PERCEPTUAL AUGMENTATION TECHNIQUES. PROGRESS REPORT NO. 2

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• Document Creation Date: November 4, 2016
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• Publication Date: April 24, 1974
• Content Type: REPORT

24 April 1974
Progress Report No. 2
Covering the Period 1 March to 1 April 1974
Stanford Research Institute Project 3183
PERCEPTUAL AUGMENTATION TECHNIQUES
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1. Remote Viewing
(a) Local Targets
A. Applied Research
An experiment is continuing in which ten sites known to
the subject are being visited in random sequence, with replacement, by a
target demarcation team. A comparison is to be made as to hit accuracy
under conditions of (1) identifying the site by name and, (2) identifying
the site by photographs.
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The purpose of the program is to determine the characteristics of
those perceptual modalities through which individuals obtain information
about their environment, wherein such information is not presented to
any known sense.
The program is divided into two categories of investigation of
approximately equal effort, applied research and basic research. The
purpose of the applied research effort is to explore experimentally
the potential for applications of perceptual abilities of interest,
with special attention given to accuracy and reliability. The purpose
of the basic research effort is to identify the characteristics of
individuals possessing such abilities, and to identify neurophysiological
correlates and basic mechanisms involved in such functioning.
II PROGRESS DURING THE REPORTING PERIOD
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(b) Remote Targets
In conjunction with a vacation trip by one of the
experimenters (H.P.) to Costa Rica, a week of remote target viewing will
be carried out at 1330 local time (1430 Costa Rica time). Pictures of
the target locations are to be taken. Upon return and development of
the pictures, the subject will be asked to match target pictures with
narratives, as will the experimenter, both in blind fashion.
2. Detection of Variable Density Target Material
An initial experiment with twenty-seven sponsor drawings of
variable content and density was completed. The goal was the dif L ren-
tiation of twelve low-density cards, six pencil, and nine blank cards.
The numbered envelopes containing the target material, sealed and
specially secured by the sponsor, were randomized before each trial and
placed inside non-numbered opaque envelopes before being presented to
the subject for sorting.
Two series were carried out. The first consisted of 24 runs
through the 27 cards, choosing 12 cards each run, the goal being to
choose the 12 low-density cards. Out of the 12 x 24 = 288 choices, the
expected number of target cards by chance was 128, the observed number
chosen, 133. The second series consisted of 18 runs through the 27 cards,
choosing 6 cards each run, the goal being to choose the 6 pencil cards.
Out of the 6 x 18 = 108 choices, the expected number of target cards by
chance was 24, the observed number chosen, 19. Thus, the overall result
given the task did not differ significantly from chance.
However, when we examine the ranking of cards by number of
times chosen, we observe a significant skew in the distribution.
Independent of the assigned task, in the 24-run series of 12 choices
each, the expected number of times a given card is chosen is 11.
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 In the 18 run series of 6 choices each, the expected number of times a
given card is chosen is 4. In the two series, of the 17 cards chosen
more often than expected by chance, the expected number of low density
cards is 7.5, the observed number 13, a result significant at the
p = 2 x 10-3 level. Thus, in the overall distribution certain of the
low-density cards were chosen often enough to yield a significant result
in the ranking distribution.
It is considered that the initial experiment was unnecessarily
complex, there being a mixture of target sizes (2), symbols (3), and ink
techniques (3). New experiments are to be carried out to clarify
whether a usable talent exists in this area.
B. Basic Research
1. Testing Program
(a)'Psychological Testing
Arrangements have been made with Dr. Donald Lim of the
Palo Alto Veteran's Administration Hospital for the administration of
the Halstead-Reitan neuropsychology test battery. Dr. Lim is experienced
in the administration of the battery and has personally consulted with
Dr. Reitan on testing procedures and interpretation.
In connection with testing hypotheses associated with
hemispheric specialization of the brain, Dr. Robert. Ornstein of the
Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute, University of California,
San Francisco, has agreed to administer tests appropriate to testing
hemispheric predisposition.
(b) Medical Testing
The physical characteristics part of the program will be
administered by the Environmental Medicine facility of the Palo Alto
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Medical Clinic. The basic physical includes urinalysis, bloodwork
(hemoglobin, STS, CBC, blood pressure pulse), hearing tests (frequency
and intensity), eye tests (depth perception, color vision, far and near
vision, peripheral vision), pulmonary function test, EKG, tonometry,
height, weight, and a physical examination. A consultation appointment
has been set up to explore further testing for special areas beyond the
basic physical.
2. Measurement Program
(a) EEG Ex ep riment
A variety of evidence from clinical and neurosurgical
sources indicates that the two hemispheres of the human brain are
specialized for different cognitive functions. The left hemisphere is
predominantly involved in verbal and other analytic functioning, the
right in spatial and other holistic processing. (See Appendix.)1
In consultation with Dr. Robert Ornstein of the Langley
Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute, an hypothesis was formed based on
certain observed characteristics that paranormal functioning might
involve right hemispheric specialization. To test this hypothesis, the
EEG remote strobeflash experiment described in Report No. 1 was repeated
hree times with monitoring of right and left occipital regions. Each
experiment consisted of 20 15-second trials, 10 no-flash trials, and 10
16 Hz trials randomly intermixed. Reduction of alpha activity (arousal
response) correlated with remote stimuli was observed as in previous
experiments, but essentially only in the right hemisphere (average
I alpha reduction 16 percent in right hemisphere, 2 percent in left,
during the 16 Hz trials as compared with the no-flash trials). Such
esults indicate initial support for the hypothesis of right hemispheric
specialization, and therefore further investigation of right hemisphere
specialization seems indicated.
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(b) Physical Measurements
A meeting was held with Mr. Stacy Luke of the client's
organization in which it was agreed that an experiment shall be carried
out utilizing the client's Josephson junction gradiometer. Alternate
SRI locations were examined and a suitable one chosen. The purpose of
the experiment is (1) to determine whether magnetic field gradients can
be established on command by the subject, and, if so, (2) to investigate
such effects under conditions of viewing the probe from remote locations,
and, if the latter is positive, to examine the effect as a function of 1, v`'
subject-probe distance.
multiplier and geiger counter. The other is a mechanical force indicator
remote probes. One is a radiation probe box which includes a photo-
consisting of a torsion pendulum suspended on a metal fiber, enclosed in
a bell jar, and monitored by a laser beam ref lected from a mirror on the
pendulum to a beam-position detector. Baseline data are being taken for
Reference 1: "Hemispheric Specialization and the Duality of Consciousness, it
David Galin, M.D. and Robert E. Ornstein, Ph.D., in press in:
Widroe, Harvey, M.D., ed. Human Behavior and Brain Function,
Springfield. Tl l i nni a _ 1973 _
Published by Charles 0 Thomas
,
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APPENDIX
Hemispheric Specialization and the
Duality of Consciousness
David Galin, M.D. and Robert E. Ornstein, Ph.D.
Institute for the Study of Human Consciousness
Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute
University of California, San Francisco
in press in:
Widroe, Harvey, M.D., ed. Human Behavior and Brain Function
published by
Charles C Thomas
Springfield, Illinois
1973
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Hemispheric Specialization and the
Duality of Consciousness
David Galin, M.D., and Robert E. Ornstein, Ph.D.
Institute for the Study of Human Consciousness
Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute
University of California, San Francisco
CPYRGHT
A variety of evidence from clinical and neurosurgical sources
indicates that the two hemispheres of the human brain are specialized for
different cognitive functions. This evidence has been confirmed in studies
of normal subjects. The left hemisphere is predominantly Involved in
verbal and other analytic functions, the right in spatial and other
holistic processing.
The two hemispheres have been surgically separated for the treatment
of certain cases of epilepsy; after the operation, it has been found that
each hemisphere is conscious, and can carry out complex cognitive processes
of the type for which it is specialized. In short, there appear to be two
separate, conscious minds in one head. The study of how these two half-
brains cooperate or interfere with each other in normal, intact people has
just begun. We believe that this work has Important implications for
psychiatric theory and practice, and education, as well as for clinical
neurology.
In our laboratory at Langley Porter we have been studying this
lateralization of function with EEG techniques. With the method which we
have developed we can distinguish between these two cognitive modes as they
occur in normal subjects, using simple scalp recordings.
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We will review some of the experiments and clinical observations on
this duality in human nature, and mention some of the opportunities for
future research that seem to us most promising.
1. Specialization of the two Hemispheres - "Split-Brain" studies:
The asymmetrical localization of cognitive function has long been
established. Language was ascribed to the left hemisphere by Dax in 1836
(Benton & Joynt, 1960). Since then clinical work with brain damaged
patients has continued to differentiate the cognitive functions of the
hemispheres (Semmes et al., 1955, Milner, 1965a, Luria, 1966, Corkin,
1965). For example right temporal lobectomy produces a severe impairment on
visual and tactile mazes. In contrast left temporal lobectomy of equal
extent produces little deficit on these tasks but impairs verbal memory
(Milner, 1965a, Corkin, 1965). In general, clinical work has found verbal
and arithmetical functions (analytic, linear) depend on the left hemisplere
while spatial relationships (holistic, gestalt) are the special province of
the right hemisphere. Sperry, Gazzaniga, Bogen and their associates (1969,
Levy, 1970, Bogen, 1969) have had a unique opportunity to study the
specialization of the two halves of the brain isolated from each other.
They worked with patients who had undergone surgical section of the corpus
callosum for the treatment of epilepsy. These "split brain" patients were
tested with special apparatus to insure that the task was presented to only
one hemisphere at a time. Sperry, Gazzaniga and Bogen have been able to
establish that each hemisphere can function independently and Is
independently conscious. Learning and memory are found to continue
separately in each hemisphere. The right hand literally does not know what
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the left hand is doing. Both halves independently sense, perceive
and conceptualize. Unilateral associations between tactual, visual
and auditory sensations remain. In these patients, the left
hemisphere is capable of speech, writing and mathematical calculation,
and Is severely limited in problems involving spatial relations. The
right hemisphere has use of only a few words,and can perform simple
addition only up to ten, but can perform tasks involving spatial
relationships and music patterns.
It is Important to emphasize that what most characterizes the
hemispheres is not that they are specialized to work with different types
of material, (the left with words and the right with spatial forms);
rather each hemisphere is specialized for a different cognitive style; the
left for an analytic, logical mode for which words are an excellent
tool, and the right for a holistic, gestalt mode, which happens to be
particularly suitable for spatial relations, and music. The difference
in cognitive style is explicitly described in a recent paper by
Levy, Trevarthen, and Sperry, 1972
"Recent commissurotomy studies have shown that the two disconnected
hemispheres, working on the same task, may process the same sensory
Information In distinctly different ways, and that the two modes of
mental operation involving spatial synthesis for the right and
temporal analysis for the left, show indications of mutual antagonism
(Levy, 1970). The propensity of the language hemisphere to note
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analytical details in a way that facilitates their description in
language seems to interfere with the perception of an over-all
Gestalt, leaving the left hemisphere 'unable to see the wood for the
trees.' This interference effect suggested a rationale for the
evolution of lateral specialization..." (Levy, et al., 1972) (See also
Nebes, 1971, Semmes, 1968).
Sperry and his collaborators have found that "in general, the post-
operative behavior of (the commissurotomy patients) has been dominated by
the major (left) hemisphere..." except in tasks for which the right
hemisphere is particularly specialized. (Levy, et al., 1972).
To understand the method of testing and interviewing each half of the
brain separately, two points of functional anatomy must be kept in mind.
The first is that since language functions (speech, writing) are mediated
predominantly by the left hemisphere in most people, the disconnected right
hemisphere cannot express itself verbally. The second point is that the
neural pathways carrying information from one side of the body and one-half
of the visual field cross over and connect only with the opposite side of
the brain. This means that sensations in the right hand and images in the
right visual space will be projected almost entirely to the left
hemisphere. Similarly, the major motor output is crossed, and the left
hemisphere mainly controls the movements of the right hand. Therefore,
patients with the corpus callosum sectioned can describe or answer
questions about objects placed in their right hands, or pictures flashed to
the right visual field with a tachistoscope, but can give no correct verbal
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CPYRGHT
response when the information is presented to the left hand or the left
visual field (they will in fact, often confabulate). The mute right
hemisphere can, however, indicate its experience with the left hand, for
example, by selecting the proper object from an array.
2. Dissociation of Experience:
The dissociation between the experiences of the two disconnected
hemispheres Is sometimes very dramatic. A film made by Sperry and his
colleagues shows two Illustrative Incidents.
The film shows a young female patient being tested with a
tachistoscope as described above. In the series of neutral geometrical
figures being presented at random to the right and left fields, a nude pin-
up was included and flashed to the right (nonverbal) hemisphere. The girl
blushed and giggled. Sperry asked "What did you see?" She answered
"Nothing, just a flash of light," and giggled again, covering her mouth
with her hand. "Why are you laughing then?" asks Sperry, and she laughs
again and says., "Oh, Dr. Sperry, you have some machine"' The episode is
very dramatic, and If one did not know her neurosurgical history one might.
have seen this as a clear example of perceptual defense: one might infer
that she was repressing the perception of the conflictful sexual material--
even her final response (a socially acceptable nonsequitur) was convincing
(see also Sperry, Am. Psychol, 1968, 23:723-33, esp. P. 732).
In another section of the film a different patient is performing a
block design task; he is trying to match a colored geometric design with a
set of painted blocks. The film shows the left hand (right hemisphere)
quickly carrying out the task. Then the experimenter disarranges the
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blocks and the right hand (left hemisphere) is given the task; slowly and
with great apparent indecision It arranges the pieces. In trying to match
a corner of the design the right hand corrects one of the blocks, and then
shifts it again, apparently not realizing it was correct: the viewer sees
the left hand dart out, grab the block to restore it to the correct
position--and then the arm of the experimenter reaches over and pulls the
Intruding left hand off-camera.
3. Psychiatric Implications:
There is a compelling formal similarity between these dissociation
phenomena seen in the commissurotomy patients and the phenomena of
repression; according to Freud's early "topographical" model of the mind,
repressed mental contents functioned in a separate realm, which was..,
inaccessible to conscious recall or verbal interrogation, functioning
according to Its own rules, developing and pursuing its own goals,
affecting the viscera and insinuating itself in the stream of ongoing
consciously directed behavior:
This parallel suggests that we examine. the hypothesis that In normal,
intact people mental events in the right hemisphere can become disconnected
functionally from the left hemisphere (by inhibition of neuronal
transmission across the corpus callosum and other cerebral commissures),
and can continue a life of their own. This hypothesis suggests a
neurophysiological mechanism for at least some cases of repression, and an
anatomical locus for the unconscious mental contents.
What are the circumstances under which such a dissociation could take
place? There are several ways in which the two hemispheres of an ordinary
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CPYRGHT
person could begin to function as if they had been surgically disconnected,
and' cease exchanging information. The first way is by active inhibition of
information transfer because of conflict. Imagine the effect on a child
when his mother presents one message verbally, but quite another with her
facial expression and body language; "1 am doing it because i love you,
dear", say the words, but "I hate you and will destroy you" says the face.
Each hemisphere is exposed to the same sensory input, but because of the~i
relative specializations, they each emphasize only one of the messages.
The left will attend to the verbal cues because it cannot extract
information from the facial gestalt efficiently; the right will attend
preferentially to the non-verbal cues because it cannot easily understand
the words (Levy et al., 1972). Effectively a different input has been
delivered to each hemisphere, just as In the laboratory experiments in
which a tachistoscope is used to present different pictures to the left and
right visual fields. We offer the following conjecture: In this situation
the two hemispheres might decide on opposite courses of action; the left to
approach, and the'right to flee. Because of the high stakes involved each
hemisphere might be able to maintain its consciousness and resist the
inhibitory influence of the other side. The left hemisphere seems to wit)
control of the output channels most of the time (Sperry, 1968), but if the
left is not able to "turn off" the right completely it may settle for
disconnecting the transfer of the conflicting information from the other
side. The connections between hemispheres are relatively weak compared to
the connections within hemispheres(Bogen 1969) and it seems likely that
each hemisphere treats the weak contralateral input in the same way in
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CPYRGHT
which people in general treat the odd discrepant observation which does not
fit with the mass of their beliefs; first we ignore it, and then if it is
insistent, we actively avoid it (Stent, 1972).
The mental process in the right hemisphere, cut off in this way from
the left hemisphere consciousness which is directing overt behavior, may
nevertheless continue a life of its own. The memory of the situation, the
emotional-concommitants, and the frustrated plan of action all may persist,
affecting subsequent perception-and forming the basis for expectations and
evaluations of future input.
But active inhibition arising from, conflicting goals is not the only
way to account for a lack of communication between the two hemispheres, and
a consequent divergence of consciousness. In the simplest case, because
of their special. modes of organization and special areas of competence, the
knowledge which one hemisphere possesses may not translate well into the
language of the other. For example, the experience of attending a symphony
concert is not readily expressed in words, and the concept "Democracy
requires informed participation" is hard to convey in images. What may be
transmitted in.such cases may be the conclusion as to action, and not the
details on which the evaluation was based. It is possible to convey some
of the richness of the holistic consciousness in words, but it requires a
great artist.
4. Neo-Phrenology'
It is not clear to what extent specific cognitive performances can be
said to depend on specific areas of the cerebrum, beyond the gross,
distinction between left and right hemispheres. Without going too far in
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the direction of assigning "centers". to each mental quality in the manner
of the phrenologists, there seems to be some evidence for within-hemisphere
localization. For example, Milner (1965b) has correlated disorders in
specific kind* of language processing with lesions in. specific areas of the
left hemisphere; verbal memory deficits with anterior temporal lesions,
speech deficits with posterior temporal lesions, fluency deficits with
frontal lesions and reading deficits with lesions in the region of the
parieto-occipital junction.
The difficulties inherent in "localizing" complex functions are
exemplified in the conflicting literature on the lateralization of
arithmetic calculation. Luria finds "primary acalculla" or primary
arithmetical disturbances with lesions of the left infero-parietal lobe
(Luria, 1966), but Kinsbourne finds no systematic lateralization for
arithmetic (1972).
The problem is. complex, according to Critchley (1953) because
calculation may entail more than one type of mentation and different people
seem to employ different methods. Lesions in different areas would be
expected to produce dyscalculia insofar as a person depended on the use of
specific visual symbols or notation, or on rote memory (e.g. multiplication
tables) or on an ideokinetic factor based on concrete manipulation such as
counting on fingers. The horizontal and vertical arrangement of numbers to
represent units, tens, hundreds, etc., depends on spatial and
constructional factors. Vivid imagery for numerical forms and sequences
may be important to some people (Humphrey and Zangwill, 1952). Critchley
concludes., "Nonetheless, there are certain 'vulnerable' regions of the
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brain, wherein a lesion is more apt to be followed by a severe dyscalculla
bearing certain clinical hallmarks. Thus disease of the dominant left
hemisphere is more often followed by severe disorders of calculation."
(Critchley, 1953)
5. Evidence for Lateral Specialization in Normal People:
Some caution should be exercised in making the inference of lateral
specialization of cognitive function In normal people from lesion studies
alone. One might consider whether the 'split' functions are due in some
part to.the radical surgery, or to the other disturbances in these
patients. The study of neurological disorders or surgical preparations
cast light on normal functioning, but the most important'and most practical
question is whether the normal brain, engaged in everyday activities is
organized around lateralization of cognitive function.
Recent research with normal subjects provides support for the
inference that the intact brain does In fact make use of lateral
specialization. With normal subjects, Filbey and Gazzaniga have measured
the time required for information presented to one hemisphere to be acted
upon by the other. A verbal reaction to information presented to the non-
verbal right hemisphere took longer than a non-verbal response. (Filbey
and Gazzaniga, 1969). McKeever found faster tachistoscopic word
recognition for words projected to the left hemisphere than to the right
(McKeever and Hulling. .1970). In dichotic listening, tasks, normal subjects
have better recall for verbal material presented to the right than to the
left ear and better recall for melodies presented to the left. (Kimura,
1961).
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CPYRGHT
Other laboratories have used electrophysiological techniques such as
evoked potentials and DC potentials. Buchsbaum recorded averaged visual
evoked potentials from the left and right occipital areas in response to
words and geometric stimuli (Buchsbaum and Fedio, 1969). The responses to
these two classes of stimuli were the same In the right hemisphere, but
different in the left hemisphere. Wood et al.(1971) found similar results
with. auditory stimuli; subjects listened to verbal stimuli under two
conditions; to process them for speech cues (stop consonants) and for non-
speech cues (pitch). The evoked responses were the same in the right
hemisphere, but different In the left hemisphere.
Morrell and Salamy (1971) reported that evoked potentials to speech
sounds were larger in the left hemisphere leads than in the right, and
Vella et al. (1972) reported that responses to complex visual forms were
larger in the right. McAdam and Whitaker recorded DC potentials over the
left and right.fronto-temporal areas. Just before subjects spoke, a
negative shift appeared, more pronounced on the left than on the right.
shift was seen preceding non-verbal vocal tract activities (voluntary
coughing, spitting) (McAdam and Whitaker, 1971).
In the past three years we have applied EEG methods to the study of
this lateral specialization in normal people. By studying EEG asymmetry we
were, able to distinguish the two cognitive modes as they occur in normal
subjects using simple scalp recording (Galin and Ornstein, 1972). In
brief, we examined the EEGs of subjects performing verbal and spatial tasks
to determine whether there were differences In activity between the
appropriate and inappropriate hemispheres. We recorded from the temporal
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and parietal areas since clinico-anatomical evidence indicates that these
areas should be differently engaged in these tasks. We found thot during
verbal tasks the integrated whole-band power in the left hemisphere is less
than that in the right, and during spatial tasks the Integrated power in
the right hemisphere is less than in the left. Most of the task-dependent
asymmetry appeared to be in the alpha band. Our method of analyzing the
ratios of right to left EEG power was adopted by McKee, Humphrey and McAdam
(1973) in a study contrasting musical and verbal processing. They confirm
our general finding that the ratio is higher in the verbal tasks compared
to the non-verbal task.
Table 1 summarizes some of the results from two of our experiments.
The average alpha ratios (right/left) were computed for temporal, parietal,
and central recordings during verbal and spatial tasks intended to engage
-primarily the left or the right hemisphere. Spatial tasks included building
geometric designs from memory with blocks, mirror drawing and a mental Form
Board task. Verbal tasks included composing a letter mentally and in
writing, and memorizing and writing the main facts from a text passage. The
task pairs which were selected differ in their requirement for motor
output, and for memory. The attention-to-breathing task was.included as a
"neutral" non-cognitive condition. (For further details of the methods and
results of Experiment I, see Galin and Ornstein, 1972, Doyle, Ornstein and
Galin, 1973).
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TABLE I Inter- and Intra-hemispheric Specialization for Cognitive Mode:
Differences between Electrode Locations - Alpha ratios*
Experiment I
Motor tasks
Mental tasks
"Non-cognitive"
Written
Form
Mental
Attention
N-10
Blocks
Letter
p
Board
Letter
p
to-Breath
P4/P3
0.97
1.09
.01
0.81
0.98
ns
0.94
T4/T3
0.68
1.06
01
0.79
1.06
.05
0.87
Experiment II
Memory tasks Non-memory tasks "Non-cognitive"
Write
from
Mirror
Text
Attention
P1-35
Blocks
Memory
p
Drawing
Copying
p
to-Breath
P4/P3
0.99
1.19
.0003
1.01
1.07
.04
1.20
T4/T3
0.77
1.12
.00003
0.75
0.94
.0004
0.88
G4/C3
0.79
1.17
.0003
0.83
1.03
.0006'
0.97
* Geometric means over all subjects of EEG power ratios (right./left)
Significance of differences tested by Wilcoxon Matched-Pair Signed-Ranks Test,
all P values two-tailed, ns = .05.
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Fig. 1 shows a,sample from the EEG from one subject during the Blocks
and Written Letter tasks. Fig. 2 shows the results of frequency spectrum
analysts of the EEG from which Fig. 1 was taken.
---------------------------------
Insert Figures 1 and 2 about here
The second experiment confirms the main effect found in the first;.
higher ratios are found during verbal tasks than during spatial tasks. All
three lead pairs show the task-dependent asymmetry in both comparisons
(Blocks vs. Write-from-Memory, and Text Copying vs. Mirror Drawing).
There are systematic differences between the leads. The parietal
leads, In all comparisons, in both experiments, exhibit the least task-
dependent asymmetry, i.e. the difference in alpha ratio on the verbal task
and the spatial task is smaller on the parietal leads than on the temporal
and central leads. The temporal and central leads appear to behave
similarly In this respect.
The Attention-to-Breath task most closely approximates the conditions
under which clinical EEGs are recorded; i.e. little information processing,
passive, unstructured. Clinical EEG texts generally state that alpha
amplitude is normally higher on the right than the left. We find this to
be so for the parietal leads, but consistently reversed for the temporal
leads. Table II shows the results from the Breathing task of Experiment
11. Most subjects have predominant right parietal alpha and predominant
left temporal alpha. The central leads show an equal distribution. This
reversal between parietal and temporal alpha predominance can also be seen
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during the active cognitive tasks. (Table 1, all tasks except Mental
Letter)
TABLE 11
Differences between electrode locations in "resting" alpha asymmetry
Parietal
Temporal
Central
Higher Right Alpha
27
9
16
Higher Left Alpha
6
24
15
The functional significance of this reversal of asymmetry is not yet
clear, but it precludes classifying a person simply as "right dominant" or
"left dominant"; intrahemispheric specialization must be taken into
account.
Previous investigators have sought to relate electrophysiological
recordings to cognitive functions. A major effort has been devoted to
relating the EEG to "intelligence" (see review by Vogel, et al., 1968).
Our approach to this problem takes into account three factors which seem to
have been neglected in the past:
1. Recording while the subject is engaged in a task, rather than
trying to relate a "resting" EEG or averaged evoked potential to subsequent
performance.
2. Selection of cognitive tasks which clinical evidence has shown to
depend more on one hemisphere than the other, and which therefore should be
associated with a predictable distribution of brain activity.
3. Selection of electrode placements on clinico-anatomical grounds. A
wealth of evidence suggests that temporal and parietal leads should be the
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most functionally asymmetrical, and occipital leads the most similar.
Unfortunately, occipital leads have been used most often in the past,
probably because they are not as sensitive to eye movement and muscle
artifacts. Usually recordings have been made only unilaterally.
Now that we have established a method for determining lateralization
of cognitive function in normal Ss, several major areas of concern can be
studied: the generality of lateral specialization of cognitive function In
the population, the role of lateral specialization in critical academic
skills, the effect of social drugs on hemispheric interaction, and the
possibility of training voluntary control over patterns of lateral
asymmetry using the feedback EEG.
6. Lateralization in Left Handed and. Ambidexterous People:
I
The lateralization of cognitive functions described above is
characteristic of right handed people. The cerebral lateralizatlon of left
handed people is more complex. Hecaen
(1964,1971) has provided an
extensive review of the neurological literature and a summary of his own
clinical studies, and concluded that left handers show a greater cerebral
ambi-laterality, not only for language, but also for gnosic and praxic
functions. Hecaen distinguishes between left handedness which is familial
and that which follows a perinatal injury to the left hemisphere. The
familial type may or may not have reversed language lateralization.
These conclusions were generally confirmed by Satz et al. (1967)
study of a neurologically normal population. They used the dichotic
listening test to assess language lateralization and carefully tested
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page 17
manual superiority rather than relying on the subjects' self-classification
as to handedness.
Following the hypothesis of Orton that stuttering and dyslexia can be
due to poorly established cerebral specialization, many studies have found
high incidences of left handers and ambidexterous people among these
clinical groups. Hecaen (1964) concludes that while no convincing direct
relation has been demonstrated, "disorders of laterality can play a part in
a certain number of these cases."
The nature of these "disorders of laterality" is not clear. To our
knowledge there have been no attempts to quantitatively evaluate the
interaction between the verbal-analytic and spatial-holistic cognitive
systems to normal daily activities. Our opinion is that in many ordinary,
activities normal people simply alternate between cognitive modes rather
then integrating them. These modes compliment each other but do not
readily substitute for each other. Although it is possible to process
complex spatial relationships in words, it would seem much more efficient
to use visual-kinesthetic images. For example, consider what most people
do when asked to describe a spiral staircase; they begin using words, but
quickly fall back on gesturing with a finger.
Processing in the inappropriate cognitive system may not only be
inefficient; it may actually interfere with processing in the appropriate
system. This 'interference hypothesis' Is supported by a study of left-
handed subjects who were presumed to have bilateral language representation
(Levy, 1969). Levy compared left-handed and right-handed subjects with
equal WAIS verbal scores and found that the left handers had significantly
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lower performance scores, which she attributed to interference from the
presumed-ambilaterality of language. Her observation has been confirmed by
Miller (1971). Similarly, in a group of patients In whom right-hemisphere
language was demonstrated with carotid amytal, Lansdell(1969.) found a
negative correlation between language ability and spatial performance
scores. Brooks (1970) presents additional support for the hypothesis of
"interhemispheric interference". Reading a description of spatial
relations interferes with the subsequent manipulation of those spatial
relations. DenHyer and Barrett (1971) demonstrated selective loss of
spatial and verbal information In short. term memory by means of spatial and
verbal Interpolated tasks. Levy has in fact suggested that verbal and non-
verbal functions evolved in opposite hemispheres to reduce interference of
one system with the. other (Levy, 1969).
This evidence of interference between the right and left cognitive
modes provides a new kind of support for the hypothesis of Orton, that lack
of cerebral lateral specialization plays a major role in dyslexia and
stuttering. This hypothesis has continued to sustain interest, in spite of
a lack of convincing.direct evidence. Until recently, the only generally
available index of cerebral lateralization was handedness, and people with
little hand preference, or left handers who were "switched" or those with
mixed hand and eye preference were considered to be "high risk". The
incidence of such people in clinical categories such as stuttering,
dyslexia, and specific learning disability is usually found to be higher
than in the normal population.
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Our EEG method for studying lateralizatlon of cognitive function,,
along with the dichotic. listening test, can provide a much more. direct and
presumably more sensitive means for investigating disorders of laterality
than measures based on hand, eye, or foot dominance. Our present proposal
to extend our measures to left handed and ambidexterous populations will
lay the groundwork for these clinical studies.
7. Biofeedback Training for Voluntary Control of EEG Asymmetry:
our research has demonstrated characteristic patterns of activity and
inactivity for both the verbal and the spatial cognitive modes. It is
reasonable to suppose that more selective inhibition and facilitation of
each hemisphere can improve performance. It has been shown in many
laboratories that, when subjects are given exteroceptive feedback on the
state of a physiological variable, they can learn control of the variable,
e.g. EEG alpha, heart rate, EMG (Nowlis and Kamiya, 1970; Budzynski,
Stoyva and Adler, 1970; Hnatiow and Lang, 1965). For example, O'Malley and
Conners (1972) have reported a pilot case of a dyslexic boy who was given
lateralized alpha feedback training, and showed significant changes in EEG
asymmetry. Therefore, with the aid of feedback from our-
electrophysiological index of cognitive mode, subjects may be able to learn
to. reduce the interference between hemispheres, and thereby improve
cognitive performance.
8. Implications for Education:
Our EEG and eye movement studies (Kocel et al., 1972; Galin & Ornstein,
1973) provide potential methods of assessing an individual's preferred
cognitive mode. An individual's preferred cognitive style may facilitate
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his learning of one type of subject matter, e.g., spatial, relational., and
hamper the learning of another type, e.g., verbal analytical. A student's
difficulty with one part of a curriculum may arise from his inability to
change to the cognitive mode appropriate to the work he is doing.
Studies by Cohen (1969), Marsh et al. (1970), and by Bogen eat al.
(1972), have indicated that subcultures within the United States are
characterized by a. predominant cognitive mode: the middle class is likely
to use the verbal-analytic mode; the urban poor is more likely to use the
spatial-holistic mode. This results in a cultural conflict of cognitive
style.and may in part explain the difficulties of the urban poor children
in the school system oriented toward the middle class. There seems to be a
new recognition among educators of the importance of both modes of
experiencing the world (J. Bruner,. On Knowin ; Essays for the Left Hand,
1965). Many new programs (e.g., Sesame Street) emphasize helping verbal-
analytically oriented children to develop holistic mode skills as well as.
helping holistically-oriented children to make use of the traditional
verbal-analytic materials. If our project is successful, it.may make it
feasible to train an individual child to enter both cognitive modes
appropriately. With EEG feedback an individual may be able to learn to
sustain a pattern of brain activity and the concommitant cognitive mode
which is appropriate to reading and arithmetic on the one*hand and painting
and construction on the other.
Our approach may also be of use in the study of cognitive development.
Since brain injuries before the age of 12 rarely result in permanent
aphasia, it is reasonable to suppose that the lateralization of cognitive
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function is still in flux In young children after the acquisition of speech
and even after the acquisition of written language. The maturation of the
child's-cognitive* power may be paralleled by, and perhaps even depend upon,
Increasing lateral specialization with a resulting decrease In interference
between cognitive systems. nur EEG measures of cognitive functioning could
be powerful tools for mapping the course of this growth.. These measures
could be used in diagnosing aberrations in cognitive development. For
example, certain forms of dyslexia may be caused by interhemispheric
interference. Perhaps "feedback".training to improve selective inhibition
of the Inappropriate cognitive mode would prove useful in therapy.
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Figure Legends
Figure 1. Change in EEG asymmetry during the Blocks and Written Letter
Tasks: P3 - left parietal, P4 - right .parleta1, T3 - left
temporal, T4 -right temporal. The ratio of power In homolo-
gous. leads T4/T3 and P4/P3 is greater on the spatial task
than on the verbal task.
"Reprinted from Galin and Ornstein, 1972."
Figure 2. Sample Fourier power spectra for Blocks and Written Letter
tasks. For each lead EEG power is plotted versus frequency
in.1 Hz intervals from 1-29 Hz; the last point on each plot
is an average for frequencies 30-64 Hz. The ordinate is
scaled in arbitrary units in which a 10 Hz sine wave of 60
microvolts p-p corresponds to 80,000 units. The ratio of
alpha-band power from homologous leads T4/T3 and P4/P3 is
greater on the Blocks task than on the Written Letter task.
These spectra correspond to the sample EEG tracings shown
in Figure 1.
"Reprinted from Doyle, Ornstein and Galin, 1973."
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