THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CHE-LI AREA OF SOUTHERN YUNNAN

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79-01009A000900040003-6
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 44
• Document Creation Date: November 16, 2016
• Document Release Date: October 29, 1999
• Sequence Number: 3
• Publication Date: August 1, 1954
• Content Type: IR

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IAL
GEOGRAPHY OF THE CH 'E-IS AREA OF Rmmm YUNNAN
C'IA/RR-GR-65
August 1954
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L)ATE,VA&'f EVIEWER: 372044
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Office or Research and Reports
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A 0900040003-6
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This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws..
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans.
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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Page
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . ? ? . . ? . ? . . . . . . . . 1
A. Orientation . . . . . . . - ? ? . . ? . . ? . . . . ? . ? ? ? 4
1. Historical Relationships of Sibsong Patina . . . . . . . 5
2. Organization of the Tai Autonomous District . . . . . 6
B. Physical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1. The Area in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2. The Site of Ch'e-li . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? 9
3. The Ch'e-li Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1. Ethnic Composition and Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2. Economic Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? 15
3. Religion and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
D. Transportation and Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1. Reds and Trails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2 Telecommunications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
E. Summary of Current Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
endix
Sources and Gaps in Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Photograhs Following Page
Figure 1. The Mekong River, looking south . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 2. The Tai-inhabited basin of Deng-ham . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 3. Rugged mountain country northwest of Ch' a-li . . . . 8
Figure 4. Village of Ch'e-lit looking north . . . . . . a . . 9
IAL
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FoldPale
Figure 5. Looking north across the braided eels or
the Mekong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? . ? . ? . 10
Figure 6. Tai village of Chienghung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 7? The Ch'e-li basin, looking south . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 8. Typical Tai Lu house raised on poles . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 9. Weekly market scene . . . . . . . . . . . ? . . . . . 12
Figure 10. Northward extension or Ch'e-li basin . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 11. The rice basin or Meng-lung . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 12. Akha women returning from market . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 13. The Mekong, probably opposite Chienghung . . . . . . 16
Figure 14. Tai I.u men and women going to market . . . . . . . . 16
24eps
Southern Ytintu-a (13382) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Ch' a-li, China (13405) . . . . . . . ? . . . . . . . . . . . . ? 26
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Mm GEOGRAPHY ar THE GS'E-LI AREA (r swww YUI EAU
Lm- mu
The village of Chia-li in southern Yunnan Province has been important
historically as the capital of a email buffer state called Sibsong Panne,
which existed as an independent principality until the current century.
The present site of Ch'e-11, was selected by the Chinese as a hsien (county)
administrative seat some 40 years ago when Chinese administration was first
extended to the area. About 3 miles south of Ch'e-li is Chienghung, which
continued to be the residence of the hereditary rulers of Sibsong Panna
until the Chinese Comimmist regime. In January 1953 the Chinese Communists
created a so-called Tai Autonomous District, with Ch&e-li designated as the
sent of administration.
The topography of the Ch'e-li area consists of rugged, dissected
mountainous terrain interspersed with small basins used chiefly for grow-
ing rice. Although considerable portions of the uplands are forested?
Large areas have been denuded and their forests have been replaced by
scrub vegetation and grass.
The Tai I.u are the moat important ethnic group of Ch' e-11 and the
surrounding areas. They farm the fertile lowlands, and their villages
dot the basin margins. The Tai In econocry is based upon the cultivation
of rice, supplemented by local village handicraft industries. The vari-
ous mountain tribes who live in the uplands adjacent to the Ch'e-li basin
are shifting agriculturists who burn patches of forest on high mountain
slopes to plant their crops. Markets held every fifth day in larger low-
land villages are attended by Tai In and mountain peoples. Although
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Chinese curry has been introduced during the present century, barter-
ing is still an important means of commodity exchange.
Recent reports indicate that the Chinese Communists have imposed
rigid economic controls by fixing prices on goods that are. sold and by
Nation through appropriation of rice above a fixed quota. The silver
coins favored by the local inhabitants have been requisitioned by-the
Chinese and replaced with standard Chinese Communist paper currency.
The Chinese Coists have encouraged the production of the exportable
commodities of the acres ?- tea, cotton, and camphor.
The Buddhist religion is the predominant faith of the Tat Lu but is
diluted by quantities of primitive spirit worship. A Protestant mission
station was built at Ch'e-li about 40 years ago; most of its success
seemed to be among the Tai Lu social outcasts. In conjunction with the
mission's activities, a leper colony also was established near Ch'e-li.
Education traditionally has been in the hands of the Buddhist clergy,
and may Tai Lu boys spend several years in the village tole, where
they learn to read and write. Tat living in the vicinity of Chinese
administrative centers may speak and understand Chinese.
Health conditions in and near Ch'e?li have been notoriously poor,
with malaria, typhoid, plague, and leprosy common diseases. Conditions
may have improved somewhat since the Chinese Coammmist occupation.
High construction activities of the Chinese Comaranists have
been concentrated upon the road f5ron Ch'e?li north to Ssu meo, the
southern link of a highway that leads eventually to the provincial capi-
tal, $'un-ming. The Ssu mao..-Ch'e-li link is believed to have been
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co Ieted during late 1.953; a westward extension to Ma-lo on the Burm
border is nearing completion. These roads reportedly are little better
than fair-weather.. single-lane routes. Many of the trails and tracks in
the Ch ? e-li area are being cleared and widened. Native paths in mount ln-
cue are=,* particularly those constructed by Alba tribesmen, provide well-
concealed foot trails away from the lowlands.
The Chinese C ist occupation of the predominantly non-ChInese
areas of southern YUmian has wed the traditional political and economic
orientation of this region. As a result of the establishment of so-called
autonomous administrative units ielemmted by native cadres who are thor-
ougW,v in C ist doctrine, political control is believed to be
extensive in all of the basin arms of Sibsong Panne inhabited by Tai Lu.
Additional Chinese Communist objectives include economic integration of
southern man and eventual cultural assimilation of its non-Chinese
peoples. Hill and mountain areas inhabited by hill tribes are less sus-
ceptible to Chinese control than the Tai Lu areas and are less likely to
be influenced by Chinese propaganda.
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Southwestern Ttfrman traditionally has been one of the most physically
isolated and politically independent regions of China. Its terrain pre-
senta a mosaic of highly dissected mountainous country that is difficult
to traverse, with mountains reaching elevations of 6,000 to 8,000 feet
and occasional small elongated river lowlands and intermont ne basins.
In southern bra is an area of approximately 15,000 square miles, known
as Sibsong Panna,* bordered on the west by Burma and on the east and
south by Laos (see Map 13382). Sibsong Pam is a Tat name, literally
meaning 32 valleys or groups of valleys along with their adjoining hill
lands, and has both regional and political implications. In the heart
of Sibsong Panna is the village of Ch'e-li and its adjacent river basin.
The valleys and plains of Sibsong Panna are inhabited by the Tai Lu
people, a Tai-speaking group, ethnically related to the Shan of Burma,
the Thai. of Thailand, and several other Tat groups found in southern
China and northern Indochina. Smaller numbers of mountain--dwelling
tribespeople inhabit the upland areas.
Although the village of Ch'e-11 is the focus of this study,
information on surrounding arcs has been included as pertinent to an
understanding of the historical, sociological, political, and economic
conditions in Ch'e-li. Aerial photographs used in this study were taken
in 1944; all ground shots, with the exception of Figure 14 (1923), were
taken during 1.934-35. Except for possible new constriction in Ch' a-li,
*Various spellings of the term Sibsong Panna are encountered. The
Chinese rendering is Hsi-ehuang-pan-rya. Other renderings include
Sibso , Shlh Shong Baan Nsa, and Bsiphsaawng Panna.
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there have probably been no significant changes within the area, and
the photography is believed to be representative of conditions today.
1. Historical Relationships of Sibsong Panne
As a political entity, the principality of Sibsong ]Panne existed
for many centuries as a nominally Independent buffer state. The tradi-
tional capital of the king of Sibsong Panne was Ch'e-li, and the out-
lying annr or valleys were ruled by subordinate Tai Lu princes. The
relationships of Sibsong Panna to China were similar to those of other
tributary states with non-Chinese populations. Although local adminis-
tration was characteristically left to the native rulers, occasional
tribute was paid to Chinese authorities. During the 19th century, how-
ever, Chinese political, control over Sibsong Panna was extended and
Chinese magistrates replaced Tat Lu princes in areas north and east of
the Mekong River; west of the Mekong the Taal Lu domains remained iso-
lated and independent of Chinese authority. As recently as 1895, there
were discussions between the British an& French concerning the possi-
bilities of establishing Sibsong Pane as a buffer state between their
respective colonial territories of Burma and Indochina.
In muW parts of Sibsong Paanna, much of the 19th century also was
characterized by considerable fighting and general lawlessness caused
by the long and bloody Moslem revolt in YRnnan (1855.1872), a series of
petty disputes and conflicts between various factions of the Tai Lu
nobility over succession to the throne, and Chinese political and economic
expansion. At the turn of the present century, western visitors to
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Sibbsong Parana commented upon the desolation and destruction that char-
acterized much of the area.
Following the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, more
orderly and peaceful conditions replaced the anarchy and lawlessness of
the previous century. By 1941, all of Sibsong Panna had been organized
into Chinese administrative units -- hsien (counties) or preparatory-
hsien. At that time, however, there were only a very small number of
Chinese in Sibsong Panna -- mostly officials, soldiers, and traders.
Despite a superficial Chinese administrative organization, the tribal
chieftains continued to exert considerable autonomy in local affairs.
2. Organization of the Tai Autonomous District
Historic Chinese objectives in Sibsong Panna (and in other areas
with non-Chinese populations) were not basically altered by the Chinese
C ist assumption of power in 1949. These objectives included mili-
tary and political control and eventual assimilation of non-Chinese
peoples into the fabric of Chinese society. To accomplish their goals
in Sibsong Panna, the Comtaunists first organized several so-called
"people's governments" at local village administrative levels. These
served as "models" to the local populace and as training centers for the
indoctrination of native political workers or cadres. Favorable prices`
for locally produced goods, extension of education and medical services,
and several similar measures were used to convince the local inhabitants
of the good intentions of their Chinese "brothers."
By January 1953 the Chinese Communists apparently felt that
sufficient groundwork had been laid to permit organization of a Tai
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Autonomous district, similar to other "autonomous governments" created
in areas inhabited by non-Chinese peoples. Ch'e-11 was designated as
the official capital of the people's government. A person called Chao
Ts'uu-hsin (also known as Chao Thun Sin) was appointed chairman of the
people's government. Reis presumed to be a member of the princely
family of Sibsong Pannna, but the lineage of the royal family is so com-
Alex and confusing that his exact identity is difficult to determine.
Other princes of the ruling family, together with same.of their fol-.
lowers, fled to the Burma border area after the Chinese Communist occu-
pation of Y.Unnan.
.Recently, political control has been extended to local levels of
administration, principally through organization of people's governments
at the Bann, level. Local autonomous units have also been established
for mountain-dwelling tribes. Native cadres have been trained, and former
native officials pith procommunist leanings have been utilized in various
capacities to implement Communist programs.
Considering the length of time that the Chinese Communists have
occupied the area, it is probable that active pro-Cats are present
in all major villages of Sibsong Panna and that political ores have
penetrated into some hill and mountain areas. The presence of strangers
or other unusual events in the lowlands would undoubtedly be reported
rapidly to Chinese Communist security forces. At present, travel in the
hills and mountains might be safer, but eventually Chinese Communists
agents and officials will certainly reach all parts of Sibsong Panna.
Announced goals of the Tai Autonomous Government have included defense
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of the "fatherland" and efforts to "smash sabotage activities." Pre-
sumably these goals have been stressed in the dissemination of political
propaganda to the people.
D. Lbysieal Characteristics
1. The Area in General
The Ch'e-ali area consists largely of hill and mountain country, with
occasional river basins where cultivation of irrigated rice is possible
(Figures 1" and 2). Although the elevation of Ch' a-li and its adjoining
river basin is about 1,850 feet, mountains approximately 20 miles to the
south and west reach heights of slightly over 6,000 feet. The major
river is the Mekong, which trends northwest-southeast through the area,
bisecting Sibsong Panna into eastern and western sections. Along the
course of the Mekong (about 200 to 300 yards wide opposite Ch'e-li),
there are no lowlands of appreciable size, and banks 15 to 25 feet high
rise sharply from the river's edge. Except for occasional interruptions
caused by tributary streams and their basins, slopes are steep and merge
into hills a mile or so from the river.
The vegetation of the Ch'e-li area varies to some extent with align-
ment of the hills. Many of the warmer southern- and western-facing slopes
have been partly cleared of their original forest cover by hill tribes who
practice shifting agriculture (Figures 1-3) . The partly. cleared mountain
fields usually are abandoned after a few years, and the subsequent second
growth is composed of various mixtures of scrub forest, tangled bamboo
brake, and tall grass. During early spring the brush and grasslands are
set afire, making the air thick with smoke and haze (Figure 3). North
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Figure 1. The Mekong River, looking south towards Burma and Laos. Steep
forested hills rise abruptly from the river. In the foreground, patches
of cleared land can be seen on the mountain slopes. Ch'e-li and Chieng-
hung are located on the south side of the prominent; bend of the Mekong.
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Figure 3. Rugged mountain country about 12 miles northwest of Ch'e-li.
Note the large areas in grass and scrub vegetation and the smoke from
fires set by hill tribesmen to clear new forest land. At the lower
right is a small hill-tribe village -- probably Akha or Lobo.
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25X1 C
and east facing slopes are more likely to retain their original cover
of tropical evergreen rain forest,
25X1 C
The climate is monsoonal with approximately 60 inches of rain
awrus.Ily, nearly all of which. falls between May and October. The weather
is dry and cooler from November to April; winter-nights and early morning
hours are often so chilly that local inhabitants wear quilted I jackets
and woolen shawls. During the cooler months, thick mists hide the low-
lands and the Mekong River at =right and sometimes do not disperse till
midmorning,, thus affording affording cover to anyone crossing the river.
A number of wild animals are found in Sibsong Panne. Herds of
elephants graze in Isolated areas, and tigers are fairly coamam. West-
erners in the Ch'e-li area in 1944 reported that large fires were needed
at night to prevent marauding tigers from carrying off their pack ani-
mals. Tigers may also venture into the outskirts of the village. Among
the other large animals native to the area are bears and leopards.
2. The Site of Ch'e-li
The present site of Ch'e-li dates from about 1915, when Chinese
administration was first introduced in Sibsong Panne west of the Mekong.
About 1917s a missionary to Ch'e-li reported that "Chinese officials are
building a new town 3 or It miles up the river from the old one ...."
This is the site of the modern Ch'e-li (Figure 4). In order to differen-
tiate between the two, the old town is referred to in this report as
Chienghung.* The site of Chienghung on the steep banks of the Mekong
h'eli is the Chinese name for this location. The Tai rendition
is either Chienghunig or Chiengrung. Early British reports used the name
Kiang Hung or Kenghung. Chinese sources are not consistent' in the use
of Oh'e-li; occasionally Chiang-hung or Ching-hung will be given as an
alternate.
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Figure 4+ Village of Ch'e-.Li_, looking north. At the right is the road
from Ssu-mao. Note the Chinese court and moat. This photograph should
be compared , iith Map 1.3405. Approximate scale 1:10,000.
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(Figures 5 and 6) and the obvious difficulty of constructing roads to
the site undoubtedly influenced Chinese selection of a new location
for their administrative offices. In contrast, land in the immediate
vicinity of Ch'e-li is comparatively level, and the crossing of the
Mekong from the east is not difficult. The site chosen was that of an
older city, long since destroyed. Today only portions of a moat remain
to identify the bounds of the ancient city. From the air, Ch'e-li and
Chienghung can easily be pinpointed by the prominent bend of the Mekong
and its large sand spits (Figures 1, 2, and 5).
Except for its somewhat larger size, Chienghung is much like other
Tai Lu villages in this area. According to the 1944 photography, it
has about 100 huts of thatch-and-bamboo construction. Several larger
structures can be identified as Buddhist temples or "palaces" of the
king of Sibsong Panna. An observer visiting Chienghung in 1944 com-
mented that the royal residence was a large, burn-like structure --
somewhat weatherbeaten -- supported by 7 rows of 16 wooden columns.
The most noticeable structure in Ch'e-li (as of 1944) is the Chi-
nese court (Figure 4). An area approximately 300 feet square is en-
closed by a stall, which has holes for the placement of guns. Within
the courtyard are several brick buildings. A number of other buildings
outside the court appear to be of the more solid Chinese-type rather
than Tai thatch-and-bamboo houses; these buildings have not been identi-
fied. The group of several long narrow buildings several hundred yards
south of the court may possibly have been used to house troops. The
other identifiable structures in Ch'e-11 comprise the former Presbyterian
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Figure 5. Looking north across the braided channels of the Mekong. At
the lower center is Chienghung. The photograph was taken in winter; in
summer the :river rises and covers most of the sandspits. Approximate
scale 1?20,000.
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mission station located near the river at the northern edge of town (see
Map 13405). In 1944, westerners in Ch'e-li reported two stone buildings
("large green shuttered buildings") when referring to the mission station.
Several. other sizeable buildings whose functions and identities are un-
known are shown on Figure 4; some may possibly be permanent market stalls.
At the southern edge of town are about a dozen Tat Lu houses.
The changes that have taken place in Ch'e-li since 1944 -- the date of
the photography used in compilation of lap 13405 -- are unknown. It is un-
likely that significant alterations occured between 1944 and 1948. There-
after, the organization of the Tai Autonomous District with Ch'e-li as its
administrative center undoubtedly resulted in an influx of Chinese officials.
The buildings within the Chinese court presumably housed hsien offices
and officials before 19W and probably are still used for similar purposes.
Since Ch'e-li is the local military headquarters, new buildings are likely
to have been constructed to accomodate troops. No other information is
available concerning additional buildings that have been erected or old
ones that have been demolished or altered.
3. The Ch'e-li Basin
All important towns of Sibsong Panna that are inhabited by Tai are
associated with one or more river basins or plains used primarily for rice
growing. The Ch'e-li (or Ching-hung) basin, about 2 miles southwest of
town, is associated with a small tributary stream, the Liu-she Ho, which
enters the Mekong about 3 miles south of Ch'e-11 (Figures 1 and 7). The
major basin extends for about 6 miles west (average width about 1-1/2
miles) along the south side of the Liu-sha No and has two smaller adjoin-
basins. The two smaller basins are 3 to 4 miles long and vary in width
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from 1/2 to 2 miles; they are associated with tributaries of the Liu-sha
Ho that enter from the north and south. The entire Ch'e-li basin has an
estimated area of 12 to 15 square miles. Low wooded hills surround the
basin and merge into steeper mountain slopes in the distance. Here and
deer., narrow fing-like extensions of lowland reach back into hills.
Occasional patches of higher land near the basin have been cleared to
raise upland rice, tea, cotton, or other nonirrigated crops.
C. The People
l.. manic C ositiof and Numbers
The Tai Lu are the most numerous and Important ethnic group of the
Ch'e-l1 and Sibsong Fanny area. They are found only in the fertile river
plain and basins. The Tai Lu are one of several Tai-speaking groups
who inhabit northeastern Burmj. Thailand, southern China, end northern
Indochina. Despite the widespread distribution of Tai peoples, their
various dialects are mutually understandable; and communication between a
Bangkok Thai aM a Tai Lu of Sibsong Parr, for ale, is possible at a
"basic" Tat level. The dialect spoken in Ch'e-11 is very similar to
that used in northern Thailand and Laos.-
The Tai Lu build simple bamboo-and-thatch houses raised on piles
and generally surrounded by bamboo fences to keep the animals from
straying (Figure 8). The houses are clean and vermin free in comparison
with those of the mountain tribes. The costume of a "Ih`i Lu man gener-
ally consists of full trousers, a black or blue jacket similar to those
of the Chinese, and a large, light-colored turban occasional] topped
with a large straw hat. A Tai Lu vom wears a tight-waisted jacket
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Figure 8. A typical Tai Lu house on poles, with
adjoining platform used for performing household
tasks. Supplies are stored in the gable.
Figure 9. Weekly market scene, possibly in
Ch'e-li or Chienghung, with market stalls
in the background. The women are wearing
typical Tai Lu costumes.
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u uaUy of dark blue, a sarong-like skirt striped horizontal t, and
a loo ely gypped head turban (Figure 9). Silver ornaments are often
In and along the margins of the Ch'e-li basin (as of 1944) a are
appror te] c 50 Tai villages. The majority are located on slightly
higher ground along the margins of the basin (Figure 10); a smaller
number are situated on the banks of the meandering streams; and an
occasional village is found in the basin proper (Figures 7 and 10).
Most villages consist of 10 to 40 houses, but a few larger ones contain
50 or more dwellings. The average household has about 4 members. Tai
Lu villages are partly screened and hidden by clumps of trees (Figure
11). The individual villages are connected by paths, and an occasional
path leads back into the hills, generally along or near the crest of a
ridgy -
The several mountain tribes are much smaller numerically than the
Tai Lu and live in widely scattered settlements in the hills and moun-
tains. Except on market days and during the summer, when a small
number work as farm laborers for the Tai Lu, the tribespeople remain in
their mountain retreats. The most important group in the vicinity of
Ch'e-1i is the Alba. Akha villages are large and are usually located
at elevations above 4,500 feet, often only a few hundred feet below the
crest of a twin ridge (Figure 3). In shape and material, their houses
are similar to those of the Tat Lu and, depending upon the terrain, may
or ' not be raised on piles. In physical appearance the Akba are
shorter, darker, and more robust than the Tai Lu. Clothing of the men
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Figure 10. Northward extension of the Ch'e-li basin about
2 miles northwest of Ch`e-li. Note the villages along the
basin margins and the terraced rice fields at the upper
left. Approximate scale 1:20,000.
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Figure ii. The
rice basin
The arrangeruent of Of Meng _l g~ 0
twins basin floor 50 miles south of and in the background ' village hidden bCh ' y Mountains in the is characteristic y trees, and moun-
background form they of Gibson
unnan-Bu- g n a . The
r'ma boundary ry,
Figure 12. Akha women return-
ing from market. Their
ed,
elaborately decorated coste m es
are distinctive. es
varies and The headdress
(as shown may be an ear cap
), a high conical cap,
or an enormous ball-shaped
turban.
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consists of plain dark-blue jackets, trousers reaching to the calf of
the leg, turbans, and silver bracelets. The costumes of the women are
quite elaborate and distinctive, as shorn in Figure 12. A very few
representatives of other tribes Lolo, Lahu, Miaow and Yao -- may be
found in the hills near Ch' a-ll.. In their villages the houses are not
raised on poles like those of the Tai and some Akhe groups.
Occasional Chinese agricultural settlements are found in the moun-
tains near Ch'e-li. Such villages can be Identified by their clay huts,
which are unlike the predominantly bamboo-and-thatch structures of the
Tai Lu and mountain tribes.
No accurate information is available concerning the total popula-
tion of Sibsong Pang. Recent Chinese Cosmmua,ist reports would indicate
a population of about 150,000 Tat Lu in Sibsong Parana, plus 50,000
mountain tribespeople. According to Chinese bsian statistics of 1934,
the population of Ch'e-li Hsien totaled about 41,000. Of these, about
27,000 were Tai Lu people., 7,000 Akba, and 1,600 Chinese.
The total population of the villages of Ch'e-li and Chiengbung
coined prrcbably does not exceed 1,000. Photography taken in 1944
shows about 100 homes in Chienghung and somewhat less than half that
number in Ch' e-li . An observer in this area about 1940 stated that
Ch'e-li has been reduced to a population of 50 households but it in
not clear whether the reference sass to Ch' c-li or Chienghung. This
observer further reported that the former name of Ch' e-li was Ching-te
and that the term "Ching" vas applied to centers with a population of
over 10j,000., wW ch would indicate that the population of the area as a.
whole was much larger at an earlier period.
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Observers in the Ch' a-li area often have commented on the depopu-
lation of the area. For exazVle, a reconnaissance road survey from
Ssu-mao to Ch'e'li made in 1943 listed a number of Tai Lu villages, and
in any, cases the number of houses reported was greater than the total
population of the village. The civil strife and warfare of the 19th
century probably was a cause of depopulation, but more inportant fac-
tors are the high incidence of malaria, typhoid fevers plague, leprosy,
and other diseases. The prevalence of these diseases has been the major
deterrent to Chinese settlement of the subtropical rice basins of Sibsong
Panora and adjacent areas of Win.
Health conditions were reported to be very poor in Ch'e-ii in 1943.
About that time the introduction of western drugs in limited quantities
improved conditions somewhat. Further improvement may have occured since
the Chinese Communists is -over. Lack of adequate medicines and igno-
rance of the local people regarding sanitary measures have been handi-
caps to major improvement in health standards.
2. Economic Activities
The principal economic activity of the Tai Lu in the Ch'e-11 area
is sedentary agriculture. Irrigated ricer the major subsistence crop,
is planted In May and harvested in October. The Mekong rises in the
,spring and provides sufficient water for flooding the paddy fields in
the Ch'e-li basin. Sugar cane, taro, and various vegetables are grown
in garden paste. Fruit produced in the groves that surround each village
include bananas, mangos, and citrus fruits. Teat cotton, and camphor
are the three most Important commercial crops of the area. The production
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of tea is of particular inopaactance, and frequently tea from the Ch' e-li
area is exported to Tibet.
Upland slopes near the villages are used for ,rasing and for non-
irrigated crops. Among the domestic animals of the Tai are cows, buf-
f'aloes, pigs, and chickens. horses and mules are used as means of trans-
portation and as pack animals. The Tai Lu fish to a considerable extent
is the Mekong and its tributaries and are accomplished boatsmen (Figure
13).
To supplement their income,, many villages engage in various simple
handicraft industries such as the making of bamboo furniturre, pottery,
and gaper. In addition, special types of food such as rice noodles,
pipe tobacco, vine, and bamboo shoots are prepared for sale or barter at
the village market. An individual village viii specialize in a particu-
lar food speciality or handicraft item.
Markets are held in the larger villages and are so distributed that
they occur about every fifth day in aqr individual village. The market
stalls are set up at a fixed place either in or immediately adjacent to
the village ('igure :9). Market days are colorful affairs, attracting,
not only the Tai Lu from neighboring villages but also numbers of moun-
tain tribesgeople dressed in their colorful costumes. In Ch'e-li and
Chiengtung, several hundred to more than 1,000 people may attend the
larger markets. In addition to stalls of fresh vegetables, rice, and
specialty food, Chinese peddlers offer for sale sundry goods such as
cloth, knives, needles, and soap.
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Figure 13. The Mekong, probably opposite Chienghung,
showing a Tai Lu dugout near the opposite bank. Hills
covered with scrub vegetation rise abruptly from the
river.
Figure l4. Tai Lu men and women going to market on a chilly
winter morning wearing woolen shawls and jackets. In the
background is a Buddhist temple, possibly in Chienghung.
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tc 1912 the orsl-r coinage used in t 'e-li was a round awl
dente .piece of silver. Subsequently, provincial authorities
in issued for use in Sibao Pauna balf-dollar silver coins
with both Tai and Chinese Inscriptions. Paper notes very introduced
about 19 ?5 and, as the result of inflation and other ctu'renaar manipula-
t1w"r-, arm of the half Liars were drained from the Ch' li area.
Uz4q{. rites the introduction of colas and paler currency, cocmodit,'
ex ^s.r continued to Dlay as I ort t role in the local economy. A
c i~Ltr < ae a e in l cj-,.O as one catty of chicken. for one catty
o? t;ct3 a u.. Barterir has been particularly important among the hill.
`sribes, with salt and cloth parta,cu iy valued items. Other goods use-
INA trading and for establishing good relations include the follow-
safety pins, spools of thread and needles, small mirrors, medicine
quinine), bolts of blue cloth, and gait colored embroidered
r ' :n. e bast is said to be h1g%ly regarded by Akira girls. In recent
ye ?s, sulfa and quinine have become particularly prized commodities.
f tam information has been received concerning changes
affecbing
the eccn of the Ch u e.li. area that have been instituted by
the Chinese Co uraists. As of 1953 the following conditions reportedly
prevail.* (1) tax n, eats ,pprapriate, without payment, all rice in excess
a auaXI per capita allowance; (2) no storage of food is permitted
beyond i z>ed.iate needs, and market purchases are limited; (3) livestock
and c.iaick is are enumerated; (4.) garden-produce and livestock can be
sold aIt the me rket but Only at fixed prices? (5) no slaughter of animals
catty equals 7 -l. t'3 pounds
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except through regular market chant el.s is allowec ; (6) meat markets are
app only every fifth day; and (7) the Co unists are attenuating to
collect 9.11 silver coins and replace them with standard Comrmanist per
currency.
Fader the Communist system, a number of State trading companies
have been organized and control all trading activities. Reports from
minority-inhabited areas indicate that the Chinese Communists have sub-
sidized prices in an effort to raise living standards and to win the
favor of local inhabitants. According to the Chinese press, a State-
operated "department store" in Ch'e-li has for sale items such as cloth,
tea cups, and bowls. Chinese press releases also announce that some
5 State codes and 10 trading teams are currently operating in the
Tai Autonomous District. The Chinese are encouraging increased produc-
tion of Sibsong Panna'a exportable commodities -- tea, cotton, and
camphor,
The changes in the economy of Sibsong Patina are consistent with
Communist policies el.4ewhere, and their reported imposition indicates the
extent of Chinese control in the country. Although silver coins are be-
ing requisitioned, it is possible that they still may be prized by tribes-
men in the more remote mountain areas.
3 ? Religion and Sducation
Buddhism is n laally the religion' of the Tai Lu, but strong admix..
tures of animism (spirit worship) permeate traditional Buddhist practices.
The larger Tai Lu villages have their own .Buddhist temples (Figure 14),
and Chienghung is said to have 8 or l0. Many, temples are merely thatch-
and-wood structures similar to the houses but larger; a few are more
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elaborate stone structures enclosed within a court. A limited survey
(1940) of Tai Lu villages in the Ch'e-li basin indicated that about
60 percent of all Tai Lu males had entered Buddhist temples for vary-
ing periods of time. Entrance is made when the boys are small. In
addition to the study of Buddhist doctrine and various menial task,
they are taught to read and write the Tai Lu language. The Yuan script,
the sacred large of Tai Buddhism, is taught. While in the temple
the bays wear the same dress as adult monks -- dark-yellow sheets
draped so as to leave the arms and one shoulder bare. At the age of
20, the boys are free to leave and marry.
A Presbyterian mission station, an outpost of the Presbyterian
missions in northern Thail~+ d, operated at Ch' a-1i after 1917. It has
been reported that the mission's greatest success ryas with Tai Lu who
tbrough witchcraft had been made outcasts -- an indication of the influ-
ence of spirit-vorship as the Tai Lu. A lepers' village under the
guidance of an American physician was established near Chle-li, apparently
as a part of the mission's work. A Chinese Catholic missionary was known
to have been operating in Sibsong Panna during 1943-44.
It Is not known what restrictions, if any, the Chinese Communists
have imposed upon religious practices. Reports from China indicate that
the Chinese Ce unists have initially tolerated the traditional religious
and cultural practices observed by non-Chinese peoples.
Before the introduction of Chinese administration in Ch'e-li, educa-
tion, was solely in the hands of the Buddhist clergy, and the temple
served both as a religious and educational center.- Afterwards, schools
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for studying; Chinese were established, and 9 such schools were in exis-
tence in Ch'a-li Bsien in l91O. It seems, however, that only a very
small percentage of the Tat Lu actually attended these schools. Because
of their Buddhist training, many Tai Lu are literate. Chinese is often
a secondary language, particularly in and around Chinese administrative
centers.
Chinese Cosonunist propaganda stresses the need for educating the
non-CChinese people. Although there has been no specific information
concerning Ch'e-li, it is likely that schools have been established and
include liberal dosages of Co monist doctrine mixed with the 3 R's.
D. Itans2artation and Coomnmicatto
1. Roads and Trails
Until the recent road -building activities of the Chinese Communists,
little had been done to Improve the wretchedly poor transportation sys-
tem in the Cta'e-li area. In the past, as a result of insurrection or
desire to expand trade, Chinese provincial authorities occasionally
cleared and widened ancient caravan trails. Invariably, however, these
irovements were short-lived, and the roads soon deteriorated into dif-
ficult trails and paths traversable only by mules, ponies, and men.
The most important route from Ch'e-li leads north to Ssu-meo (see
Map 13382) and from there eventually to b'un-ming -- a total distance
of about 350 miles. A westward extension of this route leads through
Fo-hai (Meng-hai) to Ta-lo on the Burma, border, where connecting trails
and roads lead to the important market and trading center of Keng Tung
in eastern Burma. Other trails lead south and east from Ch'e-li into
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Laos and. Thailand. In addition, Akha tribesmen have constructed many
wide, well-concealed paths in the mountainous areas, and an individual
could travel for many miles along these paths without descending into
the valleys. The paths are steep and often rugged, but men on foot
carrying loads could use them.
The major Chinese Communist construction effort has been the build-
ing of the IC'un-ming--Ch'e-li highway. According to the Chinese press,
the last section was completed in December 1953. Crossing the Mekong
has always been a problem and caused delay.,'but the Chinese may possi-
bly be constructing a bridge across the river near Ch'e-li. The condi-
tion of Ssu-mao--Ch'e-li sector of the K'un-ming--Ch'e-li highway is
probably little better than a single-lane, fair-weather road. The west-
ward extension to the Burma border -- about 90 miles -- has been under
construction and may possibly be completed. It is thought to be merely
a single-lane, fair-weather road.
Other routes from Ch'e-li include a caravan trail leading south
along the Mekong to Meng Yea, and from there south and west to Mong Yu in
Burma (see Map 13382). Both of these routes (Ch'e-li--Ta-lo and Ch'e-li-
Mong Yu) connect with the motorable road leading south from Keng Tung into
northern Thailand. They are the customary trade routes from Thailand to
the Ch'e-li area.
The only other important motorable route in the Ch'e-li area is the
ssu-mao--Cheng-yith road. Chen- eh is about 45 miles due east of Ch'e-li,
and a fair-weather pack-trail connects the two locations. Caravan trails
lead south from Chen-yUeh to Meng-p'eng (Meng-pang) and Meng-la and
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connect with the system of trails in northern Laos. It has been
reported that the Chinese are clearing and widening some of the tracks
and trails within the Meng-p'eng, Meng-being, Meng-pan, and Meng-la
areas.
Some of the wider and more heavily used trails and tracks are jeep-
able during the dry season. Others could be traversed only by mules or
ponies., and some are mere foot paths. only the more important known
trails have been marked on !'p 13382? Undoubtedly, a number of lesser
trails lead from Laos and Burma into Sibsong Penna., and are familiar to
local inhabitants, traders, and smugglers.
During the rainy season, all routes become treacherous and difficult
to traverse as a result of washouts, swollen streams, and mud. Although
travel is greatly limited during the rainy months, it is not impossible.
After the rainy season, considerable clearing, repairing of bridges,
and filling in of washouts must be done to permit use by carts and other
vehicles.
The Mekong south from Ch'e-li has had almost negligible value as
an avenue of transportation. A number of rapids downstream from Ch'e-li
preclude use of craft other then native dugouts, but most of the rapids
can be navigated by canoe. The Mekong, however, can be crossed at
practically any point. The current varies from 2 or 3 knots in the wid-
est reaches to about 15 knots in narrow rocky sections. Many rocks that
are submerged, especially at high water, give rise to dangerous whirlpools.
During the dry season the Mekong occupies only about one-fourth to one-
third of its bed, exposing large areas of sand and rock.
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. el.ecornj znir_atjo s
Although definite information is not available, single-line
..rcuits may connect Ch' a-li with Fo-hai to the east and sing-erl to
the north. There are known to be connections between King-erh and
un- ming.
E.ua. of Current Conditions
Since the Chinese Communists first occupieed southern YTt tn, they
have been engaged in an extensive program to weld this remote and tradi-
tionally independent region into the framework of flew China. Politically,
the establishment of a so-called "autonomous people's govermmnt" --
utilizing the boundaries,, capital, and administrative organization of
ancient. Sibsong Panna -- has enabled the Chinese Commmlsts to pose as
guarantors of the traditional independence and local self-government
enjoyed in the area. A facade of local self-government has been main-
tained by employing a few of the Tai nobility In the new government and
numbers of i and other nationalities in various minor governmental
roles. In reality a few Chinese Comist officials and cadres, rein-
forced by military detacinients, hold positions of actual authority; and
all decisions of importance are relayed through the C+ iunist chain of
cond.
During the past year, press reports stating that the Cc unists have
organized local a governments (reportedly 9) indicate that large num-
bers of native political workers have already been trained. ?ny of these
political workers are enthusiastic young people who have been intensively
trained in Ccmiunist doctrines. Since pclivicsl workers operata in the