SOVIET RESEARCH ON IMMUNOCHEMISTRY

• Document Type: FOIA
• Collection: FOIA Collection
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): 05310541
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 16
• Document Creation Date: December 28, 2022
• Document Release Date: January 18, 2017
• Case Number: F-2017-00343
• Publication Date: November 11, 1959

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SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT
N? 68
SOVIET RESEARCH ON IMMUNOCHEMISTRY
IPS FILE COPY
DO aEMOVE
18 NOV 1959
CIA/S1 46-59
11 November 1959
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE
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Scientific Intelligence Intelligence Report
SOVIET RESEARCH ON IMMUNOCHEMISTRY
NOTICE
The conclusions, judgments, and opinions
contained in this finished intelligence report
are based on extensive scientific intelligence
research and represent the final and consid-
ered views of the Office of Scientific Intelli-
gence.
CIA/SI 46-59
11 November 1959
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE
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PREFACE
Immunochemistry * concerns the physical-chemical reac-
tions of the body to the introduction of foreign substances.
This field of study is essential to the understanding of mech-
anisms underlying (i) response processes of host animals, (ii)
allergy and hypersensitivity, (iii) infections, and (iv) neoplasms.
The biological aspects of host resistance to foreign substances
and the applied aspects of vaccine and sera development are
related closely to irnmunochemistry but are not discussed in
this paper. Because medical microbiology historically intro-
duced the idea of immunity, this field for many years has dom-
inated the subspecialty of immunology. The new and broader
ramifications of immunology, plus the incorporation of special
biochemical techniques, have now resulted in the identification
of immunochemistry as a separate specialty.
This study was completed on 1 August 1959 and is con-
sistent with all information available to 1 October 1959. All
sources of information were exploited.
� Principal technical terms are defuied in the glossary.
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CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE ill
PROBLEM 1
CONCLUSIONS 1
DISCUSSION 1
Introduction 1
Protein and Carbohydrate Studies 2
Protein Synthesis 2
Fractional Analysis 3
Basic Composition 3
Antigens 3
Antibodies 3
Pathophysiological and Neurohumoral Aspects 4
Cancer Studies 4
Burn Studies 4
Radiation Studies 4
Neurophysiological Studies 5
Hypersensitivity 5
Blood and Blood Groups 5
Organ and Tissue Transplantation 6
Vaccines and Sera Development 7
GLOSSARY 9
APPENDIX A: The More Important Soviet Institutes in
'Which Immunochemical Research is Con-
ducted
APPENDIX B: A Selected List of Soviet Scientists En-
gaged in Research Related to Immu-
nochemistry
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BIBLIOGRAPHY NOTE 15
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SOVIET RESEARCH ON IMMUNOCHEMISTRY
PROBLEM
To assess present and to estimate future Soviet capabilities
in immunochemistry.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The USSR is farther behind the West in
immunochemistry than probably any other
field of medical science. The Soviets now
recognize the importance of immunochemis-
try to public health and are aware of their
quantitative and qualitative shortcomings in
the field. Their current 7-Year Plan is ex-
pected to emphasize training, research, and
development in immunochemistry. Neverthe-
less, so great an expansion and redirection
of research and training are needed that at
least 5 and possibly 10 years of maximum
effort will be required for Soviet scientists to
catch up 'with leading Western scientists.
2. A few Soviet investigators show in-
genuity and foresight, have some unique the-
oretical concepts, and could occasionally make
significant contributions to immunochemis-
try; but most of their findings are and win
continue for some time to be of limited value.
Soviet investigators in immunochemistry de-
pend heavily on Western data and lack an
understanding of fundamental immunologi-
cal principles, modern physical and chemical
research procedures, and production tech-
niques. Some Soviet-developed drugs have re-
sulted in such severe allergic reactions that
they have been withdrawn from public use.
Because of an inadequate knowledge of im-
munochemistry, the USSR has failed in sev-
eral attempts to manufacture drugs in gen-
eral use in the West.
3. In the future, the USSR will give greater
attention to the physical-chemical aspects of
immunology as related to infectious and ma-
lignant diseases, tissue transplantation, blood
typing, blood disorders, and vaccine and sera
development.
DISCUSSION
INTRODUCTION
In the Soviet Union, immunochemistry has
not yet acquired the status of a distinct field
of research. There are only a few immuno-
chemists, although the USSR does maintain
a number of laboratories of immunochemistry
and biochemistry supporting immunological
research. This deficiency seems to be pri-
marily a result of insufficient emphasis on
the field of biochemistry and biochemical
techniques rather than the lack of classic im-
munological experience. As a result, the So-
viet Union is probably farther behind the
West in immunochemistry than any other
(JUN efrftliTharEr-
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single field of medical science. Within the
Soviet Bloc, Czechoslovakia leads in immuno-
chemistry; the USSR ranks second.
As early as 1954, many leading Soviet sci-
entists pointed out the necessity for improv-
ing biochemical and immunochemical re-
search as rapidly as possible. The 5-Year Plan
(1956-60) included provisions for research
and the training of personnel in modern bio-
chemistry, with major emphasis on the chem-
istry and immunology of macromolecules,
such as proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleo-
proteins. The Soviets are making every at-
tempt to exploit Western advances in this
field. Nevertheless, a great deal remains to
be accomplished, especially with respect to
the biophysical characteristics of macromole-
cules. Western observers attending 1958-59
international meetings, such as the Stock-
holm Congress on Microbiology, the Prague
Congress on Antibody Formation, the Geneva
Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic En-
ergy, and the International Union of Bio-
chemistry meeting at Vienna have uniformly
reported that the present level of research on
biochemistry and immunochemistry of the
Soviet Union is far behind that of the West-
ern nations. This assessment has been con-
firmed by travelers within the Soviet Union.
Beginning about 1958, N. S. Khrushchev
and other Soviet leaders emphasized the need
for the infusion of physical sciences into
biology and medicine. According to V. A.
Engel'gardt, a leading Soviet biochemist
closely associated with Soviet scientific plan-
ning, high-level Soviet scientific planners are
convinced that research emphasis on basic
disciplines (such as biochemistry) is neces-
sary before the Soviet Union can acquire a
favorable international standing in biology.
I. Ye. Tamm, a Nobel prizewinning physicist,
has called for wider use of physical principles
in biological research. A. N. Nesmeyanov,
President of the Academy of Sciences, USSR,
in a speech on 1 December 1958, emphasized
the necessity for understanding We processes,
particularly those pertaining to proteins and
their properties and reactions. The current
7-Year Research Plan (1959-65) is quite ex-
2
plicit in its emphasis on the necessity for in-
creasing biochemical research, especially in
areas supporting immunochemistry. This
would suggest that an accelerated program
of basic research in the field is now under
way.
PROTEIN AND CARBOHYDRATE STUDIES
Protein Synthesis
In vivo and in vitro methods of synthesiz-
ing proteins and antibodies have been of ma-
jor interest to Soviet investigators. This has
led to research on the isotopic labeling of
amino acids, as well as studies on the incor-
poration of these amino acids into proteins.
Attempts are being made to determine
whether or not amino acids are incorporated
into proteins during their synthesis or during
subsequent metabolism. Other research is
aimed at determining the site of formation
of different proteins and antibodies. The
problem of whether the formation of a spe-
cific protein inhibits or facilitates formation
of other proteins is also being studied. At-
tempts are being made to accelerate the in-
corporation of amino acids into tissue pro-
teins and to determine if the rate of incor-
poration is related to cancer tissue metabo-
lism. Additional studies have demonstrated
that the physical-chemical state of deoxyribo-
nucleic acid-protein complexes is important
In immunological and enzymic processes.
Earlier Soviet work on pressure enzymic re-
synthesis of proteins in vitro has been dropped
for lack of progress, but planned studies on
the biosynthetic mechanisms of formation of
proteins may provide better models of enzyme
or protein synthesis and revive this work.
Soviet research will continue to be directed
along the above lines with respect to macro-
molecules, such as nucleic acids and carbo-
hydrates.
Much of the above Soviet research is rela-
tively recent. Future attempts will be made
to determine how antibodies are formed and
whether or not the addition of various com-
pounds to proteins will initiate production of
different types of antibodies. Soviet success
could lead to biosynthesis of artificial types
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of antigen with varying specificities or per-
haps even with dual or multi-types of
specificity.
Fractional Analysis
The study of protein fractions of sera from
immunized animals and antigenic compo-
nents of microorganisms and toxins has also
interested Soviet investigators. This frac-
tional analysis of proteins has resulted pri-
marily in the isolation of biologically active
components and may lead to the preparation
of purified, concentrated toxins, antigens, or
antibodies, which in turn would lead to greater
and more specific immunity.
Basic Composition
Another major area of research on proteins
and carbohydrates concerns the actual chem-
ical composition of bacteria, proteins, anti-
bodies, antisera, and various protein com-
plexes. Soviet medical investigators are at-
tempting to relate chemical composition to
toxicity, antigenicity, and microbial species
specificity. The nucleic acid-nucleotide com-
position, the carbohydrate complexes, the
amino acid content, the nitrogen content, the
phosphorus content, as well as various reduc-
ing substances and polysaccharides have been
studied. Soviet results do not indicate any
correlation between the properties of the anti-
gens and their chemical composition. Cur-
rent Soviet efforts are being directed towards
determining the sequential arrangement of
amino acids within the protein molecule, an
approach which is promising.
ANTIGENS
Theoretical studies on antigenic chemistry
have been pursued by only a small number
of Soviet investigators. During 1956-57 the
Academy of Sciences, USSR, began to exert
pressure on investigators to fill this signifi-
cant gap in Soviet immunological studies.
The gap arises from: a lack of physical and
chemical talent in biological fields, a reluc-
tance to apply modern theories in basic genet-
ics, and a predilection to favor live vaccines.
Soviet medical microbiological studies related
to antigenic analyses have been concerned
with a few narrow areas of vaccine develop-
ment, primarily the isolation, purification,
fractionation, and attempted synthesis of
diagnostic preparations and infectious dis-
ease agents with poor or no demonstrated
live vaccine possibilities. Soviet attempts to
reproduce Western vaccines frequently have
met with little success.
Recently, the very few Soviet investigators
who have managed to maintain cognizance
of the advances in the chemistry of antigens
apparently are broadening their fields of in-
terest. More reports have begun to appear on
new chemical methods and techniques. There
is new emphasis on training young investi-
gators and reeducating established workers
away from the "irrimunobiological" approach,
which has dominated Soviet immunology, and
orienting them toward immunochernistry.
Antigen problems that appear to be receiv-
ing emphasis include: the specificity, non-
specificity, and serological activity of nucleic
acid, protein and carbohydrate antigenic com-
plexes and fractions; the genetic aspects of
nucleic acids; experimental alteration and
synthesis of proteins; antigenic competition
in the host; the relation of the infectious
process to host metabolism; chemical compo-
nents of brucella, tularensis, cholera, Salmo-
nella-Shigella, and a number of other toxin-
producing microorganisms; and the distribu-
tion and fate of antigens in the host. The
Soviets also are beginning to make increased
use of more sophisticated immunochemical
techniques such as ultracentrifugation and
electrophoretic analysis, antigenic purifica-
tion by sonification, chromatographic applica-
tions, gel diffusion analysis, and isotopic
labeling.
ANTIBODIES
Current research on antibody analysis is
concerned with familiarizing Soviet investi-
gators with modern physical, chemical, and
biological methods. The recent literature has
emphasized the diffusion analysis of antigens
and antibodies, the fluorescent antibody tech-
nique, protein enzyme detection in sera, and
quantitative evaluation of an antibody by
means of chromatographic and labeled anti-
gen techniques. Many Soviet investigators
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are studying non-specific stimulation of anti-
body production using various drugs, surgi-
cal procedures, and mechanical or electrical
stimuli. This line of research has indicated
possible ways for supplementing protective
responses, although the value of Soviet data
and conclusions is doubtful and the underly-
ing concepts require verification. Since 1957,
some unrefined attempts have been made to
study mechanisms and sites of antibody for-
mation in the reticulo-endothelial system,
liver, and lymphoid tissues, but these investi-
gations appear to be of a routine nature and
consistently involve inadequate data and mis-
interpretations. A strong effort is being made
to develop methods for the purification of
antibody protein, but this work is related to
the manufacture of serum preparations and
has little fundamental research value. Vari-
ous Soviet attempts to clarify the role of non-
antibody systems related to protection against
infectious disease are unimpressive.
Although Soviet investigators have long
been interested in the role of antibodies in
immunity to disease, they have made no orig-
inal contribution of consequence to fundamen-
tal theory. There have been few studies of
value pertinent to antibody chemistry, the
nature and function of complement, the pro-
perdin system, and autoantigen-autoantibody
reactions.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL AND NEMO-
HUMORAL ASPECTS
Various types of disease or disturbances in
body function have provided avenues of re-
search for studying the immunological proc-
ess. The Soviets recognize that the synthesis
of antibodies is related directly to the syn-
thesis of other body proteins but is influ-
enced by the state of nutrition. Soviet in-
vestigators are examining the means by which
the immunological activity of the body is
strengthened by diets that permit increased
body protein synthesis. Also receiving atten-
tion is the possibility that the adrenal and
other endocrine glands are closely related to
the processes of immunology and general
body reactivity; if so procedures affecting
these glands (e.g., adrenalectomy, denervation
4
of the adrenals, or administration of adrenal
cortical hormones or hormones stimulating
the adrenal) would have major effects upon
imrnunogenesis. The Soviets have also con-
ducted studies on immunological changes dur-
ing cardiovascular diseases and various met-
abolic and endocrine diseases. Aspects of
pathophysiological research which receive
special consideration include cancer immu-
nology and the immunology of radiation dis-
ease.
Cancer Studies
The viral etiology of many types of cancer
is considered most likely by many Soviet hi-
vestigators. For several years a group of in-
vestigators under L. A. Zilber has consist-
ently claimed an ability to demonstrate that
a common antigen is found in all types of
tumor in a given organism or species. Other
Soviet and most Western investigators have
been unable to demonstrate this as a consist-
ent phenomenon. Soviet scientists have also
investigated toxins secreted by tumors; the
use of tissue culture to study the etiology of
cancer; antigenic relationships between dif-
ferent types of tumors of the same kind of
tissue; the use of living tumor tissues to pro-
vide vaccines for the treatment of tumors;
the role of the central nervous system in the
etiology and growth of tumors; and the heter-
�logical transplantation of tumors. This So-
viet research is far behind Western develop-
ment; Soviet investigators are just starting
the use of newer techniques such as tissue
culture and are only now beginning a program
of advanced research in the neoplastic dis-
eases. Adequate training for the study of
cancer and allied problems is just beginning.
Burn Studies
Soviet work on the immunotherapy of burns
has made little progress since it was initially
discussed at the International Congress of
Hematology in 1956.
Radiation Studies
Soviet immunochemical studies with radia-
tion include: the depression of immunogene-
sis; the denaturation of proteins and its effect
on antibody or antitoxin titers; the anaphy-
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lactic properties of different types of proteins;
and the denaturation of nucleic acids and of
protein complexes containing nucleic acids,
fats, or carbohydrates. Other studies on the
relation between radiation and immunity con-
cern the depression or inhibition of natural
resistance to infection; vaccination at vari-
ous stages of irradiation disease; possible
stimulatory effects of extremely low doses of
radiation on immunogenesis; effects of radia-
tion on the Schwartzmann phenomenon; ir-
radiation-produced changes in the activity
of complement; the use of passive versus ac-
tive immunization after irradiation; the ef-
fects of direct irradiation on vaccines or anti-
gens themselves; the production of the auto-
allergic phenomenon by irradiation; and the
use of abnormal tissue antigens produced by
irradiation for the treatment of radiation
disease.
Much of this Soviet research on radiation
has suffered from a lack of reliable data, a
failure to plan or evaluate experiments sta-
tistically, and a tendency to overgeneralize
conclusions. So far, the Soviets have pro-
duced nothing unique on this subject, but the
amount of effort being spent and the increased
emphasis on training investigators for future
work in these areas mean that the Soviets will
probably make relatively significant progress
soon.
Neurophysiological Studies
For the past 10 years, many Soviet investi-
gators have attempted to prove that the
nervous system and particularly conditional
reflex mechanisms regulate immune and in-
fectious processes. They consider physiologi-
cal mechanisms to be at least as important
as specific defensive cellular and humoral re-
actions in protection against infection or the
progression of pathological processes. They
have overgeneralized conclusions based on
poorly designed experiments, inadequate data,
and questionable hypotheses and have failed
to prove that direct conditional reflexes can
be used to regulate natural reactions or to
induce immune, infectious, and allergic reac-
tions.
The Soviets have made some efforts to ex-
amine the influence of hormone and adrenal-
hypophyseal-hypothalamic factors in infec-
tion immunity. They have also gathered
some recent experimental information which,
upon reevaluation and confirmation, may in-
dicate that nervous system mechanisms are
at least indirectly associated with or partici-
pate in the quantitative aspects of antibody
production, the intensity of the infectious
processes, phagocytic activity, and the depres-
sion or activation of localized allergic reac-
tion. Recent Soviet emphasis on chemical
and physical mechanisms related to neuro-
physiological association with host resistance
and susceptibility may elicit some basic infor-
mation of value to preventive medicine, ex-
perimental transplantation, allergy, and psy-
chosomatic medicine.
Hypersensitivity
Soviet workers emphasize the concept of
the neurophysiological basis for allergic phe-
nomena. Some information is also available
on specific allergens associated with the flora
and fauna of Soviet geographic areas. Since
1956, interest has been shown in studies on
auto- and homo-allergens and antigen-anti-
body reactions associated with allergic reac-
tions. Many studies have been concerned
with the plethora of post-inoculation side re-
actions encountered as a result of the use of
live vaccines, antibiotics, sera, and other
preparations where purity may be critical.
There is no evidence that side reactions have
been significantly averted by any of the
methods studied or proposed in the USSR.
The "general" and "local" post-vaccine and
serum inoculation reactions considered allow-
able by Soviet standards are not permissible
in the United States. Soviet investigators
recognize that research on allergy and hyper-
sensitivity in the USSR is backward, and the
7-Year Plan calls for corrective action.
BLOOD AND BLOOD GROUPS
The Soviets are carrying on two major in-
vestigations of allergic and immunological
phenomena of blood. The first consists of
studies of reactions from blood or blood sub-
stitutes; the second concerns blood group typ-
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ing. The Soviets have tried several blood sub-
stitute products which produce allergic or ana-
phylactic type reactions. The �antireticu-
locytotoxic serum (ACS) of A. A. Bogomolets
was one of the first of these, and reactions
were so severe that the serum was withdrawn
from production and distribution. The thera-
peutic serum of N. G. Belen'kiy (LSB) also
had to be withdrawn (as recently as March,
1959) ; it too produced severe anaphylactic
type reactions in an appreciable number of
patients. A more recently developed material,
BK-8 (V. A. Belitser and K. I. Kotkova), is
currently in use as a blood substitute or
plasma expander. Like the LSB, the BK-8 is
a product obtained by partial hydrolysis of
cattle blood serum. The indications are that
BK-8 is definitely less anaphylactogenic than
earlier materials of the same type. The So-
viets claim to have used cadaver blood with-
out causing allergic reactions, but this ma-
terial is presently in use in only one institute,
the Sklifosovskiy First Aid Institute in Mos-
cow. Soviet dextrans have also been investi-
gated; one called polyglukin seems to be su-
perior to U.S. dextrans because of its apparent
freedom from anaphylactogenic properties
and because U.S. tests show that it does not
prolong bleeding time.
The Soviets include in their preserving solu-
tions for transfusion materials several types
of compounds which are claimed to suppress
immunological reactivity and to minimize re-
actions from blood and blood substitutes. The
most frequently used is novocaine. The effec-
tiveness of these compounds is not clear, since
Soviet criteria for an anaphylactic reaction
are poorly defined by U.S. standards.
Soviet research on blood groups is relatively
primitive in comparison with good hospital
practice in the United States. The personnel
at major research institutes of hematology
and blood transfusion are, in some cases, not
familiar with Western research or practices in
blood grouping and cross matching. Yet
there are indications that the Soviets appre-
ciate the Rh factor as well as its implications
in transfusion reactions and erythroblaitosis
fetalis. Only in 1958-59 has Soviet attention
turned to some of the other subgroups of
6
blood such as A, M, or N. At present, the
Moscow Institute of Hematology and Blood
Transfusion is probably the only Soviet re-
search institution which is adequately pre-
pared to do significant research in the field
of blood subgroups. Greatly increased train-
ing and research will be necessary in order
for the Soviets to attain the present U.S. level
of accomplishment in this area.
ORGAN AND TISSUE TRANSPLANTATION
The application of immunological methods
to experimental embryology and transplanta-
tion problems is a relatively new technique
for the USSR, but this approach has already
attracted the attention of many Soviet in-
vestigators. A planned program (under the
Institute of Experimental Biology) is ex-
pected to provide additional personnel, facili-
ties, and equipment for this research. Cur-
rent studies emphasize serological analysis of
antigenic cell structure of normal tissues and
neoplasms, as well as wider utilization of im-
munological techniques in the study of anti-
genic incompatibility associated with homo-
transplantation and the pathology of preg-
nancy.
E. A. Zotikov has shown that tissue homo-
transplantation may result in the emergence
of antibodies in the recipient's serum which
can agglutinate the donor's erythrocytes. He
believes that this indicates the need for pre-
liminary screening of donors and recipients
for Rh, M, and N factors, in contrast to
the views of various Western investigators.
Bilenko and others have been very interested
in the immunological aspects of lyophilized
organ and tissue transplants and have re-
ported successful use of stored dried tissues
of various types. P. N. Kosyakov, L. S. Vol-
kova, and others are concerned with antigenic
and immune response patterns associated
with phylogenetic and ontogenetic tissue dif-
ferences. L. A. Zilber and others report that
tumor or normal tissue transplants can be
successfully carried out in animals which have
acquired tolerance to normally damaging tis-
sue antigens, if the animals are subjected to
previous exposure to the specific transplant
tissue cell preparations. Zilber further claims
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that preliminary inoculation of strongly
heterologous or partially homologous antigens
into animals during embryogenesis can in-
duce tolerance to later administration of
similar antigens. Other Soviet investigators
have reported overcoming tissue incompati-
bility by various other ill-defined methods.
Expert Western observers believe that So-
viet claims derived from experimental trans-
plantation studies are often overstated. Their
results in this field are considered inferior to
those of the West. Available information on
the specific immunological aspects of Soviet
studies would not refute this view. Never-
theless, the Soviets are pursuing certain lines
of research which are of great interest to U.S.
investigators.
VACCINES AND SERA DEVELOPMENT
The Soviets have shown some ingenuity
and foresight in devising and adapting vac-
cines and sera for mass use in human beings,
but this is not enough to ensure reliable prog-
ress. They have a poor grasp of fundamen-
tal immunochemical concepts and methods
and do not understand the engineering tech-
niques for large scale manufacture and stor-
age of biologicals of high quality. Hence, the
quality of presumably standardized Soviet
preparations frequently is not dependable.
Repeatedly, Soviet investigators have under-
taken human trials with experimental vac-
cines and sera on the basis of questionable
laboratory findings. They are often remiss
in the proper application of mass inoculation
procedures and the subsequent evaluation of
immunization programs in large populations.
As a consequence, no prophylactic or thera-
peutic vaccine or serum now in use in the
USSR is superior to its U.S. counterpart; the
Soviet preparations do not meet U.S. stand-
ards of stability, purity, safety, and efficacy.
Soviet investigations of derived prophylac-
tic antigens requiring chemical or physical
research methods are backward. The USSR
has had great difficulty in developing vac-
cines for pediatric purposes, including those
which already are routinely used in the West.
The Soviet program for development of vac-
cines from antigens of enteric organisms has
had a marked lack of success. Yet the So-
viets are ahead of others in the use of live
bacterial, viral, and rickettsial vaccines for
large scale immunization and could make
significant contributions. Most Western in-
vestigators hesitate to use live vaccines be-
cause of the hazards inherent in immuniza-
tion of man with live organisms.
A number of Soviet investigators are at-
tempting to develop multiple combinations of
vaccines and toxoids. At the present time,
this work primarily involves empirical meth-
ods for combining and testing available prep-
arations in laboratory animals. As yet, no
new fundamental ideas have come from these
investigations, and no Soviet polyvalent vac-
cine has been shown to give adequate protec-
tion in man.
Soviet attempts to modify inoculation meth-
ods and combine questionable vaccines can-
not circumvent basic Soviet shortcomings.
The necessary progress in Soviet vaccine re-
search and development for the present and
Immediate future is dependent upon their
ability to overcome their deficiencies in the
physical-chemical aspects of medical micro-
biology and related fields.
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GLOSSARY
Adrenal-hyphophyseal-hypothalamic: refers
to the two endocrine glands, the adrenal and
the pituitary, and the hypothalamic (floor
of the third ventricle) portion of the brain.
There may be a joint endocrine-neural rela-
tionship in the immune responses to infection.
Agglutination: the aggregation or clumping
of antibodies by a specific immune serum.
Allergen: a specific substance, usually pro-
tein in nature, which upon ingestion, inhala-
tion, or infection is capable of producing the
manifestations of allergy.
Allergy: hypersensitivity of the body cells
to a specific substance (protein, lipid, carbo-
hydrate, etc.). AutoalIergy is hypersensitivity
to a substance derived from the same body;
homoallergy is hypersensitivity to a substance
derived from the same animal species; and
heteroallergy is hypersensitivity to a sub-
stance derived from other animal species or
other external sources.
Ana,phylactogenic: capable of producing
anaphylaxis.
Anaphylaxis: a loss of once-acquired im-
munity, or an increased susceptibility, to an
infection or foreign substance. May be viewed
as the extreme degree of allergy and may re-
sult in death.
Antibody: a substance which exerts a specif-
ic restrictive or destructive action on bacteria
or other foreign materials. An autoantibody
is an antibody which exerts its action against
a normal component of the host tissues.
Antigen: a substance which, on introduc-
tion into the animal body, provokes the pro-
duction of a specific type of antibody. An
autoantigen is an antigen derived from the
tissues of the host.
Antiserum: a serum containing a specific
antibody.
� Chromatography: the separation of bio-
logical and chemical materials by differential
or selective adsorption.
Complement: a therrnolabile substance in
normal serum. It is destructive to bacteria
and other cells with which it is brought in
contact.
Conditional reflex: to produce by training
an automatic response to a given stimulus or
to a substituted stimulus.
Counter-current distribution: a method for
separation or purification of liquid or dis-
solved substances by taking advantage of
solubility differences in two solvents.
Denaturation: modification of a protein so
that it no longer has all its original properties.
Denervation: removal of the nerve supply.
Deoxyribonucleic acid: a nucleic acid pres-
ent in animal and vegetable cells, especially in
the nuclei. It is a tetre.nucleotide containing
the sugar deoxyribose, phosphoric acid, and a
purine or pyrimidine base.
Electrophoresis: movement of charged ions
or particles in an electric field. The method
is especially useful for detecting impurities
in proteins and for separating proteins.
Embryogeriesis: formation of embryos.
Enzymic end-group analysis: the use of
enzymes to determine the terminal compo-
nents of the long chains comprising proteins
or other macromolecules.
Erythroblastosis fetalis: a hemolytic blood
disease of the newborn, arising from develop-
ment in the mother of an anti-Rh factor in
response to the Rh positive blood of the infant.
Gel diffusion: a method of separation or
analysis of chemical substances depending
on rates of diffusion in such gels as agar.
Heterologous: derived from an animal of
another species.
Homologous: derived from an animal of the
same species.
Humoral: pertaining to the extracellular
fluids (blood and lymph) of the body.
Immune: exempt from infection or allergy
by reason of having had the disease or having
been inoculated with antigen to promote anti-
body production.
Immunity: the natural or acquired resist-
ance of the body to disease; may be temporary
or permanent.
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Immunization: the process of rendering im-
mune. Passive immunization is achieved by
injection of the serum of an animal which has
acquired an active immunity. Active immuni-
zation results from having suffered and over-
come an attack of a pathogenic organism of
normal or modified virulence or of the toxin
of such an organism.
Immunobiology: the study of the biological
reactions following the introduction of foreign
antigenic substances into the body.
Immunochemistry: the study of the chem-
ical reactions following the introduction of
foreign antigenic substances into the body.
Immunogenesis: the formation of immune
bodies, or antibodies, after injection of an
antigen.
Immunology: the science dealing with the
phenomena of immunity.
Immunospecifteity: the highly specific re-
actions mediated by the immune process.
Incompatibility: the inability of a tissue
to survive and grow when transplanted.
In vitro: in a test tube or other artificial
container.
In vivo: within a living being.
Isotopic labeling: the marking of a com-
pound or substance by incorporation of an
isotope (radioactive or non-radioactive).
Lyophilization: the drying of biological
materials by a process of vacuum freeze-dry-
ing.
Nucleoprotein: a complex of nucleic acid
and protein; often seen as components of cell
Nucleotide: a simple nucleic acid combined
with one base only.
Ontogenesis: development of the individual
animal or plant organism.
Phagocyte: a cell possessing the ability to
ingest bacteria, foreign particles, and other
cells.
Phylogenesis: evolutionary development of
a species.
Properdin: a protein in normal blood se-
rum, believed to be a factor in natural im-
10
munity. It acts in conjunction with comple-
ment and magnesium ions and causes de-
struction of bacteria, lysis of certain red blood
cells, and neutralization of some viruses.
Reticulo-endothelial system: a group of
cells found in various organs and tissues
(spleen, lymph glands, bone marrow, liver,
adrenal, pituitary, and blood) , chiefly con-
cerned with phagocytosis and production of
immune bodies.
Rh factor: an agglutinating factor present
in the red blood cells of the Rhesus monkey
and in red cells of about 85 percent of human
subjects.
Schwartzmann phenomenon: a reaction
produced when an animal is given an intra-
dermal injection of a filtrate from a bacterial
culture, and 24 hours later is given an intra-
venous injection of the same material. At
the site of the original injection a hemorrhagic
lesion appears.
Serology: the branch of science dealing with
blood serums, especially with specific immune
serums.
Sonification: treatment of substances with
sonic vibrations.
Titers: concentrations of components in
solutions.
Tolerance: specifically in this paper the
failure to produce immune antibodies against
a foreign substance.
Toxoid: a toxin treated So as to remove its
toxicity but retain its ability to engender or
produce antibodies.
Transplantation: grafting of one organ or
tissue onto another organ or tissue. Homo-
transplantation is grafting within the same
species. Heterotra.nsplantation is grafting be-
tween species.
Ultracentrifugation: subjection of biologi-
cal materials to very high centrifugal speeds,
either to separate components or to deter-
mine physical characteristics such as purity,
molecular weight, and viscosity.
X-ray diffraction: the bending of X-rays by
atoms in a crystal; the pattern produced is
photographed to give a relative, three-dimen-
sional diagram of the crystal atoms.
�CetiefIBENTIAL.
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APPENDIX A
The More Important Soviet Institutes in Which
Immunochemical Research is Conducted
1. Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiol-
ogy imeni N. F. Gamaleya, AMS, USSR, Mos-
cow. Director: S. N. Muromtsev
2. Institute of Biological and Medical Chem-
istry, AMS, USSR, Moscow. Director: V. N.
Orekhovich
3. Institute of Experimental Biology, AMS,
USSR, Moscow. Director: I. N. Mayskiy
4. Institute of Biochemistry imeni A. N.
Balch, AS, USSR, Moscow. Director: A. I.
Oparin
5. Institute of Biophysics, AS, USSR, Mos-
cow. Director: G. M. Frank
6. Institute of Normal and Pathological
Physiology, AMS, USSR, Moscow. Director:
V. N. Chernigovskiy
7. Institute of Experimental Pathology and
Therapy of Cancer, AMS, USSR, Moscow.
Director: N. N. Blokhin
8. Institute of Oncology, AMS, USSR, Len-
ingrad. Director: A. I. Serebrov
9. Institute of Experimental Medicine,
AMS, USSR, Leningrad. Director: D. A.
Biryukov
10. Central Order of Lenin Institute of
Hematology and Blood Transfusion, Ministry
of Health, USSR, Moscow. Director: A. A.
Bagdasarov
11. Central State Scientific Control Insti-
tute of Vaccines and Sera imeni L. A. Tarase-
vich, Ministry of Health, USSR, Moscow.
Director: S. I. Didenko
12. Moscow Institute of Vaccines and Sera
imeni I. I. Mechnikov. Director: A. P. Muzy-
chenko
cicrirrrtraa
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tOIffIBENTIAL
APPENDIX B
A Selected List of Scientists Engaged in
Research Related to Immunochemistry
Ado, A. D.
Aleksandrov, N. I.
Annenkov, G. A.
Batyuk, I. F.
Chistovich, G. N.
Dubrovskaya, I. I.
Gefen, N. Ye.
Gostev, V. S.
Grigoryan, D. G.
Gurvich, A. Ye.
Kiselev, P. N.
Klemparskaya, N. N.
Konyukhov, B. V.
Korosteleva, V. S.
Kosyakov, P. N.
Kuzin, A. M.
Orekhovich, V. N.
Oyvin, I. A.
Pigalev, I. A.
Shevelev, A. S.
Sigal, M. Z.
Spirin, A. S.
DENX IAL
Svet-Moldayskiy, G. Ya.
Troitskiy, V. L.
Tsuverkalov, D. A.
Uchltel', I. Ya.
Volikenshteyn, M. V.
Volkova, M. S.
Vol'pe, I. M.
Vygodchikov, G. V.
Zdrodovskiy, P. F.
Zirber, L. A.
Zotikov, E. A.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY NOTE
A bibliography on immunochemistry is published as a
separate list. Copies of the list are available to authorized per-
sonnel and may be obtained from the originating office through
regular channels. Requests for the bibliography should include
the publication number and date of this report.
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