topographic-cartographic technicians approxi-
mately 500 per year. This system has been in operation since 1937 and has,
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in those 16 years, produced something like 8.000 technicians. Between
1920 and 1937, also a period of 16 years, the number of schools was roughly
one half of the present. We might expect, therefore, something like 4,000
technicians to have been produced during those years. All told, the number
of graduated technicians should be in the neighborhood of 12.000. Consider-
ing the 10% leak, losses during the war, natural death, etc. we arrive at
a final figure of 10.000 technicians in geodesy and cartography working at
the present time in the U.S.S.R.
The tremendous scope of work being carried out at the Aerogeodetic
Establishments, Cartographic Factories, etc. would require that many. and
probably more, technicians. In fact, various devices have been used in
the Establishments and Factories to raise the professional level of those
workers already employed. This may be considered as evidence that techno-
logical personnel are still not considered adequate for the smooth running
of the machine.
RESEARCH
As has been pointed out before, the boundary between research and
teaching in the U.S.S.R. is deliberately obliterated. University pro-
fessors are not only encouraged but, so some extent, are forced to parti-
cipate in research, and many purely research institutes train students for
advanced degrees. Research relating to geodesy and cartography is being
carried out in many institutions in the U.S.S.R. This is especially true
to-day since the introduction of electronic surveying methods which for
the most part are being developed in research institutes of physics and
astronomy. If our attention is restricted specifically to the problems
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of geodesy and map making, research institutes to be considered fall into
four categories:
I. Central Research Institute of Geodesy. Aerial
Surveying and Cartography.
II. Academies of Science
III. Main Directorate of the North Sea Route
IV. Military Organizations.
A. TeNIIGAiK
Tsentral'nyy Nau chno_Issledovatel'skiy Institut Geodezii,Aeros"yemki
i Kartoafii (Central Scientific Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial Sur-
vey and Cartography). TsNIIGAiK. Material available for study:
1. Description of the organization and short history of the institute
written by F. N. Krasovskiy and A.V. Gaveman and published in the book by
A. A. Armand, Nauchno Issledovatel'skiy Instituty azhelo Prostyshlennosti,
1935, pp. 747-762.
2. Work of the Institute, by Yu. V. Filippov, in Geod ezist, 1937,
No. 11. pp. 23-32.
3. Research work in Geodesy and Cartography, by A. I. Sukhov, in
XX Let Sov. Geodezii i Kartografii, 1939, part I. pp. 254-270-
4. A series of 15 articles in Geodezist, No, 5, 1940, reviewing
the work of the Institute.
5. Activity of the Institute. by A. S. Tatevyan, Sbornik I1'1'tPS
Vyp. 6. 1944. pp. 37-49.
6. Miscellaneous notes on the Institute found in various sources
as noted in the text of the report.
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The Institute was founded in 1929 in Moscow under the name of the
Institute Geodezii i Kartografii with a section of Aerial Surveying
located in Leningrad. In 1931 the Leningrad section (Fontanka 33135)
became an independent Institute of Aerial Surveying (Nauchno-Issledovatel'-
skiy Institut Aeros"yemki). In the fall of 1934 both Institutes were again
merged into TaNIIGAiK located in Leningrad. In 1936 (1) the main Institute
was again transferred to Moscow. the Leningrad section remaining at the old
address. Apparently the Leningrad section was closed during the war, al-
though no direct reference to this fact has been found. The latest avail-
able reference to the Leningrad section appeared in 1940 (reference 4).
The purpose of the Institute as outlined in 1935 (reference 1) was
as follows! the TsNIIGAiK was to investigate and improve methods of geo-
detic, cartographic and aerial surveying and to design new apparatus for
the improvement of this work.
This statement was so general that it could be accepted as defining
the work of the Institute even today. Later, emphasis on gravimetry and
the determination of precise time may certainly be considered (and is con-
sidered by the Russians) as a major development of geodesy and photogrammetry
as well as a part of the problem of aerial surveying.
The first director and organizer of the Institute was F. N. Krasovskiy.
the leading Russian geodesist. In 1930 he resigned from this position and
was replaced by I. A. Fishman, a man quite unknown in geodesy and apparently
a f igurehead. Krasovskiy remained at the Institute as deputy-director in
charge of scientific work. From 1937 until the time of his death in 1949
he remained on the staff of the Institute as a consultant without adminis-
trative duties.
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The scientific organization of the Institute, its program and the
character of its work should be ascribed to ffrasovskiy. This is emphasized
in numerous obituaries published in connection with Krasovskiy's death
(see, for instance. V. V. Danilov, Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 22, 1948. pp. 13-25)-
The Institute immediately became a rather large organization. By
10,35 the number of scientific workers on the staff numbered 172 and the
total number of people connected with the Institute, 330 (reference 1).
The framework of the Institute included five divisions with numerous sec-
tions. as follows:
I. Division of geodesy.
1. Astronomic-gravimetric section.
2. Geodetic Section.
3. Geodetic Instrumentation Section.
II. Division of Cartography.
1. Pedagogical and Special Maps Section.
2. Topographic Map Section.
3. Field Cartography Section.
4. Stereophotogrammetry Laboratory
III. Division of Scientific Methods.
IV. Division of Aerial Photography.
1. Bureau of Design and Construction of Instruments.
2. Bureau of Design and Construction of Optical Apparatus.
3. Laboratory of Optics.
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V. Division of Laboratories
1. Laboratory of Photochemistry.
2. Laboratory of Photophysics.
3. Laboratory of Photometry.
4. Laboratory of Industrial Photography.
This organizational scheme was undoubtedly revised more than once,
but on the whole it represents the activity of the Institute even at the
present time.
In 1939 the following laboratories in Moscow are mentioned (reference 3),
some of which can be identified in the former ache=.
a. Laboratory of Photogrammetry (probably development of the
former Laboratory 11-4.
b. Laboratory of Astronomy, Gravimetry and Geodesy.
c. Laboratory of Field Cartography and Map Compilation (11-3 ?)
d. Laboratory of Measurement of Long Distances by the
Interference Method.
e. Laboratory of Spectrophotometry (former V-3).
f. Time Service.
g. Optical Mechanical Shop.
The Leningrad Department (filial) had:
h. Laboratory of Optics.
i. Laboratory of Aerial Topography.
J. Laboratory of Aerial Photographic Apparatus.
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The description of the framework of the Institute for 1939 is obviously
incomplete since it does not include a very impressive amount of theoretical
work as underway at the Institute. However, a more up-to-date scheme of
organization has not yet been found. In 1943 (reference 4) the work of the
entire Institute is described without subdivisions.
At the present time the Institute is included in the system of the
Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii i Kartografii (GUGK) which is subject to the
direct control of the Council of Ministers; that is, not forming a part of
any particular Ministry. Control of the Institute by the GUGK is executed
through the Collegium (Kollegium) of the GUGK, the main directing body of
that organization. This control is very close as may be inferred from the
following examples:
In June, 1948 the Collegium of the GUGK examined the results of the
work of the TsNIIGAiK carried out the previous year. A number of the
research workers at the Institute were praised for the excellency of their
work. Some serious defects in the work of the Institute were discussed,
and the Collegian adopted a resolution for the further development of its
work and of closer connection between this work and production (Sbornik
NIPS, Vyp. 21, 1948. p. 30, Chronicle). This latter recommendation of
closer connection with practice is the perpetually reiterated topic of all
scientific institutions in the Soviet Union.
In the same year (Sbornik NIPS, Vyp. 16, 1948) the Collegian also
discussed and approved a five-year plan of work for the TsNIIGAiK with
working topics as follows:
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Geodesy ......................... 21 topics
Astronomy ........................ 6 topics
Aerial Surveying and Photo-
grammetry ........................ S topics
Cartography ...................... 11 topics
It is obvious from the above examples, and many others of the same
type could be quoted. that the Collegium of the GUGK exercises a very
definite and strict control over the activity of the TsNIIGAiK. Speci-
fications developed at the Institute for geodetic control, instrumentation,
methods of surveying, etc. are considered by the Collegium and some of them
are adopted for practice throughout the U.S.S.R. regardless of what agency
is involved.
Such close inter-connection between practice and scientific research
can produce good results only if the governing body, in this case the
Collegium of the GUGK, is competent. The detailed composition of the
Collegium is not known. The present head (and of the whole GUGK) Is
A. Baranov, not known for his scientific work. However, it is known
that F. N. Krasovskiy was for a long time a member of the Collegium
(1939-1948) and the participation of other prominent geodesists in the
Collegium is quite likely.
Reports on the scientific work carried out at the Institute are
published at the present time in the Sbornik BTIPS as well as in the
Tom, TeNIIGAiK which was first issued in 1931 and the current volume
of which is 76 (1951). This serial contains a tremendous amount of
material. yet it is evident that not all of the Institute's work is pub-
lished there. For instance# in all of the available issues of the,
there is not a single reference to the work of the Laboratory of Radio-
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Waves as applied to the problems of geodesy (Laboratory D of list No. 2).
It is not even mentioned in the very detailed account of the Institute's
activity in 1940 (reference 4). Yet, from other sources (L. I. Mandel'-
shtam and N. D. Papalskai. Noveyshiye Issledovaniya Rasprostraneniya Radio-
voin vdol' Zemnoy Poverkhnosti, 1945) it is known that during the period
of 1936-1939. A. I. Gruzinov and L. I. Mindlin of the Radio-Geodetic Labora-
tory of the TeNIIGAiK conducted very significant experiments concerning the
radio-location problem using apparatus made in the U.S.S.R. We can, there-
fore, assume that some of the work of the Institute never finds its way
into print.
Major activities of the Institute can be as described only briefly
in this report for to discuss them thoroughly would mean writing the report
on each of the subjects covered by the entire project. The most important
features, however, are as follows:
1. General theory of the ellipsoid. The treatment and adjustment of
all known triangulation and the use of the gravity survey was the life work
of F. N. Krasovskiy. From 1940 onward Krasovskiy's pupil, A.A. Izotov,
now one of the outstanding geodesists in the U.S.S.R.. carried out most of
the work in this field. Numerous papers on this subject were published by
him,his final paper appearing in Vyp. 73 of the Trull TeNIIGAi$ (1950).
2. Theory of photo$ramme and desk of Ito r ammetric equipment.
There is a large group of scientists workint; on these problems under the
leadership of F. V. Drobyshev. M. D. Konshin and G. B. Romanovskiy are also
well known. Drobyshev is undoubtedly an outstanding man in design of all
sorts of equipment, and a multiplex of his construction is widely used in
the U.S.S.R.
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3. Theory and design of photographic lenses. In this field the
leader is considered to be M. M. Rusiaov, a man whose numerous cameras,
such as LIAR-6 (before 1934) and Russar-1. and Russar-22 are used for
aerial surveying.
4. Gravity in application to Geodetic oblems. The geodetic signifi-
cance of gravity measurements was realized very early in the Soviet Union
and gradually the so-called gravimetric geodesy became one of the main
activities of the Institute. Present leaders in this field are I. A. Kazan-
skit', M. S. Molodenskiy, N. N. Pariyskiy. M. Z. Kheyfets and G. I. Rudakoy-
skiy. The latter is also well known for his design of gravimetric apparatus.
Trudy TsNIIGAiK Vyp. 11, (1936), 17 (1937) 29 (1939). 36 (1940), 42 (1945)-
51 (1949), 66 (1949) and 75 (1950) are wholly devoted to this problem. The
gravimetric group must be rather large for in the above-named publications,
13 different authors are involved and reference is made to many more partici-
pating in the design of instruments, expeditions, theoretical work, etc.
5. Time Service. The att?srtian paid by the Russians to the organiza-
tion of a satisfactory time service is extraordinary. A large group is
working on this problem at the Institute, a rather remarkable fact consider-
ing that there is also a very large and active group engaged in the same
research at the Shternberg Astronomical Observatory (Moscow University),
as well as at Pulkovo, Tashkent and Poltava Observatories and the Institute
of Weights and Measures in Leningrad. Apparently Russians are convinced
that the world system of longitudes is not as reliable as is commonly assumed.
For purely practical purposes it was deemed necessary to establish a network
of longitude stations where observers, before setting out on expeditions,
could determine their personal equation. Such stations are known to exist
in Moscow. Sverdlovsk and Tbilisi.
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The leader and organizer of the time service work at the TsNIIGAiK
was N. P. Dolgov, but the present director of the service is A. N. Kuznetsov,
very active in his field. P. S. Popov is recognized as a leader in the
design of clocks and other apparatus for this work.
6. Carto-ra . Senior leaders in cartography were Y.P. Kavrayskiy.
M. D. Solov'yev and K. A. Salishchev, none of whom appear to be connected
with the TaNIIQAiK at the present time. The cartographic group is un-
doubtedly very large. the number of different authors on cartographic
subjects in the Tru yr being at least 18 in number. All aspects of carto-
graphy are considered and very detailed investigations on such involved
subjects as the :load" for maps of different scales (V. I. Sukov), methods
of geographic description in cartography (A. A. Borzov), precision of maps
(N. M. Volkov), etc. are considered.
Sources:
(1)
220 Let Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945
(2)
Article on the Academy of Sciences USSR in
Bolshaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya Vol. 1, 1949
The strongest Academy of sciences, that of the U.S.S.R. has been en-
gaged in surveying and mapping the territory of the U.S.S.R. since its
foundation in 1726. In its new charter of November 23. 1935, the respon-
sibility of the Academy for the investigation of all of the natural re-
sources of the country is again emphasized. If we recall that the main
task of the Academy is the development of science (which in Russia means
all organized intellectual activity) it is clear that the work of the
Academy has an immediate and important bearing on the problem of mapping
and charting.
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The Academy is divided into eight sections as follows:
1. Physical and Mathematical Sciences
2. Chemical Sciences
3. Geological and Geographical Sciences
4. Biological Sciences
5. Technical Sciences
6. History and Philosophy
7. Economics and Law
g. Literature and Language
In 1949 there were in these sections:
56 Research Institutes
15 Laboratories
4 Observatories
7 Museums
5 Stations
51 Committees and Commissions
These establishments were scattered all over the U.S.S.R. in various
branches of the Academy, with greatest concentration in Moscow (the seat
of the main Academy) and Leningrad.
In regard to the committees and commissions the following should be
noted. These are essentially temporary organizations set up for a specific
purpose. Thus, the Yakutskaya Komissiya, for instance, (Yakutia Commission)
existed for a period of five years (1925-30). After publishing its results
which included very valuable geographic and geodetic studies, it was dis-
continued. On the other hand, the Mongol'skaya Komissiya, organized in 1926
for the study of Mongolia, is still in existence. The number of expired
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commissions runs into several hundreds.
In 1949 there were only 146 members and 255 corresponding members
of the Academy. Part of the members and all of the corresponding members
are on the staff of other research and instructional institutions and their
connection with the actual work of the Academy is often very tenuous. The
tremendous amount of research accomplished at the Academy is done by a
special staff which consisted of 6,053 workers in 1949. Of these, 918 had
the degree of Doctor of Science, and 2,455 were Candidates of Science.
The total number of people connected with the Academy, including technical
and administrative personnel, was 20.100 people in 1949.
It should be noted that some of the research institutes of the Academy
have a right to accept aspirants for the doctor's and candidate's degree.
In 1949 the number of such aspirants was 1.734.
The president of the Academy at the present time (1952) is A. N. Nes-
meyanov. an organic chemist by education.
Several organizations involving the entire academy were created for
the study of the natural resources of the country. This resulted in,
among other things. much cartographic activity. the occasional determination
of astronomical positions, gravity measurements and even local triangulations.
Such were; for instance,
Osobyy Komitet po Issledovaniyu Soyuznykh i Avtonomnykh Respublik
(Special Committee for the Investigation of Federated and Autonomous Repub-
lics). 1926-1928. replaced by the gomissiya Ekspeditsionnykh Issledovaniy
(Commission for Expeditionary Investigations) in 1928.1930. Both organi-
zations published numerous reports.
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In 1915 another type of organization was developed within the Academy:
Komissiya po Izucheniyu Yestestvennykh Proizvoditel'nykh Sit Rossii, known
as KEPS, (Commission for the Study of the Natural Productive Potential of
Russia), which had a special geographical department. In 1930 this commission
was divided into several research institutes, one of which became the Institute
of Geography. This commission was replaced by the Sovet po Izucheniyu Proiz-
voditel'nykh Sil, known as SOPS (Council for the Study of the Productive
Potentialities) which existed to the present time.
Both REPS and SOPS have been exceedingly active in the study of natural
resources with special emphasis on geography and cartography. The total num-
ber of volumes printed by these organizations is over 1,000.
The above-described organizations involve not only many members of the
Academy but also many outsiders. In addition to such organizations there are
a number of research institutes attached to the Academy. Some of these insti-
tutes have a definite connection with geodesy and cartography:
1. Institute of Geo ra (Moscow, Staromonetnyy Per. No. 29)
This institute went through several transformations and
changes of name:
Proa4Yshlenno-Geograficheskiy Otdel KEPS, 1919-1931
Geomorphologicheskiy Institut, 1931-34
Institut Fizicheskoy Geografii, 1934-37
Institut Geografii 1937-present.
The work of the Institute is of theoretical and applied character.
Expeditions of the Institute were numerous and are sent out to all parts
of the Union, and have supplied deteiled geographical information of such
regions as Kamchatka, Altay, Kola Peninsula, etc.
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The Institute is engaged in the c.omhilation of a large reference work,
"Geography in the U.S.S.P.N. which is designed to embody all that is known
of the physical and economic geography of the country.
The present director of this Institute is A. A. Grigor'yev, now 69
years old. Grigor'yev has been rewarded for his work by many decorations
and distinctions, but of late he and the entire institute have been bitterly
criticized in the Soviet press.
The circumstances of this controversy are so typical of Soviet scientific
life in general that it may be worth while to discuss it in detail. The
attack began with an article by a certain Vasil'yev in the newspaper, "Kul'-
turn i Zhizn'", of March 31, 1950- which condemned the work of the Institute
as well as the work of Grigor'yev himself. This resulted in a welter of
articles in Russian geographic literature, mostly of derogatory contents.
However, s. few writiers had the courage to come to Grigor'yev's defense.
Finally on June 7, 1950, the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences released
a statement in which the reasons for the unsatisfactory situation in the
Institute were given as follows:
1. Detachment of scientific work from the practice of socialistic
constructicn.
2. Errors in a number of theoretical postulates of A. A. Grigor'yev.
3. Absence of critique and self-critique in the Institute.
4. Incorrect methods of organization and planning of scientific work.
F. Absence of necessary connection with other geographical institutions
of the country.
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The most important accusations are (1) and (3). Any research must
be directed toward the problem of the development of the country. By
critique is usually meant emphasis on Russian achievements as contrasted
with foreign achievements. Grigor'yev was particularly accused because
he payed homage to the German geographer, Ritter, and failed to sufficiently
emphasize the work of Russian geographers. Self-criticism generally means
watchfulness lest one's theories be in conflict with dialectical materialism
as interpreted by the communistic party.
This Institute, organized to direct the theoretical development of
geography in the U.S.S.R. is particularly vulnerable to such accusations.
Any attempt to generalize scientific experience must run the gauntlet of
'critique and self-critique". This is very obvious in every science. be
it astronomy or zoology. The particular results of a science are consider-
ed in any entirely different light with a strongly pragmatic approach to
the subject. Thus, the work of the Institute was condemned not because it
was not good in a scientific sense but because it did not apply to the
"practical' problems of building canals, developing reforestation, location
of natural resources, etc.
Apparently Grigor'yev weathered this storm. In 1951 we find him as
editor in chief of the very vitriolic paper published by the Academy,
'Bourgeois Geographers in the Service of American Capitalism'.
The Institute of Geography is currently publishing its results in
two serials; "Trudy" (1931-1951. about 50 volumes printed) and "Problemy
P12icheakoy Geografii' (1934-1951, 13 volumes), as well as in general
Academy publications. Of special interest is the development of cartometry
at the Institute. A book by W. V. Volkov on this subject was published by
the Institute in 1950.
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Special cartographic work is being done in several other institutes
of the Academy such as the
a. Institute of Soils (Pochvennyy Institut), where a soil map on the
scale of 1:2,500.000 has been compiled covering all of the U.S.S.R., and
a map on a 1:1,000,000 scale is in the process of preparation.
b. Institute of Geology (Institut Geologicheckikh Nauk), Institute
of Permafrost (Institut Merzlotovedeniya) and Institute of Forestry (Insti-
tut Lesa) are also engaged in the mapping of the territory of the U.S.S.R.,
each for its own specific purposes.
2. Laboratory of Aerial Methods (Laboratoriya Aerometodov), Moscow,
Staromonetnyy Pereulok, No. 35
This Laboratory was establit.hed in 1944 as a further development of
the Commission for the Application of Aerial Surveys.
The basic tasks of the Laboratory are the development of aethods for
the utilization of results of aerial surveying, aero-visual observations
and aerial magnitometry.
Major results of the Laboratory are published in a serial, "Trudy
Laboratorii Aerometodov". Vols. 1-2 (1949-1950). which consist of theoreti-
cal papers on photograammetry as well as of application of aerial surveys.
Especially interesting is the emphasis-of the Laboratory on spectral photo-
graphy. In 1947,a special book was published on "Spectral Reflectivity of
Natural Formations" by E. L. Krinov which gives a large number of data on
this subject.
During the war the Laboratory was engaged in the development of a
system of photo-interpretation for aerial photographs of important objects
photographed in the enemy's territory.
The director of the Laboratory was P. I. Stepanov (1945).
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3. Institute of Geophysics (Geofizicheskiy Institut), Moscow.
Pyzhevskiy Pereulok, No. 3-5.
This was formerly the Institute of Seismology, founded in 1928. At
that time it had a central seismological station in Moscow and stations at
21 other points of the Union and its work was largely of a seismological
character, with some attention given to the problems of gravimetry. In
1947 this Institute was combined with another Institute of the Academy,
the Institute of Theoretical Geophysics, to form an Institute of Geophysics.
Under the new director, 0. Yu. Shmidt, a mathematician by training but mostly
famous for his arctic exploration, the Institute of Geophysics (Institut Geo-
fiziki) has greatly enlarged the scope of its activity. It publishes the
Trudy Geofizicheskogo Instituta (Vol. 1-13, 1948-50) which are a continuation
of the Trudy Seysmologicheskogo Instituta. as well as numerous papers in the
publications of the Academy.
There is also a section of gravimetry and geodesy in the Institute under
the leadership of Yu. D. Bulanzhe, one of the well known Russian gravimetriets.
The work of this section consists in determination of gravity points as well
as in the interpretation of that data. In other sections of the Institute
such problems as the movements of the earth's crust and their effect on geo-
detic measures are considered. Considerable attention is also paid to the
structure of the atmosphere of the earth and the propagation of radio-waves.
4. Institute of Physics (Fizicheskiy Institut), Moscow 3-ya Miusskaya,
No. This Institute is engaged in research in various phases of physics and,
as such, is of no particular interest in the present connection. However, one
section of it under L. I. Mandel'shtam and N. D. Papaleksi, was very active
in research on the problems of the propagation of radio waves and their appli-
cation to the problems of geodesy and of radio location.
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In 193$ at the Academy an All Union Scientific Council of Radio-Physics
and Radio-Technology was established (Vsesoyuznyy Nauchnyy Sovet po
Radiofizike i kadiotekhniki) under Papaleksi, the task of which was to
coordinate all such research. Both Mandel'shtam and Papaleksi are dead
now and the president of the Council in 1951 was B. A. Vvedenskiy, one
of the outstanding radio-physicists in the country. He is also chairman
of a section for the scientific development of the problems of radiotechnics
(Sektsiya po Nauchnoy Razrabotke Problem Radiotekhniki) which is apparently
a newly established organization, not existing in 1345-
5- Institute of Theoretical Astronoy (Institut Theoreticheskoy
Astronomic), Leningrad. Universitetskaya Naberezhnaya, No. 5.
This Institute (the present director is M. F. Subbotin) was organized
in 1943 to replace the former Astronomical Institute which had existed since
1920. The Astronomical Institute was very active in the gravimetric survey
of the U.S.S.R. At the present time the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy
is publishing in its Bulletins many papers on the theory of gravimetry, the
shape of the earth, etc., as well as almanacs for the Navy and Air Forces.
6. Pulkovo Observato ray was formerly the training center for military
geodesists and has in the past contributed very substantially to the develop-
ment of geodesy in Russia. At the present time its only connection with geod-
esy is the fact that it is the initial point for all triangulations in the
U.S.S.R. (Pulkovo Datum) and one of the five fundamental points for gravity
surveys. Indirectly, however, it still contributes to the problems of geod-
esy through its study of the variation of latitude and time, and in furnish-
ing star positions for geodetic needs. Its present director, A. A. Mikhaylov,
is a noted authority in gravimetry.
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7. The Geographic Society (Vsesoyuznoye Geograficheskoye Obshchestvo),
Leningrad, Denidov Pereulok, No. 8a.
This is a tremendous organization which had a membership of 4.244 in
1950 and 36 sections scattered over the U.S.S.R. In the past the Society
was famous for the organization of expeditions to Central Asia such as those
of Przheval'skiy, Kozlov, Pota.nin. Pevtsov, and many others. At the present
time its role appears to be restricted to theoretical discussions of the
problems of geography. Nevertheless, its publications, "Izvestiya" and
"Zapiski". are among the most valuable serials published on Russian geog-
raphy..
The Moscow section of the Society is very active. It is publishing
its own serial, "Voprosy Geografii", consisting mostly of contributions
submitted by the geographers at Moscow University.
8. The Astronomic-Geodetic Societ (Vsesoyuznoye Astronomo-Geodeziche-
skoye Obshchestvo) is mentioned here only because of its misleading name.
This is an amateur society which directs amateur astronomical activities.
It has no connection with geodesy judging by the contents of its serial,
"Izvestiya".
9. Expeditions of the Acad. The Academy has organized may expedi-
tions to little known territories. These expeditions are usually of the
"complex" type; that is, a region is studied from every scientific point of
view. Even if the expedition has a primary aim of anthropology or botany,
some cartographic material is usually gathered. The number of such expedi-
tions is very large (certainly over 1,000) and some of them have lasted for
years and employed hundreds of people.
Of the. most important expeditions from the cartographic point of view.
the following should be noted:
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a. Tadzhik-Pamir Expeditions of 1928-35, a whole series of
expeditions resulting in more than 100 volumes of printed
material.
b. Yakutia Expedition, 1925-30, published in "Trudy" and "Materialy"
of the Yakutskaya Komissiya, the first reliable data on the geog-
raphy of that region.
c. Kamchatka Expedition (1936-37)-
d. Karakal_aak Expedition (1931-32)
e. Far East Expedition (1933)?
The results of more recent expeditions are generally published in the
Trudy SOPS, arranged regionally in 21 series, such as Seriya Ural'skaya,
Seriya Kazakhakaya, etc.
C. OTHER ACADDMIES
The Acadeny of Sciences, U.S.S.R., has a number of regional sections
known as "filialy". such as Kazanskiy Filial at Kazan'. In 1949 there
were 16 such sections to which 34 research institutes were attached. The
work of such "filials" is largely, but not wholly. of local significance.
Some "filials" in other republics of the Union attain a certain status of
activity and become independent Academies of Sciences.
The largest of such Academies is that of the Ukrainian Republic which
had 82 members, S8 corresponding members, and 1,300 people on its research
staff in 1949.
The activity of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in geography and
mapping is not very significant. However, it organized several geographic
expeditions, one of them to Tyan'-Shan' (1935). It has a unique Gravimetric
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Observatory at Poltava which, under the direction of A. Ta. Orlov, has
been very active in gravimetric surveys, studies in variation of latitude,
movements of the earth's curst, etc.
Other republic Academies are as follows;
1. Azerbaydzhanskaya, founded in 1945 in Baku, has an Institute of
Geography which published a detailed study of the geography of Azerbaydzhan
in 1945. Scientific staff of the Academy in 1949: 444 people.
2. Arrgyansk ya, founded in 1943 in Yerevan. Scientific staff in
1949: 569 people.
3. Belorusskaya, founded in 1929 in Minsk. Scientific staff not
known but probably does not exceed 500 people.
4. Gruzinskaya, founded in 1941, in Tbilisi. The scientific staff
in 1949 consisted of 909 people. There is an Institute of Geography and
a very active Geophysical Observatory at Tbilisi. now a part of the Institute
of Physics and Geophysics.
5. Iazakhakaya. founded in 1946, in Alma-Ata. Scientific staff:
about 1,000 people. Considerable research is done on the problem of
scattering and visibility in the atmosphere.
6. Latviyskaya. reorganized in 1940, in Riga. There is an Institute
of Geology and Geography here.
7. Litovskaya. founded in 1941, in Vil'nyus.
9. Uzbekskaya, founded in 1943, in Tashkent. The Academy has the
Tashkent Astronomical Observatory, the Latitude Station at Kitab, and
the Seismological Station in Samarkand. There is also a cartographic
Bureau.
Nothing is known about the activity of the latter.
9.
Nstonskaya, founded in 1946 in Tartu.
10.
Tadzhiskaya, founded in 1951, in Stalinabad.
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y r,
11. Turkmenskaya, founded in 1951, in Ashkhabad'.
All these Academies publish a tremendous amount of material in their
special serials. Some of this material may be of considerable interest
from the point of view of geodesy and cartography.
Glavnoye Upravleniye Severnogo Morskogo Puti (abbreviated Glavsevmorput',
Main Directorate of the North Sea Route) is a very large organization created
in 1932 for the purpose of securing the passage from the White Sea ports to
Vladivostok along the north coast of Siberia. This task involved a thorough
study of the Arctic from every point of view for which purpose a research
institute was organized. It is known as the Arkticheskiy Nauchno-Issledovatel'-
skiy Institut (Arctic Scientific Research Institute). There are also several
other organizations in the system of the Glavsevmorput' which are engaged
in mapping activities. as will be explained below.
Z. Arctic Institute
1. Ya. Ya. Gakkel': Za Chetvert' Veka (For a $iaxter of a Century),
1945-
2. Series of articles in Izv. Vses. Geogr. Obshch., Vol. 77, 1945,
pp. 309-350 in connection with the 25th anniversary of the Institute.
The Arctic Institute began in 1920 as Severnaya Nauchno-Promyslovaya
Ekspeditsiya (Northern Scientific and Industrial Expedition). In 1925
it was transformed into the Institut po Izucheniyu Severa (Institute for
the Study of the North). In 1930 it received its present name and 0. Yu.
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Shmid.t was appointed its director. In 1932 the Glaveevmorput' was organized
and the Arctic Institute became its research organ. 0 Yu. Shmidt was appointed
head of the entire Glavsevmorput' and was replaced at the Arctic Institute by
R. F. Samoylovich, a noted authority on the Arctic. The present director of
the Institute is V. Kh. Buynitskiy.
The activity of the Institute up to 1940 was very impressive. All as-
pects of the Arctic, north of the 60th parallel, were studied and a tremendous
number of volumes published. Many expeditions were organized and hundreds of
astronomical positions and gravimetric measures were made, as well as thorough
studies of terrestrial magnetism, ionosphere, climate, hydrography, etc.
Up to 1945 the Institute compiled 185 maps of the Arctic of which only
72 were published. The general map of the Arctic on the scale of 1:6,000,000
was considered in 1945, as the most reliable of the existing maps. Detailed
maps of Yamal-Gydan' and Chukotskiy peninsulas, and of the Lena-Khatanga,
Lena-Indigirka, Nizhnyya Tunguska regions, etc. were compiled.
In 1.940 the activity of the Institute was much circumscribed (Problemy
Arktiki 1940, No. 7-8, p. 106) and confined to three main avenues of in-
vestigation: ice and weather service, marine hydrology and geophysics. All
cartographic activity was to be assumed by the hydrographic section of the
Glavsevrnorput'.
The main publication of the Arctic Institute is "Trudy" of which over
250 volumes are in existence. Since 1940 great secrecy surrounds Russian
operations in the Arctic and only volumes of the "Trudy" devoted to biology
are permitted outsi:ie the Soviet Union. Up to 1940 many volumes contained
astronomical determinations. topographic maps, climatological studies, etc.
Especially important was the gravimetric work organized mostly by I. D.
Zhongolovich of all the Russian Arctic including the Borth Pole. In his
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report of 1940 (Probleiy Arktiki. 1940, No. 2) he gives the location of
determinations but not the values of gravity itself. It appears that
between 1936 and 1940. 328 such determinations were made,very few of which
were published. In the new Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1950, the Arctic
Institute is not mentioned at all.
F. ydrographic Directorate
The Hydrographic Directorate of the Glavsevmorput' (Gidrograficheskoye
Upravleniye Glavsevmorputi), not to be confused with the Hydrographic Direc-
torate of the Marine Navy (Gidrograficheskoye Upravleniye Morskogo Flota)
has been very active along the coasts and inland waterways of the Arctic.
No comprehensive report covering its activity is available. However, from
its serial, "Severnyy Morskoy Put'", we gather that practically every large
and small river in the Arctic has been surveyed and atlases on a scale of
1:50,000 and 1:25,000 have been prepared. Volume 1 (1937) of another serial
published by the Hydrographic Directorate is available. It contains about
700 astronomical determination and triangulation positions made along the
coast of the Arctic.
G. Mining-Geological Directorate
Gorno-Geologicheckoye Upravleniye Glavsevmorputi is chiefly engaged
in studying mineral deposits in the Arctic. It publishes its own serial,
"Trudy" (Vol. 30, 1947) from which it is evident that considerable carto-
graphic activity is also carried on by this Directorate.
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H. Arctic School
Training of personnel for work at the Glavsevmorput' is done at
Vyssheye Arkticheskoye Uchilishche (Higher Arctic School), an Institute
of university level.
1. Arctic Intelligence
The only reference to the "Arktikrasvedka" (Arctic intelligence)
so far found is in the list of participants of the 2nd Conference on
the Problems of Latitude Variation, held in Moscow in 1950. A person,
otherwise unknown, V. Kh. Galeyev, represented this organization, the
headquarters of which are in Moscow. Apparently it is interested,among
other things.in purely geodetical problems.
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1. Geodezi t
2. Sbornik Nauc'rna-Teklinicheskikh i Proizvodstvennykh Staty -po Geodezii,
Karto-,r afii, Afros"je ke i Gravimetrii (1911-present).
3. XX Let Sovetskoy Geodezii i Kartografii. Baranov, A.N., 1939
4. Stalin, "Report of the 17th Congress of the Communistic Party", 1934.
5. Za Prom1shlennyye KacIrZ
6. Kad.1 love xo ti
7. Medynskiy, E.N.: Narodnoye 0brazovaniVe v SSSR, 1947
8. ProizvodstvennoXe Cbucheniye
9. SredniXe S etsial'n a Uchebnyye Zavedeniya SSSR, 1948
10. Spravochnik dlya Postupajiishehikh v Vysshiye Uchebnyye Zavedeniya SSR, 1950-
11. Titul'r y SDisok Vvvsshikh Uclkh Zavedeniy, 1946
12. VUr Geografii, 1951.
13. Vestnik VV ysssheZ Shkoj, 1951-
14. A pirantura yeshikh UchebnYkh Zavedeniy SSSR, 1949.
15. v ss 'a Shkola. 1945 and 1948
16. ?pravochnik dlya Postupapashchikh v Moakovekiy Universitet v
17. Vestnik Lenin&radskogo Universiteta, 1951-
18. Se1'skokhozyaystvennaya Akademiya imeni X. A. Timiryyazeva. 1946.
19. Kud Po;;ti Uch, 1950 and 1951-
20. Vysshaya Sel'skokhozyajstvennaya Shkola v SSSR, 1948
21. Armand, A. A.: Nauchno Iss ledovatel'skiy Instituty T azhel
Promyshlennosti. 1935-
22. Tni Tsentral'nyy Nauchno-Issledovatel's Institut Geodezii,
Aeros"Zemki i Kartografii.
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23. Mandel'shtam, L. I. and Fapalekai, N. D.; Noveyshiye
Iasledovaniya Rasproetraneniya Radiovoln vdol' Zemnoy Poverkhnosti, 1945-
24. Bolsnaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya, 1949.
25. Kul'tura i Zhizn. 1950
26. T r u d y , Institut Geo rafii (1937-present).
27. Problemy Fizicheskoy Geog-rafii (1934-1951)-
29. Volkov, N. M.: "Printer i Meto Kartometrii", 1950
29. Tru Laboratorii Aerometodov, 1944-present.
30. Krinov, E. L.: aektralna:Za Otrazhatel'naya Sposobnost', 1947-
31- Tru Geofizicheskogo Instituta (1949-1950).
32. Try Seysmologicheakogo Instituta.
33. Byulleten Instituta Teoreticheskoy Astronomii.
34. Izvesti a Vsesoyuzno&o Geograficheskogo Obshchestva, 1945
35. Zapiski Vsesoyuznogo Geograficheskogo Obshchestva.
36. Tru Yakutskaya Komissiya.
37. Materialy Yakutskaya Komissiyyaa.
38. Gakkel', Ya. Ya.: Za Chetvert' Veka, 1945-
39- Proble5Z Arktiki, 1940.
40. Truce Arkticheskogo Instituta.
41. Sr Marskoy Put'
42. Trudy Gorno-Geolo icheskoZe Upravleniye Glaveevmorputi, 1947.
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APPENDIX B
Rules of Admission to Institutions of Higher learning of the USSR for 1950.
(Confirmed by the Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR, 28 January, 1950.)
I. Accepted in VUZY - Citizens of USSR cf both sexes from 17 to 35.
- in Correspondence and Evening WLY (divisions) -
without definite age limit, provided they have completed an intermediate
education and successfully passed the exa.iiinations set up for those entering
these educational institutions.
Note: - (a) Persons who have graduated from tekhnikums or other inter-
mediate specialized educational institutions comparable to them, will be
accepted in VUZY provided they have complete the 3 years' production
experience established by law after completion of the intermediate educa-
tional institution. Such experience is not required of those enrolling
in correspondence and evening VUZY and divisions,nor from those included
in the upper 5% of those graduated from each tekhnikum, as well as from
those people who, at the close of a tekhnikum, are participating in the
three or more years program of active military service.
(b) In accordance with decree No. 426 of the Sovet of Minis-
ters of the Union of SSR of Feb. 1, 1949, it has been decided to temporarily
accept for a period of 5 years, for the first course of teachers' institutes
without preliminary experience by the enrollees, those who have completed
pedago1i.cal training schools under the direction of the ministries of
Education of the Union Republics.
II. Those people who, at the close of intermediate schools, have been
awarded gold or silver medale "For outstanding successes and exemplary
conduct," will be accepted in institutions of higher learning without
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entrance examinations, provided that, first of all, there shall be admitted
those awarded the golden nedal and next those awarded the silver medal.
Also without entrance examinations will be accepted those persons
who have completed t.ekhnikunis with a rank of "excellent", those included
within the upper 5% of those graduated from a tekhnikum or a three-year
intermediate medical school and who enroll in institutions of higher
learning according to their specialty within 2 years, including the year
of completion.
Note: - Those persons awarded gold and silver medals, and outstanding
graduates who have completed tekhnikums (intermediate specialized educa-
tional institutions), who enroll for architectural and construction
specialties, shall take examinations in drawing and drafting; those enrolling
in art, music and physical culture higher educational institutions shall
take examinations according to their specialty.
III. Those enrolling in higher educational institutions, with the
exception of those mentioned in paragraph 2, shall take entrance examinations
depending upon the specialty of the higher educational institution:
1. in VUZY and faculties of machine-construction, metal-work,
metallurgy, mechanics, electrical mechanics, electrical technology,
energetics, communications, mining, geology, oil, aviation, geodesy,
hydrometeorology, hydrogra ham, auto-transport, railroad, water transport,
forestry, chemical technology, cinema-engineering - in the following
subjects:
a. mathematics, b. physics, c. chemistry, d. Russian language and
literature, e. one forei In gum (En lg ish, French or German);
2. in VUZY and faculties of architecture and building - in the
following subjects:
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a. mathematics, b. physics, c. drawing anc': drafting, d. Russian
language and literature, e. one foreign language (English, French or
German);
3. in VOZY and faculties of philology, linguistics, philosophy -
in the following subjects:
a. Russian language and literature, b. history of peoples of the
USSR., c. geography, d. one foreign language (English, French or German);
4. in institutes and faculties of physics - mathematics, chemistry,
land exrloitation, agricultural construction, peat textiles, light industry,
trade, automobile-roads, polygraphy, mechanization and electrification of
agriculture, forest economy, forest improvement and hydromelioration - in
the following subjects:
a. mathematics, b. physics, c. chemistry, d. Russian language and
literature;
5. in VIrZY and faculties of biolos-y, soil science, agronomy, zoo-
technics, veterinary medicine, medicine, stomatology, pharmacology, physical
culture, - in the following subjects:
a. physics, b. chemistry, c. Russian language and literature;
6. in VLrZY and faculties of history, jurisprudence, geeograpy, library
science, and also in pedagogical faculties of pedagogical institutes -
in the following subjects:
a. history of peoples of the t3`R, b. geography, c. Russian language
and literature;
7. In institutes and faculties of economics and engineering-economics -
in the following subjects:
a. mathematics, b. geography, c. history of peoples of the USSR,
d. Russian language and literature;
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8. in higher musical, theatrical and art educational institutions
and institutes of cinematography - in the following subjects:
a. history of peoples of the USSR, b. specialties, c. Russian
language and literature;
9. those enrolling in teachers' institutes shall take entrance
examinations in the following subjects:
A. in the division of language and literature - a. in Russian
language and literature, b. history of peoples of the USSR, c. geography;
B. in the history division - a. in Russian language and literature,
b. history of peoples of the USSR, c. geography;
C. in the natural science-geographic division - a. in Russian
language and literature, b. geography, c. chemistry;
D. In the physics-mathematics division - a. in Russian language and
literature, b. mathematics, c. physics;
Note: 1. Those enrolling in VUZY, where the instruction is carried
on not in the Russian language, shall also take an examination in the
language in which the instruction in the given VUZ is carried on.
2. Those enrolling in universities shall take an entrance
examination (in addition to the aforementioned, depending upon the faculty)
in one foreign language (English, French, German) independently of the
specialty.
IV. Entrance examinations shall be given in accordance with the
programs approved by the Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR.
In the case of the Russian language and the language in which the
instruction of the given higher educational institution is carried on,
as well as in the case of mathematics both written and oral examinations
will be given, in the case of all other subjects only oral.
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In the case of the Russian language and the language in which the
instruction in the given higher educational institution is carried on,
separate grades both for the written as well as for the oral examinations
will be posted; in the case of mathematics one overall grade shall be
posted on the basis of the written and oral examinations.
Note: Separate grades for written and oral examinations in mathematics
will be posted at physics-mathematics faculties of universities and
pedagogical institutes.
Y. Persons who have received an unsatisfactory grade en the written
examination in the Pussian language or the language, in which the instruc-
tion in the given VUZ is carried on, shall not be admitted to further
eys.rinations
VI. From the number of those passing the entrance examinations;
i.e., receiving a grade of not lower than "second-rate," those having the
highest grades she.ll be en:?olled in institutions of higher learning.
Persons who have passed the examinations but are not accepted because of
lack of vacant places in that faculty (fakul'tet) in which they have passed
the exazrinations may be accepted in another faculty, where there are open
places after enrollment of the candidates who have passed a mmi.nations in
that faculty, on condition that they pass additional examinations set up
for those enrolling in that faculty.
VII. Applications for enrollment in higher educational institutions
will be received from June 20 through July 31.
In applications for enrollment the "faculty" and specialty chosen by
the applicant must be indicated. Applications shall be turned in to
the name of the director of the higher educational institution with the
addition of:
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a. an autobiography
b. an affics.vit of completed wcrk (diploma) from an intermediate
educational institution (in the original),
c. a passport (presented personally),
d. three photographs (snapshots without hats, size 3 ty 4 centimeters),
e. statements of military status (for those subject to military duty),
f. statements from the place of work,together with indication of the
duties and specialties of occupation (for correspondence and evening
V)GY and divisions).
VIII. Under the director's personal chairmanship there shall be
organized an admissions commission composed of the vice-director on
educational and scientific work, the deans of the faculties and two pro-
fesp.ors.
The director and rnern1*rs of the admissions committee are obliged
personally to become acquainted with each applicant and to verify personally
all the documents of the applicants.
The director is obliged, within five days from the day of receipt
of the application, to notify the applicant of the results of the prelim-
inary consideration of his application.
IX. Entrance exrs:inations shall take place from the first through
the twentieth of August.
X. Enrollment in the student body shall take place from the 21st
through the 25th of August, and the enrollment of students incicated in
paragraph 2 from the 21st through the 31st of July, according to the
receipt of their applications.
XI. Entrance exarirations shall be given by specialized examining
commissions, appointed ry the director.
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III, For each applicant an examination paper together with a
photograph card shall be handed in.
XIII. The results of the entrance examinations shall be indicated
separately for each subject with the following grades (marks): "otlichno"
(excellent), "khorosho" (good), "poeredstvenno" (average), "neudovlet-
voritel'no" (unsatisfactory).
XIV. The director of the higher educational institution shall
organize the medical examination of all applicants. The list of illnesses
which prevent admission to the corresponding higher educational institution
shall be confirmed by the Ministry of Health of the USSR and the :Ministry
of Piiher Education of the USSR.
XV. The Results of the examinations and of the medical examination
shall be subrd teed to the admissions commission, which makes the decision
about admission into the higher educational institution. Enrollment in the
higher educational institution takes place at the order of the director.
XVI. Persons, enrolled in the higher educational institutions who do
not enter in their work before September 10th without good reason, shall
be excluded from the student roster.
XVII. The directors of higher educational institutions may determine,
in the case where vacancies arise, to accept on the roster of students those
people who have passed the examinations in another higher educational
institution, but who were not admitted to it because there is no vacancy or
in view of the lack of correspondence between requirements of the given
specialty and a health condition, and also he (the director) shall admit
to the entrance examinations persons who did not pass the examinations in
another VUZY in subjects not provided for by the rules of admission in the
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given V17. The acceptance shall take place after passing of the examina-
tions set ur for the given VUZ, taking into account the exarninationb passed
in the other VUZ.
The last day for enrolling these people indicated above shall be
September 10th.
The same period shall be established for enrolling of the student
mentioned in paragraph 2, and not admitted into another higher educational
institi.tion becatse of no vacancy.
I f om the
XVIII. Complaints about refusal to enroll may be subt3tt
ec 'I
first of the school year to the ac:ninistration of the educational institutions
of the corresponding Ministry (office) together with documents (auto-
biography; copy of attestaticn, excerpts from the protocol (minutes) of
the examining and ad:ni.ssicns eoanniesions).
The administration of educational institutions shall be obliged to
Five an answer to the complaint not later than three days fsrom the moment
of receipt of the complaint.
XIX. As for persons not admitted to higher educational institutions,
their doctnnents shall be rettkrned to them not later than three days after
the corresponding notice or the decision of the admisvions commission
concerning refusal is given.
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APPENDIX C.
A, List of Russian Textbooks of Higher Geodesy
1. Rabinovich, B. N,: Osnovy postroyeniya opornykh geodezicheskikh sety
(Principles of the Construction of Fundamental
Geodetic Networks)
Dopushcheno Min. Vyssh. Obrazovaniya SSSR v
kachestve uchebnogo posobiya dlya kartograficheskikh
fakul'tetov geodezicheskikh institutov, Moskva, 1948,
323 pp.
2. Chebotarev, A. S.: Geodeziya, Chast' pervaya.
("Geodesy" - Part I. "Geodesy" - Part II 1949)
Dopusheheno Ministerstvom vysshego obrazovaniya
SSSR v kachestve uchebnika dlya institutov geodezii
i kartografii, Moskva, 1948, 692 pp. and 636 pp.
3. Virovets, A. M. Geodeziya. ("Geodesy") Izdatel'stvo geodezicheskoy
i Kutuzov, M, N.: i kartograficheskoy literatury, Moskva, 1948, 467 pp.
4. Rabinovich, B. N.: Praktikum po vysshey geodezii.
("Manual of Higher Geodesy")
Dopusheheno Ministerstvom vysshego obrazovaniya
SSSR v kachestve uchebnogo posobiya dlya geodezi-
cheskis:h vuzov i fakul'tetov, Moskva, 1951, 304 pp.
5. Krasovskiy, F. N.: "Rukovodstvo po Vysshey Geodezii"
("Textbook of Higher Geodesy")
Chast' I. Nauchno Tekhnicheskoy Sektsiyey
Gosudarstvennogo Uchenogo Soveta Dopushcheno v
kachestve rukovodstva diya Vysshikh Uchebnykh
Zavedeniy, Izdaniye Moskva, 1926, 463 pp.
B. Reference Books on Geodesy
6. Bonch-Bruyevich, M. D. (Editor): Kazanskiy, I. A.: Geodeziya, Tom I.
(Geodesy, Vol. I).
IzdatAl'stvo Ministerstva Kommunal'-
nogo Khozyaystva RSFSR. Leningrad,
Moskva, 1949, 422 pp.
7. Bonch_Bruyevich, ;M. D. (Editor): Stepanov, N. N.: "Geodeziya," Tom IX.
("Geodesy - Supplements," Vol. IX).
Izdatel'stvo Ministerstva Kounal'-
nogo Rhozyaystva RSFSR. Leningrad,
Moskva, 1949, 540 pp.
8. Bonch_Bruyevich, M. D. (Editor): Stepanov, N. N.: "Geodeziya," Tom III.
(Geodesy - Surveying & Leveling, Vol. III.).
Izdatel'stvo Narkomkhoza RSFSR, Moskva,
Leningrad, 1941, 364 pp.
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9.
Baranov A. N.:
(Editor]
"XX Let Sovetsl:oy Geodezii i Kartografii." 1919-1939.
("20 Years of Soviet Geodesy and Cartography,"
1919-1939)
Sbornik Statey. 1 & 2. Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii
i Kartografii pri SNX SSSR. Moskva, 420 pp.
C. List of "Special_Type" Geodetic Textbooks
10.
Bobylev, G. Z,:
"Geodeziya" ("Geodesy")
Gosud. Arkhitekturnoye Izdatel'stvo,Moskvs,1950,
245 pp.
11.
Orlov, P. M,:
"Zenlemeriye (Geodeziya) Uchebniki i Tlchebnyye
Posobiya dlya Sel'skokhoz ystvennykh Tekhikumov."
("Land Surveying (Geodesy) Textbooks and Training
Manuals for Agricultural Technikums.")
Gosudarstver:noye Izdatel'stvo Sel'skozyaystvennoy
Literatury. Moskva, 19./9, 327 pp.
12.
Shchaveiev, A. F.: "Geodeziya."
("Geodesy")
Dopushcheno GULZori Ministerstva P.echnogo Flota SSSR
v Fachestve.Ichebnogo Posobiya dlya Rechnykh
Uchilishch i Tekhnikumov. Leningrad, Moskva 1950,
360 pp.
13.
Popov, V. V.:
Prof,
"Uravuoveshivaniye Seti Poligonov."
("Adjustments of Polygonal Networks")
Posobiye dlya inzhenerov i tekhnikov, vypolnyayu-
shchikh geodezicheskiye raboty. Izdatel'stvo
geodezicheskoy i kartograficheskoy literatury GUGK
pri SNK SSSR, Moskva 1941, 1.48 pp.
14.
Stepanov, N. N.:
Inzhenernaya Geodeziya
("Engineering Geodesy")
Vyssheye inzhenerno-tekhnicheskoye uchilishche VMF
Izdatel'stvo Narkomkhoza RSFSR, Moskva, Leningrad,
1943, 328 pp.
15,
Vydrin, F. I,:
Geodeziya i marksheyderskoye delo.
("Geodesy and the Mine Surveying Service")
Ugletekhizdat. Moskva, 1948. 263 pp.
16.
Platon, V. M.:
Spravochnoye posobiye po geodezii dlya tekhnikov-
stroiteley.
("Reference 'Tanual in Geodesy for Engineering
Construction.")
Izdatel'stvc '1Cinicterstva Yommunal'noro Khozyaystva
RSFSR, Moskva, Leningrad, 1949, 211 pp.
17.
Gusev, M. I,:
Kurs marksheyderskogo dela.
("A Course in Mine "-urveying" )
Chast' I. DopushchenoMinisterstvom vysshego
obrazovaniya SSSR v kachestve uchebnika dlya VTUZov.
U?letekh_izdat Ninisterstva Vostokuglya. Moskva,
Leningrad, 1948, 267 pp.
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18. Bakhi:rin, I. :t., : Kurs ,narksheyderrkogo dela.
Pyatlin, M. P,, ("A Course in Mine Surveying")
Krotov, G, A. Chast' II. Dopushcheno Ministerstvem vysshego
obrazovaniya SSSR v kachestve vchebnogo posobiya
dlya gornykh vuzov.
Ugletekhizdat. Moskva, Leningrad, 1949, 259 pp.
19, Shilov, P. I.: Geodeziya (dlya avtodorozhnykh vuzov).
("Geodesy" (for auto road construction) )
Izdatel'stvo geodezicheskoy i kartcgraficheskoy
literatury. Moskva, 1950, 404 pp.
20. yin, Geology: AeroPeolopicheskiye fiaboty. Vypusk VIII.
(Aero Geological Works)
M:inisterstvo Geologii.
Gosudarstvennoye Izd.atei'stvc Geologicheskoy
Literatury. Moskva, 1950, 208 pp.
D. List of Textbooks of "Lower" Geodesy
21. Fadorov, IT. V.: "Geodeziya. "" ("Geodesy")
(Prof.) Dorizdat. Moskva, 1949, 279 pp.
22. Belikov, S,: Furs topografii ili nizshey geodezii.
("A Course in Topography or Lower Geodesy.")
Moskva, 1884.
23. Artamonov, N. D.: Furs nizshey geodezii.
("A Course in Lower Geodesy")
Sanktpeterburg, 1897. Akademii Nauk.
24. Ikonnikov, A.: Elementarnaya geodeziya.
("Elementary Geodesy"
Amerikanskoye izdatel'stvo. Berlin, 1924.
25. Orlov, P. M.: Kurs Geodezii
("A Course in Geodesy")
Nauchno-tekhnicheskiy Otdei V. S. N. Kh.
os):va, 1924, 191 pp.
26. Motornyy, A. D,: Nyzhcha geodeziya
("Lower Geodesy")
Chastyna 2 - Menzul'ne zdiymannya
Tekhinchno-teoretychne vydavnytstvo
Kharkiv, Kyiv, 1933, 103 pp.
E. Field Instruction Manuals
27. GUGK :
Instruktsiya po Sostavleniyu Kroki Geodezicheskikh
Punktov.
("Instructions for the compilation of sketches of
geodetic points'").
Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii i Kartografii pri
Scvete Ministrov SSFR, Moskva, 1949, 16 pp.
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28. GU^K:
29. GUGK:
"Instruktsiya po Triangulyatsii, II, III i IV
Klassov"
("Instructions for Triangulation of II, III and IV
class.")
Obyazatel'na dlya Vsekh Vedomstv i Uchrezhdeniy SSSR.
Izdatel'stvo Geodezicheskoy i Kartograficheskoy
Literatury GUGK pri SNK SSSR. Moskva, 194-3, 128 pp.
F. Geodetic and Topographic Norms
Yedinyye Normy Vyratotki na Topograficheskiye i
Geodezicheskiye Raboty.
("The Only Norms for the Production of Topographic
and Geodetic Works")
Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii i Kartografil pri
Sovete Ninistrov SSSR.
Izdatel'stvo Geodezicheskoy i Kartograficheskoy
Literatury. Moskva, 1949, 255 pp.
G, "Iron Curtain" Textbooks of Geodesy
30. Grossmann, Walter: Geodaetische R.echnLmgen and Abbildungen in der
Landesvermessung. Buecher der Technik.
("Geodetische Rechnungen and Abbildun n in der
Landesvermesung." Bucher der Technik)
Wissenschaftliche Verlagsanstalt K. G. Hannover
v. Schroeder-Siemau and Co. in Gemeinschaft mit
Wolfenbuetteler Verlagsanstalt G.m.b.H. Wolfenbuettel.
Hannover, 1949, 166 pp.
31. Dimov, L,: Geodeziya (Lektsii).
(Geodeziya (Bulgarian) )
Derzhaven Universitet "Kiril slavyanob"lgarski" - Varna.
Fond "Nauchni izdaniya." No. 91.
Universitetska pechatnitsa. Varna, 1948.
32. Georriyev, Georgi: Geodeziya. Chast II.
(Geodeziya - Chast II)
Cdohreno of ,,iinister tvoto na obshchestvenite sgradi,
p"tishcha i blagoustroystvo s zapoved No. 14924 of
7. XI 1947 g.
Biblioteka na Derzhavnite sredni tekhnicheski uchili-
shcha v Bulgariya. Sofiya, 1948, 212 pp.
33. Rysavy, Josef: Vyssi Geodesie
(Vyssi Geodesie (Czech) )
Ceska Matice Technicka
Na'xladen Ceske Matice Technic}.e s Podprou Ministerstva
Skolstvs. a Osvety
V Komisi Knihkupectvi Fr. Rivnaee v Fraze, V Praze
1947, 522 pp.
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34. Rysavy, Josef: Nizsi geodesie. (in Czech)
(Vyssi Geodecie (Czech) )
Ceska matice technicka.
Rocnik Liv (1949).
Nakladen Ceske Matice Technicke s podporou Vinisterstva
C kolstvi, Veda Umeni. V Praze, 1949.
35. Venedikov, M.: Geodeziya. II chaste.
(Geodeziya - Chast II)(Bulparian)
Univeritetska literatura.
D"rzhavno izdatel'srvo "Nauka i izkustvo."
Sofiya, 1950.
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