I. SURVEY OF THE MOST WIDELY SPREAD DISEASES OF GRAIN CROPS

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C.`
166--
J
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Vsesoiuznoe gosudarstvennoe obtedinenie
pa bortbe s vrediteliami I bolezniami
v seliskom i lesnom khoziaistve. Sektor
Slushby uoheta. Instruktsii dna nab-;
liudatellnykh punktov. no. 1-2, 5-6,
13. 1932-33. 464.9 V96
TABLE OF CONTFETS No. 2
Transi. 161: Plant Proteotiol
Translated in part
from the Russian by
R. O. Denbo
I. Survey of the most widely spread diseases of grain crops 3
/I. Organization, program and methods of work at observation points 23
1. Periodical excursions 24 .
2. Ten-day observations 29
3. Simultaneous registrations 34
III. The organization and the technique of registratIon* 34
Registration of loos of winter crops 34
Registration of the bending of stalks 39
Registration of smut 40
Registration of forage poisoning :Olaviceps purpurea] 42
Registration of spottiness of spikes and of panicles. 45
Registration of spike mold 46
IV. Special registration of experimental planting 48
V. Reports of ani information about observation points 49
Supplements:
1. Key for defining diseases of grain crops 51
2. Phases of development of grains 61
3. Simple form for special reports and information 62
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TABLE OF CONTENTS No. 6
Diseases of the sunflower 3
I. Peculiarities of sunflower plants 3
II. Survey of sunflower diseases 4
III. Description of sunflower diseases 5
1. Orobanch cumana 5
2. Solerotinia 7
3. Dry mold of baskets (fikorzinkan) 8
4. Verticilium Wilt Verticilium Dahliel 10
5. Rust 13
6. Spottiness or leevos 14
Iv. Organisation sidmethods of work at observation points 16
V. Technique of qualitative registration 20
V/. Technique of quantitative registration . 23
Supplement. Key for defining diseases of sunflowers
according to external symptoms
Literature
27
31
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TABLE OF =TENTS No. 13
Introduction
2
I. Survey of the principal diseases
3
II. Description of the principal diseases
6
A. Diseases, registered simultaneously
6
I. Wound injuries of the bark and wood pulp
6
2. Swellings on trees
.8
3. Deformation of the organs
10
4. Drying of branches and sprouts
11
5. Disease of the entire tree
12
6. Diseases of fruits
13
B. Diseases, under periodical observations
1. Rust
17
2. Deformation of leaves
17
3. Filia and spottiness on leaves and sprouts
18
III. Location of work of the observation point
20
IV.' Organization, programme and methods of work of the
observation point
22
A. Work of the observation point in the garden
22
B. Work of the observation point in the conservatory
33
V. Reports of and information about the observation point
41
Supplements:
1. Phenology of fruit tree
42
2. Key for defining diseases of apple, pear, plum and cherry
Principal literature
55
END
4 June 1951
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Fridrikhson, G. A.
The virus diseases of crop plants
in 'aratov region. Zashoh. Rest. 14:
- 105-107. 1937. 421 P942
Translated from the Ruseirl by
R. G. Denbo
Virus diseases of agricultural plants in the aratov region have recent-
ly attracted the attention of phytopathologists. Fot until 1931 did we notice
in the oblast the first indication of their spreading on plants like tomatoes
sr i squash (Vertogradova).
The systematic 77ork of the Saratov fruit-vegetable zone station on the
disclosing of the viruses of fruit-berries and vegetables, which started in
in
1935, found them /large variety, widespreadirg and damaging; therefore, this
group of diseases requires our special attention.
The present Work aims to give a shorteurvey of the viruses in tills oblast'.
The virus diseases of the potato. The potato is a plant which suffers con-
siderably fro ,n viruses. The avera;e percentage of i,Ifestation reaches sometimes
up to 50-75.
Among the diseases of this group, the wrinkled mosaio is always found, the
percentage of Which often reaches 30 and even more. The disease manifests
itself often in a complicated form - the form of striped mosaic), According to
the data at Petrovsk, selection station of Saratov Oblast', the loss of crops
due to wrinkled mosaic is shown as follows:
Table 1
Species
Losses of Crops in A
1929
1930 : 1931
7arly rose
triuger
57 Cl 58.0
49 61
20.5
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Fridrikhson, G.A.
Among other diseases, there are in Saratov oblast' ukrapohatost",
rolling of' leaves, Witch60 Broom and "aukuban. The latter three are fbund
quite rarely.
Witches t BroomsTs mostly spread in the Volga region. The number of stems
during this disease reaches up to 100; tubers are of the size of a pea or are
missing entirely.
Diseases of tcela.toes. The tomato in Saratov oblast' is infested by
mosaic ard by ustolburu. The percentage of mosaic infestation reaches up to
1001 atolbur - up to 50.
Damage caused by stolbur is extremely great, since the diseased plants
usually carry single fruits or do nOt have any fruits. uStolbur" appears
more frequently upon 'saliferous soil, and also under the conditions with
insufficient moisture in the ground. In Western parts of the oblast', it is
found rarely and in a less harmful manner.
In 1936 "strik upon tomato plants has been disclosed. A close observa-
tion indicated a wide spreading of this virus. Thus, out of 14 miens, it has
been disclosed in 10. Yet the percentage of its infestation is insignificant.
An early infestation by ustrika (the first and second week in aly) causes the
loss of plants. The Mexican tomato suffers considerably from ustAku, The
incubation period is 15 to 17 days.
During the bushiness of the top (the diagnosis is conditional) the plant
is depressed; it gives a small amount of sprouts. The lower leaves of normal
aim) are slightly rolled up. With young growing parts of the stem, the
development of the internode is delayed and the leaves are drawn together. The
additional top sprouts have a tendency toward an intensified development; tho
leaves have crushed lobules; their fibers are underdeveloped, hence the leaf
blade wrinktes_and, besides, rolls along the central fiber.
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Pridrikhson, G.A.
Diseases of squash. On melon, squash and turnip the cucumber mosaic
is widely spread in Saratov oblast'.
Diseases of fruit-berry crops and of grapes. Out of this group of plants,
and underskin spottiness on the apple tree has been observed, bn grapes -
etripedohlorose, quite similar to the infectious chlorose. Yet its etiology
has not been determined up to date.
Dim raspberry, the goffering of leaves and Witch's Broom have been dis-
closed in the state farm nSadvintrest" of Bek raion. The observation made
in the state farm indicated a vide spread of diseases on the plantation of
60 hectares.
During the goffering, the leaves are of dark green color, rolled upwards.
The tissue between the nerves are swollen upwards. On the stems, there are
elongated spots from brown to balck. There are on the plantations some fields
Where the infestation equals 100 ob, in some others, it fluctuates in the
boundaries between 10 to 20 0A.
During the disease of Ditch's Broom, the plants have up to 200 and even
more thin stems, in comparison to sound plants. The height of the plant is 3-4
times smaller than the normal one. The leaves are crushed and have many necrotio
spots. They fell prematurely, the diseased plants do not bear any fruits; on
the field, they are unevenly distributed; there are rows where the infestation
reached 22 c/o. flUsailike is the species Which suffers the most.
In summing up the above, it might be said that the Saratov ()blast' is a
raion of wide spreading of various virus diseases of agricultural plants and
requires the development of scientific research in this direction.
END OF ARTICLE
4 Jung-1951
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Stepanov, K. L.
The prognosis of plant diseases.
Zashch. Rest. 15: 3-14, 1937.
421 P 942
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Translated from the Russian
by R. G. Denbo
The practical significance of forecasting plant diseases is beyond any
doubt; it is important to foresee in advance the timing of infestation and Of
manifestation of the diseases and also the intensity of their seasonal develop-
ment, because this helps in precise planning of the amount of measures in
controlling them and in fixing the timing of carrying out the control.
The forecast of plant diseases is determined mainly in the following manner;
1) by the availability of the regular dependency of the development of the
diseases upon the factors of environment, and 2) the possibility of foreseeing
the latter. The history of epiphytism and daily practice indicate that the
principal factors, which regulate the development of plant diseases is the
economic activity of man and the weather. The role of man is varied in this
respect and sums up to the %flowing: 1) the development of,tho plant-host;
2) the spreading of infections (with seeds, with planting material, etc.);
3) the active elimination of the infection (immunization by chemicel and thermic
meant, derooting, etc.); 4) cultivation of immune species and 5) initiating
such conditions of the environment, under which the immunity of plants is mani-
fested in the highest degree, and the viability of the parasite, in the lowest
degree (agrotechnique).
The first Deur requirements may be met comparatively easily, and the
success of the forecast of plant diseases practically depends little on them.
Vero complicated is the control of the environment. It is true that man is
able to change the environment by measures such as the time of sowing, the
density of green, cult. vation of the soil, the location of the field, etc.
Devertheless, it is closely related to the weather el:..att cannot be controlled
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Stepanov E. M.
by man. rherefore, for the forecast of plant diseases, it is most
important to know the regularity of its development in relation to the
weather. The role of the latter is manifested not only directly (increase
and decrease of the aggressiveness and of virulence of the parasite and
the distribution of the infection), but indirectly as well through the
plant.host (increase and deorease of its itmunity). Hence, the forecast
of the weather is in this respect of great significance.
Investigations carried out in the field of plant disease forecasting
should had practically to the fixing of definite meteorological indexes of
the developments of the diseases. It seems there can be no universal index;
there must be various indexes according to the stage of development of the
parasite and of the disease. In connection with this, the investigations
on forecasting and also the practical approachs.liould follow specific
bioschemes which reflect those states of the parasite and of the disease and
those factors, the regular relationship with which, would ensure the formu-
lation of the forecast. These schemes should vary depending on the form of
the forecast (short and long forecasts).
The short forecast is that of timing of separate infestations and of
manifestations of the disease. This forecast is made many times during the
season and is significant mainly for warning of the time of spraying or of
pollination. As a classic example of such a prognosis is the warning of
the spraying of vine against mildew, of the apple tree against soab, and of
the potato against phytophthora.
The scheme in drawing I should be used as the basis of a short forecast.
. The starting point in the formulation of a short forecast is the primary
infection (its sources, schedule and conditions); it determines the original
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Steps.nov, L II.
manifestation of the disease, /then the secondary infection, etc. Although
the general phonological acclimatization of the parasite to the plant-host
has been disclosed, the separate timing of infection, including also the first
infections, vary usually in/ relation to the conditions of moisture which
fluctuate in various seasOns. In cases when those instances are sufficiently
ermined, it is relative* easy to foresee the first infection or, at least,
the origin of the disease. The scab of the apple tree has been taken as
an example. It is known that the primary infection of the apple tree by
scab occurs mainly with the assistance of ascospores. As long as the dis-
carding is possible only during a great amount of moisture, mainly during
rain, and this is necessary also for the infection, the short forecast of
rain is in some degree also the forecast of the primary infection of the
apple tree by scab, under the conditions of definite temperature with the
availability of mature spores and the organs of the apple tree which are
susceptible to infestation. On this is based the famous Uorth American
method of spraying (Stepanov, 1934).
This is related to a considerable degree to mildew of grapes and to
phytophthora of potatoes. As is known, the source of the primary infection
of mildew are the oospores. As indexes of primary infection are: 1) the
availability on the soil of oospores capable for sprouting; 2) temperature
higher than 11? C; 3) abundant rain causing the sprouting of oospores and
simultaneously moistening the lower surface of young leaves, and 4,) availa-
bility of mall leaves susceptible to infeStation; their size should be
not less than 2-3 cm Mueller and Sleumer, 1934).
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Stepanov, K. M.
In practice, the warning for the first spraying of the vine against
mildew starts when, with the availability of the given conditions,the
average day temperature of the air reaches 1? C. and higher (Prints, 1937).
Based on the Borecast of the first abundant rain, when suitable temperature
has established itself and the vine is covered wth foliage, then one could
make the forecast of the first infection according to the example of the
apple tree scab and carry out the first protective spraying accordingly.
Unfortunately,innthe,practice of controlling vine mildew, the prinary
infection is fixed post factum and the first spraying is carried out only
at the end of the first incubation period, that is, before the secondary
infection.
More complicated is the problem of the first infection of haulm of
potato by phytophthora. This is explained by the fact that up to now the
conditions of the primary infection were not examined completely. The
indexes of the primary infection knovin under the name of Holland signs of
weather were determined empirically. According to these signs, the spread
of phytophthora could be expected during 15 days after the following
weather conditions took place: 1) dew observed at least during four night
hours; 2) minimum of temperature higher than 100 C; 3) the average cloudi?
ness of the following day higher than 0.8, and 4) measurable rain during
the following 24 hours. Here, as in the case of vine mildew, the primary
infection is difficult to foresee. These "signs" seemed to be correct
also in England, where some additions were introduced. Investigations
which mere carried out by VIZRA 143P,9) All Union Institute of Plant
Protection) indicated the practical Significance of those signs, but they
also indicated the necessity of some additional changes (Naumova, 1934,
1935, 1936). Thus, the problem concerning the day of the primary infection
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Stepanov, K. M.
of the potato by phytophthora remains still unsolved. Therefore, in some
cases, it is consideratly more difficult to make the forecast of the primary
appearance of the disease than in the case of the apple scab and vine mildew.
In those cases 'when the instances of primary infection are still not
clear, it is vita impossible to make the forecast of the primary infection
and the primary manifestation of the disease. This will require the intro-
duction of two first most reliable protective sprayings.
The forecast of the primary and then of the secondary infections will
be more precise according to the familiarity with the conditions under which
they originate. Besides, this will assist in conteolling the correctness of
the forecast simper, after having studied the conditions of infection, one
may determine post factum the day of infestation according to the weather.
This, as has been indicated, helps in determining the possible time of the
?
appearance of disease and of infestation.
1. initial infection
2. second infection
5. Dispersion of the infection
6. viability of the infection
4. the appearance of the infection 3. incubation
Indexes: 1-the initial infection end 2-second infectiontmoisture, temperature
(light)]; 3-incubation (temperature, moisture(light)ii 4-appearance of the
infection ttemperature,inoisture9light)); 5-dispersion of infectiontaerial
streams(moisture)3; 6-viability of the infectiontmoisture, temperature
(light)) origin
The conditions of the sprouting of spores of fungi which are the most
abundantly spread sources of infection furnish quite a clear idea of the
oonditions of infection. Nevertheless, the sprouting of spores, especially
under those conditions under which laboratory experiments are made, are not
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identical with the instance of infection. The letter is the starting
moment for the struggle between the sprouting of the spore and the plant
host, which resists the penetration of the parasite whose strength varies
according to weather conditions. Therefore, the real notion about the
moment of infection furnishes the knowledge of those conditions under whieh
the latter occurs.
Moisture and temperature are here of preeminent significanoe. Drop-
liquid moisture is required for the infection of plants by the majority of
fungi. The latter is able to be stored on plants after rain, dew, etc.
for various periods, depending on thetemperature, wind, etc. Therefore,
even under favorable conditions of temperature, the infestation might not
occur if the water drops dry fast enough, as a definite length of time,
depending on temperature, is required for the formation of a sprout and of
its penetration, which occurs in most oases. It has been indicated, for
Instance, that the infestation of the apple tree by ascospores Venturi*
inaequalis occurs with 6? after 13-18 hours, with 90 after 9-11 hours, with
2044? after 4-6 hours, and so forth (Keitt and Jones, 1926).
Similar indications are available in relation to vine mildew, crown
rust of oats and other diseases. Thus, the infection of oats by eoydio-.and
uredospores Paccinia coronifera under the conditions of moisture of leaves
occurs under 4.5-5.6? after 24 hours, with 60 after 2- hours, with 7-12?
after 10 hears, with 17-27* after 5.hours and so forth (Marland, 1937).
The fact that the duratione storage of water drops is of great sig-
nificance for the infestation is seen in the peculiarities of development
of vine mildew in Kirovabad raion (Azerbaidzhan) and in lalta (Crimea).
With almost the same amount of rainfall during the period of Uey4Ju1y in
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Stepanov, K. li.
both raion(s)(in Ialta there is even more rainfall) in Ia.its mildew
rarely develops, but in Kirovabad raion it occurs yearly. The absence of
mildew in Ialta is explained by winds which blow at night and cause the
leaves to dry; in Kirovabad, there are no winds during the night (Prints,
1936). Therefore, it is gaite natural that for determining the days of
the primary and secondary infections by similar diseases is important to
consider the duration of moistening of the plant. In this reit2peot, the
registration of dew is most important. .Therefore, it is neeessary to
examine the speed of the infestation during various temperatures.
When the availability of drop-liquid moisture is not required for
infiestation (for instnace, the infestation by conydia of mildew fungi),
it is necessary to register the duration of those conditions under 'which
the infection occurs in general (the correspondence of temperature with
the definite relative moisture of air, soil. In each case, there should
be a corresponding approach, resulting from ecological peculiarities of the
parasite and of the disease caused by it.
For a successful completion of infestation, light is significant in
some cases,(for instance, against mildew (Hammarlund, 1925). Therefore,
the registration of conditions necessary for infestation during correspond-
ing periods of the day is required.
The moment of fixing the day of infestation helps to determine in
advance the end of incubation -which causes the manifestation of intentional
origin end the next infestation. The basic dominating factor is the
dependency of the duration of the incubation period on temperature. As
the classic example in this respect, we may consider the scheme of iti)ler,
which has been used in our country widely and successfully in confirming
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Stepanov, K. M.
vine mildew, the origin of which was started by the work of Prints (1924).
A practical application of the Niuller scheme is specified, when,
based on meteorological data of many years standing, the graphs of the in-
cubation period are worked out. The graphs assist in determining quickly,
according to any day of infestation for the given locality, the possible
day of the manifestation of mildew; then, this preliminarily determined
day is specified by means of daily registration in percentage of the amount
of passage of incubation period based on factual average daily temperature,
and as the result of systematic summary of the percentage, the anount of
the incubation from the moment of infestation is determined. The nearest
percentage to 100 is the warning of an approaching manifestation of the
disease (Shatskii, 1936).
The Niuller scheme has been worked out in application to more or less
constant temperatures and is most correct for that. Thus, it has been
indicated that with fluctuating temperatures the incubation period occurs
1 or 24days slower than under constant temperature, especially when the
latter is critical (VUller and Sleumer, 1934). Therefore, during the regis-
tration of the length of the incubation period, it is necessary to register
daily fluctuations of temperature, especially in raions where the latter
are high (Olgarshevskii, 1933). In respect to mildew of grapes, there are
indications that the average temperature during half a day, namely of the
average day and night temperatures, furnishes a more correct idea of the
length of the incubation period for 24 hours as a whole than the average
24 hour temperature does. Thereby, it has been indicated that the sum of
percentage of incubation during a series of days from the moment of incu-
bation, equal to 90-93, indicates the readiness of the fungus to bear spores
(Popov, 1936).
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Stepanov, K. Li.
In this respect, the nomoraphsof incubation periods worked out
on the basis of three elements of temperature, minimal, average, and
maximal, are an important step forward. Such nomographs were first Worked
out for Phytophthora of potatoes, brown and yellow met of wheat (Daumoira,
1935, 1937). According to the scheme orlauller, it is possible to work
out from these nomagraphs charts of incubration periods for each locality
end then count according to factual temperature the size of daily incubation
passage.
The aerial moisture should be of 'less significance than theAtem-
perature during incubation, because the parasite is at this time sufficiently
well protected by the tissue of the plant-host. During the experiments of
Baumova, carried out under natural fluctuations of moisture (1934, 1935),
there was no correlation between the length of incubation period of phytoph-
thora of potatoes and of brown rust of wheat and relative moisture of air.
Yet the absence of correlation could be observed, possibly, only within
certain limits. Thus, for Puocinia Glumarum, the reverse correlation between
the duration of incubation period and of minimal relative moisture of air.
has been recorded (Neumova 1937). For vine mildew, it has been indicated
that permanent 100 ?A, Moisture of air speeds up the inoubation period
sometimes by 1-3 day:3'(M111er and Sleumer, 1934).
For some diseases, the influence of light is important during the
incubation period. Thus, during the infestation of wheat by uredospores
Puceinia graminie, the incubation period is extended if the plants remain
under poor light (Melander, 1935). This fact may have practical signifi-
canoe for work carried out under conservatory conditions during the winter.
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Finally, the age immunity of the plant-host plays some role. It
has been determined for Puccinia coronifera that during the infestation
of oats in the phase of sprouts, the incubation period appeared to be
shorter, on the average, by 1-2 days, than during the infestation in the
phase of blooming (Marland, 1937).
During the lb recast of altertate infection, it is imperative to
register the conditions of appearance of the infectional origin (for instance,
spores) upon the surface of the infested organ, its ?disappearance end via-
bility. Temperature is a very important factor during the spore bearing.
The speed of the formation of spores depends on temperature after the mani-
festation of the first signs of the disease, oily or chloride spots, and
so forth. In some cases, moisture is important; thus, the.formation of
conidia bearers Plasmopara viticola occurs at the end of incubt4ion under
the temperature not lower than 12-13? C. and with the moisture of leaves,
whereby the moisture of the air should not be less than 80 clo Miller and
Sleumer, 1934). The formation of conidial film Phytophthora infestans has
been noticed only upon leaves which were moistened during 5-6 hours (Naumova,
1935).
The diffusion of the infect!, onal origin (primarily of fungi spores)
depends mainly on air streams. It is possible to say for most of the dis-
eases, that the infestation starts to diffuse immediately after its mani-
festation, With some species', the diffusion of the infection is related to
moisture, for instance, of conidia Fusciadium dentriticum, the conidia of
the species Gloesporium, and so forth, (Stepanov, 1935). This has to be
taken into consideration during the fixing of usual infestation.
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Stepanov, K. M.
Of great importance is the viability of the infection, namely, the period
during which it may preserve its virulence. Often there are oases when the
infection, for instance, the bearing of fungi spores, is manifested, but the
conditions necessary for infection are absent at the given moments Viable
spores, for instance, uredospores of rust, chlamyldospores of smut, etc., are
able to endure relatively easily unfavorable conditions andwith,the return
of favorable conditions are able to infest plants. There are also ephemeral
bearing of spores, for instance, basidiospores of rust, conidia of perennial
spores, biability of which could be measured only by hours. All this depends,
of course, ohlohditions which should be studied as to the viability of in-
feotional origin in each separate case.
In conc..usion, we must say a few words concerning secondary infections.
Basically, they require the some conddtions as for the primary infection
(moisture, temperature). Nevertheless, as long as secondary infections are
usually caused by so waled summer spores, and the primary, by winter spores,
there d.% been them some kind of 4 difference. The differences pertain
not only to the infection itself, but also to its diffusion. Thus, the asco-
spores Venturia inaequalis which cause the original infection of apple trees,
diffuse mainly during a rain and therefore, rains are of greatest significance
in primary infections. The diffusion of conidia of this fungus is due to
moistening, that is why the secondary infections occur also during dews. For
the prinery infection of vine mildew, as has been indicated before, abundant
rain is necessary (in the vineyard should be little pools), while the secondary
. ,
infection requires only abundant dew. Such differences are oftem observed
in relation to the sprouting of spore. bf the infection itself. All this has
to be studied and recorded accordingly.
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These are the basic instances which are fundamental during the carrying
out of a short forecast of plant diseases. Every stage of the development of
the pest and of diseases requires separate indexes (drawins I). The scheme
given here is quite clear, and the carrying out of the short forecast is easy.
The most difficult point is the weather forecast, expecially of temperature
for a series of days which determine the length of the incubation period.
Technical difficulties represent also the registration of thus of preservation
of raindrops and dew, which, in many cases, is quite decisive during the
fixing of the int' estati on day.
Basically, it is necessary to uutilize data of many years and then intro-
dues the corresponding corrections concerning the factual temperatures. For the
definition of a long incubation period, one may make use, in some degree, of the
average temperature for 3-4 days after the fixation of the infestation day, as
has been applied for vine mildew and phytophthora of potato. Popov (1936)
assumes that the climatological method could be used during the working out
of a system of forecast of temperature. It consists of the fact that for the
given climatic zone, tr-e ?aormal movement of temperature during the passage of
rainfall, is clarified first; then, having the forecast of the distribution of
the days with rainfall, which are based on the normal movement of temperature,
the probable temperature for the following days and the assumed end of the
incubation period are determined.
For a full picture, it is necessary to mention some possibility of carry-
ing out a ehort forecast based on the famous bioclimatic law of Hopkins.
According to this law, the time of some periodical natural phenomenon, under
other equal conditons, is delay/, generally, for 4 days for each degree of
latitude(from South to North), for each five degrees of longitude (from West
to East) and for each 125 meters of altitude at the beginning of summer and in
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Stepanov, K. U.
the reverse order, at the end of summer and in fall. Based on this law, Tehon
(1927), compared the factual time of the appearance of Puccinia triticine. during'
S series of years along various points of the State of Illinois (North America)
with theoretically fixed time, arlid as a result, their concurrence has always
been noticed. Therefom, taking into consideration, the time of the appearance
of the disease somewhere in the South, it is possibte- to determine with a cer-
tain probability the time of its appearance in other points in the North, if
only the coordinates of all points are known.
Of course, such a method might have some significance during the forecast
of the appearance of the disease in some locality'as a Whole and not for small
fields, because. the micreclimatic conditions play an important role in this
respect.
Considerably more complicate now is the problem of a long forecast for a
comparatively longer period of the possible intensity of the development of the
disease &luring the season. Its practical significance is the fact that based
on it, the amount of measures in the control of plant diseasescould be deter-
mined in advance. The long forecast is made once, but with the advance of
the critical period, it undergoes certain clarifications based on factual
weather conditions. The forecast would be in principle not difficult, if only
the weather could be foreseen for a long tite in advance, not during the next
season, but during specific p3ri64hich,are critical for infestations and
the ensuing development of the disease. The success of a long tire forecast
depends still more on the long forecaet of the weather.
The scheme given in drawing 2 should serve as the basis of the long
forecast.
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Stepanov, K. U.
Drawing 2
1. Infection of the preceding season 2. Wintering of supply of
irfestation
4. Importation of a disease from afar
3. The frequency of the original
infection
Figure 2. The scheme of research along tile long forecast
Indexes: 1-infestation of the preceding seasontmoisture,temperature];
2-wintering now temperature, melting, moistening, the depth of
snow cover]; 5-the frequency of the initial infistations[moisure,
temperature]; 4-importation of infection from afar [aerial streams].
During a long forecast, the atount of infection which has been formed .
in the preceding season is of some significance. For some diseases, the
original infection of which is preserved in living organisms of plants which
are not exposed to the unfavorable influence of winter, the intensity Of infes-
tation of the preceding season is of great significance. As much as the latter
depends on weather conditions during a critical period,.it is evident that
a long forecast of the conditions of weather during infestation woad be made
with some probability. The dusty smut of wheat might bo taken as an example.
reMt of bxpertmente,Tarke(1930? determined the following: during
the resistance of plants at the tire of infestation at 56-85 0/6 of aerial
moisture and 19.4-29.0*C..., the manifestation of dustry smut for the next year
reached 93.7 oil() of smut-spikes, and with the resistance of the plants under
11-30 0/6 of moieture and 21-33'0 (approximately), the manifestation of smut
reached 21.9 o/o. In another experiment with 46-92 o/o of moisture and
the manifestation of smut reached 68.3 o/o of smut spikes, While
with 13-18 o/o of moisture and 11.7-35.0' during the infestation, the mani-
festation of the disease reached 14.4 o/o. Investigations carried out in this
direction by VIZR (BK/P ) indicate a similar relationship (Tropova, 1957).
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Stepanove K. M.
? As to those diseases whose infectional origin winters in the living
tissue of plant-host or in plant was,te, whereby they experience unfavorable
influence of winter, the carrying out of a long forecast, for instance, in
the fall, according to the supply of infestation which took place in many
? cases, is absolutely impossible.
In those cases when mass loss of infestation takes place, as it appears
according to the scheme of weather indexes, it seems a long forecast might be
carried out: A similar attempt is known. Thus, as a result of statistical
data, Stevens (1934) fixes some indexes according to which it is possible to
carry out a forecast of the intensity of development of bacterial wilting of
corn caused by Aplanobacter Stewarti. The indexes are the sum of an average
monthly temperature for three winter months (December-February). According to
the index, higher than 1000 Fahrenheit, an intensive development of wilting
could be expected, and, according to the index, lower than 90*, its very poor
development can be expected. The experiment in some degree proved the sig-
nificance of these indexes of the &recast of the development of wilting in
various states. (Stevens, 1934, 1935, 1936). It is possible to expect such
relationship with other diseases, including also those whose infectional origin
winters in the living tissue of the plant-host, for instance, uredamycelia
of rust on winter crops. The work carried out on the wintering of rust indi-
cates the possibility of mass loss of infection under certain condltions.
In ease of favorable wintering of infeotional origin, it .is impossible
to fix a long forecast if the weather during specific critical periods of
the coming season remains unknown.
o 4a
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Stepanov, K. M.
In separate cases, probably an extended forecast according to summer
weather conditions is possible. During that period, the infectional origin
which causes the first infestation of plants in spring of the following year
is preserved. Some assumptions were made that the development of curliness
of leaves of peach trees, caused by Exoascus deformant, depends in some degree
on summer temperature. Such assumption is the result of the fact determined
by Mix that the conidial crops of fungus perish completely after a few days
under 3-* C. This explains the absence of the disease in Texas and in the
Southwest part of North America (Heald, 1933). The observations of Mehta(1931)
in the hills of Himalaya, who found that starting with the hot dry weather,
the rust in the valleys dies completely, and then, after the unfavorable con-
ditions are over, it again appears, due to the diffusion of spores from the
plateau, point out that unfavorable summer conditions in some cases cause
loss of infection.
A more reliable long forecast could be made according to weather condi-
tions under which the spring reappearance of the disease occurs. The spring
weather might 09.230 a breach between the parasite and the plant-host during
the reappearance of the activity of the infectional origin which winters in
the living tissue of the plant or in plant waste. In such cases, a slight
development of the disease or its entire absence could be expected. In other
cases, on the contrary, the spring weather could increase the activity of the
parasite, and, on the other hand, extend the period of the most susceptibility
of, the plant-host and thus increase the activity of the parasite and, on the
other hand, considerably extend the intensity of the infections. Then, con-
sequently, the intensive development of the disease could be expected. As
examples might serve dust and hard smut, fusarioses of wheat sprouts and
apple tree scab.
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Stepanov, K. M.
It has been ascertained that the sprouting of wheat graine which were
infested by dust smut under low temperature considerably decreases its mani-
festation. Thus, in the experiments of Gassner and Kirchoff (1934) the grain,
which sprouts under the temperature of / C., yield plants which had 7.4 0/6
of smut spikes, while the sproutieg under / 20? C. yielded 11.6 ob of sent.
ID another experiment, grain which aprouted under 1-0? yielded afterwards
2.4 OA, and those sprouted under / 200 yielded 12.7 oio of smut. The work
of VE2R ( ) indicated that the sprouting of grain under /1? C yielded
the spreading of dust smut, equal to o.4 o/ro of smut spikes, while the grain
sprouting under 50 and over (up to 30?) yielded the spreading of smut in
the limits of 2.1-4.1 oio (Tropova, 1937). It is evident that it is impossible
to make the Dprecast of the presumed appearance of smut based on the tempera-
ture of the soil during the period of grain sprouts.
A similar forecast on the tanperature of the soil could possibly be made
also in relation to fusariosa of wheat sprouts; when during the period of
sprouting, the decrease of son temperature occurred then the decrease of the
disease manifestation could not be expected (Tupenevich,1936). For the hard
smut of wheat reverse relationship takes place; in this case under the decrease
of temperatUre during the time of grain sprouts, an increased manifestation
of the disease could be expeetid (IUraviev, 1926)..
It has been known that a humid, cool spring causes an intensive develop-
ment of the scab of the apple tree. Bremer (1924) discovered for Proskau
(Germany), that the intensity of seasonal development of scab is in direct
relation to rainfall for a decade previous to the blooming of the apple tree.
The working out of statistical data in various raion(s) of the Union carried
out in our country indicated that the universal index (the sum of rainfall
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10
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kateVyaLlUV, Ars Mo
during scme period) for all raion(s), evidently, could not be determined.
The relatior,boateen the seasonal development of scab and the definite kind
of weather during tho month of apple blossoming has been determ!xed, namely,
it became clear that the more the weather is humid and cooler during that
period, the more intensive development of scab may occur, and, in ersely,
the warmer and more dry the weather is during the same period, the lower
development of scab is probable (Stopsnov, 1936). With more precise weather
indexes, especially after registering generally the summer weather, a similar
extended forecast could be made. Its significance is preserved as long as
the amount of Sirther measures on sprayire; could be clarified.
Finally, during an extended forecast, it is necessary to take into con-
sideration the possibility of importation of infection by air streams from aside.
The rork of VIM (Stepanov, 1935), carried out in this direction, indicated
that the opinion concerning the possibility of simultaneous distant drifting
of the infection by aerial streams from afar in such degree to cause local
epiphytism was exaggerated, especially in cases of diffusion of infection by
aerial streams in latitude sense (from West to East.). Yet under certain con-
ditions, the drifting should be taken into consideration, especially When it
occurs in altitude direction (from South to llorth), since during this motion,
a considerable delay in the time of plant development is observed. This may
cause a successive drift of the infection, if not a simultaneous one, from
the location where the original infection already accumulated to another loca-
tion. Such a circumstanoe, of course, may bhange the picture of dev3lopmant
of the disease in raion(s) where the local infections are absent, due to certain
reasons, or died at the beginning of the season.
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*
4. SI
Stepanov, K. M.
This is, generally, the situation with an extended Pnrecast of plant
diseases. And in this case, of'courte, the forecast could be significant only
for an entire field, and not for separate fields, since the conditions of
microolimate and the distribution of the nests of infection are important for
the intensity of the seasonal development of the disease. The work of VIIR
(603)A11 Union Institute for Plant Protection indicated a great difference
in the dynamics of development of brown rust of wheat on different ecological
stations within the borders of one field. Thus, about July 27, the average
amount of uredopustule reached 480 in law places, and 59 on elevations.
Similar differences were deter:aird also for other fields (Fedorinchik,1937).
This, of course, takes place also in oases of development of othrr diseases.
In general, in the field of forecasting plant diseases, expeoially in
relation to an extended forecast, deep, serious investigations arc necessary.
Clear, detailed indexes concerning separate stages of the disease are imperative.
A serious study of the plant host itself is necessary, because the
infinence of the environment, especially of meteorological factors, is
noticeable not only on the virulence of the parasite, but also and in larger
degree, on the resistance of the plant, and on the final result of the
developmeit of the disease. The problem of species, the stages of plant
development and of the parasite should be discussed in further work. The
conformities in the development of the diseases in realtion to the factors
of the environment are siLpificant,not only for the forecast; they assist
in determining the frequency of epiphytism in the past and in the future for
etch locality separately (raioning), and also assist in forecasting the
possibility of development of the disease in those raion(s) where it is
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? - Stepancer
absent at the given moment (questions of quarantine). Finally, it is necessary
to mark their undoubted significance for agrotechniquess by selecting the
corresponding time of sowing, distributing the plants in a specific way during
crop rotrtion, applying a corresponding tillage, eta., we are able to create
such conditions Teich will be detrimental to the development of the disease.
END OF ARTICIE
5 June 1951
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Vostochno-Sibirskaia kraevaia
stantaiia zashohity rastenii.
Trudy go zashohite rastenii Vos
toohnoi Sibiri. No, 25. 1936-37.
454.9
V.93
TABLE OP 03NTENTS NO. 2
Foreword
CIA-RDP8OR01426R009900040001-2
Trans. 154: Plant Proteotion
Translated In part from
Russian by R. G. Dombo
I. A. Rubtsov. Raioning of reservations of locusts in
Siberia and forecast of MASS propagation according to the
coefficients of moistening.
1. A. Rubtsov. Change of the environment as the condition
of mass propagation of locust
M. I. Il'enko. On the problem of nstatsial'nom" dis-
tribution of locust holothuria
I. A. Rubtsov. Concerning nradionalizatsilan of the method
of observation of fields occupied by individual locusts
I. A. Rubtsov. Pasts of grain (Imps in Pastern Siberia
Which are hidden in stems
V. A. Bryzgalova. Brawn rust of wheat under the conditions
of Itkutsk-Nizhneudinsk zone of the Eastern Siberian krai
V. A. Bryzgalova. Evaluation of comparative immunity of
species of spring wheat to wet smut [stinking smut,
,Tilletia caries) and to brown runt in Prebaikal part of
Eastern Siberian krai
M. M. Ustiantsev. Compounds of fluorine in attractants
against locusts of Eastern Siberia
M. M. Ustiantsev. Testing of fluorine sodium oxide
solution in attractants against locusts
M. F. Levohuk. Concerning the study of owlets, harmful
in Eastern Siberian krai
Z. F. Kachaeva and I. A. Rubtsov. Geobotanic description
of reservations of locusts in Balagan steppe
V. M. Oleinikova. Diseases of flax in the main flax
cultivation raions of Eastern Siberian krai
3
25
45
58
66
99
175
204
225
242
278
289
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TABLE OF OINTENTS NO. 5
Preface 3
I. A. Rubtsov. Morphological description of the fly of
spring crops
A. A. Goncharova. The fly of spring crops under conditions
of Eastern Siberia 17
V. E. Rodd. On the problem of viability of grain mite in
the soil under the conditions of Eastern Siberia 50
V. A. Brysgalova. On the problem of causes of immune
effectiveness of dry anti-smut compounds 62
V. A. Brysgalova. On the new temporary host of brown
rust of wheat (Pucoinia triticina Erikss) 75
V. A. Brysgalova. On the problem concerning temperature
conditions daring the sprouting of spores of brown rust of
wheat (Puecinia triticina Erikss) in Eastern Siberia 89
U. M. Utt'iantsev. On the bioeloology of Eversman's
gopher in Eastern Siberia 96
G. L. Maksimov. Materials on the fauna of mouse-like
rodents of the Prebaikal part of Eastern Siberian oblast 128
M. M. Usttiantsev. Note on experiments concerning the
application of Eversmanos grain-cyanogen fusion against
gopher in Eastern Siberia
L. A. Kusnetsova. Preliminary data concerning the
utilization of nporistogo ogarkan as an insectofungioide
refuse of local industry and ore of scorodite
147
157
A. F. Nikolaeva. Concerning the spreading of house
fungi under the conditions of Eastern Siberian oblast 164
END
5 June 1951
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Trans. 1661 Plant Protection
Noralovo A. I.
Not to be backward from life.
Zashoh. Rest. 4: 5-8. 1935.
421 P942
Translated from the Russian by
S. N. Monson
TO KEEP IN STEP WITH WYE?
Socialist agriculture opened a wealth of possibilities before agricul-
tural science, leading to daring creative thought and innovations.
The Party and Government oreated conditions for fruitful work at
scientific research institutes, laboratories, experiment stations, of a
type not to be fount in any capitalist country. With certain accomplish-
ments to its credit, agrioultural science is nevertheless lagging behind
actual needs at state and collective farm levels and does not fulfill the
tasks placed upon it by our country.
The Party and comrade Stalin established an enormous army consisting
of collective farm brigade leaders, chairmen of collective farms, tractor
operators, drivers of combine machinery, mechanics, machinists. This army
of organisers of a vast agriculture is equipped with first-class machinery.
It energetically and persistently engages in a struggle with nature, con-
quering it step by step. These peasants, only recently baokward and today
transformed into collective farmers, are fighting to double and triple
agricultural outputs and to establish better standards of living .for them-
selves; they are greedily stretching out for soientific knowledge and
technical means, placing ever greater demands.
But one may &Leen admit that these demands frequently remain unful-
filled. Literally dozens of examples may be cited pointing to the lagging
of agricultural soience behind contemporary requirements, indicative of
the gulf existing between theory and practice. Thus instructions of the
ZVI Party Convention concerning the redistribution of agricultural crops
* Translation of Title by SRC
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'lunacy, A. I.
and varieties in the country remain still unsolved. This despite the feat
that they represent a major problem. It is true that attempts were made
to solve them. The Ail-Union Institute of Plant Protection has recently
published series of papers dealing with this particular problem ("Plant
Industry in USSR", for instance). The Lenin Academy of Agricultural
Soignees has, however, not developed or confirmed the plan for a redistri-
bution of agricultural crops. Stalin's statement made at the XVII Party
Convention concerning the confusion in the seed industry did not evoke
the necessary response among scientific institutions. Major shortcomings
in the organization of soiontific research with respect to selection and
seed growing have not yet been overcome. Nor has the development of in-
dividual teohnioal crops within the framework of established crop rotations
been given adequate attention. To preserve sowings and increase yields
in many regions, especially in the Volga (Zavolthie) region (left bank of
Volga river in its central and lower oourse) irrigation techniques for
cereal crops are of particular significance. The problem has been studied
for about three years and sufficient data been accumulated to pass pertinent
information on to industry. Scientific observations were, however, never
generalized, nor were practical instructions developed for introduction
into Soviet practice. Theoretical ideas concerning irrigation have not
gone beyond the walls of laboratories and limited experimental observations.
This despite the fact that the Party and comrade Stalin directed the atten-
tion of the entire country to this problem of greatest economic significance.
Sprinkling methods have equally been studied for several years, but agricul-
ture has not obtained practical assistance from science on the technique
of sprinkling.
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Xtralov, A. I.
Or let ur take such "individual" problems as the control of the damage
cauced to cultivated plants, (unfavorable conditions for wintering, for
instance). These have not been studied to date. still lack adequate
methods ensuring plant protection from pests and diseases. Collective
and state farms develop their methods and measures of pest control of
agricultural plants, but scientific inetitutions do not generalize the
information and thus do not aid farmers.
It is sufficient to refer to a subject such as the control of smut
and rust, practically overlooked by the All-Union Institute of Plant
Protect on (VIZRa). This despite the fact that triple yields may not be
achieved without decisive control of pests and plant diseases.
Would it be that our agricultural science lacks observation and
investigation? o, nuite the contrary. Scientific workers are simply
afraid to co into the fields of collective and state farms, to put up
experiments on a nide scale, test their awn observations. Unexplained
timidity, fear of rists are, moreover, observed not alone at the Institute
of Plant Protection. Similar situations prevail at .institutes dealing
with cotton crops. As a rule, solentifiC experiments on fertilizers,
technical methods concerning soil science are conducted at "vegetative"
cottages. People engaged in this work do not visualize the wide spaces
of apllective and state farms while they experiment at their "vegetative"
pavillions, Collective far= are therefore frequently ahead of institu-
tions in scientific tests. Warkemzem of USSR suggested to take experimen-
tation out into the fields. One hepes this meesure will reduce timid
fears among many scientific workers and bring them in closer touch with
agricultural production. We at present are harvesting 25 million poods
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Oa
kuralov, A. I.
of cotton annually and shall have to attain 37 to 43 iflion poods in 1937.
It will be difficult to reach this amount without the aid of many scientifio
methods. Science has been lagging in this instance.
The problem of determining the maximal efficacy in the use of chemical
fertilizers has not been solved. Agricultural practices and the use of
fertilizers on cotton crops have not been studied to date.
Nor is the situation any better with regard to flax, sugar best and
other teohnical crops. Specifically, scientific institutes have not
suoceeded in producing new sugar beet varieties of high sugar content.
Science faces concrete and therefore operative te.sks in the field
of plant industry, which are claimed by the nation and expected by millions
of collective farmers. The answer lies in practical action, concentration
of effort on the most important points, closer contact between agricul-
tural science and industry.
The Odessa Institute of Selection and Genetics shows a concrete example
a operative mkt, of close contact with Practical collective farm labor.
Thousands of collective farms and tens of thousands of farmers know today
about vernalization and are feMiliar with its practical procedure.
It is essential to reach a stage where every scientific discovery
and scientific paper will receive wide acknowledgement among millions of
collective femora. The ground is prepared for it. We possess a wealth
of creative forces at state and collective farms. These creative forces
turn for direction towards leaders in agricultural soleness. 11. must learn
how to use and organize these forces.
lie know of the role played by the machine in agricultural production.
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- 5
Yuralov, A. X.
We also knew that this role will steadily be increased, The Party and
and Government hem.* equipped and continue to provide agriculture with
first-clace machinery. One cannot deny that scientific research insti-
tutions have studied the n:bject. But this wes done on a limited scale,
inadequately end unsatisfactorily. Hundreds of thousands of machines
were delivered to agriculture but utilization of the machine tractor
remains on a law level. The nation has approximately 350.000 tractors.
Scientific institutions have, however, failed to develop even general
methods concernine the use of tractors and the cultivation of soil.
The tachnical care of field equipment, its repair, the operation of
tractor units, the establishment of types of repair shops, and the or-
ganization of technical repair shops, these problems have all remained
unsolved to eate.
At present our tractor plants (Cheliabinsk) put out powerful machines.
But trailer equipment of Correeponding power is lacking. Science has
done herdly anything in this direction. And we need these trailer (parts)
attachments since they =tad speed the operation of tractors immensely.
The Party and Government attribute enormous significance to the
control of losses in yields. Science has long ago been given the assign-
ment to develop new types of harvesting machinery, particularly for moist
regions. This order has remained unfulfilled. So has the order for
mechanized equipment for grain drying. Mechanized harvesting of technical
crops is still erectioed on a low level. In the field of mechanized
atriculture there is, as noted, a vast field open to scientific endeavor.
The Government, state nnd collective farmo have placed their orders and
agriculturel science should feel honored in fulfilling these obligations.
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Maralov, A. I.
Of ro lecser imrortarce are tasks in the field of husbandry. It
suffices to enumerate the Individual problems demanding theoretical
development in order to appreciute the gigantio effort demanded of science.
Sterility eon g domestic anieals, breeding of young livestock, the
organization of pedigree cattle production, the adjustment of imported
breeds of cattle in the USSR, etc. These problems of major economic
importance hew, not been etudied yet by science, except in individual
instances. Nor 1-ale selection-pedigree cross breeding and multi-fertility (T)
found their reflection in ecientific studiec. The situation may be explained
primarily by the fact thet our scientific institutions dealing with livesteek
are not engaged in centralized, syetematio, planned work whioh would permit
them to consider all the demends placed by agriculture, but are proceeding
in different directions, without any connection between them.
Full grown development in the field of husbandry may not be achieved
without raising veterinary science upon a necessary height. This field
is in an equally negleoted state. One may frankly admit that all scientific
instiUltionn, headed by the All-Union Veterinary Institute, are not equipped
to solve practical problems on the control of diseases of livestock. In
the field of veterinary science, AS in no other, the lack of people of
superior Irnowledge In severely felt.
The tasks oonfronting agricultural eolence are vast, varied and
honorable indeed. But the demands placed before it by socialist agriculture,
Party, Oovernment and the country are equally great. So far agricultural
science has not succeeded in meeting these demands. We suffer from a vast
abyss between theory and practice. The gulf between science and collective
farm practices, the lagging behind actuality are at the roots of thie
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Muralov, A. I.
abyss. Luok of definite leedershir In science, the seclusion of institu-
tions and their personnel behind four walla, the clinging to "gruppovshohinar
(domination of individual, secluded groups in any field of solencel, and
ineffective self-criticism n11 interfere with progress. One may add that
Warkomzem organiLations on location have also not supported agricultural
science and been of little aid to scientific workers in tying theory to
practice and establishirz closer contact with agricultural production.
All this hits hindered the process of agriculture from moving into broader
paths. The Lenin L114Jnion Academy of Agricultural Sciences, called upon
to airect the work of a6ricultural institutions, has not succeeded in this
task. A sturdy collective of highly qualified scientific personnel is now
grouped around thu Academy. Active members of the Academy have been con-
firmed. Their united efforts should cats* a rad4cal transformation in the
activity of the Academy. rvery academician, every scientific worker should
now become an orgaLizr in the field of science, load the thousands of
people employed in scientifJc institutions, united under the Academy, and
organize and lend the millions of collective farmers-experimenters. If
we accept the words of comrade Stalin "Cadres determine all", if we learn
how to organize these cadres, to build scientific work on a planned
foundation, we shall m/cter thr tasks placed before us by the Party,
Government and our entire practical agriculture.
Recently the first wide session of the Lenin Academy of Agricultural
Sciences convened, attended by the foremost selentists of our country.
It commented on tlf, unsetisfactory performance of the Avadway and pointed
to ways of improving it. Scientific agricultural workers should unite in
their efforts to achieve high yields, raise soil fertility, increase the
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S
ralov, A.
affluence of collective ferai, effect the procer orocizetion of pro-
cedures it scientific reseaveL, eatablIch curervii-ion of nrin institutec
over the entire netyorL of scientific researa units, down to the level
of cotta60 laborntories.
Abriaulturta scienco shoulu serve t,ocialict LLriculture?
End of Artielo
(Publ. in "Isvoatia" Ro. 151,
Juno 29, 1935.)
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Declassified and Approved For Release
Aviation in agriculture. In
Sel'skokhoziaist-vennaia ontsik-
lopediia. Ed. 3. vol. 1. Moscow,
1949. p 5-7. 30.1 Se42 Rd.3
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A&M.1141.1.3
iMisaellaneous.
Translated from the Russian
by S. N. Monson
Aviation in agriculture has a wide and varied application.
PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL OF PLANTS. Attempts were made to use airplanes
in many countries of Western Europe for the control of pests of agricultural
plants but nowhere did aviation find wide and practical application; air-
planes engaged in the work were few in number. Following the first experi-
mental attempts made .in the USSR in 1925, agricultural aviation became firmly
established. In 1940 pest control was applied on an area of 1.1 million
hectares with the aid of airplanes. During the period 1931 to 1940, pest
control exercised by air, covered an area close to 6-0 million hectares.
The Law of the Five-year plan, concerning the recionstruation and develop-
ment of the domestic economy of the USSR between 1946 and 1950, states: "To
develop special mass aviation for the control of pests in agriculture and
forests, as well as for the benefit of air photography."
Airplanes were equally used to control larvae of malaria mosquitoes by
treatment with poisons (chiefly Paris green) of infested reservoirs (wells);
(between 1931 and 1940 control of mosquito larvae was applied on an area of
20 million hectares and in the last pre-war years, close to 3-0 million
4actares were treated annually. The techzique of using airplanes in pest and
disease control of plants consists in having a low flying airplane (5 to 10 a.
above ground) broadcast various poisonous substances over infested plots and
wells. Air-dusters dust with powderlike poisons and poisoned attractants.
Air-sprayers spray liquid poisons (concentrated solutions, emulsions and pure
mineral oils). See ill. 1, 2, and 3 on p. 5. Chart showing expenditure of
the in
poisons by,aviation method applied fee the control of pests and diseases of
agricultural plants printed on pages 6 and 6 (Omitted temporarily)..
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Eorotkikh, G.
The advantages of the aviation method over above ground methods consist
in its high productive capacity, limited labor consumption, accessibility in
treating infested plots, and reduced costs.
The capacity (output) of an airplane per hour is: when dusting locusts-
up to 200 hectares; using attractants-about 60 hectares; when spraying-about
40 hectares; when dusting to control cotton and orchard peste-about 60 hectares,
when spraying-about 5 to 20 hectares; when dusting pests of sugar beets - about
80 heotares; when spraying-about 20 to 30 hectares; when dusting mosquito
larvae-about 300 heetares; spraying-about 40 hectares.
BROADCASTING FERTILIZERS. A special feature in broadcasting fertilizers
is their dispersal durinf; the period of the plant's vegetation. The most
prevalent treatment by air consists in additional feedings with nitrogenous
fertilizers of rice and flax plantings, as well as principal grain crops.
The advantages In using the aviation method to introduce fertilizers to
these crops, as compared to above ground methods, conaists in : 1. greater
regularity in dispersion; 2. opportunity to broadcast fertilizers during periods
and on plottwhioh are difficult or impossible to reach otherwise, (i.e. rice
plantings on inundated fields, winter wheat in early spring, etc.) The .
standard norms for introdUcing mineral fertilizers by broadcasting equal those
of above ground methods.
CONTROL OF STEPPE FIRES, It is possible to establish a shelter belt in
front of a line of fire by spraying with liquid solutions of caustic soda and
calcium chloride (20 and 30 0/6 in dosages of 0.3 liter per 1 imi) and of potash
(20 and 30 olo in dosages of 0.5,1iter per 1 m2). The boundary belt of a widtth
of 3 to 4 m. is completely effective for controlling steppe fires. Airplanes
are equally used to control forest fires. The advantage of the avia-chemical
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Korotkikh, G.
method lies in the fact that the location of the fire is discovered and extin-
guished earlier.
TRANSFER OF AGRIOOLTURAL FREIGET demanding speedy delivery, .(preparations
for artificial insemination of livestock, live fish and caviar, tho latter to
organize fish industries in new basins, etc.)
AIR-PROTOGRAPRYZOF,LOCATIONS and individual objects for various agricul-
tural and forestry needs seel air-photo-geodesy)..
ORGANIZATION IN TEE USE. OF AIRPLANES) For,the purpose of conducting the
above work in agriculture and forests in republic, krai and allot centers,
special aviation detachments were organised which have become part of the system
of the ,Civilian Ar Fleet (Aeroflot)( 1. These detachments perform
work by oontract which is concluded with agricultural organizations and deter-
mines the dates and volume of the work, gives estimates and specifies the
quality of the procedure.
End of Article
Reference: Korotkikh, G. Use of airplanes in the control of agricultural
and forest pests. M.-1. 1932
Korotkikh, G. and Starostin, S. Avis-chemical protection of
yields. M. 1945
Lavrov,.L. and Davit, K. Organization of pest control in agri-
culture by avia-Chemical method. M. 1939
Popov, S. Review of development of designs.of agricultural
aviation egaimint. U. 1945
Funikov. A; Use of airplane in the oontrol of steppe and peat
(turf) fires. M. 1959
Funikov, A. Instruction for using avis-chemical method in.
.foreat pest control. M. 1941
Funikov, A. Zbornik of instructions on work of special
applications. M. 1941
6 June 1951
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Virus diseases. Is. Selskokhoziaist-
vennais lints lopediia. Ed. 3, vol. 1.
Moscow, 1949. p. 328-329. 30.1 8.42 Rd.3
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Translated from the Russian
by S. N. Monson
Virus diseases of plants are speoifio infectious diseases, of Which the
inducers are special so-called virus albumen, or viruses capable to reproduce
themselves in living oells of susceptible plants (the organism viruses do not
accumulate, nor do they show activity)* On the basis of this characteristic
and by chemical composition, viruses resemble structural albumen of proto-
plasma from which they undoubtedly originate. Viruses contain nucleinic acid
and belong to nuoleoprotides. The possibility of new formations of viruses,
as the result of pathological reconstruction of structural albumen under
unfavorable conditions of an external environment, Is not precluded. Viruses
are rather easily segregated from th.to plants they affect and can be cleaned
of adMixtures with the aid of physical-chemical methods. Pure preparations
of difference viruses have been obtained in the form of crystals. Separate
particles of viruses can be seen through an electronic microscope and maybe
photographed. The size of these particles varies from tens to hundreds of
millimicrons. The partioles of the majority of viruses pass through small-
porous bacterial filters which retain microbes. Bence, the frequently used
name of filterable viruses. Some viruses are very resistant, such as the
mosaic tobacoo virus which may remain in dry leaves for dozens of years
without losing its viability.
Virus diseases affect flowering plants of mild and cultivated flora
of a multitude of families. Among cultivated plants particularly affected
by the virus diseases ares tobacco, tomatoes, potatoes, peppers, eggplants,
sugar beet, cotton, beans, soya, cucumbers, wheat and oats. Ferns, club
moss (Lycopodium), horsetail (Equisetum), and conifers are not affected by
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Sukhov, K.
virus diseases.
By their external end physiological characteristics, virus diseases
are divided into two groups: mosaic and yellow6("sheltukha"). Mosaic is
evidenced in the injury of chlorophyll tissues of leaves, light colored .
parte of leaves alternating with dark colored; degeneration and dropping of
plastids is also observed. The photosynthesis is reduced and the cells of
leaves contain a smaller amount of carbohydrates. Disfigurement of foliage
is frequent and in some instances the affected tissues die off. To this
.group of virus diseases belong: tobacco mosaic, sugar beet mosaic, crinkled
mosaic, striped mosaic, mosaic of potatoes, raspberries, plums, cherriesiete.
Ragwort is characterised by general ehlorosis of leaves and severe depres-
sion of plant growth; the conducting activity of "sieve-like tubes" is
interfered with, which leads to the filling of leaves with carbohydrates,
despite the fact that photosynthesis is also reducied. Cases of "shortknotting"
("korotkouslia"), of accelerated tillering and branching arc frequent; oc-
casionally flowers get green.. To Yellows belong: "sakUklivanie" of oats,
"stolbur" of Solanaceae, leaf roll of potatoes, "kurchavost", top curl of
sugar beets, leaf curl of cotton, mosaic of winter wheat.
During vegetative propagation of planta affected by virus diseases, the
virus is frequently transferred to the progeny. Thus, potato tubers affected
by crinkled mosaic are infected by the virus, as a rule, and when growing
produce mosaic plants. The "stolbur" virus of Solanaceae is poorly retained
in potato tubers and cases of its transmittance to tubers are very infrequent,
although the physiological after-effect of ' tolbur" is considerable (appear-
ing in the form of threadlike shoots).
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The geographical distribution of virus diseases is connected with
virus circulation in nature. Viruses that are highly infectious are cos-
mopolitan. To these belong for instance, the inducers of tobacco and
cucumber mosaic. These viruses are easily transmitted by juice inoculation;
this is explained by their established resistance to external? factors. Other
viruses, destroyed during their extraction from the cells, are not trans-
mitted by the above method. Their distribution depends upon insects of
one kind or another, acting as hosts. These viruses preserve their viability
in the. insect organism. The area of suoh viruses ie limited and depends upon
the area of the insect-host. Thus netolbur? of Solanaceae prevails only in
southern regions, in habitats of the insect cicada (Ryalesthes obsoletus)
while it is not found in central and northern regions. Occasionally, the
spread of virus diseases depends upon the area of the plant on which the
virus settles for the winter (i.e. mosaic virus of winter wheat); most.
frequently, virus diseases are spread by sucking insects, thus aphids trans-
mit crinkled mosaic of potatoes and mosaic of cucumbers; the dark cicada,
is vector to "stkuklivanie of oats. These insects get infected by viruses
Which settled on diseased weeds, the principal focus of viruses in nature.
Some virus diseases are easily transmitted by contact; specifically, the
most infectious tobacco viruses are transmitted by the juice of plants
and in thinning or the "breaking" of tobacco plants, etc. Viruses of
ntakuklivanien and nstolbur" are not transmitted by inoculation. Some virua
diseases, such es bean mosaic, "pestritsan of tobacco (variegation?), is
transmitted by seeds. The virus of tobacco mosaic is present in the
epidermis of seeds of mosaic-infected tomato plants and may during their
growth infect the shoots. The virus of the infectious chlorosis of pepper
is transmitted by pollen; a large number of virus diseases prevailing
abroad are not found in the USSR.
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Sukhov, K.
The development of virus diseases depends to a large extent upon the sur-
rounding environment. Thus, streak of tomatoes causing parts of tissues on
stems, leaves and fruits to die, is stimulated by high temperatures and
appears only underground ("sakryty grunt"). The tobacco plant obtained from
the crossing of N. glutinosa I N. thine= forms small local necroses when
infected by the mosaic virus which "block" the virus and in this manner pro-
tect the plant from complete destruction. Growth of this hybrid plant at
high temperatures neutralises the protective reaotion and causes it to perish,
following the general infection of the stem.
Virus diseases cause large damage to agriculture. They reduoe yields
and spoil their quality. When infected by stolbur, tomato yields, though
approaching normal, are unfit for consumption beouase of a wooden tasteless-
ness of the fruit. Grain yield is radically reduced by "Eakuklivanie" and
so is its germination. Stolbur (or "wet montar") of tobacco interferes with
the drying of leaves and causes them to rot. On many varieties of peppers
and eggplants, stolbur produces foliage and fruit wilt. Tobacco mosaic
reduces yields 20 to 40 o/o.
The diagnostic of virus diseases is based on the totality of external
symptoms and indicators' of pathological physiology'. Diagnostics is helped
in cases when the virus produces characteristic intra-cellular inolusions
well observed through the microscope. These ("vkluinhenia"),inolusions have
been ascribed to tobacco mosaic:, "mtkuklivanie" of cereals and several other
virus diseases. Virus infection of some plant?indicators also serves as
diagnosis. Viruses possess antigenic qualities which permit their diagnosis
by aerological method. A decisive influent's in controlling virus disease
is occasionally achieved by special methods of agricultural techniques.
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6
sukhov, K.
Thus sumner plantings of potatoes reduce the spread of virus diseases,
While simultaneously eliminating the physiological causes of degeneration.
Potato plantings in the south made after July 10 are completely free from
stolbur. Dusting of tomato plants, peppers and eggplants with the prepara-
tion DDT during the period of migration of the insect-vector reduces the
spread of stolbur two or three times. Eimilar results are produced by
dense plantings of these crops. Beating of dried tobacco seeds (moisture
6 0A) for one hour at a temperature of 85-90* reduces the transmittance of
the virus "pestritse (variegation 7) by two. Of considerable significance
in the control of virus diseases is the production of resistant plant
varieties. The above mentioned tobacco hybrid, possessing superior smoking
qualities, is resistant to mosaic. Varieties of tree tomatoes are relatively
resistant to stolbur. The potato varieties "Lorkh" and "Korelevakii" are
highly resistant to crinkled mosaic. Por plants of vegetative propagation,
the selection of healthy seed stock is of decisive importence in controlling
virus diseases. Regular destruction of weeds also contributes to reduction
In virus diseases.
EUD OF ARTICLE
Bibliography: Virus diseases of plants and methods for controlling them.
Moscow-Leningrad, Academy of Science of USSR, 1941 (Work
. of Conferences on virus diseases of plants) Moscow,
4-July 7, 194-
Kuprevioh, V. Physiology of diseased plants in connection'
with general probleme of Farasitism. Moscow-Leningrad, 1947
Ryzhkov, V. Phytopathogonic viruses, M.-L., 1946
Sukhov, K. Viruses of plants and insects-hosts, M.-L., 1942
Khudyna, I. Virus diseases of tobacco in the USSR.
Krasnodar, 1936.
6 June 1951
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?
Buchheim, A. ,
Plant diseases. In Selskokhoziaistui
vennizia Entsiklopediia. Ed.f3. vol. 1.
Moscow, 1949. p. 219-222. 30.1 3042 Ed.3 by S. N. Monson
Translated from the Russian,
Plant diseases are disruptions in life functions of plants connected
with infringements upon the normal structure of their cells and tissues, and
produced by parasitic organisms, unfavorable environmental conditions, mechani-
cal injuries, and other reasons. Plant diseases reduce the quality and amount
of yields of agricultural plants or lead to their complete destruction.
It is customary to divide plant diseases into non-Parasitic, parasitic,
and VIRUS DISEASES. Non-parasitic diseases of plants are caused by conditions
of external environment: unfavorable meteorological factors, excessive or
insufficient moisture of the soil, deficient mineral nutrition, etc. These
causes frequently lead to the disruption of the metabolism of plants and proi
duce such diseases as ohloroals and gummoeis. To non-parasitic diseases of
plants belong also changes that occur in plant tissues as a result of mechani-
cal injuries,
Parasitic plant diseases are caused by parasites of flowering plants,
parasitic fungi, ray fungi (actinomyces), i.e. potato scab, bacteria, nema-
todes, aphids, and other parasites. Parasitic and virus diseases of plants
oocaeionally assume a mass character and cover large areas. Among non-
parasitic diseases, those produced as & result of variations in temperature
are widely spread. At low temperatures (below (r), the tissues of individual
parts of a plant or an entire plant may freeze. Delicate flowers of large
moisture content, young, growing runners, unfolding leaves, are particularly
susceptible to low temperatures. In freezing, because of the intra-cellular
formation and the resulting water deficiency in the cell plasma and its
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Buohheim, A.
mechanical contraction, cell colloids congeal, and the plasma "dies".
Extremely high temperatures, accompanied by considerable dryness of soil
and air, may produce disease symptoms in plants, so-called "gakhvatn of
cereals. Drastic variations in temperature may cause serious injuries to
plants, such as scald and frost injury to woody plants. Frost injury (splits
in trunks and branches of trees) is the result of irregular contraction of
different layers of wood cellulose during a sudden severe frost. Frost
injuries and other disturbances of (all) tissues of branches and trunks
lead frequently to canker growth. Plants react to the deficiency or abut).-
dance of any elements of mineral nutrition in tile soil. For instance, when
iron is present in the soil in non-soluble'condition, as is the case under an
over abundant content of calcium carbonate or in instances of iron deficiency,
plants develop chlorosis. Symptoms are yellowing of leaves, especially of
young runners. Chlorosie is in some oases determined by the alkaline reaction
of the cellular fluid or may develop as a result of virus infection. Diseases
may also be caused by the laok of boron, manganese, copper and other micro-
elements in the soil.
Among parasitic flowering plants ("poviliki"), dodder, (Cuscuta europaea]
on clover and flax and (nsarazikba"), broom rape, Probanche) on sunflowers,
hemp, toba000, eto, cause major damage. They are practically devoid of
chlorophyll and feed exclusively at the expense of the plant-host. Some
plant semi-parasites, though containing chlorophyll and absorbing hydrogen
from carbon acid in the air, feed on plant-hosts, depriving them of water
and salts dissolved in it. Among semi.parasitea "omelet", (Viscum album)
injuries particularly apple trees and lose frequently pear trees.
Among the principal inducers of infectious plant diseases are parasitic
and non-parasitic fungi. Fungous plant diseases, i.e. rust and smut of
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Buchbeim, A.
cereals, phytoph hora of potatoes?,ftwarium of cereall ard other plants are
spread by spores carried by wind or rain. Seeds of agricultural plants
infected by fungi within or contaminated by spores, packing (tare) and
agricultural equipment, also serve as tranemitters of infection.
Some fUngi plant diseases, such as the majority of potato diseases,
are transmitted through seed stock. "Gribnitsa", mycelium or the spores
of some parasitic fungi are preserved in the soil in viable condition. By
penetrating into the root Or."roct collar" of a healthy plant (Pythium
DeBarxanum Hesse] they produce injury (i.e. fusarium of cereals, flax,
diseases of seedlings of various legumes). Club root of cabbage, for in-
stance, is also spread through soil. Different ways are known in which a
parasitic fungus penetrates into plant cello. Spores grow, develop in a
drop of water or in moist air and produce hyphae ("gifa") which may penetrate
Into the plant through the pollen aperature and other openings of the vege-
tative tissue, as well as through the cellular wall of the epidermis of
the plant-host. Fungi multiply within the plant and spread primarily intra-
cellularly.
Any fungus is aft inducer of disease and affects definite species of
plants. This adjustment to plant-hosts may be limited (affecting only one
or several plant species) or large (effecting many plant species, occasionally
entire genera or even families). The adjustment of rust fungi to plant-hosts
has been particularly wellestablished.
Externally plant diseases are distinguished by different symptoms and
characterized by a certain type, of injury.
Fungi produce localized diseases, apparent in separate small parts of
the plant, or general diseases which encompass the entire plant. Among
localized infections are: spottiness, pistules and fungi films ("nalet")....
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Buchheim, A.
As an example, spottiness may appear in spots on pear tree leaves. Genuino
or pseudo-mildew [Erysiphe communist Grey. f. fagopyris or Botrytis cinema Pers.]
produce fibs ("nale Vs). Whenever above-ground organisms (branches, foliage,
fruits) are covered by black, smoky film, this condition is referred to as
%horn", [Cladosporium). This disease is observed primarily on shrubs and
trees, specifically citrus plants [Aithaloderma colchicum, Woronichi.
Occasionally a localized infection may aoquire the shape of more or less
deep ulcers on various parts of plants (anthraonosis), the rims of sores
being frequently colored.
Localised infection is also observed in the form of brightly colored
spots (fungus "burn" of foliage of plums), while in some instances growth of
tissue is noted, club root of cabbage; "karmashki", [Exoasous pruni Sadeb),
and potato canker. Living and dead vegetative tissue containing an abundance
re
of moisturea to? frequently affected by rot.
Among the most vivid examples of general infection are diseases of wilt
caused by fungi, bacteria or viruses which penetrate into the vascular system
of plants. Another example of general infection is the so-called diffuse
infection causes by some rust fungi. It appears when the fungus penetrates
into the point of growth and is distributed throughout the plant.
Intense development of plant diseases caused by parasitic fungi and
bacteria depends to a large extent upon the environment affecting the plant
and the inducer of the disease. The condition of the plant changes under
an envirorment and along with this changes its susceptibility to disease.
Thus sugar beets are affected more easily by "serdtsevinnaia gall", caused
by the fungus Phone. betae, [Phoma Cetae, Frank) when boron is lacking in the
soil. Under an abundance of hydrogen fertilizer, cereals are more susceptible
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Buohheim, A.
to infection by rust, While potassium phosphate fertilizers are known to
increase the resistance of cereals to this disease. The influence an environ-
ment exerts upon the inducer of disease stems from the fact that it contri-
butes to or interferes with the development of either favorable or unfavorable
conditions, detrimental to the formation of spores, their growth, the pene-
tration of the inducer into the organism of the plant-host. Thus rainy or
yam, weather at the beginning or the vegetative period of the grape vine
(up to the end of its bloom), contribute to the development of mildew; the
same weather conditions during definite stages of development of plant-hosts
contribute to rust of cereals and phytophthora of potatoes. By changing
conditions of the external environment, i.e. applying agricultural techniques,
it is always possible to increase the resistance of plants to diseases.
Soviet scientists have developed methods to protect plants from diseases
and thus have stimulated yields. To these methods belong vernalization,
summer plantings of potatoes, growing and application of healthy certified
seed stock in planting, etc.
The degree of injury caused by parasitic fungi and bacteria, aside from
the destruction of the individual parts of the plant (spikes by smut), is
also evident In changes in the metabolism of affected plants. Assimilation
is changed, breathing is accelerated and so is evaporation. Thus wilt upsets
the supply of water(and soluble salt contained in it)for plant organisms.
Some parasitic fungi exude in addition elements poisonous to plants. tany
fungi diseases spread by air (rust, mildew), over large areas whioh increases
during the vegetative period. Diseases caused by parasitic fungi lead to
enormous losses in yields. Thus, in the period from 1916 to 1.926 the lose
in wheat from rust, Fut:minis graminis f. tritici, &ft in twelve states of
the USA, located around the basin of the Nfississippi River, amounted to close
01
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Buchheim, A.
Potato losses from disease are equally large, as are losses in flax
and other crops. Between 1894 and 1926 there were 11 outbreaks of moot
severe phytophbora in the central belt of European Russia which caused
enormous losses in potato crops. If the average loss in potatoes from
various diseases is estimated at approximately 10 percent, in years of
epiphite outbreaks losses :mount to 50 percent and more. Potato canker,
caused by the fungus inducer Synthytrium endobiotioum, affects all non-
resistant potato varieties. By causing deformities in growth and tuber rot
during the period of the plant's development, the inducer of canker also infects
the soil for a long time. Potato canker is.widely spread in Western Europe;
it was carried in by German occupation forces during the war years into many
regions. Improved agricultural techniques and the application of mass
measures in disease control have drastically reduced losses in the USSR,
which should, nevertheless, not cause us to relax our determination to
eliminate the disease completely.
Methods for controlling plant diseases are divided into prophylactic:
measures, destined to prevent disease, i.e. piotection of plants from
diseases, and destructive measures. To prophylactic measures of control
belong primarily agrioultural methods, among which the most important are:
1. application of, proper agricultural techniques which take into considera-
tion biological and varietal peculiaries characteristics of plants and
those of inducers of plant diseases. 2. Proper crop rotation,(i.e. during
repeated plantings of flax some dissase.bearing fungi accumulate in the soil
causing so-called "leno-utomlenie", ("flax tiredness")), ehioh points to the
desirability of avoiding frequent planting of flax and the return of this
crop every 7 to 8 years. 3. Proper distribution of crops under a crop
rotation system; to control brown rust of summer' wheat the fields should
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Buchhetm, A.
not closely adjoin those planted with winter wheat; brown ruse of foliage
frequently winters on winter wheat end is likely to oa.use early and severe
infection of summer wheat when this is planted next to winter wheat. 4 To
observe proper periods in planting in order to control the spread of plant
disease (early plantings of oats and stzarr wheat are less frequently affected
by rust). In an area of abundant moisture wheat matured earlier in favorable
weather, which reduoes the threat of infection by fusarium. Planting in
close periods is very important for controlling rye ergot. In this case
all blooming of rya takes place at the same time, preventing disease from
spreading. B. Vernalization of seeds of cereal crops and pre-sowing vernali*
zation of potato tubers contribute to the more rapid development of these
orops, as a result of which they manage to complete their vegetative growth
before the diseases (rust ard phytophtora ) get well established. 6. Timely
and speedy harvesting. Delay in harvesting of cereal crops leads to accelerated
growth of saprophyte fungi on stalks of cereals in areas of abundant moisture
(blackening of stalks caused by fungi of the genus Cladosporium) and Fusarium.
7. Destruction of fnouses of infection, i.e. barberry and buckthorn
(Rhamnus ce.thartical, upon which the intermediary stage of rust fungi
develops. 8. Disking of stubble with successive deep plowing is of major
'importance in the control of rust of cereals eines it destroys spores of
rust along, with stubble residues. 9. Removal from the fields of post-
harvest residues are particularly important in the control of diseases of
sunflowers, flax cotton, legumes, and some agricultural plants. 10. Ferti-
lization reacts favorably upon plants, increasing their resistance to many
diseases. 11. Quarantine measures. In addition to preventive measures
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Buchheim, A.
directed to control plant diseases, the introduction of varieties resistant
against diseases into agricultural practice is of considerable Importance.
Soviet selectors have produoed varieties of wheat resistant to brawn rust
of foliage and varieties of potatoes resistant to phytophthora.
Plant resistance to any parasite is not permanent throughout the period
of its development. Sometimes plants are more severely infected when young
and grow resistant when mature. In other instances the picture is reversed.
These peculiarities of. plants and plant varieties were considered in plant
disease control, as they rere in producing varieties resistant to disease.
Among direct (destructive) methods of control, conducted for the direct
destruction of inducers of plant .diseases and the protection of growing
organisms from infection by parasitic fungi, chemical methods are of major
importance. They consist In Opraying and dusting of plants with compounds
(fungicides) poisonous to parasitic fungi, and treating plantings, seed
stock and soil with disinfectants. Among these physical methods of control
the thermic, reaction applied for the disinfection of seed stock and soil is
of primary significance.
See also articles on plant diseases; [Orabanohe]) club root of cabbage
ECuseuta europaes1i. oanflIker, ergot, phytophthora, fusaium.
End of Article
* * * * * * *
Literature; Briantsev B., and Dobrozrekova, T. "Plant Protection from Pests
and Diseases", 2nd ed. M.-44. 1948.
Efimov, A. "Handbook on application of poisons in the control of pests and
diseases of agricultural plants", 3rd ed. M. 1948.
*Plant Protection" Zborniki, U. MIZE, 1935 - 1941, (beg. 1940 they appear under
the title *Vestnik of Plant Protection");
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Buohbe its, A.
Kuprevioh, V. *Physiology of diseased pleats Lxi connection with eeneral
problems of parasitism". 1947.
Kursanov, L. "ilioology," 2nd ed. M. 1940.
Hanumov, N. "Diseases ot agricultural plants,* M.-L. 1940.
ft
"Handbook on the control of pests and diseases of agricultural
Crops." 6th ed. M. 1948.
"Zbornik of work of All-Union ins titute of Plant Proteotion"(VIZT1),
issue 1-M. 1948
"Spravochnik (reference book) of an agronomist on plant Protection."
edited by A. lie.usiov and V. N. $hohegolev. 1.-L.1948.
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Nikitin.
Agroforest-melioration. In Selfskokhoziaiet-
vennaia Entsiklopedlia. Ed:-1, vol. 1. Moscow,
1949. p.77-78. 30.1 8042 Ed.3
Transl. 1701 Miscellaneous
Translated from the Russian
by 8. R. Monson
Agro-forest melioration is a system of forestry measures directed towards
the improvement of steppe climate, the elimination of the threat of drought
and dry winde,("sukhovii"), the protection of soil from erosion and blowing
off. Xn the grass-field agricultural system agro-forest melioration serves
the purpose of increasing soil fertility, the oreation of better conditions
for plant growth and the production of large and resistant yields.
Agro-forest melioration is based on properties or the forest and their
influence upon the surrounding environment. Forests temper climates, con-
dense vapors of the air, transform the soil. Forest plantings prevent the
snow from blowing into ravines and gullies, change surface flows into inner
flows, reduce the evaporation of moisture in the soil, and thus contribute
to the retention of water in it. The influence of the forest upon the terri-
tory it oocupies and protects consists in the reconstruction of the condi-
tions familiar to the forest steppe,aad that approximate the natural condi-
1.
tions of the steppe, and forest. Thin is achieved by,the reconstruction in
steppe and forest steppe regions of natural forest plantings; 2. the growth
of artificial plantings that conform to the demands of a grass-field system
of agriculture.
Agro-forest melioration coniets in the following types of plantings:
1. forest belts near watersheds on "syrte" (bogs, quicksand) and mountain
to pihnge
passes,A0AgonVag- the climate, accumulate snow, and provide moisture for
adjoining elopes. 2. forest shelter belts on wide, flat watersheds and
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slanting non-washed off slopes to reduce the force of winds, retain snow on
fields, and reduce evaporation of moisture in the soil. 3. forest and
forest-orchard belts and strips on watersheds off slopes, along river banks,
to transform the surface flow into an internal flow and prevent washing-off
of the soil and the formation of denuded hills. 4. forest belts on sandy
soils and "moving" soile to aid their "fixation" for greater agricultural
use. 5. plantings along irrigation canals, around watersheds and on swampy
land. 6. forest belts around orchards and vegetable gardens. 7. plantings
of shrubs and trees at collective and state farms. In intersections (es-
pecially-mountainous regions)forestry is supplemented by grass planting and
the simplest technical measures (terracing, pond forming), while on sandy
territory grass planting and "decayed" material of brushwood (dead-wood)is
used. (See articles on Erosion and Sands
? )
Plantings .on watersheds, slopes, along river banku and in ravines,
together with local environment affect the steppe area to a considerable
degree. Tree shelter belts of?.partioularly local significance (in that they
improve the conditions under which cultivated plants directly bordered by
them grow). simultaneously affeot distances (ranges) which increase as the
steppe gets overgrown with trees. 'Rhea forest planting is completed (the
steppe transformed into a forest-steppe) this together with the influence
exercised by the plantings on watersheds, slopes, river banks and ravines
present powerful agronomic factors.
"The principal aims achieved by such plantings", wrote Dokuohaev,
"consist in the following: protection of steppe plantings from storms and
winds which beat and mix grain crops; prevention of losses of grain and the
burning of steppe fields; reduction in the evaporation of moisture of the
soil; proper distribution?of the snow cover, and the accumulation of snow
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masses in desirable places as stores of moisture; a resulting rise in the
level of ground waters; possible reduction in temperature variation and
moisture in the air and soil; aid in transforming vapor-like moisture into
drop-liquid condition(to attract rains)....".
V. R. Williams wrote; "Az utterly absolute requirement in the grass-
field system is for all elevated locations to be afforested, where grass
yields both,perennial and annual, may not be stable. Watersheds should be
covered with forests of local significance. The latter automatically
regulate the moisture of adjoining agricultural land. Forests together
with tree belts, which should surround all our steppes, are of exceptional
significance in controlling drought and dry minds ("sukhoveii"). They will
aid the farmers to conquer droughts once and for all."
In addition to representing decisive means for transforming the nature
of the steppes and eliminating the threat to agricultural plantings caused
by droughts and dry winds, tree shelter belts also serve as a substantial
source of lumber. Productive and technioally valuable plantings are found
along river banks, in ravines, and on sandy sails where cultivation of
agricultural crops presents considerable difficulty or is practically im-
possible. The experience of planting trees in ravines and on sands proves
that shelter plantings grown in these places frequently prove superior in
quality and technical value to natural plantings in the forest zone. Agro-
melioration measures are planned simultaneously with the "organization" of
agricultural territory, consideration being given to the configuration
(contour) of fields, soils, relief, and other characteristics; on already
organized" territory, prevailing land formation is taken into account.
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Pil:itin.
The first attempts to use the advantages offered by tree shelter belts
in steppe regions, in the form of forest maeeives in the South and South-
East of European Russia, date back to the first half of the nineteenth
century. By the end of the nineteenth century an attempt was made to build
a "forest shield" in the South-Bast ("ribbon" plantings) to separate the
European part of Russia frost Asiatic Russia. But neither "ribbon shields",
nor mass forest planting were completed, nor did they attain appreciable
degrees in development. Forests planted in some locations in the 19th
century wore hardly developed at all. The current stage in agro-melioration,
the theoretical study of its foundations and its practical application are
directly connected with the Dolma}lacy Expedition of 1892 and his personal
organization of experimental sections at Katentao-steppe, kariupol, Starobelskil.
On these plots were obtained principal data concerning the positive influence
tree plantings exert upon micro-climate, soil, hydrological conditions, yields
of agricultural plants and the improvement of methods and technique in
plantings. This data formed the basis of contemporary agro-melioration,
founded in the Soviet period,44-ift4 104=412;;:wm-4.4e a powerful agronomio
factor. It is the Soviet riod which-tefuted the previously prevailing
opinion concerning the drying out of plains as a result of forest growth
and the impossibility of producing tree shelter belts in the dry steppe.
Agro-melioration received its widest development and practical application
first in the period following the Great October socialist revolution, es-
pecially after the collectivisation of agriculture and its provision with
contemporary modern rachinery, which aotually opened the widest possibilities
for the effective control of drought, soil erosion, and other unfavorable
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Nikitin.
natural conditions. Agra-melioration became widely introduced to agriculture
following the All-Union Conference on Drought Control in 1931 and particularly
that of the XVII convention of 1?KP(b)4 at Which time oomrade Stalin stated
that "the planting of forests and tree shelter belts in the eastern parts
of Kavolzhie (left bank of the Volga) is of enormous significance." In the
years of the second Five-Year plan the following planting took place: tree
shelter belts, 276.5 thousand heotares, soil shelter plantings, 121 thousand
hectares, and forest plantings on sands, 125.5 thousand heotares, an increase
by eight over the entire pre-revolutionary period. The volume of work and
its quality continue to rise, aided by the improvement in the technique of
growing plants and the mechanization of the work. Forest planting machinery
was designed and produced by our industry and special cultivators manufactured
for the care of plantings. Processes in grayling seed material at tree
nurseries mere also mechanized.
Agro-melioration is most effective in agronomic measures intended to
raise agricultural levels, as recommended by V. N. Williams, V. V. Dokuchaev,
P. A. Kostychev, i.e. under conditions of a grass field system of agriculture.
A planned and vide introduction Into agriculture of the grass-field system
of agriculture and the application of advanced agro-biology, conforming to
the teachings of I. V. Michurin and T. D. Lysenko, will raise the level of
agriculture upon a higher step, equip praotioioners with powerful weapons
and means in guiding plant life, atimittate cultivated agriculture, and the
productivity (output) of its branches.
In October 1946 the Council of Binintere of the UsSR and the Central
Committee of VKP()) issued the decree concerning thenftan on Tree shelter
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Iikitin.
Belts, the introduction of Grass Crop Rotation, the Construction of Fonds
i
ed Watersheds to ensure high, and stable yields in the steppe and forest-
:-
steppe regions of European USSR." This decree presents a grandiose plan
of attack upon drought which aims at completely combating it, obtaining high
yields of agricultural crops, and creating stable forage basi for the develop-
vent of husbandry. The decree envisaged the establishmeat of a system of
large vett government tree shelter belts between 1950 and 1965 in watersheds
and along banks of rivers in the South and South-East of European USSR, of
a total spread of 5.320 km on an area of 117.9 thousand hectares. These
belts were to serve the purpose of overcomieg the destructive influence of
dry winds upon yields of agricultural crops, prevent the blowing off of
fertile soils in the PoVolthie, Northern Caucasus, and the central-black
earth oblaste and improve the water regime and climatic conditions of these
regions. The same decree establishes a plan (1950-1965) to create free
ehelter plantings on fields of collective and state farms, on an area of
5.709 thousand hectares, and it also proposes to plant an area of 322
thousand hectares on sandy lands between 1949 and 1955.
The variation of natural conditions in steppe and forest-steppe regions
of the USSR requires a careful selection of woody and shrub genera for
plantings and high technique in growing them to obtain successful results.
Only genera adapted to the environment in which they groWniti their proper
mixtures and given careful care w444 produce stable and long lasting shelter
plantings. Ines latter should be mixed-compotite and consist of the principal
and suitable Genera and shrube. In steppe regions these plantings are more
stable, long lived and productive; among the most important genera are:
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Nikitin.
the summer oak (best adapted to steppe conditions), ash, English elm,
Siberian larch, poplars, eto.; among those tolerant to shadess maples,
small-leaved linden, common elm, etc. In order to increase the economic
value of shelter plantings, it is recommended to grow fruit varieties
(10 to 16 peroent) along with them.
For successful shelter plantings local seeds or those from adjoining
regions (or more severe climates) should best be used. Seeds of trees from
old artificial tree plantings which went through lengthy seleotion and
training are particularly valuable. According to Michurin's teaching, the
training of plantings should beciz with the preparation of seeds. Growing
of seedlings for planting and that of plantings form a single process, of
which each successive stage is predetermined by the preceding one. In
forestry it is preferable to use high grade, fresh seeds end seedlings; the
latter should be grown under conditions identical to those they meet in their
permanent home. Of particular significance for the successful Growth of
plantings (especially in the first few years) are also deep and careful
cultivation of the soil and technically correct sowing and planting, which
help future care and weed control, and generally reduce costs. From the
economical point of view the growth of tree shelter plantings is most effec-
tive if seeds are planted in the permanent location and row culture (?) of
trees is replaced by nest culture. As confirmod by the experienoe of steppe-
forest, plantings grown directly from seed are of higher stability and
productivity. Particularly effeotive are plantings from seed of summer oak,
white acacia, ash, maples and of many shrubs.
Agro-melioration on a high agricultural level contributes to wide
mechanisation. In the years 1949 to 1950 a total of 570 tree shelter
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Nikitin.
stations were organized. the most important role, aside from the role
played by the latter, belongs to MIS (Machine tractor Stations), state
farms and special *gra-melioration detachments.
A network of agra.amelloration institutes, experiment stations and
bases are engaged in developing scientific methods and techniques in agro-
melioration under the euperviaion of the All-Union Scientific Researah
Institute of Agro-Melioration.
End of Article
? * * * * * ?
References: Mallimns, V. Principles of Agriculture, 6th ed. M. 1948;
IT
Vysotskii, G.
D'yatchenko, A.
Demidov, S.
Dokuohaev, V.
and Sibirtsev, N.
Kozmenko, A.
ltrylov, A.
Grass-field System of Agriculture on Irrigated Lands,
U. 1938
On the hydrological.and meteorological influence
of forests, U. 1938.
Forest Belts in the part-steppe tone, M. 1949.
Development of Agriculture in the post-War Ftve
Year Flan, M. 1946.
Our Steppes, Pest end Present, 2nd ed. M.-L. 1936
Introduction to the Work of the Expedition arranged
by the Department of Forestry under the
leadership of Professor Dokuchaev, St. Peters-
burg, 1894.
Control of Soil erosion; 2nd ed. M.-L. 1949.
Grass Field System of Agriculture in Controlling
Drought, Voronezh, 1047
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-9.
Bikitin...
Labunskii, X. Lisohanization in Tree Melioration Nuraeries,
Xharkov, 1940.
Lysenko, T. Experimental Sowings of Forest Belts by Nest
Idethod, M. 1949.
Nikitin, P. e.nd inin, D. Tree Shelter Growing, M. 1949
Decree of Council of 113ni8ters Plan of Tree Shelter Belts...., I. 1948
of USSR, dated October 20, 1948
Orlcrr, M.
Eitingen G.
Astrakhan Part-Desert Sards, and methods for
their stahl lization and economies utiliza-
tion, M. 1940
Forestry, 4th ed. M. 1949.
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Transl. 171: Plant Protection
Markin, A. X.
The cotton-plant quarantine in the
Tadjik Soviet Socialist Republic
(19304939), Vestnik Zashoh. Rest.
1940(4)0842e 421 P942
Translated from the Russ an
R. G. Dembo
The pink worm is know to the entire world as a very dangerous and
serious quarantine pest of the cotton plant. During a short period of
time (25.30 years) this pest spread widely on the earth, penetrating into
cotton fields of almost all capitalistic countries.
As the result of the daily care of the party and of the government
concerning the development of cotton crops in our country and of timely
carrying out of quarantine measures - the cotton raion(s) of USSR are
freed from the pink worm.
The main cotton committee imported 820 thousands of cotton seeds bought
in Egypt in 1929-1930 with the purpose of introducing cotton species with
long fibres.
As is known, the pink worm which has been presumably imported from
India with poorly cleaned fibres }AS been discovered in Egypt in 1910. The
pink worm causes serious damage to cotton in Egypt, the losses being from
20..30 percent and with the retarded species even up to 80 percent. In spite
of its yearly control the general infestation by the pink worm of cotton
bolls reaches 91 percent in late fall. Thus, the import of a great party
of cotton seeds from Egypt represents a considerable danger for the cotton
fields of the Soviet Union.
The state entomologist, director of the entomological division of the
Ministerium of Agriculture in Egypt, wrote in 1919: It is humanly impossible
to guarantee that all the species of the pink worm would be killed through
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Markin, A. K.
fumigation of a great amount of seeds. Fifty specimens of those still alive
are sufficient to infest the entire cotton land."
The world soientists of the capitalistic; countries who were consulted
by the Principal Cotton Committee considered the infestation of the raion(s)
unavoidable. Some of them, for instance the Director of Plant Quarantine of
USA, Dr. Marlatt, who was consulted at that time by the interoffice quarantine
commission with our Trade Delegation concerning the control of the pink worm,
recommended the application of vaouumlese fumigation of the cotton seeds with
bisulphide of carbon, with the doses of 10 English pounds (4.54 kg) for 1000
cubic feet, with the evosure of 24 hours, under the condition that the amount
of the seeds is not over 2 English pounds (0.908 kg)* Marlett recommended
carrying out the fumigation of seeds with bisuiphide of carbonin in a vacuum
room when a great amount is involved. After fumigation the seeds should
undergo a heating with dry steam up to 600 C. during 2.4/2 hours, followed
by sulphurio acid. The application of this method might have caused the
complete loss of seed sprouts if our specialists had not applied necessary
preventive measures.
Not having the possibility of rendering the cotton seeds harmless in
vacuum rooms (because of their absence), the Egyptian Government rendered
them harmless only in thermic disinfestation rooms established in that
country on each cotton factory. At that time it was known that the thermic
disinfestation does not kill the pink worm entirely. This has been confirmed
by our specialists after having analyzed the first group of seeds received
from Egypt to Odessa in 1930. ?During the unloading K. E. Demokidwr dis-
covered pink worms in the boat hold.
The subsequent work in the appraisal of these seeds indicated that all
consignments contained a great amount of the pink worm.
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It has therefore been determined that the thermic disinfestation
eradicated the pink worm only to 00.52 percent, and the remaining (as it
has been theoretically counted) 215,000 living caterpillars represented a
great danger for the .cotton, crops of the Union. The general infestation
of seeds by the pink won wan at 5.34 percent, and in individual cases
9.84 percent.
In the practice of other countries there was a ease, when in 1916 a
former German stemnboat, acquired by England as a war prize, arrived in
USA. In the ship hold there were 189 tom of ootton seeds originated in
East Africa. It wan discovered that theca seeds were infested by the living
pink worm. Not having the methods of fumigation of a great amount of cotton
seeds, the Americans treated them with sulplaxrio aoidi then the seeds were
used in ground form for the fertilization of the soil in South Carolina.
The ship holds were fumigated by hydrogen cyanide.
Taking into consideration the exceptional danger of the pink worm for
the cotton growing in the country of socialism and the government importance
of the introduction of the long fiber epeoies of cotton, the Soviet
specialists were not lost in face of the amount of work and of the diffi-
culties ahead.
The government gezniestaeat assigned the task of freeing the entire seed
consignment from the pink worm and using the seeds in sowing. K. E. Dernokidov,
V. V. llikoliskii, agronomist I. A. Kazan, engineer V. F. Stepanov, and the
chemist Petrov were entrusted with the execution of this responsible task.
The fumigation of the seeds was carried out day and night in a vacuum room
of a Russian museum in Leningrad which was reconstructed for this purpose,
and in Odessa in a newly remodeled vacuum room bought in USA.
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The specialists who carried out this work did not succeed immediately
in finding an effective process of fumigation. The American method recom-
mended along with the vaouum room did not give a hundred percentage of
eradication of the pink worm in the cotton seeds. This instruction had
th mind stacks of cotton and not bags liith seeds, each weighing 125 kg.
After having determined the effective conditions of disinfestation,
V. V. Nikolskii tested a few doses of sodium cyanide: 4000, 6000, 8000 g.
for a vacuum room of the capacity of 28 cubic: meters, with the load of
28 bags and exposure of 2 hours.
/lath these desert the pink worm remained alive and only with the dose
of sodium cyanide of 7000 g. for the room all caterpillars died after an
exposure of 2'hours. During the disinfestation it has been determined
that hydrocyanic acid is adsorbed in considerable degree by the cotton
seeds and that the pink worms die after fumigation in the bags outside of
with more precision
the room. This has been confirmedaby the suooeeding work which was carried
out by a group of specialists of the vxra, All-Union Plant Protection
Institute (V. V. Nikolskii, A. ?a. Il'inskii, D. M, Paikin, A. K. Markin)
in 1933.
The given persons achieved the full loss even of such a resistable
pest like the granary weevil which was placed inside the bag of cotton
seeds applying in the vacuum-room a smaller dose of sodium cyanid:), but
under the same exposition. This indicates how great the concentration of
hydrocyanic acid could be in all layers of bags of cotton seeds exposed to
fumigation.
The problem of adsorption of hydrocyanic acid by cotton seeds has
been solved already in 3.930 in Odessa and finally confirmed and clarified
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Markin, A. K.
in 1933, which the Americans achieved muoh later according to their work
published in 1938.
Applying the laws of adsorption of hydrooyanio acid during the fumiga-
tion of cotton seeds carried out in Odessa and in Leningrad in 1980, and
simultaneously taking into consideration all the other conditions (dosage
of sodium cyanide, exposure, temperature), it becomes evident that the
destruction of the pink worm occurred during the fumigation itself and
during the unloading of cotton seeds from the vacuum room during their
storage in storehouses and even on their route for investigation.
The fumigated bag of cotton seeds is used for a long time as a "mordant
bag", and the pink worm dies afterwards if it has not been killed directly
by the process of fumigation. The death of the pink worm confirmed the
entomological control, carried out with 5500 kg of seeds, divided from the
general consignment as an objective test.
In the entomological control in Odessa alone, 170 persons worked.
Despite the obvious lucidity of the given data for the effective fumigation,
the chemists applies at that time especially great discretion because they
were not sure of the possible destruction of the pink worn in the cotton
seeds after fumigation.
When the first consignment of cotton seeds arrived in TerMOZ, the
enemies of the people urged the burning of the seeds and the disinfestation
of the tares and of the ears. They published wrong information in the papers.
Thus, for instance, the newspaper "Uzbek Truth" published an article in
February, 1930, whioh said that Plotnikov discovered pink worms still alive
in the consignment of seeds imported from Egypt and which underwent
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Harkin, A. X.
disinfestation in the Union in vaouum room, while Pletnikov really did not
"carry out any analysis of these seeds.
The second analysis of 2 million cotton seeds made in Uzbek SSR indi.
oated the absence of the living pink worm. Only after a long and persistent
control by specialists who followed the national point of view, the seeds
were sown in Tadzhik S$R, in former Kurgan-Tiubinsk, Shaartuskii,
raion(8). These raion(s) isolated by natural borders from
all other raion(s) of cotton production (mountains, desert steppe) Imre
suitable as far as quarantine is concerned.
For a definite testing of the effectiveness of disinfestation and of
checking the spreading of the pink worm beyond the borders of the quarantine
zone, in cage of its appearance the sowing of cotton was declared under
quarantine according to the resolutions of Central Asiatic Economic Soviet
and of the Soviet People's Commissariat of the Tadzhik SSR for 1930.
During all these years the export of sowing cotton seeds beyond the borders
of the quarantine zone was prohibited.
And only according to the data concerning the absence of the pink worm,
the export or technical cotton seeds beyond the quarantine zone was admitted
after a corresponding quarantine inspection and during the least dangerous
seasons (from October to May).
The export of cotton fibers was admitted the first year only after fumi.
gation in vacuum rooms. In the following years the cotton fibers mere
exported without fumigation but under quarantine inspection beyond the
quarantine zone to textile factories located in non-cotton raion(8).
Simultaneously with the carrying out of the quarantine measures, according
to the decisions or the government, during all the past years (1930-1939) the
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Markin, A. K.
inspection of the cotton sowing was also carried out. The work on inspec-
tion Mete most responsible since it had to solve the problem of whether
there was a pink worm on the cotton fields of the quarantine zone. Aiming
towards the solution of this problem, the Qaarantine Sector accomplished
the plan of inspection of cotton by various methods. During the first two
years (19304931) field investigations were carried out. K. E. Demokidov,
V. V. Nikol'skii, N. N. Filipiev and others were invited for this work.
During recent years the field inspection was supplemented with other more
perfect methods which are known only in science, namely, raeohanical vroras
traps, analysis of cotton needs by cutting them with special cutting
machines, light traps established in cotton fields which worked from June
until October in catching moths. Speoialists and the control of the
Quarantine Sector carried out the supervision of these inspections.
During all these years 115,260 hectaresiwith the average yearly field
of 20,000 hectares, on which kgyptian species were sown were inspected by
the field method. On the indicated field 11,162,600 sexual organs of
cotton plants which were characteristically damaged were isolated and
analyzed. 262,000 kg of gin waste have been analyzed with two mechanical
wormtraps. 16,000 kg of cotton seeds of inferior quality were analyed
by means of cutting them by hand (with scissors), and 16,000 kg with a
cutting machine.
For a definite decision of the problem concerning the absence of the
pink worm on cotton fields of the quarantine zone and in connection with
the state decree concerning the elimination of quarantine from the cotton
fields, the harvest of cotton in 1938 might be of epeoial interest.
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Markin, A. io
This yield was the fifth after the cotton seeds were sown in the .
quarantine zone without fumigation. If the pink worm would have been
really Imported to the cotton fields and it would acclimatize in the
raion(s) of the quarantine zone, then during the nine-year existent), of
the zone and during the five-year propagation, without any control on the
part of man, it would have propagated in 1938 to a great amount, especially
sinoo the climatic) raion(s) of the quarantine zone were not the controlling
factor in its propagation.
The temperature of the raion(s) of the quarantine zone in major oases
was not below zero. If in 1933 the average monthly temperature in Kurgan-
Tiubin raion decreased to 5.9? (January), it did not decrease below 0630
(February) in Dzhilikul' raion during the same year.
Besidec, the unlimited propagation of the pink worm was furthered by
the following condition. Having been closely and directly relkted
biologically to cotton seeds (diapausing in them up to 2.5 years), it could
easily winter in the bundles of cotton raw material, which had always a
positive temperature, and in cotton seeds, stored in storage houses where
there are no low temperatures.
It has been knomn in the praotioe of capitalistic countries that the
pink -worm was disclosed in the second, third and fourth year after its
infestation of cotton plants (Greece, Brasile, Iran). Thereby the inspections
in the indicated countries were carried out entirely by the field method
and on a limited scale.
Taking into consideration all these data, after a special final inveeti-
gation by specialists 54,500 pieces of cotton harvested from fields in late
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J ???
Markin, A. X.
fall, 64,000 kg. of sprouts by reehanical snail catchers, 1200 of cotton
seedy by means of cutting them by hand and 3,800 cutting by maohine were
analyzed in 1938-1939.
If the pink worm would have been in the seeds, one per ton, with this
method along it could have been disclosed. A good proof in the decision
of the problem of absence of the pink weevil in the quarantines zone is the
work of the mechanical worm catchers who work on the cotton cleaning
factories during seven years. During this time, as has been indicated, a
great number of gin waste has been analyzed. The principle of the analysis
of sprouts by this method is based on biological peculiarities of the
pink worm.
As it is known, the feeding of caterpillars of the pink worm is con-
nected with cotton fruit elements, and mainly with the cotton pod within
which the caterpillars are fed by immature fibre and cotton seeds.
During the harvest of raw cotton from the fields the pink worm cater-
pillars of a short or long development cycle enter the cotton. When the
raw cotton is passing through the cleaning maohines at the cotton factories,
waste is separated from it. Various insects including the pink worm cater-
pillars deapausing and undeapausing enter the waste. This waste of cotton
was passed through a worm catcher. Prom the entire mass of waste, 8 to 10
percent (tiny partioles of soil and other waste) was separated in Whioh
insects penetrate. Thie separated waste was accumulated in a special
vessel, was analyzed,. and all inseets, dead and alive, were taken out from
this waste.
The work of we m catelv rs in the qua ran tine zone indicates that the
worm catchers. separate from the waste a great amount of -varied entomological
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Markin, A. K.
material. Dur5.14, the time of final inspection (seasort of 1938-1939, eight
months of work) 21,165 examples of various insects were separated by worm
catchers at the Kurgan-Tiubinsk, Shaartus cotton plants. The some amount
of insects was caught by the worm catcher every season of recent years.
All these collections passed through the appraisal of specialists. But
in all these great accumulation of insects (including caterpillars), the
pink worm has not been found.
The work of worm catchers indicated more than any other method the
absence of the pink worm in cotton fields of the quarantine zone, because
all the waste after the cotton clearing during es.oh harvest was let through
the worm catchers. This method is the most effective and at the same time
Inexpensive (40-50 kopeks for one hectar).
In places, where during field inspection mallow moth has been found
in singular exemplars or not at all, the worm catcher disclosed it at the
places of its work in the shortest time (Nakhichevan ASSR).
In the United States the separating machine (similar to our worm
eatoher) disolosed the pink worm in gin waste during the first days of its
work, while the field inspection required about 200 exploring labor day-s
and the results were negative.
Thus, analyzing the results of inspection of cotton sowing in tho
quarantine zone for the past years and the results of the final inspeotion
according to indicated indexes, the brigade of the quarantine sector, con-
sisting of K. E. Danokidov, V. V. Nikolskii, the supervisor of the quarantine
sector of People's Commissariat of Agriculture USSR, A. N. Volkov, of the
quarantine inspection of the Tadshik SSR, L. P. Datchinko, under my super-
vision came to the conolusion that the pink worm is absent on the cotton .
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Markin, A. Yo
fields of the quarantine zone of Tadzhikistan. Now it has been undoubtedly
proven that the pink warm has been entirely eradicated by fumigation in
vacum-rooms in Leningrad and in Odessa, which has been carried out when
the cotton seeds were imported into the Union from Egypt in 19E0.
The further abandoning of the quarantine zone has been found inexpedient
and, based en the decree of SUR and TEN VRP(b) the Central Cormufttee of the
All-Union Communist Party of the Tadzhik SSR, the quarantine has been
eliminated from the cotton sawing miens of the quarantine sone. The
abolishment of quarantine frail the cotton fields of the quarantine zone
perrsite the import of cotton products into cotton growing raion(e) of the
Union. The e.boliehnent of the quarantine zone liquidates entirely the
suspicion concerning the pink worm which existed until recently.
Thus, since the Bf-yptivan, seeds have been. rendered entirely harmless,
the whip of the world cotton growing - the pink worm has not been admitted
on the fields of our country.
This division of the quarantine work has been evaluated by an All-Union
conference which has been held in Tashkent from February 7 until February 11,
1940, under the chairmanship of the late academic N. M.Rulagin and by the
VIII meeting of the section of Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Science
concerning the control of pest and diseases in crops as a great success
achieved by the quarantine work of the Union in the field of cotton protection.
The next tank of quarantine service of the People's Conmilssariat of
Agriculture of MST is to increase still more the cotton quarantine so that
under no circumstances would the pink worm and other quarantine pests and
diseases enter the fields of socialist cotton industry*
END of Article
* * ** * * * *
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"law L'( ?rant rrotectlon
Il'inskii, A. M.
The chemical control method against pests
and plants (1) diseases in the USSR. Vestnik
Zashoh. Rest. 1940 (1/2)3 18-23. 421 P942
Translated from the Russian
by R. G. Dembo
According to the historical decisions of the XVIII Conference of the
Communist Party, the agriculture of our country must ensure
further growth of agricultural crops at the end of the third Five-Year Plan
compared with the achievements of the end of the second Five-Year Plane
in grains 27 percent, in cotton 28 percent, in sugar beets 37.2 percent,
in flax 49 percent. A considerable growth is planned for a series of other
plants.
This advance of' our agriculture is ensured by Ito complex mechanisation*
the strengthening of agrotechnique, the shifting to grass growing crop rota-
tion, the development of cheimisation of agriculture, the supply of' chemicals
and of machines on the part of industry. The *chemical control method
against pests and plant diseases is of great importance, particularly in
the third Five-Year Plan. The chemical method, which is the oldest and the
principal control method, has not been applied up to now on the scale re-
quired by the socialist agriculture due to a series of causes.
First of all this bete been prevented due to the breach between the
agricultural demand for compounds and the actual industrial supply. If
we indicate the demand of People's Commissariat of Agriculture of USSR
for poisons against pests and compare it with actual supply, we obtain an
Impressive pioture (data are given in tons).
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Ileinakiii A. M.
1934
1935
1936
1937
Sodium arsenite
Demand
1805
2124
1885
5000
Supply
1100
1070
1448
2702
Coppor acoto-arsenite
Demand
1047
1847
1500
2865
Supply
329
594
1112
1696
Sodium fluosilicate
Demand
1033
4821
3600
9500_
Supply
900
976
2512
3624
Ground sulphur
Demand
5066
2640
13000
23953
Supply
1000
1500
8000
8826
Cupric vitriol
Demand
10766
16793
9000
16000
Supply
ma
1764
4500
5573
Formalin
Demand
1255
1168
1880
3732
Supply
600
859
1460
2919
Anabasine-sulfate
Demand
270
440
350
730
Supply
50
64
206
445
Ba r Jun chloride
Demand
11152
11239
18250
18800
Supply
3143
4832
7890
11249
Calcium arsenate
Demand
1467
4854
4000
10420 ?
Supply
394
1343
2475
2533
A similar breath between demand and supply takes place concerning
other compounds and in various years as well. It is necessary to note that
the actual demand for agricultwral compounds is considerably higher than it
was indicated in the declaration of KN2 USSR which considers the availability
of machines and the possibilities of chemical production, and later on the
preparation of compounds will increase according to the growth of collective
farms. The practice of foreign countries, for instance of such a capitalist
country as USA Whose agriculture for control of pests und plant diseases
spent the following amount of chemicals in 1934: lead arsenate ,88,800 tons,
calcium arsenate 66,600 bons, oopper aceto-arcenite 8,800 tons, sulphur in
powder 66,600 tons, pyrethrum 22;200 tons, nicotine-sulphate 4400 tons; cuprio
vitriol 26,660 tons and corresponding amount of a series of other insecticides
and fungicides.
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o
Il'inekii, A. H.
The causes of such a breach between the demand for and supply of
poisons are purely historical.
During the prerevolutionary period the supply of chemicals and of
equipment for control of agricultural pests and diseases was imported from
abroad. There was not much of national industry of insecto-fungicides in
prerevolutionary Russia. The scientific research work in the field of '
chemical method limited itself mainly to incidental experiments with .some
compound or with some Chemical method only aiming to verify the foreign
data. The operating measures were based primarily on data furnished by
foreign science. Some times those data were verified, some times they were
not. In rare cases attempts were made for 'a systematic research concerning
the Chemical method (for instance, working out the method with poisoned
attractants by Uvarov - in controlling locust, and by Siberian entomologiste -
in controlling the solitary locust etc.)
The imperialist war 1914.1918, the civil war which followed it and the
blockade of the Soviet Union on the part of the capitalist countries deprived
our country of the only source of supply of compounds and equipment for
control of pests and plant diseases. Devertheless, surrounded by a circle
of enemies, burning in the fires of the civil war, the young Soviet Republic
in its struggle for survival did not for,,et this field of its economy; the
searching for various possibilities of protecting crops against pests by
means of control. With the absence or supply from abroad, not having our
awn chemical industry, the Soviet Union during those heroic times aspired
to organize as much as possible a supply of chemicals and equipment for pest
oontrol. Thus, for instance, 1618 poods or arsenic was given to agriculture
in 1919, 1580 poods in 1920, 30,752 in 1921, 48,176 in 1922, 66,605 in 1923.
At the same time some attempts were made to organize the production of first
Anmnminelei (41111a Ingutri.trtmaleftw" - lton_inoo
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Illinskii, A. M.
After the end of the Civil War and the end of the economic blocades
during the reconstruotion period the demand for compounds and equipment in
controlling pests wne covered basically by compounds imported from abroad.
At the same time OZRA (001- ) rZ,go p the Society of Plant Protection
of the People's Commissariat of Agriculture organized the first scientific
research organization which aimed toward scientific working out of the
problems of the chemical method in controlling pests and plant diseases;-
it was called NILOV 00104 the Scientific Research Laboratory of Poisoning'
Substances. Its task was the working out and the verification of new
methods and measures of ohemical control, control analyses of insecticides
and fungicides, toxicological research, the working out of problems of
standardization of insecticides and fungicides, the assistance of industry
in organizing the production of insecticides and fungicides and other
problems of chemical pest control.
The chemical industry of the Union was faced at that time with the
task to proceed with the organization of production of compounds for pest
control so that foreign import would be eliminated. It was hard to achieve
that task due to the novelty of the natter, the lack of qualified personnel,
the limit of raw materials, the unknown technological processes, and, finally,
sabotage in industry. By conquering theee obstacles, the chemical industry
gradually acquired the production of the basic assortment of compounds for
controlling pests, which fact permitted the cutting off of foreign import
of some compounds and to transfer agricultural supply to the production of
the Union. Thus, at the beginning of the first Five-Year Plan the Union
chemical industry supplied agriculture with cupric vitriol and barium
chloride, in 1929 the first supplies of sodium fluoride and sodium fluosilicate
were produced, in 1931 the compounds of copper-aceto-arsenite, sodium
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Winskii, A. M.
areenite, calcium arsenite and the mordant AB appeared, in 1933 the compound
PD "la s added, in 1934 calcium arsenate etc. At the end of the second Five..
Year Plan the Soviet Union freed itself from foreign import of materiale
necessary for controlling pests.
It is natural that during suoh a short length of time, overoctaing s.
series of obstacles, the chemical industry did not succeed in expanding
the production of these new compounds in ouch a degree that it would be
able to fulfill the demand of the growing agriculture, especially since
the smse compounds are acquired by other branches of the country's economy
(cupric vitriol, sulphur, fonnalin, sodium fluoride, ferric vitriol, etc.)
The chemical industry is partly indebted to scientific research insti-
tutes for such a speedy atastering of new produote . These institutes 'worked
out the technology of acquiring compounds, consulted industry in organising
production, inspected the new compounds, worked out the methods of their
analysis, worked out the projects for 'various sorts, etc. As an example
we may indicate the work of NMI? 0/19;11 on arsenic and fluorine compounds,
the _work of SIMI on cyanide and others. The acientific research organiza-
tions of plant protection had the task of assimilating the new compounds
produced by chemioal industry to determine the scope of application, dosing,
the expenditure rate, the working out of the composition prescription,
methods and conditions of application.
Simultaneously tfith the solution of this immediate problem and with
the assistance of chemical industry in organization of the production of
insecto-fungicides and of appropriating the new compounds, the solentifio
research organization was faced with a new problem: the ensuring of operative
measures in introducing new compound. to replace those which were missing in
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Il'inskii, A. U.
our country for some reasons (lack of raw materials, demand from other
consumers, unadjusted production etc.)
Mile the problem of eliminating import has been solved comparatively
simply - by means of organizing the production of insecto-fungicides in
USSR, the production of our own industry of insecticides and fungicides,
and the role of solentific research organizations summed up by the approval
and the appropriation of the compounds by our national industry and by oon-
sultation in connection with their production and application - the solution
of the second problem was more complicated. Agriculture could not it
until the chemical industry will completely adjust the production of the
basic poisons in the amount necessary for the complete supply of the growing
demand end required the quick solution of this problem - the ensuring of
measures by sufficiently effective control methods. Therefore, for the
solution of the problem the scientific research organizations had to develop
their rtrk in various directions simultaneously.
The first rescaroh work was confronted with the problem of finding
now additional sources of raw material for the production of deficient basic
compounds already utilized by chemical industry, and mainly of finding 'says
of utilizing industrial waste. Hare we could mention the work of NIUIF with
Cottrell process, poor arsenic ore for obtaining arsenic compounds, work
over pyritic bisulfate in order to obtain copper-possessing fungicides, work
for catching phtor-containing gases of superphosphate production and melting
furnaces to obtain sodium fluoride and sodium fluosilioate, to replace
potash soap by soap naphtha, etc. Here also belong some work of VIM (01.5e ),
for instance the research of natural and artificial pitch instead of the
imported ones for the production of caterpillar glue, the obtaining of oar-
bolineum from the products and waste or coal industry eta,
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A. k,
The second course has as its aim the searohing and creation of new
compounde which could, at least partly, satisfy the demand for basic
compounds in controlling pests and plant diseaces. Rare, on one side,
attempts were made to directly utilize raw material as control measures,
ithich wan used for the production of insecticides extd fungicides and their
half products. For instance, SAIZR (cAH3P) tested soorodites and pitticitea
as intestine insecticide; with the initiative of SAIZR ground sulphur con-
oentrates have been for a long time applied along with sulphur and with
its mixturea in controlling the web tick; comparatively recently pastes of
sodium arsenite and of copper aceto-aruenite are widely applied. Simul-
taneously attempts were made to utilize waste and refuse of various kinds
as insecticides and fungicides as well as their mixtures. VIZR carried out,
for instance, extensive work in testing waste of CK production as mordants,
bringing it up to production (raw aldehydes SIC, condensate). The Asia
station of plant protection widely advertised the application of emulsions
of oil industry waste as oontaot insecticides. SAIZR worked out and intro-
duced into production drain alkali - waste of soap production which appeared
to be good acaricides. Instead of the deficient and expensive chargers -
talcum, chalk, lime and others - road dust, loam, ground waste of porcelain
and ceramic production - oil and na.phth humbrina ar* widely applied.
Instead of deficient and expensive holdings in controlling locust and locust-
like insects, sawdust, dung and rice peel etc. are used.
But in a still higher degree the work of testing and creating new
compounds has been developed, which should be an addition to those already
assimilated by production but produced in such quantities which are unsatis-
factory for the growing demand of agriculture. Rere we may include else
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illinskii, A.
the group of new compounds by which has been expected to replace the
existing ones, but for various reasons are excluded from the assortment
of control measures or which are not desirable for application in separate
cases.
Without indicating the 'huge material of work in renearoh and in
creating new compowids accomplished by a series of research organizations
and by individual rorkers, we are able to indicate a few individual oases
of such work.
One of the most widely used intestine insecticides is copper aceto
arsenite. It is standardized, highly toxic; for inseots, oomparatively
harmless for the protected plants and is considered one of the best COM..
pounds of the given group. Nevertheless its production is complicated
and for its preparation the deficient copper and the deficient acetic aold
which used to be imported from abroad are used, therefore the chemical
industry is producing copper aceto-arsenite in limited quantities and the
operating organizations (Narkornzem, Narkomzdrav) are applying this precious
but expensive insecticide In rare cases when the application of other
compounds are excluded. Aiming to alleviate the situation in addition to
copper aceto-arsenite and to replace it in controlling the caterpillars of
malaria mosquito, two new compounds - oil. arsenite (Arstazra) and "arsmal"
(ICTITIF) were created which during approbation showed their full usefulness
as substitutes of copper aceto-arsenite for the given case. Simultlse.neously
some attempts were made (Shchelkovakii plant) to create new compounds of
the type of copper aceto-arsenite, but less expensive and less deficient.
The first of them is ce.ustio green which is a copper aceto-arsenite diluted
by gypsum. For its production, in comparison to copper aceto arsenite much
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less of white arsenic, cupric victriol and acetic acid has been used.
Calcined sodium carbonate is replaced by slaked lime. Besides, the washing
of residues is entirely excluded from the process, thus accelerating the
process. The second compound - roscowpigments - is analogous to caustic,
but instead of vinegar acid anhydrid - the formic acid anhydrin - is included.
Copper is usually deficient, therefore we try to rerlace it by other
substances or at least to decrease its usage. In plant protection cuprio
carbonate was utilized with great success. It was applied as a mordant
against smut, harmless for sowing qualities of grain even during a pro-
longed storage of poisoned seeds. To replace cupric carbonic acid, A. I.
Borggardt constructed and introduced into plant protection a new compound AB
which is a cupric, carbonic acid diluted by chalk, which is not less Wee-.
tive than pure cuprio carbonic acid. The compound AB replaced the latter
at the present tire.
Instead of formalin, Which once became deficient, sulfurous acid and
hydron acid were suggested for seed poisoning.
In connection with the deficiency of sulphur, besides the introduction
of caustic soda solution and ISX, attempts were made to create its sorption
compounds which ensure sufficient effectiveness with insignificant expense
of the active source (sulphur). Thus the chanical industry produced ultra-
sulphur which appeared to be unsuccessful despite its high toxicity. Such
were the sorption sulphur compounds of /In, which was not introduced into
production, and the compound PS SAM. By successfully replacing the usually
applied mixtures of sulphur with lime by these compounds, a considerable
economy of sulphur could be achieved, or with the same amount of sulphur
there would be the possibility of working over a surface several times larger.
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One of the commonly used compounds in controlling pests (web mite
(Tetrany-ohua urtioae Kock] coccidae and coocodea) and plant diseases
(scab, spottiness) is ISO (N(O ) (sulphur-lime de000tion, Californian
liquid). Its defect is the necessity of preparing (stewing) at work,
because the oompound which has been prepared ahead of time (at the factory)
decompose? quickly. Besides, the transport of the liquid ISO is connected
with many disadvantages. BIM suggested a new compound - barium sulphate
constructed after the German barium sulphate - to replace ISO. The aoting
ingredient in barium sulphate is barium polyaulphide. Its advantage in
comparison with rso consists in the fact that barium sulphate is a powder
which, for application, is dissolved in water and does not require stewing
'like ISO. Its transport is more convenient and simpler than ISO. There-
fore barium sulphate is able to replace ISO in those oases when the stewing
is for some reason impossible (absence of fuel, the poor quality of lime, etc.)
In controlling rodents of fruit crops the majority of presently ap-
plied inseotioides of intestine effeot often causes harm to plants. Even
one of the most harmless- compounds - copper aceto arsenite - sometimes
quite unexpeotedly causes serious burns of leaves and of fruit. To replaoe
these compounds under the conditions of orchard growing VIZI introduced
sodium fluosilioate, mid& is considered abroad as the most harmless
compound of intestine effect for plants.
In the practice of fumigation diohlorethan has been introduced - a
more harmless in case of fire and available compound - to replace the ex-
plosive and more deficient bisulphide of carbon which is used in great
quantities for other industrial demands. The toxic, chemical and physioal
qualities of dichlorethan are similar to bisulphide of carbon.
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great
Ai g amount of examples could be mentioned in the research and
creating of new compounds for oontrolling pests and plant diseases, with
the purpose of creating additional sources for the assortment of chemical
measures in oontrolling pests and plant diseases or with the purpose of
full or partial replaoing of applied compounds. It is necessary to indi-
cate, as a characteristic peculiarity of this work, that with a few excep-
tion (drain alkali, barium sulphide, sulphuric concentrates, AB, "protars"
etc.) they are not completed despite the evident positive effect.
A separate work is the research of insecticides of botanical origin.
This group of compounds attracted research workers by its prospects, since
its raw materials, unlike the other compounds, could have been considered
unlimited; being the products of plants they were harmless for the protected
plants and at the same time possessed high insecticide qualities. An the
result of research Carried out by some organizations (N/LOV (014,905)Scientifio
Research Laboratory of Poisoning SUbstances), VIM (6113P) All Union Institute
of Plant Protection, NIYIF OW) and by individual workers, the inspection
of a great amount of plants which carry poison or which, according to liters..
ture, possess the insecticide qualities, vas carried out. Separate typos
were disclosed which appeared to be highly effective during the first
Inspection and a thorough investigating work has been carried out with them
(pyrethrum, melene, aoonite, safforite and some others). But only anabasine
could be industrially applied; during preliminary testing by NILOV it has
been similar to nicotine and replacing the latter in practice; also pyrethrum
is being introduced.
One of the attempts to decrease the consumption of compounds and to
ensure the widening of surfaces of plants with the same amount of expenditure
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of the active source, it is necessary to indicate the work in creating
compounds with a decreased contents of the active source. Thus, to
replace the standard sodium arsenite mith the trioxide arsenio 70-72
percent in controlling locust by aerial method, VIM (00111) suggested
the new calcium arsenite worked out by it and which possesses only $0
percent of trioxide arsenic and which represents a planted compound with
a nucleus of an inertoharger. The above-mentioned ultra sulphur and other
sorbing sulphur compounds, and also other sorbing compounds of formalin on
peat, compound AB, mordants worked out by NMI? and consisting of organic
arsenics (taloarsine, nivarrene) and mercury compounds ("meranin, germizin"),
are examples of such compounds.
The third course in researoh work whose tack was alleviating the hunger
for compounds in plant protection consisted in attempts of applying other
forma of the chemical method in controlling individual pests by utilizing
new, non deficient substances. The control of granary mite could carve as
an example of such Shifting. Bare instead of fumigation of grain by the
deficient and inconvenient chlorpicrin or carbon bisulphide the method of
interspersing of grains by chalk, naphtalene, vivianit"- indeficient and
cheap substances are applied. In controlling the codling moth (Laapeyresia
pomonella] along with the methods of spraying and pollination by intestine
and contact poisons, the autooide belts were applied; attempts are also made
to utilize the attractamt method (Iistrakhan Zonal Experimental Station).
In controlling the gregarious locust there has been worked out the method
of surface fumigation of statiq and dynamics nkuligan of locust with the
assistance of indeficient cyanide process which assists in carrying out the
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control at any time irrelevant to the behavior and condition of the pest
and which ensures the economy of deficient areenies.
As a separate course in recently carried out work with the ohemioal
method, it is recessary to mention further a series of research for the
improvement of the quality of compounds and the increase of the effective-
nese of their aotion by means of improving those compounds which also
ensure a considerable economy of deficient compounds.
The improvement of the dustlike compounds by mineral oil (work of
VIM) might be indicated as one of such examples. By using such dustlike
compounds, like calcium areenite, calcium arsenate, sodium fluosilloate,
sulphur, only a smaller portion of the compound penetrates into the plant
and a considerable part is carried away by the wind. Besides, the part of
the compound whioh settles upon the plant falls from it due to its poor
adherence and inability for retention. For instance, in the experiments
of cotton pollination, sodium fluosilioate settled down on the plant surface
in the amount of 42 percent, after an hour there remained on the plant only
24 percent, and after 24 hours only 15 percent survived. Thus, from the
general amount of the used dustlike compound only a =all portion is utilized
productively; the basic mac 8 is usually wasted without advantage. Applying
such improvement of dustlike compounds by mineral oil it is possible to
decrease the consumption of the compound due to the adhesion of the smallest
partioles which would be carried away by the wind if without oil. This
decrease of consumption (dosing) as the experiments indicate, may reach
25 percent with calcium areenite, 34-40 percent with calcium arsenate,
50 percent - ultresulphur without any loss for the effectiveness. Besides
the obtained economy of the compound itself, the improvement by mineral oil
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often inoreases the effectiveness due to the improvement of adherence and
its ability of retention. For instal= e, calcium a rsen ite, not improved
during the 'experiments against locust, produced by avianethod 88.3 percent
of the decrease of locust quantity by using 5.1 kg/ha and 83.4 percent
with the consumption of 4.7 kg per ha. The same calcium arsenite after
having been improved by oil caused 99.2 percent pest decrease with the
dose of 40 kg/ha; with the dose of 3.4-98.3 percent; 2.9 kg/ha -99.1
percent, and with the dose of 2.3 kg/ha - 90.e percent. The toxicity of
pollinating compounds does not change when oil is added, as has been
proved by special toxicological research.
Tie may also indicate the experiments of VIZR by improving cyanic
acid during the soil fumigation in controlling the beetle caterpillars,
SAIZR experiments with a series of compounds for the improvement of
intestine insecticides in controlling moth, the application of soap for
the improvement of compounds by plant poisons, etc.
Without having solved the problem of supplying all the necessary
measures for controlling pests and diseases, all the indioated courses
in scientific research work by the chemical method could easily alleviate
the tense condition by ensuring the operating work by a necessary assort-
rent of compounds, in case the organizations for plant protection mani-
fested enough initiative and energy in introducing the results into pro-
duction.
Under the conditions of planned socialist agriculture, by carrying
out work on large surfaces the quality of work is of decisive significance.
Even the sli&test deviations from the norm with a great amount of work
is reflected considerably upon the economic effectiveness of the measures
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Il'inskii, A. 141
carried out. Bence the scientific research organizations are confronted
with a new serious tank - the increase of the quality of measures with the
purpose of increasing their technical effectiveness and decreasing the
expenditure of the work.
The-solution of this problem has been realized by various means. The
oldest measure of decreasing expenditure consisted in simultaneous appli-
cation of various compounds for the simultaneous control of pests and
diseases, for instance the application of the mixture of Bordeau liquid
along with copper aceto-arsenite in controlling orchard pests and diseases.
But this measure oould not be applied in all cases due to the possible
chemical reaction by the components of such compounds. Therefore the
investigators did not pay much attention to it, and, bee ides, many schemes
were worked out abroad for prinoipal compounds ("combination star"). Of
the work of this category Te may indicate the experiments of SAIZR with
the application of arsenites and arsenates as emulsifiers for the emulsion
of mineral oils. Besides the combination of intestine insecticide with
the contact one, such an emulsion allowed to replace the usual emulsifier -
soap - by a new one useful for the cases with hard water.
The creation of prepared compounds of confined action was in this
respect more promising. One of these compounds is copper reritol, worked
out by BIYIF 04000 Whioh passes already the stage of productive testing
and will be shortly introduced into production. Further, it is necessary
to mention the work of studying and introducing into practice some compounds
which possess simultaneously the insecticide and fungicide effects, for
instance the work of Rostov Stazra (C170 Station for Plant Protection
with hydrogen sulphide which proved to be very promising in this respect,
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A. M.
being simultaneously an insecticide, fungicide, z000ide and bactericide.
We may also indicate the study of fungicide and bacteriocide characterietios
of chlorpycrin, widely applied in controlling pests and rodents, in research
of Insecticide characteristics of some mordants (PD, oompound of organic
arsenic) ate.
Along the line of improving application procedure vide prospects open
in the domain of decrease in cost of chemical compounds. The introduction
of the pollination method and, especially, the aviomethod opened a new
era in the field of pest control. The advantages of this method under the
conditions of sooialist agriculture in comparison with the method of
spraying soon placed it first, and it occupied the leading position among .
other forum of chamioal pest oontrol. Nevertheless the method of spraying
did not lose its significance since a series of effective compounds, due to
their physical Characteristics, could not be applied by the method of
pollination (emulsion of mineral oils, soap, barium chloride, sodium
fluoride etc.). Besides, the spraying method has a great advantage over
the pollination method: it permitted to obtain the necessary effect under
less consumption (several times leas) of compoundo. These conditions, in
connection with the general deficiency of inseoto-fungioides and the
constant growing demand for them, made it imperative to pay attention
lately to the given application form. Aiming to decrease the amount of
labor during the spraying method and to draw it nearer to the method at
pollination as far as productivity is concerned, vIzR worked out a measure
of compounds in way of concentrated solutions. As indicated by experiments
which were carried out with concentrated solutions of barium chloride on
sugar beets against weevil, by means of decreasing the liquid expenditure
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under increased concentrations the cost of work not only decreases while
the productivity of the same amount of compound on a unit of green in-
creases, but the technical effectiveness of the compound increases as well.
By decreasing the maount of consumption from 400 1/ha with the dosing of
barium chloride 3 percent up to BO Om 15 percent of the solution, its
technical effectiveness increased from 62 up to 81.7 percent (experiments
by VIZR, 1939). We may expect that in other cases, for instance with the
application of concentrated suspensions and emulsions an analogous economic
and technical effect will be achieved.
The scientific research work in improving the application procedure
was moving mainly in the direction of revision of separate instances of
teohnice and of introducing corresponding corrections in the existing
practice. Among the work of this kind -we may indicate the work of VIZ:R in
studying the electrical load of compounds and its influence upon the effec-
tiveness of their action, the comparative effectiveness of abort exposures
with high ooncentrations and long exposures under low concentrations of
fumigant under room fumigation, of the study of the regime of the generator
during room fumigation by hydrooyanic acid, working out the technics of
field analysis of gas mixture during fumigation under tents and in rooms
and others, the work of NIUIF in studying the conditions of the inflamation
of hydrogen sulphide and its mixture with carbonic acid, the offset of
steam of dichloretan and of fourchloric carbon upon metals etc.
An extensive work has been carried out also in ansimils.ting new measures
and methods in chemical control which were unknown in Russia before the
October Revolution. In particular, the method of fumigation was not applied
previously in controlling pests, except for a few casual experiments which
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did not have any practical results. At the present time the methods of
room fumigation, fumigation of buildings, stall and case fumigation, gas
control of hole rodents are well worked out, assimilated and .have wide
practice.
The method of soil fumigation is now in the process of work. The
methods of surface and over surface pollination, methods of dry treating
with mordant of seed grains are fully worked out, assimilated and widely
applied. The working out of measures of chemical immunization of plants
for the protection against fungi diseases has begun.
Finally, it is necessary to indicate the very extensive Work carried
out by a series of scientific research organizations for plant 'protection,
concerning the expansion of the scope of applying the chemical method as
.a while, its separate forms and compounds. The application of the chemical
method in controlling the Swedish fly [the frit fly, Osoinella frit], hydrogen
sulphide and sulphur slag as mordanta for bean geode against baoteriosee,
cyanosis in controlling loouat, cyanosis with polychloride in controlling
the sugar beet weevil in boundary ravines, the method of poisoned attrac-
tants in controlling the cotton owlet [corn earworm, Ohloridea obsolete)
etc. - these are the examples of such work.
According to the task whioh confronts the party and the government
for the third Five-Year Plan ooncerning the enauranoe of the further growth
of the yield of agricultural plants, the acientifio research work of the
chemical method in controlling pests must solve the following problenm:
1. To increase the technical and economic effectiveness of the
operating measures by means of searching for highly effective compounds
of complex aotion, inaeoto-fungicides - intestine and contact, the
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application of more perfect and economically more profitable measures and
methods of chemical control than the ones applied at the present time.
2. To widen the scope of applying the chemical method by working
out some methods of chemical control for such insects upon which it has not
been applied as yet, for instance for dusty smut, the grain rust, spottiness
of fodding grass, the curling of oats and of barley, Swedish and other flies,
wire worm and others.
3. To take an inventory of all the work accomplished up to present time
and to transfer the most valuable accomplistraents of the investigating
thought into production.
4. To oarry out it wide revision of the existing assortment of com-
pounds in controlling pests and diseases for determination of the scope of
application of separate objects, replacing the deficient and the undesirable
for further application (forMalin, AB, protars, carbon bisulphide, ohlorpyorin,
cyanides etc.),
5. To assist the operating organizations in organizing the supply and
utilization of insecto-fungicides by means of inspection of the existing
ones and of working out new standards for ocrapounds We organizing the
cultural trade of insecto-fungicides.
END OF ARTICLE
* * * * * *
Typed 13 June 1951
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23
Tarasov, V. Y.
Considerable efforts are expeoted from Soviet scientists and industry in
excess of those prevailing now, to be directed towards the speediest solution
of problems of mechanization of all procedures in chemical and mechanical pest
and disease control. Inexpensive soviet machinery, powerful, productive, and
of superior quaiity shtelld be used at collective and state farms, in orchards,
gardens and vineyards.
4 June 1.951 END OF ARTTCIT
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Trans1. 173: Miscellaneous
Lysenko, T. D.
Genetics. In Sel'skokhoziaistvetu3.aia
Entsiklopediia, Ed. 3, vol. 1. Moskva, 1949.
p. 427-435. 30.1 13?42 Ed. 3.
Translated from the Russian
by R. N. Monson
Genetics *represents a subject in biological science devoted to the
development of organisms. It may also be referred to as a subject in
science which studies heredity and its changes. Two genetical sciences
are in existence today, the old and the new, which differ radically in
their points of departure.
The first, Mendel-Morgan genetics, views an organism as a gem plasm
distinct from the body (soma) of the organism which in contrast to the
ordinary body alone possesses hereditary characteristics. According to
T. Morgan, "heredity is a term which expresses the relation of the gem
plasm and the results of its activity in successive generations which
originated from the gem plasm." The changes in the latter (mutations)
are supposedly altogether independent from the body of the organism. It
follows therefore that changes (mutations) of germ plasm or of hereditary
substances are independent of the conditions which affect the body of the
organism. New characteristics and traits acquired by the organism as a
result of environmental influence are oonsequently never inherited.
The reproduction of characteristics in successive generations is de-
termined not by the body of the'parents but by the germ plasm, the changes
of which are supposedly independent from the body of the organism. Hence
the Wendel-Morgan theory categorically rejects the possibility of
"directed" transformation of the nature of vegetative and animal organisms
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through the influence of conditions of life and development. Hereditary
transformations (mutations) of organisms are, according to this theory,
independent from the environment. Only the development of the body of
the organism but not its heredity depends upon these condition?. Heredity
may change (mutation) but the nature of these transformations does not
depend upon the specific influence of conditions under Which organisms
that had produced the changes existed. According to the Morgan theory,
man may only use mutations that occur accidentally and are not controlled,
i.e. hereditary changes.
This precludes finding means for directing the transformation of
nature (heredity) of organisms. The Mendel-Morgan theory has therefore
been always in drastic contradiction to the demands and requirements of
selectors and seed growers or livestock breeders.
In contrast to the Mendel-Morgan theory, Michurin's motto was' "We
cannot expect favors from nature (accidental changes, mutations); our
them.
task is to take hdxfrom her". The new Michurin genetics rejects the basic
claim of the old Mendel-Morgan theory concerning the oomplete independence
of hereditary characteristics from conditions in which plants and animals
live. Michurin genetics does not recognise the existence of any hereditary
substance- distinct from the body of the organism. The new science under-
stands under heredity the capacity of the living body to live, feed, grow
and propagate in accordance with its nature. Transformation in the
heredity or a given organism or of any individual part of its body is always
the result of a change in the living body itself. Transformation of the
living body is achieved by the transformation of the type of assimilation
and dissimilation and the transformed metabolism.
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Changes in organisms, or in their individual organs and characteristics,
although not (limeys and in full measure are transmitted to the offspring,
but transformed gerrs of new organism are invariably obtained as a result
of transformations in the parental body and the direct or indirect in-
fluence of environmental conditions upon the development of the organism
or its individual parts.
Changes in heredity, the acquisition of new traits and their strengthening
in a succession of generations are nImays determined by the conditions under
which organisms exist. Heredity is transformed and gets more complex by
acquiring charaoteriatioe obtained by organisms throughout successive genera-
tions. Only tit controlling the environment and development of plants and
animals is their nature better understood and mays found to "direct" them
into channels desirable for practical agriculture.
The basic points of departure in old and new genetics are therefore in
direct contradiction to each other.
MENDEL-HORGARISM (CHROMOSOVE THEORY OF HEREDITY)
In referring to liendel-Morgan genetics we shall quote from statements
of T. Morgan published in his article "Heredity" In 1945 in the Encyclopedia
Americana. "...Beginning 1883, ,August Ileiesman in a series of articles
which were frequently speculative but supported by repeated referenoes to
observations and experiments, oritioised the prevailing idea that traits
acquired by individuals are transmitted by germ cells and may appear in
the offspring. It was proved in many instances that germ cells separate
from the remaining cells already in the early stages of the embryo's develop..
ment and remain undifferentiated, while other cells from which the body
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of the organism is formed are differentiated. Germ cells eventually become
the basic part of the ovary and sperm. They are therefore by origin
independent from the rest of the parts of the body, nor were they ever a
part of the latter. The body protects and feeds them but does not affeot
them in any other xe.y (that is does not transform them, T.L.). The
germinal path represents an /inexhaustible flow which separates body cells
in every generation, the purpose of which is to preserve germ cells. All
new transformations appear first in germ cells, In characteristics of
specimens whioh developed from these germ cells. Evolution is of a germinal
and not a somatic (i.e. bodily, T. L.) nature, as was formerly believed.
This concept concerning the origin of' new charaoteristice is at present
accepted by almost all biologists." Heredity is consequently determined
by the preservation in the germ plasm of those elements, old and new alike,
which were produced in it from time to time. Germ plasm represents the
"capital" (storehouse) of a variety in which new specimens in each genera-
tion spend only the "interest".
Mendel discovered the authentic (true) mechanism of heredity**. It
was subsequently found that his laws apply not alone to oharacteristies
of cultivated plants and domestic animals and such external characteristics
as color, but also to the characteristics of wild animals, to dintinotions
in epecies and the most fundamental characteristics 'in living beings. The
Mendelian law of segregation established that elements transmitted by two
parents to their offspring came in pairs and that in the formation qt germ
cells of the offspring the members of each pair separate from each other
in such manner that every germ cell contains only one member of each pair.
Mandel, for instance, crossed the green-seeded pee. variety with a. yellow-
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seeded pea variety; the result was all yellow seeds in the offspring.
Yellow clearly dominated green. If plants from these hybrid seeds are
self-pollinating (or orossable) they produce yellow and green seeds in
the proportion of three yellow to one green. Green seeds are pure and
always produce only green geeds. It was, found, however, that yellow seeds
were of two kinds. One part was pure with regard to yellow color and
always produced yellow offspring. The other, a hybrid, produced both
yellow and green seeds in the proportion of three to one. Seeds of the
seoond generation were obtained in the proportion of one pure yellow, two
hybrid yellow, one pure green. Mendel observed that if the original green
ancestor had contributed the green element, while the yellow ancestor had
provided yellow color, these contrasting elements form pairs of hybrids
of which the members separate (from each other) in fanning germ stens
(gametes). As a result one half of the egg cells will contain yellow and
the other green color. In the same may one half of the pollen grains will
contain yellow, the other half green. Accidental combinations of egg cells
and pollen produce thus the following combinations: One Green green, two
green yellow, one yellow yellow.
Follows sketch;..,
1, egg cellsgreen yellow
4, pollen green yellow
The second Mendelian JAM relates to cases which refer to more than
one pair of characteristios. It was discovered that the tall and short
stature of peas offered contrasting traits which segregate (split) in the
same manner as do the yellow and green colors. If a tall yellow-seeded
stature is crossed with a short green-seeded one, the segregation of each
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pair will not depend upon the segregation of the other pair, so that a
quarter of the egg cells of such hybrid will contain elements of tall
yellow-seeded stature, another quarter tall green-seeded; a third quarter
short green-seeded plants, and the last quarter short yellow-seeded stature.
In pollen formation four types of gametes are produced. Accidental
fusions of egg cells and pollen produce 16 combinations. So long as yellow
dominates green, and tall stature dominates short, there will be nine tell
yellow in the second daughter generation (F2); three short yellow; three
tall green; one short green. Consequently, during the maturation of germ
cells when the segregation of members of each pair of'hybrids occurs, the
division of every pair occurs independently from the other.
This is the substance of Mendel 's second discovery whioh may be named
"the Law of independent segregation".
Mendel proved that three pairs of characteristics oonduct themselves
in the same manner, i. e. segregate their genes independently, and there
is reason to believe that this law is applicable to all oases where genes,
which determine two or more pairs of characteristics, are found in different
pairs of chromosomes. But, as will be shown below, their segrelation is
determined by a third law of heredity, i.e. the law of linkage ("stseplenle").
Units which supposedly represent hereditary traits in a certain sense,
are usually called genes, and the term "genetics", or the study of the
conduct of genes, has in contemporary science replaced the old term "heredity"
with the latter's manifold meanings. Mendel's traits are frequently
referred to as individual traits and it is sometimes supposed that the
gene directly forms every much characteristic,. Nevertheless, there is
proof in support of the fact that the so-called 'individual trait"
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represents only one of the numerous manifestations of actionsof the gene
vtich the latter may always produce together with many and all other genes.
Thus the germ plasm is viewed as the total sum of all genes, the joint
conduct of which is responsible for every characteristic of-the body.
G41
Mhile the latter is formedhthe inter-action of substances, formed by genes,
genes act as independent units which gather in pairs and then segregate.
Genes which are distributed in different pairs of chromosomes, segregate
independently from each other, while genes located in ore chromosome are
linked.
Contemporary work on cello has unfailingly pointed to the mechanism
with the aid of which segregation and distribution of chromosomes are
accomplished. Everybody cell or immature sexual cell contains the double
set of chromosomes (with the exception of males of certain groups which
lack one of the sexual chromosomes). One member of every pair originates
from the male parent, the other from the female parent. In the process of
maturing the female mad male chromosomes pair with each other, like with
like. Next, at the so-called reduction division ("delenie"), one member
of each pair passes into a daughter cell, the other into another daughter
cell. If chromosomes contain genes, female and male genes will segregate
during the reduction of chromosomes in forming gametes. But during the
reduction division there is no separation of maternal and paternal chromo-
somes, instead each pair of chromosomes separates independently from the
rest of the pairs. As a result daughter cells may Obtain any possible combine..
tion of paternal and maternal chromosomes, but always only one member of
every pair. This situation fully satisfies the conditions of the Vends/
law with regard to independent segregation.
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It is evident, nevertheless, that if (as is supposed) Chromosome
threads are carriers of genes and if, as is usually accepted at present,
.threads represent structural units which do not vary even in dormant cells,
genes should be inherited in groups to conform with the number of ohromo-
somas. Beginning in 1906 the number of knomn oases of linked genes has
risen steadily and at present there is no doubt conoerning the fact that
this represents a characteristic of Dandelion heredity. A test made with
the fruit fly Drosophila ampelophila established that 200 known hereditary
distinctions are inherited in four groups that correspond to four Pairs of
chromosomes. Thus the Wendel law of segregation found its 'confirmation in
the cytological mechanism of reduction in sexual cells, while the law of
independent segregation is confirmed by the distribution of chromosomes.
The discovery of the significance of linkage subsequently led all
basic regularities into complete correlation with the chromosome mechanism.
vf
It was found, however, that the individualism (unity? discreteness?) of
chromosomes Which provoked linking is not absolute, since it was also proved
that members of one pair occasionally "cross-over" their equivalent parts.
But this crossing-over follows a definite pattern and while it complicates
results, it does not undermine the general principle. Crossing-over takee
place only in females (Drosophila) in some species, in other species only
in males (silkworm), while in still other species crossing-over occurs in
both sexes, as it does in monoecioue plants.
The inheritance of sex vas one of the great biological disooveries of
our century. It established that the sex factor or factors are located in
special chromosomes, so-called sex chromosomes. In 'some large groups
(nammale, the majority of insects, etc.) the presence of two of these
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ohromosomes, called x-chromasomes, produce a female and the presence of
one of them produces a male. Thus the female is represented by XX, the
male by X. In the process of reduction division, the female enates
one x-ohromosome from the egg; each egg contains therefore only one x-.
chromosome. The male has only one x-chromosome which under reduction
division is transferred to one of the two cells of the sperm, as a result
of which two types of spermatozoa develop. During fertilization, acciden-
tal union of any egg with any spermatozoa produce two types of two x-
ohromosomes (female) and one x-ohromosome (male). This meohaniam ensures
numerical sexual equality. In other groups (birds, butterflies) the pro-
portion is reversed, the male has two x-chromosomes, the female only one.
Consequently, all spermatozoa contain only one x-chromosome, one half of
the eggs carries an x-chromosome, the other lacks it altogether".
These are the fundamental points of the chromosome theory of inheritance
In T. Morgan's presentation which form the basis of his theory,
CRITICISM OF ThE CHROMOSOLT THEORY OF INHERITANCE
At the basis of the chromosome theory lies reissman's absurd statenent
concerning the uninterruptedness of germ plasm and its independence from
soma, a factor already rejected by K. A. Timiriazev.
The Morgan-MandeliSts, following in Peissman's footsteps, proceed
from the premise that parents are not the parents of their offspring. That
the latter and their parents are merely brothers and sisters, Parents and
offspring, moreover, do not appear as such. They are only side products
of the inexhaustible germ plasm. The latter is completely independent of
its aide product, i.e. the body of the organism.
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All this is stated in T. Morgan's article. It suffices to call
attention to the first part of the above excerpt presenting the Weiesman
theory as the basis for the chromosome theory of inheritance. Let us
quote them:
"Germ cells eventually become the basic parts of the ovary and sperm.
They are thus independent from the remaining parts of the body in origin,
nor were they ever a part of tie body. Evolution has a germinal and not
somatic nature, as was formerly believed. This concept concerning the
origin of new characteristics is at present accepted by almost all biologists."
The same, only in greater detail, is told in an article by Castle*
"Genetics", published in the same issue of the Amerioan Encyclopedia. In
referring to the fact that an organism usually develops from a fertilized
egg, Castle proceeds to provide "scientific" basis for genetics. Let us
refer to them.
"Parents actually do not produoe any offspring, nor do they produce
a cell from which an offspring is obtained. The parental organism presents
no more than a "side product" from which a fertilized egg originates. The
direct product of tygotes are other productive cells, similar to those from
which they originated... It follows, therefore, that heredity (i.e. the
resemblance between parents and offspring) depends upon the intimate bond
between productive cells from which the parents originated, and those
cells -which produced the offspring. The latter are the direct, immediate
products of the former. This principle of the "uninterruptedness" of the
germ substance represents one or the fundamental principles in genetics.
It indicates why changes in a body produced in parents by the surrounding
environment are not inherited by their offspring. This is because the
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offspring are not products of the parent body but only products of the
germ substance surrounded by that body. Credit for the original inter-
pretation of this factor belongs to August Weissman. Be therefore must
rightly be considered one of the founders of genetics."
The above statements of kendel-MorLanists are fundamentally wrong
(chromosome theory of heredity). They do not conform to reality. While
these statements are fully shared by proponents of the Nendelian-Morgan
theory in the Soviet Union, they are, as a rule, not openly expressed.
Nor are they referred to in articles and lectures on the subject from
fear of ridicule on the part of readers and ii tenets mho are well aware
that germs of organisms or gamma* cells represent one of the results of
the life aotivity of parental organisms. Only by withholding fundamental
statements of Nendel-Morganists in front of people unfamiliar with the
life and development of plants and animals, will the chromosome theory
of heredity appear orderly and in some measure correct. By assuming
the absolutely correct and well-knoun fact that sea. cells or germs
of new organisms are produced by the organism and its body and not by
the sexmot cell from which the mature organism originates, the entire
orderly chromosome theory of inheritance it completely upset. This
oirouristanoo, nevertheless, does not minimize the role and significance
of chromosomes in the development of cells and organism.
Mendel-Uorganiam, pretending to have discovered the laws of the
development of living bodies (lams of inheritance) completely refutes
their very development. According to their reasoning the ohidken is
developed from an egg. But the egg is not produced by a chicken. Eggs
are produced directly only from eggs. The body of a chicken may not
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affect the offspring in any Vfay since the organism is supposedly unable
to produce any offspring. The latter is created only indirectly from
the usne egg that created the organism. In other words, development
does not enter into offspring and invented, "'uninterrupted (?) germ
plasma" alone produces offspring. The chromosome theory of inheritance
in based on this scholastic foundation. Instead of uninterrupted life
produced in the development of egg-organism...egg, the Mendel.Morganists
substitute the uninterruptedness of the "gem plasma." (egg-egg). The
development of the living body is therefore shut off from their sphere
of vision.
The basic characteristic of the Vendel-Morgan theory is the detach-
ment of the organisr, from its environment. Sinoe life is detached from
its environment, it cannot grow, develop or exist, and, consequently,
does not possess hereditary characteristics. Mendel-Morgan genetics
were therefore forced to recognise the connection between the body of
the organism and existing conditions in the construction of their theory
of inheritance. In taking this proper step, they were bound to commit a
grave error. They removed the basic capacity of a living organiam(In-
heritanc()from its body. According to their reasoning, only the chromo-
SOMVS of cells have hereditary substance. Hence the designation: "Chrome.-
some theory of inheritance".
At the base of this theory was the fact that chromosomes are not
related to the ordinary body, that they consiet of a special substance
to which only heredity belongs. The rest of the body of the organism
apparently does not possess heredity. This led to the conclusion that
the organism and every one of its cells oonsist4 of an ordinary body (soma)
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and a hereditary substance (chromosome). But, according to Nichurin, the
organism consists only of an ordinary body. There Is no separate body of
hereditary substance in the organism of cells.
Heredity is possessed not only by chromosomes but generally by the
living body and every particle of it. It is therefore wrong to conclude
that because chronocomeu possess hereditary capacity, they may be con-
sidered special hereditary substances in the organism and cell. There
may be different organs in the organism, including organs of propagation,
but there can never be an organ of heredity. To search for a special
organ of heredity in the organism is equal to searching for the life
organ in an organism.
Changes in heredity, connected with changes in chromosomes, do not
speak for but against the chromosome theory of inheritance which asserts
that the change of the living body does not involve changes in traits of
inheritance.
Morganiste have themselves accumulated numerous data in support of
the fact that morphological chances in any organ of the body, i.e.
ohranosames, are fairly accurately transmitted by heredity under the
influence of an external environment. The change in chromosomes acquired
in the process of individual development of the cell or organism will, as
a rule, always be transmitted to daughter cells by heredity. Does this
not testify to the transmittance of traits acquired by heredity? Do not
the fact of changes in chromosomes and the transmittance of these changes
by heredity serve as a refutation of the chromosome theory of inheritance?
The entire factual cytolotioal part of the chromosome theory confirms the
Mendel-Morgan theory only formally. The Taotual cytological material
fundamentally contradicts it.
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.41?111P,
It is true that Chromosomes exist. Their number in sexual cells is
half that in ordinary cells. When sexual cells with any chromosome changes
are present, changed organisms are Obtained. It is true that any observed,
morphological changes of a studied chromosome cell are frequently or almost
invariably followed by Changes of any traits in the organism. It has been
proved that the presence of two x.chrotosomes in a fertilised egg of the
Drosophila usually settles the question of male or female produced from
this egg. All these facts and other factual data are true. It is indis.
puted that the changed egg or its chromosomes produce a changed development
of the entire or individual plots of the body of the organism, but it is
equally indisputed that changed conditions In the external environment may
transform the process in the construction of the body, Including the con.
? struotion of the Chromosomes and the germ cells for the future generation
in general. In the former ease the germs (egg), changed by conditions in
the external environment, produce changed organisms; in the latter, the
organism changed by conditions of the external environment may produce .
changed germs. But the latter statement is fully rejected by Mendel-
Morganiste, and here lies their fundamental error.
The development of an organism may not be understood correctly, nor
its uniformity disclosed if the organism Is not accepted for study in
its dialectic unity with conditions of life. The very fact that a living
body, when deprived of necessary living conditions stops to exist speaks
in support of the dialectic unity between the organism and its environment.
All living matter depends not only upon conditions of the external environ.
ment but it all originated under certain conditions at one time from ion-
.4W living matter. Vegetative and animal forms were produced by living
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conditions, those of external surroundings. The organism, having its
origin in an egg, builds its body with all its characteristics, including
the basic charaoteristio which is heredity.
Heredity is the capacity of a living body to live, grow, develop,
propagate in a definite, specific manner. The characteristics Of heredity
may only be understood through the study of conditions required by the
organism for the oonstruction of a living body, i.e. a body possessing the
trait of heredity. Agricultural techniques by "directing" living condi-
tions of plant organisms find in agricultural practices new methods for
increasing the productivity of plants. Only in this manner is it possible
to transform the nature (heredity) of organisms. Proceeding from these
general aspects, Michurin genetics develop concrete ways and methods for
controlling the nature of vegetative organisms.
MICHURIN GENETICS
I. V. Michurin created a new agro-biological theory based on his
highly valuable varieties of fruit and berry plants. This theory is widely
accepted in the Soviet Union. According to the principles of Miohurin'
theory, the organism and the conditions essential for its existence should
be represented as a unit.
Different living bodies require different oond&tione for their develop-
ment. We realise therefore that they possess different natures and a
different heredity. Heredity is the capaoity of a living body to require
definite conditions for its existence and development, and to react in a
definite manner upon conditions.
A knowledge of natural requirements and the relations of an organism
to the external environment offer the opportunity to control the existenoe
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and the development of an organism. Equipped with this knowledge we are
able to transform the heredity of organisms in a manner desired by man.
The difference in the above mtproach to the study of heredity from
the approach of geneticiste of the Mendel-Morgan group may be demonstrated
by the following example. $41e Mendel geneticists repeatedly studied the
heredity of winter and summer cereal crops. Winter varieties were crossed
with summer varieties for this purpose and the progeny established how
many plants were minter crops, i.e. resembled one of its parents in this
respeot. and haw many were summer crops, i.e. resembled the other parent.
The final conclusions were that hereditary traits of winter crops differ
from those of summer crops by one or a large quantity of genes, i.e.
particles of some unknown substance supposedly contained in the chromosomes
of cells of winter and summer plants. What actually represents the essence
of winter or summer traits in plants and how the development of these traits
should be controlled remained unexplained in this study.
Miohurin genetics calls for a totally different approach to the study
of heredity. In studying the causes of non-tillering of Winter crops
during spring sowing it was established that one of the processes in the
development of winter plants, called the stage of vernalization, requires
in addition to spring nutrition under field conditions, moisture, and air,
also a relatively prolonged period of reduced temperature (0.40?). The
lack of a prolonged period of reduced temperature under spring field condi-
tions interferes with the process of vernalization and causes the delay in
future processes, tillering and fruit bearing. By establishing the nature
of the stage of vernalization it became possible to compel any winter Crops
to tiller and bear fruit. Prior to planting, moistened seeds are maintained
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for this purpose under relatively low temperatures. This satisfies the
hereditary requirements for the development of the above process. Once
the latter is completed all subsequent hereditary requirements of minter
plants will be met under prevailing field conditions and their development
Will proceed normally up to the time of the germination of seeds. This
res.erd fa
study reveals the essence in heredity p?minter and summer crops*
Every living body builds itself in its own way from the external in
accordance with its heredity* This accounts for the variety of organisms
in one environment. As a rule, every generation of plants or animals
in many respeots develops as do their predecessors, especially those
nearest to them. The reproduction of identical species represents a
general characteristic of el:living body.
In all oases mhen an organism finds conditions in its environment
corresponding to its heredity, its development proceeds in the manner it
did in preceding generations* In instances, however, when organisms do
not find desirable conditions and are, obliged to assimilate those in an
unsuitable external environment, the result is the production of organisms
or individual parte that differ in some form from the preceding generation.
If the transformed part of the body is of .initial significance to the
new generation, the latter will differ in its requirements and nature from
the preceding generation*
The cause for the transformation of the nature of living organisms
is the change in type of assimilation and type of metabolism. For instanoe,
vernalisation of summer crops does not require reduced temperatures.
Vernalization of summer crops proceeds normally under ordinary summer and
spring temperatures. If, .however, the period of vernalising summer crops
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under. reduced temperatures is prolonged, one frequently observes that
summer plants will be transformed into winter crops in two or three genera-
tions. It is known that winter crops are unable to go through the process
of vernalization without reduced temperatures. This illustrates that the
offspring assimilated the new charnoteristic, their demand for reduced
temperatures, while changes in their requirements, i.e. the heredity of
the living body, correspond to the reaction of environmental conditions.
Sexual cells and any other cells through which organisms propagate
are produced by the transformation of the entire organism, and by metabolism.
The course whioh the development of an organism follows accumulates in cells
dominating in the new generation. One may therefore claim that the "degree"
to which a body (let us say that of a plant) is produced determines all its
characteristics, including that of heredity.
The development of different cells in the same organism and the develop..
leant of individual processes require different conditions frau an external
environment. In addition, these conditions are assimilated in various ways.
It is necessary to stress that assimilated conditions' are external, those
of-
which do the assimilatingA the internal conditions. The life of an organism
proceeds through an innumerable number of regular processes and transforma-
tions. The food absorbed by the organism is assimilated by the living body
from the external environment through a chain of varied transformations
from external to internal conditions. The internal, i.e. the living sub-
stance, when crossed-over with substances of other cells and particles of
body, feeds them and thus acts as the external factor in relation to them.
An organism may never entirely realize all its hereditary potentialities.
Many traits are not fully developed and remain undeveloped in some measure
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(recessive) without substantially reflecting upon the development of the
organism as a whole. These traits may develop in subsequent generations,
it necessary conditions prevail in the external environment. Different
processes and the development of various characteristics carry different
significance for the life of the organism. The development of the organism
as a whole may depend in a esser degree upon the development of some
characteristics and in a greater degree upon the development of others,
and finally may depend in such measure upon a third group that it may not
develop or exist without them.
Two types of qualitative transformations are observed in the develop?
mont of vegetative organism,
1. Changes connected with the realization of individual development,
when natural demands, i.e. heredity, are normally met in suitable condi?
tions of an external environment. The result is the production of a body
of the same heredity as of the preceding generation.
2. Racial transformations, i.e. changes in heredity; these are also
the result of individual development but deviate from the normal, common
course. Hereditary changes usually result from the development of an
organism under conditions of an external environment whioh in some form
or other do not meet their natural requirements, i.e. their heredity.
Changes in living conditions produce changes in the development of
vegetative organisms. They represent the primary cause of changes in
heredity. All organisms whiCh cannot adapt themselves to changed living
conditions are unable to survive, nor do they leave any offspring.
Organisms and their nature are produced only in the process of develop..
mont, A living body may also change outside of the process, but such
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change will not be oharacterietio for living bodies.
Rtmerous facts indicate that changes in different parts of the body
of a vegetative organism are frequently not fixed in the same manner or are
assimilated in the sexual cells, i.e, in wprodtptsw of propagation.
This may be explained by the fact that the development of every organism,
of every particle in a living body demands relatively definite conditions
from an external environment. These conditions are selected from the
surrounding environment by the development of every organism and its
characteristics. nell00 If any part of the body of a vegetative organism
is compelled to assimilate relatively uncommon conditions, is transformed
as a result of this and differs from analogous parts of the body of a
preceding generation, the substances tranmitted by this part of the body
to adjoining cells may not be selected by the latter and not be included
into the subsequent, chain of necessary processes. The union of the changed
part of the body of the vegetative organism with other parts of the body
will naturally prevail, since it may otherwise not exist, but this union
may not be entirely mutual. The changed part of the body will be nourished
by the adjoining parts, but it will not transmit its own specific substances
since the adjoining parts will not select them.
of-
This explains the frequently Observed fact *air any changed organisms
or characteristics of an organisnseve nottgAduoed in the offspring.
Changed parts of the body of the paternal organism always possess a changed
heredity. Gardening and horticultural practice have known this long ago.
The changed branch or bud of a fruit tree or the eye of a potato tuber may,
as a rule, not influence the heredity of the offspring of the reepective
tree or tuber, which do not immediately originate from changed parte of the
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parent organism. If the Changed part is, homever, grafted and grown as
a separate, independent plant, the Latter rill generally fully possess
the changed heredity, the or that had prevailed in the changed part of
the parent body.
The degree of the ability to transmit changes will depend upon the
degree of inclusion of the substance of the changed part of the body into
the general process leading to the formation of reproductive sexual or
.vegetative cells.
Variability of processes in the development of organisms and charac-
teristics may always be adapted to the conditions of an external environment
under the influence of which it. takes place, but one should bear in mind that
the adaptable variability is not always expedient for the organism as a .
whole. A relative expediency, the harmony of plants and animals in nature
is created only by natural selection which Includes heredity, variability
and viability. By knowing ways to "create" the heredity of an organism it
is possible to "direct" its transformation by creating certain oonditions
at definite moments of its development.
Good varieties of plants, as well as good breeds of animals have
always been produced in practice only under conditions of good agro.technique
and superior zoo-technique. Poor agricultural practices will not produce
good results from poor varieties but in nany instances even superior cul"
tivnted varieties will after several generations become inferior. The
principal rale in need growing practice is to raise plants on seed plots
as carefully es possible. Good agricultural conditions are essential for
this purpose, those meeting the hereditary requirements of the respective
plants. Among well developed plants the best are selected for seeds. In
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this manner plant varieties arc improved in practice. Under poor agricul-
tural techniques, however, selection among the best plants will fail to
produce any results. All seeds will be poor and the best among them will
still be poor. The chromosome theory of heredity recognizes the possibility
.of Obtaining hybrids by sexual methods only, although Darwin and several
other prominent biologists reoognized the possibility of obtaining vegeta-
tive hybrids. They admitted the possibility of producing one species from
a mixture of two by sexual crossing and also by vegetative crossing. I. V.
Miohurin not only recognized the possibility of vegetative hybrids but also
developed the Venter method. This method consists in grafting branches
of any varieties of fruit trees to the crown of a young variety, with the
result that the characteristics lacking in the latter are absorbed and
transmitted from grafts. With the aid of this method, Miehurin produced
and improved many new superior varieties.
His followers found means of obtaining mass vegetative hybrids.
Vegetative hybrids represent convincing proof of the accuracy of Michurints
understanding of heredity. At the some time they represent an unconquerable
obstacle to the Morgan-Hendel theory..
Hon-formed organisms which did not complete the cycle of their develop.
merit will when grafted always change, compared to non-grafted plants. In
grafting an organism of A different variety is obtained, i.e. a wilding igtocia
and a scion. By gathering and planting seeds from either wilding or scion
it is possible to obtain a generation of plants of which individual represen-
tatives will possess characteristics not only of the variety from which
the seeds were takeit but also the other to Which it was grafted.
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... 40
? Lysenko, T. D.
Wilding and scion were unable to exchange ohromosomea of the nucleus
of cells but the hereditary characteristics may nevertheless be trans?
mitted from wilding to soion and vice versa. Consequently, plastic sub-
stances produced by wilding and scion equally possess natural oharacteris-
.tics, i.e. heredity*
A vast amount of faotual data assembled on the vegetative transmission
of various characteristics of potatoes, tomatoes, and many other plants
leads to the conclusion that vegetative hybrids are in priroiple not dif-
ferent from hybrids obtained by sexual method. Any trait may be transmitted
from one variety to another by graft, as well as by the sexual method. The
conduct of vegetative hybrids in suooessive generations is also identical
with the conduct of sexual hybrids. In planting seeds of vegetative hybrids
without further grafting, such as tomatoes, for instance, the hybrid
oharaoteristics of pleats of the preceding generation aro Obtained in
plants of the succeeding generation. The factor of segregation ("rasshcheplenio"),
frequently observed in generations of sexual crossings, takes plaoe also in
seed generations of vegetative hybrids. Only in the latter the so-called
segretation ("rasshohepIenie") is observed more frequently and in larger
measure, whenever a mosaic characteristic of the body of the organism is
obtained.
Representatives of Vendel-Morgan genetics are unable to obtain not
only "directed" changes in heredity but they categorically deny the possi-
bility of transforming heredity to match (relatively) the influence of the
external environment. Following the same Naohurin principles it is possible
to transform heredity to conform with the influence of.living conditions.
For instance, A. A. Avakian and other scientific students obtained by means
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LAL
Lysenko, T. D.
of suitable growing many hereditary summor forms from winter forms.
Hereditary summer forms of summer wheats were obtained from all varietiee
of winter wheats experimented on. An entire group of summer wheats and
barleys was equally transformed into winter crops.
Tests for transforming summer and winter cereals into more decided'
winter crops for Siberian severe winters are of considerable interest in
obtaining frost resistant varieties. We already have winter wheats obtained
from summer wheats which do not lack in frost reeistance and frequently
excel the best frost resistant varieties known in practice.
Many experiments show -that in eliminating the old established character-
istic of heredity, such as the charaoteristio of wintering, a new charac-
teristic (in this case the summer characteristic) is not immediately
acquired. The majority of these instances apply to the sowcalled "shattered
heredity".
Vegetative organisms of shattered heredity are those 'which have lost
their conservatism and where the selectivity to conditions of the external
environment has been weakened. These plants preserve or acquire anew the
tendency to prefer some conditions to others.
Shattered heredity may be obtained from:
1. grafting, by connecting tissues of plants of different varieties.
2. by influencing the development of conditions of the external
environment at definite times.
3. by crossing, especially forms which differ radically in their
habitat or origin.
The foremost biologists, Burbank, ViImorin, and espeoiallyMichurin
have paid considerable attention to the practical significance of vegetative
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Lysenko, T. D.
organisms of shattered heredity. Plastic vegetative forma of unestablished
heredity, Obtained in one form or another, should be planted from genera-
tion to generation under conditions desirable to produce la the reppeotive
organisms.
In the, great majority of plants and animals new organisms are developed
only after fertilization, the union of male and female cells. The biological
significance of processes of fertilization consists in obtaining organisms
of dual heredity: maternal and paternal. Dual heredity provides for the
greater viability of organisms and their greater adaptability to changing
conditions of life.
Al]. common (non-sexual) cells when developed are divided into two kinds;
this is the manner in which cells propagate and the body grows. Sexual
cells do not divide, however, into two one. their development is completed,
but on the contrary, normally one cell is produced from two sexual cells
(female and male); Which is usually more viable, compared to a single one.
Both female and male cells possess the characteristics of their
respective genes in full measure, The species is different in various
degrees. After obtaining zygotes (the fertilization of the female sexual
cell), one cell is produced from two cells, representing the beginning of
an organism with racial characteristics of each form. Based on the oontrast
obtained from both relatively different sexual cells, viability is either
produced or strengthened and so is the capacity for tranaformation. This
determines the biological necessity for crossing forms which differ from
each other even slightly. Darwin repeatedly stressed the natural law of
the practicability of crossing and the biological harm of self-fertilization.
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Lysenko, T. D.
Rejuvenation, strengthening of viability in vegetative forms may proceed by
vegetative, non-sexual method. It is achieved by the living body assimilat-
ing new, unusual conditions frets an external environment. In vegetative
hybridization it is possible to observe rejuvenation and strengthened
viability of organisms in experiments intended to produce winter crops
from summer crops or vice versa.
K. A. Timiriasey gave a correct classification of facts for the different
behavior of sexual hybrids. He divided factors of heredity into- two groups:
simple and complex.factors.
It is known that self-pollinating plants such as *eat, or plants
propagated by tubers, grafting, cuttings, etc. possess, as a rule, maternal
hereditary traits in a more pronounced measure. This hereditary form
Timiriazev named "simple".
In crossing the heredity of two organisms is usually united. This he
called "complex". The latter may, depending upon the forms in which it
appears, be in turn divided into several groups.
In some animals one spot of fur resembles the male parent, the other
the mother; or in ,plants, some cells of the epidermis of leaves resemble
the paternal, others the maternal plant, etc. This heredity is called
? "mixed". The distinction may vary, ranging from large to microscopically
small size.
East frequent are cases where hereditary traits of both parents are
found in the progeny; when new characteristics do not appear in the progeny
in pure form. Timiriazev calls the latter heredity "fused" and attributes
much significance to it.
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41 40
Lysenko, T. D.
Thera are cases uhen contrasting parental traits do not mix in the
hybrid offspring. For instance, in crossing varieties of green seeded
peas with yellow-seeded specimens, oharaoteristios do not fuse. Vow or
average characteristics are not obtained and the characteristic of only
one parent is produced; the characteristic of the other parent is somehow
eliminated. This form or heredity is called "conflicting".
In a conflicting heredity two categories of feats are observed. To
one category belong instances when hybrid organisms are uniform in the
first and all succeeding generations. In other words, the hybrid progeny
does not vary, does not segregate in future generations; the characteristics
of one parent are frequently completely absorbed. This form is called
fiMillardeism", after the French moientist Millardet, who studied these
hybrids at great length.
The other category of conflicting heredity refers to cases of the
so-called Mendelism. In these instanoes, beginning with the second
generation, the hybrids show segrlation and variation, one form possessing
the paternal characteristics, the other the material.
It is now evident that different variations of hereditary forms may
take place in vegetative hybridisation.
Vegetative hybrids exhibit mixed forms of heredity when one part of
the organism shows cheraoteristics of one variety and the other part
characteristics of another component. There are also instances of fused
and conflicting heredity.
It:melioration of development is also noted in vegetative hybrids; as
well as lowered viability, as in sexual hybridization. This does not
indicate there is no distinction between sexual and vegetative hybridization.
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Lysenko, T. D.
But it is important to stress the similarity in hereditary forms among
vegetative and sexual hybrids. They are not separated from each other
by an inpenetrable wall but represent factors of one order. By regulating
the conditions of an external ertvironraent it is possible to direct, trans-
form and produce varieties of desired heredity.
HEREDITY is a concentrate of conditions of an external environmentrwitieh
e-re assimilated by vegetative organisms during many preceding generations.
By skillful hybridization, by the fusion of varieties by sexual methods,
It is possible to produce in one organism all that has been assimilated
and strengthened (frost the non-living into the living) in many generations
in crossing. But according to Michurin, no hybridization will produce
affirmative results if conditions that contribute to the development of
traits are not produced, the hereditary characteristics of which it is
desired to obtain for the 'variety under production or se-be improveftrtt
One should remember that non-living nature is the origin of living
nature. The living body builds itself from conditions of the externs.1
environment and thereby transforms itself.
End of Article
4141141**********#
References: Darwin, Chas. Transformation of animals and plants in their
domestic state. 1941
Darwin, Chas. Origin of Soecies. 193?
Lysenko, T. Agra-Biology, 4th ed., M. 1948
Michurin, I, V. Works, vol. X - IV, 2nd ed., M., 1948.
On conditions (situation) in biologioal science.
Stenographic report of session of All-Mnion Lenin
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4
Lysenko, T. D.
Timiriatev,
Typed 14 June 1991
Ai
Academy of Acricultural Sciences, of
July 51, Auguat 7. 1948, N. 1948.
Works, vol. VI VII, M. 1939.
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$
p. Bordukova, M. V.
Mew deve1ociegts in the control of
phytophthora. Sad S.
p. 62-65, Sept. 1947. 80 $a13
Transl. 174: +61amtt-4740eter..t4an
t1S0 rh4 4141C4s
ek.1
Translated from the Russian
by S. M. Monson
The most resistant and highest yields of potatoes are obtained at
Moscow Leningrad amid Smolensk ?blasts, Belorussian SSR, the black earth
belt region, Western and Bastern Siberia and other sections where the end
of sumer is warm and humid. However, the highest percentage in loss of
crops is equally obtained in these localities. Loss in potatoes in caused
by phytophthora, which appears towards the end of summer in the fora of
dark, brawn spots on the plant's leaves. In early morning, when the dew
is on, a whitish flocculent down is observed on, the dark spots which
represent the fruiting of the fungus. They consist of ?midi& and conidia
carriers (in. 1, p. 62). Could% develop in a drop of water (dew or rain)
on the potato foliage or penetrate directly into the fungus thread (ill. 2,
p. 62) which enters the tissue, or zoospores are formed within the conidia
at temperatures of the air of 6 - 13? C; 300 spores abandon the conidia
and swim freely in water (with the aid of two flagella), and later develop
mycelium (ill. 2 3, 4, p. 62 and 63); the fungi penetrate the tissue of
the leaf (ill. 5), spread and cause the cells to die. In place of the
dead cells a spot is formed (ill. 6). The phytophthora fungus is the
Inducer of that disease. The new tubers are eventually infected by the .
diseased foliage.
This disease has been raging in gurops for over one hundred years
and investigators of all countries have been engaged in studies of phyto-
phora and of methods to control it for as many years. Many agricultural
techniques were proposed to reduce in some degree the percentage of
^
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berdUkelra, K. V.
diseased tubers. Among these were supplementary billing proposed by Putsch
s in 1827, treading and crushing of the foliage, as suggested by Vol'ni?
(1897), etc. A multitude of poisons were tested in this connection.
date.
There are upieltr, no radical'means for controlling phytophthora to
The Scientific, Research Institute of Potato Industry is engaged not
only in verifying (checking) all known methods of controlling phytophthora,
but in finding a new vegetative fungicide.
There is no doubt that such a vegetative fungicide exists. NUmerous
observations convince us in this supposition in noting the different degrees
of contamination of potatoes by this disease. Plants of the same variety
and age, grown in practically identical conditions with regard to relief of
location and the physical structure of the soil, given the same amount of
fertilizers, same moisture and density of planting, ate., are 'affected in
different degrees in a year of severe outbreak of phytophthora. The
foliage rots completely in the ?curee of several days in the majority of
plants, but on the Game field, against the background of destroyed potatoes,
it is possible to find altogether healthy specimens.
The history of this problem is extremely scant, although convincing.
?
We know on the,baeis of literary data that the population of the
American Andes improved the keeping quality of potatoes by using a grass
called lmunia", smelling like mint, for layers in storing potato crops.
In the belief that the presence of some poisonous grasses interfeltad
with the development of phytophthora, we tested, in 1941, such plants as
"durmann [Datura stramonium], "be lana", henbane Mosoyamus niger], "snit",
gout weed (Aegepodium podograria), etc. The war interrupted our work in
this direction. But even those few experiments established that plants
which are poisonous to man and animals are far from poisonous to. phytophthora.
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Bordukova, Me Vi
The matter evidently lies not in poisonous plants, but in the phytonoides
they possess and concerning which Tokin in his work "Vegetative bacteriooytes"
writes: "Science does not know as yet what phytoncides are. They possibly
are chemical substances of complex structure or are "rays" of unknown origin."
Fungi react differently in the presence of various phytoncidee. We tested
about 130 plants of different families and made close to 150 experiments in
order to establiah the most active phytonoides and their reaction upon the ,
development of phytophthora. Experiments on testing plants were made in
? special grass vessels-exicators?. At the bottom of the vessel were placed
crushed leaves of the plant under test. Above them on glass bars, were
placed artificially infected cut potato slices or entire tubers. The vessel
was covered with a glass top.
1
In the very first series of teats seed garlic (Alliaria DC Erysimum
! Alliaria Scop) revealed drastically its interference with the development
of phytophthora. If on control tubers (ioa: infected tubers, kept away
from the influence of garlic), the dioesee appeared on the 5-6th day, on
tubers exposed to phytoncides on crushed garlic, there were no signs of
infection even on the 12th day. Numerous tests conducted in the laboratory
with artificially phytophthora infected potatoes invariably gave positive
results:
The effect of these experiments is better understood if the direct
action of phytoncides of garlic upon the fungus is examined. Usually the
zoospores of the fungus are capable of floating freely in a drop of water
with the aid of flagella; for as long as 2040 minVANs. But as soon as a
particle of crushed garlic is introduced into the drop filled 'with active
zoospores, the movement of the latter stops within 20..50 seconds.
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Bordlikova, M. V.
If a small quantity of garlic is placed close to the drop filled with
zoospores (i.e. when only the smell of garlic affects the zoospores), they
become immobile after one and a half, two minutes.
The Immobility of zoospores nevertheless does not signify the loss
Of their viability; our subsequent experiments established the duration
of the action of phytoncides of garlic. It appeared that if one drop of
garlic Juice is introduced into 100 4. am,of water filled with zoospores,
the latter lose their capacity for growth entirely in four hours. Prior to
that they remain in s sort of paralized condition.
Of equal importance is the knowledge of haw deep the garlic phytonoide
penetrates into the tissue of the tuber. Is it capable to prevent info?.
tion in the event that the fungus already penetrated the tuber? It is to
be noted that the penetration of the furgus into the tissue of the tuber
lasts from S to 8 hours. The experiment with ten infected tubers established
that garlic phytoncides 4e prevent eve.a.the infestation of tubers, the tissue
of Which the fungus has already penetrated.
Haw garlic was used
The time Garlic was Used
Immediately
after infes- after after after
tation 8 hrs 15 hre 24 hrs
Master of diseased tubers
Garlic skin (peeling)
10
10
10
10
Exposure to garlic for ten days
0
0
10
10
Tubers smeared with crushed garlic
0
0
10
10
Control - infected tubers stored
without garlic
10
10
10
10
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4.0.
Bordukovet, 11. V.
In all variants of this test the influence of garlic was observed for
12 days. Raving cnnvinced ourselves that garlic phytoncide stops the
development of the fungus phytophthora, we started to prepare an experiment
on 100 kg of potatoes. Finely crushed garlic was strewn at the bottom of
a box where potatoes were later stored. Next was placed a layer of arti-
fioially infested tubers (two tubers thick), then garlic, alternating again
with potatoes and garlic. The top layer was garlic. Artificially infected
tubers of potatoes, not exposed to garlic, were used as control.
All tubers were kept under oonditione favoring the development of the
disease. iaoisture of 100 percent and the temperature of 20-210 C. were
maintained in the box where potatoes mere stored. The tubers were lightly
covered with paper to prevent suffocation.
Seven days later control tubers were infested 1.00 percent; of tubers
under test 84.6 percent had remained completely healthy and 15.2 percent
were infested with hytotophthora.
To preserve almost 100 kg of potatoes one head of garlic (ab. 100g)
ihad sufficed. Garlic rots eventually but this does not affect the tubers.
Not all varieties of garlic react siellarly, however. Same possess a yet
!unknown, disinfectant substance in large amount, others possess smaller
amounts. The study of varieties of garlic will be continued.
_
It follows that fall storing of potatoes with crushed (pulverized)
garlic will greatly decrease losseo iyie1d. Aotually, the tubera are
destroyed by phytophthora in the first three weeks of storing when the
relative moisture of air in storing is high, the freshly 'du c potatoes
re still wet and carry on their surface a mass of fruit.., of the fungus,
the temperature in the quarters is higher than the required I - 2? C.
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Bordukova, M. V.
In studying phytoncides of numerous- plants, we noted extremely
interesting factors. rf garlic had proved to be a controller or disin-
fectant of phytophthore,? there are, evidently, other plants which contri-
bute to the development and spread of the dieease. Among similar stimulants
are "lebeda", goosefoot? [2.12em_o_dium), "ptichia grechishke." [Polyeanaoeae,
Polygonum avium, "grechishka v'unkoileala" [P. convulvus LA; "osot
polevol" [Sonchus arvensie. L.); "khvoeheh polevoi" [Equisetum arvense L.]
"shchevelek maly" [Rumex 1,..) (small); "schavelek konskii" [R. confertus
and many others.
? These weeds are Deets of potato plants not only because they deprive
ths latter of water and interfere with their nutrition, but also because
they contribute to the development of phytophthora.
Moreover, it seem relevant to note the typedp ants growing close to
it
potatoes. Sunflowers, tomatoes, apple, cherry trees, ranpberries, squash,
# cucumbers are, for instance, clearly contributing to the development of
the disease while sugar beets, carrots, lettuce, dill, 6nions, parsley,
4
cabbage and others hinder its development. It was established that potatoes
grown on a plot surrounded by birch trees rot faster than those on plots
bordered by pines.
we
Pate *Mb obtained data with regard to experiments on common rowan
4 (Sorbus aucuparie). The Phytoncide of this plant proved stronger and more
resistant even than garlic phytoncide.
At present effective dosages of phytoncides of Sorbus and the techniques
for their application are being determined.
1
End of Article
Typed 14 June 1951
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Remeraz, A. IA.
Development of economically valuable,
Phytophthora-resistant potato forms in
hybridization of wild speoies, Solanum
destiseum, with the cultivated species S.
tuberosum. Vsesoiuzn. Inst. Rastenievod.
Trudy po Prikl. Bob. Genet. i SeIek.
28(2): 19-44. Ref. 1949. 451 R92.
Trans'. 175: eotatoes
Translated from the Russian
by S. M. Monson
Phytophthora (Phytophthora infestans) of potatoes is, next to
potato canker (Synchytrium endobioticvm), the. most dangerous disease
of this important crop. Phytophthora causes enormous annual losses in
yields in all countries of the world. In the USSR, according to
estimates by R. A. Rozhdestvenskii, phytophthora drastically reduces
potato yields.
The production of phytophthora-resistant varieties of potatoes
is the safest method to control the disease. Potato selection engaged
in for the purpose over a period of many years has, nevertheless, proved
unsuccessful. Al] *elected potato varieties are affected by phytophthora
in various measure.
Soviet expeditions collected in Mexico wild species of potatoes,
including phytophthora-resistant species. The availability of phytoph-
ora-resistant species of wild potatoes offered the opportunity to
approach the problem of selection for phytophthora resistance in a new
manner.
We used Ifichurints method of distant hybridization and the train-
ing of hybrid seedlings as the basis for producing phytophthora
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Kameraz, A. IA.
resistant varieties and followed Nichurin claim: "It is possi-
ble to produce, in relative brief periods, considerable changes
in hybrid plants by artificial cross fertilization (hybridization),
the plants gradually gaining complete resistance when crossed
repeatedly for several years."
The task may be solved successfully by introducing a variety
of phytophthora-resistent species into selection and by developing
the most rational methods of using them.
This article presents data concerning the production of
economically valuable phytophthora-resis tent hybi.ids of potatoes
by distant hybridization, with the aid of the wild rexicen species
demiesum (Solanum demissum). This particular species was widely
used in our selection work. It contains valuable characteristics:
resistance to phytophthora and frost, immunity to the Colorado
beetle, high content of etarch and albumen.
Our studies refer primarily to results of research conducted
prior to the var. Sexual distant hybridization is valuable, but not
the only method of producing phytophthore resistant varieties.
At present, work on vegetative hybridization and "directed"
training of hybrids has been aztgaged in, based on achievements in
genetics of Llichurin and his follower, the academician, T. D. Lysenko.
scow= CHARACTERISTICS OF HYBRIDS OF miss= AT VARIOUS
STAGES OF SELECTION.
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3?
!Cameras, A. IA.
A single crossing of demissum with tuberosum does not pro-
vide the opportunity for obtaining hybrids of any practical sig-
nificance. Further selection is essential for the production of
valuable hybrid forma. Of primary importance in this connection
is the particular method that is used. It is important to deter-
mine first: I. How many times demiesum should be crossed with
tuberosum: to obtain the desired forms in a hybrid progeny. 2.
which proves more effective: the creation of complex hybrids by
repeated crossings with tuberosum or the production of superior
generations from demissum x tuberosum hybrids.
In the years 1937 to 1940 the author studied a large number
of groups of demissum hybrids at the experimental station of the
All-Union Institute of Plant Industry, "Bed Plowman" (near
Leningrad). Below we present data coxrerning individual character-
istics and several groups of hybrids.
YIELD.
Average figures on yields over a period or four years obtained
from several different groups of hybrids from crossings with dif-
ferent varieties by reproduction with seeds and tubers (first tuber
reproduction) are listed in table 1.
Yield in P1 is usually low. The majority of plants ( in some
varieties from 60-1007) have no tubers or produce yields which do
not exceed 100 to 200 hectares. Of considerable significance in
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Kiuneraz, A. IA.
- 4 -
Obtaining hybrids of higher yields in Fi is the choice of components
among tuberosum. The average yield from one plant represented 69
hectares from seedlings and 74 hectares from tuber reproduction.
In the second generation the yield of hybrids is increased from
seedlings, representing an average of 176 hectares per plant.
By repeated crossing with tuberosum, the yield of hybrids was
increased still further, no compared to Fi. Some varieties of 'back-
crosses" produce a relatively high yield of tubers from both seed-
? lings and tuber reproduction. Yields over 1 kg per clump were
found in many varieties; reaching occasionally even 2 kg. [The
varieties (demise= x 2eidlitz) x Kettadin; (Epicure x demissum) x
Roeafolia; and (Epicure x demissunt) x Roon).1
The number of clumps in a variety, yielding over one kg
(seedlings) is frequently limited, an average of 176, but occasionally
it DM y in some varieties reach 2070tand higher (especially in some
varieties crossed with Sweetest, eta.). Yields of hybrids from
baok crosses are also to a large extent dependent upon the choice of
-components among'tuberosum,
The average yield of ono plant (seedling) of back crosses (8)
* is almost three tizaes as high as P1. In tuber reproduction the
average yield from one plant of back crosses is increased 7 times com-
pared to
*) The following designations will be used in the text; back-cross
"B"; repeated back-cross "B2"; triple back-cross "83", etc. m.
first generation from back-cross "Bin, the second end third gener-
ations "B2" and B3" respectively.
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Bameraz, A. IA.
Yields from a variety are increaned, reaching in tuber repro-
duction in some plants 2930 hectares per clump, and an average of
752 hectares per plant from seeds of ?self-pollinated plants of
back-orosses. [(B2 &mins= x tuberosum) x tuberosum]. According
to estimates for 19:17, the following varieties proved of highest
yield in the first tuber reproduction:
B2 [(Epicure x domissum) x Katadinj 2000 hectares (number of
plants yielding 1000 hectares and above 21 per cent).
BE [(Epicure x derniseum) x Centifolia) 2950 heetaree; 55 per
cent of all plants produced yields of 1000 heotares and above.
B2 ((Epicure x demissum) Lutzowl 1700 hectares.
By obtaining superior generations from back-crosses ((B3 demissum
x tuberosurn) x tubercetan) the yield is significantly reduced.
Among repeated back-crosses (B2) forms of very high yields are
frequently found in seedlings. Seedlings of repeated back-crosses
produce generally higher yields than seedlings of back-crosses. Thus
in 101 varieties of seedlings (1937) about 25.7 per cent of all
varieties produced a maximal yield of close to 1000 hectares; 42.6
per cent produced 1000 to 1500 hectares; 27.7 per cent from 1500 -
2000 hectares; 4 per cent over 2000 hectares.
The highest maximal yields Imre obtained from the following
varieties:
[(demise= x Alma) x Alma) x Regina 2200 h.;
[(Korenevski x (Epicure x demissum) x Centifolia];
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REIM raZ , A. IA.
((Korenisvski x (Epicure x demissum) x Katadin);
[(Korenevski x (Epicure x demissum) x Centifolia];
[(demisstea x Alma ) x Alma] x Epron, produced 2000 hectares.
The number of clumps in a variety of "Alia: yielde exceed 1000
hectares, represents frequently from 2 to 7 and to 10 per cent of all
plants of a variety. Occasionally the quantity of best yielding clumps
in a variety is much higher. We refer in this connection to the follow-
ing varieties:
[(Epicure x demiesum) x Rosafolia] x Xalitinets; maximum yield
1800 hectares, number of clumps in yields above 1 kg, 18 per cent.
(Sweetest x (Epicure x demissum)) x Katadin 1600 hectares, 21 per
cent; Korenevski (Epicure x demissum) x Katadin 2100 hectares, 32 per
cent.
(demissum x Alma) x Alma x i'eppo 1260 hectares, 22 per cent;
[(Epicure x demissum) x Katadin) x Regina 1750 hectares, 18 per
cent;
cent.
Epron x [(Epicure x missum) x Katadin] 1900 heotares, 19 per
Om ted p. 21 to 24)
PHYTOPTITHORA RE STANCE Fi DEMISSULT X TUBEROS1M.
As a rule, no less than 50 per cent of plants under field con-
ditions, and occasionally up to 100 per cent, are resistant to
phytophthora. The remaining plants are only lightly affected by
phytophthora. A high resistance of the foliage of this group of hybrids
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!Camerae, A. IA.
wan also observed in artificial infestation. About 20-25 per cent
of plant varieties proved to be without any trace of the disease.
Occasionally their number amounted to 70 per cent.
The remaining plant varieties exhibited) in addition, increased
resistance in the majority of casee. The leaves had small brown
ppote but mycelium did not develop on them and there man no fruiting
of phytophtfiora. Definitely infested plants .(mycellum and fruiting
of phytophthora) varied in number in different varieties; frequently
as much an 20-30 per cent.
Artificial infestation of tubers produced also a large number
of resistant tuber forms, an average of 48 per cent; of tubers with-
out any traces of infection (graded 0) 3.5 per cent and up to 29 per-
cent in forms where tubers which, when infested, produced light brown
tissue without mycelium formation or fruiting (61-62),
P2 DEMISS81.1 X TUBEROStIn.
A significant amount of plants,. occasionally 20-50 per cent, is
not infested by phytophthora under field oonditions. The rest shows
different degrees of infestation which include severe forma. When
tubers were artifioially infested, some specimens also proved resistant
in various measure. However, the number of resistant tuber forms was
much larger, compared to pi, and represented an average of only 6 per
cent; none had the hi hest degree of resistance (graded 0).
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8 0.
Rameras, A. IA.
BACK,CR0S8D8.
lider natural conditions (near Leningrad) a large number of
'hybrids of back-crosses dwmissum (frequently 40-50 per cent of plants
of a variety) proved not infested by phytophthora even during severe
outbreaks of the disease among selective varieties.
During artificial infection of the foliage the total per-
centage of speoimsns that did not exhibit any traces of the disease
and showed only small brownish spots without mycelium formation and
fruiting, was usually lower.
The number of plants in a variety without traces of infection,
when leaves were infected artificially, varied between 1 and 10 per
cent, occasionally between 10 and 20 per cent, and was higher only in
few varieties.
.A relatively large number of varieties did not have plants with-
out traces of phytophthora infection in 011000 when leaves were
artificially infested.
The number of hybrid forms, resistant to phytophthora when tubers
were infested, DJ larger. Back.crosces (seedlings) in all experimented-
on varieties showed the*.averagesi (77 varieties. 4398 plants in 1937;
48 varieties, 222 plants in 1930; more or less resistant (tuber) in
1937.were 8.86 per cent of the seedlings; in 1938, 6.32 per cent; among
these plants no traces of infection (tubers) (graded 0) in 1937, 0.6 per
cent; in 1938, 0.98 per cent; light brown tissue, without mycelium and
fruiting (Graded 61-62) in 1937, 4.5 per cent; in 1938, 5.9 per cent.
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Kameraz, A. IA.
SECOND GENERATION OF BACK-CRO S.
Among many varieties there were practically no phytophthora-
resistant plants in the field. Experiments made in 1938 established
a very small number of plants of whioh tubers were resistant,
(about 8 per cent); none were graded 0.
DEFEATED BACK-CROSSES.
Under natural conditions the number of non-affected plants in
varieties in this group of hybrids is frequently lower compared to
back-crosses. The quantity of non-affected plants VAries considerably
according to varieties. The average for all plants among 101 varieties
of seedlings of non-affected plants vas 17.4 per cent, i.e. twice as
law as in back-crosses.
When tubers were artificially infested (data of 1937 and 1938),
the larger amount of varieties: did not have plants of which tubers were
not affected. The average among all varieties of repeated back-crosses
(in 1937, 101 varieties, 7540 plants, and in 1938, 163 varieties, 1187
plants) showed a difference in degree of resistance: in 1937, 5.64
per cent; in 1938, 7.75 per cent. Included were those not having traces
of tuber infestation (graded 0) in 1937, 0.22 per cent; in 19384 0.86
per cent; those shoeing a light browning of the tissue without mycelium
fdmation and fruiting...(graded 51-62) in 1937, 2.03 per cent; in 1938,
3.36 per cent,
Judging from these facts, the summarized percentage of forma
resistant to phytophthora in tubers is somewhat lower in repeated back-
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10 a.
!Cameras:, A. IA.
crosses than it is in back-crosses. The number of more resistant
forms is also lower in the former. Repeated back-crosees represent
at the same time, as distinguished from back-crosses, material from
which hybrid forms may be selected with greater success and which,
together with phYtophthora resistance, carry other economically
valuable charaoterieties.
HYBRIDS OF
TUBEROSUM X (P2 demissum x tuberosum).
Phytophthora resistance of the foliage under field cond Mons,
according to data of 1957, is occaelonally observed in a relatively
large number of plants (from 7 to 12-15 per cent and even in some
cases 25.35 per cent of plants in a variety). A high degree in
phytophthora resistance (including the artificially infested tuber)
is seldom observed.
Among 32 varieties only 6 had forms in which tubers proved
resistant (0.5-3 per cent and in one instance 8 per cent in a variety);
none were graded 0 and 0.5 to 2 per cent could be graded 61-62.
Data of 1937 indicates that the average in all plants (2169) in
all varieties of this type of plants, resistant to tuber infestation,
did not exceed 0.65 per cent, including 0.23 per cent of those graded
61-62.
TRIPLE BACK-CROSSES
According to data of 1937, a considerable part of varieties did
not possess resistant hybrids under natural conditions of infestation.
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Eameraz, A. IA.
Average resistance under field conditions in all varieties amounted
.to 124 per txsnt in plants.
During the artificial infection of a tuber, one half of the
varieties mere not resistant in 1937 and 1938. In the remaining
varieties, where the participating component was the phytophthora-
resistant hybrid of the repeated back-cross, the number of resistant
forma is occasionally rather high. Among 1004 plants of this group
about 11 per cent proved resistant (tuber), including about 1 per cent
graded 0 and 6 per cent graded 6/-62. Among 551 plants of 56 varieties
there mere 10.52 per cent of seedlings of triple back-crosses (1936);
a different degree of resistance (tuber); graded 0; 0.9 per cent graded
61-62, 5.26 per cent.
It is notable that in triple back-crosses of seedlings (1937 and
1938) there vets no redaction of the relative number of seedlings,
resistant to phytophthora (tuber) (compared to repeated back-crosses);
on the contrary, an increase in relatively resistant forms was observed.
This may be explained by the fact that in order to obtain more complex
hybrids only highly phytophthora-resistant hybrids of repeated back-
crosses mere used.
It follows, therefore, that by the careful selection of the most
resistant hybrids and by multiple crossings Trith tuberosum, it IS possi-
ble to obtain a considerable number of resistant forms.
(Omitted p. 27-39)
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Xameraz, A.
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CONCLUSIONS
In summarizing briefly our material on hybridization, as per-
taining to the wild Mexican 'species demise:um (S. demienum) with the
cultivated species tuberosum (S. tuberosum), it is possible to come
to the following conclusions:
I. A single crossing of demiseum and tuberosum does not pro-
vide for hybrids of immediate practical significance. Repeated cross-
ings with tuberosum are required for the selection of similar forms.
2. As a rule, back-crosses of demiseum seldom produce hybrid
forms with a full assortment of economic characteristics. Selection
of economically valuable, hybrids among back.orosses is therefore possi-
ble only during a most favorable combination of components, primarily
varieties of early tuber formation.
3. Repeated back-crosses represent material from which hybrid
forms may be selected, which, along with phytophthora resistance,
possess other economic characteristics.
4. During the period required for the production of repeated
back-crosses, hybrids may be obtained in other ways: a) by growing
a second generation from back-crossee or b) by crossing tuberose= with
F2 demise= x tuberoeurs. According to available data, similar hybrids
possess usually less resistance to phytophthora than do repeated back-
crosses. In order to select phy-tophthora-resistant, economically
valuable forms, repeated back-crosses are of considerable interest.
5. Subsequent hybridization of repeated back-crosses with
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Rtmeraz, A. 111.
tuberosum may be of interest in the event that the phytophthora-
resistant hybrid of the repeated back-cross has some defect which it
is desirable to eliminate by combining the particular hybrid with a
cultivated variety. If the original hybrid of the repeated back-
cross possesses a high degree of resistance, it in possible to Obtain
a oonsiderable amount of phytophthora-resistant forms from a quad-
ruple crossing with tuberosum.
6. In hybridizing with demisnum, to dbtain economioally
valuable forms, including those or high yield, starch content and good
tuber shape, the choice of components among tuberosum is extremely
Important at all stages of selection work. In choosing componetts
among tuberosum it is essential to introduce canker-resistant
varieties into crosSings, as well as those distinguished by early and
medium-carly tuber formation. Crossing of demissums with predominating
late maturing varieties will drastically hinder the production of hybrids
of high yields. Hybrid plants, seedlings and tuber reproductions should
be grown under "direoted" training, specifically under conditions
of high agricultural "backgrounds.
7. At present' a group of phytophthora-resistant hybrids
have been obtained, which do not yield in high productivity and other
economic characteristics to standard productivity. All these hybrids
are being studied and experimented upon in detail. The majority
were obtained by triple and quadruple crossings of demissum with
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Kameraz, A.
different varieties of tuberosum and subsequent training of the
hybrids under high agricultural techniques.
End of article.
?-
Peferences:
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Oabchenko, G. D.
On the programme (0 of the plant protecting
work in collective and soviet (0 farm labora-
tories. Zashch. Rest. 5:6-8. 1935. 421 P 942
Translated from the Russian
by R. G. Dembo
The struggle against agricultural yield losses due to peets and diseases
is the most important problem of every collective and state farm and machine
tractor station in constructing a prosperous and cultural life of the col-
leotive farmers and the strengthening of the collective system.
Based on the decisions of the June meeting of the Central Committee of
All-Union Communist Party (b), the collective and state farms and the machine
tractor stations have joined more actively in the control of agricultural
pests and diseases. Nevertheless, at the present stage of the development of
agriculture, the collective and state farms and machine tractor stations are
not satisfied with the knowledge of separate technical devices in controlling
petits. Every collective farmer, even the overage one, understands now that
for the correct organisation of this work, a thorough scientific knowledge.
of plant protection is imperative. Therefcre, the urge of collective farmers
to acquire the cultural-methods of organizetion and of agricultural management
and to assimilate the achievements of agricultural science and technique in
plant protection is quite comprehensible.
'bur collective agriculture is arriving at a new stage. The decisive
peculiarity of this stage should be a,cultural, scientific organization of
collective agriculture in all its basic and subsidiary branches"),
The organization of ten thousands farm laboratories is a conspicuous example
of the struggle of the collective farmers for a cultural, scientific: organi-
zation of collective.M4riculture. Already in 1936, thousands offarm labora-
tories will survey the results of their first experiments and observations.
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"'?
"Our best farm laboratories became already the organizing center of
experience, of struggle for acquiring agrotechnical knowledge for the intro-
duction of the newest aohievements in agrioultur"(ostyehev). What we new
possess, says comrade Postyshev, in "only a nucleus of collective farm
laboratories Which will undoubtedly grow and strengthen", The new regula-
tions of agricultural personnel is a strong stimulus in the development
of collective experience.
The workers of scientific research and operating organizations in plant
protection shculA take into consideration the great significance of farm
laboratories and must construct their work accordingly.
The collective farm laboratories, being the first nucleus in agricul-.
ture, ahould play the most important role in aocumulating the primary experi-
menting material in generalizing the experiment of agricultural progress in
furthering a series of basic problems Which confront collective production.
The collective farm laboratories should become the exponents of scientific
achievements in plant protection in agricultural production. Nevertheless,
it is necessary to notice that up to recent time the workers in plant protec-
tion were not able to evaluate the great significance end role of farm
laboratories, Many workers do not take intc consideration their experience
and do not encourage the expansion of their work. Until now the consultation
with farm laboratories and with skillful farmers in plant protection has
not been organized.
A few undertakings indicate the unfamiliarity with this problem.
Attempts were made to transform farm laboratories into divisions of plant
protection institutes AV thrust upon them the plans of the plant protection
workers, namely, to apply suoh methods against whioh comrade Postyshev warned.
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unocnenKos u. w.
In carrying out experimental work for farm laboratories, many workers are
unable to realize that the 'weakest part in the work of farm laboratories
is the absence of elementary knowledge in the method of organizing the
experiments and observations" (Postyshev), as a result of which, tasks are
suggested which are absolutely unrealistic. And finally, many workers have
the tendency of putting the work with farm laboratories on a social footing,
which cannot be considered normal.
Such an approach to farm laboratories on the part of scientific
research organizations, especially at the outset, does not bring any benefit
and even has a negative influence upon further work. We must reevaluate the
relationship of all organisations and of separate workers in plant protection
to the development of constructing farm laboratories. First of all, every
organisation should work out a plan along with the farm laboratory, compose
the program, whereby this program should be based, not on abstract principles,
but in agreement with concrete raion problems of collective production, mutual
assistance, considering, also, the time of agricultural work (spring,
summer, etc.). It is also important to specify the amount of work, namely,
to plan a specific number of farm laboratories in which it is possible to
construct realistic work by Which the realistic assistance could be ensured.
Pram methods point of view, it would be better to organize a smaller number
of farm laboratories and organize the work correctly and effectively than
to try to assist many of them and have the work done superficially, on
social manner, without any serious preparation, and without any serious
ensurance of further development of the work.
In order to establish a systematic connection with the farm laboratory,
it is necessary to outline a specific circle of the most important probliema
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Which are not only interesting for a scientific institution, but for the
productivity of the said farm as well. The success of further work will
depend entirely upon the effect of the applied measure as the result of the
experiments.
Undoubtedly, there could be no universal program or plan for all farm
laboratories. Each program has to be planned according to the conditions
of individual farm laboratory or group, and should reflect the productive
part of the given farm. There could not be separate methods in carrying
out the outlined program either. They should be worked out in agreement
with the character of the works being carried out.
The general arrangement of the plan concerning plant protection for the
majority of farm laboratories could be presented in the following manner:
First of all, the scientific research institutions should ensure the
consultation of the farm laboratories concerning the problems of plant pro,.
tection. This consultation should go along the following divisions:
1) determination of pests and diseases disclosed in the farm;
2) the working out of suggestions concerning the method of inspecting
agricultural plants as to their infestation by pests and diseases;
3) suggestions concerning the method of research as to the infestation
of seed and planting material by pests and diseases;
4) the working out of the simplest methods in determining the poisons
under the conditions cif farm laboratories;
6) replies to all current questions of farm laboratories.
The second and the most complieated diviaion of the plan is the organi-
zation of experiments concerning various problems of plant protection. We
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should approach this division of work quite attentively, taking into con-
sideration all the conditions and possibilities under which the experiments
will be carried out. Experiments which are the most simple in the methods
available for the procedure and also experiments which solve the problems in
the shortest time will be most successful. From this poibt of view, it is
inexpedient to recommend experiments which require observation for many
years and a systematic participation of a scientific-research personnel.
The initiative in carrying out the experiment should originate from the
farm laboratory.
Therefore, for the time being, we mast confine ourselves to organization
of the experiments in farm laboratories according to the following divisions:
1) the influence of the seed treatment with a mordant by moans of
various poisons and in various dopes for the increase of yield;
2) the testing of the effectiveness of various poisons against various
pests and diseases under field conditions;
3) the influence of the sawing schedule upon the infestation of the
plants by pests and diseases;
4) the influence of various methods of taking care of plants upon the
spreading and damage of pests and diseases;
6) observation of the immunity of separate plants;
6) registration of yield loss from poets and diseases, etc.
Surely, out of this list not all should be taken, only separate problems,
but they should be arranged seriously, thoroughly and carried out until
the end.
In order to ensure the minimum of conditions for work and the executipn
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of the outlined program of individual farm laboratory, the scientific
research institutions, and primarily VIM, should give:
1) methodical suggestions concerning the collection, conservation and
transportation of insects and the damaged examples;
2) methodical suggestions in couposing biological collections of harm-
ful insects, diseases and rodents Ahloh damage agricultural plants;
5) methodical instructions and supervision in organizing the experiments
and the observations with the principal pests and diseases considering the
agricultural raioning of USSR.
Besides, it is necessary to assist the farm laboratories in composing
a schedule of the development of the principal pests and diseases and the
timing of controlling them under the conditions of the given farm so that
the calendar could become the operating manual for action for the farm
laboratory.
It is desirable that each farm laboratory should have not only the list
but the samples of the pests and diseases and of the damaged plants as well,
so that every farmer, when arrived in the farm, would beoomo familiar with
the pests which he had to control.
To accumulate an appropriate library concerning the problens of plant
protection, however not in general terms, but applying to the conditions of
the given raion, the given farm.
To organize a corner for plant protection at the farm-laboratory does
not mean to hang collections and posters concerning pests and diseases upon
the walls of the main building and confine it to that. The corner for pia-ht
proteotion should be the "organizing center of experiments". Here should
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7
be reflected all the achievements of the farm in plant protection. It
should attract and interest not only the attention of the active farmers,
but the entire mass of the farmers.
This is only an incomplete sketch of the measures Which should be
carried out by each organization, by each worker in plant protection, and
the imperfeotion of these suggestions indicates that ,until the present time,
we do not have a oonorete idea of the farm laboratory, its work and the
further prospects for its development.
The problem consists of the fact that along with assisting farm
laboratories, we should organize the study of the practice of progressive
farm laboratories.
It is necessary to aspire towards a wide elucidation of this experiment
in the press, thus familiarizing every farmer with the achievements of the
beet farm laboratories. Only such organisation of work will ensure the
possibility tor a speedy and correct orLanization of assistance for farm
laboratories which, according to comrade Postyshev, "will result into a
wonderful, inexhaustible spring of knowledge for the practice of agricul-
tural construction".
End of Article
16 June 1951
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Shorokov, Transl. 177; Plant Protection
Latat aohievements in azrioultural
plant protcoton szainst pests and diseases
at the All-Union Agricultural Show, Iroscow,
in 1940. Vesta.. Zashch., Rast.: 1940(5);
15-21. 421 P 942
Translated from the Russian
by R. G. Umbo
The All-Union Agricultural Show is cobsidered the largest national
university of Stakhsnovite workmanship in agriculture. The results of
basic) changes and of the growth of socialist agriculture of USSR, eepecially
quickene,L7 during the yeats of etslin Five-Year-Plans, are graphically
demonstrated.
This show indicates the tremendous unlimited resources of our land for
the progress of agriculture.
The show demonstrates the great amount' of outstanding achievements of
collective farms, state farms and scientific organizations obtained in the
study of new forms, methods and work measures which ensure high yield of
agricultural crops. Millions of Visitors (close to 30,000 daily) studied
these achievements They will carry over the experiments of the foremost
people Of agriculture into wide production, thus increasing the number of
best links, brigades, which obtain the highest yield which give the right
to vrticipate in the thaw.
The organizing role and the significance of the show for advertising
aro quite obvious. By organizing a national socialist contest of the best
msrkmen of agriculture, the dhow furthers the fulfillment of the govern-
ment's agricultural task during the Pive-Year Plan. Of particular great
significance is the achievement of plant protection against pests and diseases.
The assimilation of these accomplishments by aide practice in agriculture
is very important.
/77
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Shorokhov, S. I.
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The wide show of the newest materials as results of study or pests
and diseases of agricultural plants, the study of new measures in controlling
them, the meohenisation of control, and also providing the visitors with
well qualified guides and consultants, and with lectures, all this helped
to introduce into production all the effective methods and measures for the
protection of yield against pest and diseases in a very short time.
In comparison with the show of 1939, the one of 1940 is considerably
extended. Nevertheless, it doss not satisfy entirely all the demands
required by the visitors.
The achievements in the field of studying pelts and diseases of agri-
cultural plants and the search for means or controlling them were exposed
on the All-Union Agricultural Show or 1940 in 18 branch pavilions, 14 tonal
pavilions and on five open fields and squares. In this exposition, over
140 collective and state farms, mechanical tractor stations, up to 20
brigades of agricultural special applications, 20 agricultural divisions,
40 points of quarantine inspection, 1 plant which produces heavy industry,
more than 60 scientific research institutions, stations, laboratories and
points are taking part. Besides, the show includes many farm laboratories,
? biolaboratories, stations of young naturalists and high schools.
In 1940 more than 700 entomologists, phytopetholigists, agronomists,
engineers-constructors and inventors, collective farm organisers in control-
ling agricultural pests, technicians and workers in the equipment production,
laboratory managers, educators, young naturalists, etc. were taking part in
the Agricultural Show.
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4,14MALMILVV, *Jal As 3
The exhibits are placed upon 47 full and 6- additional stands -along
with other materials. Besides, the pavilions have about 20 albums, 8
diagrams and panels and 15 heavy machines besides the 17 machines exhibited
in the pavilion "Mechanisation".
In the pavilion "Grain" are exhibited the achievements of the All-Union
Plant Protection Institute, of the All-Union Selector-Genetic Institute,
the avanEard raions(s) of the Ukraine, Whioh obtained high results in their
control 'of ourygasters, of the Eicrobiological and Biochemical Institute of
the Academy Of Science of USSR and of the Ukrainian Institute of socialistic
agriculture (the pavilion "Ukraine").
The achievements of VIZR (Director M. P. Bleukov andVice-Director
I. Li. Poliakov, participants in the Agricultural Show) are presented by the
work of siX laboratories. The coworkers of the entomological laboratory
worked out the theory of forooasting the arrival of tho desert locust and
dotermined its spreading (S. A. Predtechenekii) and also worked out new
moch-nised met ods with the attractant in controlling locust. Al]. these
works are widely utilized in production.
Tho coworkers of the phytopatholeEical laboratory worked out measures
for protecting tomatoes against the infestation of brown rot (K. Is.
Kalashnikov); the differentiation of doses of dry poisons in relation to the
degree of seeds spored by smut (V. I. Lobik); the indexes of a short forecast
of rust of grain crops and the method of warning rust (K. M. Stepanov);
measures for controlling solerotinia [Sclerotinia Libertianal upon winter
crepe (8, Tupenevich); the parasiteL of second order has teen separated
for the oortrol of Wheat rust, and the method of mass accumulation of this
parasite upon artificial feeding has been worked out (U. S. redorinchik).
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onoroxnov, .2. 1.
The coworkers of the plant immunity laboratory worked out a sulphuric
method of evaluation of the immunity of agricultural plants to diseases
(T. I. Fedotova). This method permits the decrease of selectors' work in
severcl days.
The methods of acclimatizing parasites and their mass propagation under
artificial conditions were worked out in the laboratory of biolojcal method
of pest control (n. F. Meier, I. V. Vasil'ev, Is. A. Alekseev and others).
The bioloj_eal method of controlling the winter owlet rAgrotis segetmm3 by
means of the trichogrmmma and the harmful eurypeter by means of telonomus
has been introduced into practice and is spplied upon hundreds of thousands
of hectares.
The coworkers of mechanization laboratory conttructell3 machines and
equipments for the chemical and thermio control of agricultural pests and
diseases. /The equipment for thermic poisoning of grain in controlling the
dusty smut has been constructed (I. G. Chaiko). Technical projects of the
automixer of attractants "AC-2", autothrower of attractants "AP-0 were
worked out, and the pollinator BV-1 has been Improved (P. A. Baryshnikov).
The enlargement of the sprayer arm "Zara" (Ia. A. Veisakhovich) has been
worked out; the construction of one horse pollinator has been worked out
L. A. Khoroshkevich); a new ventilated pollinator RO.-3 (I. P. Iatsenko)
has been constructed; the constructions of the poisoning machine 0-1 and
of the attractant preparator D-2 were worked out and the poisoning machine
A3-2 has been Improved (P. G. Davydov)
The majority of machines contructed by the laboratory are transferred
for sulphur preparations.
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,
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Shorokhov, S. I.
In the zoological laboratory, a new, more effective compound for
controlling mice like rodents (the complex salt of barium arsenate) has
been fbund and a new method for control by means of applying pills
with insoluble poisons has been worked out (B. Iu. Falkenstein).
The institute of microbiology or the Academy of Sciences or USSR
exhibited materials against "zakuklivanie" of crops (V. L. Ryzhkov, 0. K.
Sukhov and A. M. Vovk). The reture and the causes of this infootional
disease were studied, the disease carrier has been separated, the diagnosis
of the diseas(J worked out, the species of wheat less infested by nzakuklivanien
were marked and the primary measures fbr controlling this disease were worked
out. Simultaneously, the methods of cleaning the virus albumen and the study
of the conditions under which the plant virus accumulates were worked out.
The All-Union Seleotor-Genetio Institute exhibited the achievements
of the biological method in controlling the harmful eurygaster by means or
utilizing hens and the Eurygaster egg-eater, telenomus (S. T. Matkovskii
and V. I. Talitskii). These two measures are widely introduoed into the
producing practice or collective farms and show a very high effectiveness.
Thus, for instance, Volnovakhskii, Novoprasheekii and Vosnesenskii taion(s)
of Ukrainian SSR which were threatened by eurygsster in 1940, correctly and
timely utilizing hens for eradicating the eurygaater, acquired high yield.
The main cozinittee of VSKTIV(3CX 13 ) distributed 35 medals among the best
agronomists, poultry growers and entomologists of these raion(e) who dis-
played examples of perfect organization of work in utilizing hens for the
control of eurygaster.
The All-Union Biochemical Institute demonstrated its very valuable
achievement in improving the quality of gr-in damaged by the eurygaster.
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A.,.
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a'ziortisz it,P V ip .0 ? ?
Applying the thermic treatment of the damaged grain and flour, the institute
achieved quite a good quality of cereals from such grain.
The All-Union Institut of Grain and Allied Products of Narkomsag(
the People's Commissariat of Supply (?) of USSR presented the basic achieve-
ments in the field of controlling grain pests during the period of conserva-
tion (P. D. Rumiantsev). The institute worked out the following measures:
the application of natural low temperatures for control of granary weevil
and grain mites( R. S. (Jshetinskaia) and a new measure of grain drying for
the eradication of grain pests (A. P. Garshoi); the method for determining
the aunt of chlorpicrin left in the grain trea4ed by chlorpicrin has been
worked out and an apparatus has been constructed for this purpose ( N. I.
Someday). All the accomplishments of tho institute have a tremendous practical
value and are introduced into production.
The Rostov Institute of Grain and Allied Products of Narkomsag WPANCMD
USSR worked out conditions for the ventilation of grain (V. V. Kalitaev and
I. I. Rashutin), and designed & universal nomogram for guidance in selecting
conditions and timing for grain ventilation. The institute worked out a
ventilation equipment for nonmechanised granaries which ensures a considerable
deorease of grain moisture without the latter (I. Ia. Bakharev and P. M.
Dub mm).
The Ukrainian Institute of Socialist Agriculture (pavilion "Ukraine")
discovered new compounds "insectol"? "solvensid" and ground Chalk for the
control of grain pests in granaries and in the grain itself (A. I. Novinanko).
A few types of thermeleotors for the discovery of infestation of various
products and of materials by mites and by severapesta of provisions have
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bhorokhov, S. I. 7
been demonstrated at the show. The devices assist in fixing more precisely
the degree of infestation and in carrying out simultaneously the group
analysis of the species (P. K. Cheenyebev)?
The materials concerning pests and cotton diseases were presented especially
widely in the branch pavilion "Cotton" and in the zonal pavilions of the
republics. In. the pavilion "Cotton" were demonstrated the accomplishmimts
of scientific investigating organizations: Stasi a (CIA3Pil) Station for Plant
Protection, Union DIRK ONO ) Scientific Research Agricultural Institute,
the Division of Plant Protection AstilKilI and VIZR.
MR prepared a project for centralized treatment with a mordant
of cotton seeds against "moos" (V. K. Grushevskii ) section 1,TSPG-1 which,
according to government's decision, is accepted as the type for sulphur
construction (40 sections) in cotton raion(s) of USSR.
The Station for Plant Protection of the Union Scientific Research
Agricultural Institute (Supervisor S. A. Zhuravskaia) studied the cotton
disease, wilt, and worked out a system of measures for controlling it (A. I.
Solov'eva); a system of measures in controlling the web mite (I. G. Doskov
and I. I. Stepantsev); a technological process of centralized treatment with
a mordant of cotton seeds against "gommoz" which is practiced in cotton
plants (A. A. Vasil'ev); constructed the newest tractor sprayer "OU-3" for
the mechanization of pest control on cotton crops (K. I. rirpulatov).
The Division of Plant Protection AsNIEHI (004A) Asia Scientific
Investigating Agricultural Institute worked out the primary measures in
controlling cotton viruses (s. r. Voskovets) and improved control measures
after having worked out a system of measures in controlling the cotton
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JO
?to,
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vuurlimuov, wr 0
owlet [corn earworm, Chlorides obsolete] (V. G. Korobitsyn). The exhibit
of the achievements of Stazra MOT and MR* AzNIKHI has been supplemented
by a great amount of n&tural display which Indicate the biology of cotton
pests and diseases and also by detailed material in two albums.
The state department of plant quarantine NKZUSSR presented material
in organizing systeas of quarantine measures and not admitting the import
and the spreading of foreign cotton pests. The presented material indicates
the availability of widely developed and very valuable measures and achieve..
manta. The state department of plant quarantine ensured the protection of
Soviet cotton growing against pests which is the whip of cotton agriculture
in capitalistic countries (Supervisor A. N. "Volkov). The quarantine depart-
ment introduced into the cotton plants effective machine worm catchers
(A. K. Markin), studied the fauna of the most dangerous cotton pests and,
worked out a system of foreign quarantine (A. L. Efimov), organized a network
of quarantine inspection with a highly qualified personnel. The material
presented by the collective farms, 1.y MTS (frire, )Machine Tractor Stations
and by organizations which carry out the cotton pests control indicate that
this part of plant protection is the best organized. In connection with this,
the organizer of control of cotton pests and diseases, I. H. Naumov, has
been distinguished among the foremost workers at the All-Union Agricultural
Show of 1940.
The material of the brigade VIZR (Supervisor S. K. Piatnitskii) which
worked out a series of rew methods in controlling sugar beet weevil and which
suggested a new system of measures tested under production conditions on a
field of 400 hectares has been demonstrated. The brigade discovered and
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worked out a method of applying poiichloride for poisoning weevil in wells
of edge grooves (D. W. Paikin), suggested acetate films for edge grooves
(D. U. Paikin), worked out a rew method of applying soluble insecticides
in concentr::ted solutions (r. N. Rozlova) by moans of utilising the point
of TSKTI (Ia. A. Veisakhovits) and worked out an improved, more effective
system of chemical control (B. A. Dodonov).
Models and working examples of groove excavator constructed by A. T.
Smol'ianinov and Volkov and caterpillar catcher by Ponemarenko are demon..
'trotted in the pavilion and on the field.
Concerning the pests and diseases of vine among the accompliehments is
shown the material of the Crimean Institute for Plant Protection, of the
Ukrainian Institute for Plant Growing, of VIZR and of the state plant
quarantine. The Crimean Institute (Cupervieor G. n. Studenkov) worked cat a
method of determining the tiring of treating vines against iodium depending
on the incubation development of the disease (Ia. A. Seidametov), introduced
into production the method of controlth'g the grape mildew which is of con-
siderwle assistance in the economy of chemicals and of labor power
(11. U. Patenkov).
The Ukrainian Institute for Grape Crowing worked out control measures
against the two year old leaf rolling (P. I. rgorov). VIZR worked out a
control method against pests and diseases of vine: phylloxera, loaf rolling,
cockchafer, cicada, mite, etc., and composed P system of measures on vine
protection against pests and diseases (Ia. I. Prints), The state plant
quarantine organized and super ised the carrying out of antiphylIoxera measures,
worked out methods for inspecting vineyards and liquidating phylloxera nidi,
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constructed several types of movable and static cameras for the fumigation
of planting material (I. A. Rasas). The quarantine work proved the possi-
bility of the widest planting of "kornesobstvennyi" vineyard. In connection
with this achievement, the entire territory of vineyards has been divided
into three pones: grafted vine, proteeted tone and "korneeobstvennyi" vine.
On the field of the pavilion was demonstrated the original example of four,-
rows sprayer of the Pusychenko construction.
The mechanization of co-trolling agricultural pests and diseases has
been presented mainly in the pavilion "Pechanitatior" and comparatively little
on the field of fruit growing, vegetable growing, sugar beets and "flew in
Trees".
In the pavilion "Mrochanigation" upon two stands is presented the material
of All-Union Institute of Agricultural Aviation of the civilian air fleet
in controlling pests (locust, malaria, cotton, sugar boete, etc.) by means
of the aviomethod. At the conveyor of the pavilion upor 17 staniis are pre-
sented 17 machines produced by the plant "Vulkano", by Olavsmi'masha (0A13(011)
PiAtUA ) rain Agricultural Machine NEU (tlleill) People's Commissariat
of Agricultural Vaohinest 1) pollinator "TN-3" fitted for the tractor "11-2";
2) pollinator "ROP-2 with a aide blowing; 5) pollinator ROP-2"; 4) horse-
motor pollinator "REP-0; 5) sprayer "011-3", 6) horse-motor battery sprayer
"60-1"; 7) sprayer "TP-12", attached to the tractor "U-1" or '11-2"; 6) motor
sprayer "Y"1-2 Pioneer"; 9) knapsack diaphragm sprayer "DRO-3"; 10) the mixer
of attraotants "TS-2", fitted for the tractor "U-1"; 11) attractant thrower
"AP-4", fitted for the freight automobile "GA2-AA"; 12) machine "AB-2" for
dry and wet grain treatment with a mordant against smut, and other machines.
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onoroznova, o. 1.
On two stands are installed two airplanes "AP", equipped with an air-
sprayer constructed by the engineer V. F. Stepan?, and by air pollinator
constructed by the engineer S. D. Popov. On the open field of the pavilion
tre installed: the movable dryer VIME for the drying of seed and provision
grains (exponent - All Union Scientific Investigating Institute of Mechani-
zation and Electrification of Agriculture) and stationary grain dryer "ZS-SER"
for the same purpose (expentwt - the plant "Sickle and Eammer" of the Main
Agricultural Machine NRISM).
The major part of the achievements of scientific investigation organi-
zations has been Already introduced into wide practice of agricultural
production and the latter, having simultaneously and correctly applied the
newest facilities and measures in protecting agriculture against pests and
diseases, preserved high crops. A good illustration of such progress is
the exhibit of a great amount of collective and state farms on which,ameng
other agricultural measures, pest control occupies the most important place.
This fact was beneficial in obtaining high crops. The Il'ich collective
farm of Vasilikovskii raion, of Kiev oblast', which applied the measures of
controlling sugar beet weevil and the winter owlet tAgrotis Segetum] obtained
an average yield of 269.1 centner per hectare during the years 1937-39.
Derbentsk city mien, the state farm Dchemete of Krasnedarski krai and state
farm "Reconstructor" which carried out measures in controlling pests and
diseases ensured a high yield of vine.
The sunflower species Nr. 169 produced by the Institute of Grain Pro-
duction of the Southeastern USSR, which is tmmune against sunflower moth,
occupied a sowing field of more than 1.25 million hectares in 1939. The
laboratory -supervisor of the collective farm "13 years of October" of the
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Buoy raion, Comrad L. I. Frolov, appiy ng the trichogramma upon a field of
786 hectivies in controlling the winter owlet achieved the destruction of
90 o of the owlet eggs. The Bashkirian ASR, widely applying the dif-
ferentiating method of treating with a mordant the seed grains against smut
(A. A. Meier), freed itself entirely from smut and obrained a great economy
of chemicals.
The gas method of controlling the suslik which has been worked out by
the Rostov station of plant protection (N. N. Arkhangel'skii) is the only
radical measure of eradicating the suslik and is applied in USSR on an
expansive scale.
The Stalin collective farm of Namangansk retort, Fergansk *blast', Uzbek
SSR, which successfully carried(out measures in controlling pests, obtained
crops of cotton raw material at 88.5 eentners from 1 hectare ( I. Nishanov).
reion of the Uzbek SSR, after. having organised the timely
treatment with-a mordant of cotton seeds decreased the infestation,up to
o.4 0/6, and the raion obtained the average cotton raw material 25.36 cent-
tiers from 1 hectare. The Gorkii state farm (Moskva) which auccessfUlly
carries out the control of pests and diseases of vegetable crops obtained
a yield of 188 centner from 1 hectare in the open ground, 22.6 kg from the
farms in conservatories, 8.48 kg from 1 quarts meter in conservatories (0. G.
Galantoev). The Tadzik SSR which fully fulfilled the quarantine measures
in proteoting the most valuable species of cotton against foreign pests,
is up to now free from these pests despite the infestation threat (K. B.
Dmmokidov). The collective farm "Victory" of Voronezh oblast' carried out a
system of measures in controlling smut and obtained a yield of grains of
20 centners from 1 hectare (F. 1. Looney).
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Hundreds of such examples might be mentioned.. Hundrede of collective
and state farms demonstrate their experience in the struggle for better
basic agricultural yield. Among them it each Case data are given concerning
that influence upon yield Which is the result of the timely and correct
control of pests and diseases.
The agricultural aviation, as a special application, and the educational
personnel of agricultural schools occupied an tmportant place at the A11-
.
Union Agricultural Show of 1940. Napy foremost stakhanovites are indicated
by those divisions. The best stakhanovites:of agricultural aviation, I. V.
Sasonov, Ia. N. Mikhailov-Senksvich and V. W. Titov have been awarded
golden and silver Wale. This high distinction indicates the scale and
the significance of work carried out by agricultural aviation.
The Agriouitural Institutes were represented by their best teachers who,
along with their highly qualified educational work, carry out systematically
the great acientifio research in studying the biology and ecology of pests
and diseases, in discovering new, more effective control measures, and *leo
wrote a series of textbooke and manuals used as the basic references. The
following educators are the participants at the show of 1940s. V. P. Boldyrev,
V. N. Shchegolev, N. N. Bogdanov-Kat'kov, F. Is. Bei0Sienko, N. A. Nammov,
V. V. Iaohontov, S. V. Vladimirskii D. N. Bahian, S. A. Wreiter, etc.
Well presented is the plant "Vulkane, which produces heavy machines
for controlling agricultural pests and diseases. This plant is one of the
first which for 15 years assimilated the production of complicated machine.
This plant produced 30 machines of which 17 types are introduced in mews
production. The plant presented at the show all the basic types of heavy
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industry produced by it (pavilion *Mechanisation"). 23 best Stakhanovite
workers are distinguished by the plant: N. I. Antonov, E. U. Varganov, S. 04
Dia?, IL A. Nopelvich, L. I. grasovitskii, S. I. Novatortsev, B. I. Rea-
Nekrasov, V. R. Taimmerman, etc.
As is seen from the above survey of the most important exponents in
plant protection at the show, the dhow of the newest aelevements in 1940,
unlike that of 1939, occupied an important place in all branch pavilions.
But along with that, we must also indicate a few shortcomings. The method
of controlling locust pests, mice like rodents and susliks, rust of grain,
is missing at the show. These shortcomings should be filled and the indi-
cated objects presented in a widely extended manner.
In many pavilions, the show could be considered satisfactory. As an
exception, we may indicate the show of materials for individual pests and
diseases, which were significant in agriculture in 1940. WO my indicate the
following pests: sugar beet weevil, harmful eurygaster. dusty smut of wheat and
barley, "sakuklivanie of grain, mice like rodents and several others. The
show of materials concerning these pests andcliseases is not less than the
other, but, the to a great interest for them on the part of the visitors,
the demonstrated material was unable to satisfy all the inquiries. The
inquiries of the visitors concerning the measures and means for controlling
these pests and diseases, as well as the technique of organisation and the
carrying out the control, are numerous and vary. In order to satisfy these
inquiries, a widely developed show of materials on the biology and ecology
of the mentioned pests and diseases, as well as methods in controlling them,
is imperative. We have to admit that such pert of the show was not provided
at the Agricultural Shoe of 1940.
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The second shortcoming could be considered the splitting of the actierge-
manta, i. e. the demonstration of the sans problem in many branch pavilion..
Such organisation caused the disconnection within a series of problems and
decreased the possibility of familiarising the visitors with these problems.
Thus, for instance, the visiting cotton growere who were interested in the
problems of controlling locust has to find the material in that line in the
pavilion "Grain","Neohanisation" "Chemiaationn and oven in other pavilions.
Such inconvenience in familiarising the visitors limited them in time and
besides, did not always provide with a well rounded consultation.
The consultation along the problems of plant protection against pest
and diseases in the pavilions could not be ensured by qualified personnel because
the number of pavilions in which the plant protection was presented amounted
to 30. Therefore it is necessary to make available in the future the clari-
fication of many general questions ins, special (extra) pavilion "Plant
Protection" or in a separate room. Only under this condition, may the
problems of plant protection be 'clarified most completely and thus could the
All-Union Agricultural Show fulfill completely its greatest significance
in the work of popularizing and introducing into production the new achieve
gents in controlling pests and diseases, and to make the entire show more
interesting, sound and profitable, for the visitors by highly qualified
consultations.
Among the inquiries expressed by the visitors at the show of 1940, we
like to mention the following: the tech-ique of applying some of the devioes
and machines; construction and work of biolaboratories, the individual devices
for controlling pests and diseases, etc.
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It is quite obvious. that only by demonstration (by the process itself
in open spaces, in open fields) of machine(); devices, methods of control,
etc. could all the inquiries be enamored. Such a demonatration of the
achievemente in plant protection in the open field is considered by the
workers of the show as the most correct and most profitable measure of elu-
cidating the demonstrated exponents. This measure should in the future
occupy the leading place and its volume should correspond to all most important
demands of produotion.
It is also appropriate to mention here the following situation,: while
in demonstrating the achievements of agricultural plant protection* the
pavilions are able to afford a comparatively limited exposition field, such:
a limit is excluded for open fields. In order to: extend the show of our
material, we have to take into consideration this favorable condition and
make full use of the possibilities during our preparations for the fair of
1941.
During the preparatory period for the fair of 1941, all the exhibitors
(concerning the problems of plant protection) of the scientific and operating
organisations should pay attention to the selection of progressive farms,
which organized the work of plant protection, and to the applied measuree in
oontrollingegricultural poste and diseases in their farms. The-exponents
of plant protection should. take into consideration that the demonstration of
the progress of collective and state farms along with the achievements of
soience is one of the best, convincing and profitable forms of the, show.
We urge all the workers in plant protection, after having utilised all the
method. of socialist contest and all the experience of the foremost workers
of the fair, to take an active part in the fair of 1941.
End of Article
26 June 1961
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."="^"W ?-?=0
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Transl. 178: Plant Protection
Leningrad.
Institut,- zashchity rastenii.
....The principal pests and diseases of crop
plants in the USSR(Survey for 1935)Lenin3rad, in part
Lenin Academy of t=,ricultural Sciences, 1936. Translated/from the Russian
431p 484 L542 by R. Denbo
Foreword.
Introduction
Tal)le of Contents
Part I
Pests and DiSela806 of Grain
8
V. K. Romanova and B. Iu. Falkenstein. Harmful rodents and their control
in 1935 9
K. P. Grivanov. Field slugs in 1935
8. A. Predtechenskii. Harmful locust in grain raion(s) in 1935 33
A. I. Karpova. Specialized pests in grain raion(s) in 1935 61
P. A. Proida. Smut of cereals in 1935 108
E. P. Kotova. Grain not in 1954-35 118
V. A. Markhaseva. Spurred rye [Claviceps purpueeal 146
S. M. Tupenevich. Fusariosis of cereals in 1934-35 155
80
- Part /I
Pests and Diseases of Cotton
S. A. Predtec#enskii. Harmful locust in the cotton tone of USSR in 1935 172
P. N. Galakhov. Specialized pests of cotton in 1935 187
A. S. Letov. Cotton diaeaees in 1935 194
Part Ill
Pests and Mantises of Sugar Beets
G. K. Piatnitskii and A. V. Vyrzhikovskaia. Meadow Loth (Loxostege
sticticalis) in 1935
209
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Declassified and Approved ForRelease2013/04/12 : CIA-RDP80R01426R009900040001-2
./.4417 yaALLIJaym.s. pobtat emu cusvases
of crop plants
T. V. Nikitin. 'Tinter culet in 1935 229
V. I. VedVedeva. Specialized pests cf sugar beets in 1935. 240
Part IV
Pests and Diseases of Vegetables
L. A. Iakhimovlch. Pests of the mustard isonily in 1935 263
W. Ia. Kozlova. Other vegetable pests 285
K. IA. Kalashnikov. -Diseases of vegetables in a protected
ground in 1935 290 .
I. F. Kreps-Aunapu. Vegetable diseases in 1935 297
Part V
Pests and Diseases of Hamp
V. N. Shchegolev, Nemp flea in 1935
L. A. Ladyzhenskaia, Corn moth tEuropean corn borer, Pyrausta
fiubialisi
E. L. Iablonskaia. The diseases of hemp in 1935
Part VI
Pests and Diseases of Flax
I. A. Zelenukhin. Owlet gamma in 1935
A. E. Samenova. Specialized pests of flax in 1935
E. L. Iablonskaia. Vlax diseases in 1935
314
323
331
337
339
344
Part VII
Pests and Diseases of rruit
V. T. Aristov. Pests of the gererstInz organs of fruit in. 1935 364
E. A. Avdeeva. Leaf gnawing pests el fruit in 1935 .382
M. F. Malik. The alseases of orchard, plants in 1935 397
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Lenizerrad. Institut saahnhity ranfpn41_
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of crop plants...
Appendix:
Map 1 - Distribution of the number of suslik holes per hectare in the
main raion(s) of their spreading for 1936 411
Map 2 - Raion(s) of spreading and of high harm of slug in 1935 412
Map 3 - Spreading of brown rust in sowing of winter wheat in 1935
according to data of late fall inspection 413
Map 4 - Spreading of brown rust in the sowing of winter rye in 1935
according to data of late fall inspection 414
Mop 5 - Raion(s) of various economic significance of spurred rye
in 1935 415
Map 6 - The spreading of spurring on sowing of rye in 1935 416
Map 7 - Infestation of wheat spikes and grain by fusariosis in 1935 417
Map 8 - The zones of fusariosis manifestation in wheat spikes in 1935 418
Map 9 - Phenogramme of the routo of spring flight of meadow moth
during second 10 days in May,1935 419
Mhp.10 Phenogramme of the route of spring flight of meadow moth
during the third ten days of tia ,1935 420
!lap 11 - Phenogrmnme of the route of meadvI moth during first ten days
in June, 1935 421
Map 12 - Phenogramme of the route of spring flight of meadow moth
during the second ten days of June, 1935 422
Map 13 - Phenogramme of the route of spring flight of meadow moth
during the third ten days of Juno, 1936 423
Map 14 - Forecast of the distribution of the wintering storage of
the meadow moth for 1936, according to moisture and temperature
during the time of mass flight of the last generation of 1935 424
Map 15 - Supply of wintering caterpillars of the winter owlet for 1936 426
Map 16 - Destruction of sugar beet plantations in 1935 from the damage
caused by sugar b.;et weevil along collective farms and individual
sector(s). 427
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,tne prlacipal peirws emu cuseutemm
-Of orop plants
t-1
MAT 17 - Average index of manual collection of booties from hectare upon
the given field in 1935 (along collective and individual sector(s) 427
Map 18 - Spreading of sugar beet weevil in the main raion(s) of
- sugar boots growing according to data of fall inspection of
MAINSUGARBTETS and of MAINSUGAR in 1936 428
Map 19 - Distribution of flax rust in the ruropean territory of the
Union in 1935 429
Map ZO-e= Distribution of flax fuaariosis in European torritory of
the Union in 1935 430
" 15 Juno 1951
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( 1 )
Yotova, E. P.
Rzhavehina zernovykh khlebov v
1934-1935 gg.
[Rust of Cereal Grains in 1934-19351.
In "The Principal Pest and Diseases of
Crop Plants in the USSR". Leningrad,
1936, pp. 141-.146. (In Russian)
Institute of Plant Protection, Lenin
Academy of Agricultural Sciences.
CROWN RUST (PUCCINIA CORONIFEFA KLEE.), P. 141
Trans. 178
(In Part)
pp: 141.446
Bi
R. AO ban
In the years of 1932-1933 crown rust was widely spread
over the entire USSR. Oat crops of the western and central
regions of the USSR were infected to a high degi.oe.
The year 1931 is characterized by a comparatively weak
development of oat rust.
In_1934, regardless of the large reserve of teleuto-
stage Lteleitostadii7 left over from crop waste of 1933,
and the early apnearance of aecidiostage on the cathartic
buckthorn, the development of crown rust was slight in the
entral and south-western regions of the European LTiOvie147
Union, which can be explained partly be summer droughts
and partly by the early and short oat crop season of that
year.
In 1935, the degree of crown rust noted, with minor
exceptions, in the entire USSR as moderate and slight (see
table 13)1. Considering that in 1935 meteorological
conditions were analogous and, apparently, favorable for
1. For 1934, comparative data as to the degree of rust
manifestation are cited in tables 13 and 14 only on the
more characteristic points.
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(2) Trans. 178
(pp. 141-146)
rust development, the reason for its weak development, as
compared to 1932 and 1933, lies fundamentally in the earlier
and shorter crop season, the same as in 1934.
Thus, Gassnerts theory - age immunity of oats to crown
rust - is here strongly substantiated.
In 1934, and particularly in 1935, in the central and
southern regions which are rich in overgrowth of cathartic
buckthorn, there was observed a very early ripening of accidia
and a mass appearance of aecidiospores before the oats entered
the spike-forming phase which is more vulnerable to rust.
The relation of the degree of crown rust infection of
oats to a late and protracted crop season can be seen plainly
from. the 1935 comparative data for Birobidzhan. Here the
late crop of oats ("Pobedan variety) was infected up to 40%,
while the early-mid season L;ro only 7% and the mid-late,
26.0%.
The reason for the protracted crop season in Biribidzhan
can be explained by the unusually deep (up to 50 am as against
the normal 22 cm) blanket of snow in February and the abundant
spring precipitation in April and May which exceeded by more
than double the norm for many years. This resulted in extreme
moisture saturation of the soil and prevented the crow from
accomplishing the sowing on time.
STEM RUST (Puccinia graminis Pers.)/ P. 146
Sten rust of cereals in the USSR, as compared to the leaf
rust varieties, has a smaller specific weight in point of area
as well as in degree of manifestation and in economic impor-
tance.
In the USSR this rust variety is of greater significance
to winter and spring wheat and to oats, of lesser - to winter
rye and barley.
To spring wheat, stem rust is of the greatest signifi-
cance in the Far East LTVIS7 especially in maritime territory,
to winter Srheal.7 - in the southern part of North Caucasus,
in the zones where there is sufficient and excessive moisture.
In other cereal growing regions, stem rust appears
usually only at ripening time and, therefore, the damage it
inflicts is minor. For the last five years the spread of
stem rust was registered in the following regions: In 1931
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(2) Trans. 178
(pp. 141-146)
stem rust attacked wheat cro s of the entire south-western
territory of the European LSovietJ Union, but its weight
was insignificant due to the slight degree of manifestation.
In the years of 1932-33 an outbreak of stem rust upon wheat
crops was noted in foot-hill regions of Northern Caucasus
and over a series of districts in the Ukraine.
Stem rust spread markedly in 1934 in the north-eastern
and western regions of the European part of the Union. A
weaker development of it was noted in the north-western and
south-eastern regions of the Union, and its absence or very
weak development - over the entire Ukraine, in the central
regions of the European territory and in the Asiatic part
of the LSovieg Union.
Stem rust of barley spread, chiefly, over the southern
regions cultivating the crop: North Caucasus, the Azov0.-
Black Sea Coast, the Ukraine, where a very intensive devel-
opment of the disease was observed in 1932-33 as compared
with 1931,
In 1935 stem rust was of relatively groat significance
to spring wheat, showed weaker manifestation on winter rye
and winter wheat, and had no economic significance whatever
for oats (see table 14).
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a) Infection of grain crops by stem rust during the period of waxy ripeness in 1935 Table 14
D
o (As per ini_sn data of the bases of VIZR All-Union Institute of Plant Industry) 0
pa m
w o
w i
a )publics Regions
:
Wheat LW0i.nter Rya._ _i O,ats
Barley
Kraia 1935 ;1935 1935 1935 1_935
)blasti .,?
a
- 4-' 4) P + .4
a w=cewoa,
i
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0 C?l , 0 ; 0
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-0 P *--1 0 .0 .g; 0 0, P-, r-1 ? 0 a' -0 c4-1 g. PL, r-i ? 0 0 .4 ? 44 la, ! fa; H ' C.) 0 la,
000 ,0 0i0000 0 .0 V . 0 0 1 0 10 0 :0 0
a) 0 ?r-i co ci 0 C) 0 44-4 ka Cli 0 AR. 0 0 -r-1 - co cd 0 v._ 0 : 0 -1-I ! rn cii 0 13.2. 0 0 -ri ! w 14 0 ,tp, 0 L)
<
0_ 0 I-1 0 0 !1--1 0 a) 4--1 ? (3.) , o fl--I 4 0 0 1?i C.;,:<
11
040//die/IM...?????????????????????/* i I I ! , a
-' Leningrad 0 strovsk - 1 125 ? 10 3 38 ' 163 57 143 i 220 i 100 0.8 98 661
a)
7) tt Leningrad (..) 1621 5 22 15: 9522 i 3 84) 5 _ -
w
m
"BSSR
(T) Zapadnaia
ea
tt Briansk
Smolensk
Minsk - 1 334! 24.
- 1 32 i 31
- 1 3131 22 -- .
- ,
1 201 63
248 1 29
19 5 - 486 30 H 100 i 25
1 - ,
t
i - 29540 . 4302:
_ m
pa
o it :Gomel" sk - ! - ' 43772 i 1336 t 31 946 1 6
- , - OM
*
1 .a. ... ... M
CA) -11
0 ,1 Zaozerie - - i _ - 82 10
8-27 :i -9 86 i 10
1 - 230 I 21 2
rloscow . Tursk - 83; .9 - 141 7 _ , -
I - - i alb .....,
M ''. i .". S!
Shchekinsk - 501 38 - - 240 2 - I - -
1
tt , Laptev - 1 305! 17 CO MO 4I?? ''. ' 459 13 _ _ _ - - I m
(2Kirov . Izhevsk - : _ - 470 23 150 1 0
i
Balezinsk - : - 11015 -4401 H 460 i 9 . - 102 i 6?
71 it Kirov - , - - MO 00 11 i 9 - 1 - ).>
0 - - ? -
-0 Gor' ki Gorl ki - , 287 17 - 333 6 448 14 I- 707 1 5 - 63 i CP:j
co
0 .Ivanovoi
, Rostov 0 184! 6 Q 36 19 0 350' 3 13 300 ! 0 - - -0
?TARTAR ASSR .Spassk - - 1 - oc?
7) 68 60; 3 -50 i 272 ' 24
- p..,703 8 1 _
1
595: 13 - 1,241 1 0
1,446; 0 i 125 i 10
i 7)
- 1 - 3 11,535 2
,Sverdlovsk Sverdlovsk - t
m
7)
0 Bashkir ASra
0) 4, ,Perm
Ufimsk - -
... 1 ...
2 1 879- 32 i 32 12,583' 19 i20 1,196 24
OW ??? 42. 4 3,4331 9 - 329
-
_
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(3)
i ... ..... = = 03
0 r
(0 1? Meleyzovsk - ... = 0 685 38 34 4,774 H: 5 _ I
0
Cheliabinsk :Cheliabinsk .. _ , _ - 750 0 i 100; 0 - _ - - t - co
1 o
a)
o : Belovsk - - 1 -
-1' Voronezh ??? Oa ???
236 24 I - 1 395i 7
4 (0
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1 , - [1,201 20 , 351 9 ,.. i _ o
I o
o ;Tambovsk - 1871
8 Kibyshev iLuninsk 167; , 258 12 '
, i - - -i 660 6 - - 1- 8
ibyshev -
r:) 1 1 - - t o
i - - VW AN 158 I 0 1 ''' 2
0 renburg :Orenburg - _
1 :0.3 95 100 1 _ _ _ : _ _ -
Saratov ,
iSaratov
I - - 864 15 - 15 i 1 - 208
,
i I 11 .
I
1 i
Republic?
Kraia
Oblasti
0
CD0
07)
(I)
(I)
(T)
CL
-Saratov
73
73
CD
-n
CD
CD
rif
(D
r\.)
. .
0
Ftalingrad
It
Azovo-Chernomorsk
ff
t
IiII
North Caucasus
II
Ukrain.SSR Cher-
nigov Obi.
ft H ft
? Khar'kov
o it
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Dnepropetrovsk
It
Vinnitsa
o ? Moldavian ASR
0
(.0 Odessa
o ti
co
o ? Kiev
ott
rJ
et
1 Regions
.Krasno-Futsk
Petrovsk
Leninsk'
Nizhne-Chirsk
Tsymliansk
Taganrog
Krapotkin
Maikop
Prim .-Akhtar
Slaviansk
Anapsk
Georgievsk
Ipatovsk
Buinaksk
Chernigov
Nov.-Seversk
Khartkov
iYrasnograd
Stalinsk
Starobelsk
Melitopol'
Zanorozhe
Kam.Podol'sk
rtiraspoli
'Kherson
Skadovsk
iKirov
iKiev
iBelo-Tserkov
;Umansk
: Winter Yiheat,
, 1935
1 4-1
cr'N 0
ON.-f-) 0 0. E
P- H 0 0 .0 4--4l.
0 w 1.0 0
;
'IA Erl cj W.
.
' 0 1-4 1 0 '0
Spr heat
- i - - 6,528 14
104 0 - - -
I
0 359 5
41-,791 6
433 24
177 61
-
-
- 646 19
^ 818 34
539 20
1,024 26
404 26
369 19
2 431 18
- 100 0
-
- 40 11
7 P
- 587 9
65 16
0 1,014 17
- 4,582 10
7 1,047 467
- 1,785 10
370 3
0 2,349 19
e;. 2,063 15
- 744 15
0.3 3,202 49
8 27
5
Winter Rye Oats
1935 - 1935 ----
tt
+) +) +3 I
O c1 1 , 0 crN 0
E E ON ?-4-,
P, r-f C.) HQ
O 0 0 100 0 0
e--1 i-e g ea,
O.H
ca
czi
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f-4 f
"
AO
Bar
.2
- 5,490' 1
- 331i
- - I - 1,0561 10
8691
0 1,185i 6 -
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- _ [ _
398 0
28 1,922 38
117 36
- 1,630 23
0 1,063 3
.0.3 50 1P
71 19
- -
am 1=P?
101 38
0 40 28
- -
0
0
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4
27 7
1,227 7
334 17
1,088 1
115 6
181 12
180 19
20 13
58 23
- -
151 15
904 16
391 41
5' 29
587.
461
1,562 24
278 34
640 14
0 6581 0
469 1
-
0.3
1,273 0 2
:684.1
45
997
879
700
374
514
446
568
980
528
221
6
0
_
,
OD
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7:11
- o
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240
N.)
Republin
Kraia
Oblasti
Crimean AR
Azerbaidzhan SSR
Armenian SSR
We
tt It
tt
Omsk
Krasnoiarsk
East-Siberia
Far-Eastern (DVK)
It ttIt
-
Kazakh ASSR
Alma-Atinsk
South-Yazakhstan
West-Kazakhstan i
Karaganda
Kirgiz AFSR
Uzbek SER
Turkmen ESR
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/12 : CIA-RDP80R01426R009900040001-2
;Winter Wheat Sprii*--'Wheat Winter Rye
1935 1935 193-3-
Regions
Dzhankoi
Geokchai
Leninakan
Erivan
Novosibirsk
Tomsk
Prokop evsk
Omsk
Minusinsk
Sretensk
Voroshilov
Blagoveshchensk
Urdzhar
Aulis-Atinsk
Kelessk
Uralsk
Akmolinsk
Frunze
Semarkand
Bairam All
.
"0
0 orN 0
? 71-)
;
1 H s6.
, 0 .4-1 CO
1--i
$.4
0
0
far
41-I fa.
00
H
0
7 1,263 11
460 6
20 8
42 10
-
15
- 45
20
bQ.
59: 2
1,686 ! 7
67 0
- 781 32
16 . 0
- -
- 964 ? 5
567 0
-
- 70 2
? 553 9
31 1
? -114H 4
18 0
2 13
SO.
Oats
_?
1935
-4 rd
a) cc\
H 10
O ?
r?f !
o ? ?H
H
1:21
co
co
co
cci
.3
- 1,953!
22
3
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2
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60
7
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1
2
386
43
OD
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ma.
15
0 622 0.1
VON
Oar
32 0
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18 0 22 0
.0 .0
.0 MO
MN. IMM Ma A=
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?
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/12 : CIA-RDP8OR01426R009900040001-2 ,on
Rektor uoheta I raionirovaniia.
Prognosis of the anticipative development
of the most prominent pests and diseases
expected to damage field crops and Barest in
1935. Leningrad 1935. 148 p. 464 L54
Table of Contents
Translated in part from /79
Russian by R. G. Denbo
Foreword
Introduction G. M. Iaroslavtsev
I. Agricultural Pests
1. Many poison pests '
5
7
???
Sueliks. B. IN. Falikenstein
13
Mioe like rodents. B. Ill. Falekenete n
20
Locust. S. A. Predtechenskii
ka8
Meadow moth [Loxoste4e stictica].is]
42
Winter owlet [Agrotis eagetund
50
Field slug [Limacidaen T. 0. Grigor,eva
57
2. Pests of grain. A. I. Karpova
59
3. Poets of perennial legumes. A. 'I. Karpova
66
4. Pests of sugar beets. P.N. Galakhov, V./. Uedvedev, and
L. V. Koloukhin
69
5. Pests of cotton. P. N. Galakhov
76
6. Pests of flax. P. N. Galakhov
79
7. Pests of hemp. P. N. Galakhov
80
8. Pests of vegetable crops. L. Ilk. Iakhimovich and U.S. Kozlova
81
9. Pests of fruit
Leaf eating pests. E. A. Avdeeva
90
Fruit eater. M. T. Aristov
94
Sucking pests. U. T. Aristov
95
Pests of berries. EL T. Aristov
96
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/12 : CIA-RDP80R01426R009900040001-2
Leningrad. Institut sashchity rastenii.
Sektor uoheta i raionirovaniia.
Prognosis of the anticipative development
of ???
II. Agricultural Diseases
1. Grain crops
Smut. V. A. Earkhaseva and P. A. Proida 97
Spurred rye. V. A. Varkhaseva 105
Rust. E. P. Kotova 110
2. Diseases of potatoes and of cabbage. I. F. Aunapu
Phytophtora of potatoes 123
Club foot of potatoes 127
Rot of the tubers of potatoes . 129
Hernia of cabbage 129
3. Diseases of seed plants. A. A. Ovohinnikova
Scab of the apple tree 133
Scab of the pear tree 136
Fruit rot of the apple and pear tree 136
4: Grape diseases. A. A. Ovehinnikova
'rildew
Oidium
137
, 139
III.The main pcsts of forests, forestry, and park planting
1. The primary pests of forests. V. I. Gusev and 0.0. Kolus 141
2. Secondary pests of forests. 0. G. Kelus. 144
S. Pests of forest conservatories and of planting. 0.0. Kelus 146
4. The first pests of park planting V.I. Ousev 146
5. The secondary pests of park planting. 0. G. Kelus 148
18 June 1951
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?
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_
Zashohita rastenii ot vreditelei 1. boleznei
(Protection of plants from pests and diseases)
Ed. 3. Moskva, 1960. 640p. 464.4 876 Ed. 3
TABLE ap CONTENTS
Introduction to the third edition
Introduction
Translated in part from the
Russian by S. N. Monson
GENERAL PART
Principles of Plant Protection
Chap. 1 Injurious Animal Organisms
2
3
9
Insects and their external construction 9
Anatomy and physiology of insects 17
Development of insects 36
Insects and environment 44 .
Distribution of insects 54
Formation of injurious fauna and causes of mass propa-
gation of insects 68
Types of injuries and the understanding of their
injuriousness 62
Classification of insects 88
General information conoerning nematodes, slugs, ticks
and rodents 82
Chap. 2 Diseases of Plants 86
General information concerning diseases 86
Diseases caused by unfavorable environmental conditions 91
Diseases caused by parasitic organisms 96
General characteristic of fungi as induoers of plant
diseases 96
General characteristic of bacteria as induciers of
plant diseases 122
Parasitic flowering plants 127
Virus diseases 131
Resistance of plants to diseases 138
Chap. 3 Methods of Controlling Pests and Diseases 142
General information on methods 142
Agro-technical method 143
Physical-mechanical method 152
Biological method 160
Chem*cal method 166
Plant quarantine in the USSR 168
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2
Chap. 4. Chemioal Substances for Controlling Pest's and Diseases 171
Insecticides 171
Zooc ides 187
nngioides 188
Order in storing poisons and measures of precaution
ift working with them 197
SPECIAL PART
Pests and Diseases of Agricultural Plants
Chap. 6 Multi-poisonous pests 199
Locusts Acrodidoal 199
(0 'lodes 211
ateridae) 213
tTenebrionidae) 217
Multi-poisonous fLepidopteral 219
Multi-poisonous moths 236
Slugs 244
Rodents 246
Chap. 6 Pests and Diseases of Cereal Crops and Legumes 266
Pests and diseases of cereal crops
Pests and diseases of leguminous crops
Chap. 7 Pests and Diseases of Technical Crops
255
313
342
Pests and diseases of cotton 342
Pests and diseases of flax 364
Pests and flowering plant parasites of hemp 369
Pests and diseases of rubber bearing plants 372
Pests and diseases of sunflowers 378
Pests and diseases of tobacco 384
Pests and diseases of potatoes 391
Pests and diseases of sugar beets 410
Chap. 8 Pests and Diseases of Vegetable Orops 430
Pests of vegetable crops 430
Diseases of vegetable crops 454
Chip. 9 Pests of Fruit and Berry Crops 474
Pests and diseases of fruit trees 474
Pests and diseases of berry crops 518
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mr4miluouv, a
Chap. 10 Pests and Diseases of Sub-Tropical Crops 557
Pests of citrus crops 557
Diseases of citrus crops 566
Pests of tea 573
Chap. 11 Pests and Diseases of Tree Shelter Belt Plantings 576
Pests of tree shelter belt plantings 577
Diseases of tree shelter belt plantings 590
Chap. 12 Pests of Grain, Grain Products and Diseases of
Vegetables in Storage 597
Pests of grain and grain products 597
Diseases of vegetables and potatoes in storage 615
Chap. 13 Organization of Pest and Disease Control of Agricul-
tural Plants 623
Recommended Literature 637
Boshian, G. M. On the nature of viruses mad microbes. Uedgis, 1949
Williams, V. R. Principles of Agriculture. Sellkhozgis, 1948
Gutner, L.S., Dobrotrakova, T.L., at at. Key to plant diseases according
to external characteristics, SbItkhosgis, 1937
Dobrosrakova, T. L. Handbook for praotical study on phytopathology,
Selikhozgis, 1949
Dunin, M. S. lmmunogenesis and its practical utilisation. Trudy
of Timiriasev Agricultural Academy, issue 40, 1946
Eftmov, A. L. Chemical method for controlling pests and diseases of
agricultural plants. Sel'khosgis, 1949
Lysenko, T. D. Agrobiology. Selikhosgis, 1949
Michurin, L. V. Vork in four volumes. Selskhosgis, 1948-49
Chugunin, TA. V. and Uganova, O. N. Phenological calendar for the
protection of orchards from pests and diseases. Krymizdat, 1946
Shchegolev, V. N. Plant protection from injuries caused by insects and
other pests. Selikhotgiz, 1949
Schegolev, V. N., et al. Key to insects concerning injuries caused to
cultivated plants. Sel,khozgis, 1935
Yaohevakii, A,k. Handbook on phytopatholdigical observations. Baskhnil, 1930
Handbook of en agronomist on plant protection. Se1ikhozgiz,19'
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Zashchita rastenii at vreditelei...
Chapter Three
!EMS OF PEST Ayr DISEASE comm. (p. 142-170)
General information on methods (p. 142)
Pest andisease control of agricultural plants is applied by
agro-technik. chemical, physical-mechanical, and biological methods.
The et-technical method of control produces conditions favorable to
planu b
,roland interferes simultaneously with the development and propa-
gati en orate and inducers of diseases. Some agro-technical methods
destroy is and inducers of diseases directly. This is achieved by
adequaPPP rotation, agro-technical methods, the introduction of
rooistearietie , etc.
Titemical method of control consists in direct destruction of
injurPlima 1 organisms by poisonous substances. With respect to
dioeathis method has primarily prophylactic significance.
hysical-mechanical method of control consists in the destruction
of ond disemnes through changes in physical environment, removal
anection of pests with the aid of mechanical equipment, and the
iso of crops from pests by mechanical means-obstacles).
biological method of control consists in the destruction of pests
bltural enemies.
; and disease control achieve their best results by the simultaneous
11 methods. The principal task in organizing control is therefore
lish a system for controlling diseases and pests applicable to
it regions. With regard to many pests and diseases, combined measures
mady been developed, such as those directed against smut of cereal
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Zashchita rastenii ot vreditelei..,
crops, the beet mebworm, European corn borer and pests and diseases of
fruit crops.
AGRO4EC 'CAI, METHOD (p. 143-12)
The application of aro-technical methods for controlling pests and
diseases is based on the relationship between plants, parasites and external
environment. Agro-technique transforms conditions of plant nutrition,
temperature and moisture of air and soil, I. e. the basic factors in plant
development. Proper egro-technique may therefore contribute to the growth
of plants, increase their resistance to diseases and injuries and create
conditions which will limit mass development of pests and diseases. The
agro-technical method has fundamentally prophylactic significance.
Frequently, however, agro-technical methods are used in destroying pests
directly. Within the general system, this method represents one of the
main links. The vide application of agro-technical methods and the
mechanization of agricultural procedures on large areas is entirely
feasible in a planned socialist economy.
In the majority of cases, this method does not require additional
expenditures since it is primarily intended to produce crops.
By following Williams' teaching,as related to the grass field system
of agriculture, the system in its entirety should be applied for adequate
industrial results. Crop rotation, cultivation,of the soil, fertilization,
are all included in this group.
GRASSaPIELD CEOP ROTATIOU.
This basic element of the grass-field system in agriculture is of
exceptionally great significance for the control of pests and diseases.
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Zashchita rastenii ot vreditelei...
The introduotion into crop rotation of a mixture of perennial legumes
and cereal grasses improves the structure of the soil, enriches it with
organic substances and thereby creates conditions for better plant development
in all "wedges' under crop rotation. Under these circumstancee resistance
of plants to unfavorable conditions is increased, including their resistance
to pests and diseases. In addition, perennial Grasses contribute to the
disinfection of soils. Soils planted with perennial grasses crest
anaerobic condition unfavorable to many injurious insects and micro-
organisms.
Proper rotation and distribution of crops contribute to the reduction
of pests and Infection.
Rotation of plants and changes in external environment lead to
reduction in the spread of disease and propagation of insects. In
controlling the sugar beet nematode, for instance, the area infested by
the latter may be made more healthful by introducing such crops as wheat,
rye, corn, alfalfa, flax, chickory, and several others into crop rotation.
These crops, by stimulating the exit of nematode larvae from cysts do not
provide forage for them, which leads to the mass destruction of these pests.
Oats should not be introduced into sugar beet crop rotation since this
crop is affected by nematodes in a manner similar to sugar beets.
During adequate crop rotation infection of the soil by such diseases
as fusarium, other diseases of flax and various species of rust is consi-
derably reduced since these diseases are caused by special parasites, i. e.
the kind adapted to one crop. With respect to non-special parasites
(i. e. inducer of cotton wilt), the introduction into crop rotation of
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Zashohita rastenii ot
non-infectious crops (alfalfa, cereals) is most effective.
In establishing periodical crop rotation, the biological characteristics
of individual pests and diseases should be considered. Thus the inducer
of club root of cabbage is preserved in the soil for 4-5 years; potato
canker for 13 years; cysts of sugar beet nematodes for 6-8 years.
Consequently, the re-introduction of a crop may be planned accordingly.
The distribution of wedges is of particular importance in crop
rotation. Planting of crops (attacked by the same posts) in immediate
proximity should be avoided. When cotton fields adjoin leguminous fields,
it is possible for the leguminous aphids to transfer from Cucurbitae to
cotton.
To preserve summer wheat from infection by brown rust, summer and
winter wheats should not be planted next to each other in particular
seed plots since this species of rust winters on winter wheat and spreads
in the spring to summer crops.
CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
Proper soil cultivation is essential for controlling pests and
diseases of agricultural crops. Fall plowing of the soil consists in
1) disking and 2) deep fall plowing with plow and fore-plow.
In disking and subsequent deep fall plowing, many injurious insects
and fungi parasites, settled in different vegetative residue, on sur-
fade.and upper layers of soil are destroyed.
Disking of stubble, immediately following the removal of harvested
cereal crops produces rapidly appearing stalks of volunteer grain which
attract such pests as the Swedish and hessian flies. The latter lay
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Zashchita rautenii ot vreditelei...
their egas in the young plant grown from volunteer grain; the development
of the pests takes place subsequently on the same grain. Such diseases
as yellow and brown rust of cereals may equally develop on stalks from
volunteer grain.
During deep fall plowing this grain, infected by pezts and diseases,
penetrates into the depth of the plowed layer (20-22 cm), where under
aneoroble conditions the injurioun organisms perish.
Weeds and vegetative residue harboring infectious foci of various
diseases and serving as propagation spots for pests are also plowed under.
Many species of rust, wintering larvae of stem grain saw flies (Hymenoptera)
or fCephus pygmaeus L.), are destroyed along with eggs of [Oria musculosa Hb.)
and other injurious insactsi
Insects located on the surface or upper layers of the soil penetrate
(in plowing) the lower soil layers and perish there because of their
inability to break through thick particles of sal. This method of plowing
is used to destroy caterpillars of the sugar beet webworm which winter
on the surface [Loxostege sticticalis L.] and the pea moth, (Laspeyresia
nigricana (Staph.)], etc. Deeply plod-in sclerotia of ergot develops
only in negligible quantities and the percentage of infested plants is
thereby reduced.
Insects are also directly destroyed by soil cultivation. Pupae
are particularly sensitive to mechanical injuries; they perish from minor
injuries, such as rubbing their bodies against particles of s11 . Plowing
for this purpose is therefore reeommended during the period of mass
pupation of wireworms and other insects.
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Many insects pupate in caves to facilitate their exit as adults from
pupae. It has been established that after plowing and cultivating the
formation of caves where pupae of the cotton ballworm [Chloridae obsoleta
and cabbage moths [Baratbra brassica L.] winter, the number of butterflies
are considerably reduced.
Cultivation by black fallow is particularly significant. The rain
object of black fallow, according to Williams, is to control weeds. Since
weeds may serve as a habitat for insects, (the cutworm moth, for instance),
cultivation by black fallow represents simultaneously an effective measure
for controlling this harmful insect.
FERTILIZIFC AYD ADDITIONAL FEEDING reduce mainly the severity of
injury caused to plants by pests and diseases. In some instances fertilizers
act upon pests directly or indirectly through changes in environment.
Fertilizers and additional feeding speed growth and accelerate the
development of plants. It is known that mAny posts and diseases severely
affect plants in the early stages of development. Pests such as [Tanymecus
palliatus F.), [Ph. cruciferae Coeze.], and [Aphthora ouphorbiae Schrank.]
cause considerable injury to plants during the cotyledon stage and when
the first leaves appear. The Swedish fly injures plants primarily in the
stage of germination; anthracnosis and fusarium of flax, "root-eater" of
sugar beets, rhizoctonia of potato seedlings, etc., represent serious
threats to young plants. The sooner a plant passes the early stage of
its development, the less harmful will be infestation by pests or disease.
Fertilizers and additional feeding may radically reduce injuries caused
by [Chlorops pumilionis Bjerk],("zelenoglazka"), of which the larvae
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eat lengthy furrows in the stalks of summer cereals. Through hastening
the growth of plants tillering takes place before the larvae have a
chance to injure them. Larvae die on bare stalks and the threat of this
pest is eliminated.
Intensive growth generally curtails injuries to plants by harmful
insects. This applies equally to disease. Milt, browning and breaking
of stabs of flax, black scab of potatoes, phomopsis of cruciferat and
sugar beet affect plants of weak development.
Potassium and phosphorous fertilizers increase plant resistance to
diseases and thereby hinder the development of disease inducers. The
introduction of these fertilizers represents one of the methods for
controlling rust and fusarium of grain crops.
Other fertilizers change the chemical properties of the environment.
Thus, lime, as an alkali fertilizer, creates unfavorable conditions for
the development of fungi organisms, such as inducers of club root of cabbage,
root eater" of sugar beet, as well as of several species of wireworms,
larvae of [Culicidael, etc., which usually develop in acid surroundings.
In addition, there are fertilizers which react directly upon pests.
Among these are super phosphates which when they cone in contact with
the bodies of slugs destroy them. In controlling disease, the introduction
of microelements, such as boron, into the soil is significant. Lack of
boron in soil causes decay of cores of sugar beet; and also reduces
resistance of flax to bacterium.
PEEPAEATION OT SEED 8CR.
Seeds and seedlings are capable of transferring pests and diseases
of agricultural plants. Thus seeds may spread smut of cereal crops, wilt.
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2ashobita rastenii ot vreditclei...
anthracnosoand other flax diseases,and gummocis of cotton. Seedlings may
spread phytophthora, black leg, and other diseases of potatoes.
Seeds way also carry Into fields such injurious pests as the pea
weevil, [Bruchus pisorum L.), clover seed chalcid, (Druohophagus gibbus
(Boh.)) pink worm, cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi Mask.) wheat
nematodes, etc.; seedlings will carry phylloxera, strawberry mites,
UTarsonemus fragaria imm.), etc.
Many measures are required to provide healthful seed stock and
seedlings. Along with physical-mechanical and chemical methods (which
will be discussed below) agr technical methods, such as cleaning and
sortint? are widely used for this purpose. Cleaning and sorting eliminate
sickly seeds, most frequently affected by disease, light weight seeds
infested by pests, smut seri, sclerotium of ergot, seeds of injurious
weeds, as well as residue of different parts of plants on which rust
spores and other parasites may dwell.
Preparation of seed stock requires careful selection, sorting and
rejecting.
PERIODS OF SOWING are significant as factors regulating the
conditions of infection of agricultural plants by pests and diseases.
In many instances they preserve plantings from mass injuries and infestation.
Thus, early planting of summer crops is the principal measure in
controlling Swedish and hessian flies; (Chlorops pumilionis Bjerk.),
elm pests (aphids), (Tetrapeura ulmi reg.), and many other pests.
The Swedish fly,which lays ?cgs on stems, having only 2 to 3 leaves,
injures plants in the germination stage; plant injuries which occur in the
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tillering stage are less harmful, while injuries caused at the booting
stage are practically not affecting yields.
Other insects, such as the hessian fly, while they are not selective
affect
in depositing their eggs,/yield more if they infest plants in their early
stages. Spring crops planted earlier go through the most dangerous phase
of growth, that of germination, before the approach of summer and avoid
the mass egg laying of the Swedish fly.
Infestation and development of diseases of agricultural crops equally
depend upon planting periods. The najority of fungi require Yigh tempera-
tures for their development. Fusarium of cereals requires an optimal
temperature of 12-2e; the optimum is lower for the host plant. Fusarium
therefore develops less on early summer plantings than on later crops.
Light infestation by rust of early flax and summer cereals may be also
traced to the difference in temperature optimums. As to planting periods
of cereals In the fall, it is advisable to keep to optimal periods in
controlling rust, since temperature conditions are less favorable at that
time.
Planting periods afieet considerably the injurious activity of
parasitic organisms. 'Early sowings mature earlier, and the duration of
the activity of parasitic fungi upon plants is consequently reduced.
flax
Thus early/produces smaller losses in yield from rust than late flax.
To plant cauliflower early is essential to prevent bacterium since the
development of bacterium will take place at a time when the plant is at
a less susceptible stage.
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Radical advancing of planting periods is important for the control
of pests and diseases of some crops. The Academician Lysenko introduced
summer planting batted on the stage development of plants. This method
is widely adopted for potatoes to control virus diseases and so-called
diseases of degeneration (non-parasitic). Summer alfalfa suffers less
from pests than do ordinary spring crops.
VERNALIZATIOV OF SEED STOCK.
This agricultural method, developed by the Academician Lysenko,
speeds stages in plant development and contributes to more energetic,
vigorous growth. Cereal crops from vernalized seeds possess vigorous
root systems and are more resistant to pests and disease. Vernalization
reduces the number of pests which attack plants in the early stages of
plant development, such as the Swedish fly, which injures germinating seeds.
pests and diseases
In addition, vernalization cuts losses caused by/the injuriousness of
which is determined by the length of the vegetative period. Different
species of cereal rust belong to this group, since they may affect crops
throughout the vegetative period.
DESTRUCTION OF VMS.
The development of many pests and inducers of diseases is associated
with weeds. This is understandable since prior to their transfer to
cultivated plants, pests developed on wild plants. Yany injurious pests
are still closely associated with wild vegetation. Thus sugar beet viebworms,
cutworm moths, stem borers, etc., lay their eggs on weeds even when
cultivated plants are available; their caterpillars crawl onto agricultural
crops and destroy them.
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Zashchita.rastenii at vreditelei.??
In the spring, prior to the appearance of cultivated plants, many
pests, such as [Ph. crucifers Goose), cabbage moths, cotton ballworms,
[Chloridea obsolete Feb.], rod spiders, etc., feed and propagate on weeds.
After cereal orops are harvested and prior to the appearance of winter
crops, wild cereals nerve as forage to Swedish and hessian flies.
Yany diseases, such as ergot, club root of Cruciferae, sone species
of rust, etc., by infecting cultivated plants,ean simultaneously develop
on wild .grown species. In addition, name weeds [Thsliotrum L.],(nvasilistnik"),
(Euphorbie L.); ("moloohain), etc., are the intermediate hosts of rust
of cultivated plants. Weeds thus represent constant foci of infectious
diseases. Hence, it is necessary to wage steady control over weed
vegetation by cultivating the soil and oaring for crops.
PERIODS OF hAR'ESTIIIO affect the development of pests and their
harmful activity. Timely harvesting of cereals in close periods reduces
the amount of volunteer grain and thus limits the development of come
pests and diseases. Early harvesting of flax reduces losses of yields
primarily because the period of harmful activity of pests indtdiseaies
is reduced. Delay in harvesting leads to injuries of the stems of flax
by flax fleas, [Aphthona euphorbiae Schrank.], since by that time the
new generation of beetles appears in masses. Rust and other diseases of
flax are prevented from causing much damage to flax when it is harvested
early and losses in yield are reduced to a itn5mum. It is recommended to
harvest flax (fiber) at its stage of yellow maturity.
USE OR DESTRUCTION OF POST?EARVESTING RESIDUE.
This is essential as a prophylaetic measure since such residue serves
as wintering abodes for many pests ard vegetative parasites.
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To make potato plantings healthier, plants affected by black leg, ring rot,
etc. are removed. Cabbage and tomato seedlings and other vegetable crops,
if infected, are destroyed in greenhouses and the diseased seedlings
rejected when planted in open ground.
INTROMICTION OF RESISTANT VARIETIES.
Resistant varieties are important in protecting plants from pests
and diseases. Considerable successes have been achieved in the Soviet
Union in the field of selection with regard to resistance to disease.
By applying Hichurin methods on a wide scale, scientists have produced
many plant varieties resistant to disease. Some of these varieties have
been already introduced into agricultural practice. Rust-resistant
varieties have been produced among cereals. Among the most valuable resistant
varieties of wheat are: Krasnodarka and Novo-larainka 83. Many varieties
of sunflower, produced by the Academician Zhdanov, are known for their
resistance to "zarazikha," broomrape, [Orobanche cumana or O. ramose);
among them are the varieties 8281 and 6432.
The best phytophthora-resistant varieties are the Eameraz hybrids,
the variety 18883 (Moskvich), Krasno-Ufimskii and Uralskii. Many
potato varieties are resistant against potato canker. Canker-resistant
varieties, Berliohingen, Cobbler, Great Scott, lmandra, etc. are introduced
in areas threatened with canker.
Among fruit and berry crops the varieties created by I. V. Yiehurin
possess the highest decree of resistance to disease. The apple varieties
"Bcrsdorf-Kitaika," "Safran," 'Pepin," "Slavianka," etc., are resistant
to scab and fruit rot. The gooseberry varieties "Cherny mavr," "Eegus,"
"Shtambovy," are resistant to mildew.
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There are also varieties resistant to pests. As an example one may
cite the "panzer" varieties of sunflowers not affected by the sunflower
moth. The panzer layer in the hull of seeds cannot be chewed througb
by caterpillars of this moth because of its hardness.
Pest-resistant forms of other cultivated plants are under further
study. Among hard and soft wheats there are forms resistant to hessian
and Swedish flies. Egyptian cotton shows stronger resistance to red
spider than does American cotton.
nYSICAL-gECHANICAL PETHOD (152-160)
This method of oontrol is based on changes in the physical environment
and the application of mechanical means and attachments for direct
destruction of pests or their prevention from penetrating a crop. Within
the general system this measure is considered supplementary because of
its labor consuming nature, although in some instances it acquires the
significance of a principal method.
Among mechanical means of control are: hand picking of insects,
removal of diseased plants, crushing and destruction of pests with the aid
of various attachments, the erection of obstacles against the penetration
of pests onto cultivated plants.
Ehnual gathering of insects represents the most primitive method of
control and is used only when other more skilled methods are not available.
Thus, manual picking and destruction of caterpillars of the cabbage worm,
(Pieris brassicae 1,4 is ased when the o?,1:bage head is formed because
chemicals and poisonous preparations may not be applied at such time.
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In controlling black leg of potatoes, cleaning of seed plots, i. e.,
the removal of infested clumps, is among the most essential measures.
Pruning of infested branches, cleaning of bark, etc., are practiced to
control pests and diseases of fruit trees.
Gathering of Insects is aided by usIng different types of attachments.
Winter nests of the pierid butterfly are removed from fruit trees by
split sticks and steel brushes.
Many pests, suoh as beetles, are caught by shaking apple trees;
(Curculionidae], [Meligethes aeneus F.], etc. Special bags are used
for gathering insects; in orchards tarpaulin canvases are spread under
trees. Insects are shaken off by hitting the tree trunk with wooden
mallets. To protect the tree trunk, the mallet is covered with a cloth.
Caterpillar, butterfly, eurygaster and light traps, vessels filled
with molasses, and other attractants are qmong the special mechanical
appliances used.
TRAPS AND OBSTACLES.
Caterpillar and butterfly traps are set up to catch many pests.
Bags of gauge are used to trap butterflies of the beet webworm.
The bags are conus shaped, attached to two vertical sticks, of
which the ends are tied with cord. In pulling the cord, a frame of
1 - 1.5 x 5 m. in size is obtained; the length of the bag is 5 m.
Butterflies are caught simultaneously in several bags. By going over
the plot three times, one hag may take eare of 6 hectares in one working
day.
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To catch caterpillars on sugar beet fields, horse-driven caterpillar
traps of the Tarnovskii make are used. Their design is /simple. A wooden
square frame rests on two wheels in the front and one toothed theel in the
roar; to it are attached several troughs the width of the entire frame,
whioh are movable; they are arranged so as to pass between rows; above the
troughs are 5 tied wooden cross bars swinging freely. 'When these bars
touch the plants, caterpillars fall into the troughs.
Eurygaster traps are of different kind: hand Se- and auto-traps.
Their construction is designed to shake eurygasters from plants and catch
them in their fall. Auto-traps represent long scoops suspended on the
sides and in front of the automachine. The reach of the dippers is up
to 15m. In moving, pests are shaken into the dippers when the leading
edge comes in contact with plants. Their capacity is 50 - 150 hectares
per day.
Horse-driven traps are constructed on wheels, have a reach of 7 - 8 m.,
and are equipped with a special reel placed so as to shake eurygasters
directly into the dipper. The reel has 4 bars and is moved by transmission
from the main wheel. The capacity of this equipment is 25 - 30 hectares
a day.
Light traps are used against night butterflies. Their action is
based on the positive phototaxis of insects. The principal parts of this
trap consist in the strong light and attachment for catching flying insects.
Special lanterns or electric lamps may be used as sources of light.
To catch the butterflies, a barrel filled with water, to which kerosine or
naphtha and other liquids poisonous to insects are added, is placed under
the lantern. Insects flying toward the light beat against the walls of the
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lantern and fall into the liquid. Insects may also be caught with the
aid of suction apparatus placed near the lanterns.
Traps may also attract by smell. Troughs filled with fermenting
molasses attract many butterflies. These traps are widely used on sugar
beet farms to control cutworm moths. Wooden or metal boxes one is. high
are stood on two stakes dug in the soil. Molasses are half diluted with
water; yeast is added to provide fermentation.
Trap belts to attract caterpillars of the apple scale, [Laspeyresia
pomcpella L.] are used in orchards. They are made of sacking, rags or
wrapping paper, 6 - 10 cm. wide, in two layers, so that the width of the
belt when spread measures 16 - 20 cm. The belts are tied to the trunks
of trees after the latter are first cleaned of the old bark and lichens.
Trap belts are used since caterpillars of this pest choose sheltered and
shady spots for pupating. Belts are periodically examined and caterpillars
picked and destroyed. At present, belts of beta-naphtha are also used.
In contrast to trap belts, they are soaked in the chemical, and caterpillars
when
perish/Crawling into these belts. To prevent the burning of young trees,
these are not used for this purpose. Boot traps are also used to catch
pests in orchards. They are set when the leaves begin to fall; the
foliage is then sviept close to the trunks of trees. Beetles of
[Laspeyresia pamonella L. ] and icurculio) are inclined to settle there
for the winter. When the first frost appears, those heaps are burned.
Field slugs are euaght when they spread above-ground bn.bark, heaps
of grass, etc., on all of which these pests like to settle euring the day.
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Zashebita rastenii ot vreditelei...
Insects that move along the surface or within the upper soil layer
are caught with the aid of trap ditches. These ditches, depending upon
the type of pest, are dug at various dppths. To trap caterpillars of
cutworm moths and sugar beet webworme, they are 25 - 35 am. deep, for
beetles of sugar beet [Tanymecus palliatus F.], 35 cm., for locusts,
60 - 80 am. In digging, the soil is thrown in the direction of the
protected plot. Malls of ditches should be upright, slanting towards
the bottom. Wells of a depth of 25-35 cm., with upright vertical walls,
are dug at distances of 5-10 m. at the bottom of the ditch. The insects
get into ditches and from there into the wells where they are crushed or
poisoned by attractants placed in the wells. To control [Tanymecus -
palliatus F.), a number of small ditches with wells are, in addition,
distributed throughout the plot. Trap ditches are distributed only at
borders of plots.
Insects caught by any method should be immediately crushed, burned,
dug under, or thrown into water mixed with kerosine. To control rodents,
different kinds of traps are used to attract pests by poisoned food.
(See deratization).
Mechanical Obstacles are constructed to prevent pests from entering
planted plots or even coming near individual plants. Protection ditches
and glue rings are used for the purpose. The former differ from trap
ditches in that they have upright walls on the side of the protected
plot only. The ditches are dug with a plow and the walls subsequently
smoothened with shovels. These ditches bilider the movement of cater.
pillars of cutworm moths, sugar beet webworms, etc.
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Zashchita rastenii at vreditelei...
Glue rings are used to protect fruit trees from different pests.
The rings interfere with the movement of insects (caterpillars and non-
flying adult ineecte) along trunks towards the crowns of the trees.
Special glue is applied either directly to trees, previously cleaned of
the old bark, or to paper, tightly tied to tree trunks. Glue rings of a
width of 5 cm. are applied one in. high. The glue is manufactured in
plants or prepared demestically. In the latter case, rosin oil and low grade
olive oil are corbined in the proportion of 2 parts of melted rosin oil
to one part of the olive oil. The mixture is boiled 15 - 20 min.
The low grade olive oil may be replaced by birch tar in the same amount.
It is essential for glue to preserve its capacity for adhering, with-
standing water and not dissolving in hot weather.
SPECIAL rETHODS AHD IHSTALLATIONS FOR TLE CLEAN= OF SEEDS.
Solutions of sodium chloride or calcium chloride are used to clean
grain of ergot, in the proportion of 2 to 3 kg. to 10 liters of water.
The use of salt solutions is based on the difference in the specific
gravity between ergot and grain. Ergot and infested grains, of which
the specific gravity is lower than the solution, come to the surface and
may thus be caught. She cleansed grain is rinsed with clean water and
dried. This reasure is not applied widely because of the labor involved
and may be adopted, for instance, at regional seed farms, (nraisemkhoz").
Flax seeds, clover, and alfalfa are cleansed of dodder (Cuscuta
europeaeal with the aid of an electro-magnetic magnet. Its use is based
on the distinction in the structural characteristics of the epidermis of
dodder and seeds of cultivated plants. Seeds of dodder, in contrast to
flax, clover and alfalfa seeds, have a rough surface. In mixing seeds
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Zashohita rastenii ot vreditelei.
that have to be cleansed with pulverised iron, the latter clings only
to dodder seeds. Under the influence of an electromagnetic magnet, dodder
seeds covered with pulverized iron are separated from the rest of the seeds.
THERMIC METHODS.
Measures the destructive action Awhidll , with regard to injurious
and
orgatiame,is based on the change in physical environment/belong to
ikysical-mechanical methods of control. Among these measures are heating
soil and grain, and the drying of grain.
Bested soil is used primarily to control fungi, bacterial diseases,
and nematodes in greenhouses and hothouses on farms. The simplest method
to heat soil is to scald it with boiling water or to heat it on iron griddles
A more skilled method is to heat the soil by steam. The greenhouses
are tightly covered with special wooden boxes which are turned upside down,
under which steam is passed through pipes leading from a locomobile or
steam kettle; pressure is 5 - 6,- -..:,, which ensures heating of the soil to
a depth of 10 - 15 am. After treatment for 30 minutes, all fungi organisms
and nematodes are destroyed.
This method is equally applied to disinfect empty railroad cars from
storage pests.
The thermic method is widely applied in disinfecting seed and seedling
stocks.
Grain heated in boiling water in the principal method used to control
loose smut of barley and wheat. A detailed description of this method is
given in a special article.
The most primitive method in heating grain is to submerge special
pails or boxes filled with it into barrels of water of proper temperature.
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Zashchita rastenii ot vreditelei...
Pails and boxes are equipped with a screened bottom to permit rapid
access of water and an even degree of either heat or cold for the grain.
The pails or boxes contain 20 - 25 kg. of grain. For heating grain, a
thermometer and a clock represent essential equipment.
Installations of different design are used for thermic disinfection
of seeds: ErymI2R, VIM, the thermo-installation BG68 BO. 1. The
installation FrymI2R may serve as an example of the principle involved.
Designed by Ehodakovskii, it consists of a steam kettle installation with
pipes (locomobile, steam kettle, etc.) and tubs with containers for the
grain. (ill. 56).
The tubs filled with water are oleced in two rows and connected
through pipes with the steam Installation. The necessary temperature is
provided by steam passing through the pipes. The installation is regulated
by valves. The containers with screened bottoms, holding 50 kg. of grain,
are placed into tuba, 4 in each. Usually 6 tubs are used for preliminary
heating of grain in water at 28 to 32?. One tub is set apart for heating
water to 50 to 53? and another to cool water to 15 to 20?. The capacity
of the installation (8 tubs) is 3 c. per hour. The plan is described
separately.
Unfavorable conditions for the development of pests and diseases may
be produced by changing the degree of moisture. Drying grain to its normal
moisture (12 o/o) stops the development of storage weevils, storage mites,
fusarium, etc.
Beating seed stock proves effective for the control of pseudo-mildew
of onion. The tubers are treated for 8 hours at air temperature of 400.
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Zashclity rastenii ot vreditelei...
In treating greater amounts or large tubers, the exposure is lengthened
to 16 and even 24 hours. In heating, the onions should be stirred in
order to prevent steeping. This measure should be used in the fall and
spring; in the latter case, one and half or two months before planting.
rIOLOGICAL VETFOD (p. 1600-166)
The biological rethod based on inter-species control eonsists in
using natural enemies of pests to control the latter and is applied to
injurious insects and rodents.
Predatory and parasitic insects, insect-poisonous birds, mammals,
parasitic fungi and bacteria to control insects; predatory birds,
mammals and bacteria for rodents. Against injurious insects, predatory
and parasitic insects are primarily used. Several species of lady beetles
are used among predatory insects.
The lady beetle Vedalia was successfully applied to control cottony
cushion scales (Icerya purehasi Mask.] on citrus trees; while the lady
beetle Cryptolemue in used against "floury" scales.
In 1927 at Sukhumi, cottony cushion scales (Australian) mere
accidentally brought in nith imported tangerines; this peat severely
threatened the production of citrus plants.. To destroy it, it was
decided to import from Cairo,, Egypt, its natural enemy, the predatory
beetle Vedalia. This pest, imported in 1951, was propagated and set
loose among Sukhumi citrus orchards. It became quickly acclimatized
and in the following year destroyed the focus of the cottony cushion
scale.
In 1932 a lady beetle, Cryptolemus, vals brought into the USSR from
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Zashchity rastenii ot vreditelei...
of
Cairo, Egypt to aid in liquidating foci/"floury" scale, another serious
pest of citrus crops.
Predatory beetles Vedalia and Cryptolemus are selected for their
adaptability to definite species of insects, their rapid propagation and
capacity of their larvae and adults to feed on scales at all stages of
development.
Among parasitic insects (Aphelinus nali] is widely used to control
the woolly apple aphid, [Lriosoma lanigerula Eausm.1, a most dangerous
pest in apple orchards in the Crimea, Central Asia and the Caucasus.
The woolly apple aphid was brought into the USSR long ago, along with
seed stock, and not having any natural enemies, it rapidly propagated
and spread in southern regions, causing much damage to fruit crops.
The control of woolly apple aphids by ohemical methods is not as
effective, since the body of the pest is covered with a waxy film; other
methods had proved equally unsuccessful. In 1926 and 1930 [Aphelinus
mall] was introduced in the regions most populated by woolly apple aphids;
it propagated rapidly, got acclimatized and almost oompletely cleansed
vast areas of orchards of the pest. Thus the difficult problem of
controlling woolly apple aphids was finally solved.
The success of [Aphelinus mall) is attributed to its fast propagation
(9 generations), ability to propagate non-sexually and its high fertility
(female lays 120 eggs). The female lays one egg in the body of the
larvae and adult aphid.
This produces a larvae which feeds upon its host.
Pupating also takes place there and the adult Aphilenus exits from the
damaged aphid through an opening which it chews in the covering of its host.
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Zashohity rastenii ot vreditelei...
Local parasites should also be used in the control of injurious
insects, strenghthened by existing contradictions in biocoenosis.
Trichogramma and telenomus, the former to control cutworm moths,
sugar beet bworms, etc., the latter to control Eurygasters may serve
as examples. These parasites, minute insects, belong to species that
develop on hosts.
They are propagated in special laboratories, set up at collective
farms. To propagate trichogramma, the eggs of the grain moth,
[Citotroga cerealella (Oily)), are used, which are placed among grain.
Trichogramma is let out by the laboratory at the time the moths begin
laying their eggs, when local trichogramma have not concentrated
on plantings an yet. Trichogramma is distributed in quantities of 10
to 20 thousand per hectare.
For control with the aid of trichogramma, methods for propagating
this pest should be worked out under similar natural conditions;
particularly on large eggs of cutworm moths, which ensure better triohogramma
growth. When propagated in laboratories, trichogramma are not adapted
addition
to natural conditions; 'in7/ the small er s of grain. moths produce
specimens of law fertility.
Telenomus is propagated at laboratories in the winter on eggs of
Eurygasters gathered in the fall. This parasite is let out when Eemiptera
begin their egg laying under natural conditions.
With regard to those birds and mammals which are natural enemies
of pests and rodents, measures are taken to protect the farmer.
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? Briantsev, V. A.
Zashehity rastenii et vreditelei??.
Among useful birds feeding on pests are:: rooks, starlings, wrens;
on rodents, barn owls and awls.
Protection of useful birds is regulated by decrees prohibiting
their extermination. To attract useful birds, preparations are made
for their nesting and wintering. During the winter, when snow fall is
heavy or ice covers the earth, the bide are fed. They are also protected
from predatory birds and sparrows; the latter are objectionable because
they crowd birds out of their nests; sparrow nests are therefore destroyed,
while other rapacious birds, like hawks, are shot.
To attract predatory birds, feeding on rodents in places where the
latter accumulate in masses, bare with cross bars upon which the birds
like to rest are set up in fields.
Chickens are used for exterminating injurious insects, [Eurygaster];
[Tanymecus palliatus F.] and snout beetles.
Chickens like to eat insects. One chicken may in a day consume more
than 1000 Burygastert. Bird farms are specially entrusted with this
extermination task. The chickens are carried into the fields in special
coops, where they stay overnight. The latter are provided with necessary
feeding and drinking facilities. Additional feed of 40 to SO g. of grain
and mineral substances, chalk, charcoal are provided. The chickens are
watched and protected from predatory birds and animals. They are trans-
ported from one infested field to the other. Chemicals are not applied
on fields during that time. (Method recommended by T. D. Lysenko).
Among the rapacious mammals, the steppe pole cat (skunk) is noted
for its destruction of ground squirrels. In regions where the latter
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Zashaity rastenii at vreditelei..,
prevail, hunting for pole cats is forbidden.
It has been long known that bacteria cause epidemics among rodente
and insects, as a result of which pest3perish in masses. In 1926, in the
central zone of European IIVR, caterpillars of cutworm moths were infected
by bacteria; the result was that this peat failed to develop in succeeding
years. Experiments in tieing bacteria to control injurious pests proved
successful. The mortality of caterpillars of cabbage worms and moths after
spraying with the Vetal/nikov bacillus was high.
Bacterial methods in controlling rodents are used at present against
rats, mice, and field mice. nerezhkovski bacteria are used to exterminate
the two latter; Daninh bacteria are applied against rats. The best results
are obtained in controlling mice, while rat mortality never exceeds
60 WO. This is the result of the immunity rats acquired to the disease,
(typhus caused by bacteria).
The culture of bacteria is manufactured in special laboratories
prepared on bouillion, then preserved in hermetically closed jars. In
applying, flour is added to bacteria and the dough cut into pieces; these
are then thrown into rodent habitats. This produces typhus infection.
The epidemic is spread among rats when they feed on diseased and dead
specimens. Bacterial.methods require care and accuracy, both essential
to prevent injury to domestic animals. The work should therefore be
conducted only under the supervision of specialists in plant protection
or veterinaries.
Fungi diseases of insects are equally factors limiting the development
of pests. The disease, known as muscardine, aausea mass destruction among
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Zashchity rastenii ot vreditelei...
[Tanymecus palliatus ("sveklovichny dolgonosik"); this control has as
yet not been solved.
Of considerable interest is the biological method in phytopathologicaI
practice. It is based on the antagonistic relationship of different species
of micro-organisms and is regarded as potential for the control of soil
parasites.
Observations have established in this connection that micro-organisms-
antagonists are factors limiting root decay of various crops, since by
exuding toxic substances, they depress the development of parasitic fungi,
such as Fusarium, Belminthosporitzn, Rhizootonie., etc. A'couraulation of
antagonists in the soil depends upon various conditions. Factors that
accelerate the mineralizing of vegetative residue (fall plowing, intro-
duction of organic fertilizers) react favorably upon development and
accumulation of antagonists. There is, consequently, opportunity for
changing the composition of micro flora of the soil and making it more
healthful through agricultural methods.
CEMICAL YBTHOD (p. 166-160
Chemical methods play a considerable role in the control of insects
and diseases; they are based on the application of poisonous substances.
To these belong compounds which if introduced in small quantities
into the organism or placed on its surface interfere with physiological
processes and thus contribute to the destruction of the organism. Poiso-
nous substances are of organic and non-organic origin.
The degree of poison or its toxicity depends upon physical-chemical
properties of the substance, quantity, duration of notion, and conditions
under which it is applied.
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Briantsev, V. A.
Zashohity rastenii ot vreditelei...
Among physical-chemical properties the capacity of a substance to
penetrate into a cell is of primary significance. This is achieved
provided the substance is of liquid, gas or vapor form. Firm poisonous
substances prove toxic only if transformed into, liquids or gas by the
external environment or the organism itself,
Different species of pests or vegetative parasites show varied
reactions to pofison. The red spider is sensitive to sulphur preparations
and more resistant to such strong poison as hydrocyanic acid. The inducer
of mildew is destroyed by sulphur, while copper preparations react upon
it in a li-nited degree. The toxicity of the preparation depends also
upon the quantity of the poison or its strength of concentration.
With regard to several injurious organisms, duration of the action
of poison is important. Control of storage pests with diehloroethane
produces favorable results if exposed for 96 to 192 hours. Cereal
seeds treated with mordants should be kept no less than two hours under
formaline vapors.
Organisms in different stages of their development show different
resistance to poisons. Thus the dormant thick-walled stage of fungi
(chlamydospores, oospores, etc,) are more resistant to poisons than
mycelium and especially young spores. Different stages in insect
development and age of larvae react differently upon poisonous substances.
In controlling locusts, for instance, the dosage could be changed depending
upon the age of larvae. Poisonous substances are seldom used in pure form.
Usually diluents are added to the main poisonous substance. This is done
to change the physical properties of the poisor or to reduce expenditure
of the main compound.
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Zashcbity rastenii ot vreditelei...
Liquid compounds are usually prepared on water? Additional substances,
such as soap, molasses, glue, talcum, lime and chalk are frequently added
to powder-like preparations to increase the adhesion of poisons. Depending
upon the objects for which poisons are used, the latter are divided into
several groups, insecticides, fungicides and zoo/sides. Insectioides are
poisons used to control insects; zoocides control rodents; fungicides
control fungi diseases. Substances used in the control of mites and ticks
are called acaricides; of bacteria, bactericides.
At present, there are many chemicals which affect animals and vegetative
organisms alike, 1. el. are preparations of combined action,
Poisonous substances are applied in different ways: by spraying,
dusting, fumiLation, mordant treatment, and poisonous attractants.
Sprpying consists in applying poisons to the plant or to the surface
of the body of the pest itself, in the form of solutions, suspensions and
emulsions.
In dusting, substances are applied to the plant or the peat in powder-
like form. Dusting and spraying are applied in the control of vegetative
and animal org-nisms. Fumigation is a method of aprlying poisonous
substances in as or vapor form. This rethod is used to destroy injurious
organisms in closed quarters (greenhouses, nurseries, storage warehouses,
tents) and in the soiI.
Poisonous attractants are applications of poisons mixed with
attractant food items. They are widely used in the control of rodents,
locusts, cutworm moths and many other insects.
Hordant treatment is a method of disinfecting seed and seedling stock
with liquid and pulverized poisons; it is applied to control fungi and
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Zashclity restenii ot vreditelei...
bacterial diseases.
Poisons should possess the following main qualities: 1. adequate
toxicity with regard to injurious organisms; 2. non-injuriousness to
plants (should not cause burning or dropping of leaves, reduce germination
of seeds, etc.). In addition, other points are required of poisons;
their chemical oomposition should be constant, sirple to handle and prepare,
belong to non-deficit available substances, be non-inflammable and if
possible universal, 1. e. applicable for a multitude of pests and diseases,
and harmless to man and animals.
Insecticides and fungicides are applied in different concentrations.
Under ooncentration is understood the poison content in a definite
quantity of liquid or dry substance with which the poison is mixed.
Concentration is usually expressed in percentage, i. e., in the proportion
of the poison 100 units in volume or weight. In determining concentration,
it is necessary to estimate whether the substance represents a quantity
sufficient for poisoning the injurious organism and yet not react
unfavorably upon the plant.
The quantity of insecticide or fungicide per unit of area, volume
or specific object (tree, shrub) is called norm of expenditure. The
latter may vary, depending upon the poison, the method of its application,
the pest, the particular crop species, the stage and degree of plant
development.
Chemical methods of control use special machinery. ? Sprayers,
dusters, equipment for fumliAtion and mordant treatment of seeds,
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Zashchity rastenii ot vredite ei...
distributors of attractants. At present airplanes equipped with special
apparatus are used in dusting, spraying and spreading poisonous attractants.
over
Aviation offers the opportunity to apply destructive measures large
areas, in aloft periods and at r inimia expenditure in labor.
Quarantine of plants in USSR (p. 1C8-170) [Vet translated. For
translation of tLis section of Ed. 2, vitich is almost identical, see
Transl. 45),
TM: 24 July 1951
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urlantsev 3b Transl. 180
CHAPTER rv
CREEICAL SUBSTANCES IP CONTROLLING FESTS AND DISEASES. (p. 171-198)
INSECTICIDES (p. 171-187)
Insecticides are divided into three basic groups, depending upon their
action upon insects: 1. Intestinal insecticides; 2. contact insecticides;
3. fumigants.
Intestinal insecticides poison the insect by penetrating with food
Into intestines. These poisons are applied by spraying, dusting or in
attractants. The action of contact insecticides upon the insect takes
place through direct contact of the poison mith the body of the insect;
application is in spraying and dusting. Fumigants poison the insect
primarily through the respiratory system; evaporating liquids are chiefly
used as fumigants.
INTESTINAL INSECTICIDES are used in controlling chewing insects,
When feeding on poisoned plants or attractants, the poison enters intestines
first, then through their malls the hemolymph,and the organism thus gets
poisoned. These poisons do not affect insects possessing a piercing-
sucking apparatus which feed on plant juices, absorbing them from within
the latter without touching upon external tissues containing the poison.
Intestinal insecticides are used against these sucking insects only in
exceptional cases, such as to control butterflies of the cutworm moth by
the application of poisoned molasses.
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36 Trans'. 180
The action of liquid intestinal poisons depends considerably upon its
vetting and adhesive capacity. Wetting (moistening) determines the
regularity of the spread of the liquid along the surface; adhesion creates
conditions of more prolonged action of the poison upon the insect. In
some instances, when the plant has a waxy film, a higher degree of wetting
and adhesion in necessary. Adhesion is improved by the addition of soap.
Molasses, starch, line and other substances increase adhesion.
Liquid substances are usually spent in the proportion of 400-600 14.
In applying poriderlike,. poisons, the degree of pulverization is on
significance, i. e. the size of particles of the substance. Smallest
particles are better in dusting and are retained by the plant in a larger
degree.
Diluents are added to powderIiks substances: lime, chalk, talcum,
kaolin, sifted road dust; the diluent is taken in the proportion of
1:1 to 1:5 and even 1:10 (with regard to the poison). This proportion
is determined b: the construction of the dusting apparatus; the more
perfect the latter is, the less the required amount of diluent. The
expenditure in dusting amounts, as a rule, to 8 to 12 kg/h, which exceeds
the amount of poison in spraying 7 to 10 times.
Among intestinal poisons the preparati,ns arsenic, fluorine and barium
are applied.
ARSBUIC PREPAPAT/ONS. Among the principal arsenic preparations are
Paris green, "shchelkov green," sodium arsenite, arsenate and calcium
arsenate.
PAPIS GREEN ;'[Cu(C113C00)2 . 3 Cu(s2)23 represents a small-grained,
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Briantsev
37 Trans1. 180
crystallized powder of green color, insoluble in water, of high gravity.
In chemical composition this preparation represents a dual copper salt of
vinegar acid and meta-arsenate acids. According to standard, it should
contain 51.5 to 53 olo of trekhoaid of arsenate and 26 to 28.5 0/0 of
copper ronoxide. Good Paris green should not contain over 3 o/O of soluble
arsenate. The quality of Paris green is determined by its solubility in
aqua ammonia. Paris green of good quality is fully soluble and produces
a transparent blue liquid.
Paris green is primarily used in the form of water suspension with
added lime. The latter is taken to neutralize the available free
arsenate acid. The cOrrolAtioa of amounts of Paris green and lime in a
mixture is 1:2.
The technique of prepuration is as follows: for better wetting ,Paris
green is diluted with a small amount of water; in another vessel lime is
slaked and diluted with water to produce milky lime. Both liquids are
then poured into a barrel (wooden or clay) and the mixture diluted with
the necessary amount of rater. Men the substances settle the mixture
mustS. be carefully nixed bpfore filling the apparatus.
For orchard'sprayLg, Paris greon is used in the proportion of
0.1 to 0.12 clo, e. LO - 12 6 to 10 liters of water, with the addition
of 20-24 g. of lime. In controlling leDaminous pests, the proportion is
20 g. of Paris green (0.2 o/O) and 40 g. of lime to 10 liters of water.
Against caterpillars of beet webworms, solutions of 0.15 to 0.2 0/6 of
Paris green and a double amount of lime aro used.
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Briantsev.
58 Trans', 180
Paris green is applied in powderlike form for dusting plants. Lime
is taken in thie instance in double the quantity used in Paris green.
This method demands large quantities of poison and is seldom applied. Paris
green is not used as a poisonous attractant for the same reason.
SPCPELKOVSKAIA GREEN is a green powder, resembling Paris green in its
chemical composition nnd properties, but distinct by its smaller content
of triple-oxide of nrsenate (32 o/b) and copper oxide (no less than 17.5 o/O).
Yethods and instances of ap:Ilication are the same as with Paris green.
SODIUV APSENITE is released in the form of a paste of black color,
containing 91.5 (0) of triple-oxide of arsenate and 15 to 20 o/O
moisture. The preparation dissolves well in water; it burns plants and
its application is therefore limited. The technical preparation represents
a mixture of medium and acid salts of meta, ortho, pyro-arsenate acids
(Na3A803, Na2NAs03, MaAs03, eto.).
Sodium arsenite is primarily used in attractants against locusts,
cutworm moths, mole crickets, mioelike rodents and other pests. Various
attractant substances are drenched or wetted with the solution.
CALCIUM ARSENATE is a white or grey powder containing 70-72 o/o
(no less than 62 o/o) of triple-oxide of arsenate, no
more
of water-soluble arsenite; dissolves weakly in water. The
preparation calls for a mixture of medium and acid calcium
than 0.5 o/o
technical
salts of
meta, ortho-and pyro-arsenate acids [Ce(As02)2, Ca3(As03)2, CaRAs03,
Ca2(FAs03)2, etc.] It is a strong insect poison which causes burns
of plants. Widely used in controlling locusts on uncultivated lands
by aviation-dusting, in the proportion of 3.5 to 4 kg./h.
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Briantsev
39 Tranal. 180
Calcium arsenate may be used for poisonous attractants against
locusts), caterpillars of caradrine, cotton ballverm and other pests.
CALCIUM ARSEUATE is a white or grey powder insoluble in rater or
only lightly soluble. The standard preparation contains 38 to 42 0/0 of
5-acid of arsenate, no more than 0.6 0/6 of soluble arsenite. Technically,
it represents a mixture of medium and basic salts of arsenite acids.
(Ca3 (A 04)2' etc
Applied chiefly in dusting. This poison is harmless to plants and
burns are infrequent. May be used against many chewing insects. The
expenditure amounts to 8 to 12 kg/h. on field crops and 10-15 kg/h.
on fruit crops. For uniform distribution of the preparation, according
to territory, a triple or quadruple amount of diluents (chalk, talcum,
etc.) is frequently added. In spraying orchards and other crops against
chewing insects, the preparation is used in the proportion of 20-30 g
per 10 liters. To avoid burns resulting from an increased percentage
of soluble arsenic, a double amount of lime is added.
Calcium arsenate is applied in poisoned attractants against cotton.
ball worms and caradrines.
PREPARATIOUS OF FLUORIUE in controlling pests may frequently substitute
for arsenic preparations.
Fluorine preparations are obtained from residues derived from
processing super phosphates. The most prevalent among them are fluoring
and sodium fluoride. These preparations are poisonous but to a lessor
degree than arsenital or arsenous preparations.
SODIUM FLUORITE (ffaF) is a white or grey powder, dissolving poorly
in water (to 4.0 o/o). The preparation contains no less than 85 0/6
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Briantsev 40 Transl. 180
and of insoluble mixtures no more than 5 o/o. Used in spraying and poisoned
attractants. Since the solution causes burning of plants, some alkalines,
1. e. potash or soda, should be added to it to neutralize its effect. Lime
Is not used in this instance because it reduces toxicity. Spraying with
sodium fluoride controls caterpillars of the beet webworm, the beet weevil
and other pests. The concentration of sodium fluoride is changed,depending
upon the species of pest. For the beet webworm it is 0.8-0.7 o/o; for the
beet weevil 1 c/a. Sodium fluoride is also used in preparing poisonous
attractants, for caterpillars of the cutworm moth.
sputum FLUORIDE (Na2SIF6) is a white or grey powder, poorly soluble
in water, keeps in storing. The standard preparation contains no lees
than 93-95 o o of sodium fluoride, no more than 5 0/6 of sodium fluorine
and no more than 0.2-0.3 ob of free oxide. Burning of plants is
insignificant. This preparation Is applied in spraying, dusting and in
poisoned attractants. In order to dust the preparation more effectively,
'talcum, road dust, etc. are. added; lime is not used, as it reduces toxicity.
This preparation is applied in dusting plants against beet weevils,
beet mebworms, borers, bollworms, and various species of fleas. Depending
upon the development of plants, 8 to 12 kg/h of the preparation are used.
Diluents are added in amounts five times those of the poison. Spraying
of plants with sodium fluoride is applied against beet mebworms, beet
weevils, cabbage worms (Barathra brassicae L.]. For spraying, the
concentration is 0.5 to 0.8 o/o. Poisoned attractants of sodium fluoride
are applied against locusts, caterpillars of cutworm moths, cotton
bollworms, caradrina, etc.
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Brianteev
41 Trans).* 180
PREPARATIONS OF BARIUM. Barium chloride (BaC1 . 21!2 0) is a
crystallized substance of white color. Dilutes well in 'eater. The
standard preparation contains 94 to 98 0/6 of barium chloride; possesses
high hydroscopic properties; it is considered that the action of barium
chdoride used, as an intestinal poison on insects, consists in depriving
tissues of water which leads to paralysis of the organism. The intro.
duction into the intestines of moist food reduces the toxicity of barium
chloride. This accounts for the high efficacy of the preparation in dry
weather. Barium chloride also posnesses contadt action, particularly
noticeable on insects of tender bodies. Applied to control beet
weevils, caterpillars of beet webworms, borers, apple moths and other
pests. 4 to S OA solution of the solution is usually applied. In
controlling apple moths, pierid butterflies, etc., a solution of 1.5 to
3 0/0 is used. For better adhesion, mealy paste and molasses are added
in the amount of 1 oilo.
In controlling sugar beet pests in aviation-spraying, a concentrated
solution lzn used.
CONTACT INSECTICIDES act at direct contact with insects. These
poisons cause the burning of skin surfaces and the plugging of respiratory
organs, or they penetrate through the skin and respiratory system into the
organism.
Contact poisons may be applied against all insects at different stages
of their developnent by spraying or dusting. These poisons are used most
frequently on sucking insects, against which intestinal poisons are
ineffective.
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Briantsev 42 Trans'. 180
To improve the physical properties of these preparations, (wetting
and adhesion), various substances are added.
The following belong to the group of contact insecticides: soap,
mineral oils, organic synthetic preparations, vegetative poisons. alkali,
carbonates, sulphur preparations, etc.
SOAPS applied in the control of pests represent salts of fat acids
(hard domestic soap and liquid green soap). The insecticide action of soap
consists chiefly in clogging the respiratory organs and penetration of the
solution into the organiam through the trachea. Green soap quickly dissolves
in water; hard soap requires more time; soaps are used in the form of
2 to 4 c/o water solutions. Lately soaps are used chiefly as additional
supplementary substances to improve the physical properties of liq4d
solutions in concentrations of 0.3 to 0.6 0/0.
SOAPY ALKALI are residues of the soap industry and have a content of
5 to 6 o/6 of total alkalinity. Applied in controlling the red spider in
the early spring. Reeds adjoin:ng cotton fields and mulberry trees infested
by the spider are sprayed for this purpose. A solution of 0.4 q/6 is
applied in spraying. Soapy alkali is first diluted in a small amount of
warm water, carefully mixed and filtered; the filtrate is then diluted
to the required concentration (0.4 o/o).
riNERAL OILS represent the product of distilled naphtha, coal and tar
shales. They are derived primarily from residue of mazut (fuel oil).
At first light oils are distilled, then medium heavy oils (spindle oils)
and finally, heavy oils (machine oils). Limited and unlimited hydrocarbons
enter into the composition of mineral oils. The former are harmless to
plants; the latter, however, exert a harmful influence, though they are
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Briantsev
43 Transl. 180
also more toxic in the treatment of insects. In treatments with sulfuric
aci'd, the amount of unlimited hydrocarbons may be reduced.
The harmful action of oils upon plants is determined by the degree
of their viscosity. Viscous oils are of greater danger to plants than
oils of lesser viscosity. Yineral oils in their pure state may be applied
in aviation-spraying when no more than 100 l/h is expended. oils'r .$
in surface sprayings!re injurious to plants since they may cause burns.
Yineral oils aro therefore usually used in preparing mineral-oil
emulsions applied in controlling orchard and storage pests.
PIETRAL-OIL EVULSIONS are prepared from mineral oils, emulsifiers and
water and represent a liquid mixture in which oil reduced to minute drops
covered by emulsifier is uniformly distributed in water.
In preparing emulsions various mineral oils are used which, from the
point of view of the periods of their application, are divided into summer
and winter. Suamer oils are characterized by the content in them of a
smaller amount of unlimited carbohydrates and lower viscosity and may be
applied in the spring and summer. Winter oils are distinguished by the
larger content of unlimited carbohydrates and higher viscosity, and are
applied when trees are in their dormant stage, 1. e. in the fall following
leaf fall, and in the winter in the South.
Vaseline, transformer and diesel fuel belong to light oils; green,
machine, spindle and solar Oils to winter oils.
Soaps, clay and other spbstanceu may serve as emulsifiers. In this
connection a distinction is made betmeen soap-oils and oil-clayey emulsions.
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giantsev 44 Transl. 180
In preparing soapy oil..e Adsions, liquid soap or soapy naphtha
(obtained from naphtha and naphtha products) (10 kg.) is dissolved in
liana water and the solution poured into the sprayer to which is added 70 g.
of mineral oil. In multiple use a concentration of soapy-oil emulsions is
formed in the sprayer. The emulsion is prepared on soft (river or rain)
water; hard (well) water destroys the emulsion. Concentrates of emulsion
are prepared at industrial plants. For a working emulsion the concentrate
is diluted with water to 4 to 10 0/0 of emulsion (in oil). The concentrate
keeps long, while the working emulsion must be used the same day. In
preparing oil-clayey emulsions the clay is diluted with water to a consistency
of sour cream and is carefully mixed with oil which is introduced in small
amounts.
In preparing the concentrate, 50 o/o of oil, 25 o/o of clay and 25 o/o
of water are used,
The working emulsion is obtained by diluting the concentrate with water
to produce 1 to 10 o/o of emulsion. in filling the apparatus, the mixture
is strained to remove rootlets, stones, etc. Any water may be used for on-
clayey emulsions, including hard -water.
The shortcoming of these emulsions consists in their poor keeping
quality, which requires the daily preparation of doses. For winter
sprayings 4 to 10 o/o emulsions are used, for summer sprayings 1 0/o.
Compared to apple trees, stone fruits crops are very sensitive to spraying
with mineral oil emulsions.
These are used in the fall and winter in controlling scale insects,
destroying wintering eggs of aphids, suckers, ring silkworms, caterpillars
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Briantsev 45 Transl. 180
of the apple moth, and in the summer in destroying larvae of the first
generation of San Jose scales, eggs of apple moths, etc.
CPEOLIN is the product of distilled coal tar and peat. It is a
dark liquid and after dissolving in water forms an emulsion of milky
color* Applied as an emulsion to control cabbage and onion flies,
ALKALI. Caustic soda and lime are used to control pests,
CAUSTIC SODA (NOE) is a hard, white substance; soluble in water;
used in moist disinfestation of grain storing places by spraying. A
solution of 10-15 0/0 is used for the purpose.
Caustic soda acts upon mealy :rates causing burns of their bodies.
The substance has little effect upon storage mites and other beetles who
have hard bodies.
LIME (CaO, unslaked lime, Ca(OE)2 - slaked lime) is applied in pest
control in fresh slaked state and in the form of lactic lime. Slaking of
lime is done prior to use; long slaked lime is not applied since it
loses its properties in the air. Lime-"pushonka" is applied to control field
slugs by dusting in the proportion of 200 k Lime destroys slugs
when coming in contact with them . In addition, this form of lime is
used to control storage pests by painting warehouse flgoelre.
"Milky" lime is applied in disinfecting storage warehouses and also
painting fruit trees. To prepare this liquid, 2 to 4 kg. of unslaked
lime is used to 10 liters of water.
Lime is also added to some compounds (Paris green, for instance)
to neutralize free oxides, and as dry diluents in powderlike poisons,
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Briantsev 46 Trans'. 130
Among carbonates, chemically pure chalk is applied to control storage
mites aad weevils. Grain is covered with powder for this purpose in the
proportion of 3 kg. or substance per ton of grain. Only seed stock may be
treated with chalk; it is considered that chalk reacts upon mites by reducing
grain moisture.
SULPITT PREPARATIOKS are: ground sulphur, sulfuric concentrate,
lime-sulfur solutiol, (ISP), solbar.
GROPPD SULPWR is a yellow powder containing no less than 95 oio of
pure sulphur. It is used against the red spider on cotton ?lents and on
vegetable and melon crops. Sulphur is usually taken in a mixture with
diluents (limo-pushonka, tree ashes, forest dust) in the proportion of
1:1 and 1:2; expenditure of mixture is 30 to 90 kg./he
The action of sulphur upon the spider consists probably in that
tindOnastrong sun it penetrates in the form of vapors into respiratory
tubes where it forms poisonous substances in oxidatLon.
SFLPHUR CONCENTRATE of the first variety is a powder containing 70
75 o/C of pure sulphur and 30 to 25 o/o of admixtures of lime or clay.
It is applied in casew when ground sulphur is used.
Sulphur concentrate of the latter variety contains 20 - 40 o/o of
pure sulphur; the rest are admixtures. It is applied without diluents
and used chiefly in preparing Iso.
LIRE-SULPHUR SWPTIOV (ISO). Into its composition enter primarily
semi-sulplides of calcium (CaS.S3,CaS.S4, etc.) This is a liquid of dark
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47 Trans'. 180
red color, Prepared industrially or domestically of sulphur concentrate of
the second variety or sulphur and unsleked lime. The compounds are taken in
the proportion of 2 parte of sulphur or the corresponding amount of sulphur
concentrate, one part of lime and 17 parts of water. During slaking, sulphur
is gradually added to the heated mass. To this mixture is added hot water
which is boiled for 70 minutes. Water is continuously added as the mixture
boils; this is discontinued 15 minutes before the end of boiling. The
decoction is usually at 15 - 16?, according to Boehme. For spray!ng,
this solution is diluted with water to 0.5?, according to Doehme, and is
applied chiefly to control red spider on cotton plants.
SITUP (PaS plus S) is a pouderlike preparation of dark grey color, a
mechanical mixture of technical barium sulphur and ground sulphur. It does
not dissolve in water completely. The liquid solution is of yellow, orange,
or red color. Applied to control the red spider.
The solution is prepared by using 50 to 60 g. of salter to 10 liters
of water.
WIRTATIVK INSECTICIDES are Obtained from plants containing poisonous
substances, alkaloids and complex ether. They are toxic to insects and do
not injure plants. Considering that some vegetative insecticides are
available in raw resources An the USSR and others may be produced industrially,
this group of poisons represents one of the most dependable in the control
of pests.
By penetrating through the respiratory system and outer bodies into the
organism, vegetative poisons cause the paralysis of motive centers.
Among vegetative poisons, anabasine-sulfate, nicotine-sulfate and
pyretrum are significant.
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Brian tarry 48 Transl. 180
ANABASIIM6ST1LFATE r(c10 4N2)2. H2SO4] represents a dark brown liquid
which dissolves completely in water. The acting substance in anabasine is
alkaloid contained in Anabasis aphylla L. ("ozhovnik bezlistny"). The
standard preparation should contain no less than 30 o/O of basic anabasine.
It is used in solutions and dusts. Anabasine-sulfate in solution form is
u2plied to destroy aphids, larvae of suckers and other insects. The usual
concentration is 0.1e; GA (of the preparation) with added 0.4 ?A of soap.
As a rule, solutions of anabasine-sulfate eould be prepared immediately
prior to their use, since they quickly lose their toxic properties.
Anabadust represents a dustlfke preparation saturated with various
powderlike substances (lime, chalk, etc.).
Widely used in dusting against aphids and fleas on different crops
(flax, hemp, vegetable crops).
Anabadust (5 a/c) Is used against aphids; 5-8 o/ro of anabadust,
1. e. F-8 parts of anabadust-sulphate and 95-92 oilo of powder are used
against fleas.
FICOTINE*S"LPATE 1(0101114N2)2.112SO43 is a vegetative poison obtained
from makhorka and tobacco. This liquid is dark brown, soluble in water.
The active part in the preparation is alkaloid nicotine.
Applied in liquid solutions and dusts. The technique in preparing the
solutions and instances for their application is the some as for f
anabadust-sulfate. In spraying, the usual concentration is 0.1 o/o
(of the preparation) with 0.4 o/o of soap added.
RESIDUES OF TOBACCO rmrsTRY also find application in pest control.
They are used in the form of tobacco extracts and tobacco dust. Tobacco
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49 Trans'. 180
extract is obtained by steeping makhorka dust, stems and other residue
in water for 2 to 3 days. SOO g. of tobacco residue is used for 10 liters
of muter; the filtered extract Is applied against aphids; for better wetting,
soap is added in the proportion of 40 h. to 10 liters of the compound.
Tobacco dust is used for fumigating greenhouses against aphids, thrips and
mites; in orchards against apple suckers.
PYRETRUM is a vegetative poison, a grey powder prepared from crushed
flowers of some species of camomile. Complex ethers, Pyretrin I (C23003)
and Pyretrin II (C 11 0 )..represent the poisonous substances of this
22 30 5
preparation. Pyretrum is most frequently prepared in the form of extracts.
Prior to their use the extracts are diluted with water, the content of
Pyretrin I is made to reach 0.02 o/o. Pyretrum may be used in powder form.
Both Pyretrin I and /I are unstable compounds. They decompose under high
temperatures, moisture and light. Pyretrum, especially in powder form,
should therefore be stored in closed containers in dry places. It does
not burn plants and is not poisonous to men and livestock.
This preparation is applied against aphids, thrips, fleas and larvae
of tender bodies.
SYNTHETIC ORGANIC PRLPALATIONS. To this group belong DDT. Bexachloran
and Tiophos.
? PREPARATION DDT (Dichlordiphenyltrychlorethan); [C12(C6114)2 CHCC1,3], is
a powder- or waxlike substance, fatty on touch, of grey color, light
specific odor, insoluble in water; dissolves in organic diluente,Le.
bensol, acetone, kerosine, vegetative and mineral oils; the preparation is
distinguished by light volatility and great resistance to temperature, light
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Briantsev 50 Trans'. 180
and moisture. DDT is toxic with regard to :any chewing and sucking insect
and possesses contact ani intestinal action. Applied chiefly in dusts in
mineral-oil emulsions. 5 0/0 dust (mixture of 5 0/0 of technical DDT with
95 oio of talcum or kaoline) in the proportion of 15 - 20 kg./h. is
effectively used to control many agricultural pests. Mineral oil emulsion
(1 oio) with DDT' (0.06 oio), prepared on emulsifiers; fat clay is used to
control pests of fruit crops. Lately, concentrated mineral oil emulsions
with DDT have been produced industrially in the form of thick liquids
(20 oio of technical DDT, 40 clo of spindle oil, 40 oio of water and emulsifier),
which prior to use are diluted with water (1:100). To avoid burning of fruit
leaves, spraying should be done in the early morning or after 3 p.m. and not
during the hot hours of the day.
The preparation DDT may be used also in the form of water suspensions
for spraying. In this case 5 o/o dust (on kaoline) is mixed with water
(2 kg. of dust to 100 liters of water). The efficacy from spraying with
water suspensions is lower than from dusting with DDT. DDT is poisonous
to bees; plants should therefore not be treated with the substance before
blooming and during the blooming period.
In dusting orchards with DDT, where beehives are located, it is
essential to observe precautionary measures. Prior to dusting, the entire
blooming grass vegetation in orchards should be mowed and removed. Dusting
should be done in the early morning. During dusting, the beehives should
be closed ter 3 - 4 hours and prior to their opening, the landing platforms
darefully washed. To prevent caterpillars of mulberry trees (silkworms)
frun getting destroyed, dusting with DDT from airplanes is prohibited
whenever plantings closely adjoin silkworm trees.
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Bilantsev
51 Transl. 180
HEIACHLOPAN or aRTSG (C6116 16) is a grey powder of sharp, unpleasant
odor, resembling mold; does not dissolve in water but in organic diluents.
Relatively good resistance to temperature and light; decomposes in alkali.
The substance is highly toxic, acts as contact and intestinal poison upon
many chewing and sucking insects. Applied as 12 0/0 dust at the rate of
10-15 kg./h. Good results are obtained from its application in the control
of locusts, pests in fruit greenhouses an2 tree shelter belts. Effective
also in the control of wireworms and larvae of beetles (cockchafers).
Rexachloran has limited application since it loaves an unpleasant
odor on treated fruit and other parts of plants. On vegetables this
preparation is used to control fleas and cabbage butterflies in the early-
stages of vegetable development, while on onions it cannot be used at all.
It is not permissable to introduce the preparation into the soil directly
under potatoes, root and melon crops to control soil pests. Eor is it
applied in orchards and berry plantings. The action upon man and animals
has not been sufficiently studied. Ilexachloran is poisonous to bees, and
plants may therefore not be treated with it before and during blooming.
In working with hexachloran and DDT, as with other poisons, precautionary
measures should be observed.
THIOPHOS (diethylnitrophynylparatiophosphate). Pcmderlike substance
of light grey color. Applied in the form of 1 oio dust prepared on talcum.
Effective against many chewing and sucking insects, including the harmful
Eurygaster. Poisonous to man and warm blooded animals.
FVFIGAUTS, to these belong substances vetch act upon insects In vapor-
like or gaslike form. Penetrate primarily into the respiratory system;
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Briantsev
52 Trans'. 180
fumigants destroy the trachea, or by passing through the membrane into the
blakod (hemolymph) destroy the organism.
All presently applied fumigants are strong poisons injurious to man
and domestic animals. They are chiefly used to control storage pests,
to
ground squirrels, soil pests, and/disinfect seed stock.
Among fumigants, chloropicrin, carbon bisulfide, sulphur anhydride,
dichlorethane, hydrocyanic acid, naphthalin and paradichlorobenzine are of
greatest significance.
CHLOROPICRIN (CC13E0 ) is an oily, yellow liquid which evaporates in
the air, of strong odor, causing tearing of eyes. Standard chloropicrin
should contain no less than 96 o/6 of this compound and no more than 0.01 o/o
of free oxides. Its vapors are 5.67 times as heavy as air. Applied at
temperatures no lower than 12? and relative humidity no higher than 70 0/6,
Used to control rarehousepests.
To control ground squirrels, wads of cotton saturated with chloropicrin
are placed into their holes. The rads should be of a size absorbing 3 g.
of chloropicrin, a dose adequate to kill rodents.
Chloropicrin is also applied to treat soil against soil pests and
inducers of diseases. For the destruction of wirescrn-s, chloropicrin
is introduced into the soil, with special plows, in the proportion of 0.5
to one t./h., while against larvae of nmarble" beetles Polyphylla fullo L.
it is introduced
("mramormykhrushch")/with an injector, in the proportion of 24 g. to 1 m2.
Chloropicrin is one of the strongest poisons for man and domestic
the
animals and should be handled under/strictest observation of precautionary
measures and tpDbial instrubtions-?'. - ?
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CARON BISULFIDE (CS2), a liquid of strong odor, evaporates in the air.
Standard preparation contains 92-98.5 o/o of pure carbon bisulfide. Its
vapors are 2.64 times as heavy as air. Liquid carbon bisulfide and its vapors
are quickly inflamed when close to sparks of fire and cause combustion
(explosions), a circumstance which calls for special vigilance. It is
forbidden to open barrels by mechanical means, from sprayers, make fires
to
or/smoke at distances of 30-40 m. from the fumigated place.
planting
Carbon bisulfide may be applied to disinfest stock and seeds
(in special quarters) since this does not reduce germination, and may also
be used to fumigate the soil to destroy harmful pests (phylloxera, etc.).
The chemical is not used to control storage pests in grain warehouses
because of fire hazards.
One of the most poisonous substances to man and domestic animals;
very dangerous in handling.
STTLPITII GAB (802) is (1. colorless, stiflinggas of strong odor;
twice as heavy as air. Obtained by burning lump sulphur and applied
disinfectin - quarters; not used for treating grain, since it spoils
its taste and quality and reduces germination of seed stock.
Prior to fumigation, all. metal articles should be removed from
storage bins to prevent harmful effects by gas.
Burning of sulphur is done on iron pans above coal, placed on bricks
covered with sand. Sulphur is used in the proportion of 40 - 80 g. per
1 m3. Duration of fumigation is 36 - 48 hours. Since the gas is
hazardous to man and domestic animals, precautionary measures are necessary.
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Briantsev 54 Transl. 180
DICLORETHAN (CH2CL CH2CL) or ohlor ethyline is a colorless liquid;
its vapors are three times as heavy tas air. Used in the control of pests
in the proportion of 350 - 500 g. per 1m3 of room space; duration 96 to
192 hours. The chemical does not affect seed quality of grain and easily
evaporates. It is also used in fumigating the soil to control phylloxera.
In using dichlorethan anti-inflammatory measures should be observed since
its vapors are easily inflammable.
HYDROCYANIC ACID (HCNN) is a cola vise liquid, easily evaporating.
Obtained from cyanides of natrium and calcium under the action of sulphuric
acid. Hydrocyanic acid is strongly poisonous to pests, but does not injure
plants. Received wide application in quarantine practice in disinfecting
seeds and .planting stock. Disinfestation of grain and its products by this
olzemical is prohibited in the USSR. Fumigation is usually done in
hermetically closed quarters and vacuum apparatus.
Hydrocyanic poison is strongly poisonous to man and domestic animals
and requires considerable precaution in its use.
CYANIC "PLAV" represents a dustlike or grainy preparation of dark
grey color and consists of a mixture of cyanide and chloric salts of
natrium and calcium. In the open air, under the influence of moisture
(above 40 oio), it cexudes hydrocyanic acid. This preparation is used to
poison holes of ground squirrels, disinfest empty warehouses and fumigate
tents of citrus fruits.
Because of the strongly poisonous nature of the chemical, work with
this comound requires experience.
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55 Trans'. 180
PARADICH EBENZOL (PM), a orystallic, white powder; evaporates slowly,
forming heavy vapors. Applied to destroy pests dwelling in the soil
(larvae, of marble beetles).
NAPHTHALIN (010Ht) has the appearance of white, shiny, rose or yellow
scales of characteristic odor. Used exclusively in the control of storage
mites and weevil?.
Naphthaline, in this instance, is used in the proportion of 3000 g.
per 1 e. of seeds and is carefully mixed with the latter. It may be used
in small bags which aro placed among grain, at distances of 0.25 to 0.5 m?
. in the proportion of 0.20 - 0.30 kg. per ton of grains Germination of
seeds at a moisture no higher than 14 - 15 o/O is not affected by naph-
thalin. May be used to control the cabbage fly; 3 g. of naphthalin and
3 g. of sand are used per plant; the chemical frightens the cabbage fly
away from plants and partly kills their eggs and young larvae.
WOMBS (p. 187-188)
The insecticides sodium araenite and calcium arsenite may be used as
zoocides. Among the specific zoocides are barium carbonate, zinc phosphide,
cryoide, (cryolite), etc.
HOIPY CAPtiONATE (Baa)) is a white powder, poorly soluble in water,
3
applied to control rodents in warehouses; used in the preparation of
attractants.
ZINC PHOSPHIDE (203P2), a dark grey powder applied to control rodents
by attractants. This preparatior is poisonous to man and domestic animals;
precaution has to be ? exersized in its use.
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sa Trans'. 180
PlIGICIDES (p. 188-197)
are chemical substances used in the control of fungi and bacterial diseases.
Application of fungicides is based upon their poisonous action on -
fungi and bacteria.
In the majority of cases, use of fungicides is of prophylactic or
preventive significance. The prophylactic action of fungicides consists in
killing bacteria on plants, seeds, or spores of fungi, or more frequently
on the nucleus (?)("rostok") formed in spore germination whenever the
substance touches their surfaces, and thus protects the plantsfrom
infection. Fungicides should therefore be applied prior to infestation.
Treatment of an infested plant with chemicals is difficult and in some
instances practically impossible. This is because partsitic bacteria and
fungi develop within the tissue and are therefore Inaccessible to the
action of poisons applied to the plant surface.
Chemical control against plant diseases is applied during vegetation
and the dormancy periods. Nethods in applying fungicides vary: spraying,
dusting, fumigation and mordant treatment. In chemical composition all
fungiciees belong to the following groups: 1. copper preparations; 2. sulphur
preparations; mercury preparations; arsenate preparations and S. mixed group.
COPPER PEEPARATTOM; among the most widely used ate Bordeaux mixture
copper
and the preparation AB. New preparations, i. e./naphthenate and copper
chloroxide have been used in practice in recent years.
BORDEAUX "IXTUPE is a colorless liquid of blue color obtained from
a mixture of copper sulfate (CuC04) with lime milk [Ca(00,]. Copper
sulfate and unslaked lire are usually applied in the proportion of 1 IDA
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57 Transl. 180
i. e. 100 g. of every substance to 10 liters of welter. Copper sulfate is
dissolved at first in a small quantity of hot water, the solution then
diluted with water to one half of the desired amount. In another vessel
line is slaked and then also mixed with one half of water in the desired
quantity. The solution of copper sulfate and lime milk are poured together
when cold. ?his produces a suspension of blue color which is ready for use.
Properly prepared Bordeaux mixture has a neutral or weak alkaline
reaction. Its reaction is tested by litmue paper or an iron knife may be
used for this purpose. Men the reaction is acid, the blue litmus paper
becomes red or the iron knife gets covered by a copper film.
Bordeaux mixture should be prepared immediately prior to its use,
since during prolonged keeping (1-1/2 to 2 days) copper settles in the
form of crystals an the liquid adheres poorly, nor does it produce any
effect.
Bordeaux liquid is successfully applied in controlling many fungi
diseases. The best results are obtained with peronospore fungi, i. e.
phytophthora of potatoes, and imperfect fungi (inducers of scab, fruit rot
of apples, etc.); it does not produce positive results in controlling mildew,
Properly prepared Bordeaux mixture does not cause plants to burn. If the
preparation is, however, used with an acid or strongly alkaline reaction,
round brown spots form on the foliage and a brown net of corklike tissue
on fruits.
1 o/o Bordeaux mixture is used most frequently. In early spring,
spraying of fruit trees, the so-called "blue" spraying is applied, during which
increased concentrations of Bordeaux mixture (2 - 4 o/o) are used. In
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56 Transl. 180
aviation spraying of vineyards, even 5 o/o Bordeaux mixtures may be used.
The expenditure of Bordeaux mixture per one heotare of potatoes is 400 -
600 liters; for vineyards 2000 liters; per one fruit tree (adult) to 10
liters.
PREPARATION AB., proposed by the Soviet scientist, A. Borchardt,
is a basic sulphur oxide salt of copper with a mixture of basic carbon
oxides of copper salts.
The preparation is produced industrially. It is a blue-green or
blue-grey powder, containing 15 - 16 0/0 of copper; does not dissolve in
muter; the preparation must be of thin grind and not contain over 3 o/o
of moisture. Used primarily in dry treatment of wheat and rye seeds against
hard and stem smut. Non-vernalized and vernalized seeds are treated.
The preparation is used in a dosage of 2 kg./ton. It may be used in
treating seeds of corn from covered smut and to protect seeds from molding in
the soil, which may occur during long, cold springs. The preparation is
used in the proportion of 1.5 kg./ton. Treatment may be given at any time,
even 5 to 6 months before planting. This fungicide Is also used in
dusting plants to control phytophthora of potatoes, mildew of grapes;
cereospora of sugar beets. The expenditure per one hectare amounts
to 10 to 30 kg. of the preparation, depending upon the crop.
COPPER NAPBTURNATE is a hard substance of dark green color. Prepared
by pouring 10 ofo solution of copper bisulfate into a boiling 10 o/O solution
of soap naphtha. The resulting naphthenate of copper flows to the surface
of the liquid; the chemical does not dissolve in water but in mineral oils.
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Briantsev F9 Transl. 180
It is applied in the form of clayey mineral oil emulsions for the
production of which copper naphthenate and mineral oil are taken in the propor-
tion of 1:10, 1. e. one part of copper naphthenate to 10 parts of oil. For
summer spraying of plants, copper naphthenate is used in dosages of 0.1 to
the
0.3 o/o, while in the late fall and winter seasons,/dosage is 0.6 cios
This preparation proved highly efficient in controlling apple scab,
grey rot of stone-fruit crops, and other diseases.
Because of the solubility of the chemical in oils, it penetrates
deeply into the wood, whinh makes it preferable to other copper preparations.
COPPER CHLORIC onnr, is basically a .7.1ixture of the following compound:
3Cu(011)2. CuC12. 120. This dustlike powder, ranging in color from 'light
green to turquoise blue, does not dissolve in water. The preparation will
dissolve in a liquid solution of ammonia, producing a liquid of deep blue,
blue or light green color. The chemical is a new effective preparation
and may be applied to control diseases of various crops in place of
Bordeaux mixture.
SITLPHITR PFXPARPTIONS. To this group belong sulphur, lime-sulphur
decoction (IC0), sulphuric concentrates, solbar, sulahurie-lim mixture,
sulphur oxide and a paste of sulphuric gas (colloid sulphur).
TLPEUR finds wide application in controlling mildew of various crops
by ducting. It is used for tile purpose in grey color or ground sulphur.
The best effect is obtained in controlling oodium of grapes. Good results
are obtained in the control of rust.
The action of sulphur upon fungi in dusting is connected with high
temperature (300 and above). According to many researchers, vapors of
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Briantsev 60 Trans'. 160
sulphur form, which determine toxic properties. It is believed that the
harmful action upon fungi is the result of hydrogen sulfide forming
because of the repreoititation of st!lphur in the presence of green
parts of plants or microorganisms.
Despite its clearly pronounced fungicide properties, sulphur may
not always be used due to its negative reaction upon several crops. The
foliage of gooseberry plants falls off after dusting with sulphur;
on melon crops sulphur causes burns; lump sulphur is used in the disinfestation
of quarters (greenhouses, storage warehouses) by burning it; the
3
norms of expenditure are SO to 60 e./m per unit.
SULPITTIR CORCE/ITRATE (applied in ductinif grapes against oodium).
The lime-sulphur deooction is applied chiefly in controlling many parasitic
fungi preserved on branches of fruit trees or shrubs during the winter.
In late fall, winter and early spring, ISO is sprayed in concentrations
of 3 - 5 e/o, according to Boehme. During the summer ISO is used to
control mildew, scab, rust of apples and pears (10 according to Beehme),
anthracnose of Cucurbitaceae (0.5).
STT2RUR-4.IVE MUTT:RE is prepared from sulphur and lime. The mixture
of these substances is prepared, as in the case of ISO, in slaking of
lime but without subsequent boiling. Unslaked lime and sulphur are
taken in equal quantities,--1.5 kg. 100 liters of water. Of ueak-
firing quality, this preparation may be used in summer sprayings to
control mildew on various cultivated plants.
SOLBAR is applied in the control of mildew of cucumbers and brown
spot of tomatoes in protected ground. Cucumbers are sprayed with 1 0/6
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Briantsev 61 Tiling. 180
solution of solbar, tomatoes with 1.5 - 2 o/o solution. Solbar may be
used to control mildew of hops and other crops.
SULFURIC ACID (112SO4) finds application in the control of gummosis
of cotton and lodging of seedlings of forest genera in nurseries. Cotton
seeds are treated with technical sulfuric acid (oxide) of a gravity of
1.80 - 1.84. Its expenditure is 2 - 2.3 kg. per 10 kg. of seeds of
pilous varieties, or 1.5 to 2 kg. per 10 kg. or non-pilous varieties.
Following treatment, seeds should be washed In water. Forvaordant treat-
ment of the soil in nurseries, technical sulfuric acid is used in the
proportion of 30 - 60 ml , diluted in 6 - 12 liters of water, per 1m2
of plot.
PASTE OF GAS Gr'LPHUL, the so-called colloid sulphur. This preparation
presents a substitute product in the chemical industry and is obtained in
purifying koks or generator gas from hydrogen sulfide. The paste is applied
to control mildew of Cuourbitae, oaks, etc., by spraying. It dissolves
in water. In spraying oaks, 0.25 to 0.50 o/O suspension is used; for
cucumbers 2 o/?.
MERCURY PREPARATIONS. The preparations NI= -1, NIUIF -2 (Granosan).
and the bacterial:side of Zbarsky are used to control disease.
WERCURIC CHLORIDE (11gC12) are white soluble crystals; this is a poison
of the first order, of high toxicity with regard to fungi and particularly
bacteria. It is applied primarily in treating seeds of vegetable crops,
cabbage, cucumbers, tomatoes. The usual concentration of the solution is
0.1 0/6, 1. e. one part of mercuric chloride to 1000 liters of water.
This solution is applied to all vegetable crops, except tomatoes, which
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require a weaker solution 0.03 o/o, (i.e. one part of the chemical to 3000
parts of water). Secds are kept In the solution for 5 to 15 minutes,
(depending upon the crop), after which a careful cleansing in water is
necessary; otherwise, germination is reduced.
Yercuric chloride produces positive results in treating potato tubers
and controlling various species of scab. The strong toxicity of the
chemieal limits its application, however; it is used upon special instructions.
hIUIF -1 gC21158g)3PO4) is a mercuric organic preparation
(ethylmerourphosphate). The liquid is of raspberry color; the strength of
the solution frequently 1.3 o/o. It is used asadisinfectant of:
Seeds of vegetable crops from various uisetses and seeds of wheat and
barley a pins t
hard smut, fusarium and helminthosporiose. To disinfect
seed, a solution in the concentration of one part of 1.3 0/6 of the
preparation to 400 parts of water is used; seeds of wheat are moistened
with the solution and left to steep for 15 minutes, then dried.
To treat barley seeds, these are kept in the solution for 10 minutes,
then dried. Ten to 19 liters of the solution are used for one centner of
grain seeds.
FITTIF -2 (Granosan); into the composition of this preparation enter
ethylmercurichloride (C2E51101) of a concentration 2 - 3 o/o. The rest is
talcum. This chemical may be used in dry treatment of seeds of flax, wheat,
oil or other crops to control various diseases.
BACTERICIDE OF ZrARSKII is a mercuric-organic preparation of which the
active element is phenilmercurinitrate. It is a tilts powder; applied in
treating seeds of vegetable crops. To prepare the solution, 1.2 g. of the
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preparation to 10 liters of vater are taken. Seeds are kept in the
solution for 10 - 15 minutes; 2 to 3 batches of seeds may be treated in the
same solution. In treating seeds of carrots (from black rot), prior to
storing, the same solution is used as in treating ordinary seeds; root
crops are kept in it for 30 ninutes.
All mercuric preparations are poisonous and precautionary measures
have to be strictly observed for that reason.
ARSENITE PFEPARATIONS. Among fungicides of this group, protars
(PD) and caloium arsenate are applied.
PROTARS (PD) is a Grey powder consisting of calcium arsenate
[Ca3(A803)21 and the diluent, talcum. According to standard, the preparation
should contain 9 - n o/c of triple oxide of arsenate and no more than 1 0A
of moisture. It is applied in the dry treatment of seeds of grain crops,
flax, clover. The expenditure per ton is: for cereals one kg.; for flax
1.5 kg.; clover 2 kg. Cereal crops may be treated one month prior to
planting, flax 2 to 3 days before sowing; clover 1 and a half to two months
before planting. Vernalized seeds should not be treated by this preparation.
CALCIUM ARSENATE [Ca3(As04)2.21120] is applied to control mildew of
gooseberries and melon crops by spraying. It possesses high toxicity with
regard to fungi and plants and concentration should therefore be weak (0.04 o/o).
VIXED GROUP. Here belong all fungicides not entered in the above
4 groups.
Forrno is a transparent, colorless liquid of sharp odor, which
strongly affects mucous membranes. In chemical composition formalin is
a water solution of ant-aldehyde (C1120); according to standard, commercial
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64 Trans'. 180
formalin should have 40 a/o. A white, cottonlike settlement is observed
during long storing and especially law temperature. The solution has
lower toxicity with regard to fungi and reacts negatively upon plant
germination. It may be dissolved by heating (not to the boiling point)
or by adding hot water; cr a solution of caustic soda.
SODIUM (14a2003) is taken in the proportion of 8 h. per one liter of
formalin, while caustic soda (NaOH) is added in the amount of 4 g.
Soda is dissolved in warm water; next equal quantities of soda solution
and spoiled (settled) formalin are taken and mixed together. The diluted
formalin is kept in a warm place until the settlement disappears. In
adding improved formalin, one should consider that it is twice as weak as
the ordinary one. In preparing the solution, it should consequently
be diluted with water reduced twice in amount, as against that used for
40 a/o formalin.
Formalin is widely used in treating seeds of cereal crops against
various species of smut. It is also used to treat cotton seeds from
gummosis; potato tubers from different species of scab and black leg;
seeds of vegetable crops and forest genera. In addition, formalin proves
a good disinfectant of the soil, vegetable storage bins and grain ware-
houses.
Treatment with formalin of seed and planting stock is dome by moist,
semi-dry and "desorbtion" methods. Moist treatment requires a solution
of 1:500, semi-dry - 1:80 or 1:100. The desorbtion gas method consists in
that seeds are mixed with peat, soil and eawdust, saturated with formalin.
These substances are used in the proportion of 0.75 ob, depending upon
the weight of the grain.
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In order to forestall injury to seed germination by formalin treatment,
rules on dosages, duration, and conditions of treatment should be strictly
the
observed. Reduction in/germination of treated grain is observed if the
Latter is sowed, when not sufficiently dry, in dry or moist and cold soil.
Under those conditions germination is delayed, seedlines are weak and succumb
more rapidly to the negative action of formalin. In warm, moist weather
aeed germination proceeds normally, and the effect upon germination is in-
significant.
Lime chloride C3Ca0C12.Ca(01)2.xE201 is a white powder, occasionally
small-lumped, has the odor of chloride. According to standard, the chemical
should contain 32-35 o/o of chloride. In the open air, under the influence
of carbonic acid moisture and particularly high temperatures, the content
of chloride is lowered. Lime should therefore be kept in well-covered
containers in cool places. The chemical is used to disinfest soil,
storehouses, nurseries. Since it does not dissolve in water, a decoction
is nada from it to be prepared the day of application.
In disinfecting nurseries and warehouses, lime chloride (decoction)
is taken in a concentration of 3 to 4 o/o. Valls, stellage and other
wooden parts of quarters are sprayed. The room is then kept closed for one
to two days and then aired to eliminate the odor of chloride.
LIM (CO) is widely used in the control of plant diseases. It is
applied in the form of freshly slaked lime.or lime milk, or combined with
other elements as a compound part of various fungicides (Bordeaux mixture,
ISO, lime-sulphur mixture, etc.).
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Briantsev 66 Transl. 180
Lime milk containing 20-30_o/o of lint is applied in painting fruit
to
tree trunks (in the fall *Led spring) and/disinfect storage places. Slaked
line in powder form is applied to control various rots of root crops in
storage, particularly "kagat" rot of sugar beets. Root crops are uniformly
covered with lime before being placed in storage or aro treated with lime
milk. The norms of expenditure of lime are: in dusting, 0..4 o/o; in
using lime milk, 0.25 0/6, depending upon the meight of the root crop, i. e.
4 to 2.5 kg. per one ton.
Lime is also used to control some soil parasites. Club root of cabbage,
root-eater of sugar beets and other diseases require the introduction of
lime into the soil to reduce its acidity which contributes to the development
of these diseases.
FERROUS SULFATE REPT/al:ORATE (Fe504.7R20) is a crystaIlic substance of
green color, soluble in water; used in controlling wintering fungi parasites
on fruit trees and shrubs by spraying in the fall and early spring. It is
usually applied in a concentration of 3 to 5 a/o.
SODIUP CALCIUM LATERLESS (11a2CO3) is a crystallio substance of white
color, well soluble in water. Applied in 0.5 o/O solution to control mildew
of gooseberries.
POTASSIUM MANUNATE (Un04); this preparation is used to treat seeds of
tomatoes (from virus diseases) and woody genera. In treating tomato seeds,
1 do solution is used; for seeds of woody genera, 0.9 o/o and 3 o/o
solutions are used.
ACETIC ACID (CH3000R) is applied to treat seeds of woody genera in
concentrations of 0.5 oje (for pines, spruces, ashes) and 1 o/O (for pines,
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Briantsev 67 Trans1 ? 180
spruces and maples). Seeds are dipped for SO minutes; aftcr moistening4the
seeds aro rinsed in rater and dried.
rANNER IN STORIES POISONS AND nASURES OF PRECAUTION IN APPLYING TRE1!.
(P. 197-198)
1. Poisons should be stored in dry quarters with roofs, doors and
windows in good repair, no less than 100 in. away from domiciles.
2. Quarters should be locked and under watch; the key kept by a
person responsible for their storing. Barrels of water and sand should
be held in readiness close to storage in case of fire.
S. Poisons are placed in closed containers on shelves or supports
and provided with labels marked "poison".
4. Food products, forage, and articles having no relation to the
poisons should not be kept in the same place.
5. People having no concern with the matter should not be permitted
into the quarters.
6. All poisons arriving for Storage should be weighed immediately
and registered in a special book. The disbursement of poisons is done by
written permit by the agronomist, the chairman of the collective farm of
his substitute, or the director of the state farm, and be issued only to
people responsible for the work, in strict observation of the weight.
7. Containers in which poisons are issued should, be labeled "poison."
8. Transportation of poisons is permissable in containers which are
in good condition.
9. All work in connection with poisons is organized under the
supervision of agronomists.
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Brianteev
60 Transl. 180
10. Those handling poisons should be familiar with them and the
necessary precautionary measures.
11. Those handling poisons should wear uniforms, gloves, eyeglasses,
respirators, and while dealing with gaslike substances, be equipped with
anti-gas apparatus.
12. Workers handling poisons should not remain on the job longer than
6 hours and while working on dry nordant.s, no longer than 4 hours, the
remaining time to be devoted to other tasks. Yinors are not allowed to
handle poisons, nor are pregnant wonen and nursing mothers.
13. While handling poisons, eating, drinking ane smoking are
prohibited. After work, the face and hands Fust be carefully washed.
14. The medicine cabinet should contain an assortment of anti-
poisonous substances, as prescribed by special instructions.
15. After the completion of the work, remainders of poison that may
have been accidentally spilled should be picked up and the places where
preparations were handled, dug. up.
16. The last mordant treatment should be given no later than 25 to
30 days prior to harvesting.
17. Livestock should not be let out into pastures treated with
poisons prior to 20 to 25 days after treatment.
End of Chapter.
Tai: 8 August 1951 (p. 35-67)
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7-3-r,--
Briantsev, V. A. Transl. 180: Plant Protection.
Zashohita rastenii ot vreditelei I boleznei
(Protection of plants from pests and diseases)
Ed... Moskva, 1950. 640p. 464.4 B76
CHAMP, SIX (p. 255-341, in part)
PESTS AIM DISEASES OF CEREAL CROPS p. 255-313.
Cereal crops are injured by pests and rodents and affected by various
diseases. There are many multi-poisonous and special species among In-
jurious insects which damage exclusively cereal crops. Among multi-poison-
ous insects the following are noted: Locusts, cutworm moths, wireworms,
and among special insects the injurious eurygaster, grain flies, saw flies,
etc. Among the most harmful rodents are ground squirrels and mice. The
most widely spread diseases among cereal crops are: smut, rust, ergot,
fusarium.
PESTS OF CEREAL CROPS (p. 255-281)
Hessian Fl (Ilayetiola destructor Sicy). a fly of the Itonididae
family: injurious to summer and winter wheats, rye and barley.
It is widely spread and causes particular harm in the Ukraine,
Northern Caucasus, Crimea, Voronezh and Kursk oblast(s). The pest does not
propagate as freely to the north of these areas, although in warm years it's
effect is felt even at Kirov, Leningrad and other northern oblast(s).
The flies winter as adult larvae in a pseudo-cocoon on winter plant-
ings and wild growing crops. They pupate in the spring. Adult flies
usually fly out when they are in their booting stage. rales and females
are already sexually mature. They do not feed and live only several days,
during which time coupling end egg-laying takes place.
Eggs are laid on the upper side of leaves of cereal crops. One female
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lays an average of 200-230 eggs; these develop in 4 to 7 days. Larvae
crawl into the leaf base, do not penetrate into the stem, but suek on it
from the outside, protected by the leaf base; develop in about 30 days, and
pupate at the base of the loaf where they forrerly fed. Under normal con-
ditions the adult pest leaves the pseudo-cocoon in two weeks. During
vegetation the hessian fly may produoe 2 to 5 generations. The number de-
pends upon moteorolbeical conditio s. In dry weather larvae do not pupate
and pass into a prolonged dormant state which terminates rhen precipitation
seta in. Dormancy reduces the number of generations; in such years only
eprine and fall generations are produced, while when moisture is adequate
four to five generations may be produced in the southern areas. In the
former ease (2 generations), the first spring generation develops on
spring and winter crops and the second full generation on winter crops.
there are
'There/Several generations, the first develops on spring and winter crops,
the second on sumer crops, the third, flying out after harvesting and
prior to winter crop germination, develop? on self-sown plants, and if the
period is lengthy, another generation yet may be produced on these plants;
the last generation develops on winter crops.
The nature of injur* and harm done by the hessian fly depends upon
the stage during which the plant was infested. Young infested plants stop
in their growth, beoome dark green, their stens thicken, the foliage widens,
and frequently wrinkles. Non-tillering shoots usually perish; mature
shoots only lose the affected stens; whenever the main etem is ?damaged,
yield Is reduced or no tillorine takes place among these plants. If in-
jury is caused during the booting stage, stem continue in their develop-
_ ment but may subsequently bend and even lodge. This also leads to a re-
duction in yield; lodging also interferes with mechanized harvesting of
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Briantsev, V. A. 7 /4Z Trans'. 180.
grain. 'Wheat, particularly soft vIteats, are affected most, along with
other cereals, except oats. Uncultivated plants, especially Agropyrum,
may also serve as forage for pests.
Unfavorable meteorological conditions and parasites Interfere with the
propagating of the hessian fly. "Dry winds" cause eggs to dry out and this
leads to the destruction of pests in large quantities. Parasites also
destroy during some years 100 per cent of the pest population.
'MODS OF CONTROL:
1. Early planting of spring crops, to permit the germinating stage to end
by the time the adult pest makes it's appearance; plants may, however,
be also Infested in subsequent stages, although the injury is greatly
reduced.
With regard to minter crops, it should be borne in mind that very
early plantings became severely infested and later plantings are
affected in lesser degrees. Very early planting of minter crops should
therefore be avoided. Since late plantings in some regions, produce
low yields, they should be undertaken only in cases of mass pest pro-
pagation mdth special permission by local land organizations; plantings
of minter crops should be generally undertaken in periods that ensure
maximum yields.
2. Timely harvesting to prevent self-sowing.
3. Immediate removal of the harvest.
4. Stubble cultivation follomed by deep fall plowing, prior to the appear-
ance of Shoots of minter crops. Stubble cultivation contributes to the
appearance of weeds and volunteer grain, on uhieh the third and fourth
generations of the hessian fly develop. Shoots of infested fallen
grain are destroyed by subsequent deep fall plowing, prior to the
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Brisaltsev, V. A. Transi.
appearance of flies from pseudo-cocoons, thus preventing their attack
upon winter crops.
If early plowing is not possible on all fields, stubble cultivation
shou.ld be undertaken first on plots which adjoin fields intended for
the planting of winter crops.
5. Application of all agricultural practices (vernalization, fertilization,
good soil cultivation, additional feeding) against a background of
grass crop rotation, to ensure the most favorable conditions for plant
growth.
6. Destruction of Agropyrum, which serves as one of the major habitats for
pests on fields and boundaries. Fields should therefore be well culti-
vated and boundary areas plowed f:ever.
7. Fields under crop rotation should be arranged in such manner as to keep
plots under spring wheat and barley away from those planted under
winter wheat and rye. The greater the distance between planted areas,
the smaller the number of pests that sill fly from sinter over to
summer crops in the spring.
/ 8. Applioation of chemloal methods of control to destroy eggs and larvae.
/
Contact poisons are used; spraying with anabaaine-sulfate (0.15 per
cent) and soap (0.4 per cent), sodium fluoride (0.75 per cent) and soap
(0.4 per cent). Dusting with anabadust (5 per cent) or anthracene dust
prepared in the proportion of I kg. of anthracene oil or 2 kg of raw
anthracene to 20 kg of lime-"Pushonkan. The dusts DDT and GXETSG are
applied against adult flies, and used in the early stages of plant
development. Chemical methods of control are applied primarily on
particularly valuable plantings of soft spring wheats.
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Briantsev, V. AL Transl. 180
MILLET FLY, Stenodiplosis Panici Rodd., also belongs to the.Itonidae family.
Small fly; length of body 2-3 rem; larvae are wormlike, colorless; gradually
acquire a round shape and orange spots on their bodies. The pupae is Open,
not encased in pseudo-cocoon. This pest is widely spread in all areas
where millet is grown and may LI years of mass propagation destroy up to
90 per cent of this crop. Larvae winter in the damaged grain of cultivated
and barnyard millet and pupate in the spring. The adult fly comes already
sexually developed, does not feed and lives only 2-3 days. Following
coupling, the female lays We eggs before blooming, or at the very beginn-
ing of the blooming stage; the crop cannot be injured after this. A female
may lay about 100 eggs; 3-4 days later larvae appear which feed on the
ovary of the plant and the inner surface of flowering Mae. One grain may
hold 3-4 larvae; as a result of the injury, the ovary is destroyed and the
grain empty. Larvae develop in a week and change into pupae which show in
the grain shortly before the adult pests fly out. The entire development
lasts 14-16 days. The fly produces 3-4 generations in areas of the central
belt of European 98SR (Voronezh oblast').
Tantering larvae remain among empty grain; dormant larvae of preceding
generations may winter along with them among fallen grain of cultivated
crops and barnyard millet, or residue.
METRODS OF CONTROL;
1. Improvement of seed stook; this is achieved by careful sifting of
millet in threshing and by treating seeds with naphthaline which kills
the larvae. rhen treated with formaline (wet method), the seeds that
come to the surface must be rejected since they usually contain larvae.
2. Early and close planting which reduces the degree of injury caused by
the fly. The latter infests early plantings only lightly, while flies
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Briantsev, V. A. 7(47-444 Transl. 180.
of succeeding generations appear at a time when the blooming period is at
it's end and infestation is no longer harmful.
3. Regular planting of seeds to ensure uniform crops.
4. Multiple weeding; barnyard millet should be destroyed all over.
S. Timely harvesting to prevent spilling of grain.
6. Deep plowing with foreplows to destroy the supply of larvae which wintered
in fallen grain. It has been established that the fly has difficulty in
reaching the surface of the soil even through a depth os 2 cm.
7. Use of husk (chaff) and all residue before spring, since SO per cent of
wintering pests are usually found in them. *len infested residue is fed
to livestock, larvae are destroyed in the intestines of animals. Steam-
ing of husk destroys larvae already at 60?.
9. Planting of millet at some distance from fields of previous years to make
the flight from basic foci more difficult.
S1EDISH FLY, Oseinosoma Frit L., belongs to the family of cereal flies
(Chloropidae). It is a small black fly of metallic shine; length 2 mm;
eggs are elongated, cylindrical, white, length to 0.06 mm. Larvae white,
length 4-5 mm.
The Swedish fly injures cereal crops. It is widely spread but the
sone of its steady propagation and injury is in regions of moderate cli-
mate. The pest is therefore noted as particularly dangerous in forest and
forest-steppe belts, as well as in mountain regions of the Caucasus,
Altai, etc. It may cause considerable damage in steppe regions only in
years of moderate temperature and increased humidity during the spring
and summer.
Larvae of the Swedish fly winter on winter plantings and wild grown
uncultivated cereals. Pupating takes place in the spring, the flies
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Briantsev, V. A. Tramal. 180
usually making their appearance at the time shoots of spring crops of Later
plantings come up. The female lays its eggs on shoots having 2-3 leaves and,
begirieing with the tillering stage, on young stems with 2-3 leaves. Larvae
penetrate into the stem and feed on the embryo of spikes (ears) and the base
of 'the upper leaf; as a result, the latter wilts and yellows. The entire
deVelopment of larvae takes place within the stem; during tillering, the
second flight of the pests begins, accompanied by egglaying on young stalks;
' /larvae, deposited on stalks, penetrate into the grain and feed on it's con-
tent; they also pupate there.
During the third flight (in northern regions), the fly lays it's eggs
on' winter crops; in the south there may be additional generations during
larvesting and before the appearance of shoots of winter crops. During that
period the pest develops on self-sown grain, and produces 1-2 generations.
iThe pest produces 5 generations altogether, depending upon the Latitude of the
lecality. normal propagation occurs at 18-30?; a temperature of 350 de..
Presses the pest and temperatures below 18? prevent egg-laying.
Swedish flies injure primarily spring crops and are particularly damaging
to wheats and barley. In years of a prolonged via= fall, they may also in-
jure winter crops. The degree of their injury is determined by the stags of
;plant development at the time of infestation and the vigor of tillering.
!Plant injury is nost severe when it occurs at the germination stage.
Injured shoots of inadequate vigor in tillering, usually do not re-
cuperate and are destroyed; plants still capable of tillering produce new
shoots; this delays plant development and cuts into production, 50-70 per cent.
Men plants are infected during the tillering and subsequent stages, in-
juries are less harmful. In such cases, yield is reduced 10-410 per cent.
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Briantsev, V. A. 7 4--ft. Trarsl. 180
Injury of shoots (stalks) in the steppe belt region occurs seldom,
since eggs laid on stalks perish from lack of moisture and dry winds; be-
cause of the rapid hardening of the endospenn, larvae is unable to develop
normally. This type of injury is prevalent in remote northern regions.
Yield reduction depends also upon the varietal characteristics of crops.
Grain varieties of greater tilloring vigor and more rapid cemination develop-
ment are more resistant to injury, as well as those where plants have
pubescent stems and leaves and closely attached coleoptiles, which the fly is
unable to penetrate to lay eggs in.
METHODS OF cormoL.,
I. Early planting of spring crops.
2. Timely removal of harvest, to avoid fallen grain.
. Stubble disking cultivation followed by plowing. This method is of
little significance in northern regions where harvesting ends late and
where crops from fallen grain do not develop before the planting of
winter crops.
4. Planting of more resistant varieties.
5. Application of all agro-teohnical measures against a background of grass
crop rotation. Early maturing of spring crops lengthens the period be-
tweon harvesting and planting of winter crops, causing the Swedish fly
to get into unfavorable conditions during the latter part of summer.
As shown by experiments, chemical methods of control, (dusting with DDT
and aliTSG at early stages of plant development) prove most effective
against adult flies.
GREEN.:E1T Chlorops pumilionis Bjerk. belongs to the family of cereal flies
Cloropidae. Injures primarily barley and summer wheat, to a lesser degree,
winter wheat and rye, and very seldom, oats. It may feed also on un-
cultivated plants.
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Briantsev, V. -7 2 --tt Trans'. 180
A fly of yellow color with three black bars on it's back; has green
eyes; length SS mm. Eggs are white, ribbed, 0.08 mm. long; larvae white,
cylindrical with rounded ends; length I mm.
The green-eye is widely spread but the area of it's greatest damage is
in regions of high humidity and moderate temperature; considerable injury is
frequently observed in Mate Russia, Smolensk, Orlov, Kalinin, Moscow, Lenin-
grad, Vologda and Gorky oblast(s).
The green-eye winters as larva and pupates in the spring. Flies appear
usually two weeks later. Eggs are laid singly, chiefly on upper leaves. One
female may lay an average of 140 eggs; larvae penetrate the leaf sheath and
live on the upper part of stems, injuring the developing stalk; they pupate
right there. Flies of the second generation appear before harvesting and lay
their eggs on winter crop shoots. In the forest and steppe-forest zones the
flies live very long in a dormant state, before the appearance of winter crops.
Larvae which develop on winter crops remain for the winter inside plant
stems. Nhen early infested, internodes are close and stems swell. The in-
jured plantt trowth id retard-ed and it perishes. If infestation is late,
larvae occasionally gnaw elongated furrows into the stalk itself; this causes
the latter to tiller only in part?or not to tiller at all, and to produce a
low yield. If infestation is very late, the stalk manages to tiller and the
exposed larvae perish. This does not affect the yield.
rethods of Controls
1. Early planting of spring crops.
2. Use of early tillering varieties; many larvae are destroyed during early
tillering, before they have an opportunity to cause any damage.
3. ,Stubble cultivation followed by deep plowing; this measure is of par-
ticular benefit in forest and steppe-forest regions.
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Brianteem, V. A. 7 q-A4r, Transl. 160.
4. Application of all agro-technical measures and grass crop rotation to
strengthen and accelerate plant growth.
GRAM BEETLES belong to the family of Scarabaeidae.
Among them the most injurious are "thuk kuz'ke," Anisoplia austriaca Hibst.
and "zhuk-krestonosets," A. agrioola Poda. A austriaca Erbst. is spread in
the steppe zone down to the Volga and also found in the steppe regions of
Altai krai. A. agricola Poda has a larger area of distribution; it extends to
rostow oblast' in the north, is found beyond the Volga in the East and pop-
ulates stern Siberia.
These beetles were of major significance before the revolution; annual
losses between 1910 and 1917 amounted to 774.9 thousand tons of grain. At
present these are much reduced.
Adult beetles usually appear during tillering of winter grain and first
feed on it, then pass on to summer crops. If at the time of their appearance
winter crops have not yet tillered, beetles feed first on grain of Agropyrum
and other uncultivated plants. This goes on for one month. The beetles are
active in sunny hot weather, when they fly and feed voraciously; they are
inactive on cloOdy or rainy days. The pests feed on immature soft grain
of wheat and rye; their gnawing causes one wart of the grain to fall to the
ground; one beetle devours and drops 50-90 grains, i.e., destroym 3-6 stalks.
0
40 beetles per 1.-M2 . will cause a complete loss of the harvest.
Male spring crops mature, females penetrate the soil down to the moist
layers and lay their eggs, usually at a depth of 15-20 am. One female lays
an average of 3a40 eggs. Their development takes about 20 days. Young
larvae feed on plant roots; after wintering feeding continues, larvae feed
even more intensely and are capable of gnawing through young shoots of grain
crops, sugar beets and other plants. When population is dense (10-15 larvae per
1m2), plantings are thinned and empty spots taken over by evade. In NO
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Briantsev, V. A.
7 -45- Trans'. 180.
larvae pupate at a depth of 10-1F cm of the plowed layer. Adult beetles
appear 16-17 days following pupation. The development of beetles takes two
years. Depending upon this biological characteristic, large and small num-
be rs of grain beetles appear alternately in different years.
minions OF CONTROL:
Agricultural and mechanized measures are applied in control,-
1. Stubble disking and deep fall plowing immediately after the harvesting
of spring crops, in order that the _layer of soil sontaining eggs be
turned over once. The layer dries out, and eggs are destroyed since they
are sensitive to loss of moisture.
2. Cultivation of fields under crop rotation and in-between-row cultivation
during mass pupating of pests; many pupae are destroyed in the process, as
they are most sensitive to mechanical injuries.
3. Early planting of summer crops and application of all agricultural techi.
nical methods that accelerate growth and ripening, which reduce the harm.
ful activity of beetles.
Cbtehing of beetles with special traps.
GRAIN GROUND BEETLE, Zabrus tenebrioides Goease of the Carabidae family. In-
jures shoots of winter wheat and rye.
The beetle is black, 14-16 m long; larvae dirty-white, length 25m. Dis-
tributed in southern steppe regions; damaging in the Ukraine, Crimea, Krasnodar
and Stavropol' krai(s).
The beetles appear at the end of June and early July and feed on mature
grain of winter and summer crops. After harvesting, beetles gather in Shooks
and feed on the grain. Females lay their eggs on the same plots, among fallen
grain, at a depth of 5 cm.; 15-20 days later larvae appear; they live in holes
close to plants.
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Briantsev, V. A. e-46- Trans". 180.
Larvae feed on foliage, which they pull into their holes. Injured
leaves look shredded; in the fall larvae pass over to infested plots of
winter crops and continue to feed there; they winter in the soil. In the
spring they do not endanger winter crops since the latter have had time to de-
velop and become more resistant, but they cause injury to spring crops which
they attack. By the end of ray and early June all injury ends in connection
with pupating, which takes place in the soil; this stage lasts about 3 weeks.
MEOW OP COITIROLs
1. Planting of minter crops only on fields under crop rotation, prepared for
sinter and inter-tilled crops, i.e., on plots freed from weeds on which
the pest may develop.
2. Prevent self-sowing after harvesting; this is achieved by timely removal
of the harvested grain, and the use of grain catchers on combines.
Sheaths should not remain long in the fields.
3. Immediate removal of hay that remains after harvesting with combines.
4. Stubble cultivation followed by early fall plowing; this reduces infesta-
tion by larvae.
5. Application of poisons of intestinal action to destroy larvae on sinter
crops; dusting with calcium arsenate (8-10 kg per 1 h.) or sodium fluor-
ide (10442 kg per 1 h.). Poisoned attractants may also be used to con-
trol larvae; they are placed at the bottom of boundary ditches dug
around plots infested by the grain snout beetle.
LEAP BEETLE, Lena lielanopus L. a small beetle of the Chrysonelidae family,
particularly injurious to spring crops, oats and barley, partly to hard
wheat.
Green-blue in color, of metallic shine; length 4-4.5 mm.
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BriantaeV, V. A. Transl. 180.
in a
*Mal* distributed in European USSR and Siberia. Frequently damaging
pie and forest-steppe regions.
Beatles which have wintered feed in the spring on foliage of shoots of
spring/crops, eating elongated holes into them; females lay their yellow eggs,
,
pieces'in a row; eggs develop in two weeks; larvae are bare at first, then
T
get: a'covering of brown slime. They injure foliage, eating the tissue without
touching the'epidermis on the under side. The larvae stage lasts 2 weeks;
/, '
/pupating taken place in the soil; mature beetles remain in the soil for the
:Winter.
The est injures spring crops; it does not harm minter crops because of
' their id development during the spring. Soft wheats are not injured in
view of;t1 ir pubescent leaves. Talon infestation is severe, entire plants
/
and not 'only leaves, dry out. The greatest damage is caused by this pest
during; years of dry spring seasons, when yields are reduced 50 per cent and
over./
rETH S OF CONTROL.
,pusting and spraying with poisons of intestinal action. Calcium arsen-
ate is used for dusting (8-10 kgh); for spraying, Paris green (0.12-0.16 per
cent) double addition of lime or calcium arsenate (0.1 per cent), and four
tires the amount of lime.
STRU GRAIN SAM Fuss, of the Cephidae family. Injurious primarily to cer-
eals. The mast dangerous are: grain saw fly, Cephus eygmaeus L. and black
um fly, Trachelus tabidus F. The grain saw fly is black and has wide yellow
rings on itts body; length 8-9 mm; the black saw fly is also black, but has
elongated brown yellow stripes along the sides of it's body 7-8 mm long.
Larvae are legless, have nronounoed heads.
The grain saw fly Is distributed throughout European USSR; extend in the
north to Liningrad ?blast', Siberia and Central Asia; the black saw fly covers
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Brianteev, V. A. Transl. 180
a narrower area, i.e., the steppe belt of the Ukraine, Northern CM:WILGUS and
Crimea. The pests oause their greatest damage in the steppe regions of
European USSR. Their development takes in one generation. Flight usually co-
incides with the beginning of tillering of wintering crops. Thothlack saw fly
appears 2-3 weeks after the grain saw fly. Shortly thereafter, females lay
eggs upon the upper part of stems, selecting plants of tall and developed stems.
The female "sawn" an opening into the upper part of the stem and lays one egg
inside. Altogether 35-40 eggs are laid in a corresponding number of' stems.
Larvae appear on the 5.6 day and feed inside the stem. They gradually move to-
wards the lamer part of the stem, gnawing on internodes and filling the interior
with excretions and rot. Upon reaching the basic part of the stem, larvae gnaw
it from the inside and form a cork below of remnants of hay. Under this oork
they spin a long firm cocoon in which they spend the winter. Pupating takes
place there in the following spring. The injured stems break and fall off.
Larvae in cocoons remain in the stubble after harvesting.
The grain saw fly injures primarily winter crops, while the black saw fly,
appearing later, causes damage to spring crops. Their damage consists in:
1. Reduced yield of grain because of injured totems.
2. Loss in harvest in view of lodging of stalks.
3. Deterioration of forage quality of infested hay. The yield is reduced
10 per cent or more.
NETRODS OF COTITROL:
1. Early planting of spring crops; of similar signifioanoe are other aro-
technical methods which contribute to plant growth and ripening of Crops.
2. Tt is necessary to avoid reducing norms of planting, since thin plantings
are more affected by saw flies.
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Briantsev, 'V. A. Transl. 180
3. Cultivating on stubble and deep fall plowing; 60-70 per cent of the pests
are destroyed even when plowed under 18 cm.
HARUFUL EUMASTER, Eurygaster intergriceps Put.
Grain crops are in#ured by several species of bugs, among which the above
is of major importance. At it's adult stage the pest has a developed breast
plate which covers the entire belly; length 10-12 mm; distributed primarily in
the steppe zone. Greatest damage is caused in the Ukraine, Crimea, Roetov, and
Voronezh dblast(s), 'Krasnodar and Stavropol' kral(s), and the republics of
Central Asia. Injured primarily are wheat and rye, more seldom barley and oats.
Feeds also on uncultivated planta (Agropyrum, rye grass).
The pest periodically appears in masses, causing great damage to cereal
crops. Following 1901-1902, mass propagation occurred in the years 1938 to
1943 and again in 1949.
Adult bugs winter under fallen leaves in forests, tree shelter plantings
and orchards, and in mountainous regions of Central Asia.
In the spring, at a tamperature of 18-20?, the bugs appear from their
? wintering abodes and fly into the grain fields. They remain in the fields be-
ten clods clods of soil until permanent warm weather sets in. DUrAnu.thititiOe?they
sack the juice of stems at the stems bases. As soon as the air is warm they
crawl upon the plants and suck the upper 13arts of stems.
Eggs are laid at different intervals, depending upon the development of
sexual maturity. The female lays 14 eggs at oneotime, and may in one month
lay a total of 100-150 eggs. Larvae are born on the 8-16th day; they crawl
onto the stalks and suck the juice of the grain; development lasts 36-40 days.
Adult bugs appear early in June and also suck on the grain.
During harvesting and even before it, the bugs migrate into the woods;
In mountainous regions of Central Asia they fly into the mountains, i.e.,
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Ffi :30 Trend. 180
places of lower temperature and higher humidity. Here they live for awhile
in the open and occasionally fly short distances. In the fall, when the temp-
erature is 6-7c, they hide under fallen foliage or upper humus layers where
they winter. A particularly large number of bugs settle on forest clearings.
In the winter they stand teraperatures of 70; a laver temperature reduces their
viability, and they perish at 16-17?. Snow cover ensures normal wintering
for the pest. Radical reduction in temperature following winter thawing without
snow cover, completely destroys all wintering Eurygasters. They also are
destroyed in forests, whenever their wintering hideouts are flooded during
spring river floods.
the
Feeding conditions reflect upon/numbers of Eur7gasters. If they complete
their feeding at harvesting, they go wintering in a normal state. If, however,
the main mass of bugs is in it's 3rd or 4th stage of larvae development, which
happens when their flight from wintering places is delayed, they transfer onto
unsuitable crops after harvesting, such as millet, or are compelled to feed on
uncultivated plants. This leads to considerable destruction of larvae, and
while one part of them may reach the adult stage, they go wintering in a weak-
ened condition; such pests do not survive the winter well and perish in large
numbers, while the survivors are =fertile.
The degree of injury caused by Eurygasters depends upon the stage of
plant development. ithen plants are injured during the tillering stage or
prior to the booting stage in the spring, injured stems yellow and die off.
Sucking of juice reduces grain weight, gemination, and spoils the baking
qualities of it's flour; if grain is injured prior or during ripening, only it's
grain is
hull will remain; injury caused when/fully matured SAVOcts Ws weight least;
when punctured in a few places, its weight is tedueed 20 per cent; loss in
germination is due primarily to direct puncturing of the embryo.
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Briantsev, V. A. S.-61". Trawl. 180
Plour processed from injured grain is of poor quality. Dough is loose
and the bread law and of poor quality. This is because the bugs in puncturing
the grain introduce along with saliva, ferments which loosen the gluten.
YETH0D8 OF CORTROL:
1. Vlen Eurygasters winter in large numbers in forests, fallen leaves, to-
gether with the pests are Gathered into piles 1 m. high and covered with
a 20 cm layer of soil. Excessive moisture and heat destroys the bugs.
This method is applied in exceptional cases, because gathering of foliage
lowers frost resistance of trees.
In the mountains of Central Aeiatic republics wild growing grass
vegetation in which the peat settles is burned with good results.
2. Catching of bugs on plantings during tillering with the aid of special
manual, horse and automobile traps.
S. Application of biological method of control of harmful Eurygaster.
Chickens are let out into the fields in the spring and summer after harvest-
ing, and particularly in the fall on locations where pests minter.
The parasite, Telenomus is let out to infect eggs of eurygasters. Special
laboratories for propagating this parasite have been established at state
and collective farms.
4. Dusting with DDT of plantings infested by bugs. Other species of eury-
Easters may also injure cereal crops, the control of which proceeds along
the same line.
CEREAL APHID, Toxoptera graminum Rd.
Grass green in color; distributed in the steppe zone and frequently
damaging in the Vkraine, Rostov oblast,, Hizhnee, Povolzhie, Caucasus, Central
Asia, Far East. It injures wheat, barley, oats, even millet, riee, and among
forage grasses, sorghum. It also feeds on uncultivated crops.
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V4-52- Transl. 160
Eggs minter on plant leaves of winter crops, less frequently on plants
from fallen grain and uncultivated crops. Larvae born in the spring soon trans-
form into females called nosnevatel'nitsy", founders. These produce larvae
parthenogenetically; in 7-15 days these are transformed into female-virgins.
The latter continue to produce larvae parthenogetically and continue the pro-
cess. The pest produces in such manner 15 and more generations in one vege-
tative period. Beginning with the second and third. generations, winged females
appear among the wingless virgin-females, the se-called female, dispersers,
which in their flights settle on plantings of cereal crops. These female dis-
persers propagate in the same manner as do female-virgins.
In the fall a new form of aphids makes it's appearance among the last
generations, female-npolonoskin (sex-bearers), which produce larvae parthen-
ogenetically and of which one half is transformed into sexual females, the
other into males. After mating, females lay 2-4 eggs at the base of leaves of
cereal grains, which remain to winter. Virgin females bear 25 to 73 larvae,
while fertilized females are capable of laying only up to 12 eggs.
The number of aphids is usually reduced in July because of high temperatures
and the propagation of rodents and parasites.
The grain aphid settles in the open on leavne of cereal crops and fre-
quently forms colonies. The leaves yellow and dry as a result of their suck-
ing. If severely infested during the booting stage, plants will not tiller
and if infested during tillering, yield is considerably reduced. Degree of
injury depends also upon the conditions of plant development. On well culti-
vated and fertilized plots, plants develop better and suffer therefore less
injury; yields are also lees affeeted.
After harvesting, aphids propagate on forage and uncultivated plants and
those grown from fallen grainy-moving eventually over to shoots of winter crops.
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Briantnav, V. A. `&7?sts' Trans'. 180.
YETHODS OF CONTROL:
1. Early planting of spring crops and use of early varieties.
2. Fertilization, soil cultivation, vernalization and the entire complex of
measures directed towards strengthening and acceleration of growth of
cereal crops.
3. Control of "padalitsa", plants from fallen grain, (Which serve as 'reser-
vations" for aphids from the time of harvest up to the appearance of
shoots of minter crops) by cultivating stubble, followed by early and deep
fall plowing.
MEAT MIPS, Haplothrips tritici Kurd. Adult insects are black; larvae red;
this thrips is distributed in steppe and forest steppe zones.
Larvae minter in the upper layer of the soil and also close to plant roots.
They awaken in the spring when the temperature is 80 and transform into nymphs.
then minter crops begin to tiller, adult thrips make their appearance, settl-
ing first on winter and then flying over to spring crops. Larvae feed on
grain and stalk scales, sucking their juices. Larvae of the last "age" go
wintering. Injured grain is reduced in weight; one thrips reduces 'weight
3.0 per cent; 3 thrips 15.8 per cent; S thrips 30.6 per cent.
VETHODS OF CONTROL:
1. Early planting of spring crops. Deep fall plowing.
OATS THRIPS, Stenothrips Graminum Uzel. Adults and larvae have yellow.grey.
coloring. Distributed all over where oats are grown. Injures oats; feed also
on uncultivated plants ("ovsuig").
Adult insects winter in the soil at a depth of 75 cm. Thrips settle on
oats 2 to 3 weeks prior to tills ring, inside the rolled upper leaf which
covers the panicle. Eggs are laid in the tissue of stalk scales. The female
lays about 100 eggs. Larvae suck the stalk and flowering scales, then
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disappear in the soil where they first transform into nymphs, then into
adult insects. Stinking spoils the quality of oats for forage, injured scales
become colorless.
METHODS OF CONTROL have not been developed yet. It is believed that early
planting reduces injury.
MEAT VEMATODE, Tylenchus Tritici St.
Injures wheat and rye. Of wormlike shape, almost colorless; females
5 mm long, males 2.5 mm in length.
Distributed in the Crimea, Northern Caucasus, Trans-Caucasia, Central
Asia.
Larvae of wheat nematode winter in galls, which resemble grain, and are
carried into the fields with planting stock.
Under the influence of moisture and warmth larvae enter the soil, whence
they penetrate into plants. Because of toxic excretions, harmful to plants,
nematodes delay the development of the latter, cause leaf roll and deformed
stems. Severely weakened plants perish. When the flowering bud ("tsveto-
chnaia pochka") forms, nematodes penetrate it and fertilized females lay their
eggs there. One female may lay 25 thousand eggs. Larvae feed on the inner
tissues of the bud; the injured flowering bud in developing produces a gall,
externally resembles grain, but is infested by hard smut. Mature, ripened
gall is filled with larvae of nematodes; these are resistant to the external
environment and may be preserved for 9 years; neither heating to 500, nor
freezing destroys them.
METHODS OF CONTROL
1. Substitution of injured seed stock by healthy material, free from nematode
galls.
2. Cleansing of grain from galls by passing it twice or three times through
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Dr1unv35V, V. A.
'67.45-15- Transl. 180
"triers". Since larvae do not perish in passing through the intestines
of domestic animals, residue is fed to cattle in steamed form.
3. Tixely harvesting to prevent dropping of mils in the soil. Installation
of grain catchers is compulsory in grain removal.
4. Storing of infested grain separately from healthy grain.
5. Return of wheat or rye to the came fields not any earlier than in 3 to 4
years.
DISEASES OF CEREAL CROPS (p. 281-313)
snur. Affects all Cereal crops. By destroying the principal crop, i.e.,
grain, smut causes great damage.
According to VIZR, average annual losses from smut between 1930 to 1935
represented 12.8 millions of centners of 1.8 per cent, While in 1941 losses
from smut did not exceed 1 per cent. The out in losses was obtained as a re-
sult of government measures for the control of smut.
The disease is spread all over. It affects various parts of the plant,
mostly the stalk. The injured tissue is destroyed and transformed into a
black, dmstlike mass of spores. Two types of smut are distinguished accord-
ing to the nature of the injury: Hard and loose smuts. Hard smut destroys
the content of the grain, while the hull is preserved Which releases the
spores only wIlen the hull is destroyed. This usually takes place during
harvesting and threshing. Loose smut, however, destroys both content and
buil of the grain. Spores are therefore dispersed not only during harvesting
but also during vegetation. Smut is produced by parasitio fungi of the
Basidial class (order of smut). All species of smut are specialized and
adapted to individual crops.
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Briantsev, V. A. 9 a -56-
Table 7.
PRINCIPAL SPEC/ES OF SMUT
Transl. 180
CROP SPECIES OF SMUT INDUCERS
Bard or wet.... TilIetia tritici W1nt. r. levisRuhn
MEAT Loose.... Uatilago tritici Jens.
Stem.... Urookrstie (Tuburoinia) tritici Xorn
RYE Hard or wet Tilletia secalis Kuhn
Stem Urocystis (Tuburcinia) ocouita Rabb.
OATS Hard or covered Jctile.go levis Mag,n.
Loose UatilaAo avenae (Pars) Jens.
DAP.LEY Hard or stone Ustilago hordei (Pers.) Xellerm.
et OWe
Loose Ustilaso nude. (Jens.) Xellerm.
et Sw.
15/LIET Loose Ustilago yanici-miliacei Wint.
CORN Blistered Ustilaso seals Ung.
Loose Sorosporium reilianum (Kuhn.
McAlp.
HARD OR TZT SLUT OF MEAT is spread all over and injures soft wheats most.
Symptoms become visible only when the grain ripens. Injured stalks differ
from healthy ones in that they are smaller in cite and shape. Scales are far
apart; the grain swollen, of round shape. During the period of milky ripening,
the grain is blue-green in color. During the period of waxy ripening, in-
jured stalks remain green longer and stand erect because of their light weight.
Diseased grain contains a bllack mass of spores enveloped in the grain hull.
Diseased grain has a strong "herring" odor, hence its designation "smelly smut".
During harvesting and especially threshing the "bags" are destroyed.
Spores fall partly on grain and hay and also contaminate machinery and con-
tainers; they in part penetrate the soil. "Bags", which are not destroyed,
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Transl. 180
are mixed with the grain. In this form hard smut is preserved during har-
vesting until planting. Planting material therefore represents the principal
focus 6f infestation by hard smut. In planting, the spores enter the soil
where they develop. Basidiospores produce secondary conidia *Lich infest the
wheat germ. Bard smut of wheat is caused by two species of parasites:
Tilletia tritioi Mint. and T. levis Kuhn. Both species produce similar in-
jury. They differ in the construction of spores: T. tritici has round spores
with thick netlike cover (epidermis), T. levis elongated or irregularly round
spores of thick and smooth hull (cover). The former type of smut is more
widely spread in the USSR.
The principal measure of control is cleaning and treating grain.
LOOSE SMUT OF MHBAT. Inducer Ustilago tritici Jens. Found all over,
particularly in the principal wheat grown regions, Northern Caucasus and the
Ukraine. Loose smut, as does hard smut, does not show on vegetative parts of
plants. First symptoms of infestation appear at tillering. Infested plants
tiller usually earlier than healthy plants. All parts of an injured plant are
destroyed, i.e., germ, scales, awns, only the stalk is preserved. Occasionally
partial destruction is observed when only individual stalklets are destroyed.
The spores are dispersed, get onto the flowers, germinate and infest the germ
(embryo). lOycelium does not develop in the grain and remains within the
latter until the following year in the form of embryo mycelium. There are no
external symptoms indicating the presence of the parasite, although occasion-
ally one notes the sickly grain. Infested grain develops normally; the mycelium
of the parasite develops simultaneously with the growth of the plant and
reaching the stalk forms a loose mass of spores. Individual spores are small,
slightly bristly.
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Briantsev, V. A. 9 4-58 Transl. 180
Since infection by loose smut of wheat is contained within the grain,
only the heating treatment is applied to disinfest seeds. This method con-
sists in saturating grain alternately with mem and hot water, at precisely
established temperatures and periods. The technique used in heating is men-
tioned below:
STEM SLUT OF MEAT IS KED= IN THE CRIMA OBLAST', A2EBBAIDJA1, TADZHIK, UZBEK,
KIRGHIZ, AND TURKMENISTAN SSR.
Stem smut appears primarily on stems and leaves, infesting stalk scales.
Leaden grey elongated strips Which later burnt, appear first; a black mass of
spores issue from the tissue. Strips are most frequently observed on upper
leaves. The stalks of diseased plants are undeveloped, sometimes do not tiller
and dry out. Occasionally stems and leaves bend and roll because of their
irregular growth. The inducer of stem smut (urocystis (Tuburcinia) tritici
Korn7 is characterized by its structure of spores. They are gathered into
balls which consist of 2 to 5 central cells of brown color and numerous light
yellow periphery cells which form a. continuous layer.
Stem smut is spread by spores which remain on the surface or within the
soil, and partly on straw. Control of stem smut of wheat consists in treating
the seed and in quarantine measures.
mu =UT OF RYE. Inducer. - Urocystis (Tuberoinia) occults Rabh. Stems and
sheath are primarily affected. Elongated dark strips are seen on these first,
then cracks, foam which the spores appear in the form of black powder. Stalks
of infested plants develop poorly, do not produce seeds and yellow prematurely.
Balls of spores of U. croculta consist of small number of cells, compared to
U. tritici. One to two central dark colored cells are surrounded by a small
number of light brown periphery cells.
The disease is spread chiefly by seeds on which spores are preserved.
Hay of diseased plants may also serve as a source of infection. Infestation
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takes place during germination, up to the appearance of the first leaf. Stem
smut of rya is spread all over; in many oblasts (Leningrad, Pskov, Moscow) in-
festation is severe. Treatment of seeds and agro-teohnical measures are
applied to control it.
EARD SMUT OP RYE. Inducer: Tilletia secant; Kuhn. In type of infestation and
manner of transmittance, it resembles hard smut of wheat. Spread in Kursk and
Voronezh oblast, Povolthie, including Gorki oblast, and others. This smut
develops more severely under increased moisture of the soil. Control consists
in treatment of seeds.
LOOSE SMUT OF OATS. Inducer: Ustilago avenae (Pers.) Appears during the
period of panicle development. The ovary (germ) and the rest of plant parts
affected
are destroyed, transformed into a black-olive powder. Scales are/completely
aid in part. Spores settle on flowers of healthy plants and immediately
germinate. During this period the mycelium infests only the flowery scales in
which the parasite remains until the following year in a dormant state. A
large part of spores gets, however, onto the surface of the grain during
harvesting and threshing. Infestation of plants takes place at the stage of
germination ("prorostka"). Mycelium, preserved in nursery scales or on the
surface of grain penetrates into the newly formed oat germ.
Loose smut is distributed all over.
Since spores of this fungus are preserved on the grain surface or on
scales, without penetrating into the ovary, control of this species of smut
is possible only by external disinfection of seed. The latter is therefore
treated with formaline or NIUIF-2.
HARD OR COVERED SMUT OF OATS. Inducer: Ustilap levis Maga. Frequently found
simultaneously with loose smut.
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Hard smut of oats, in contrast to loose smut, destroys the ovary (germ)
leaving wales intact. The mass of spores sticks together, forming firm clumps
which do not disperse and remain under the scales. The dark spore mass shines
through the thin films of seeds and infested panicles are therefore easily
discerned. In threshing infested seeds are destroyed and individual spores get
under the coulee or on their surface where they remain throughout the winter.
rETRODS OF COPTROL: The same as with respect to loose smut of oats.
LOOSE SMUT OF BARLEY* Inducer: Ustilago nuda (Jens). Kellerm. et Sw.
The stalk is affected and all its parts fully destroyed. This species
of smut is discovered during tillering. Infestation takes place during
blooming, as in the ease of loose smut of wheat. Spores infest the germ. The
infested grain develops normally but the mycelium inside it is preserved.
As the grain develops, the mycelium also grows and reaches the stalk. This
species is widely spread.
BARD OR STORE SYUT OF BARLEY. Inducers Ustilago hordei (Pers.) Eellerm.et Sw.
Distinguished from loose smut by type of infection and its biology. Hard smut
destroys only the content of the grain, while the outside hull (film) is pre-
served. The spores of the fungus do not disperse during vegetation and remain
in the form of a hard mass under the epidermis. In threshing, the spores
contaminate healthy grain, and stay on its surface or under the epidermis
throughout the winter. Infestation of grain takes plum during germination.
Bard smut is found more often in southern areas. Control in by treating the
seeds.
LOOSE SMUT OF MUT. Inductor: Ustilago panicimiliacei Wint. Affects the in-
florescence which is transformed into a brown dusty mass covered by a thin white
film. There are instances of partial infestation of the panicle. Infested
inflorescence usually does not show f am the sheath of the upper leaf. Smut
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eriantsev, V. A. Transl. 180.
contaminates the grain during harvesting; plant infestation occurs during
germination of seeds. Snut of millet is widely spread, and control of this
species is by treating grain.
BLISTERED SMUT OF CORD.'' Inducer: Ustilaeo zeae Ung. Affects all parts of a
?
plant; stems, leaves paniOleo (sultan), cobs, even the roots. Swellings of
different size appear on all these parts, filled with a black mass of spores,
covered by a whitish-trey film. The swellings are round on stems, elongated
on loaves, distributed along veinlets.
In cobs 4m41vidua1 grOies exelmuelly infected, which swell and are filled
with a black pulverized mass. Individual flowers are infected in panic/es.
The outer/co/e'er of evenings bursts and spores enter the soil where they
develeP, forming basidioaporeS. The latter are transported by the wind to
plants, and infeSt them./ Only young tissue is infested. Spores minter in the
sell and in-harvest residue. Blistered smut is spread in all regions where
oora is Taised, especially areas of higher temperatures and lower humidity
(steppes of the Ukraine). Principal measures in the control of this disease
re grasS crop rotatiop, gathering of residue and other agro.technical methods.
Treatment of seeds is of significance only in new regions where corn is pro..
dueed.:
LOOSE SIZT OF COIN /ndecer: Sorosporium Beilianue (tuhn) rcAlp.
Appears only on inflorescence, cobs, or panicles; infested plants do not
fruit and frequently appear depressed. Infested organs are completely destroyed
land remain covered by dried hull. Spores disperse upon ripening, getting onto
healthy cobs or into:thesoil. In the winter, spores remain in the soil and on
seeds. Infestatqn takei place in the spring during seed germination. Loose
Out of corn is. spread primarily in humid regions. Controls are practiced by
dry treatment of seed stook and the application of agroetechnical measures.
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Briantsev, V. A. Transl. 180.
BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFEHEET SPECIES OF SMUT
Lethod of transmittance of infection
ene period of infestation Species of Smut
Spores are preserved' on the purface of grain.
Infestation during germination of grain,
14velium preserved in grain tissue. Infested
during blooming.
Mycelium on scales. Infestation during
grain germination.
Spores are preserved in the soil and on rest-
due
Infestation during the entire vegetative
period.
Hard
Stem
Hard
Stem
Hard
Eard
Loose
Loose
Loose
Loose
Loose
smut of wheat;
smut of wheat
smut of rye:
smut of rye
smut of barley
smut of oats
smut of millet
smut of corn
smut of wheat
smut of barley
smut of oats
Loose smut of oats
IMOD FOR COETROLLING SMUT is a complex of organisational, economic, agro-
technieaI and special measures conducted according to plan. The principal
task of all anti-smut measures is the establishment of seed funds, not
infested by smut, and their careful preservation from infestation during
vegetation and storage.
The execution of this task can be achieved by the following measures:
1./ 100 per cent treatment of all seed stock.
?'. Application of the entire complex of agro-technical measures designed to
reduce the percentage of smut infestation.
3. Storage of seed stock in disinfected containers and warehouses.
4. Careful disinfection of all agricultural machinery and equipment.
Measures for smut control are directed primarily towards improving the
sanitary condition of planting material, as the principal focus for spread
of amut. Depending upon the method of grain infestation, disinfection may be
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chemical or thermic. No matter haw the grain is disinfected, however, it
should first be cleaned; this will eliminate sickly, undeveloped seeds and
smut "bags".
Treatment of seeds by chemicals is applied ageinet those species of sMnt
that are preserved in the form of spores on the surface of grain or under its
scales. There are 4 methods of treatment: wet, semi-dry, dry and desorption-
gas method.
MET TREATMENT is applied for glumaceous cereals (barley, oats and millet),
occasionally to wheat and rye. The principal chemical used in wet treatment
is formaline, applied to control hard and loose smut of oats, hard smut of
barley, loose smut of millet, and in regions of seed growing farms and seed
plots, for treating hard smut of wheat, stem smut of rye and wheat.
Met treatment with formaline consists of three successive operations:
1. Saturation.
2. Curing ("tamlenie")
3. Drying of seeds.
Formaline is used in a solution of 1 part or 40 per cent formaline to
300 parts of water (1:300). Seeds are saturated with the aid of the machines
AB-2 and PU-1 or by hand. In the latter case, seeds are usually treated in
piles. The grain is poured in layers approximately 30-am thick, upon a
cleaned and disinfected floor or canvas, saturated with formaline; additional
formaline is poured from a water can and the Mixture worked over with shovels.
Saturation of seeds may also be done in baskets, sevin in bags. The baskets,
filled with grain, are dipped for 3 to 5 minutes into barrels containing a
formaline solution. Smut 'Use" which come up to the surface are removed and
destroyed. Treating seeds in baskets is particUlarly recommended at regional
seed farms and seed plots of collective farms, since this method completely
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cleans *Bede of smut !bags and and clumps of spores.
Grain saturated by this or any other method is piled in heaps, covered
with canvao or bags, saturated with formaline. The pile remains in this
condition for two hours. In this period of time formaline vapors kill all
smut; the operation is known as "tamlenie soma", curing of seed.
/The 'grain is dried under a shed, preferably in a draft, and under no
circumsticncet in the MID, since this may lead to deficient seed germination.
Seeds are spread in a thin layer and are turned over several times. To avoid
eecondary infestation of smut, the grain is poured into containers (bags,
oanvap, disinfected with formaline.
Wet treatment should not be applied any earlier than 2-3 days before
' planting. 100 liters of formaline solution are required for one ton of
seeds, i.e., 330 g. of 20 per cent formalino. Vernalized seeds are treated
by repeated saturation in a formaline solution of 1:300.
Semi-dry treatment was introduced in place of yet treatment because of
the advantage of not requiring drying. Only glumaceOs plants may be treated
in this manner (barley and oats). Non-glumacedue crops (wheat and rye) can-
not be treated by semi-dry method, since the strong solution of formaline
4ed for the purpose reduces germination of seed unprotected by glue. In
semi-dry treatment formaline is used in the proportion of 1:80. The expendi-
lure per 1 ton of grain amounts to 30 liters for oats, 15 liters for barley.
;Seeds are saturated in piles or by the machines AB-2 and PU-1. When applied
;lin this manner, a knapsack sprayed must be used to ensure the thin spread of
the liquid. Saturated seed is subjected to eurine for 4 hours. No drying
is 'necessary. Seed is treated no earlier than 5 days prior to planting.
Dry treatment consists in dusting grain with powderlike preparations.
Pridr to treatment, the grain must be thoroughly dried, its moisture not to
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7 ?? Transl. 180.
exceed 15 per cent. Dusting of grain with poisona is done with the aid of
AP-2, ru-1, PSP -0.5 machines or in specially equipped barrels; treatment
by ordinary (primitive) methods in piles, etc., is not permissible. The
chemicals NIUIF -2 (Granosan), AB, PD, and in some areas (Leningrad, Pakov
oblast(s)) also Ceresan and Germisan, (sulphur preparations), are applied
In treating grain.
This method is used to control hard and stem smut of wheat and rye,
and loose corn smut.
Barley (against hard smut), oats (against hard and loose smut) and
the
millet may also be treated by/dry method; the preparations AB and PD
(protars) are used only for naked grain varieties, while sulphur organic
chemicals are also used for glumaceous varieties of these crops.
Table 9.
DOSAGES OF PREPARATIONS (in kilm)
Preparations Wheat, Rye Corn Oat, Barley
Preparation AB 2 1.5
Protars (PD)
NT7117-2 (Granosan) 1 1 2 1.S
In using 1;IUF-2 in treating millet a dosage of 1 kilt of seed is
required. Vernalized seeds treated by dry method (prior to vernalization)
should use only the preparation AB. Treatment with AB may be applied 5 to
6 months before planting; PD - no earlier than I month, sulphur organic
preparations, days before planting.
Grain treated by dry method may not be used for consumption or forage
of livestock.
The dry treatment method has considerable advantages over the wet
method:
1. It may be mechanized.
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Briantsev, V. A. 4540-6-5" Trans". 180.
2. Does not require curing or drying.
3. May be applied a long tire before planting (if AP and PD are used),
thereby not interfering with the period of intensive labor during the
planting season. The shortcomings of the dry method consist in the
poisonous nature of dry preparations, and the resulting danger in their
use.
Deeorption-Cas Method, developed by Professor Strakhov, consists in
applying samdust, coil or peat, saturated with formaline. These substances
are taken in the proportion of 750 g per 1 centner of grain (0.75 per cent).
Heating of grain is applied to control loose smut of wheat and barley,
i.e., those species of smut that keep the infection within the grain. Heating
of seeds is done by successive saturation in warm and hot water.
Wet heating of grain consists in 4 successive operations:
1. Preliminary saturation of grain at 28.320 for 4 hours.
2. Aotive heating of grain in hot water at 50-53? for 7-10 minutes.
3. Cooling of grain in cold water.
4. Drying of grain.
Preliminary saturation is applied to bring,myeelium out of its dormant
state, since it then becoms38 more sensitive to Increased temperature. Sub-
sequent heating of grain in hot water acts fatally upon mycelium. Cooling
of grain is essential to retard the physiological processes which could have
started in heated grain. Drying of grain should be performed with care,
since moist grain in getting into dry soil rapidly loses its germination
capacity. Special installations are applied for, heating grain, or barrels
and pails with strainer bottoms are used. Grain may be heated at any time
before planting, provided it is followed by careful drying. No chemical
treatment is required once seeds were heated. Heating of grain may be done
simultaneously with vernalizatibn. In that base preliminary saturation in
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Briantsev, V. A. -6Er Tranwl. 180
a /
warm water is substituted by tho ty.3e of saturation used in vernalizing. The
amount or water used Is calculated at one centner of seeds of 13 per cent
moisture content;
1. For summer hard late-ripening wheats - 33 liters.
2. For soft and hard late-ripening crops - 31 litere.
If seed moisture exceeds 1:S per cent, one liter of water per centner is
eliminated for every per cent above 13 per cent. Saturation is performed in
three stages during 24 hours. Since the temperature in a pile of seeds must be
10-120, the process takes plaee under shelter, in well ventilated barns. After
the third saturation, moistened seeds are kept in piles for 30-48 hours. They
are then subjected to active heating at specific temperature. If the amount
of germinated seeds exceeds 3 per cent, active heating is not used to prevent
less of germinating capacity.
AGRO-TECFNICAL An ORGANIZATIONAL-ECONOMIC YETEODS play an important role in
the control of smut.
Preservation of viability of spores in the soil and duration of infestation
of seed germs depend upon environmental conditions.
Professor Strakhov's studies of smut showed that in controlling soil pro-
(meson by agro-teohnical and economic methods, it is possible to accelerate
the destruction of smut spores and thus contribute to the disinfestation of the
soil. :7erminated spores of *mut perish rapidly in moist soil at a temperature
or 10-20?, especially if manure or mineral fertilisers are added; germination
is not affected in the process.
Such factors as good soil cultivation, adequate choice of planting periods,
high quality grain, etc., which contribute to rapid seed germination reduce the
amount of infestation among plantings.
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Briantsev, V. A.
(001-6-7' Transl. 180.
Crass crop rotation represents another basic measure in the control of
several srecies of smut. Infestation by stem smut of wheat and rye is pre-
ed
cerved not only in seed stock but in residue of plants. Blister/Corn smut
the
is spread primarily through/Soil, penetrating it directly or throuLh residue.
Grass crop rotation, which does not permit repeated planting of crops on the
same plot, leads to healthier coil. In coreidoring biological characteristics
of blistered corn smut, it it imparetive to destroy the foci of infection
dUring vegetation. For this purpose the smut lumps are out off and destroyed
twice or three times during vegetation. In Siberian conditions where
winter temperaturee are very low, the method of stubble planting of wheat,
developed by Lysenko, proved most effective in the control of loose smut of
wheat. In planting on stubble, shoots of winter and spring wheats (latter
planted in early October) are able to withstand law temperatures in the winter,
while the mycelium of loose smut which develops in the shoots is killed off by
frost. The introduction into practical agriculture of varieties of grain
crops, resistant to smut, belongs to the effective measures in controlling
smut. Relatively reeistant are the wheat varieties Gordeiform 27 (to loose
and hard smuts), Kraenodarka (to loose smut); Pervenets (to loose smut), oats
Verkhniacheskii 53, Sovietskii; corn Hybrid of Kuban 135 (to loose and
blistered smuts).
With respect to stem smut of wheat the following measures are applied:
1. Seed material in regions where stem smut of wheat is spread are treated
with formaline by the vet method and the preparation NIUIF-2.
2. The transport of seeds, hay and residue of harvests is prohibited from in-
fested regions to uninfested; within boundaries of infected regions the
export of these products is prohibited to other farms, from farms where
plantings of wheat were infested.
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Briantsev, v. A. Tranal. 180
3. At infested farms healthy seed stock must be substituted for infested
planting material.
4. Disinfestation by fornaline of conta'.rers, machinery, transport equipment,
grain warehouses, and all articles that wore in contact with infested
material is compulsory.
6. Infested stubble is destroyed.
6. Wheat may not be planted after wheat.
RUST OF CEMAL CROPS.
Rust affects all cereal crops and is widely spread. It injures all
above ground parts: foliage, ovaries, stens, stalks; develops on scales, awns,
occasionally on the hull of seeds. The disease shows in the form of pustules,
ranging in color from orange to black, depending upon the stage of development
of rust and its species.
All species of rust inducers developing upon cereals have different hosts.
Some species form a Iteliospore stage on shrubs (barberry, bu?kthorn), others
on weeds; uredo and telio-stages of all species develop on various cultivated
and uncultivated crops. Uredosrores develop in several generations, musing
mass infestation of crops. Teliosporee serve for wintering, although they are
of no significance to some species. icetearological conditions affect rust to
a large extent (temperature, moisture, precipitation), as well as agro-
technical factors.
Despite the fact that rye does not destroy grain, it causes considerable
damage. Infestation by rust may take place throughout the vegetation period.
In developing upon the green parts of plants, rye destroys the assimilation
processes and consequently reduces the accumulation of nutritious substances
in plants. In addition, because of injured tissue, breathing and evaporation
are accelerated in diseased plants. All living processes are therefore dis-
oupted; diseased eves die prematurely; when stems are infested they break
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Briantsev, V. A.
1 ykes? Transl. 180
and lodge; grain remains undeveloped; is usually sickly and of reduced aerm-
ination. As a result of this action by rust, yields of grain and hay are
sharply reduced. Because of the poor development of the root system in in-
fested plants, their drought resistance is lowered. Peet also reduces frost
resistance of plants, which is explained by the small accumulation of reserve
carbon in infested wintering plants. The degree of losses depends upon the
spread of the disease, partly upon the period of infestation. The earlier a
plant is infested, the greater are yield losses.
Among the most prevalent species of rust of cereals areil.Stripe rust,
which affects all cereals; 2. Brown leaf rust of wheat, Puccinia triticina;
3. Yellow leaf rust of wheat, barley and rye. 4. Crown rust of oats.
S. Brown rust of rye. 6. Dwarf rust of barley.
STRIPED OR STET RUST.
Stems and interior of leaves are prirarily affected; more seldom stalks
(awns, soales, sheaths of stalks), occasionally leaves on shoots of winter
crops.
Inducer of disease: Puccini& graminis Pers. It's teliospore stage develops
on common barberry. In the spring bright orange spots with fruiting fungus,
in the form of yellow pustules, appear on the foliage and infloreseence of the
plant; the pustules are covered with minute cups. teliospores. Or the upper
aide of the spot are seen small black dots, 225...tr=an_1lL.
Telicepores when ripe are carried by the wind and infest cereals on which
uredo and teliospores develop.
The summer stage or that of the uredospore, is observed on cereals only
after blooming, at the end of June, in July in the form of elongated rust-
browninlverised pustules. These float together and form elongated stripes on
stems; hence the name.
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Briantsev, V. A. 655O? Transl. 100
The winter stage of rust teliospores) arrives at the end of the vege-
tation period and produces elongated black pustules which run together into
black stripen. In contrast to other species of rust of cereals, the formation
of teliospores of striped rust Is accompanied by the disruption of the
epidermis as in the uredo-stage. Individual teliospores on legs, of pin-like
shape, dark-brown, with one partition, their upper end thick. Bust winters in
the telionpore stage on stubble of cereal crops, and in the apring infests bar-
berry agair. It has been observed that teliospores that remained on hay, dis-
tributed on the soil or tied In stacks, are not preserved over the winter.
Striped rust has several specialized forms adapted to specific species of crops.
On cultivated cereals the following forms are found:
P. graminis f. secalle - on rye, barley and Agropyrum.
F. tritioi - on wheat and barley.
f. avenae - on oats, less often on Phleum L. and other forage crops.
Striped rust is spread all over, and is particularly severe in regions
having humid, warm climates. Among areas chiefly affected by striped rust are
the Northern Caucasus and the Far Fast, -where uncultivated barberry and
"magonian are largely concentrated.
In rations where an intermediary host is absent, striped rust may make its
appearance In a eummer infection (uredospores) derived from other areas and
wintering rust from wild-grown plants. Striped rust, if strongly developed,
may bond to large losses in yields.
Amnng the basic measures used in the control of striped rust are
agricultural practices designed to reduce the amount of wintering infestation
on plant residue (disking, fall plowing) weed destruction and intermediate
hosts - barberry and "maconie.
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Briantsev, V.A. ( 0171- Transl. 180
BROWN RUST OF MEAT. Injures foliage and leaf sheaths.
Inducer of diseases Puccinia tritieina Lriks. Tt has two fors, ono, ridely
spread, especially in European LSSR, the other, local in Pastern tiberia. The
two kinds differ in their biology. TI-e teliocpore stage of the former may
develop on Thalictrum L., a wood of the Ranunculae family, a local, Fast
Siberian species, and Isopyrum L., a weed of the save family. The summer stage
appears on 'wheat in the form of oval or round brown pustules, disorderly
spread on the leaf lamina. Teliospores (wintering stage) have pustules of
darker color.
The parasite minters primarily as uredo-riyeeliui on winter crops, in-
fested in the fall by uredospores. In the spring the latter develop on in-
fested minter wheat and oarry the infection over to spring crops. In a
similar cycle of development, neither toliospores, nor the aeoio stage are of
eignifieanoe; oonsequently the host, Thallotrum L., also does not play any
role. The develapment of the EasteSiberian form of rust takes place, however,
with the participation of Isopyrum L. This form depends upon teliospores, as
the wintering stage, which is preserved on residue.
Brown rust of cheat belongs to the most Injurious species of rust. The
disease is the result of thinned plantings of minter wheat which occur becauee
stalks infested in the fall winter poorly and are destroyed.
By infesting cheat at an early stage, brown rust is responsible for a cone
siderable reduction in yield. Thus when who is completely infested during
the tillering stage, the yield suffers considerably. If infested at the
blooming stage losses are smaller. Brom rust is widely spread but causes
especially large losses in southern regions. In considering the character-
ietios of the development of this disease, it is necessary to point to basic
agricultural measures which protect winter wheat plantings from infestation;
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Briantsev, V. A. (9-fite- Trans'. 180
these are: Early disking, follomed by fall plowing. Resistant varieties
are important in controlling bromn rust.
YELLOW RUST: it's inducer: Puccinia glumarum Er. at Henn. It has special-
ised forms adapted to wheat, rye, barley.
This rust develops in early spring until late fall and injures every
above ground part of plants; foliage, stems, parts of stalks, occasionally
grain. The spring stage of yellow rust has not been established; uredo and
teliospores develop on the crops. Utedospores appear in the form of very
small, lemon-yellow pustules, distributed in elongated rows. Chlorotic spots
frequently appear on leaves in infested places.
Teliospores are black pustules covered by an epidermis; they are dis-
tributed in long rows; minter on minter plantings in the form of uredo-
mycelium in the tissue of plants. Uredospores may also minter on grain. In
the spring uredospores develop on infested minter plants and subsequently
cause mass infestation of minter and spring crops. High humidity and tem-
peratures between 13 and 16? contribute to the development and spread of
yellow rust.
Yellow rust has a limited area of distribution. It is found on wheat
in the Crimea, the mountainous regions of northern Caucasus and Central Asia,
and several regions of Southern Altai. The disease also appears in Leningrad
and rbsoaw, as well as other oblast(a) of the non-black earth belt.
kethods for controlling yellow rust are the same as those applied for
brown rust of wheat.
CROWN RUST OF OATS. It's inducer: Puocinia coronifera Kleb.
Foliage and sheath are affected. The aecio stage of the parasite de-
velops on an intermediate host buckthorn, (Rhamnus cathartics L.7 from which
it transfers to oats. The summer stage appears in the form of elongated or
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Briantsev, V. A. / Transl. 180.
round orange pustules, surrounded usually by light green tissue. Towards
the end of summer, black pustules, covered by leaf epidermis, replacel them.
Piles of teliospores usually form a ring or half a ring around the injured
tissue. Teliospores have characteristic outgrowths in their upper call,
which led to tie designation "crown rust". Teliospores are preserved on
stubble and hay. In the spring they infest the intermediate host, buckthorn,
on which the aecie stage develops. In llorthern Caucasus, Rhamnus pallesti
serves an an intermediate host. Crown rust appears on oats late, after
blooming, which is primarily due to the circumstance that this species of
rust imrariably passes through a host plant, where it develops during one
and a half to two months. The species is not infrequently found also on
"ovsuig", oat-weed, rAvena fatua 127
Crown rust is widely spread and of particular significance in the
forest-steppe zone where the development of rust is stimulated by brushwood
(Weeds) acting as intermediary host, and favorable meteorological conditions
(high temperature and precipitation). Its damage is limited to loss in
yields, the increase in the "plenchatost, " of oats, and reduced absolute
weight of grain. Principal methods of control are: Removal and destruction
of residue of infested plants; destruction of intermediary host; proper
choice of planting periods; resistant varieties.
BROWN RUST OF RYE.
Infests foliage and leaf sheaths; infestation lasts throughout the
vegetation period. Inducer is the parasite Puccini& dispersa Erika., which
develops chiefly in the uredospore stage. Clumps of uredospores appear as
brown pustules dispersed in disorder along the tissue. Towards the end of
vegetation black pustules appear in places of infection, covered by epi-
dermis. These are teliospores. Their main mass develops in the fall and
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Briantsev, V. A.
Trans'. 180
basidiospores developed from them immediately infest the plant hosts, ox-
tongue of the family (Boraginacerae7, and the weeds of the family rAnchusa L.
and Lycopeis Lg. The aecio-stage which develops on the host in the fall
does not affect the spread of rust. Brown rust of rye usually develops on
them and both uredo-mycelium and uredosporee winter. In the spring,rust
spreads through uredoepores. Thus brown rust of rye is biologically close to
brown rust of wheat. Control is therefore the same for both.
=BF RUST OF BARLEY.
Injures foliage and leaf sheath. Small light yellow pustules of the
uredospores of the parasite Fuccinia anamala (simplex) Rostr. are formed in
the above parts of plants. In contrast to yellow rust, which is also found
on barley, pustules of this epecies are dispersed in disorder. Uredoepores
are gradually replaced by dark heaps of teliospores, covered by epidermis.
The latter are frequently unicellular and of irregular shape. Aeeiospores
develop on the intermediate host fornithogalum ij of the Liliaceae family.
This species of rust can develop without a host as well, since uredospores
and uredo-mycelium winter on winter plantings.
Dwarf rust Is chiefly spread in southern zones, and regions of winter
bsrley. Control is basically the same as for brown rust of wheat. Mherever
possible, intermediate hosts should be destroyed.
COMPLEX OF ERASURES FOR CONTROLLING RUST OF CEREAL CROPS.
Of major importance are agro-technical and economio measures, the in-
troduction of resistant varieties and destruction of intermediate hosts.
AMONG AGRMECHNICAL MEASURES, those methods aiding in the destruction of
foci of infection are the most important, I.e., infested stubble and self-
sown grain. Pany species of rust winter on stubble, while self-sown plants
on which rust may develop from the time of harvesting to the germination of
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Briantsev, V. A. ( vs. Transl. 180
winter crops, represent danger to the latter, serving in a form of inter-
mediate host. In order to prevent self-sowing, harvests have to be re-
moved promptly and carefully. To destroy self-sown plants and stubble, early
soil cultivation is necessary, along with disking, followed by deep fall
plowing. Dieking should take place prior to germination of winter crops, to
preserve plantings from rust which may transfer from self-sown plants. This
measure is of particular :significance for brown and yellow rust of wheat which
winter on winter crops. Complete destruction of self-sown plants and post-
harvest reaidue is attained by deep fall plowing. Vany agro-technical methods
are based on ecological conditions, frisch as increase in plant resistance, and
are carried out in order to reduce the damage caused by rust. Periods of
planting, primary fertilizers, additional feedings vernalization, weed
control, etc., are all significant in this connection.
Early and vernalized plantings of spring crops are less injured by rust,
since they go through the early phases of development under conditions un-
favorable to rust. Different species of fertilisdrs, especially potassium-
phosphates or complete mineral fertilizers increase plant resistance to rust.
AMONG ORGANIZATIONALECONOMIC MASHES, grass crop rotation and sensible
distribution of fields in crop rotation are most important. Grass crop
rotation results in healthier crops and reduces the amount of infestation
in fields. Since every farm usually baa plantings of spring and winter
wheats, these should not be allowed to adjoin each other; winter wheat usually
serves an a focus for rust from which infection may spread to summer crops.
The introduction into industry of rust-resistant varieties is a most
effective manner for controlling rust. At present large areas are planted
with resistant varieties. Among these are: the wheat Bovo-Ukrainka 83
o
(brown and yellow rust), Xrasnodarka (brown rust), Odessa 13 (brown and stem
rust), Lesostwpka 74 (brown), Lesostepka 75 (brown and stem) Lutescens 17
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Briantoev, V. A. / 1/ ?546. Trans 1. 180.
(Ukraine, all species of rust), Garnet, Gordeiform 10, 189, etc.; among barley,
Odessai(stem rust), Odessa 14 (dwarf rust); among oats - Verkhneiacheskii 53
(orown and stem rusts), Sovietskii (crown and stem rusts), Poskovskii A-315
(crown and stem rusts); among rya - Viatka (stem and brown rusts).
The destruction of intermediate hosts represents one of the major methods
in the control of stem, dwarf and crown rusts. Shrubs (barberry and buckthorn)
are dug up and destroyed by an application of common salt or arsenic prepar-
ations. Salt is introduced in the amount of 2-8 kg, under the plant, depending
upon the size of the shrub. Chemical substances are applied in early spring when
plants are greedily absorbing all soil solutions.
ERGOT.
Injures the majority of cultivated and wild growing crops, particularly
rye. This disease appears on stalks or in the panicle in the form of black
horns, replacing grain. The horns are selerotia, in the dormant stage of the
'fungus Claviceps purpuree Tul. During harvesting the greater part of sclerotia
drops and winters in the soil. One part remains with the grain and during
planting penetrates the soil. In the spring wintered sclerotia develop in
the soil, form fruiting bodies in the shape of violet heads on legs. These
heads contain large quantities of bags of spores. By the time rye is in
bloom, the spores are ripe and spread by the wind. Upon falling onto a flower-
ing plant, the spores grow and cause infestation; two to five stalklets are
usually affected in each stalk. The first symptoms of the disease are ob-
served during blooming. The conidial stage of the parasite develops in in-
fested stalks and simultaneously a sticky secretion, the so-called "honey-dew",
is revealed. Insects, attracted by this liquid transport it along with spores
onto healthy plants and thus spread the infection. Ergot may also be spread
by mind and rain. Nycellum develops in infested spikelets, fills the ovary
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Briantsev, V.A. izspe, Transl. 180
and gradually changes into a bleu* horn. Berns may vary in shape and size
and occasionally are larger then grain. kass development of ergot on cereals
is aided by high humidity in the period preceding blooming and throughout it,
when sclerotia develops and infects plants. The duration of the blooming stage also
affects the percentage of infestation by ergot. In years of rainy and
cloudy summers, ergot causes severe losses.
Ergot is spread all over, especially in humid regions. It may develop
steadily and severely in locations of high precipitation in the spring and
during early summer. Among these are Leningrad, Smolensk, Kalinin, Ivanov,
Arkhangelisk, Yaroslavl' and Kirov oblast(s), the Karelian-Finnish SSR,
'White Russian SSR and Udmurt ASSP. Occasionally ergot is also observed in
Vologda, Gorkii, Sverdlovsk and other central oblast(s), and in the Tartar
ASSR. Ergot is seldom found in the Ukraine and the materity of central
oblast(s).
Ergot impairs yields of cereal crops because in addition to horns,
forming in place or grain, the latter remains undeveloped In the rest of
spikelets of an infested stalk. The main loss consists however, in the
mixture of poisonous Substances in flour and the resulting danger of poison-
ing man or animals. Poisoning by ergot is accompanied by convulsions,
dizziness and vomiting; the disease is called "slate korcha", "holy fire".
Seed grain of the first grade does not admit horns, while for the second
grade 0.05 per cent is permissable.
=HODS OF CONTROL.
1. Cleansing of grain of horns of ergot with the aid or fans, "triers", and
complicated grain cleaning machinery. A special method of cleaning grain
of ergot consists in dipping it in a solution of sodium chloride or
potassium chloride of 2040 per cent. Borns float onto the surface of the
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Briantsev, V. A. Transl. 180.
solution and are removed. In order not to affect grain germination,
it should be rinsed afterwards in clear water and dried. Ergot horns
are widely used in medical practice and manufactured for this purpose.
2. Planting of clean varietal seeds in condensed periods, in order to avoid
a prolonged blooming period and thereby reduce the percentage of ergot.
3. Timely removal of yielde, since in delayed harvesting horns drop and the
soil is contaminated. Since ergot is concentrated along boundaries of
fields, grain has to be gathered separately and yields stored away from
boundaries.
4. Disking and subsequent deep fall plowing following harvesting. In this
manner horns penetrate into a considerable depth and are no longer able
to develop fruiting bodies; infestation is therefore not possible.
S. Weed destruction from which ergot may transfer to rye.
"P'IANYI EHLEB", "drunken broad"; this is applied to infested grain which
develops stupefying properties and poisons men and animals. This disease is
most frequently found to affect wheat, occasionally rye, oats and barley.
in the ripening stage rose-red or pale-rose films appear on scales of spike-
lets, and even on the grain itself. This disease is caused by fungi of the
genus Fusarium, chiefly F. graminearum Schw. ?yeelium penetrates into the
ovary; the infested grain romaine undeveloped, gets sickly, germination is
levered. yeelium develops in other parts of the plant as vell, but does not
snow on the surface. A light colored film on infested grain represents
lacelium and the conidial spore bearing of the parasite. These fungi are
characterized by scythe-like multi-cellular conidia. Occasionally the ''bag"
stage develops on infested spikes in the form of dark colored spots. In-
festation of grain may take place during storing if:humidity is high. Here
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Hrientsev, V. A. Trans'. 180.
the danger is even greater than in the field, the grain may completely lose
by
its capacity for germination. The disease is transferred mitt infested seeds
and through the soil; infection is retained on residue of infested plants.
Humid and warm weather (above 700) contributes to the development of the
disease, although low temperature (3-40) does not interfere with the develop-
ment of the parasite.
The disease is chiefly spread in the Far East and is also found in
Mbstern, North-western and other regions.
METHODS OF CONTROL.
Among the basic principal measuree for controlling "drunken bread" are
the production of healthy seeds and the creation of conditions preventing
plant contamination.
1. Timely removal of harvests, its rapid threshing; careful drying and
storing at normal humidity (12-14?) to prevent infestation.
2. Cleaning and segregating seeds to eliminate diseased and sickly grain.
Disinfestation of grain is done thernically and chemically. Seed stock
is heated in hot water in the same manner as in the control of loose
smut of wheat. For chemical disinfection of seeds sulphur preparations
UTUTP-1 and MIU1F-2 (Granosan) are applied. The preparation NIUIF-1 is
used in a concentration of 0.25 per cent; saturation is done for 15 min-
utes. One ton per 100 1. of solution is used. Granosan is applied in
a dosage of 2 kg/t of seeds. In cases of severe infestation, food grain
is also subjected to heating by dry heat at 000.
3. Destruction of stubble and various residue in order to reduce the degree
of infestation in the soil; deep fall plowing.
44 Grass crop rotation; wheat and other crops should not succeed cereals
infested by fusarium.
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Eriantsev, V. A.
/is-60 Transl. 180.
5. Introduction of potassium and phosphorus fertilizers which aocelerate
growth and ripening of plants, thereby reducing infestation by fusarium.
6. Early periods of planting summer crops.
SNOW HOLD is a disease known under this designation which affects winter wheat
and rye. It appears in early spring following snow thawing on shoots of
winter crops in the form of delicate weblike film of grey or white color.
Leaves acquire a rose tint. Infested plants rot or dry out, the fields carry
bare spots. Rose pustules form on decayed plants or individual leaves, which
represent the conidial spore bearing of the parasite Fusarium nivale Oes.
During the vegetation period conidia may infest seeds. If infestation
penetrates into unripe grain, especially prior to its forming, germination
of seed stock is seriously Impaired. The disease is distributed by infested
seeds. A considerable part of the infection remains on decayed plants and
in the soil.
This disease is found in regions of the non-blaok earth zone where high
humidity and acidity of the soil contribute to its development. Veteorological
conditions in the fall and winter determine the development or the disease in
the spring. In instances of prolonged warm autumns when snow falls upon
thawed soil, or following high precipitation during the winter, conditions
for the wintering of plants are unfavorable and weakened and depressed plants
are infested by fusarium.
MTH= OF CONTROL:
Agro-technical measures aro chiefly applied to control snow mold to im.
prove conditions and increase the plant's resistance to infestation.
1. Grass crop rotation with fall plowing and pre-planting cultivation of the
soil.
2. Introduction of organic and mineral fertilizers; early spring harrowing
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Briantsev, V. A. e/k7-81. Tranel. ISO.
and additional feeding of winter crops.
S. Cleansing, segregating and treatment of seeds (see "drunken bread").
4. Introduction of measures in early spring designed to speed thaw of snow
(plowing, distribution of peat over the surface of snow in places of MASS
accumulation, etc.)
EELYINTOSPORIOSE are diseases known under this designation and caused by fungi
of the genus Helminthosporium sativum P.K. et E. affects wheat; it is character-
ized by dark colored multi-cellular spores. Various forms of the disease are
known: root rot, brown spot of loaves, black germ of grain, etc. Men infested,
the seeds loose their capacity for germination and if they develop, the plants
are weak and decay in a short tie. Infestation of seeds takes place during
blooming and the succeeding period of grain formation. The focus of root and
forage infestation is in the soil and residue from infested plants.
On barley, helminthosporium appears in the form of striped spottiness on
leaves and leaf sheaths, less frequently on parts of stalks. Elongated spots
are formed on infected tissue. At first they are brown, then their centers
gradually lightens, while the borders remain dark in color. The infested leaf
lamina is torn Into several narrow stripes, the tissue dies, assimilation is
reduced, affecting the development of the entire plant. Infested plants appear
depressed; stalks remain undeveloped, grain is sickly and of law germination,
and when severely infested, plants do not tiller at all. Grain may also be in-
fested directly during the ripening.
Striped spottiness is caused by Helminthosporium pamineum. Spore bear.
trig, as a dark film, is formed on various infested parts. This film consists
of unbranched dark colored conidia bearers, filled with large conidia of
lateral partitions. rycelium and oonidia winter on seeds and their surfaoes and
on infested residue of plants in the soil.
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Eriantsov, V.A. ( Transl. 180.
Various helminthosporium affect vaeakened plants for the most part. The
disease is therefore strongly developed on soils poorly cultivated and fer-
tilized; unfavorable ecological conditions, specifically low soil tem-
peratures (10-12?) excessive humidity and increased acidity of the soil are
other contributing factors.
VETE= OF coNTRoL:
1. or decisive significance are agro-technioal measures: disking; deep fall
plowing, good soil cultivation before planting, application of complete
fertilizers; high quality seed stook.
2. Cleaning and segregation (processing) of seeds.
3. Treatment of seeds with chemicals (NIUIF-1, NIUIF-2) or thermically, as
against loose smut of barley.
SCIEROTIVIA.
This parasite develops only on winter crops and causes spring des-
truction of shoots. The disease is apparent on shoots of winter crops in
the early spring, immediately following snow removal. Infested plants are
covered with a grey oottonlike film. Foliage and stems decay, the plants get
brown and dry out* Foci of destroyed plants form in the fields. With the
beginning of the warm weather the disease stops; one part of the infested
plants survives and continues to develop, occasionally even forming spikes.
The inducer: Solerotinia graminearum Elenev, is a bag-like fungus of the order
discomyoes. In the spring solerotia form; on infested plants in large
numbers aside from mycelium. They may form on stems and leaves. In the
summer the development of uolerotia stops. In the fall they resume their
growth and produce the bag stage, apothecium. Ascospores infest all shoots
of winter crops in the fall, but the symptoms of the disease become apparent
only in the spring.
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Briantoov, V. A. / "rand. 180
Thus the paraeites winter on the plants and undeveloped sclerotia may
be retained throughout the winter in the soil. The diseace develops strongly
on humid, aoid soils of low temperatures (1.2-12?). It is spread in the
northern-eastern part of the non-black earth belt and is observed at Kirov,
Vologda, rolotov oblast(s), rdmurt, Yariisk and Bashkir ASSR, and in the
northern regions of Gorkii ?blast'.
1:ETB3DS or =TOL:
1. Drainage and liming of severely moist and acid soils.
2. Early and deep fall plowing of fields, especially those infested by
sclerotic).* This measure interferes with the growth of sclerotic+ and pre.
vents infestation of winter orops.
3. Good cultivation of the soil prior to planting.
4. Introduction of complete amounts of manure and other organic fertilizers
(compost, green lupines) to ensure the normal development of plants and
reduce their degree of infestation.
S. Spring harroring and additional nitrogen feeding of winter crops in early
spring.
G. Repeated plowing in the opring, of fields where winter crops had perished
and their planting under summer crops &ince these are not affected by
sclerotia.
7. Selection of frost resistant varieties of winter wheat and tye.
These varietiee are equally resistant to sclerotia.
AY? End. of Section.
August 23, 1951.
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Briantsev, V. A. Trans'. 180a: Plant Protection
Zashchits rastenii ot vreditelei
boleznei (Protection of plants from
pests and diseases) Ed. 3. Moskva,
19F0. 640 p. 464.4 276 Ed. 3
Translated in part from the
Russian by S. F. Monson
CHAPTER SEVEN
PESTS AND DISEASES OF TECHNICAL CROPS. (p. 342-429)
PESTS AND DISEASES OF COTTON PUNTS. (p. 342-358)
Among multi-poisonous insects injurious to cotton are primarily
locusts, (Acridodea]; ballworms [Chlorides obsoleta F.]; [Laphygma exigua
Hb.); sugar beet bworms (Loxostege sticticalis L.]; cutworm moths,
(Agrotis segetum, Schiff], and other chewing insects; wireworms and
(Tenebrionidae). The specific cotton pests are aprids and red spiders.
Among the most dangerous diseases are gummosis, milt and leaf roll.
PFSTS OF COTTON ''LANTS
COTTON APTIID (or leguminous aphid), [Dorsals frangulae Kalt.]
Injures cotton, legumes and other crops.
The wingless females are green; heed, center and back black; legs
yellow with black tips; length 2 rim.
This pest is widely spread, injurious to cotton chiefly in old
cotton regions; the wingless ferales and larvae frequently winter;
develop on weeds in the spring. The first Generations produce wingless
females and only subsequent ones produce winged migratory females which
attack cotton and other crops.
The female produces 40 to CO larvae and forms colonies of aphids on
foliage. The cycle of development of one generation is completed in 15
to 20 days. An entire vegetation period produces 15 to 20 generations.
Nedian moisture and relatively moderate heat contribute to aphid
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development. During the summer months (July-August), the number of aphids
is therefore reduced, compared to spring months, and only in September
are favorable conditions for mass propagation again available. In addition,
the summer produces many lady beetles which destroy aphide. Then the cotton
plant reaches maturity, aphids transfer their activity to weeds where they
winter under lower leaves of plants. The pest propagates exclusively by
parthenogenetic method.
Aphids feed on foliage sucking its juice. The injuries they cause in
the spring produce leaf roll and the foliage dries out. Beginning July,
when quantities are smaller, injured plants usually recuperate if given
proper care.
In the fall the pest injures cotton plants not so much by sucking
juices as by contaminating fibers with liquid, sugar-like excrements.
Soiled fibers stick and lend themselves poorly to processing, reducing
the quality of output. This contamination is called "white shire."
Saprophytes (fungi) may settle on contaminated, soiled fiber and cause
"black shire."
VETYODS OY CONTROL.
1. Weed control;
2. Destruction of aphids by contact poisons. In spraying solutions
of anabasine-sulfate (1 liter of water O. gram of 25 lo/O preparation) or
nicotine-sulfate (1 liter of muter of 0.4 gram of 40 o/o preparation).
The expenditure is 750 to 3000 liters per hectare, depending upon the
stage of cotton development.
Dusting in done by anabadust (3 so/o) or nicodust (2 o/o), in the
proportion of 50 to 60 kg. per hectare in irrigated areas and 20 kg. per
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hectare in non-irrigated. When cotton balls form, spraying is not
permissible since it may spoil the fibers.
3. All agro-technical measures (fall plowing, fertilization,
irrigation, etc.), which ensure better growth and plant development in
the spring, reduce injury caused by spring generations of aphids.
4. Plantings of legumes on which aphids propagate profusely should
be removed from cotton plantations.
In addition to the cotton aphid, other species of aphids also Injure
cotton plants.
FED SPIDER, [Epitetranychus urticae Hanst.), one of the most dangerous
cotton pests belongs to the order of spiders.
This is a small spider; it has an "undivided" body and 4 legs;
color green-yellow, in the fall and orange-red in early spring. On both
sides of belly are black transparent points; eyes oarmine-red; length
0.25 to 0.45 mm. Larvae 6-legged, green-yellow, nymphs 8-legged and
distinguished from adults by smaller size.
The red spider belongs to the rulti-poisonous pests, capable of feeding
on many plants of various genera, except cereals. Feeds also on woody
genera, such as peach trees, mulberry and nut treas.
degree to cotton, legumes, cucumbers and soya.
Distributed in all regions where cotton is planted.
Injurious in high
Particularly
harmful in old cotton growing regions of Central Asia and TransCaucasia.
Appears in the spring at temperatures of 12 to Ie. At first feeds
in wintering abode, usually on weeds, waste lands, along roadsides,
reservoirs, boundaries. From weeds transfers to crops when adjacent to
the latter, may be carried by wind, or water from reservoirs, if the latter
contain weeds. Vulberry and other trees, if grown in immediate proximity
to cotton or along reserwdirs. may serve as foci of infestation.
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4[0.4401.41
The red spider assembles first on weeds and settles next on cotton
plants. Its most intensive settlement on cotton takes place in July and
August when all wild vegetation is burned. It settles on the lover part
of leaves and covers them with a thin film. The foliage acquires a marble
coloring and on some varieties of cotton the injured tissue Fete red.
The injured leaves dry and fall off.
During the vegetative period, 12 to 15 generations of red spiders
may develop, depending upon meteorological conditions. The development
from egg to adult stage is completed in 10 to 23 days. Transformation of
red spiders is complicated and accompanied by lengthy periods of dormancy
prior to every stage of development. Females pass through the following
stages: eggs, larvae, nymphs, deuto-nymphs and adult spider. The cycle
of male development lacks the deuto-nymphs stage.
Adult red spiders live 18 to 35 days. During thut time ferales lay
an average of 140 to 180 eggs. The eggs are laid on leuves where all
remaining stages take place. The number of spiders on cotton increases
up to August, and beginning September is reduced because of unfavorable
weather conditions. In September and October the spider goes wintering,
crawls into the earth, fallen leaves and other post-harvesting residue.
It is the fertilized females which winter and this explains the
appearance of pests in early spring; males and nymphs winter in insigni-
ficant quantities, while larvae perish altogether.
The development and propagation of red spiders depend upon tempera-
ture, moisture, and availability of forage plants.
Optimal temperature is 29 to 310, the rapidity of its development
then being maximal; eggs develop into adult spiders in 7.5 to 9 days;
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Brientsov 5 Transi. IUDa
mortality is relatively small. Fertility of females is highest at this
temperature.
Optimal moisture varies between 35 to 55 o/o; at this degree
development is best, fertility highest and mortality among speoimens lowest.
High moisture (humidity) depresses development and propagation of red spiders.
Food has equally its effect upon the life and fertility of pests.
Fertility varies, not only depending upon different species of forage
plants, but even the latter's varietal characteristics. Thus in feeding
on American cotton varieties, a red spider will lay an average of 107 to
eggs; on Egyptian cotton the number is considerably lower, only 24 to 61
eggs. In addition, the spider lives much longer on American cotton than on
Egyptian.
Because of loss in injured foliage, plants lack a sufficient amount
of nutritious elements for the production of generative organs, and lass
and malformation of balls takes place. The degree of Injury depends upon
the condition of plant and variety, an well as upon the degree and time of
its Infestation.
Under poor agricultural care, growth is retarded and loss in yields higher
among diseased than normal plants. American cotton varieties are more
susceptible to injuries than Egyptian varieties. If infestation is early,
(May - June), cotton yields are reduced further than if infestation is late
(July - August). The highest degree of injury caused by red spiders is
felt in years of mass propagation.
l'ETHODS OF CONTROL. Red spider is controlled by agricultural techniques
and chemical measures, among which are the following:
1. Harvesting and burning for fuel of post-harvesting residue and
subsequent deep plowing. In this case all weeds and different wastes are
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plowed under, to prevent the pest from wintering on them.
2. Destruction of reeds in the spring on boundaries, reservoirs
and wastelands adjoining cotton plantations. Weeds are cut off for this
purpose, gathered in heaps and burned. It is advisable to spray the
weeds before rith soapy alkali (0.4 o/o) in order to destroy the posts.
3. Careful weeding on plantations to prevent the spider from
accumulating on plots.
4. If mulberry and other trees adjoin cotton plantations, fallen
leaves should be Lathered and burned in the fall and early spring aid prior
to budding trees sprayed with the preparation ISO (0.5 o/o), solar oil (1 o/o),
or soapy alkali (0.4 o/o).
5. anise crop rotation and the entire scale of agricultural techniques
(fertilisation, irrigation, etc.) are essential for growing healthy,
vigorous plants, since the red spider primarily affects weak plants.
6. Destruction by chemicals.
a) Dusting with ground sulfur in the proportion of 10 to 30 kg. per
hectare, with double quantity of pulverized diluents (talcum, sifted road
dust, etc.) or sulfur concentrate in the proportion of 30 to 75 kg. per
hectare; incrcaaed dosages are used for dusting cotton in later phases
of development.
b) Dusting with ISO (lime-sulfur decootion) of a strength of 0.50.
Boshme
according to Dome, and at rate of 750 to 3000 liters per hectare.
b) If sulfur is lacking, sprayint; with soapy alkali (0.4 o/o) is
substituted.
If aviation method is used, dusting with mixture of ground sulfur
with pulverized lime (3:1), at the rate of 20 kg. per hectare.
Chenical control should be used as soon as the red spider appears;
r.?
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repeated treatment is applied depending upon re-appearance.
In order to destroy all sucking pests (red spiders, aphids and
thrips) on cotton, sulfur-alkaloid solutions and dusts are simultaneously
applied.
Sulfur-alkaloid solutions are prepared from solutions ISO and
anabasine or nicotine-sulfate. For 10 liter of ISO, of a strength of
0.50, 5 rams of 25 0/0 anabasine-sulfate are added by constant mixing,
or 4 g. of 40 o/o nicotine-sulfate; or for 10 liter of ISO of 1?,
an equal amount of anabasine-sulfate solution or nicotine-sulfate,
The former is soluble in water at rate of 1 g. to one liter, the other
0.7 g. to one liter. Sulfur alkaloid solutions are used at the rate of
750 to 3000 liters per hectare.
k-ong "organizational-economic" measures, the following are of
consequence: destruction cf boundaries and enlargement of fields;
removal of cotton plantations from leguminous plantings; destruction of
waste-lands close to fields.
PIIIK BALL noRm, rPectinophora pssypiella Saud.).
There are cotton worms in other countries that cannot be found in
the USSR. Among these are the sink ballworm which causes great damage
to cotton in many countries. It has been established that pink bollworm
is spread by seed stock and raw material. rarantino measures are
introduced to prevent the penetrftion of the pest.
The pink ballworm is the caterpillar of the cotton moth, a small
butterfly of grey-broen color; the caterpillar is colored pink to meat-red.
At present this pest is spread in Egypt, America, same countries in
Asia, Australia, and many islands in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
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,yy.
nrIaLmmov
It is also found in southern Turkey. Special vigilance is required to
prevent its penetration into the USSR.
Its development proceeds in the following manner: in the spring
the butterflies fly out and lay eggs on different parts of the cotton
plant.
The caterpillars chew the buds and eat their content. The injured
buds wilt and produce ugly flowers. Later, caterpillars penetrate into
the cotton balls where they feed on the unripe fibers and seeds.
Caterpillars braid cocoons in seeds; the latter are then joined by
a web. Caterpillars, when in a dormant state, can stay in seeds for
2-0 days, which is significant for the spread of the pest.
PRINCIPAL QUARANTINE VEASURES.
I. Every imported cotton fiber is directed through definite points
where bales are examined, fuegation is compulsory and the destination
and route of the freight are designated.
2. Import of seeds of cotton plants and other MaIvaceae and Indian
hemp, [Apocynun cannabinuad are allowed only by special permission of the
Quarantine Service of the Illnistry of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural
Plants. Imported seeds are subjected to careful examination (analysis) and
fumigation.
S. The Quarantine Service of Agricultural Plants examines residues
of cotton, which arrive from quarantine sections of the USSR at special
process
plants which /* , raw material..
DISEASES OF COTTON PLANTS
GUNMOSIS OF COTTON. Bacterial disease; affects the plant during the
entire vegetation period, appearing in various forms. The first symptoms
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of gumnesis are observed on the second and third day after germination
on cotyledons in the form of oily dark green spots of round or elongated
shape. When base of cotyledons is injured, the disease is transferred
to the petiole and stem.
Gummosis produces oily dark green spots on foliage, bordered by
veins; this accounts for the name of the disease "edgy spottiness of
leaves." The spots are frequently elongated, appearing like leaks
distributed along veinlets. This represents non-developed lamina. It
affects leaves throughout the vegetatIon period. The injured cotyledons
and foliage are covered with sticky excretions which later dry out and
appear like grey films. The cotyledons and foliage get; brown and dry out.
The most dangerous form, "stem gummosis" appears on stems during the
budding stage. The disease usually begins betmeen infested petioles,
leaves and stem. At first oily dark spots or leaks appear; they gradually
grow and cover the entire stem. Injured stems and branches become thin
and brawn, yellow resin exudes from the tissue and congeals in drops and
films. The stem is frequently misshapen, breaks at the infected spot and
the plant perishes. Men the upper part of the stem is nfected, there is
no break, but the plant is dwarfed, retarded in growth, frequently does
not produce buds and ovaries, and occasionally perishes. The disease
stops at the blooming stage; injured spots oicatrize and leave only
dark strips. Gummosis subsequently appears on balls and fiber. On balls
It forms typical spots or ulcers which exude resin. Men balls are
severely infected, they become deformed and do not open when ripe or
open only in part. The fiber is sticky, brown and decays. The infection
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spreads from fiber to seeds. There are instances of bacteria penetrating
from the calyx to seeds.
The inducer of gummosis is the Bacterium malvacearum E. F. Sm.
Bacteria are preserved in seeds, primarily on. their epidermis, the raw
cotton wool and post-harvested, non-decayed residue of diseased plants.
Rain plays an important role in distributing the disease during the
vegetation period. Wind also spreads bacteria. Insects equally contribute
to the spread of infection since they not only transfer bacteria mechani-
cally but by causing injuries contribute to the letters' penetration
into the plant. The most common manner in which bacteria penetrate into
tissue is through apertures.
Meteorological conditions influence the development of gummosis.
Rain, dew and moisture of the air (above 70 o/O) contribute to the spread
of disease and infection of plants. The influence of temperature is less
noticeable since the inducer of gummosis is highly resistant to high
temperature (80 to 65? in dry surroundings) and low winter minimums.
Optimal temperature for infection is 35 to 36?.
Gummosis injures all varieties of cotton, especially the Egyptian
varieties. The group of Sea Island varieties (Egyptian cotton) is, however,
resistant to the disease.
The disease has a wide distribution; is found in all cotton growing
regions. Its harm is greatest in regions of adequate precipitation in
the first part of the summer. Among such regions are the south of
Tadthikistan, Tashkent oasis, Southern Katakhstah, eastern Azerbaidjan,
Northern Caucasus, Ukrainian SSR. Al]. forms of gummosis are observed
in these regions. In many sections of the Ukraine, Crimea and Trans
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Caucasia, where the foliage form of gummosis prevails, losses from this
disease are smaller compared to the regions of the first group. Development
is light in the majority of regions of Central Asia.
METHODS OF COETROL. Control is conducted by applying special measures
approved by the Ministry of Agriculture of the USSR.
This system applies chemical methods of control and agricultural
techniques intended primarily towards making seed stocks more healthful.
The principal measures consist in:
1. Mordant treatment of seeds. Formaline, which is chiefly used, is
taken in the proportion of 1:90, 1. e., one part of 40 oio formaline to
90 parts of water. The solution, 35 to 40 liters, is applied to one
centner of American varieties (pubescent seeds); Egyptian varieties
(non-pubescent seeds) require 25 to 30 liters. The expenditure of formaline
is 2.S to 4.0 kg. per ton. Formaline is applied manually (from barrels)
or by the machine PUM-1. Seeds are kept in the solution for 10 minutes,
are softened for 3 hours and then dried. Tare (packaging) is also diainfeoted.
Soaking of seeds in formaline, if done by machine, also lasts three hours.
Strongly pubescent seeds treated with formaline are passed through
the machine twice, to provide ample soaking.
In order to destroy all external and possible internal infection,
seeds at cotton refineries are treated by fumigation or sulfuric acid.
The formerrmethod 'vas developed at the Ukrainian experimental cotton
station. It zonsiets in treating seeds with formaline vapors after
preliminary heating at high temperature. Seeds are placed in, a drum
(cylinder), heated and kept for S minutes at TOO. They are then treated
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by formalize vapors in the same drum for 7 minutes. The seeds are next
transferred to other quarters and left for 24 hours to soften.
The sulfur acid method consists in treating seeds first with sulfur
acid in a "linting" machine and rinsftin water afterwards. The chemical
destroys the pubescence of seeds completely. Wrist seeds are next treated
with a formaline solution In the machine Pur. Seeds are fumigated in a
special drying machine at a temperature of 160 to 190?.
2. The introduction of resistant varieties. Under Azerbaidjan
conditions the most resistant varieties are roe. 2966-1, 4768-1, Az 68,
Az29, etc.
S. Separate harvesting storing and cleaning of raw cotton, gathered
from plots severely infested with gummosis.
4. Prohibit the use for planting of seeds from plots infested by the
ball form of gummosis; such seeds undergo technical treatment.
9. Careful gathering of all post-harvest residues (guz-pai) in the
fields and their subsequent use for fuel. Storing of residue in specially
designated places, away from locations where seeds were treated and stores
of agricultural implements.
6. Deep fall plowing of plots destined for planting cotton.
7. Winter irrigation of plots in irrigated regions in order to
produce a more rapid decay of residue with the resulting destruction of
the inducer of gummosis.
8. Removal of d iseased plants (with Infested cotyledons) in
"breaking through" cotton plantings.
9. Prompt removal of plants destroyed by gummosin beyond the
boundaries of plots and their burial no less than 20 am. deep.
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10. Introduction of mineral nitrogen fertilizers which increase plant
resistance to gummosis; additional feeding.
11* Introduction of grass field crop rotation and utilization of best
predecessors; not to tolerate planting of cotton after cotton; non-observance
of this rule severely increases infestation of cotton by the cotyledon form
of gummosis.
12. Introduction of sanitary-hygienic measures at cotton refineries
and warehouses.
VEPTICILLITIM TILT (TRACHEOVICOSE) OF COTTON appears on adult plants,
particularly on lover leaves, gradually spreading to upper. Along leaf
borders and between veinlets appear light green, later yellowing, diffuse
spots; the normal green color is preserved only in stripes along veinlets.
The infested tissue gets brown, the leaves dry and fall off. Occasionally,
a defoliated plant will produce new leaves. Towards the end of vegetation
a severe form of disease is occasionally observed, which causes the plant
to wilt within 2 to 3 days and to perish without any trace of leaf yellowing.
A characteristic trait of wilt is "browning" of the woody part of the
stem, easily distinsuished on the cut of the lower part of the stem. The
start of the disc+ se usually coincides with the end of budding and early
blooming period. Towards the end of vegetation, the disesse strengthens,
reaching its maximum development in September* It affects primarily
American cotton.
The inducer of the disease, Verticillium dahlias Kkb. This parasite
belongs to the imperfect fungi of the sub-roup hyphomycetes. V. dahliae
is a soil organism. The fungus penetrates into the plant through the roots
and its mycelium develops in the vascular system of the plant. Sometimes
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Irmau.k. J.QUU
small irregularly shaped micro-selerotia form on the decayed parts of the
plant (sten and leaves), as well as on the folds of the cotton balls.
Conidial spore-bearing does not take place under natural conditions. In
pure culture, horvaer, (when the infested tissue is planted), the fungus
quickly produces spores. They consist of branched conidiophores and
small cylindrical ual-cellular colorless pores distributed singly on
conidiophores.
V. dahlias is a non-specialized parasite which infests up to l3C
species of various plants of some 38 cenera. Among cultivated plants, this
organism infests, aside from cotton, sunflower, potatoes and other crops,
also rany weeds. Among non-susceptible crops are cereals and alfalfa.
Practically resistant are the Egyptian varieties of cotton, while the
majority of American cotton varieties get severely infested.
Mycelium and micro-sclerotia are preserved directly in the soil
and the residue of plants. The transmittance of infestation through
seeds is possible, although it has no practical significance since the
frequency of seed infestation amounts to ten thousand of one per cent.
The presence of injuries of the root system, particularly injuries
caused by nematodes carry significance in plant infection. Temperature,
moisture of the air and soil conditions affect disease. Increased moisture
of the soil contributes to disease development. At a high temperature of
soil and strong sunlight, diseases are more pronounced and the plant
withcrs rapidly. As to types of ells, greater development of disease
is observ d on light, sandy and clayey soils.
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The reaction of the parasite upon the plant is basically mechanical.
By filling the vascular system, the mycelium of the fungus obstructs the
proper water supply to individual parts of the plant, as a result of which
the leaves wilt. Infection also causes the tissue to die under the reaction
of toxic excretions of the fungus.
Cotton wilt is spread all over, in all cotton raising countries,
particularly in Central Asia.
Wilt belongs to the most injurious diseases of cotton. By causing
premature death and falling of leaves, the disease reflects upon the
quantity and quality of yield.
DETRDDS nF CONTROL. Ileasures designed to reduce soil infection and
replacement by resistant varieties are among the moot effective. Among
practical measures we list the following:
1. Grass field crop rotation of plantings with alfalfa, as a crop
resistant to wilt. Planting of alfalfa is recommended before any other
on severely infested plots.
2. Careful gathering of all residue from fields, particular
attention to be given the extraction of roots. All residue should be
immediately removed from plots.
3. Deep fall plowing.
4. Regular weed control not only on cotton plantings but on
boundaries and roadsides, as well.
5. Introduction of adequate dosages of organic and nineral
fertilisers which ensure normal plant development and increase resistance
to wilt. Additional feeding of cotton throughout its development is most
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srlantsev Transi. lam
important. The degree of infestation of cotton is reduced by the
introduction of speedily acting fertilizers, such as ammonium sulfate.
6. Introduction of resistant varieties: 5-450, 5-460, 108F, and
ethers, products of the All-Union Cotton Institute; Kos. 0.1363, 02129,
02006 and others mum products of Aserbaidjan cotton Institute.
rusAtirz WILT. Affects Egyptian cotton varieties. The disease
is spread only in several regions of the USSR. It infects cotton at
various stages of development and particularly early germination. Sprouts
show traces of the disease on cotyledons and foliage in the form of yellow,
later brown spots, distributed along veins. Lecause of the dying of
veinlets, a characteristic net forms on the leaves. The foliage drops,
the plants 7,orish. This may occur equally during the plant's budding
and bloolning stages. If the infested plants continue to grow and last
until the end of the vegetation period, they fail to bear fruit. Towards
the bed of the vegetaVon period the disease takes the form of typical
Wilt. The leaves lose "turgor", without changing color, the top of the
plant droops and full eestruction follows in 2 to 3 days. A typical
characteristic of various forms of fusarium wilt is the darkening of
pulp which spreads over the entire plant and which may be easily
established on a cross-cut of the stem at different height.
The inducer of the disease is the fungus Fusarium vasinfectum v.
egyptiacum Fahmy, belonging to hypLemycetes. This a skr?ictly special
parasite which infects only cotton. Its steady habitat is the soil.
It penetrates plants through the roots and spreads through the vascular
system of the entire plant, reaching even seedt. In addition to conidial
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Briantsev 11 Transi. 1606.
spore-boar/ng, the parasite forme chlamydosporee in which the fungus
winters and survivee the unfavorable condition of moisture. Soil an,2
seeds represent the foci of the disease. It may also spread through plant
residue.
METHODS 3? COITR3L.
1. Quarantine measures to prevent further spread of the Oicease
into USSR. The import of needs and ram cotton iE therefore prohibited
beyond the limits of Infeeted areas. In view of the possibility of infecting
the soil through the seed stock of root crops, strict quarantine measures
are maintained with respect to this material.
2. It is essential to assign special equipment for the cultivation
of plots infested by fusnrium or to provide for its careful cleansing
end disinfection with formaline (1:20) before use on non-Infested plots.
5. Paw cotton material from infested plots should be stored separately
from healthy crops.
4. Seeds of infested cotton should not be used as seed stock but
subjected to treatment.
5. Careful removal of all residue of cotton from infested plots;
thin may only he used for fuel.
G. Introduction of proper grace crop rotation; cotton plantings
not to succeed cotton. crops.
LEAF 'ROLL.
A virus disease characterized by deformed lowees. The borders of
leaf lamina are rolled upwards and occasionally tolled into tube form.
The infested leaves are much ticker, fragile, of epecifie shine.
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brlantsev Transi. 160a
Because of the shortening of internodes, the diseased plants are retarded
in growth. Diseased plants are branched, the runners and leaves drooping.
They frequently lodge. Fruit bearing, following early and severe infesta-
tion, is almost completely absent or the number of cotton balls greatly
reduced. Diseased plants are usually found in fields in foci. The
appearance of single infested plants points to late infestation.
The virus producing leaf roll is a special one and affects primarily
Egyptian varieties. American varieties are seldom affected; symptoms
of the disease either hardly show, do not show at all or are not typical.
Other species of cultivated cotton, including "gum" (ksiatic cotton),
are evidently resistant, according to observation
The host of the virus is primarily the cotton aphid. Acacia and
peach aphids may also act as hosts. The virus may winter in cotton seeds.
However, aphids, the carriers of the, virusand those weeds on "Mich aphids
feed are of considerable significance in preserving the virus in the winter.
Among perennial weeds [Melva] "prosvirnik" and (Barbera? Beck.]: "surepka"
represent threats in spreading virus disease.
Leaf roll belongs to injurious diseases of cotton since it reduces
the number of cotton balls and deteriorates the quality of fiber.
Quarantine object.
=Ions OF CO1TBOL.
1. Introduction into production of resistant cotton varieties:
NOS. 4786-1, 2966-1, Az 29, Az 68, and others (hzerbaldjan conditions).
2. Quarantine measures which prohibit the importation of seeds from
infested areas into non-infested; this applies to Egyptian cotton.
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rianzsev 19 Transl. 180a
3. Regular control of aphids, virus hosts and chiefly cotton aphids.
Control measures should apply not only to cotton plantings but also to
surrounding plots where aphids may winter. Control should begin in early
spring in wintering habitats.
cae
4. reed control, especially of ralvi4 where infection is preserved
throughout the winter. This weed serves in addition as forage for aphids.
5. Early planting of cotton; avoidance of thin planting since viruses
spread chiefly on thin plantings.
PESTS AND DISEASES OF FLAX (p. 358-369)
Among multi-poisonous insects, flax is primarily injured by the
stem borer, [Phytometra gamma L.], the flax moth, [Chlorides dipsacea L.],
and
the sugar beet inchworm. [Loxostege sticticalis L.],/flax gnat. The most
serious injury is caused among "special" pests by the "blue flax flea,"
[Aphthona euphorbiae Schrank). Diseases affect flax throughout the
vegetative period. Rust, fusarium wilt, polysporoses, anthracnose, and
the flower parasite, "povilika" dodder (Cuscuta epilinum] represent the
greatest threat.
FLAX PESTS
Blue flax FLEA (APPTBONA EUPTIORBIAE SCHRAM() is a beetle of the
Chrysonelidae order, of small size, jumping legs, black with blue or
green shine; legs yellow, except for back "hips"; length 1.5 to 2'mm?
ill. no. 100, p. 359.
The beetle is widely spread in flax areas and represents one of the
.most dangerous flax pests. It injures flax primarily in the southern
flax growing regions (northern Caucasus), less in the central belt
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DrAtulugouv LU Trans'. 18011;
(northern Ukraine, Voronezh, Kursk, Moscow, Smolensk, Gorki oblast(s);
in the northern belt (Leningrad and Ivanovek oblast(s)), it causes damage
only in warm and dry years. Develops only one generation; adult beetles
winter; they awaken in early spring and at first feed on different weeds.
When flax germinates, the beetles attack this crop. Their number increases
on flax within one month. This is connected with the appearance of beetles
at a different time after wintering and the period necessary for their
transfer to flax fields.
The beetles injure flax by producing sores on cotyledons and young
leaflets which resemble small round holes. In cases of severe infestation,
not only individual leaves dry out, but the entire plant. Towards the end
of spring the number of beetles is radically reduced and they gradually
disappear. This may be explained by the withdrawal of the beetles into
the soil for egg laying, after which they die. Egos are laid either on
roots or close to them. In 14 to 15 days, small, white worrilike larvae
appear; they eat small rootlets and the bark of the main root. The larvae
stage lasts 25 to 30 days. Pupating also takes place in the soil, and in
another two to three weeks, usually shortly before the harvesting of flax,
the
new beetles appear from the pupae and immediately come to/surface. The
young beetles feed on leaves and stems of flax. On the latter they
scrape the epidermis and parenchyma, injuring the fibers in the meantime.
After flax is harvested, the beetles remain in the soil or spread along
ditches, shrubs, edges of forests,ftere they winter in the soil, under
fallen leaves and weeds. The pest causes damage in hot, dry weather; in
cold and rainy seasons, the danger is insignificant.
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W/o\ imor.A.W+
It represents a particular threat to young germinating flax in the
spring. Damage to young sloots may injure or severely reduce yields
or result in their complete lose. The injury caused by young beetles in
July at harvesting time reflects upon the quality of the fiber. Because
the fibers have been chewed, their length is reduced and the injured
stems soak later unevenly in processing, which affects the durability of
the fiber.
Larvae affect the development of plants by feeding on roots and delay
growth, which shows particularly in dry weather. Larvae also injure the
root system, contribute to the penetration of fungi parasites into the
plant and the development of such diseases and fusarium and flax
anthracnosis.
METrODS OP CONTROL.
1. PLANTING OF FLAX IN EARLY AND CLOSE PERIODS. When planted early,
the beetles appear in masses on the fields at the tine the plants have
already gone through their moat dangerous stage of development (cotyledon
leaves and first pair of genuine leaves).
Men planting in closely timed, the beetles distribute evenly
throughout the flax plots; when plantings are timed far apart, they
concentrate on plots of later periods and cause severs injuries.
2. The destruction of beetles by poisons of intestinal and contact
action. Dusting with calcium arsenate (8 to 10 kg./h.) or sodium fluoride
(10 to 12 kg./h.) or the dusts DDT and GIUTTSG (12 to 15 kg./h.). Good
results are also obtained from dusting with anabadust or nicodust o/0).
3. Timely harvesting to reduce the period of stem injury by young
beetles.
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.6J1 4.0.4.1loCAWIF L.4 Trans./. ItiOs
4. Disking or deep plowing of plots, i diately following flax
harvests, in order to plow-in the remaining plants which may serve as
forage for beetles before they enter their wintering stage.
DISEASES Or FLAX.
RUST OF PLAX. A widely spread disease; known also under the names
of nprisukha" end "mukhosed ."
A7peare in the middle of the sumer, at the time of flax bloom.
Orange pustules, uredospores . form on stems, chiefly on thin branches,
leaves and calyxes. These spores spread the disease throughout the
vegetation period.
Shortly before harvesting black, protruding, shiny dots of round
and elongated shape form on the stems. These formations represent the
collection of winter spores of rust, telespores. They are unii.cellular,
of brown color and unite' into a firm layer which settles under the
epidermis.
The inducer of tie ? disease, Ifelampsora lint Deism. is a one-host
parasite, which spends all stages of development on flax, The alcidial
spring stage appears in the form of yellow pustules at the bottom of
cotyledons and leaves and is usually not noticeable. In the summer, both
surrrer and winter stages develop. The parasite winters in the third
(winter) stage on post-harvest residue. Thus nn4 residue are foci of
infection; the ftzngus penetrates seeds from rewants of injured stems
and balls. Bovrever, the disease cannot be transmitted directly through
seeds or soil; this distinguishes rust from other flax diseases.
The degree of infection caused by rust depends upon ecological
conditions. Rust develops severely at a temperature of 16 to 220 and
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orianssev Transl. 180a
under precipitation, rains, dew, fog. Winds contribute to the rapid
distribution of alcidiospores and uredospores. The spores are spread
also by insects, fleas and thrips and other pests. Rust, by infesting
the stem, causes substantial Injury to the quality of the fiber.
Dark spots of rust the: form on stems are not removed from the fiber
during soaking, which is responsible for the nee 'prisukha." The strength
of fiber and its length are affected. When severely infested, flax is
reduced by 5 to 7 and even 11 grades. The degree of loss depends upon
many factors. Different varieties of flax are affected in different
manner. Along with severely infested varieties, there are resistant ones.
The degree of flax infestation depends to a large extent upon different
agro-technical factors, especially the periods of planting and harvesting.
Early plantings suffer less from rust , since by the time telespores
appear, crops have reached maturity. In late plantings rust infests
plants long before maturity, and therefore causes much damage to plantings.
Early harvesting also reduces louses from rust.
EETRODS OF CONTROL.
1. Introduction of resistant varieties. Among rust-resistant
varieties are Svetoch, Prindil'shchik, 128812, and others.
2. Careful cleansing of seeds, since rust may spread through
vegetative residue (stems, calyx).
3. Early planting.
4. Early harvesting of flax (during early yellow stage) reduces
losses from rust.
5. Introduction of grass field crop rotation which precludes the
frequent return of flax to the same field.
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Briantsev 24 Transl. 180a
6. Careful harvesting of flax and fall plowing with plow
and fore-plow.
FUSARIUU OR FLAX MIT. A most dangerous disease. Plants are affected
throughout vegetation. On germinating seedlings, fusarium appears in the .
form of decay of root collar. The plants get yellow and wither. The most
characteristic traits of the disease are observed on young plants before
blooming. Infested plants wilt.' At first the top yellows and droops,
then the plant gradually gets brown and dries out. rat usually spreads
by fool, with the result that ciroular areas form on plantings consisting
of wilted and browned plants. Fusarium is observed in the later stages
of flax development, the period of last bloom and ball formation. Then
the plants get yellow and brown balls do not reach maturity, and even
seeds get frequently affeOted. In cases of light infestation, plants
develop more or less normally and reach maturity.
The inducer of the disease, (Fusarium lini Bo11.1, belongs to the
group of imperfect fungi, the sub-group of hyphomycetes. This is a soil
organism. Hycelium penetrates the roots first, next the vascular system
of the stem, which interferes with the supply of water and nutritional
substances. This accounts for the plants' yellowing and wilting. Some-
times a pink film, the spores of the fungus, appears on the root collar
of infested plants., which consists of cohidia carriers and conidia.
The latter are colorless, usually 4-cellular, of scythe shape. The
parasite is preserved (in the form of spores and rycelium) in seeds,
plant residue and soil. In the latter the fungus does not lose its
viability for 5 to 6 years. The accumulation of the infectious origin
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of fusarium in the soil determines along with othisr unfavorable factors,
the state of "flax sickness."
Infection is transmitted throughout vegetation chiefly through the
soil, which accounts for the distribution of the disease by foci*
Infection is most severe in moist and warm weather (19 to 200).
At low temperature the development of fusarium is stopped and does not
develop at temperatures lower than 13?. Early planting.) are therefore
lightly affected, while later plantings are severely injured, since they
do not have an opportunity to accuMulate strength before the appearance
of the disease. foist, acid soils equally contribute to the development
of fusarium.
Fusarium of flax presents a threat to all regions where flax is
cultivated. By injuring the plant at different stages of its development
it produces poor yields, reduces the harvest of seeds. This disease
affects both the quantity and quality of fiber by reducing yield of
long fiber and grafts.
rETHOD OF CMROL.
1. Careful cleansing and sorting of seeds, at votich tine not only
impurities but also sickly, undeveloped seeds, usually carrying infection,
are removed.
2. Treating seeds with "protars" (PD) or NIU F-2 dry method*
The preparations are applied in the proportion of 1.5 kg. per 1 ton of
seeds; treatment is applied 2 to 3 days before planting.
3. Grass field crop rotation during which flax is planted on land
formerly occupied by perennial grasses.
4. Close and early periods of planting which result in a lower
percentage of infection by fusarium, as compared to ltkte periods.
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Briantsev 26 Transl. 180a
Liming of aold soils. Lime Is introduced after flax is harvested
or at least 2 to 3 years before planting.
6. To prohibit the spreading of flax stray/ on fields under flax
crop rotation and on virgin soils intended for flax during the succeeding
2 to 3 years.
7. No cultivation in the proximity of livestook farms, barnyards
and manure storage areas to prevent the spread of infection to fields
by manure. In this connection, it is also recommended to feed flax
residue to livestock and chicken poultry only in boiled form. Other
residue of the first flax crop should be burned.
S. Production and introduction of resistant varieties. This reasure
is perspective. The varieties I-5 and I-7, produced by the Flax Institute,
and the variety A-2176, of Smolenek Station selection, are distinguished
by resistance to rust and fusarium.
MX:I/INC OR ITAGILTTY OF STEMS. is observed on flax at different
stages of growth. The disease appears in the form of brous epots on
cotyledons and root collar. Erousing during severe infection of early,
crops results in complete decay. The disease is particularly typical on
stems, the brawl spots gradually flowing together. The stems become
fragile, especially in their lover parts. Brous spots appear also
on balls and lead to premature drying; infection next spreads to seeds:
The disease reaches its strongest development OA mature plants from bldom
to maturity.
The inducer of the disease, [Polyspora lino Peth et Leff.] belongs
to the group of imperfect fungi, the sub-group of (Uelanconiaceet) Spores
are jellied, colorless pustules consisting of oonidia and uni-cellularl
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Briantaav 27 ranal. 180a
conidia, oval in shape. The infection is transmitted by seeds, residue
and soil. Preserved in the soil for several years, the parasite depresses
development of flax and is one of the causes ofTlax sickness."
During vegetation the infection is spread by aerial currents, soil,
rain drops and insects.
The disease prevails in Vologda, Arkhangelsk, Uolotov, Pskov,
Smolensk oblast(s) and Belo SSR (Thite Russia).
Browning of stem is among the dangerous diseases of flax; it causes
loss of yields, lodging of plants, reduces the yield of seeds and parti-
cularly affects the quality of fiber. The latter becomes fragile and
takes on a brown coloring. The pulp of the stem cannot be removed from
the fiber even by soaking. The grade of fiber is frequently reduced
5 to 7 degrees.
LETUODS =TRU. For control, measures designed to improve
seeds and soil, are foremost; among them the following measures are
recommended:
1. Disinfection of seeds with "protars" (PD) or RIUIF-2.
2. Grass field crop rotation, under which flax is returned to the
same plot no earlier than every 5 to 6 yeare.
3. Prohibition to spread flax on fields under crop rotation and
particularly on predecessors, in order to prevent further infection of
the soil by flax straw.
4. Fall plowing which destroys "podsed" (lower layer of plants
on meadows), infected plants and their residue.
Control of weeds of flax, since the possibility of their infection
Is not precluded and may be transmitted to flax.
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Briantsev 28 Transl. 180a
5. Introduction of resistant varieties. Different varieties and
strains of flax possess differeut degrees of susceptibility to this
disease. This suggests the possibility of producing resistant varieties.
ANTFPACNOSE OF FLAX. Various parts of the plant are affected by
this disease throughout the vegetation period. The disease is of greatest
danger at the germination stage. The first indication of the disease appears
on the cotyledons in the form of small bromn spots. On the hypo-cotyl
spots form and later cracks and decays. Browning occasionally spreads to
the roots. Such injury reflects upon the general condition of the plant:
it yellows, often wilts and perishes. During mass infection the entire
field acquires a yellow coloring which is responsible for the name
"yellowing of sprouts."
The disease later api;ears on leaves in brown spots. The Injured
tissue gets brown and dries out, especially on margins and tips of leaves.
Stems of adult plants are also covered with brown spots and cracks.
Characteristic of the disease is the marbling of stems which have the
appearance of minute brown spottiness. Occasionally stems are completely
brown. Spots are, however, not deep and thus do not affect the quality
of the fiber.
Finally, the disease may appear on balls in brown spots, not clearly
defined. When balls are infected early, the mycelium of the fungus
penetrates into seeds, infecting primarily their epidermis. Diseased
seeds are usually sickly, of dull color, thus distinguished from
healthy seeds. (lamination is low in infected seeds. The harm caused
by anthracnosis hence causes loss of sprouts, reduction in yield of
seeds and impairs the quality of the latter.
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Briantsev 29 Transl. 180a
The inducer of the disease, (Collototrichum lini Doll.), is a
fungus of the llperfect fungi of the Melanooniales order. Spores of
the parasite aprear on infected parts in the shape of orange pustules.
The spores arc colorless, uni-cellular, elongated or cylindrical. Infection
is transnitted by seeds, residue of plants, and soil. The parasite remains
viable in the soil for several years and ray also be one of the causes
of "flax sickness." Luring vegetation the disease spreads rapidly with
the aid of spores vi:ich are easily transported by wind, rain and insects,
such an, for instance, tYe "flax beetle" (Aphthona euphorbiae
IR/let and warm weather favor the development of anthracnosie,
do litht acid soils uroil late plantings.
Anthracnosle is spread in all flax growing regions.
NETTODS OF cnrnica. As seen from the above description,
Schradke).
and so
the inducer
of the diseaso Is related to FUsariun lini biologically and ecologically
and control is therefore similar to that of fusarium. The principal
measures are cleansing, sorting and mordant treatment of seeds; grass
field crop rotation, and good cultivation of the soil.
"POVILIKA", UODDER, (CITSC77"A =TM is a climbing plant of thin
stem, without roots
it feeds upon it as
winds itself around
or foliage. By winding its stem around flax plants,
upon a plant host. then strongly developed, it
many plants; one ()lump may generally injure 15 to
20 plants. The latter become depressed; yield of fiber and seeds is
reduced.
In the middle of the summer small flowers form on stems of
Cuscuta epilinum, gathering into heads; seeds are very small; the plant
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rriantsev 30 Transi. ibUtt
produces 3O-:0 seeds. The seedling, when coming in contact pith the
green plant host minds itself around it and acts as a parasite.
During vegetation the parasitic plant spreads by "pieces of stem"
which, when they come in oontaot with a plant, are capable to grow and form
suckers. Two species of Cuscuta epilinum act as parasites on flax:
[Cuscuta epilinum Weihe) (flax) and (aepithymum Purrs) (clover).
FLAX "POVILIKKDODLER.[CUSCUTA EPILIRIN 11EIBE] affects particularly
flax, less frequently its weeds; the seeds of this species are single or,
in contrast with other speoies, double, grown together. The parasite is
spread by seed stock. Seeds do not remain in the soil long and develop
in large masses in the succeeding year. Very low soil temperature and
deep penetration hinder their growth.
CLOVER "POVILIKA" DODDER,(C. LPITLY15;li YURR.] injures in addition
to clover and flax, "Timofeevka" (PhIeum L.) and even grain cereals;
its seeds remain in the soil for many years. (p. 338).
NETKOD OF CONTROL?
1. Careful cleansing of seeds with "trieue(grain cleaner).
Seed stock should not contain any seeds of this parasitic plant.
Following the sorting of infested seeds, residue may be fed In boiled
form to livestock; unused residue is buried no less than 1 mm. deep or
burned.
2. Pre-harvesting survey of seed plantings to eliminate non-infested
plots. Plantings infested by the parasite during the summer are not used
for seed.
3. Disinfection by boiling of bags and packing material used for
infested seeds, since the seeds of the parasitic plant because of their
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rough surface are retained in the bags and thus spread infection.
4. Quarantine measures to protect uninfested regions and plots from
C. epilinum.
S. Grass field crop rotation. Use of clover, infected by C. epilinum
in the preceding year, is permitted only with the approval of the Quarantine
Inspection Service.
6. Destruction of foci of C. epilinum, including a strip one meter
wide of non-infected flax area around the focus. Infested flax is burned
with weeds; soil is dug up.
7. Careful harvesting of flax. Harvesting and processing of flax
from areas severely infested by C epilinum should be separate. Deep
fall plowing with plow and fore-plow of all plots planted with flax.
PESTS AND FLOWERING PLANT PARASITES OF HE2P (p. 369-371)
Hemp is injured chiefly by suzar beet vebworms, stem borers, crickets
(Gryllotalpa vulgaris A-ong special pests (infesting only hemp)
the crop is infested by the hop flea beetle [Psylliodee attenuate Koch.],
which frequently causes considerable damage to hemp. [Orobanche ramose]
uses hemp as its host.
PESTS OF HEM
HOP FLEA BEETLE CPsylliodes attenuate Koch.] represents one of the
most serious pests of hemp. Small beetle of the order of (Chrysomelidae);
has jumping legs; dark green; only ends of upper wings, feelers, and legs
are rust-yellow; length 1.8 to 2.6 mm.
Found in hemp growing regions, but particular damage is caused in
Kuibishev and Gorki oblasi(s), Bashkir ASSR, Northern Caucasus, and northern
Ukraine.
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Briantsev 32 Tre.nsI. 180a
Develops one generation; the beetles winter; they awaken in early
spring and at first feed on nettle, hops and residue of hemp. then young
hemp sprouts appear, the beetles transfer there and feed first on cotyledons,
then genuine leaves, eating regular circles of them. In the beginning of
the summer, the beetles disappear in the soil and lay their eggs near
rootlets of plants. One female may lay as many as 300 eggs. The larvae
feed on roots of hemp, chiefly small rootlets. Pupating takes place in
the soil; new beetles appear in late July, early August and feed on hemp
plants, settling on upper parts, leaves and seeds of "milky ripeness."
The damage caused by the pests may be considerable. After harvesting, the
beetles continue to feed on hemp stubble and remaining residue. They winter
on hemp fields, in the upper layers of the soil, remainders of plants and
if machine-harvested, in the stubble.
Then hemp is severely infested in the spring, yield is reduced and
its quality impaired. Large damage is usually observed in years of dry
and warm springs.
Plants that were severely infested in the spring have shorter stems
(25 o/o), and seed output is reduced 40 o/o and over. Injuries caused
in the fall may equally cause considerable damage.
ITASURES OF COI:TROL.
1. Destruction of residue and nettle on w)ich beetles feed in the
early spring.
2. Planting of hemp in close periods.
3. Destruction of beetles by dusting with calcium arsenate (8 to 10
kg/h), sodium fluoride (10 to 12 kg/h), dusts DDT and GICHTSG (15 to 20 kg/h).
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Briantsev 33 Transl. 180a
Good results are also obtained from dusting with anabadust and nikodust.
Control should begin before the beetle transfers to hemp crops, while
pest is still feeding on nettle.
4. Gathering and destruction of residue following harvesting, disking,
and fall plowing.
FLOWERING PLAUT PAPSITES (p. 371-372)
Branched (Orobanche ramose L.). This parasite develops on roots,
causing the formation of characteristic swellings with numerous long
runners. A branched stem, 25 cm. high, grows out of the swellings.
One plant of Orobanche has up to 20 fruit-bearing branches. The fruit
is a ball containiNg very small seeds, the total number of which amounts
to 150 thousand per plant. The seeds of Orobanche remain in the soil for
many years.
By depriving the plant of nutritional eleminIts and water, Orobanche
causes severe depression of the plant and leads to loss in yields. It
infests in addition to hemp, also tobacco and sometimes legumes.
Develops in southern and south-western regions and Povolshie (Volga)
=HODS OF CODTROLS.
1. Grass field crop rotation, with the exclusion of hemp and other
susceptible crops for several years. Potatoes, sugar beet, not infested
by branched Orobanche, may be included in crop rotation;
2. Fall plowing;
3. Veeding and destruction of Orobanche before seeding;
4. Introduction of Orobanche-resistant varieties and forms, specifi-
cally Italian hemp. Hybrids of Italian and central Russian hemp are considered
resistant.
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briaptsev tV't 110.11.1.
9. To prohibit the carrying of seeds from infested regions into
non-infested.
PESTS AND DIEBASES OF RUBBER BEARING PLANTS. (p. 372-378)
Because of the exceptional importance and economic significance of
rubber, this crop is given much attention. Areas devoted to plantings
are extended each year and their yields increase. Resistant yields
of rubber bearing plants may, however, be obtained by applying advanced
agricultural techniques, including pest and disease control. Rubber bearing
plants are injured by multi-poisonous and special pests.
Among multi-poisonous pests are wireworms and pseudo-wireworms,
cockchafers, cutworm moths injuring roots, grey weevils [Tanymecus
palliatus F.]; nmedliak peschiany," [Opatrum sabulosum Lo]; sugar
beet vebworme (Loxostege sticticalis L.), which eat the above-ground
parts of plants.
Among special pests are [Olibrus bicolor F.];-the(cabbage) weevil
curculio; [Ceutorrhynchus punctiger Gyn.]; and [Ensina sonchi L.], and
aphids.
Among diseases prevailing on rubber bearing plants are rust, mildew and
root decay.
PESTS OF RUBBER BEARING PLANTS
"ODUVANCHIKOVY SEMIATOCBETS" (Olibrus bicolor Po) is a small beetle
of the order Phalacridae; bulging body, black; on upper wings in the
back a red spot on each; length 2.2 to 3.2 ram. Distributed in European
USSR and Central Asia*
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Briantsev
35 Transl. 180a
The beetles winter in the soil. In early spring they come out of
their wintering abodes and settle on wild growing dandelions. When kok-
saghyz begins to bloom, they transfer to it, settling primarily on
second year plantings. The eggs are laid in buds; development of eggs
takes several days. Larvae feed on achenes; they suck their content and
at the time of the ripening of achenes and opening of inflorescence, one
part of the larvae has already completed their development and passed onto
the upper layer of the soil for pupating down to a depth of 5 cm. If by
that time the larvae did not complete their development, they transfer
to the unopened inflorescence and continue to feed there. One inflorescence
usually holds two larvae; the pests cause noticeable harm, destroying 30 p/C
of seeds of inflorescence.
When harvesting is early, many larvae are carried away with yields,
and in drying places where seeds are cleansed, many abandon the inflorescence
and disappear into the eoil, thereby creating new foci.
VETUODS OF CONTROLs
1. Destruction of wild dandelions close to fields of kok-saghyz.
2. Shaking off beetles from blooming kok-saghyz into vessels smeared
with sticky liquid. The beetles may also be gathered with the seed
gathering machine of Filipovmake; Gathered beetles are burned.
3. Immediate gathering and destruction of residue where seeds were
cleaned; deep plowing of plots where temporary seed receiving, drying and
cleaning stations mere established.
4. Laying out of new fields as far as possible from the old.
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nrlanbuov iransL. Lova
"CDPVANCHIKOVY SKPYTNOKPODOTNIK" (Ceutorrhynohus punctiger Gyn.),
is
belong to the order of weevils. This srall, black beetle/covered with
brown scales and a light spot; length 2 mm. Distribution European USSR.
The beetles winter; they awaken in the spring when wild growing
dandelions bloom and settle on them; transfer to kok-saghyz, primarily to
fields of second and tf-ird generations. The females lay eggs in the buds
and flowering heads. Larvae consume the ovaries of flowers and then
aoheneu. Larvae feed for two weeks and then disappear into the soil
down to a depth of 5 an. to pupate. Duration of the pupating stage is one
month; the beetles winter in the soil.
Another species is found in Central Asia, C. ()stator Forst.
METHODS OF COETROL are the same as In the case of (Olibrus bicolor F.];
except that beetles are not gathered.
"OSOTRAIA PESTROKRYLKA" (Ermine sonchi L.) belongs to the order of
Trypetidae. A fly of trnnsparent wings; the front border of each has a
brown eye, occasionally 1 to 3 brown spots; length 3 mm.; larvae is legless,
has no clearly visible head; length 6 mm.
Injures kok saghyz, tau saghyz, krym saghyz; particularly injurious
to annual kok saghyz. Develops on weeds, especially dandelions, [Sonohue]
and (Heriacium]. Flies appear in the spring and feed on nectar of blooming
Composite?. Eggs are laid between leaflets and into the flowers of rubber
bearing plants. Larvae feed on achenes; the latter become soft under larvae
excretions and create conditions conducive to fungi diseases. Larvae
pupate within the infloresconae. The pest may develop several generations;
in steppe regions It produces four generations.
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Briantsev
37 Trans'. 180a
MEITODS OF CONTROL. Destruction of we ft d a of Compositee around
plantations of rubber bearing plants.
APHIDS. The dandelion aphid, (Icaorosiphum taraxaci Keit.) and green
root phid (Xerophilaphis scorzoneree llordv.) transfer onto kok saghyz
from wild growing Comoositae. The former aphid sucks the juice of leaves.
The creen root aphid settles near the root collar and on roots and sucks
their juice. Their sugary excrements attract black ants, which gnaw holes
in the roots and thereby cause additional damage.
METHODS OF corrpoL.
1. Destruction of wild growing dandelions.
2. Spraying with anabazin-sulfate (0.1 o/o) with soap (0.4 o,/o) to
destroy the dandelion aphid.
3. Treatment with purls green of black ants living in the soil.
This preparation is introduced by teaspoon into the opening apertures of
burrows leading to the c.nt hills. (111.105, p. 375, Pests of seeds of kok
saghyz).
In order to prevent injury to rubber bearing plants by the larvae of
click beetles (Agriotes obscureus L.] ("shohelkuny");Ichernotelki,"
[Pedinus femoralis 1..] and weevils, plantings should be on plots of low
infestation.
By taking soil tests the degree of infestation of plots is established.
Planting is permissible on plots infested no higher than by one larvae of
weevil, 5 to 6 wirewyrms, 7 to 8 pseudo wireworms, in the proportion to
1 m2 of area.
DISEASES OF MIME MARINO PUNTS
RUST OF RUDDER BEADING PLANTS. The disease injures leaves. causing
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Briantsev
38 Transl. 180a
the formation of small yellowish or orange spots with pustules, the spores
of fungi. The coloring of pustules varies from yellow to dark brown,
depending upon the stage of the parasite. On rubber bearing plants
several species of rusts are found, of which the most widely spread is
Puccini& taraxaci and P. variabilis.
Puooinia taraxaci Plowr. injures kok saghyz. Rust appears in early
spring on two-year old plants. Orange pustules appear first on the
foliage, wi-lch is the aecidial stage. In the summer uredosporee develop,
appearing as brown powder-like pustules. They are freely distributed
by wind and cause mass infestation of plants. In the fall, telespores,
pustules of a much darker color appear on foliage; this parasite winters
primarily on foliage at the telespore stage, which develops only after
wintering. Rust of kok saghyz may winter in the uredospore stage.
P. variabilis Grey., a one-host parasite, develops on krym saghyz.
The aecidial spore bearing takes place on the lower side of Mayes
in the form of yellow pustules. Uredospores and telespores appear also
on the lower sides of leaves. They are mmall, pomderlike, round or
elongated pustules, dispersed, occasionally flowing together. rredospores
are brown, telespores dark brown.
Bust of tau saghyz is caused by the one-host parasite Puccini&
scorzonerae Jacky. Alcidia appear first as yellow pustules, followed
by brown and dark brown pustules of uredospores and telesponas.
Leaves of rubber bearing plants dry out prematurely when
Infested by rust.
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Briantsev
39 Trans', 180a
Infection of rust (of different species) remains during the winter
on plant residue and winter plantings.
=RODS OF CONTROL.
1. Destruction or ensilage of residue after the cutting of roots
during harvesting and burning of wastes following seed cleaning.
2. Careful weeding, especially of dandelions from which rust may be
transferred to kok saghyz and krym saghyz plantings*
5. Spraying (2 to 3 times) of plantings with 0.75 0/0 solution of
Bordeaux mixture or lime sulfur decoction of a concentration 1:S0, or
1 0/10 solution of sulfur paste. On first year plants measures are
applied when there are leaves on a plant.
MILDEW OF RPBBER BEARING FLAWS. Kok saghyz and krym saghyz are
infested by Sphaerotheca fuliginea f. taraxaci; on tau saghyz Leveillula
taurica f. tau saghyri.develops. Mildew appears on the foliage in the
form of white film. There are the mycelium and conidial spores. The
aseigerous stage develops toward the end of vegetation and appears in the
form of dark points. The parasites winter in the latter stage on residue
of leaRes. Severely infested plants terminnte their vegetation prematurely.
UETRODS OF CONTROL.
1. Ensilage or destruction of residue of plants.
2. Dusting of plantings with sulfur or spraying with lime sulfur
decoction, of a concentration 1:S0 or with 1 ?A solution of sulfur paste.
ROOT DECAY OF RPBBER BEARING PLANTS.
The disease consists in the decay of the root system.
The causes of decay are manifold. The disruption of the entire
covering of root tissues is of primary significance. When there is
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Br iantsev 40 Trans'. 1eua
abundant moisture of the soil, especially preceded by a dry period,
the growth of inner and external tissues is irregular. As a result, external
penetrate
old, less elastic tissues are torn. Parasitic micro-organisms/into splits
penetrate, causing decay. Part of the root tissue is injured by nematodes.
The degree decay development is determined by the depth of wounds and
the time of their appearance. Injury is li ht when wounds are fresh and
not deep. zany soil micro-organiams participate in the formation of root
deoay. The most widely spread are white, grey and red decay.
TiNITE DECAY is caused by the cup fungus Sclerotinia Libertiana Fuck.
On inljnred roots the epidermis remains untouched, but the internal
parenchyma tissue decoys completely. The milky tubes containing rubber
are not destroyed and resemble threads which pull in breaking. Numerous
large, black sclerotia are observed in the injured tissue. All plants
'di...which the root=syStem is infedtedcWilt The mycelium of the parasite
penetrates into the roW:43 through cracks, occasionally through side
rootlets. Infection remains in the soil.
RAY DECAY is caused by the fungus Dotrytis cinema Pers. Roots
decay; above-ground parts of injured plants wilt. The fungus develops
in the conidial and sclerodial stages. Infection remains in the soil.
nit(' and gray decay may affect roots during winter storage.
RED DECAY is caused by the soil fungus Thizoctonia violacea Tul.
Injured roots are covered with a matted (felt) film of violet color;
roots decay. This disease is primarily observed on tau saghyz in the fall.
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Briantnev 41 Trans1. 180e.
All species of decay of roots develop on heavy moist soils.
VETHODS OF CONTROL.
1. Fall plowing and good pre-planting cultivation of the soil.
2. Bill methiad of planting, as proposed by T. D. Lysenko. This
method ensures favorable development of roots and thus increases resistance
of roots to decay.
S. Proper care of plantings, specifically deep cultivation between
rows, which contributes to aeration of the soil and thus improves
conditions for root development.
4. Removal of infested plants.
PESTS ANE DISEASES OF SUNFLOWER CROPS (p. 378484)
Sunflower plants are injured by locusts, grasshoppers,- sugar beet
webworms, chewing moths, wireworms, "ehernotelki," [Pedinus femoralis L.]
seryi sveklovichny dolgonosik," [Tanvmecus nalliatus F.] among multi-
poisonous insects. Among special pests, the sunflower moth is particularly
widespread.
Sunflowers are injured by disease at any stage, but particularly.
when mature. The greatest threat represents sclerotinia, rust and broom
rape [Orobanche ramosa].
PESTS OF S7NFLOWEE PLANTS
SUNFLOWER MOTH (Homoeosoma nebulellum Hb.). Belongs to the order
of Pyralidae. The front wings of the butterfly (moth) are long, gray,
with bald.* dots in the center; back wings are wider, light , with dark
veinlets; spread of wings 20 to 27 mm. Caterpillar is gray, has three
lengthy stripes on the bade.; head light brown; length 15 to 16 mm.
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Friattsev 42 Iransl. 180a
Te sunfloaer moth has a vide distribution and represented a serious
threat to sunflowers before the introduction of moth-reeietant varieties
of this crop.
Caterpillars of the last staae winter in the upper layer of the soil.
During the surflower's blooming period, the moths begin to fly. They lay
their eggs, one at a time, chiefly on anthers of the sunflowers and wild
plants of Composites. ,
Caterpillars of the first two stages feed on pollen, petals and other
parts of sunflowers, without touching their achenes; beginning with the
third stage, they continue to feed on thn same flowering parte but gnaw
achenes and eat their kernels completely or in part. Caterpillars can
also feed on leaves of epidermis and tissue of heads.
Having coapleted their feeding, caterpillars descend to the ground
along a web and in the apper layer of the soil braid c0000ns,where they
winter. One part of the caterpillar- pupates the sane year,srA in this
case, butterflies make their appearance and produce a second generation,
which also develops in Tart.
METUOTIS OF C:ZTEOL.
The introduction into practice of moth-resistant, so-called "panzer"
varieties of sunflowers, which are hardly injured by the moths. Inside
the capsule or aohenes of these varieties there is a special black layer
consisting primarily of carbon. The formation of this layer begins on the
third day after blooming and is completed in 8 days, i. e., at the time
caterpillars of the third stage gnaw into achenes.
The panzer layer is firm and caterpillars are rot able to gnaw
through it. Although the sunflower moth lays her eiggs on the flows ring
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Briantsev 43 Transl. 180a
heads of panzer varieties, as it does on the other, caterpillars are
unable to cause damage to aohenes and feed on leaves of cover and tissue,
The injury caused to these parts of the head do not reflect, however, upon
the yield of achenes.
The introduction into practice of panzer varieties of sunflowers has
solved the problem of controlling the sunflower moth, which until then had
caused untold damage to the crop, compelling some regions to even
abstain from cultivating it.
DISEASES OF SUNFLOWERS
SCLEROTIMIA OR VITTE LECAY.
The disease develops on sunflowers throughout the entire vegetative
period, appearing in various forms. The first symptoms of the disease
are observed on young plants of 6 to 6 leaves. The base or the stem is
covered with white cotton-like film which represents mycelium. This
natty mycelium may also be observed on roots and even on soil. The
injured tissue of roots and stems softens and gets brown. The plant
wilts and dries. Occasionally, an injured plant will break in its
lower part. This form of disease is called root decay. It may appear
on adult plants.
The second type of injury is stem decay; this ie characterized by
injury to the central part of the stem. The injured tissue gets brown;
concentric zones appear frequently. Mycelium develops primarily within
stems and not on their surface. Stems soften in places of injury and break
off. Inside the stems, less frequently on the outside, sclerotia form in
large quantities, giving the appearance of fairly large black nodules.
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Briantsev 44 Transl. 180a
During the ripening of the sunflower heads, decay is observed.
This decay begins at the rear end of the head. The tissue of the head
gets brown and soft; decay spreads to the upper part.
The entire head
is finally covered with a white ootton-like mycelium. Numerous Sclerotia
form in the pulp of the head, in between the achenes, sometimes inside them.
They frequently develop between achenes and in flowing together form a
typical net. The head is destroyed end falls apart, the achenes drop.
In place of the head remains a bundle of :thdividual vessels protruding
in thick cords. Head decay is the rout widespread and dangerous form of
this disease.
The inducer of the disease is the cup fungus Sclerotinia Libertiana
Fuck. This parasite has two stages, sclerotial and cup. Selerotia which
form in injured tissue winter in the soil or in plant residue. In the
spring they grow into saucer-like or stem glass-like fruit bodies
Ospotetuia") on legs. In those containers numerous cups Vsunki") spores
are held. The spores Etre uni-cellular and colorless. Spores grow into
mycelium and infest the plant. Sinoe infection occurs chiefly through
the soil, there is usually foci distributiou of the disease.
Infestation is also spread by air, pieces of mycelium or spores
from cups. Infested seeds, when penetrating the soil, also serve as sources
of infection. Sclerotinia infests many technical and almost all leguminous
crops, in addition to sunflowers, i. e., carrots, cabbage, etc.
Development of the disease is possible under increased moisture of
the soil and air. It is particularly severe on acid heavy soils.
Selerotinia on sunflowers is widely spread and causes such damage
to this crop. 'white decay reduces the yield and quality of seeds
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Trans], 180a
radically, contaminates the fields by wastes (in cases of head decay).
In the heads of infested plants the number of spoiled seeds (empty,
sickly, infested) is 3.5 to 8 times larger than in heads of healthy plants.
VETUODS OF CONTROL.
Control of sclerotinia is of purely prophylactic nature. Measures are:
1. Grass field crop rotation, in such rotation that eunflowers are
preceded by non-affected crops (cereals, forage legumes, etc.). Sunflower
crops are returned before ? to 8 years.
2. Careful harvesting of all residue; stems are used for fuel,
decayed stems are burned. Pall plowing.
3. Cleaning and sorting of seeds; in this manner sclerotia and
diseased seeds are segregated, since they are lighther.
4. Early planting and early maturing of sunflowers (in dry, hot
weather) reduces the threat of selerotinia.
RUST.injures leaves, more seldom leaflets of flower heads. Prawn
pustules form on injured tissue. Leaves dry prematurely, which lends to
reduction in yield. The inducer of the disease, rust fungi Puccinia
helianthi Sehr. One-host parasite, of which all stages develop on sun-
flowers. Slparmogonia and aecidia appear on seedlings of sunflower crops.
Yellow pustules fore on cotyledons, Urespores appear as brown, large
pustules and develop on leaves of mature plants, chiefly on the underside.
Tolespores are dark borwn or black pustules distributed frequently along
veins of leaves. Telespores winter on residue of plants. In the following
spring they grow into a basidial stage.
Pasidiospores infest seedlings of sunflowers. In the summer stage
(uredospores) there is mass spread of rust. Telespores appear toward the
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Briantsev 46 Transl. 160a
vegetative end of sunflowers. Widely spread, especially in southern regions.
YETHODS OF COBTROL.
1. Careful cleaning of fields from post-harvest residue, since
parasites winter in it.
2. Fall plowing.
3. Careful cleaning of seed stock from residue of foliage which may
spread rust.
OROBAUCRr. Develops on roots of different plants. Has fleshy stem
upon which are distributed primary leaves in the form of scales; roots
are lacking. The stem has stalk-like inflorescence. The fruit is a ball
filled with a Large quantity of small seeds.
The unbranched Orobanche cumana is parasitic primarily on sunflowers.
Two biological races of this species are known, A and B, distinguished
according to their relationship to varieties of sunflowers. Among race
A there are a great many perractly resistant varieties. Races A and B
differ in their geographical distribution. Race B, or Don race, is found
chiefly in southern and south-eastern regions. Race A, Saratov race, is
spread in the northern regions of the zone of oil-hearing sunflowers.
MorphIlogically, the two races are not distinguishable.
The development of Orobanche takes place at a -relatively high temperature.
Germination of seeds is possible at aoil acidity no higher than pH 6.5.
Root excretions of the plant-host increase the growth of Crobanche seeds.
The grown seed produces a seedling which nourishes on the roots at the plant-
host. In places where it penetrates into the root tissue, a nodule forma,
from which later develops the flower.
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Briantsev
47 Tranel, 180a
Orobanche spreads through seeds, which once they enter the soil may
remain there for as long as 10 to 13 years.
Orobanche represents a serious threat to sunflower crops. Men
Orobanche flowers are nvessrous on one plant (c0 or more), the plants
perish from exhaustion and lack of water. When the number is smeller,
the sunflower survives,but the quantity of seeds is low. Thus the yield
of seeds is reduced almost four tires when there are 18 flowers on one
plant.
In addition to sunflowers, the non-branched Orobanche infests many
cultivated plants, tobacco, tomatoes, "penile," ete., as well as weeds,
[Artemisia], (Xanthium L.], etc.
NETHODS OF CONTROL.
1. Introduction of resistant varieties. Among varieties resistant
to both races are: Zhdanovskie 6432, 8281, VNIINE 1813, FUksinka 62, etc.
The varieties Kruglik A-41 and Saratovskii 169 are resistant only to
Orobanche A but are severely affected by race B.
In regionalizing varieties, it is necessary to consider the regions
of distribution of the respective races.
2. Grass field crop rotation; sunflower crops should not be returned
to the former plot before 1 to 6 years. Non-affected crops enter into
crop rotation, i. e., cereals, legumes, grasses, su ar beet, cotton,
topinambur, soya, etc. This measure contributes to the elimination of
foci of Orobanche and reduces the stores of its seeds in the field.
3. Destruction of Orobanche in the field prior to planting; destruction
of weeds, particularly Artemisia, Xanthium L., as plants infested by Orobanehe.
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Briantsev
48 Transl. 180a
4. Deep fall plowing with plow and fore-plow, during which time the
seeds of Orobanohe penetrate from the upper layer deeper (20-22 cm.1,which
considerably reduces the degree of their germination.
S. "Provocationary" plantings. This special measure consists in the
followng. Sunflowers e,e first planted on silos on plots infested by
Orobanche. The majority of seeds of the latter develops from the first
planting of silos sunflower. Plantings of oil sunflowers, [Helianthus Ls],
grown after harvesting of the silos kind will be healthy and not infested
by Orobanche.
A new method was developed by the Institute of Oil Crops for this
purpose: A pulverized Crazmelichennoi") mars of young plants is introduced
into the soil one month before planting, which accelerates germination
of Orobanchs seeds. Seedlings of Orobanche perish in the absence of the
plant-host.
PESTS AND. PISEASES OF TOBACCO (384-391)
Among the multi-poisonous insects which injure tobacco plants are
grasshoppers, crickets, wiroworms, darkling beetles, cutworm and other
chewing moths, bollworms, sten borers, and beet webworms. The specific
tobacco posts are tobacco thrips and tobacco or peach aphids.
Tobacco and makhorka are affected by bacterial, virus and fungi
diseases, in addition to various species of broomrape. Particularly,
large losses are incurred from diseases affecting seed stock, i. e.,
black leG and blank root rot, as well as from Bacterium tabacum
("riabukha") and virus disaases, *Axil severely affect adult plants.
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Briantsev 49 Transl. 180a
PESTS OF TOBACCO PLANTS
TOBACCO THRIPS (Thrips tabact Lindemann) are the principal pests
of tobacco crops. A small insect of light yellow coloring; length 0.8 to
0.9 rm.; it Is distinguished by its multi-poisonous effect. May, in
addition to tobacoo, feed on eucumbers, onions potatoes, tomatoes, soya,
cotton. Distributed in the Ukraine, Kursk, Voronezh and Crimea oblast(s),
in the Caucasus and in Central Asia. The adult insects winter in dried
grass, various vegetative residue and even in upper layers of the scil.
In early spring they feed at first upon weeds, laying eggs in their
leaves. As soon as tobacco seedlings are planted, thrips begin to feed
on the juice of their leaves and lay their eggs in them. The female
usually lays one :very small egg in the upper young part of the leaf.
Throughout its life cycle (20 to 29 days), it may lay some NO eggs.
Larvae appear on the 3-5 day. These too suck the juice of the foliage;
adult risects appear in 19 days,ard the duration of the entire cycle of
development lasts approximately 40 days. In the Crimea it produces from
6 to 7 generations.
Following harvesting, thrips remainron_left-over stems of tobacco
and weeds, and shortly before cold sets in t:7-4:ir enter their wintering stage.
Rust brown spots/appear as a result of the injuries they cause.
The leaves roll and dry out. Loss of yield and deterioration of quality
of the harvest follow. Injured tobacco crumbles, loses its taste,
strength and aroma. Tobacco thrips propagate in masses in dry and hot
years with moderate precipitation; during rainy years thrips propagate
slowly wiLnce the r,iin washes them off the plants. Tobacco thrips are the
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Briantsev
60 Transl. 160a
the transmitters of Bacterium tabetaum.
METUODS OF CONTROL.
1. Destruction of weeds on plantings and surrounding territory.
2. Distribution of tobacco apart from plantings of vegetable crops
(tomatoes, potatoes, cucumbers, melons, etc.)
3. Timely picking of leaves which have reached the stage of technical
ripeness.
4. Gathering of stens and other residue following harvesting.
6. Crop rotation. Fall plowing.
6. Destruction of thrips by spraying the tobacco plants (no less than
3 times), with anabasine-sulphate (0.6 oA) and soap (0.6 o/o) at the rate
of 1000 to 2000 liter per hectare. Both upper and lower sides of leaves
should be sprayed.
TOBACCO OR PEACH APHID. (Myzodes persica? &Az.)
'natters in the egg stage on the skin of peach or apricot and develops
in the spring on the foliage of these plants.
The females fly over to tobacco and other agricultural crops and
produce many generations of aphids propagating parthenogenetically.
In the fall the females return to the trees and produce larvae, which
develop into sexual females and males. Fertilized females lay wintering
eggs.
During years of mass propagation, tobacco thrips cover tobacco foliage
in thick, dense colonies. Leaves get deformed as a result of the sucking
and dry out. Loss in yield and deterioration of quality follow.
Spring with anabasine-sulphate or nicotine-sulphate (0.3 oA) with
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Briantsev 51 Transl. 180a
soap (0.3 o/o) is applied.
DISEASES or TOBACCO
DISEASES OF SEEDLINGS. Eass destruction is caused by black leg and
black root rot.
BLACK LEG. Root collar is injured; tissue darkens; plants are
retarded in their growth, and in cases of severe infection wilt or rot.
The disease is spread by foci.
The inducers of black leg are semi-parasitic fungi which belong to
the genera Pythium and Rhizoctonia. Pythium de Baryanum Besse is a fungus
of the phycomycetes class and has a thin one-cellular mycelium. Propagates
and spreads through zoospores, winters in the stage of oospores.
Rhizoctonia 22.. possesses only vegetative organs, mycelium and sclerotia.
The mycelium of this parasite is darkly colored, thick, may be preserved
for a long time. Sclerotia also winter. Both organisms are not specialized
and affect many crops, including tobacco and tomatoes.
BLACK ROOT ROT, in contrast to black, infects the root system. Roots
become black and die, which may lead to the destruction of the plant, which
stops its growth; the foliage gradually gets yellow; occasionally, new roots
form around the root "collar", which may restore the viability of the
plant.
The inducer of black root rot, Thielaviopsis basicola Farr., is an
imperfect fungus of the order hyphomycetes. Its mycelium develops in the
soil from where it penetrates into the plant. Sporebearing of this
parasite is of two types. Some spores are large, dark, forming at the ends
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Brittntsev s2 Transl. 180a
of hyphae similarly to chlanydospores. Others, the genuine conidia,
are smaller than are ohlamydospores and colorless.
The parasite winters in the soil and in the residue of plants, preserved
as mycelium or chlamydospores. Th. bets-5.001a is a non-specialized parasite
which infects a largo quantity of plants of over 20 families.
Black leg and black root rot develop at a high degree of moisture of
the soil. Inadequate ventilation and dense planting also contribute to
mass infection of plants. In warm nurseries (hothouses), black leg is
primarily observed on tobacco plants, while in open, cold or partly heated
frames and nurseries, black root usually develops.
METHODS OF CONTROL.
Non-infested soil in nurseries is of major significance for the
control of both diseases, since they spread exclusively through the soil.
The following measures are used to provide for healthy soil.
1. Substitution of soil in infested nurseries with fresh, non-infested
soil or soil disinfected thermically or chemically. Thermic disinfestation
of the soil is achieved by heating at 100o for 30 to 45 minutes.
As seen from the studies of the All-Union Institute of Tobacco and
rakhorka (VIM) in the southern regions, solar energy may be used to
render the soil harmless. In nurseries, under frames, the temperature
of the soil during the summer rises to 600 and above. At such temperature,
one day suffices to sterilize the soil sown to a depth of 10 cm. At a
temperature of SO to 550, nurseries are heated for three days.
Chloropicrin is recomended as a chemical disinfectant of soil; it is
used in the proportion of 0.3 1. to 1 m3 of soil or 60 g. to 1 mF.
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Priantsev
53 Transl. 180a
The soil is treated in the fall at a fairly Izqirm temperaturc.In
specially dug holes; moisture of the soil is brought to 60 a/6 of
saturation. Soil moistened with chloropicrin is covered. The disinfestation
of wooden parts of frames and nurseries is done by formalin in the propor-
tion of 11100.
2. Proper agricultural technique in nurseries: moderate irrigation
of seed stock, good ventilation, additional feeding of plants with a
fertilizing mixture, ammonium sulfate, super phosphate and potassium
sulfate.
:PACTIMILP TATUM! (nriabu)thal. Affects seed stock and adult plants.
The disease is first observed on cotyledons in the form of dark, green
spots and rotting tissue. Adult plants are infested during the period
of development. Characteristic, round spots appear on the foliage, which
are at first of chlorinated yellow-green coloring; soon, the tissue dies
in the center of the spot and changes into a dark spot. The disease
progresses and the spots in spreading roach 2 cm. in diameter. Infested
tissue dries and gets grey brown. The nature of spots may, however,
change, depending upon the species and varieties of tobacco and degree
of air moisture. They are sometimes concentric with clearly defined
yellow-green aureole. Such spots are observed on wide-leafed cigar
tobacco. On makhorke spots are necrotic, without the aureole.
In cases of severe infestation, spots fuse, taking in the entire surface
of the leaf on occasions. On petioles and balls the disease appears
in the form of brown spots.
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Briantsev 54
Trans'. 180a
The inducer of the disease, Bacterium tabaoum Wolf et Fost. is a
specialized species of bacteria. This disease affects only species of the
genus Nicotianum, including tobacco and makhorka. B. tabacum is spread
chiefly by seed stock which gets mechanically infested by infected residue.
Bacteria may penetrate into the soil with the residue from infested plants,
but there they are rapidly destroyed because of the harmful activity of
other more viable species
by insects, in rain drops
apertures, hydathodee and
precipitation, especially
is accompanied by winds.
Bacterium tabacum is spread
YETPODS OF CONTROL.
1. Treatment of seeds by chemical or thermic methods. During
chemical disinfestation silver nitrate in a proportion of 1:1000 is
applied. Seeds are kept in the preparation for 15 minutes and then
rinsed in water. Formalin in the proportion of 1:50 is also used.
According to data of VITIM, thermic disinfestation may be applied against
bacterial and some virus diseases. Seeds are dried prior to disinfection
(their moisture should not exceed 6 o/o), then dried at a gradually
increased temperature to 85-900 and at this temperature kept for one
hour. Disinfestation of nursery equipment is performed by steam for
45 minutes.
2. Proper agricultural teohnique; early sowing and planting; The
Institute of Tobacco and Nakhorka proposed winter sowing in nurseries;
of bacteria. In the fields bacteria are dispersed
and by wind. They penetrate into the plant through
wounds. The disease is at its severest during
when rainy weather alternates with sunny days and
all over, particularly in the south.
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Briantsev 55 Trtuisl. 180a
regulated irrigation in nurseries; eleaning of infested seedling';
elimination of infested stock.
3. Prophylactic spraying of seed stock with 0.5 o/o Bordeaux mixture
at intervals of 7 days between sprayings.
4. Fall'plowing.
5. Grass crop rotation. Leguminous-cereal mixtures are recommended
as predecessor crops for makhorka and tobacco, since they improve the soil.
HOSAIC OF TOBACCO. Among virus diseases of tobacco, the comnon
mosaic is the root widely spread disease. It affects the plants throughout
the vegetation period. The first symptom of the disease is in the lightening
of veins on young leaves. These acquire subsequently a typical mosaic
coloring. The parenchyma tissue along the
frequently wrinkled, while parts of tissue
veins gets dark green, is
between the veins remain
pale green. Occasionally deforming of the tips of leaves is observed,
the lamina of which is narrowed or its end extended into a sharp point.
On fully developed leaves, especially old ones, mosaic spots are replaced
by necrotic, brawn, later white spots of different shape and size.
Symptoms of mosaic may be observed on flower petals..
The virus causing moshic infects many plants of the Solanaceae
and Composite? families., etc., but does not infect cucumbers.
During the vegetation period, the virus is primarily spread through
some special agricultural means; I. e., breaking of leaves, pruning, etc.
The virus of mosaic is very sturdy (persistent) and may remain in dry
residue for many years, even in fermented and processed Loaves. Dry
residue, tobacco products and dust may therefore serve as .sources of infection.
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Brianteev
56 Trans'. 1803
Mosaic affects yield and quality of raw tobacco. Dried mosaic foliage
breaks easily and is diffioult to process. Such leaves contain a smaller
amount of nicotine and carbon.
METEODS OF CONTROL.
1. Leasure? in nurseries: a) disinfestation of the substrata by steam
at 100o for 30 minutes; treatment of all equipment and frames with a
solution of formalit (1:25), where they are kept (covered) for 72 hours;
b) grass crop rotation; predecessor crops should not be Solanaceae,
Composite? and other susceptible crops; o) removal and destruction of
infested seed stock prior to planting,
2. Prophylactic measures in the field: a) removal of mosaic plants
before each cultivating, prior to the first breaking of leaves; b)
prohibition of tobacco smoking on tobacco plantations; c) use of selective
method in pruning and breaking of leaves when plants are infested on a
large scale.
RING SPOT AND BACTERI MACULICOLA DBL.
Both diseases of virus origin appear on leaves. Ring spot is
characterized by the presence of locked and interrupted rings of white
color. This is particularly the case on old leaves.
Bacterium maculicola or smallpox, appears in the shape of numerous
small white and light brown spots. During tho vegetation period, these
diseases are spread by insects (tobacco thrips, aphids). Viruses winter
in seeds and rapidly perish in dry residue.
ENTEODS OF CONTROL.
1. Thermic (dry) disinfestation of seeds by heating at a tempera-
ture of 85 to 900 for one hour.
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Briantsev 57 Tranal. 180a
2. Control of insects, especially thrips and aphids.
3. Use of seeds from healthy plants.
PESTS Arm LasmEs OF POTATOES (p. 304-410, in part)
(Introduction (p. 391-392) and Pests of Potatoes (p. 392-394)
not translated.)
DISEASES OF POTATOES (p. 394-410)
PHYTOPETIIORA.
The disease affects all above-Ground parts of the plant and its tubers.
It appears in the second half of summer, usually after the potatoes have
bloomed. The first symptoms are observed on the lower leaves in the form
of brown dispersed spots. A delicate white film bordering the infested
tissue appears on the inner side of the leaves at high moisture. This
film represents the conidiophores of the parasite. (Ill. 111, phytoph-
thora of potatoes, p. 395).
The inducer of the disease, Phytophthora infestans D. B., belongs to
the peronosporalles. In spreading, conidia cause mass infection of the
plants. The injured leaves and stems rot, blacken, and the plant dies
prematurely. Rain carries conidia into the soil through infesting the
tubers. In fields it is the upper part of tho tuber which is chiefly
Infected, when directed upwards. But the majority of tubers are infeoted
during harvesting of potato crops because of the immediate contact with
the infested foliage. The infection penetrates the ttubers usually through
the lenticels. The disease appears on the tubers in the form of brown,
slightly indented, hard spots. Discoloration of the tissue starts on the
outer layers of the tuber and gradually extends to the inter layers in the
form of strands.
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Friantsev 58 Tranal, 180a
Tubers infected by phytophthora have poor keeping quality. In
storage, a secondary so-called dry rot or fusarium,develops on such tubers.
Phytophthora is therefore difficult to recognize on tubers during the
second half of winter storing since it is masked (camouflaged) by dry rot.
The disease is transmitted ohiefly through seed stock in which mycelium
is preserved. The parasite is capable of wintering in tubers and foliage
that remain in the soil. In the spring vben the diseased tubers begin to
grow in the soil, mycelium penetrates the sprout. infected sprouts get
severely depressed and perish at high moisture of the soil. Their surface
is covered with a conidial film. The first stage of infection, 1. e.,
infection of the foliage of diseased tubers, is primarily caused by
conidia formed on infected sprouts. In this respect tubers with hardly
noticeable traits of infection represent considerable danger. These
tubers have a normal growth but after 45 to 60 days following planting,
the sprout becomes diseased and the infection spreads from then on.
Residue of infested foliage equally contributes to the re-establishment
of the disease.
Secondary infection, i. e., the infection of above-ground and
underground parts of leaves, takes place with the aid of conidia which
had formed on above-ground parts (leaves and stems).
The development and spread of phytophthora depend upon meteorological
factors; an essential requirement is moisture of the air no lower than
70 0/10. High temperature (18 to 20o) also contributes to the development
of the disease. The duration of the incubation period is determined by
the tempPrature of the a r. It has been established that at a low temperature
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Briantsev
59 Trans'. 180a
(below 10?) or high. temperature (30? and above) conidial spore beering
does not take place and the further development or the disease is thus
curtailed. This uniformity in the development of phytophthora is used
as a bade of prognoses or forecasts for the appearance of the disease.
It has been established that phytophthora requires the following joint
conditions during one of the 15 days preceding the disease: 1. median
night temperature no less than 100; 2. dew no less than 4 hours in
succession; S. high cloudiness on the following day; 4. preelpitation,
though not extensive. The presence of the above conditions points,
however, only to the possibility of an outburst of the disease. It has
been established that the duration of the incubatioe period and the date
of the outbreak of tl'e disease depend upon variatione in temperature
In the period following the "critical" day (day of joint conditions).
To determine the duration of the incubation period, a spools' chart,
nomogram, has been developed. (ril. 112).
The calculation of the duration of the incubation period, according
to the nomogram, is done in the following manner. Over a period of
three days (minimum incubation period for phytophthora), following the
"critical" day, observations aro conducted of the temperature; minimal,
median and caximal temperatures are recorded and the average temperature
for the three days computed separately. For instance, a median 24 hour
temperature of 17.3, a minimal of 11.3 and a maximal of 23.3? were
established for the period between August 12 and 14. These three points
are looked for on the nomogram. Then the nomogram is covered with a
celluloid or glass plate having two perpendicular lines. This plate is
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Briantsev 60 Tranal. 180a
turned and moved in such manner that the horizontal line crosses the
minimal and maximal temperatures on the given points, 1. e. 11.3 and
23.3, while the upper end of the vertical line corresponds to the
(given) points of the median temperature, i. 0. 17.3. In such case
the lower end of the vertical line will point to the length of the
incubation period and register it in days (on the lower horizontal line of
the nomogram).
By using the latter, it is possible to establish periods for
apolying chemicals to control phytophthora.
Phytophthora is widely spread but particularly pronounced in
regions where air moisture is high.
On the basis of multi-annual data gathered by the Record Service
with regard to phytophthora the entire territory of the USSR can be
divided into four zones.
1. Zone of total absence of Phytophthora, to which belong the
central asiatic republics.
2. Zone of light development of phytophtl'ora, southern and south-
eastern parts of the USSR.
3. Zone of periodically severe development of phytophthora,
eastern and central regions of European USSR.
4. Zone of perennially severe infestation of phytophthora, ?blasts
of the non-Black Earth zone and BSSR (Ahite Russia).
Phytophthora causes losses in potato crops, the result of losses
In yields from the premature dying of the foliage, inferior keeping
quality of the tubers, their decay and reduced growth of tubers.
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Briantsev
61 Trans?. 180a
Phytophtt.ora affects tomatoes in addition to potatoes. Species of
wild South-American potatoes, Solanum demiosum, S. antipoviczii, eta,
are resistant to this disease. The above species served as the initial
material for producing phytophthora-resistant varieties.
Soviet scientists were first in world practice to produce phytophthora-
resistant potato varieties by crossing cultivated potato varieties (Solanum
tuberosum) with the wild species S. demissum, (by following the Wichurin
method), hybrids (from triple crossings) exhibited the most valuable
characteristics; phytophthora and frost resistance and high contents of
starch.
Selection is continued with these hybrids. At present many phytophthora-
resistant varieties possessing economically valuable characteristics have
been produced.
MET?.ODS OF CONTFOL.
1. Production and introduction of resistant varieties, among which
the best, in economically valuable characteristics, are the following:
Kameraz hybrids (medium-late); redium-early variety Uockvich (seedling
18883). Lally hybrid varieties are undergoing industrial tests. Among
the relatively reointant varieties are Lorkh, Waltman, Jubel.
2. Selection of healthy seed stock to prevent the transmittance of
the disease through tubers.
3. Vernalization of tubers. TLio rethod provides earlier and
better yields. Tubers, infected by phytophthora, decay during vernali-
zation and ean be easily discarded.
4. Fall plowing.
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Briantsev 62 Transl. 180a
5. Spraying and dusting of potatoes during the vegetative period as
precautionary measure. Among fungicides, one per cent Bordeaux mixture
and AB preparation aro applied (12 to 15 kg/h). Chemical means are used
as soon as phytophthora makes its appearance or at the ea of the
incubation period calculated on the nomogram. Treatment is repeated in
8 to 10 days.
G. Removal of foliage 3 to 5 days before harvesting. This measure
is used in cases of severe potato infection.
7. Harvesting in dry veather, potatoes dried in the sun for four
hours. Prior to storing,potatoes.are dried again, sorted, and all Infected
and injured tubers are removed, if necessary.
8. FAll sorting of potatoes from infested plot, 3 to 4 'weeks after
harvesting. At that time tubers carry pronounced phytophthora symptoms.
9. Yathtatharice of proper conditions in storing potatoes. Warehouses
must be disinfected 25 to 30 days before potatoes are stored. Temperature
in storage quarters must be 1 to 3?, moisture 80 to 85 p/P.
a
[Pages 400-410 on potato diseases omitted]
PFSTS AED DISEASES OF SUGAR BEETS (p. 410-429)
Among the multi-poisonous pests of the sugar beet are the sugar beet
wobworm, the cutworm moth, the gamma moth, and wireworms.
The specific pest of this crop is the cormon [Bothynoderus punctiventris
germ], ("sveklovichny dolgonosik"), beet fleas [Chaetocnema breviusoula
Feld.); [Poecylosoytus cognatus Fieb.), "svekloviohny klop"; and sugar
beet nematodes, [Beterodera schachtii Schmidt.] "aveklovichneia nematode."
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Briantsev 63 Trilled. 180a
Among the most harmful and widesprcad cdseases of the crop are
nkorneed," leaf spot, or [Cercospora beticola), and Tolgatnaia gnil'."
PESTS OF SUGAR BEETS
Common sugar beet "dolgonosik," [Bothynoderus punctiventris Germ.).
A black beetle covered with grey scalsel length 12 to 15 mm.
Larvae white, legless, bent, brown head; length of adult larvae to
30 mm.
This pest injures sugar beet crops in regions where they were formerly
grown in European USSR. Has annual cycle of development. Adult beetles
winter in the soil at a depth of 12 to 32 am. In the spring when the
soil is heated to 10 to 12?, they appear on the surface. In the
principal sugar beet growing regions, beetles make their appearance
usually in April and last to the middle of ray. The lengthy process is
due to the gradual heating of the soil surfaces. Upon appearing on the
surface the beetles feed at first upon wild growing plants of the goose-
foot family (Chenopodiaceae). Allen sugar beet crops begin to germinate,
they transfer onto them. The pre-flight period (walking stage) lasts
1.5 to 5.5 weeks, depending upon weather conditions. The flight of
beetles takea. place at a temperature of no less than 200.
Beetles feed on the shoots of sugar beets, eating the lamina and
petioles. Because of their voraciousness they destroy a considerable
part of young plants. They present the greatest danger at the stage
prior to the appearance of secondary leaves.
Eggs are laid in the upper layer of the soil, next to the roots of
sugar beets, into depressions made by the trunk (proboscis) of the female.
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Briantsev 64 Transl. 180a
One egg is laid in every depreasion. The female lays altogether 100 to
120 egs in two and more nonths, daily 1 to 2 eggs. The egg develops
in about 10 days. The development of the larvae stage lasts 45 to 90
days. Larvae feed on roots of sugar beets.
Mhen roots are severely injured, the plants perish; 'when partly
devoured, the yield is reduced and so is the sugar content. Root injury
is particularly severe in dry mather. The presence of 2 to 3 larvae of
medium and adult age delays the development of plants considerably; 6
larvae reduce the yield of roots 3 to 4 times, while in dry weather the
same amount of larvae reduces the yield 7 times. In the event of the
plant's destruction, larvae may transfer to neighboring plants.
Larvae of adult age arrange "cradles" in the soil, idlers they
pupate upon completing their development. Beetles appearing on the
15th to 16th day remain in the soil for the winter. Larvae of medium
and adult age develop in the fall even at 6?, while pupae require 3 to
6, but in view of the lengthy spring appearance of beetles and egg-
laying, not all larvae and pupae manage to develop into adult beetles by
the beginning of the first frost.
Beetles minter alone. Larvae and pupae die from fungi diseases,
known as muccardine. The winter supply of beetles remains primarily
on sugar beet fields, but may also dwell upon other field crops under
rotation. The pest lays eggs on all fields contaminated by mild
growing plants of the Chemopodiaceas family; they also have a prolonged
diapause (2 to 3 years), which in some years affects 30 o/O of all beetles.
Dormant beetles remain in "cradles," where pupating took place; good
and careful cultivation of the soil reduces the number of dormant beetles
radically.
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Briantsev
65 Transl. 180a
Variations in quantities of pests depend primarily upon the number
of wintering, beetles, since pupae and larvae perish from muscardine. The
Ammer and drier the ueather, the lager the number of larvae and pupae
which change into adult beetles. In cold and oist years development is
delayed. In years preceding mass propagation, the death rate does not exceed
70 to CO o/o, while under unfavorable conditions, 90 to 95 to/ro of the
remaining generation is destroyed.
In composing the prognosis, it is necessary to dig the soil in
wintering abodes in the late full in order to establish the different
stages of the pest's development and the number of beetles per plot unit.
=OD OF COUTROL. To protect sugar beets from this pest, agro-
technical and destructive measures must be applied.
Among the latter are gatherin:; und destruction of beetles in ditches
with subsequent compulscry chemical treatment and bioloi;ical control with
the use of chickens. Preliminary destruction of beetles in ditches is
necessary to reduce their quantities. 4ro-tec1nical methods which
accelerate germination contribute to the stability of plants a_ainst
Injury,
1. In order not to permit the spread of pests from their wintering
abodes the ditch system is used. All old plots contaminated by the
pest should be dug in early spring eround their borders to a depth of
35 cm. and a width of 27 cm. at top and 37 am. at the bottom; wells
should haw) a depth of 29 to 35 cm. at every C m. distance.
In addition to these trap ditches, small ditches are dug in the
center ar. :dots at depths of 7 to 9 cm. and ridths of 6 to 7 cm.; wells
of 35 am. in depth at every 4 m. These ditches are laid in one or two
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Briantsev
66 Transl. 180a
directions, perpendicularly to each. other.
Beetles which fall into wells should be frequently removed and
destroyed. Polychloridee are used in wells to poison the pests.
In order to interfere with the penetration of pests upon plantations,
the latter should be dug around their borders at the time of planting.
In eases of mass appearances of pests wintering on old fields (1 beetle
per 1 la), additional small ditches are dug two or three days following
planting.
2. Along with catching pests in ditches, hand picking of beetles
is practiced during daily observation trips until such time that they no
longer fall into ditches or are found on plantings.
3. Destruotion of beetles by intestinal poisons. Barium chloride
(1 o/o) is used for this purpose, sodium fluoride (0.6 o/o) or sodium
fluorite (1 o/o); 110 g. of molasses are added to oaoh pail of the
mixture for better adherence. Molasses should not be added to sodium
fluoride because this reduces its action. In the past years aviation
spraying with concentrated barium chloride bee been widely applied in
the proportion of 60 1,/h of the mixture or sodium fluoride (7 o4) in
the same proportion.
One may also use Paris green (0.35 o/o) with a double quantity
of lime. This preparation is less effective for controlling
(E/t1m2Arrus yunctiventris Germ.] than the preparations phthora and
barium chloride.
Chemical control should be begun as early as possible. As soon
as rows of sugar beet shoots are distinguishable, spraying of plots closest
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Briantsev
67 Trans'. 180a
to the old sugar beet field, extending over a width of 30 m., should be
undertaken every three days. With the appearance of beetles, the entire
plot is sprayed at intervals of 5 days. In sections of mass infestation,
spraying is done throughout the entire month. Among new poisons the dust
MHTSG is successfully applied.
4. Destruction of beetles on old fields and sugar beet plantations
with the aid of chickens. Lots which are treated chemically should not
be exposed to chickens.
5. Cultivating between rows in May and June, while eggs are laid
in the soil.
6. On plots infested by the larvae of the pest, additional feeding
is provided to accelerate plant growth and thus reduce the damage caused
by Injuries.
7. Application of agricultural methods (good pre-sowing cultivation
of soil, planting of seeds of normal germination, careful cultivation
between rows, etc.), which ensure early, sturdy and close plant growth.
It was established that in oases of irregular appearance of germinating
shoots, beetles manage to cause considerable injuries even when present
In small quantities.
(TANYMECUS PALLIATUS FARR.) ("Sery sveklovichny dolgonosik").
Distributed widely; injurious to sugar beets in particular regions of
Eastern USSR, Voronezh oblast and Altai territory. In addition to
sugar beets, it damages sunflowers, safflower, gambo hemp ("kenaf"),
coriander, poppies, leguminous, etc.
The beetle is grey, twice as small as the common "dolgonosik," but
just as injurious since it feeds on the shoots of young beets.
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Briantsev
68 Tranal. 180a
It lays its eggs in the soil; fertility of the female produces
300 eggs; larvae feed on roots of various weeds; they interrupt their
development in the fall; winter and pupate in July of the following year;
beetles appear in August but remain in the soil during the winter and
appear on the surface only in the spring. The cycle of development is
bi-annual; injurious at adult stage.
METHODS OF COMM,.
Measures are practically the same as those applied against the
common "sveklovichuy dolgonosik." Green poisoned attractants are also
used against this pest, prepared from freeh leaves of thistle, goosefoot,
and other weeds, moistened in a 1.5 0/3 solution of sodium fluoride.
Attractants are laid in heaps at 2000 g. each in checkerboard every 6 to
8 m. in places where beetles accumulate most. Good results are obtained
from green attractants dusted with GMTSG (12 olo) (CRAETOCNSUA BREVINSCULA
FALB.) ("sveklovichnye bloshki").
Sugar beets are injured by two species of these pests, (Chaetoonema
concinna Marsh.] (buckwheat) and the southern sugar beet beetle
[Chaetocnema breviusoula Fald.]. These are small beetles of black color
of green or red-bronze shine, of a length of 1.5 to 2.3 mm. The two
species differ in the details of their external structure.
The buckwheat beetle injures sugar beets, buckwheat, rhubarb and
garden sorrel. Spread in southern regions of European USSR, the Caucasus
and Siberia.
The southern beetle [Chaetoonama breviuscula Feld.) damages sugar
beets and is widespread in the Northern Caucasus, the south-eastern
regions of USSR and Altai krai.
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Briantsev 69 Transl. 180a
There is much similarity in the development of these beetles.
Adult pests minter and in the spring damage shoots of sugar beets, eating
sores into the leaves. Phan infestation is severe, the young plants die.
The southern beetle occasionally consumes the top bud, causing the plant
to perish.
By the end of spring, the beetles disappear, dying in the natural
course of events, following their egg-laying (in the soil near the plants).
The larvae of the buckwheat beetle feed on roots of buckwheat plants, while
those of the southern beetle eat roots of sugar beets; they Pupate in the
soil and new beetles make their appearance in July and August. They feed
at that time On plants, though the damage they cause is not particularly
noticeable. Appearing in masses in the spring, they may cause a great
deal of injury and damage the sugar beet crop.
NETRODS OF CONTROL.
1. Agricultural methods ensuring the rapid growth of plants in the
spring.
2. Dusting of plantings of auger beets with sodium fluoride and
calcium arsenate (8 kg/h), as well as with the dust GERM (20 kg/h).
POEC/LOSCYTUS COGNATUS FIEB.] ("svoklovichny klop") One of the
most injurious pests. of sugar beets in the Eastern steppe regions of the
Ukraine, Voronezh oblast, Krasnodar krai, Central Asia, Western Siberia.
Great damage is particularly caused in the Altai krai.
The adult pest [Hemiptera) is small, of variegated coloring. Length
3 to 5 mm. Larvae is green with red eyes; length 3.3 mm.; egg of oval
shape, slightly bent, at first light yellow, then orange yellow; length
0.95 mm.
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Briantscv 70 Tranal. 18(A.
The pest is multi-poisonous. In addition to sugar beets, it injured
flax, hemp, sunflowers, mustard, soya, alfalfa, veitch, peas, lentils.
It develops two generations; the eggs winter in alfalfa and other wild
grown plants; in the spring larvae apnear, developing within a month on
perennial leguminous grasses and weeds. At the end of May the adult peat
flies over to sugar beet fields ard feeds there, sucking the juicdp of
leaves. They are of special danger to young plants which become cakorless,
blacken and dry out. On more advanced plants only the injured foliage dies.
Females begin to lay eggs one week after reaching maturity, placing
them in veins and petioles of leaves; several eggs are laid close to each
other in the form of a chain or small group.
Larvae appear on the 5th to 15th day. They suck the more tender
central leaves, causing them to dry out and stopping their growth;
runners are equally damaged; adult pests of the second generation appear
by the end of July. By that time sugar beets harden and become unfit for
consumption, while the pests fly over to alfalfa fields and other weeds
to lay their winter eggs.
As a result of leaf injuries, the weight of sugar beet roots is
reduced and so is the sugar oontent. 'Yield of coeds in diminished, seeds
getting smaller, are sickly and of low germination.
MTH= OF COETROL.
1. Destruction of pests by chemical methods. Dusting with DDT,
UHTSG, nicodust o/o) and anetsdust (5 o/o). Spraying with anabasine
or nicotine sulfate with soap. Liquid solutions of O. 75 a/o of anabasine
sulfate or O. 5 o/o nicotine sulfate with an admixture of 2 o/o of soap
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Briantsev 71 Transl. 180a
are used against adult pests, in the proportion of 650-700 01. Against
larvae, the solution of 0.12 stfo of anabasine or 0.1 olo nicotine sulfate
with 0.4 ofo of soap, in same proportion.
2. Planting of sugar beets at earliest possible periods and the
application of the entire complex of agricultural methods to ensure rapid
growth of plants.
3. Systematic control of weeds. In areas surrounding plantings,
careful extermination of wild grown vegetation is recommended. In the
Altai krui residue is burned in the fall or early spring at a radius of
no less than 3 km. from the field.
4. Close cutting of alfalfa in the fall, to prevent eggs from
wintering in the field.
5. During spring harrowing of perennial gras6e4,injured plants should
be gathered and burned.
6. Picking of pests with nets.
DITERODERA SpACRTI1 SCHLIDTj ("svoklovichnaia"). belongs to round
worms; in adult stage reaches 1.5 mm. Lives in the soil and injures the
root system of sugar beets, causing particular harm in old sugar beet
fields.
The wormlike larvae rove in the soil and knock against the roots of
beets, digging into them. Feeding is done at the expense of the parenchyma
of bark. Larvae thicken and take on a "bottle" shape. In succeeding
development part of the larvae are transformed into mobile wormlike males,
the other into Immobile females ulth blown-up bodies which cling to the
roots. The females are at first under the akin of roots which gradually
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Br iantsev 72 Transl. 180a
swells; when the skin bursts, they come out and appear in the form of white
grains. At this time fertilization of the females takes place. Fertility
of females amounts to 250 to 300 eggs, which are laid in the soil. Under
unfavorable conditions the outer cover of the female gets brown, dies and
forms a so-called cyst, within which eggs may be preserved for as long as
6 years. Larvae appear from the cyst not at once but in parts over a
period of years, SO to 60 per year. Their exit from the cyst is aided by
root hairs of plants. In certain sugar beet growing regions of the Ukraine,
there may be 4 to 5 generations of nematodes.
They most frequently are found on low and moist plots. As a parasite
of the sugar beet, the nematode may develop on different plants of the
Chenopodiaceae family, Composite. and saltwort ("soliankal. Leaves of
plants injured by the nematode fade and dry. In severe cases of infestation
plants perish.
Injured rootlets of sugar beets die as a result of sucking, and in
their place are formed new rootlets in the shape of marts. /Inch nutritional
element is spent on the formation of new rootlets, as a result of which
they develop weakly and their sugar content is reduced. Roots injured by
nematodes are unable to stand prolonged storage.
Nematodes are spread by rater, mind, agricultural implements, seeds,
whenever harvesting is done carelessly and the latter are soiled by
infested soil or plant residue.
RETHODS OP CONTROL. Agricultural rethods are used primarily at
present in the control of nematodes.
1. Introduction of crops into crop rotation not susceptible to
injury and at the same time reacting negatively to nematodes. To these
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Drian-csev 73 Transl. 180a
crops belong wheat, barley, corn, clover, flax, veitch, chickory, sweet
clover. On these cultivated plants the nematode does not feed, but the
"discharge" of their roots stimulates the exit of larvae from cysts which
perish not finding any forage.
In eases of severe infestation of plots by nematodes, sugar beet
plantings should not be returned upon the old field any earlier than
after 7 to 8 years.
2. Careful destruction of weeds of the Chenopodiaceae family,
Compositae and saltwart, which contribute to the development and propagation
of sugar beet nematodes.
3. Introduction of fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)
which do not affect nematodes directly but in contributing to the
development of sugar beets reduce their damage.
4. Deep plowing under non-susceptible crops. This measure is
based on the better aeration of the soil which contributes to the mass
exit of larvae (train cysts) which get onto plants that cannot feed them.
6. Disinfestation of residue of sugar beets at industrial plants
from possible cysts of nematodes. Lime is used for the purpose in the
proportion of 1 to 6 of residue. Mixed residue is kept for three years
in compost piles. Nematodes perish because of alkaline environment
during this time.
6. Gassing of the soil with chlorolpicrin (400 to 800 lib) destroys
sugar beet nematodes. This rethod has up to now not received sufficient
recognition and use.
7. Control of seed stock to prevent bringing in of nematodes into
new reg ons, particularly from old sugar beet fields.
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, Briantsem 74 Transl. 180a
DISEASES OF SUGAR BEETS
ROOT-EATER OF SUGAR BEETS.
Seedling gets brown and so does the root collar of young shoots.
Usually primary bark of the shoot is affected. Side roots do not develop
in injured plants, while germination is delayed. In eases of severe
infestation, mhen it penetrates into the central vascular bundle, the
upper part of the plant wilts, dries out and rots. Infestation by
"korneed" is limited in time; it occurs only in the stage of germination
before the primary skin of the root is shed, 1. e. prior to the appearance
of the third and fourth paits of genuine leaves.
The principal reason for the disease is found in unfavorable soil
and meteorological conditions, the negative action of which upon the
p1ant is expressed in the retardation of growth and the delay of the
critical period most suitable for infestation by micro-organisms.
These conditions are created in heavy, non-structural, moist soils.
Because of the lack of aeration and increased acidity characteristic of
heavy soils, physiological processes are disturbed in the plant and it
becomes depressed. In this condition a plant is easily susceptible to
infestation by various semi-parasitic micro-organisms.
Among the most active organisms causing "korneed" are (Pithium de
Baryanum Ressel and [Aphanamyces cochlioides Drechs.], which are capable
of infesting plants of normal development. (Pythium de Baryanumj belongs
to peronospore fungi.
Parthenogenic propagation is through zoosporangia, more seldom conidia.
The parasite winters in the soil in the stage of oospores. The subsoil
part of the plant is primarily affected.
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Briantscv 76 Trans'. 180a
(Aphanomyces cophlioides] belongs to phycomycetes; it has cylindrical
zoospores and ball-like oospores. This is a soil parasite. It infests
young shoots and plants having even 5 to 4 pairs of leaves. The stem in
the root collar is affected, occasionally even petioles and cotyledons.
Plants of weak development may become infested by [Phoma betae ?reek]
and other semi-parasitic fungi. Ph, betae belongs to inferior fungi.
Its fruit bodies contain small uni-cellular spores. The parasite is
preserved: on post-harvested residue and in seeds.
Heavy precipitation contributes to the development of "korneed"
during the period of germination of sugar beets. The condition of
germination and degree of infestation by the disease depend also upon
the quality of seeds. Seeds of low germination and little energy in
growth produce irregular, weakly developing shoots. They rapidly succumb
to infestation by "korneed.
The influence of the diucase upon plants to determined by the time
and degree of their infestation. Early infestation of seedlings is
frequently accompanied by their destruction and thus leads to thinning
of plantings. Even in casts when a diseased plant continues to develop,
the disease has its effect upon the yield. Those plants are delayed
in growth, have reduced sugar content, are occasionally deformed.
General lessee caused by this disease are frequently considerable.
EETHODS OF CONTROL. The control of this disease should be primarily
directed towards creating better conditions for the development of plants.
Of exceptional significance in control are agricultural measures.
1. Grass crop rotation, during which sugar beets follow winter or
summer cereal crops. Such crop rotation established favorable conditions
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Briantsev 76 Trans'. 180a
for the development of sugar beets tnd thus increases their resistance
to the disease.
2. Fall plowing and spring cultivation prior to sowing.
3. Introduction of fertilizers increases the development of plants and
their resistance. Among fertilizers, potassium phosphates are specially
recommended. On heavy soils, manure and lime are introduced in the fall
to improve the physical composition of the soil.
4. Sawing with health full-weight seeds. Moistening of seedsand
vernalization are recommended since they reduce the critical period of
infestation. As shown by the academician /akushkin, vernalization of
seeds of sugar beets increases the percentage of "tsvetukha" only in the
northern regions of sugar beet growing.
S. Pre-sowing treatment of seeds sdth NIUIF-2 in the proportion of
0.6 kg. per one centner of seeds.
6. Early cultivation which aids germination; keeping the soil friable.
7. Additional feeding in the early stage and through the vegetative
period.
8. Drainage of wet soils, adjoining ground waters.
NERCOSPONA BETICOLA] (or spottiness of leaves of sugar beets).
Belongs to the number of widely distributed and harmful diseases of
sugar beets.
Appears in the form of spotted loaves, more seldom petioles and
stems.
Numerous small, round spots appear on the leaf lamina. They are
brown at first, later grey with sharply red-brown border. The site and
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77 Transit.. 180a
character of spots way vary. Thus on old leaves they are larger of
vaguely outlined wide, light, brown border. In the fall spots are very
small. On petiolee and stems spots are elongated. In cases of severe
infestation, when 30 to 40 o o of the leaf surface is covered with spots,
the leaf dies.
But even a partial necrosis of the tissue reduces assimilation.
(Cercospora beticola) develops primarily in the second half of the summer,
reaching its maximum in August. The disease is caused by the furgus
[Cercospora beticola Sacra.] of the hyphomycetes group. Conidial spore-
bearing of the parasite appears in the form of'a grey film in spots,
on the lower side of leaves. They consist of bundles of unbranched,
slightly bent, light brown conidia bearers with conidia. The conidia are
colorless, elongated with several perpendicular partitions. The fungus,
by producing abundant sporebearing an leaves, causes mass infestation of
plants through conidia. The latter retain their viability only for 1
to 4 months. The wintering stage of the parasite consists in sclorotial
accumulations of mycelium which form on infested residue. Infested leaves
that winter on the surface of the soil aid the return of the disease in
the following year. The fungus perishes rapidly when the injured foliage
is subjected to decomposition.
Infestation of plants and degree of development of cercospora
depend upon the moisture and temperature of the air. Ger4Ination of
spores takes place at moisture of 90 eio and over. High moisture
contributes to plant infestation. The most favorable temperature for
infestation is 15 to 200, the minimal 5?. The duration of the incubation
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Briantsev
78 Trans'. 180a
period is also determined by temperature conditions and thus also the
beginning of secondary infestation. The shortest incubation period
(7 days) may take place at an average daily temperature of 200, the minimal
at no less than 100 and maximal no higher than 5?. At a reduction of
median temperature and at sharp variations between minimal and maximal
temperatures the incubation period in increased.
Table 10
DEPENDENCE OF INMATTOT PERIOD OF CERCOSFORA TWO
V IATION IN DAILY TEMPERATURE
Temperature of the air
Median
200
20
19-22
23-26
16
16
13-16
raximum
Duration of Incubation period in days.
no higher
than 25?
25-30
30-35
above 35
not above
30 ab. 10
same 10-5
below 5
no lower
than 10?
ft
7
13-14
to 20
20-30 and over
The incubation period is increased 'when nitrogen is lacking in the
soil and because of the infestation of young leaves. Oercospora is spread
in sugar beet regions and causes particularly hezavy damage in Krasnodar
and Frimor's krai(s), where conditions of increased moisture and optimal
temperature contribute to the rapid course of the disease and mass
infestation of plants.
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Briantsev 79 Transl. 180a
The injuriousness of the disease is caused by the disruption of
the process of assimilation in infested loaves which leads to the reduction
In sugar content in the roots. In addition, untimely dying of diseased
leaves leads to the accelerated growth formation of new leaves which absorb
the supply (stores) of sugar in roots.
VETHODS OF CONTROL. Control is conducted by chemical and agro-
technical measures, the principal role of which is to destroy the foci
of infection and preserve the plantings of sugar beets during the period
of vegetation. The followinz measures are reCommendedt
1. Dusting or spraying of plantings with copper preparations.
The most effective preparation is 1 0/6 Bordeaux mixture. High efficacy
is obtained from the copper-lime powder, consisting of one part of copper
sulfate and 4 parts of lime-"pushonka."
The first chemical treatment is performed at the first symptoms of
disease on leaves, which usually coincides with the period of closing of
rows of sugar beets.
Periods of successive treatments are determined by air temperature.
Sample periods are: every 10 to 12 days after the preceding spraying,
if normal summer temperature prevails; every 15 days if maximal temperature
reaches 350 or minimal 80; every 20 days if minimal temperature is lower
than 50.
Chemical measures are conducted usually following precipitation
(rains, fogs, dem); primarily on t'ose plots where the danger of Infection
and development of disease is greatedt, i. e. close to old fields near
reservoirs or valleys.
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Briantsev 80 Transl. 180s.
In hot, dry weather chemical treatment is not required since the
disease does not develop under those conditions.
2. Harvesting and ensilage of foliage. Destruction of unsuitable
reside.
3. Fall plowing.
4. Additional feeding with organic and mineral fertilizers.
"RAGATRAIA GRIL'" of SUGAR BEET. (Selerotinia...)
Prolonged storing of sugar beets is of particular significance in
the sugar industry. The introduction of rational methods of storing
sugar beets offers the opportunity to increase the productive period of
sugar plants.
Large losses are observed during winter storing of beets, connected
on one hand with the natural loss of various elements (water, sugar,
etc.); on the other, determined by the activity of various micro-organisms.
In the roots of stored sugar beets accumulation of sugar is stopped and
subsequently, in connection with intensified breathing and other
physiological processes, reduction in sugar content follows. The water
regime of roots is also disrupted; there is no supply of water coming
from outside, while egaporation is intensified. These processes all
reduce turgor of cells and thus the resistance of roots to micro-organisms.
Wounds are particularly contributing to the penetration of the batter,
and are caused usually by cutting roots and leaves. As a result of
injury by various micro-organisms, fungi and bacteria, complex rot results,
the 4o-cu1led "Icagatnaia grill'". The process of the rotting of roots
begins in the fall under the influence of fungi.
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Briantsev
81 Transl. 180a
The most active inducers of rot are [Botrirtis cinerea] [Phoma betae],
various species of Pusarium, nukorovye fungi, etc. The greater
part of the above species is carried into warehouses with residue of foliage
and soil, but some species, i. e. Phoma betee, penetrate into roots during
the vegetative period and continue to develop in storage. The development
of bacteria is observed primarily in the spring, when roots are weakened
by the preceding processes (loss of turgor, infestation by fungi).
Increased moisture and temperature contribute to the development of
this disease. The activity of fungi organisms is increased by increased
acidid:ty of the environment; bacteria demand alkaline surroundings.
DETBODS OF CMTI:01.. Study of the physiological processes in stored
sugar beets permitted the proper approach for controlling the crop in
storage. The measures aim at preserving sugar beets from Infestation and
creating conditions unfavorable for the development of micro-organisms.
The following measures are being used:
1. Timely harvesting of sugar beets, depending upon the degree of
their maturity, ripeness and conditions of harvesting.
2. Storing of sugar beets should fellow their digging as closely
as possible since a considerable interim between the operations leads to
wilting of roots.
3. Proper cutting of foliage in di&;ing. It has been established
that in cutting roots at an anle, they are preserved better than if cut
flat, because in the former case the more resistant part of the root is
preserved. Better keeping quality is observed when the central bud alone
Is cut (according to the /armoshchenko method).
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Briantsev
82 Transl. 180a
4. Careful elirination of injnred beets and of those where the roots
are hollow. or should frozen sugar beets be ever stored.
5. The periods of storing sugar beets (prolonged and short storing)
should be established depending upon the quality of de crop. During
storage a plyytopathologioal Lnalysis of roots should be made to judge
their condition. A chart slasuld be kept of this data for further guidance
(information) on the treutnent of beets.
6. Proper conditions of storing: optimal temperature in storing
in the winter at abouto; in the fall and spring at 3 to 4. Regulating
of temperature by ventilating pipes and channels.
7. Disinfection of roots before placing them in storage. The best
disinfectant is slaked lime and defecation slime. The latter represents
residua from the sugar industry containing up to 60 ois of lime, primarily
carbonic acids. The application of these compounds is based on their
alkaline content which delay the development of inducers of "kagat" rot,
fungi. In addition, these compounds interfere with the germination of
root crops, prevent them from wilting and increase the sugar content in
processing.
Lime is applied in the form of lime "milk." The letter is
recommended whenever sugar beets are harvested at high temperatures and
also when wilted beets are used. Spraying with lime liquid is done in
"kagats." Dusting of roots with line powder or defecation slime when
placing root crops in "kagats." The expenditure of lime is 0.4 to 0.5 o/o
in dusting and 0.2 to 0.25 o/C in spraying, depending upon the ',height
of the crop. Defecation slime is applied only after airing, since in a
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63 Ti-anal. 180a
fresh state it contains a large quantity of bacteria. The amount used
la 0.4 o/o, depending upon the vreight of beets.
The above disinfectants should under no circumstances be used in
treating frozen beets. The dead tissues of such root crop are quickly
infected by bacteria, the development of v,hich is hastened by the
application of alkaline compounds, such as lime and defecation slime.
End of Chapter
TJH: 31 July 1951
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Briantsev 84 Trans 1, 180a
Chapter Thirteen
ORGANIZATION OF PEST ALD DISEASE CONTROL OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS (p. 623-637)
Pest and disease control of agricultural plants is exercised under a
plan in the USSR and is compulsory for all collective, state and other farms.
To correlate planning, the administration of general supervision for
the organization of control set up a Department of Pest Control at the
Ministry of Agriculture of the USSR; at republic, krai and oblast agricul-
tural administrations, special departments and groups devoted to pest
control were organized, and at regional agricultural branches and indie00-
dual MTS, the services of agronomists, specialists in plant protection,
were made available for direct supervision of vork in this field at
collective farms.
To aid the respective sections on pest control in their planning and
to provide effective guidance in plant protection, a special Sagnalization
Service was established to offer prognoses on the appearance of pests and
diseases. This service is located at observation points. Every republic,
krai and ()blast of the Union maintains several observation points which
are in close contact with collective farms and where entomologists and
phytopathologists are at work.
The task of observation points is to provide estimates on infested
areas, to sound signals on the appearance of pests and diseases, announce
dates for their control, conduct surveys and estimates on the efficacy
of applied measures and compile prognoses concerning the potential
appearance of pests and diseases based on regular observations.
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Briantsev 85 Transl. 180a
Observation points depend in their work upon information obtained
from correspondents among collective farmers The latter, guided by
special instructions of the Government, inform observation points of the
appearance on their farms of pests and diseases of agricultural plants.
Information collected by observation points and collective farmer-
correspondents is processed at oblast agricultural departments, of both
republic and Union Ministries of Agriculture. The data is used for
planning and guiding pest and disease control.
A Plant Quarantine Service is organized within the Ministry of
Agriculture of the USSR, to which inspectors are assigned at all republic,
Oblast and regional centers, as well as at USSR boundaries, for the
administration of quarantine measures. The Ministry of Agriculture of the
USSR organized special expeditions destined to destroy mass pests, such
as locusts and ground squirrels on territories outside of collective farms.
The civilian aviation fleet participates in large measure in practical
control; it maintains special squadrons of airplanes for pest and disease
control of agricultural plants. The airplanes are used in controlling
locusts in their foci, as well as against pests and diseases on collective
and state fields, orchards and vineyards.
Plant protection in the Soviet Union hss a scientific foundation.
The All-Union Institute of Plant Protection was organized for this purpose
within the network of VASICREIL and operates with stations of its own.
In addition, sections on plant protection at special agricultural institutes
and their respective zonal stations are engaged in studying pest and
disease control of agricultural plants.
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Briantsev 86 1ransh 180a
Specialists in plant protection are trained at the institute of
Applied Zoology and Phytopathology at faculties in plant protection at
agricultural institutes and departments in plant protection of agricultural
technical schools. Mass personnel on plant protection receive their
training at corresponding regional and oblast courses.
Plant protection is organized in a manner to meet widely and
effectively the demands of socialist agricultural production and to aid
collective farms in controlling pests and diseases of agricultural plants.
Collective farms engage in plant protection at their awn expense
and provide their own labor supervised by the regional sections of
agriculture and NTS.
Every household is required to compile a working plan for pest and
disease control and put it into practice. Special farm workers are
selected who mere trained at courses conducted during the winter for this
purpose. These workers are authorized to organize pest control and
supervise all practical measures undertaken at collective farms, as well
as to carry the responsibility for the storing and expenditure of poisons.
The duties of collective farmer-organizers of pest control are :
to survey their fields with respect to infestation by pests and diseases;
familiarize collective farm brigades and units with the technique of
control to be applied on plots assigned to them; to maintain records of
the efficacy of practical measures; submit summaries concerning pest and
disease control, and records on the expenditure ofpoisons to YTS and
regional sections of agriculture.
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Alt
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Lriantsev
87 Transl. 180a
A collective farm plan on pest and disease control is necessary
to foresee the volume of work, the quantity of chemicals and apparatus
(equipment), labor strength (in working days), hauling strength (in
horse-days) and required equipment for conducting the work, and to determine
the dates for introducing control,
Special surveys of pests and diseases of agricultural crops are made
to determine the volume of the work. These surveys which ooncern the
contamination of the territory by pests are usually conducted in the fall
when injurious insects are dormant. The quantities of wintering masses
of insects are established directly in their wintering places (hide-outs)
which may be soil, plants or parts thereof and post-harvesting residues,
The following methods are used to record the majority of pests
wintering in the soil. The plot under survey is laid out in checkerboard,
squares
0.25 m2 (50 x 50 cm.),/at even distances from each other; these are dug
to a depth of 20-n0 em, and the insects counted in each square. On sugar
beet farms it is customary to divide plots of 10 hectmres into 8 lots; plots
of 11 hectares into 12 lots; plots of 51-100 hectares into 16 lots, and
plots exceeding 100 hectares are assigned four additional lots for every
50 hectares above 100 hectares.
The degree of peat population per plot is expressed in averages arrived
0
at from one m 4, Thus, if in 8 tests were found a total of 30 wireworms,
the index for the plot contaminated by this pest will be 15 vireworms per
0
4
one
in ?
Locusts are recorded differently and their number determined according
to hills(?) "kubyshki" in the places they are found. In the summer
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Briantsev 88 Transl. 180a
the flight of locusts is watched to establish places where eggs are laid.
In the fall soil bests are taken from the designated lots of 0.25 m2,
5 am. deep, every 90 to 100 steps, by passing the plot in two perpendicular
directions. A boundary of foci is considered the place on which tests
did not show Mlle. Degree of contamination is determined by the average
number of hills per 1 m2
It is possible to judge pest population in the soil indirectly by
the degree of contamination of individual plants, such as in plantings
infested by caterpillars of the cutworm moth, [Agrotis segetum Schiff],
wireworms, etc. In that case 8 lots at 0.25 m2 each are selected in an
area planted with cereals, all distributed in checkerboard. In surveying
plants within the limits of each lot, the degree of infestation is
established by a three-grade scale. Grade I indicates losses of 25 o/O;
grade II, losses from 25 to 50 ilo; grade III, those exceeding 50 olo.
On plowed or legumineus crops, 200 plants are examined for this purpose;
at
plants are examined on ten squares in checkerboard;/20 plants on each:
Grade I, indicates losses of 10 ofo; grade II losses of 10 to 20 e/o;
grade III above 20 q/e. The average index of injury is established from
the average grades obtained from all surveyed plants.
The percentage of populated plants is established when insects winter.
Thus, in examining minter crops on every surveyed plot, 200 plants are
taken for tests in checkerboard at 20 plants each. In the event that
insects are hidden inside the plants, the latter are opened. This procedure
is used when winter crops are infested by the Swedish fly, [Chlorops
pumilionis Bjerk], etc.
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Briantsev 89 Trend. 180a
Titian pests winter on post-harvest residue, the latter is equally
examined. Thus stores of the cabbage aphid, Drevicaryne brassicae
are determined by examining cabbage cores on which females lay their
eggs in the fail. For this purpose 20 to 40 cabbage cores, distributed
in checkerboard at equal distance, are taken, the percentage of populated
cores determined by examination, the number of eggs counted, and the
average population of eggs on each core thus established,
Vhenever it is not possible to determine the quantities of pests
in their wintering abodes, the number of insects should be recorded
before they enter the winter stage. Thus the cabbage worms, [Pieria
brassie:se L.) winter in their pupae stage on trees, in barns, under
window cornices, and it is therefore difficult to estimate their number.
The quantities of these pests should therefore be recorded before cater-
pillars change into pupae. Fifty to 100 plants are examined on every lot
under survey for this purpose. On crops with a dense grqss stand, such
as flax, insects are counted not on individual plants but on lots of
0.25 m2; there are 4-8 of these recorded lots on a plot under survey.
If counting of pests presents difficulty, because of their email site
(aphids, red spider), the quantity of pests is estimated according to
degree of population or degree of injuriousness caused to plants; the
population or injury caused to every plant is expressed tentatively.
Thus, in recording cabbage aphids, the following scale has been accepted:
/ for single specimens found on a plant; /I for colonies of aphids on
individual leaves of a plant; III for colonies of aphids found on the
majority of leaves of a plant.
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Briantsev 90 Trans'. 180a
In recording wintering pests, the etrge of development of insects
should be taken into consideration, the age of the larvae, the infestation
of insects by parasites and diseases, etc. Thus the cutworm moth winters
only in its mature caterpillar stamp while caterpillars of young and
medium ages die out. The destruction of insects caused by parasites and
different diseases can be very large. To establish the condition of
insects that winter, checks are made in the spring when the destruction
of insects from various causes (diseases, parasites, unfavorable conditions
in wintering) can be established. Spring checking is done by the same
method, but on a smaller number of plots.
Recording of miee-like rodents is done at their habitats. Plots
and the number of burrows are segregated for-this purpose. A plot under
examination should be no smaller than 0.5 io of the surveyed area. Thus
if a field of 100 h. is examIned, the size of the recorded plot should
be no less than 0.5 hectares. The latter represents a narrow strip
which diagonally crosses the entire plot under survey from corner to
corner. One worker pulls t he "ogranichitel" (2-meter), used to measure
land plots, the other in back of him counts the number of inhabited and
uninhabited burrows within the limits of the two meter strip* Prior to
the survey all burrows are covered up. In recording, dug-up burrows
are courted as inhabited, covered ones as uninhabited. The index for
plot infestation is determined by the number of inhabited and uninhabited
relation to
burrows in tbstKxricrozprertkonoaxf one hectare.
In surveying ground squirrels, a plot of 0.5 hectares is taken for
every 100 h. and the number of burrows counted; or after passing 1000 m.,
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/IA .L4ALL ionc, V vl Trans1. 150a
the number of burrows is counted on a strip 5 m wide, at 2.5 in in every
direction. In this case theqTderAreSNaymediate surveyed will also equal
0.5 heotares. The number of inhabited burrows is established by covering
all burrows.
Surveying of fields with respect to infestation by disease is primarily
made during the vegetative period. In order to establish the spread of the
disease, samples of plants are taken from which the percentage of infest-
ation is determined. The samples are distributed diagonally. The number of
samples and plants in the sample differsdepending upon the disease. Thus
in recording mut of cereals ,l00 sam:ges, at ten to fifteen plants each,are
taken for every test. The number of infested stalks are counted. In est-
ablishing the percentage of infestation the number of infested plants is
divided into the general number of surveyed plants and multiplied by 100.
Por instance, if all plants in 100 samples amounted to 1500, and 8 were in.
fasted, the percentage of infection would be 8 x 100 or 0.53.
1500
In diseases distributed in foci, such as dodder "scuts europaq and
flax milt D'usarium ling, the foci of diseased plants are counted. The
size of foci is established according to Table 11.
Table 11
Midth in paces
1 Area in Sq. Vetere
Width in paces
Area in Sq. re tars
0,2 6
2 0,75 7
3 1,7 8
4 3,0 9
5 4,7 10
6,7
9,7
12,0
16,2
28,7
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Briantsev 92 Trans].. 180a
In estimating the entire infested plot, areas of all foci are totalled.
Degree of plant infestation is established by various methods depending
upon the nature of the disease. In cone instanees the number of infested
organs is counted, such as stalks with sclerotic: of ergot, stems of potatoes
infested by black leg, etc. In other diseases the degree of infection is
established by special scales.
In estimating the degree of rust infection the following scale is
applied:
I. Light infection; foliage or stems covered with single pustules.
. Lgedium infection, pustules of rust form small groups;
3. Severe infection, surface of leaf or stem ' densely covered with
rust pustules.
To provide a more precise definition of the degree of infestation by
rust, the VIZR scale is used.
The estimate of degree of spotting in foliage is made according to the
following scale: Light, one quarter of all leaves infested; medium, one
quarter to one half of foliage infested; severe, infestation exceeds one half.
The estimate of contaminated plantings is made during the period of maximum
appearance of the disease. Thus diseases of cereal crops are estimated in
periods of milk stage; diseases of flax in early yellow stages, eta.
Diseases which are not noticeable or cannot be observed above ground, such as
club root of cabbage, various species of potato scab, etc., are estimated
after harvesting by examining the diseased organs.
In order to establish the distribution of pests and diseases in a
territory and to identify their principal foci, surveys are conducted on all
plots of a farm. Having identified the species of pests and diseases upon
examining the winter residues and data on their infection of agricultural
crops during the period of vegetation, the farms propose concrete control
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Briantsev 9$ Trans'. 180e.
measures concerning pests and diseases in conformance with the decrees of
ETS and agricultural organisations. All chemical, agro-technical and mech..
anical measures should be applied at definite periods and should, if possible,
be applied*
The schedule listed below, composed for pest and disease control of
cabbage plants, mill serve as an example, as applicable to collective farms
in the Leningrad oblast.
PERIOD OF SMUG PLANTING.
1* Mordant treatment of cabbage seeds by chemical or thermic methods
(bacterium and fungi diseases).
2., Replacement of soil in greenhouses (slub root of cabbage, black leg and
other diseases).
S. liming of soil in greenhouses in the proportion of 1.5 - 2 kg per frame
for 10-15 days prior to sowing, as. sell as on plots above ground intended
for cabbage, in the proportion of 5 - 10 tons per hectare, depending upon
the acidity of the soil (to control club root of cabbage).
4. Rejection of cabbage seedlings infected by club root.
5. Prophylactic dusting of cabbage seedlings with the preparation DDT in
greenhouses immediately prior to their planting in open ground.
PERIOD OF CARE OF CROP.
6.- Early periods of planting (cabbage fly fllylemyia brassicae Bouchgand
club root of cabbage, bacterium, eta.)
7. Timely hoeing and hilling (cabbage fly, club root of oabbage).
8. Dusting of cabbage with the preparation MSG or strewing it under the
plant during early egg laying of the cabbage fly (against cabbage fly and
cruciferous moths, cabbage moth, etc.)
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Tantjapv 94 Trans'. 180a
Crushing of eggs and young caterpillars of the cabbage worm f-Pieris
/\ during the
)6rassicae U, and Darathra brassicae L7kmxperkmdexmt "binding"
cabbage heads.
16/; Autumn plowing (pests and diseases preserved in the soil or above it.)
Agro..technical measures (periods of sowing, cultivation of the soil, etc.)
,Are of significance in protecting harvests from pests and diseases and
/ should be Included in farm plans.
The required quantity of control methods, material, equipment, labor
and freight strength is determined by the composition of species of pests
and diseases, the size of infested areas, quantities of sowing stock, cubage
of storehouses, methods of control, periods of cultivation, the general
organization of the work. In determining quantities of poisons, it is nec-
essary to consider the methods for applying the specific preparation, it's
concentration and dosage, the size of infested plots and the stages in plant
deNelopment. tot us illustrate )p,r; an example of spraying and dusting with
calcium arsenate of orchards of different ages. In spraying gnawing insects
this preparation is used in a concentration of 0.Aper cent, of which in a
ten-year old orchard 100 liters are expended, and in a 25-year old orchard,
600 liters per hectare. It follows that in the first orchard 900 grams are
required per hectare; in the second, 1.800 grams. In dusting a ten-year old
orchard, ten kg per hectare are necessary; in a 25-year old archard, 45 kg
per hectare. Thie indicates that dusting takes a much larger amount of
arsenate calcium, which should be considered in computing quantities.
The necessary amount of equipment for chemical control depends upon the
latter's strength and the time, of it's use.
. To determine the required number of apparatus, the size of the plot
under treatment is divided in hectares, by computing the output of apparatus
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DrLWAUOCIV U0 Iransi. lova
and the number of days during which the control is applied. Thus to spray
an orchard of 60 heotares for 5 days with the sprayer OBP, (to cover 2
hectares) 6 pieces of apparatus are needed.
Labor for servicing control varies depending upon the methods used.
Mechanical measures produce the largest output; chemical methods are chiefly
mechanized and applied with a relatively United labor force. To service
apparatus different quantities in labor persOmoq are required, depending
upon their construction. Knapsack apparatus can be serviced by one laborer,
and another special worker assigned to prepare the mixture for ten 2-1,4.0es
of apparatus.
The motor.driven sprayer "Pioneer" requires the help of 6 laborers.
Two horses are needed to move the equipment. To service the mordant-
treating machine PSP-05 two laborers are needed; for the machine AB-2, of
a productivity four times as large, 4 laborers. The greater the output of
a machine, the smaller is generally the number of laborers.
Pest control requires other means; necessary chemicals, repair of
equipment, and implements such as pails, barrels, etc.
Collective farm brigades oust be organized at the beginning of the
vegetative period for regular observation of pests and their development
and better eventual control.
In order to ensure the completion of measures within definite periods
and produce high quality work, the placement of control apparatus and the
distribution of labor must be properly organized. Workers from the brigade
are selected for the purpose to service the equipment, prepare components
and transport water and material.
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Briantsev
96 Transl. 180a
The organization of crews for the following treatment may be cited as
an example. It is recommended to create detachments of 12 laborers to deal
with knapsack sprayers for ten apparatus under field conditions, 10 laborers
per apparatus, one laborer for preparing compounds, another to transport
water. In ;praying with horse-driven apparatus OK.-5.0, the crew is assigned
three apparatus and 8 laborers. For treating ground squirrels with mor-
dants (chlor piorin), craws of 35 laborers are used; 20 men for applying,
treatment, 10 for digging, 4 for the preparation of chemicals, one for
driving.
In locust control with poisonous attraotants, crews of 26 laborers
are used, 20 to distribute the chemicals, four to prepare them, one driver
to transport mater. The above plan is tentative and requires specification,
depending upon particular conditions. In organizing a crew the different
types of tasks should correlate, supplement each other and the entire per-
formance proceed without interruption.
Periods in providing control are of decisive significance. Ellen de-
layed or extended they are a considerable part and occasionally the entire
may be
harvest gire lost.
Pest control is applied in periods which ensure the timely liquidation
of pests. Thus the destruction of the aaiatio locust in low lands should
take place immediately following the appearance of larvae and end in the
pre-last larvae stage in order that locusts be destroyed not only before
they reach the wing stage but to aid the control survey and destruction of
the remainder of "kuligin--. Periods for conducting control surveys of pests
in dormant stages depend upon the duration of the latter. Thus the elimin-
ation of winter pests of the pierid butterfly and brawn-tail moth may be done
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Briantsev 97 Transl. 180a
in early fall until spring. This measure is usually timed to the snow season,
however, when all 'nests are easily gathered from the snow. For controlling
fungi diseases the time for conducting control surveys is equally decisive.
Spraying and dusting with fungicides are primarily intended to prevent the
developernt ofr disease. Poison should be administered to plants prior to
spore development. Once the latter develop and mycelium penetrates into the
plant tiSsue; all measures become futile.
Periods for applying several mordants are determined by their action
upon seed :germination. The preparation AB can be used 6 months before plant-
ing, in treating grate the preparation PD no earlier than one month before
treatment. \ In order to control measures in time, it is neoessary to know the
period/of appearanoe of pasts and diseases. This depends upon meteorological
factors'.! It was established that the apple weevil, rAnthonomus pcconni L.7
k
awakens! at a temperature of the air of 60 and the cabbage butterfly flies out
?
viten the soil is warmed to 8-9?.
041nditions connected with pest appearance and beginning of harmful
actpOity are still unestablished and inadequate with respect to many pests.
ThS suggests the advisability of keeping calendars from year to year on pests
*JoA diseases, mark the time of their appearance, the distribution of the
/stave of their developrent, the periods of their injurious activities.
Although appearance and development of pests may vary depending upon weather
conditions, a calendar permits nevertheless to establish tentative dates for
the future.
In order to correlate pest appearances and their injurious activities
with factors of the surrounding environment, the various phases of develop-
ment of agricultural plants ehou1d be noted in calendars. Germination,
swelling, opening of buds, beginning and and of bloom, etc., all development
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Briantsev
98 Transl. 180a
should be listed, as should temperature and other factors. Many control
measures correspond to definite phases. Thus the first spraying with in-
testinal poisons to control the codling moth fbarpooapsa pomonella lig is
done when petals drop (80 per cent); spraying with contact poisons of the
larvae of suckers rftyllidag, when the buds begin to unfold, etc. Notes
on calendars should be kept for future guidance in organizing practical
measures.
Observation on the need of appearance and development of pests and
diseases permits the signalling for control. This should generally begin
when pests first make their appearance. In some cases, when this is diffi-
cult to establish by direct observation, various other supplementary methods
are used. Thus to establish periods for spraying the codling moth in it's
second and third generations, several hundred caterpillars of the last goner..
ation of this pest must be gathered, placed into jars covered with gauze,
the
kept in shady places in/orchard, and watched for the flight of butterflies.
To control the codling moth two sprayings are required; the first spraying
wfen butterflies begin to fly and the second when 40 per cent of the butter-
fIies'are winged. To establish periods for chemical control against cater-
/
pillarS of the grape berry moth, /-Polychrosis viteana (filem..27 special
traps are put up in vineyards, i.e. wide iron vessels filled with nbekmes"
/volution. When the butterflies accumulate in traps, spraying is undertaken
"every 18 days on pests of the first generation, and every 10 to 14 days on
the seeond and third generations, i.e. before the birth of young caterpillars
that may have remained unnoticed because of their small size. (p.545).
The degree of danger from the cutworm moth, CAgrotis segetum Schiff:7 is
,estimated by the number of butterflies which got into basins filled with
:syrup (molasses) distributed in the fields.
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DZACUJUIVOY 99 TransI. 180a
In many cases dissection of insects is necessary to establish how egg
formation proceeds and to estimate when egg laying will begin. This is done
with regard to butterflies of beet webworms, rLomostege sticticalig the
cutworm moth, stem borers rPhytometra gamma L.71 etc.
Records of the efficacy of pest control of agricultural plants are kept
to evaluate the results of the application of control methods as well as of
the quality of the work. Efficacy of control is determined by the reduced
number of injurious insects and the increase and improvement of the quality
of the yield on treated plots.
By counting the number of pests before and after treatment it is possible
to establish this from the reduction in their number. If, for instance, prior
to control 500 living insects were found on 100 plants and later only 50, the
number of destroyed insects is 450, or 90 per cent.
Estimates of quantities of insects are made, on plots of 0.25 to 0.5
hectares, typical of infestation, segregated from the total treated territory; on
these plots insects are counted on individual plants (25 to 100 plants) or on
test plots (4.8 plots, 50 x 50 cm each), or yet on specially distributed
attractants (4-8 hills) distributed in checkerboard. Post-treated estimates
of insects are usually made 3 to 5 days following treatment.
Simultaneously with estimates on quantities of insects the injurious-
ness of agricultural plants is determined, i.e, number of injured plants and
degree of injury. The pre-treated record of injured plants offers the oppor-
tunity to judge timeliness of control. When the latter is delayed plants are
usually already injured and if infestation is high, the yield will not prove
adequate even if control is introduced at this stage. Post.treated estimates
of the injuriousness of plants is essential to determine whether injury to
pests has been stopped. In determining injuriousness, 50 to 100 plants are
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examined and the degree of their injury established by the 4.grade scale 0
indicating absence of injury; /,- light injury, Ta_liage eaten 25 per cent;
llr medium injury, foliage eaten 25 - 50 per cent; III,- severe injury,
foliage destroyed in excess of SO per cent. No record of injury of foliage
by aphids is kept since data concerning their population is sufficient to
estimate the injury caused to plants.
By comparing harvests from treated plots with those where no treatment
was applied, an index of efficacy with regard to yields is obtained.
Measures for controlling smut of cereals are considered good when no
injured plants are found in plantings.
The collective farm-instructor on pest and disease control should main-
tain close contact with specialists on plant protection and other agronomic
personnel and secure necessary instructions from them.
End of article.
A.M.F.
August 13, 191.
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litRAA0141 iWii A-AMMU rAWA,OUVUXULA
Osnovy zashohity rastenii ot
vreditelei I boleznei [Principles of
the protection of plants from pests
and diseases]. Moskva, 1936, 423 B635
2 v.
v.1,
Table of Contents (p. 7654773))
Foreword
Translated in part from the
Russian by R. G. Dembo
Chapter I. Basio oontents of the study about plant diseases in its
. development and the interrelationship with other scientific
disciplines.
Basic factors causing the processes of plant diseases
I. Inorganic, (abiotic) negative factors
II. Organic (biotic) negative faotore
The contents and courses in the development of the study of plant
diseases.
Theoretical bases and industrial problems in protecting agricultural
plants against pests and diseases; interrelationship with other scienti..
fie disciplines.
3
5
7
9
Chapter II. Main groups of zoological organisms damaging agricultural
plants and useful in eradicating pests (relative agricul-
tural significance of these croups, their systematic and
biological characteristics) 15
17
Type II. Worms (Vermes) 18
Type III. Molluscs, or soft bodied (Molluscs) 20
Type IV. Arthropods, or animals with jointed limps (Arthropods) 21
First class. Canker-like (Crustacea) 21
Second class. Myriapod (Wyriapoda) 21
Third class. Spider-like (Arachnoidea) 22
Fourth class. Insects (Insects) 24
SUbolasa A. Lower insects (Ametabola) 29
Group 1. Springtails (Collembola) 29
Type 1. The simplest (Protoza)
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Boldyrev, V. F.
Osnovy zashchity s.-kh, rastenii
ot vreditelei?..
Group 2. Bristletails (Thysanura) 29
Subclaas B. Insects with incomplete transformation
(llemimotabola) 29
Group 1. Thrips (Thysanoptera) 29
Group 2. Lantern flies or bed bugs (Heniptera) 30
Group 3. Even-winged, proboscis (Homoptera) 31
Subgroup.(Cioadodea) 31
Subgroup.(Psyllodea) 32
Subgroup. Aphids (Aphidodea) 32
Subgroup. Scale, "Eoktsidy," cyce aphids
(Cocoodea)
Group 4. Cockroaches (Blattodea) 34
Group S. Termites (Isoptera)
Group 6. "Ukhovertki" (Dermaptera) 36
Group 7. Straight winged (Orthoptera) 36
Subclass C. Insects with full transformation
(Holometabole) 39
Group 1. Beetles, or rigid winged
(Coleoytera) 39
Group 2. Fleas (Ap haniptera) 46
Group 3. Creek beetles (Trichoptera) 46
Group 4. "oheshuekrylye, or butterflies"
(Lepidoptera) 46
Group S. "pereponchatokrylye" (Hymenoptera) 46
Group 6. two-winged (Diptera)
Group 7. Net-like-winged (Neuroptera)
Subtype. Spirted insects (Vertebrate)
6Z
62
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Osnovy zanhchity
Class. Mammals, or wild beasts (znnahin, or Theria) 62
Group 1. Roofed insects (Nuaa& 63
Group 2. Wild. insects (Carnivore) 63
Group 3. Insect eaters (Insectivora) 64
Group 4..F1edermice (Chiroptera) 65
Group 5. Rodents, (Rodentia) 65
Class. Birds (Avec) main groups or birds 71
Class. Animals on land and on eater (Amphib 77
Class. Reptiles (Reptilia) 77
Chapter III. Peculiarities in construction and organic functions of
harmful animals for agriculture and their enemies -
wild beasts and parasites. 78
Peculiarities in animals' nutrition and digestive process. 78
? Digestive tract and rothic parts of nematod 80
Digestive tract and rothic parts of molluscs 81
Digestive tract and rothic supplements of insects 82
Digestive process in insects 92
Adipose of insects and its role 94
Secretory system of insects 95
Rothic parts of the rest of arthropodic animals 96
Digestive apparatus of birds and mammals 96
Selection of nourishment by animals; groups of animals
according to their nourishing regime. 99
BUtritional periods and conditions of those animals ehich represents
danger for agricultural plants. 105
Breathing, blood circulation and the body temperature of
animals 107
Blood circulation system and breathing of insects and of
myriapods 114
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1.1,0A3xi-ov, v* 141
Osnovy zashchity
Temperature of animal body and the effect of the factors of
the. environment upon it 117
The nervous system, the sense organs in animals and their
behavior 123
The nervous system and the sense organs in animals 123
Sense organs in insects 129
Behavior of insects 138
Chapter IT4 Basic stages and peculiarities In the development of harmful
abricultural animals and their enemies 143
Basic stages and peculiarities in the development of insects 143
Embryal period in the development of insects 143
Post embryal (post embryal) development 151
The hatching from the egg and the first stages of the
larva's life 151
Larva stage in the development of insects* Shedding. 153
Preparation and pupation and cocoon construction of the
larva; pupation; the pupa 167
Inner processes during the metamorphosis (metamorphosis) in insects 171
Surplus metamorphosis of insects* Peculiarities in the
transformation of scale insects 174
Development of mites 176
Development of myriapodc, mollusks and of nematode 178
Development of vertebrates (mammals and birds) 180
Chapter V. Peculiarities in the reproduction within harmful agricultural
animals and their enemies 182
Peculiarities, in the reproductive process within various animal groups 182
Reproduction of insects 182
Reproductive organs within insects 184
Laying of eggs and care for the progeny 192
,
Virgin propagation and alternation of generations,
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Osnovy zashchity
Polyembryony (polyembryonic reproduction) 196
Peculiarities in aphids propagation 198
Peculiarities in reproduction of other non-vertebrate
animals 200
Peculiarities In reproduction of vertebrate animals 201
Birds 201
rammals 202
Fertility of harmful animals 203
Fluctuation in fertility of harmful animalt and influencing factors 206
Chapter VI. A few peculiarities in the living oycle of harmful i,
mals and their enemies
213
Generations of animals 213
Pausing in life activity of harmful animals 218
Diapause 218
Dormant period of mammals 221
Periodical seasonal phenaa in the life of pests 222
Phenclogioal schedule and phenosignais 222
Daily and seasonal transformations in pests'
226
mode of life.
Chapter VU. The Influence of climatic factors upon the development,
spreading and life activity of animals 229
The influence of temperature upon animals 230
The influence of moisture upon animals in regard to temperature.
Evaporating power of air. The influence of mind. 234
The influence of sun radiation upon animals 237
The influence of climatic factors upon the geographic spreading of
harmful agricultural animals and their amount 258
Me.U.ode of summarized graphic presentation of climatic elements
during their influence upon harmful animals 239
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Osnovy zashohity...
Conditions and peculiarities in;wintering of pests
Phenomena yhich occur in the organisms of animals under low
temperature, frost resistance in animals
ChapterMil Dynamics of ttle organisms of harmful agricultural
animals harmful to agricultural plants
The essence and problems of ecological study of the organisms of
animals harmful to agrioultural plants
Areas of geographical spreading of harmful animals. Locations'
(stations) primary and secondary. Shift of colloctives of
organisms (biocenose) succesaiona.
Areas of harmful significance and oblast(s)(tane(s) of
harmfulness of ani,wall organisms damaging agricultural plants;
entomoloaical and zoological agricultural raioning. Shifting of
the borders of geographical and economic areas.
240
242
248
248
250
258
The process of pest penetration into agricultural plants 263
Penetration of pests of a special nourishing regime
into agricultural plants 270
Transfer of multipoisoning pests (polyphag) into
agricultural plants 273
Season shifts (regular and occasional) of pests in
foading plants 276
Plight and migrations of pests from distant raion(s) 276
The import of foreign and local pests during man's
economic and commercial activity. 279
Vass propagation of animals damaging agricultural plants and
factors milich cause them. 286
Factors of opposing the environment which check the number of
harmful animals. 298
LaCk'of food 298
influence of climatic factors 298
Parasites of animal origin and their influence upon
the, change of the amount of pests. 306
Pest dieeases as a limiting factor of environment 316
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solcyrev, If. F.
Osnovy zashohity...
Chapter /X. Plant dissases, caused by moteorological and soil
conditions
Chapter X. Plant diseases caused by blossoming parasites, bacteria,
actinomyostes and filtring viruses
Diseases oaused by bacteria
Diseases caused by actinomycetes or radiant fungi
nigher blossom plants - causes for disease
Virus (nosaio) diseases
Chapter XI. Parasite fungi - causes for plant diseases
General informations on structure, nourishing and propagation of
fungi and bases of their systems"
324
330
330
336
337
340
343
343
Peculiarities in the structure and in nourishnient of
fungi
Saprophytes, parasites, symbiosis 843
Fungi propagation by means of spores 347
A short systematization of fungi 350
CISss, Arkhimitsety (Ars/limes es) 350
Class. Pikomitsety (Phyoomycet ) 351
Class. Askomitsety or marsupial fungi
(Ascomycetes) 354
Subclass. Golos chatye (Symnoasci) 355
Subclass. Plodosumohatye (parpsasoi) 355
Class. Dazidiomitzety (Dasidiomycetes) 357
Subclass. Kholobatidiomitsety
(nolobasidiomycetes)
Subclass. Fragmobazidiomitsety
(Phragmobasidiomycetes) 35C
Group of imperfect fungi (Fungi imperfecti)
Principal types of diseases and damages caused by parse it fungi 561
361
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General informations on ecology and biology of parasitic fungi 364
Conditions of spore growing 364
Speciali a ion of parasitic fungi 366
Relationship between the susceptibility of plant host,
its phases of development and ecological conditions
of existence 367
rays of penetration and character of spreading of
parasitic fungi upon the. plant-boat 370
Sppre-formation 372
"Morphological-anatomical and physiological factors of
inmunity 375
Factors which cause the geographic spreading of parasite
fungi 377
1".hyp and measures of distribution of parasite fungi
among plants 378
Changes in the structure and degree of development of
parasitic fungi upon food plants 383
Chapter XII. Diagnostic of diseases of agricultural plants 386
Hain categories and specific peculiarities of damages caused to
agricultural plants by pests 389
Changes which occur in the tissues of plants during various damages 390 -
Peculiar damages caused to agricultural plants by various groups of
pests-animals 593
Damages caused. to agricultural plants by insects, 399
Role of insects as carriers of infectional plant diseases
413
Damages caused by digging animals 414
Influence of damages upon various organs of agricultural plants and
its production 414
Damage of seeds 415
Damage of sprouts 415
Damage of the organs of the growing and mature plant 416
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Osnovy zashohity...
Damage of the parts of plants which are utderground 417
Damage of leaves 420
Damage of stems and trunks 423
Damage of fruits and seeds during their maturing 426
Damage of fruits and leaf buds, buds and parts of the
flower 428
Restoration and compensation of damaged parts by the plant itself 430
Reactive processes in plants during the healing of wounds caused
by pests 435
Chapter XIII. Methods of controlling agricultural pests - animals
and plants - and their theoretical basis and technical armament 436
Basic problems, contents and categorization of methods of control 438
Cutlural-economic control method 441
Organizational-economic measures:
Acquisition of new lands for agricultural plants. Rational
utilization of sowing fields 443
Systems of agronomy (fallow crop, fallow land, grassland). The
role of various kinds of fallow in past control 444
Crop rotation in controlling pests 446
Raioning plants and species in connection with problems of plant
protection against pests 446
Various kinds of improvement in connection with the problems of
protecting agricultural plants against pests 449
Conditions of transport and storage of agricultural production 460
Agroteohnical measures in controlling organisms harmful to
agriculture 450
Preparation and control of planting and seed material 450
Influence of fertilizers upon the degree of damage and infestation
of agriculture by pests 452
Influence of various methods of soil cultivation upon the
activity of pests of animal and plant origin 453
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Osnovy sashohity...
Timing, methods of aowing, sowing norms and their influence upon
the organisms harmful to agriculture 456
Controlling meads in conneotion with the protection of agricultural
plants against pests of animal and plant origin 460
Harvest of crops and destruction and utilization of harvested
residue; problems of controlling pests during these productive
processes
462
Controlling pests during storage and refinishing agricultural
products 464
Utilisation of immune species of agricultural plants in relation to
harmful organisms
465
Problems of research and of practical work in obtaining imnune
species 465
Categories and essence of immunity of agricultural plants to
damages and infestations by pests of animal and plant origin 469
Passive (structural and chemical) itr7unity 471
Active, or physiological, immunity 475
Influence of the environment upon the qualities of immunity of
agricultural pests to infestation and damages 480
Practical achievements in obtaining immune species of agricul-
tural plants 482
484
Acquired immunity of plants
Inner therapy In plants 486
Chapter XIV. Biological method of controlling organisms harmful to
agricultural plants 487
Nicrobiologioal (bacterial and myoological) method of control 488
Protection, attrnoting and import of predators, useful in pest
extermination 491
Utilizing parasites in pest extermination (parasiting rethod) 504
Chapter XV. Physical-mechanical method in pest control 514
Barriers hindering the spreading of pests 514
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Catching grooves and portable walls
Mechanical destruction of pests
Collection of pests
Mechanized collection and catching of pests
Sorting and dispersing
Traps
Utilizing -"taksia". of pests in controlling them
Change of physical conditions of environment
Chapter XVI. The chemical method of control
That is poison'?
Idea of toxicity and of the factors which determine it
Classification of
are applied
Classification of
the organism
Basic methods in applying insecto-fungicides
Idea concerning concentrations, doses and norms
insecto-fungicides
General requirements necessary
Intestinal insecticides
Particular requirements set
poisons according to objects against which they
insecto-fUngloides according o their effect upon
of consumption of
secto-fungicides
forth for insecticides
Physiological foundation for the effect of intestinal insecti-
cides
Main insecticides of intestine effect
Calcium arsenate
Calcium arsenite
Sodium arsenite
517
619
519
521
524
525
526
528
531
531
532
533
534
535
538
537
539
539
543
545
545
547
548
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12
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Boldyrev, V. F.
Osnovy zashohity..?
Copper acetoarsenite 550
Other compounds of arsenic (61rsu-, meritol copper
meritol, calcium arsenite)
Sodium fluorite
Sodium fluosilicate -
Barium fluosilicate
553
559
560 .
561
Tariur chloride 563
Contact, or "exterior, insecticides 565
Physiolocical basis for the effect of contact insecticides 561
Particular requirements set forth tanards?contact insecticides 566
Soap from animal and plant fat acids 566
Laundry soap, hard, 40 per cent 5C8
Sodium soap 568
Acidol 568
'Mineral oil 569
Vazute and ramrpetroleum 569
Kerosine 569
Kerosine-soap emulsions . 569
Kerosine-lime emulsions 571
Other mineral-oil emulsions from distilled pet oleum 572
Xineral-oil emulsions from distillates of carboniferous
tar 574
Lime 576
Ferrous vitriol 576
Vercuric chloride 576
Sodium hydroxide 577
Potassium hydroxide 578
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Boldyrev, V. F.
Osnovy zashchity...
Insecticides of plant origin 578
Anabasine 578
Wicotine-foundation and nicotine-sulphate 581
Pyrethrum 584
Fumigants 586
Physiological basis of the effect of fumigants 586
Factors for evaluation of fumigants 587
Methods of fumigation 589
Chloropicrin 594
Carbon bisulfide 998
Carbon: bisulfide fractions 601
Hydrocyanic acid 601
Sulphuric anhydride 605
Hydrogen sulphide 606
Chloride 608
Paradichlorbermene 609
Polichlorides 610
Sulphur 610
Fungicides 613
General conceptions and methods of application 613
Individual requirements &et forth for fungicides 614.
Sulphur group 61S
Sulphur 616
Ultra sulphur 618
Sulphur concentrates 618
Polisulphides 618
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Boldyrev, V. F.
Osnovy tashchity...
Sulphur-calx mixture
Polyaulphids of' calcium, natrium, ammonium and barium
Group of copper
Copper sulfate
Bordon liquid
Copper "meritol"
Copper carbonate and compound "AB"
Nosperal (compounds ANT" and "RUT")
Mercury group
Mercuric chloride
Hermican
Meranin
Group of arsenic
Davydov's compound "PD"
Protars
Tal elm-sr sine and ivars in
Collective group of flingicides
Formalin
Calcium hypochlorite
Superphosphate
f3ulphurc acid
Limo
Ferrous vitriol
Sodium calcined
621
621
622
622
624
628
628
629
629
630
630
631
632
632
632
632
633
633
635
636
637
638
638
638
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Boldyrea, V. F.
Oanovy zashallity. .4
Tara, transport and preservation of insecto-fungloides - 639
Precautions during the work with insecto-fungicides 640
Chapter XVII. Nichines applied during chemical control of pests
and diseases 642
Sprayers 643
Pneumatic piston sprayers 645
Eydralic sprayers 648
Pollinators 664
Bellow's pollinators 664
Ventilation pollinators 665
Aeropollinators 670
Liquid pollinators 675
Rules for spraying and pollination 676'
Equipment and implements applied for the gaseous method of control 677
Equipment for throwing poisoned attractants 686
Machines for seed poisoning 687
Machines for met poisoning 687
Machines for dry poisoning 689
Labor protection during the work in seed poisoning 698
Chapter VIII. Losses from agricultural pests and diseases 700
Losses from pests in pre-revolutionary Russia 700
Losses from pests in the Soviet Union 701
Losses from pests In oapitalistio countries 703
Chapter XIX. Development of plant protection in pre-revolutionary '
Russia and in the USSR 705
Plant protection in pre-revolu onary Russia 705
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Boldyrev, V. F.
Osnovy zashchity...
Plant protection in USSR during the period of reconstruction
Scientific institutions
Operating institutions
De-?elopment of plant protection in USSR during the reconstruction
period
OBV ) and its problems
Contemporary structure of organization in contrail ng agr Cultural
pests and diseases ?
Network of scientific-research institutions
. 709
710
710
712
714
726
730
Chapter U. Plant protection against pests In capitalistic countries
and its basic distinctive characteristics 733
Chapter XXI. Raseafrorganization of pest control 737
Planning 737
Organization of the productive process 741
Yethods of registering pests and the losses and damages caused by
then 746
Effectiveness of measures in controlling pests and diseases 751
List of literature for supplementpxy and intensified study of
the basic parts of this text-book
II "
711 JulSr 1951
755 '
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Posoboie po boribe s vrediteliami
I bolezniami seliskokhosiaistvennykh
kal'tur t A guide to the control of
pests and diseases of agricultural
plants]. Ed. 5. Moskva, 1946, 464.4C72
Translated in part from the
Russian by R. G. Dembo
Chapter XIV. Organisation of Work in Controlling
Agricultural Pests and Diseases in the Collective
Farm. (P. 463-469.
In order to execute the control of agricultural pests and diseases,
an elementary knowledge of the biology of pests and diseases, the measures
in registering their quantity and the methods of controlling them, as well
as the application of poisons and simple equipment is essential.
All this indicates the necessity of providing a thorough preparation
of instructors (one or two, depending on the site of the collectivebirm)
for the organization of protection of farm crops against pests and diseases.
The collective farm instructor carries the responsibility for correct
storage, registration and expenditure of poisons and materials and also
for efficient equipment and inventory. The instructor registers the orops
infested by agricultural pests and diseases and the work in pest control.
The instructor presents a report, signed by the chairman of the collective
farm and by the bookkeeper, (through the Village Soviet) to the raion
department every ten days, and, if necessary, also to the Machine and
Tractor Station, concerning the progress of controlling pests and diseases
according to form Nr. 19 of collective farm accounts (see appendix 1).
a. monthly report
The collective farm instructor presents/to the raion agricultural
department and the Machine Tractor Station, ooncernieg the chemicals in
controlling pests and diseases on the form Mr. 20 of collective farm accounts
(see appendix 2).
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2
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Chuvakhin, V. S.
The direct control of agricultural pests and diseases is carried
out by brigades and sections Which fulfill this work according to the
suggestion and supervision of the farm instructor as to the fields assigned
to the brigade or to the section.
Thus, the Centro' of agricultural pests and diseases is carried out
by mei power and means of the collective farm itself.
General supervision and teohrical guidance in this work is carried
out by the agronomist-entomologist or technician-entomologist of the machine
tractor station or Of the raion agricultural depertment.
The agronomist-entomologist or the technician-entomologist assists the
instructor in drawing a plan of measures in controlling pests and diseases,
in suggesting which poisons are most beneficial, in indicating the most
appropriate control measures according to the conditions of the given farm.
The basis for planning the work in controlling agricultural pests and
diseases is the data of the degree of the infestation on the given field
caused by pests and diseases. For this purpose, it is imperative to
inspect carefully, at a certain time, the location and the amount of the
available pests and disetees, the size of the infested field in t#e.given
year, and to accumulate complete information concerning the size of the
field infested by any of the pests and diseases during the preceding years..
All this will help in determining the amount of pe4sene-sed-laseh4well future
work, prepare the work beforehand, and to bring the necessary amount of
poisons and machines for the, given fields and to carry out the work indi-
cated in the plan.
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unuvwicriln, V. o.
Shortcomings in the planning of work in controlling pests and
diseases, as a rule cause superfluous expenditure for either wider
preparation than is really necessary or for emergency measures in case
of a sudden appearance of pests and diseases on a larger field than was
expected. At the same time, even emergency measures are often unable to
prevent considerable losses of crops from pests and ?diseases. Therefore
the inepeotion of the accumulatIon of pests is he principal measure for
a successful co-trol of peste and diseases.
First of all are inspected gophers, field mice, locust, grasshoppers,
unhardy looust, meadow moth (Loxostege sticticalis), winter owlet (Agrotis
segetum], pests of sugar beets, flax, cotton, and among the diseases,
smut, gangrenous ergotism and rust of crops, cotton hommoz diseases of
flax and sugar beets.
All the inspections are carried out according to instructions sent
out to all collective farms by the People's Commissariat of Agriculture
of USSR through the agricultural departments.
The inspection of gophers has to be carried out in the entire field
where the gophers are spread. The inspeotion consists in appointing fields
infested by the gophers; before the gophers hibernate,the control regis-
tration of their nidi upon the inspected fields are oarried out,
As the result of that inspection, the general field inhabited by gophers,
the average amount of holes per hectare and haw many of them are occupied
by gophers are determined.
The inspection of field mice is oarried out in spring (March-April)
and during the second half of the summer (July-August) by means of counting
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Ohuvakhin, V. S.
the holes upon testing fields, taken separately on virgin soil, beds,
sowing fiels, etc. The inspection determines also the field inhabited
by mice and the average density of holes for one hectare, including the
oecupied ones.
Locust, grasshopper, unhardy locust are inspected several times. The
first inspection is carried out at the end of summer during ovipository,
in order to determine in advance the fields occupied by mature locuet, and
the plaes where holothurians are placed. Such inspection assists in
determining the amount of locust. At the end of ovipositing, in the fall,
inspection of the holothurians is done. On fields, where the holothuriens
were placed, samples are taken which help in fixing the average density of
infestation,ramely, the storage of locust for next year.
To determine the wintering supply of caterpillars and to compose an
operating plan of murk for next year based on the obtained data, the inspec-
tion of the meadow moth in carried out on the sowing field and on untilled
soil: 1) during the development of caterpillars of the last generation, when
the occupied fields and the density of infestation are counted; 2) after
the caterpillars of the last generation enter the soil for hibernation.
The winter owlet is inspected on fields and on winter crops by the
electing method. In the first place, for 5-10 days before the sowing the
contaminated pares are inspected for the density of infestation by
caterpillars.
In the second half of September, or beginning of October when the cater
pillars hide in the soil, a second inspection is carried out ehioh determines
the density of infestation by caterpillars which remain for the winter.
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The inspection of sugar beets pests (winter owlet, weevil, etc.) is
carried out between the first of September and first of October, and aims
to disclose the supply of wintering pests. The inspection is carried out
by means of soil diggiggin various places.
Inspection of cereals infested by smut is carried out starting milk
stage to wax stage, but not later than five days before the beginning of
harvest. The aim is to put into practice the control by poisoning the
same year, and also to determine the degree of infestation by smut for the
,?k
planning of measures in controlling smut the following year.
The crops upon which the inspection is made are not inspected as to
smut and to gangrenous ergotiim since during ipvpeotionithe infestation of
crops is counted according to species.
Inspection is the most important work in preparing control of
pests and diseases.
Based on the material under inspection and on the facto al infestation
of fields in previous years, the collective farm instructor proceeds to
formulate a plan of measures in controlling pests and diseases for the
following year.
In the working plan are reflected all the productive indexes; the
amount and the method of work, the necessary amount of poisons, the demand
for man and tractive power, demand for equipment, inventory and financial
means* the time of work and the amount of labor days.
A sample form of the labor plan is given below in appendix 3, 4 and 6.
According to the plan, all the preparatory and eradicating measures for
controlling agricultural pests and diseases are carried out.
The formulated working plan has to be discussed at a farm council.
Further, the instructor has the following responsibilities; to register
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kaluviwirman, Ve Q.
the demands for pest control (time of sowing, crop rotation, tillage and
sowing care, etc.); to prepare early the poisons, attractants, inventory
and vessels, to acquire and prepare the equipment and the traps, to plan
nvoloki" and other mechanical control measures; to plan the personnel of
labor groups and squads among the regular field brigade and to fix them to
a definite field. The instructor has the responsibility to fix the
salaries of the personnel according to working days and to present them to
the farm administration for confirmation at the general meetings of the
farmers.
The farmer instructor must also:
a) carry out the control of correct storage of seeds and other seed
supplied, and, in case of necessity, to carry out its disinfestation;
b) to carry out the registration of the effectiveness of measures
in controlling agricultural pests and diseases and to organise an early and
correct control ensuring the full destruction of pests;
c) to register the damage caused by pests and diseases and the crops
destroyed by them.
In order to fulfill the entire work bestowed upon him, the instructor
must prepare a working schedule for each month, and, still better, for each
ten days.
An example of the working schedule of the collectIve farm instructor
is given below, in appendix 7.
Based on the schedule and on the working plan, the brigadier of the
field or other brigade should place correctly all the workers in the entire
brigade, taking into consideration the amount of work, the time for its
execution and the norms of its procedure.
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Chuvakhin, V. S.
Before the IM,Ti rk starts, the brigadier composes a plan assigrment for
each day, indicating who is supposed to carry out the definite assigmnent,
the norm of the assignment etc. The brigadier should register the exact
number of labor days and the results of accompliehed tasks. An example for
the arrangement of the work in a brigade under the chemical control of pepte
Is indicated in appendix 5.
At the determination of work, the brigadier should return all the re-
maining poisons and equipment to the farm instructor of controlling agricul-
tural pests and diseases, whereby the equipment and supplementary inventory
should be cleaned from remaining poisons and washed out.
Every farm should possess a. special storage room with a safe look for
the poisons and equipment. The farm instruotor registers the expenditure
of poisons by each brigade or division; in all eases of extra expenditure
over the fixed norm, the instructor clears up the reasons for the extra
expenditure and informs the farm management about it; if necessary, he writes
a report about the setter.
The.control of agricultural pests and diseases occupies an important
and eometimea even a decisive place in the system of measures for obtaining
high crops. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of the struggle and the ensurance
of a full protection of crops against pests and diseases depends first of all
upon its timely and appropriate execution.
It is possible to organize and to carry out the control only under the
condition that the pest has been discovered at the very beginning of its
appearance, and not when it was transferred from weeds and waste to the
crops. Therefore, besides the indicated inspections carried out yearly
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according to a specific plan, at a specifiotime, the timely operating
warning of the appearance of pests and diseases and supervision of their
further development are most important. It is especially important when
the pests and diseases appear in threatening quantities.
In order to accalarate the organization and the execution of control
of pests and diseases and to protect the crops against damage, the instructor
must:
1) inform the farm, the machine and tractor station, and the raion
department of the threatening danger from pests;
2) to take in advanoe with the assistance of theinrm administration,
all the necessary measures against the possible damage caused by pests.
The operating warning and inspection are carried out not only by the
farm instructor of pest control, but by the brigadier of the field and other
brigades and divisions, and by the farmers.- All these persons should inform
the farm instructor immediately (the same day) concerning the results of
their discoveries and present to him the samples of the collected pests and
damages of agricultural plants.
The operating warning and observations should,be carried out early in
spring and during the entire season of the development of pests and diseases.
The instructor should give a considerable amount of attention to the
youth: communist union of youth, pioneers, school children. They are able
to do an important share in protecting crops against pests and diseases.
It is necessary to create at the farm laboratory a room for plant
protection, in which the principal pests and diseases (collections,
herbaria) their development, sample of the damages, data of the loses, etc.
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Chuvakhin, V. S.
should be given. In that room should be available a library concerning
control of pests and diseases, posters, diaporitives, eta.
Among the experienced farmers, it is necessary to organize a group
of activities which would undertake the solution of important problems,
originating in the practice of plant protection against pests and diseases.
Amowmany questions, the following deserve the greatest attentions
L. The appearance of agricultural pests and diseases on the farm
fields and the observation of their spreading.
2. Registration of crop losses caused by pests and diseases.
3..Registration of the effectiveness of the work in controlling pests
and diseases,
4. The improvement of applied measures in controlling pests and diseases.
5. Carrying cut experiments which indicate the significance of the
agrotechnical methods in controlling pests and diseass,' for instsnoc4
shallow plowing of stubble field, auttmn plowing, early Sowing of spring
crops, vernalization, etc.
Concerning these or other problems of crop protection against pests and
diseases, the farm instructor should be of assistance to the farm laboratory
in workingtogether with the agronomist, the specialist or technician in oon-
trolling agricultural pests and diseases, the machine tractor station, raion
agricultural department, and also with experimental stations so that they /
could provide constant assistance and consultation.
End of Article
29 Jun 50
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Chuvakhin and others 10 Transl. 182.
Collective farm
Village Soviet
Baton
Supplement 1.
' - G011ective fin-report, for* N. 18:IA186d46n the decisions of
, the eC`oic Cduncil of the Soviet of People's Commissars of USSR,
No. 598, from April 25, 1940 has been confirmed by CUM State
Plan of USSR No. 328 from 12ay 14, 1940.
In presented through the Village council, into raion agricultural
organization and collective farms ehich serve the Machine Tractor
Stations, also !7.s.chine Tractor Stations- on 1st, 11th, 21st of each
month from the moment of appearance of pests after the first of
November.
REPORT ON CONTROILfltG AGRICULTURAL PESTS AND DISEASES
Month -Year.
Has thel. Collective Para radhine Tractor Station .been served? ',(Yes, Not - underline)
Infested
Worked on
4
'Name of Pests
end Diseases
The amount of
Hectors, Centners, I
Square meters,pleceS
Out of these
Jiectra, inc.
Square m.cubic m the Chem.
Pieces, Centners Method_
Destroyed Damagedj
,
,.
- -
a e oi senaing tne tiepor
The Ichairman of the collective farm
Bookkeeper
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unuvalcaln anu owiers u Trans], 182
Supplement 2
Collective farm
Collective farm report, Form No. 20. Rased upon the decision of
the Economies Council of the Soviet People's Commissars of USSR
No. 598 of April 23, 1940.
Is sent through the Village Council into Raion Agricultural Organ-
ization, and by the collective farms which serve the Lachine
Tractor Station the first of each month from the moment of the
appearance of pests after November 1.
REPORT ON THE AMOUDT OF POISON CHEMICALS FOR CONTROLLING AGRICULTURAL PESTS
AND DISEASES.
For the First of - -
The name of There mere poison
poison chemicals in collec-
chemicals tive farm at the be-
ginning of the re-
ported month
Acquired
during the
reported
month
-month 194--.
Spent
during the
reported
month
The date of sending report - - -
Left at.
the end of
the reported
month
? The chairman of the collective farm Bookkeeper.
Supplement 3.
Report of usage, insurance and import of chemicals and
equipment for the control of agricultural pests and diseases.
For 194-- year at the collective farm
411100,011.41WMAWMOMDWAMAWNONNO. .....
name of farm.
talon -
(in kg and in pieces)
M.1110. 40.0111.10,
I Name of the chemicals
The amount
Left from Necessary accord-
The means necessary
and of equipment
required
previous ing to import
to buy poisons and
according
to plan-
years quarters
equipment (rubles)
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Chuvikkhin and others 12 Transl. 182
Distribution-of labor and "tractive power, and also equipment an
inventory a000rding to the months of the year.
Name
1 ? Sprayers
a)"Avtomaks"
b) "Tromasii"
c) "Pomona
d) "Zara"'
2. Dusters
a) by :men
b) by horses
S. Other machines
a)
b)
a)
4. Inventory
a)
b)
d)
S. Ban power
(in labor days)
6. Tractive power
(In horse days)
7. Distribution of
the amount of
labor days accord-
ing to months.
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A -4
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Chuvakhin and others 13 Trans I* 104
*1' zryt-141.
SAMPLE ARRANGBNEBT OF WORK IN A DRIGADE (DETACHMENT, TEAM) DURINO TIlE
CHEMICAL conTRoL OF AGRICULTURAL PESTS AND DISEASES.
Workers according to their '1114
4.)
0
0
04
0
0
24
0
44
tY0
trt
24
0
w 0 0
0 ?
At 04 4)..,4 8:.4 v0 1,4 o
o t.14, ..tst 0 0
.et
o
)3:2 o ,0 o t ? 04
E4 44 7P A 'A t
24
0
I. Control of
agricultural
pests and
diseases
rk with hos
24
a forth....
Controlling
gophers
1001orpicrin
(method of spread-
ing, pneumatic
sanding,dosing).
b) cyanide,
sulphuric slag.
2. Controlling
locust
a)poisoned attract-
ants
b)Spraying,
horse "Zara"
o) Spraying
pump "Automax"
ale
SIN
30
16
21 !20
24 '20 3
4
3 8
10 11
3. Controlling winter
owlet Agrotis segetum
a)Poisoned attractants -
b)Dusting, horse "Zara" 3
c)Duating, knapsack 10
"Tip-top" RV-1
d)Dusting, horses 3
grains
A. Dry poisoning
a)apparatus "Ideal"
b)apparatus "Harvest"
Oapparatua Popova
d)appara(us Borhardt
AB-2
24
8
ii
1 7
.???
^ ,
^ 3 1
2
10
B. half dry poisoning
a) sprayer "Avtomake"
b)machine Borhardt
AB-2
10
15
10
6
19
7
5
2 - 4
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Transl. _Luz.
?.? ???? ? ?????????????? coas?-? ?o? WI4JL 11.1 4=
IT. Controlling pests and diseases
of technical plants.
Controlling the meadow moth and the owlet-gamma
a) spraying, horse "Sara"
b) spraying, pump "Automaks"
o) dusting, pump "Tip-.top"
1r1-1
Controlling the web mite of cotton Tetranychus urtioae
a) dusting, by horses
b) dusting, pump "Tip-top" and others
Controlling karadrina and cotton owlet
a) spraying, horse "Zara"
b) spraying, "Automaks" and others
c) dusting, by horses
d) dusting, "Tip-top" and others
e) by poisoned -attractants
4. Controlling the beet weevil
.a) spraying, horses Zara"
b) spraying, pump "Automaks" and others
III. Controlling pests and diseases of orchards and vineyards.
a) aloralilag, "Pioneer"
b) spraying, "Pomona"
c) spraying, pump "Automaks" and others
d) dusting, pump "Tip-top", RV-1
IV. Controlling pests and diseases of vegetables,
) spraying, "Pioneer"
b) spraying, horse "Zara"
e) spraying, pump "Automaks" and others.
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\
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Chuyakhin and others 15 Itransl. 182.
d) dustlng, horses
) dusting, pump "Ti top" and others
V. Controlling pests of grains during storage
A. Gas disinfestation
a) of rooms
b) of grains in granaries by emba nt
c) grains under tarpaulin
. Wet disinfestation
a) sprayer ?Pomona"
b) pump "Automaks".
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Chuvaahin and ?there 16 Trenel. 182.
Supplenent 6
Labor outline in controlling agricultural peete for the year 194---
Collective farm----raion..-------oblast'(r-rai)
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/12 : CIA-RDP80R01426R009900040001-2 n
Posobie pa bor'be s vrediteliami 1.
bolesniami seliskokhoziaistver3nykh kyl'tur
II guide to the control of pests and
diseases of agricultural plants]. Ed. 5
Moskva, 1945. 464.4 C72 Translated in part from the
Russian by R. 0. Denbo
A SampleCchedule for the Work of the Collective Form
Instructor it Controlling Agricultural Pests and Dis-
eases (for Central Asia)(p. 480 - 487
Months of Year Name of Measures
January 1. Prophylactic measures in orchards (cuttingout dry and
diseased branches, clearing the bark
February
2. Collecting the winter nidi of hawthorn
Z. Covering the places of ovipository of the gypay moth
[Porthetriadispar with heavy mineral oil
4.inter watering of orchards, vineyards and cotton fields
54 Spraying orchards with mineral oil emulsion in controllirg
scale
6. Control of storehouse pests
/. Poisoning of seed grain, grain and oil plants
8. Remodeling the equipment and the inventory
9. Preparation of poison and materials
)ALControl of the harmful eurygaster in the winter nidi
11.Control of "epiliakhne in winter nidi
12.Applying adhesive rings against bruce span worm fqperrophtera
brunataj
13.Proparation course for farm instructors in controlling pests
1. Prophylactic measures in orchards (cutting out and
removal of dry and diseased branches, clearing the bark)
2. Collecting the winter nidi of hawthorn
3. Covering the places of ovipository of the gypsy moth with
' heavy mineral oil
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Months of Year
Mame of Measures
February (Con't 4. Winter watering of orchards and vineyards
5. Spraying orchards by mineral oil emulsion in controlling
scale
6. Covering the barks of orchard plants by calcareous lime
7. Remodeling adhesive rings applied against bruoe span worm
and the destruction of moth and eggs under the rings
8. Spraying orchard with 6-8 per cent lime milk against
spottiness
9. Controlling "epiliakhne in its minter nidi
10 Poisoning seed grain by dry mordants
11. Control of storehouse pests
12. Eradicating eurygaster in winter nidi in valleys
13. The end of remodeling equipment and the inventory
14. Preparation of horse manure in controlling locust
15. Preparatory course of collective farm instructors for
pest control
16. Checking on the farm's provision of poisons and the
acquisition of the missing amount
17. Prophylactic clearing of mulberry (spraying ISO)
18. Inspection of the wintering supply of orchard pests
19. Mechanical control of gophers and of mice like rodents
20. Composing the monthly report concerning the poison
movement and tho ten day report concerning pest control course
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_ _ _
Months of Year Name of Measures
March
. Spraying orchards by mineral 611 emulsion in controlling
scale
2. Spraying with 1.6 per cent lime milk in controlling
spottiness when the buds become pink
. Poisoning the seeds of grain and oil plants
? Inspection of premises for infestation by field rodents
and controlling them
Checking the wintering nidi of eurygaster and supplementary
clearing of infested fields
6. Inspection of crops for infestation by winter owlet
Agrotia segetum) and controlling it.
7. Carrying out prophylactic measures in orchards (cutting
and removing dry branches and the clearing-of bark)
. Covering trunks and heavy branches of fruit trees with
calcareous lime
. Checking and remodeling adhesive rings in controlling
bruce span Tom, the eradication of moth and eggs under
the rings
10. Spring inspection of orchards for infestation by pests
and diseases
11. Coating the eggs of gypsy moth
12. Shaking of fruit trees in controlling weevil
13. Prophylactic clearing of mulberry (spraying ISO)
14. Controlling storehouse pests
16. Inspection of premises for infestation by field rodents
and carrying out measures in controlling them
16. Inspection of alfalfa for infestation by phytonamus and
carrying out measures in controlling beetles (from the
moment when the alfalfa starts to grow)
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Chuvakhin. V. S. A_
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Month of Year RAMO of Measures
- March (Cont'd) 17. Inspeotion of crops and wild vegetation as to infestation
by eurygaster and leaf beetle [Lama melanopue) and the
organization of their control
18. Burning reed and other weed in controlling nepiliakhne
19. Poisoning of cotton seeds
20. Burning and eradication of weeds in the vicinity of cotton
field in controlling pests.
21. Storing horse manure and other material (lime, ashes) in
controlling locust .
22. Composing a monthly report concerning the course of poisons
and a ten day report concerning pest control
April 1. Checking and remodeling adhesive rings in controlling the
bruce span worm
. Poisoning seeds of cotton and of cereals
Inspection of forage and seed alfalfa for infestation by
larvae of phytonomns and their control
? Controlling storehouse pests
. Coating the eggs of the gypsy moth by heavy mineral oil
? Clearing weeds from "shale
. Coating the bark and the branch foundations by orchard plaster
? Spraying vines by 0.5 per cent ISO until they swell
. Application of chemical and mechanical control measures
against cotton pests on weed
10. Inspection of locust during first stage and controlling them
11. Inspection of premises for infestation by field rodents and
controlling them
12. Inspection of crops of cereals and of the adjoining virgin
soil for infestation by eurygaster and leaf beetle fLema
melanopsus] and their control
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Month of Year
Name of. Measures
April(Cont'd)
1$. Inspection of crops for infestation by winter owlet and
controlling it
14. Spraying apricot orchards with lime milk in controlling
spottiness
15. Shaking [Curculiodae] [Noctuidae)Weametridael upon the
panel from dry apricots
16. Spraying the apricot tree against sucking pests
17. Registration of trees infested by mulberry "piadenitse
and covering them with lime
18. Spraying seed species against rodents and sucking pests
19. Control of Curculiodae on dry apricots
20. Inspection of cotton sprouting for infestation by pests
and diseases
21. Protection of garden melon plants against pests
22. Application of control measures against hammoze and
root rot on cotton sprouts
23. Destruction of dodder in the alfalfa and flax fields
24. Controlling caterpillars of gypsy moth
25. Composing a monthly report concerning the course of
poisons and of pest control
Registration of trees infested by flpiadenitse on dry
apricots and moraceae and covering the trees with lime
2. Inspection of cotton crops during sprouting for infesta-
tion by pest& and diseases
3. Shaking the =raceme Curouliodae upon the panel
4. Controlling the storehouse pests
5. Loosening and watering or herds infested by flpiadonitse
of dry apricots
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wurvalmln, V. o.
Month of Year
Name of Measures
gay (Cont'd
6. Eradication of dodder on the crop* of alfalfa and of flax
7. Application of measures against aphids and web mites upon
the cotton crops
8. Inspection of prSdises in the -Aricinity of cotton crops
for infestation by corn ear worm [Chloride* obsolete]
and its control on tomatoes and weeds.
9. Control of web mite [Tetranychus urticae Koch]
10. Inspection of alfalfa for infestation by pests and diseases.
during blossoming and controlling them
U. Inspection of locust during growth and controlling them
12. Destruction of field beetles (gophers, mice, mond worm)
13. Controlling eurygaster on crops and weeds
14. Inspection of oil plants during mass sprouting for infestation
by pests and diseases
16. Inspection of Wheat for infestation by smut
16. Protection of garden melon plants against pests (rodents
and sucking)
17. Spraying orchards against pests and diseases
18. Controlling caterpillars of gypsy moth
19. Placing catching rings against codling moth [Laspeyresia
pomonella]; spraying seed plants with intestine poison and
stone fruit with pyrethrum
20. Digging the soil and taking out cocoons of apricot
"Piadenitsan IGeometridael
21. Eradication of pests and diseases of vine
22. Collection of fallen fruit damaged by apricot (Curteliodae]
28. The final work on crops and weeds infested by eurygaster
24. Composing a monthly report on the course of poisons and - -
of pest control
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17 A
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Yonth of Year'
!Tame of Measures
June
1. Control of alfalfa pests
2. Eradication of pests and diseases of vine
3. Inspection of tomatoes for the infestation by bacterial
canker
4. Application of measures in protecting cotton crops against
pests (corn ear worm, aphids, web mite)
5. Controlling pests on weeds
6. Application of measures in controlling locust
7. Inspection of locust daring ovipositing
8. Inspection of grain and oil plants for infestation by
pests and diseases
9. Protection of garden melon plants against pests
10. Spraying seed plants against rodents and sucking pests
11. Spray ng stone fruit against sucking pests
12. Collection of fallen fruit damaged by Curculiodae and
by codling moth and utilising it in production
13. Inspection and remodeling attracting rings
14. Digging the circles aro.,nd trunks in order to destroy
cocoons of mulberry and apricot Geometridae
15. Coating the trunks and the bases of branches by garden
plaster
16. Collection of fallen fruit damaged by apricot Bibionidae
17. Inspection of cotton plants for infestation by pests and
diseases during mass blossoming
18. Application of the mechanical method in controlling eurygaste
on crops
19. A monthly report oonoerning the course of poisons and of
peat control
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Month of Year Names of Measures
July
. Spraying seed plants in controlling rodents and suokling
pests
. Spraying the vineyard with lime brimstone compound in
controlling diseases
. Controlling the alfalfa pests
. Application of measures in controlling crops against
cotton pests (corn earworm, mite, aphids)
. Controlling weed pests
. Controlling moth of gnawing owlet (placing syrup containers
for catching)
. Inspection of locust during ovipositing (grasshopper,
"konoftme)
. Controlling garden melon pests
. Digging ciroles around trunks at the depth of 25 cm and
taking out cocoons of mulberry and apricot Geometridae
10. Collection of fallen fruit infested by codling moth,
apricot Curouliodae, chalcid wasp
11. Vatering gardens in controlling apricot Curculiodae
12. Controlling macrosporiose on cotton
13. Inspection of catching rings and destruction of codling
moth
14. The import of poisons for poisoning seed grain for tho
fall sowing
15. Inspection of tomatoes for the infestation by the
bacterial canker
16. Fixing the wintering location of eurygasters
17. Control of pests and diseases of sugar beets
18. Monthly report concerning the course of poisons and -f
peat control
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Month of Year names of Measures
August 1. Controlling alfalfa pest
2. Controlling the cotton pest (aphids of fall generation,
mob mite fTetranychus urticae X.], corn earworm
. Controlling macrosporose on cotton
4. Controlling sugar beet past
. Controlling cercosporose and mildew on sugar beets
6. Poisoning seed grain for winter sowing with dry mordants
7. Controlling pests of melon fields
8. Inspection of catching rings and destroying codling moths
under them
? Inspection of cotton fields for infestation by posts and
diseases faring the opening of the bolls
10. Controlling the gypsy moth (coating the place? of the
ovipository by black mineral oil, petrolium, kerosene)
11. Inspection of locust in jugs
12. Inspection of rice crops for infestation by pests and
diseases
1$. Inspection of premises for infestation of rodents and
their control
14. Inspection of wintering nidi of aurygasters and its control
15. Controlling pests in etirehouces and granaries.
16. Loosening the soil in controlling apricot curculiodae
and spraying the gardens against sucking pests
17. Composing a report about the course of poisons and of
pest control
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Ponth of Year
September
Muses of Measures
. Controlling mildew and cercosporose upon sugar beets
? Inspection of cotton plants for infestation by wilt and
virus
. Controlling melon field pests
. Controlling aphids of fall generation on cotton plants
. Controlling corn ear worm on cotton and garden plants:
tomatoes, corn
. Inspection of alfalfa for the infestation by pests and dis-
eases before the last sowing and carrying out control measures
. Inspection of pedaliaceae for infestation by gum flow and
other diseases
. Poisoning seed grain for fall sowing
. Inspection of locust in jugs
10. Inspection of eurygaster in winter nidi and carryIng out .
control measures (burning and other methods)
11. Inspection of premises for infestation by field rodents and
their control
12. Inspection of premises for infestation by winter owlet and
oontrolling it, and also controlling grain ground beetle
tCarabidael
S. Inspection of the winter supply of sugar beet pests
4. Inspection of winter supply of orchard pests
16. Inspection of catching rings in cortrolling the codling moth
16. A monthly report about the course of poisons and of pest
control
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Month of Year
Names of Measures
October
. Taking the catching rings off the trees and disinfecting
them in boiling water -
2. Poisoning seed grain
. Inspection of winter nidi of eurygaster and carrying out
its control
4. Controlling storehouse pests
5. Inspection of locust in jugs
6. Eradication of mice-like rodents
7. Controlling cabbage and melon aphids, corn earworm on
tomatoes
8. Coating the ovipositories of gypsy moth
9. Inspection of orchards and vineyards for winter pest supply.
10. Inspection of -winter supply of soil pests
11. Spraying vine with 5 per cent ISO
12. Removing dead bark, cutting out dry places, diseased
branches and burning them; making root attractant from leaves
13. Registration and remodeling equipment
14. Monthly report about the course of poisons and pest control
15. Composing the plan of work in controlling agricultural
pests and diseases for the following year and presenting
to the raion agricultural department requests for poison
and equipment
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Month of Yes Names of Peasures
November
. Controlling mice-like rodents
. Prophylactic measures for controlling cotton pest and
diseases (harvest of Asiatic cotton, fall ploughing)
. Poisoning of seed grain for winter sowing
? Controlling storehouse pests
i. Disclosing the winter nidi of eurygaster and its control
? Inspection of winter nidi of Nviliakhne and its control
? Removal of dead bark, cutting out dry parts, diseased
branches and burning them. In orchards
? Fall shaking of weevil off fruit trees
? Collecting winter nidi of pierid butterfly
0. Gathering and burning fallen leaves and traps made of leaves
?aw-Cea4&eg-4h.*--etge-eP-4his-gypey-meth-by-Usiek-m1eetsal-efil
1. Fall coating of barks with lime milk
. Coating the eggs of tho gypsy moth with black mineral oil
. Inspection of winter supply of pests in orchards
4. spraying 5 per cent ISO in controlling apple and "chekhlikft
month
6. Spraying orchards with mineral oil emulsions in controll
scale
6. Remodeling equipment and inventory
7. Courses for preparing collective farm instructors in con-
trolling pests
. Report,on the course of peat control
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Month of Year
Names of Measures
December
. Preparation of farm instructor in controlling agricultural
posts and diseases
2. Prophylactic measures in controlling cotton pests (harvest
of Asiatic cotton, winter ploughing
3. Poisoning of seed grain
4. Control of storehouse pests
6. Prophylactic measures in orchards (cutting out dry parts,
diseased branches
6. Collecting the winter nidi of pierid butterfly
7. Cleaning tree trunks for placing adhesive rings
8. Winter watering orchards and vineyards
9. Spraying 5 per cent rso in controlling apple and "Chekhlie
moth
10. Coating eggs of the gypsy moth with black mineral oil
11. Inspection of winter supply of pests in orchards
12. Controlling ftepiliakhne in minter nidi
13. ranter spraying of orchards with mineral oil emulsions
14. Controlling eurygaster in winter nidi
15. Registration of poison and material and their acquisition
16. Remodeling the equipment and inventory
Footnote- This schedule is only a sample. The collective
farm instructor composes his own schedule in regard to the
peculiarities of his farm, based on this pattern, after
having consulted the entomologist of the ratan agricultural
department or the machine tractor station.
2 July 1951
Endcf Schedule
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/12 : CIA-RDP80R01426R009900040001-2
Sbornilz tntrnktsji po karantinnym
obsledovanirm eel' stokho ziai 3tvennylth
lesny!th Inlitur (Instructions for TrPnslated in part from
quarantine inspectors of agricultural the Bassi= by R. G. Denbo
plants clad forest trees). Moskva, 1935,
104 p.,/154.4? Ef6
Instructions ror Flold quarantine Insoectors of Selector Stations. of Cotton.?
(p. 46-52)
I. The Entomological Part
The pink bon worm Platyedra gorvaniellTa Saand(does not exist in um),
parasitic !urm Triaa insulan 1 etc.
Tho enleriment of field inspection of cotton against quarantine poste,
under the conditions of Middle Asia for 1933-35, indicates that the field
method in rolation to the disclosing some quarantine pests is a method
of little offect and does not produce good results. This conclusion hal)
been convincingly confirmed by a for data of American practice - in
particulvx, in regard to the pink worm. Therefore. we Should consider
the field ncthod of inspection only as a secondrry one. The basic methods
of inspecting quarantine pests, and particularly the pink worm, should be -
the an:ay.-An of gin .waste with the assistance of worm catchers and with
the annlysis of cotton seeds.
1.1ten cotton haft been danaged by the pink worm, the field inspection
should bc dIvided into two part at
1) A triple collection of the worm's fruit-bearing organs Which aro
suspicious as to availability of the pink worm.
2) A double collection of the fallen fruit.
? Tee in7truc ion is printed 'as an example - the inspection of cotton in
various p.:rts of USSR is based on this instruction considering the local
conditions.
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Efimov, A. L. 2
Preparatory Work
!Men the supervisor is in chtrge of the task's data, namely, the
investicAing field and the percentage of inspection, he proceeds with the
preparatory work which consists in becoming familiar with the sowing, with
the division of the field into zones convenient for inspection, the
organization of inspecting brigades, with the preparation of blanks1 label.
etc.
The division of the field into separate zones is carried out in such
a manner thrtt MVP zones, according to their size, would not surpass the
daily nom of inspection. For 25 percent of inspection for the collection
of the fruit..bearing organs will be approximately 8.86 hectare which in
production consists of 340 buahes. Each of these zones may consist of a
series of smaller elementary zones of various contours.
The organization of the brigades is apecified, mainly, by the amount
of work, the time of its execution and to some degree by the availability
of means and personnel. In connection with the indicated factors the
inepectional brigade could be organized with 4 to 13 persons including the
supervisor and research workers whose number presents 25 percent of the
brigade's body.
For the direction of the inspectors the sowing rows are used: with
a ndihoiachnyi? - the todzheiachn beds.
For the Gathering of fallen fruit the field is divided in the
followina canner:
After having measured the area of the main field, the inspector divides
it according to the ches method, for instance, from fields of a square
meter for hecter, divides into 50 and taking the quotient for the area of
the squaro. Then he divides into squares of the given area, and places
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Efimov, A. L. 3
landmarks which remain during the inspection. Before the second inspection
(2 and 3) the landmarks are placed in a different manner, in points equal
In all squares.
III. Collection of the Fruit?bearing Organs from shoe Infested
and Su.spicious
The first collection of suspicious and infested fruit bearers is
carried out immediately after the first harvest.
The dcrwged and the suspicious flowers and trade, the unopened and
slightly opened bolls, are collected.
The percentage of inspection is determined in regard to the inspected
field, availability of means, actual task and the time for its execution.
Under the conditions of Uzbekistan SM. when a zone of tens of hectare
has been inspected, the inspection of 25 percent of the field was applied.
In such a case every fourth bush of the row was inspected. The collected
material is plc?ced into a compact cloth tare whereby each separate field
should have a separate taro.
When acqutling the collection, the inspector should write all the
data le,ble with a chemical pencil on a label (form lb. 1) prepared
beforehand.
1. The date of collection.
2. The =me of the number of the field and its size.
3. The cotton species.
4. The family name of the inspector.
The filled out label is placed in the bag along with the collected
material and the bag is thorouelly tied in order to avoid losses.
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Efimov, A. L.
The registration of daily work of each brigade during the collection
of the fruit-bearing organs is made on a special blank (form tio. 2), ,here
the following has to be indicated:
1. the date of collection.
2. the inspected. field.
3. the cotton species.
4. the field of each inspected. sort.
5. the number of inspectors.
6. the amount of samples.
7. the name of the supervisor.
She daily norm of productivity of one inspector vhen 25 percent of
inspection for the collection of the fruit-bearing organs is 0,06 hectar.
The cost of one heater of inspection is 100 rubles, on this field are
in 340 cotton bushes, and infested and suspicious fruit-bearing
bolls, buds, and flowers are gathered.
Note: In all cases the cost of the work is counted only according
to the earnings of the inspectihg personnel.
Collection of Fallen Fruit
The inspection consists of a triple collection of infested and
suspicious fruit bearers in fallen fruits
1.- after the first collection of harvest of raw material
2.- after the second collection of harvest of raw material
3.- after the last harvest of raw material
The collection of the fallen fruit is done in a chess order with
the estimation of 26 square-meters experiment from each hactar. The
material gathered from each separate field: the fallen bolls, buds.
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Zfimov, A. L. 6
flowers, seeds, and leaves, are marked down on the label Vo. 1, placed into
a tare and. tied down carefully.
The second. gathering of the fallen fruit is carried out under the first
inspection. If the first inspection has been carried out upon the white
squares, the second should be done on the black squares.
The third inspection is carried out according to diagonals between
the first and the second inspection (see scheme).
The work done during the day is fixed by the supervisor on a blank
tio. 2.
The norm of working out an inspection during a 10 hour working day,
is 31 tests or 500 fruit-tearing organs, upon an area of 0.9 hectare.
Cost per 1 heater ie 6 rubles and 70 kopeik.
? V. The Laboratory Analysis
The material gathered by the field inspection is sent to the
laboratory for analysis.
In order to avoid. a large gathering of material in the field, the
supervisor should send it to the laboratory twice a day and watch that
the material gathered during the day should be sent the same day.
The analysis in the laboratory is done separately on each field.
Men the tare hae been emptied there should be a thorough inspection
within and without it.
The entire material collected from the bushee and from the ground-
bolls, buds, flowers, seeds, and leaves - is thoroughly inspecte by the
laboratory worker, first on the surface for signs of (image, then they are
opened and the interior parts are analysed; folds, lobules, seeds etc.
as to the availability f damages, diseases and other deformed signs.
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Efimov, A. L. ? 7 -
The raw material taken out from the cells Is inspected, the presence of
double and triple seeds is marked down; each normal seed is cut and is
inspected for the presence of pests and damage.
The entire suspicious material is packed into small packages' and is
labeled on the form 3:
1) The name of the number of the field.
2) The dates of the inspection.
3) The cotton species and its area.
4) The dates of laboratory analysis.
_5) The number of inspected fruit.hbearing organs; bolls, buds, flowers.
etc.
6) The family name of the laboratory worker.
If during the analysis a suspicious material, in quarantine sense, to
discovered, it is sent into the gparantine Laboratory for identification.
The analysed material is placed into a new tare and then gined
(Dihiniruetsia). Then the gin waste undergoes a manual and machine
analysis.
The entomological material discovered during the analysis is preserved
either in alcohol of 70?, after the, material has been washed by boiling
water, or by 2 percent formalin solution..
The registration of the daily work during the laboratory analysis is
marked down on corresponding blanks (form No. 4):
1. dates of the, laboratory analysis.
2. cotton species.
3. the field for each analysed species
4. the number of laboratory workers
5. the number of analysed samples
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AA471701,4 As A#4, 0
6. their bolls, bade, flowers
7. tho family name of the supervisor
The norm of the productivity of one laboratory worker during a ten
hour labor day is 1.560 organs Which means 0.04 hectare of cotton sowing.
VI. Signs for Fruit-bearing Organs of Infestation*
The young caterpillars penetrate into buds, gnawing through the
undeveloped flower. The infested flowers don't open normally and remind
a rose. The top of the petals are tied to the caterpillars by silk thread.
Such a picture could be observed in Upland and on species with Short fibers;
upon Egyptian cotton or long fibered species the opening of the infested
buds occurs normally. The caterpillars of the pink worm damage the bone
in all stages of their growth, starting with the time when the bolls
of the size of a pea, until the time when they upon, the caterpillar enters
the boll at any place and its behavior vary. 'Without gnawing the boll
sides, the caterpillar penetrates into the tiseue, immediately under its
interior. This mine is quite characteristic for the pink worm and after
having discovered it, we may be sure that the boll is infested. The mine
disappears during the further growth of the boll and is unnoticed in the
open boll. then the caterpillar gnaws through the side of the boll and
enters the fiber, feeding on the same, then a slightly colored growing ts
formed, and some times there is left an abnormal coloration. The cater-
pillar is able to feed itself on immature liber and seeds by running
between them slightly colored passages. The seeds are often attacked at
the wide and, near the exterior surface of the boll and are able to be
*Arranged according to data of foreign literature.
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B WOW, A. Los V
eaten entirely or partly. Often the caterpillar gnaws a passage thrmagh the
partition into the next part. Such hole is gnawed evenly, round and oval
and is a good indication that the pink worm was present in the poll. then
the worm attatke young bolls which did not reach the half of their growth,
then they become brown and usually fall from the plants,snd their contents
transforms into a mass of rotten waste. The presence of caterpillars causes
the abnormal growth of the bolls or their deformation. On the inner side
of the wall greenish white and brown swellings are formed. The eeeds grow
and form very little fibers, The extremely deformed bolls contain very
little fibere which is also of inferior quality.
WTI. The gummary of the Work
The data of the laboratory analysis are presented twirl 11010anth -
on the 10th End 25th - to the Principal quarantine Inspector according to
the torn ro. 5;
1. The nems of the selecting station.
2. The are of the inspected sowings:
a) at the beginning of work
b) for the report period
3. The field of inspected sowing.
4. Data for the beginning and end of sample gathering during
the report period.
5. The amount of the samples.
6. The size of the samples in weight.
7. The amount of bolls, buds, flowers - of everything.
8. Dates of the stert and the and of the analysis luring the
reported period.
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Nfinov, A. L. 10
9. How many bolls, buds flowers and everything has been analyzed.
10. Row many seeds (tripled, double and ordinary) have been disclosed,
cut and analyzed.
11. a0v many were found:
a) damaged bolls, buds, flowers
b) caterpillars of the pink worm: alive, dead
c) cocoone of pink worm: alive, dead
d) other insects: mature, CoCOOng caterpillars
12. The family name of the supervisor.
VIII. The Analysis of the Soil
The inspection consists in the analysis of soil for the disclosing of
the pests for quaran'tine.
Vitien soil tests are done, the inspected field is divided into squarest
each at the size of 100 square meters (10 x 10) and in the center of such
a square of one square meter the soil is inspected in the depth of 15 cm.
The soil is carefully kneaded by fingers and is sifted through a sieve
with openings of 2 mm. The entomological material left in the sieve Is
taken out, Ia superficially evaluated immediately, is packed into small
packages, and is labeled according to the form No. I, with the indication
of the number of the analyzed soil samples and is sent to the laboratory.
The registration of the brigadier's work is done on the form No. 2.
The daily form of the productitivity of one inspection according to the
indicated degree of inspection (1 percent) is 3 samples, namely. 0.03
hectare, in the volume it will mean 0.45 cubic meters of the inepected
soil mass.
Composed by the Specialist
of quarantine Laboratory
July 11, 1951. A. A. Khoprianinov
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Lenincrad. Institut prikladnoi zoologii i Transl. 185: Plant Protection
fitopatologii. Izvestiia vysshikh kuraov
prikladnoi zoologii I fitopatologii.
(News of higher educational institutions
of applied zoology and phytopathology.) Translated in part from
12, 337 p. 1941. 423.92 L544 the Russian by R. G. DeMbo
For the doctor of Agricultural Sciences,
Prof. Nikolai Nikolaievich Bogdanov-Kat'kov
to his twenty-five years of scientific activity
(1913-1938)
Table of Contents (p. 5)
Easay an the life and scientific activity of Professor, Dr. N. N.
Bogdanov-Kat'kov 9
I. IA. Kuznetsov - Survey of work in entomology, theoretical and
applied, which has been carried out in the VSSR during twenty
years, from 1917 to 1937, Inclusive 17
W. S. rorkhsenius - Range of species producing coccoidea in Central
Asia Trabutina (Coccidae, Neniptera) 125
N. C. Berim - Comparative toxicity of concentrated extractions of
pyrethrium and the influence of soap upon it
B. A. Brientsev Agrotechnical measures in controlling cabbage
flies
136
146
2. G. Belosell skaia - Pose leaf roller Coopeoia rosana L., pest of
fruit-berry plants and groan planting 176
S. I. Vanin . Materials of Caucasys galli 196
A. M. Gerasimov - Diagnosis of lepidoptera being of economical
Importance 207
I. V. Kozhaohnikov - Concerning a few species of the most widely
spread harmful insects 222
E. S. Kiriianova.- Nemotods of grain 235
B. A. Lipskii and A. A. Merkul'eva - Experiments in controlling
the Swedish fly by the chemical method 267
B. F. Meier - The influence of the size of the host's egg upon the
nu=ber of eggs placed by trikhogramma end the site of growing
species 273
N. E. Sokblova-Vinogradova - Ecological indexes of vine pest
Theresilialaria Bayle 278
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?111...?
2
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Leningrad. Institut prikladnoi zoologii
V. N. Stark - Two new bark eaters of the species Scolytus 301
P. E. Sokolovskaia Colorimetrical method of determining arsenic
in insecticides and fungicides 307
F. V. rhetagurova and A. V. Olitskaia - The iiroblem of bacterial
antagonism 312
Appendix:
1. A list of scientific works of N. N. Bogdanev-Katfkov 329
2. Jubilee greetings 335
11 July 1951
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