SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY VOLUME 18, NUMBER 2

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• Document Page Count: 146
• Document Creation Date: January 4, 2017
• Document Release Date: September 24, 2013
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: February 1, 1965
• Content Type: REPORT

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Volume 18, Number 2
?
February, 1965
SOVIU
TOMIC
ENERGY.'
ATOMHAFI 3HEPIWA
(ATOMNAYA iNERGIYA)
TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN
CONSULTANTS BUREAU
,
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EFFECTS OF RADIATION
ON SEMICONDUCTORS -
By S. V. yavilov
\ Devoted to the effects of .electromagnetic and, torpuscular
radiations on semiconductors, this new volume deals with
the processes of absoeption of electromagnetic radiation,
photoionization and ionization by charged high-energy par-
ticles, and the principal types of recombination processes
,bY which an excited crystal returns to its original equilibrium
state. Translated from the Russian., '
238 pages , CB 1965
MOSSBAUER - EFFECT
??
METHODOLOGY
$1,5.00
A
CERAMIC ACOUSTIC DETECTORS
By A. A. Anan'eva
- 4
Deals' with the dielectric and piezoelectric properties: of
' barium-titanate cerarnics,lthe methods of determining sound
receiver characteristics, and the experimental development
of nondirectional wideband sound receivers employing sphe-
rical and cylindrical shells of barium-titanate ceramic polar-
ized in various ways. Wideband sound receivers using plane
, diaphragms end the development of receivers responsive to
certain resonance frequencies in the working frequency band
? and therefore of high sensitiVity are described in detail.
Includes a bibliography on the developMent of, piezoelectric
\elements fdr the design and construction, of acoustic re:
,ceivers.- A Special Research Report translated,' from the
Russian. " ? -0
130 pages CB 1965 ' $22.50
QUANTUM .ELECTRON THEORY
OF AMORPHOUS CONDUCTORS
t By A. I. Gubanov k
This Is the first monograph to deal .with the physics of
amorphous electronic conductors. It includes a critical review
of the electrical properties and`structure of liquid and glassy
semiconductors, a separate chapter on the fundamentals of
the quantum 'electron theOry of solids: and a consideration
of the similarities and differences between the structures of
liquid and crystalline substances. Using One-dimensional
models, Gubanov deduces the band structure of the electron
theory spectrum and extends the theory for three-dimensional
models. Also ncluded are discussions of characteristic fea-
tures of elictron scattering in amorphous substances,' the
Mean free path of electrons and the temperature dependence
of various galvano-thermomagnetic coefficients of an amor-
phous substance, and the author's theory of amorphous
ferromagnets. Translated from the Russian. 4
293 pages CB 1965 fi
By Irwin J. Gruverman
Reviews applications and describes a methodology permitting
scientists in all fields to understand the complexities of equip-,
.`ment reqUired for velocity modulation, measurement of 'effects,
and modification of external environments. Establishes a basis
for evaluating the applicability of MOssbauer-effect studies to
various areas'. The four sections of the book include: Re-
views of applications in physics, biology,' and chemistry;
Three alternative approaches .to velocity modulation; Meas-
urement and calibration; and Environmental control with
respect to magnetic fields, temperature, and pressure. Excel-
? lent as supplementary reading in undergraduate and graduate
? nuclear' physics courses, this volume is also valuable as e
text in experimental advanced physics. .
Approx. 200 pages PP 1965 $12.50
$17.50
SOVIET RESEARCH IN,
NEW SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Edited by D. N. Nasledov et -el.
Five internationally known Soviet researchers on semicon-
ductor materials ? Nasledov, Goryunova, Aeger , Lange, and
Radautsan ? participated in selecting. those 18 refiorts, pre-
sented at a 1963 Academy of Sciences conference -on new
-semiconductor materials. The editors are themselves authors
or co-authors of ten of the, reports. The studies include:
properties of 'solid solutions based on materials with a zinc
blende type structure, both chain land layer modifications;
change of the charge 'carrier mobility upon melting of semi-
conductors; anisotropy of the electrical and galvanomagnetic
properties of certain semiconductor materials; and the elec-
trical and,optical properties of thin semiconductor layers. A
Special Research Report translated from the Russian.?
127 pages ? , CB 1965 , $17,50
((:\
/ CONSULTANTS BUREAU/CP PLENUM PRESS
)/
227 West 17th Street. New York. New York 10011
? 1
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ATOMNAYA EN.ERGIYA
EDITORIAL BOARD
A. I. Alikhanov A. I. Leipunskii
A. A. Bochvar M. G. Meshcheryakov
N. A. Dollezhal' M. D. Millionshchikov
K. E. Erglis (Editor-in-Chief)
V. S. Fursov
I. N. Golovin
V. F. Kalinin
N. A. Kolokol'tsov
(Assistant Editor)
A. K. Krasin
I. F. Kvartskhava
A. V. Lebedinskii
I. I. Novikov
V. B. Shevchenko
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
M. V. Yakutovich
A. P. Zefirov
SOVIET ATOMIC
ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAYA iNERGIYA
A publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
@ 1966 CONSULTANTS BUREAU ENTERPRISES, INC.
227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011
Volume 18, Number 2
February, 1965
CONTENTS
Penetration of Hydrogen Ions H1-1- into the Surface of Stainless Steel ?E. S. Borovik,
P A
ENG.
G E
RUSS.
N. P. Katrich, and G. T. Nikolaev
113
91
Perturbation of Particle Motion in the Stellarator?A. P. Popryadukhin
118
96
Experiments on the Buildup of Electrons in the Synchrotron?Yu. M. Ado, E. G. Bessonov,
and P. A. Cherenkov
129
104
Angular and Energy Characteristics of the Neutrons Emitted in U235 Fission? M. V. Blinov,
N. M. Kazarinov, and A. N. Protopopov
133
108
Calculation of Average Radiative Capture Cross Sections for Neutrons with Energies
of 103-105 eV ?A. G. Dovbenko, S. M. Zakharova, V. E. Kolesov, and A.V. Malyshev .
140
114
Asymptotic Formulas for Scattering of Slow Neutrons on Bound Atoms ?V. F. Turchin
and V. A. Tarasov
146
118
The Attenuation of Reactor Radiation by Means of Serpentine Concrete?G. A. Vasil'ev,
A. P. Veselkin, Yu. A. Egorov, V. A. Kucheryaev, and Yu. V. Pankrat'ev
151
121
Study of the Neutron Moderation Process in Beryllium and Beryllium Oxide by a Pulse Method
?I. F. Zhezherun
158
127
Experimental Investigations of Shields on the Riz Stand?S. P. Belov, V. A. Dulin,
Yu. A. Kazanskii, V. I. Popov, and S. G. Tsypin
167
136
A Whole-Body Counter?Yu. V. Sivintsev, 0. M. Arutinov, V. A. Kanareikin, and M. A. Panov.
173
141
Variation of the Separation Factor in Isotope Exchange as a Function of the Properties
of the Molecules Being Exchanged?A. M. Rozen and A. I. Mikhailichenko
180
147
Prospective Developments and Economics of Nuclear Power Generation? B. B. Baturov
and N. M. Sinev
191
157
Chemistry of Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing?V. N. Prusakov and M. F. Pushlenkov
210
171
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Homogeneous Critical Assembly with a Profiled Fuel Charge?A.K.Krasin and E.I. Inyutin
215
175
Angular Distribution of Collimated Radiation? g. F. Fomushkin
219
178
Diffusion of Neutrons in Spin-Orbit Interaction?Yu. N. Kazachenkov and V. V. Orlov
222
179
Characteristics of Asymptotic Spectrum of Neutrons in Uranium?A. A. Malinkin,
F. Nasyrov, and V. F. Kolesov
225
181
Excitation Function of Reaction Cu65(d,2n)Zn65 and Yield of Isotope Zn65?P.P.Dmitriev
and N. N. Krasnov
228
184
Use of Aqueous Glycine Solution for 'Y -Ray and Fast-Neutron Dosimetry
?A. P. Ibragimov and A. V. Tuichiev
231
185
Annual Subscription: $ 95
Single Issue: $30
Single Article: $15
All rights reserved. No article contained herein may be reproduced for any purpose what-
soever without permission of the publisher. Permission may be obtained from Consultants
Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th Street. New York City, United States of America.
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CONTENTS (continued)
Light Output and Amplitude Resolution of Monocrystals?G. V. Miroshnikov
PAGE
EN6. I ?RUSS.
and A. I. Kirillov
234
187
Some Data on Equilibria of the Systems MeS(MeS2)-UO2SO4-H20 at Elevated Temperatures
and Pressures?B. S. Osipov and R. P. Rafal'skii
237
189
SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING NEWS
International Betatron Colloquium?A. A. Vorob'ev, V. A. Moskalev, M. F. Filippov,
and V. A. Vorob'ev
240
192
Conference on the Physics and Technology of Alkali Halide Scintillators ?R.V.Bakradze
and Yu. A. Tsirlin
243
193
"Atomic Energy" Pavilion at the 1964 Exhibit of Achievements of the USSR National Economy
?L. I. Petrenko
245
194
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Books
249
198
The Russian date "Podpisano k pechati" of this issue was 1/ 21/ 65. This is equivalent to "approved
for printing ." Publication did not occur prior to this date, but must be assumed to have taken place reasonably
soon thereafter.
Publisher
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*
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PENETRATION OF HYDROGEN IONS H1+
INTO THE SURFACE OF STAINLESS STEEL
(UDC 533.9)
E. S. Borovik, N. P. Katrich, and G. T. Nikolaev
Translated from Atomnaya tnergiya, Vol. 18, No. 2,
pp. 91-96, February, 1965
Original article submitted July 15, 1963, and in final form June 22, 1964
A system for conducting experiments on the coefficient of penetration is described. The use of hydro-
gen and helium condensation pumps secures an ultrahigh vacuum in the apparatus. The coefficient of
penetration of 35 keV H1+ ions is determined. For an ion density in the region of 1019 to 2 ? 1019 the
coefficient of penetration equals 0.93 and is independent of the number of such ions.
Recently the process of gas ion penetration into various materials has caught the interest of many physicists
studying hot plasma. This is because in magnetic traps with the injection of fast particles the maintenance of ul-
trahigh vacuum depends substantially on the coefficient of penetration. So far this coefficient has been measured
in few investigations: for 150 to 2600 eV H&- ions in [1], and for 7 to 25 keV He and D+ ions in [2]. Some quan-
titative characteristics of the penetration process have been given in investigations into the desorption of previously
penetrating particles caused by ion bombardment [3-5] and in connection with the development of methods of pre-
paring solid gas targets and the separation of isotopes [6, 7].
None of these investigations, however, was carried out in vacuum conditions ensuring clean surfaces for the
bombarded targets. We here present the first measurements of the penetration coefficient of 35 keV H1+ into a
1Kh18N9T stainless steel target. The vacuum conditions under which these measurements were made ensured that
the target surface bombarded would be quite clean.
Description of Apparatus
The exterior view of the apparatus with which the measurements were made appears in Fig. 1. The arrange-
ment of the main parts of the apparatus as they appear along the direction of motion of the H1+ ion beam is shown
in Fig. 2. The hydrogen ion beam produced by means of a high frequency ion source 1 was focused by the electro-
static lens 2, accelerated to 35 keV in the accelerator tube 3, and, via the first collimating system 8, 9, fell into
the magnetic analyzer chamber 11. In this chamber the H1+ hydrogen ions were turned through 60?, and by way of
a second collimating system 15, 17 fell into the measuring chamber 18 and on to the target 21. The high frequency
ion source with the electrostatic lens made it possible to obtain a well focused beam of H1+ ions of up to 120
(current density at target up to 160 MA/cm2). The consumption of hydrogen in the high frequency ion source, de-
termined by the geometry of the extracting electrode, did not exceed 1.5 cm3/h. This hydrogen consumption may
be regarded as small compared with that in other types of ion source. However, in systems requiring the mainte-
nance of a vacuum of the order of 10-7 N/m2, such gas loadings are very high, since the corresponding pumping
rates required must exceed 3 ? 105 dm3/sec.
The pumping rates may be reduced to a few tens of thousands of dm3/sec if the differential pumping method
is employed. However, even these pumping speeds are very difficult to achieve with diffusion pumps, not to men-
tion the contamination of the receiver. In view of this, we used the multistage condensation method of pumping
[8], which guaranteed the necessary pumping rate, high vacuum stability, and a fairly clean target. Figure 2 shows
the disposition of the helium condensation pumps (HCP) 10, 14, and 16. Each pump comprises a copper vessel of
0.5 drn3 capacity, with calculated pumping rate 1.2 ? 104 dm3/sec. The limiting HCP vacuum, determined by the
hydrogen saturated vapor tension, becomes quite high if the temperature of the pump surface is reduced below the
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Fig. 1. Exterior view of the apparatus; 1, 2) diffusion oil vapor pumps M-500 and M-2500, respectively;
3, 4) heated and unheated vacuum valves, respectively.
15
23
17
18
14 13
10 5
(pt.)
01 9
?--
15 12 11 9 8
lJIIlHJIJJIJJJ
111111111m111
Fig. 2. Arrangement of apparatus.
II
tinuous pumping of the vapor above the liquid helium.
increase in their period of operation (8 to 10 h).
In our apparatus, besides the HCP, we used two hydrogen condensation pumps 7 and 20 with capacity 0.5 dm3
each, and two oil diffusion pumps M-500 and M-2500 (see Fig. 1). The M-2500 pump was intended for conditioning
the vacuum system and for the preliminary evacuation of hydrogen coming from the high frequency ion source into
chamber 4 during the experiment. The M-500 pump was intended for conditioning the measuring chamber 18. Both
pumps had water and nitrogen shielding, and in case of need could be shut off from the rest of the system by means
of the valves shown in Fig. 1. In the lower part of the chamber 4 was placed a nitrogen louver trap; fixed to this
was a copper screen 5 separated into two sections by the barrier 6. The right hand side of the screen constituted a
chamber communicating with the diffusion pump through the nitrogen trap. Inside this was placed a hydrogen con-
densation pump 7 intended for pumping out stray gases. The left hand half of the nitrogen screen constitutes a cham-
ber closed on all sides and communicating with the right hand half of the nitrogen screen and with the magnetic
boiling point of liquid helium. The necessary fall in sur-
face temperature can easily be achieved by pumping out
the vapor over the liquid helium. In our pumps the vapor
was pumped out to about 18 N/m2, corresponding to a lim-
iting vacuum of ????1 ? 10-10 N/m2 [9]. The duration of ser-
vice of the HCP was determined by the thermal loading
and the amount of helium introduced. The priming of the
condensation pumps with liquid helium by the ordinary
method of pouring over under pressure did not give good
results. The amount of helium so introduced was small
and hence so was the duration of service.
In view of this, we set up a special arrangement for
pouring; this enabled the operation to be effected with con-
This secured reliable priming for the HCP and a consequent
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analyzer chamber by means collimating tubes 8 and 9. Col-
p, N/m2
limator tube 8 (diameter 14 and length 250 mm) had an
entrance aperture of diameter 12 mm and was soldered into
the partition of the nitrogen screen. Collimating tube 9
10-6irr
6
4
(diameter 11 and length 150 mm) with an entrance aperture
9 mm in diameter connected the left hand half of the nitro-
2gen screen to the magnetic analyzer chamber. This geo-
6
4
2
10-7 metry of the collimating system ensured a smallish conduc-
40 50 t, mm tivity between the chambers, sslightly lowering the hydrogen
Fig. 3. Measuring chamber pressure as a function of
ion beam current. Within the left hand part of the screen
was placed HCP 10 with a hydrogen pumping rate of 1.2 ?
104 dm3/sec. Thus the two condensation pumps bearing the
main load during the experiment were located in a comparatively small volume, and the possibility of impurity
gases passing into the measuring chamber from the unheated part of the apparatus was almost entirely eliminated.
The magnetic analyzer chamber 11 was made of stainless steel 1Kh18N9T and was assembled by means of poly-
fluorethylene resin gaskets. The pole tips of the magnet 13 were situated inside the chamber, while the rest of the
magnet was outside. The magnetic analyzer chamber had a nitrogen screen 12, inside which was HCP 14. The
hydrogen ions H2+ and H3+ and fast neutral particles coming out of the high-frequency ion source and falling into
the magnetic analyzer chamber partly passed into the.nitrogen screen, while the remaining particles were pumped
away by the HCP. The Hi+ ions passed out of the magnetic analyzer chamber through collimating tube 15, an ap-
erture in the nitrogen screen 23, and tube 17, into the measuring chamber, and on to the target. The nitrogen screen
comprised a cylindrical chamber joined to the measuring chamber by a tube 17 of given conductivity. In the upper
part of the nitrogen screen, over the path of the beam, was placed HCP 16, intended for pumping out the measuring
chamber and protecting it from the onslaught of hydrogen from the magnetic analyzer chamber. Measuring cham-
ber 18 and the components connected to it were made of stainless steel and assembled with copper gaskets com-
pressed between conical surfaces. This construction facilitated heating to temperatures of 400 to 450?C. Below the
measuring chamber was placed the heated metal valve (see Fig. 1) separating the measuring chamber from the oil
diffusion pump M-500.
The target of the material to be studied was fixed in a copper block, which is turn was fixed to holder tube
22. The open end of the holder tube enabled the target to be cooled during bombardment. The Hi+ ion beam cur-
rent was measured by a mobile Faraday cylinder 19. The vacuum in the measuring chamber was measured by an
open ionization manometer of the Bayard-Alpert type placed inside the measuring chamber. The hydrogen conden-
sation pump and screen 20 surrounding the target were intended to protect the target from the impact of stray gases.
10 20 30
time. 0) Initial pressure.
Preparation of the Apparatus for Measurements
The measuring chamber and valve separating it from the diffusion pump were heated before beginning the
experiment to some 400?C for 3 to 4 h. The apparatus was pumped during this heating by the oil diffusion pumps
with nitrogen traps and the hydrogen condensation pump 7. When the heating ended, the vacuum in the measuring
chamber had reached 1.3 ? 10-5 N/m2.
After removing the heaters, liquid hydrogen was poured into hydrogen condensation pump 20. The temper-
ature of the measuring chamber and the hydrogen condensation pump at this moment still stayed around 400?C. The
total consumption of liquid hydrogen in this was 5 dm3. Simultaneously the measuring chamber was disconnected
from the oil diffusion pump and nitrogen screen by means of the valve. This guarded the measuring chamber from
oil decomposition products and reduced the residual gas background to a minimum. The vacuum in the measuring
chamber immediately after pouring in the hydrogen reached 4 to 5 ? 10-7 N/m2. The pouring of liquid helium into
the HCP 16 improved the vacuum in the measuring chamber almost instantaneously to 1.3 ? 10-7 N/m2, and then
continued improving more slowly, so that after 1 to 1.5 h it reached 6 ? 10-8 N/m2 (5 ? 10-15 torr). The experiments,
however, normally began immediately after pouring the liquid helium at a vacuum of 1.3 ? 10-7 N/m2..Here it was
assumed that the main residual gas in the measuring chamber was hydrogen. This assumption was quite legitimate,
remembering the presence of the hydrogen condensation pump in the measuring chamber, having a fairly high pump-
ing rate and the capacity of removing all impurity gases except those condensing with difficulty at 20.4?K. This
procedure of preparing for experiments ensured a fairly clean target surface and almost entirely excluded the possi-
bility of contaminating this after heating by adsorption from the surrounding medium.
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W, dm3/sec
100
50
0
IL)
-0.95
0.9
2
?
-1"
06 6 81016 2 6 6 81017 2 4 6 81018
Fig. 4. Pumping rate W and penetration coef-
ficient T1 as functions of the amount of gaseous
hydrogen coming into the measuring chamber.
1) Total rate of pumping hydrogen from the
measuring chamber; 2) calculated hydrogen
pumping rate for the HCP; 3) penetration coef-
ficient.
Results of Measurements and Discussion
The method of measuring the penetration coefficient was
as follows. The beam of H1+ ions bombarding the target pene-
trated into it. The flow of hydrogen from the target due to the
nonpenetrating part of the beam as well as hydrogen diffusely
emitted from the target altered the vacuum in the measuring
chamber. A typical curve relating the vacuum to target bom-
bardment time for a 35 kV, 110 ?A H1+ ion beam appears in
Fig. 3. It should be noted that the change in pressure in the
measuring chamber caused by the ion beam passing into the
magnetic analyzer chamber is negligibly small. The pressure
varies only on bombardment of the target.
Knowing the ion beam current, the vacuum in the meas-
uring chamber, and the rate of pumping hydrogen from the latter,
we may determine the pentration coefficient;
(P? Po) TV
-= 1
105i+/e '
where n is the number of particles in 1 drn3 under normal con-
ditions, p is the working pressure in N/m2,. Po is the initial pres-
sure in N/m2, W is the pumping rate in dm3/sec, i+ is the ion
beam current A, e is the charge on the electron in C, and 105 is
the atmospheric pressure in N/m2.
In the first experiments the penetration coefficient of the H1+ ions calculated for a pumping rate of 8 dm3/sec,
determined by the conductivity of the tube, was very high, and at the beginning of the bombardment reached a
value close to unity (0.99). As the density of penetrated particles rose, the penetration coefficient fell to 0.94 and
then remained constant. This was the first time such a high penetration coefficient of ions had been obtained. In
view of this the idea arose that extra hydrogen had been extracted by the clean surface of the chamber walls and
by the hydrogen condensation pump 20. In order to check this idea, the pumping rate was measured. This was done
by using the steady flow of hydrogen through a capillary of known conductivity. The measurements showed that the
clean surfaces of stainless steel and copper did not possess any marked extraction rate between room temperature
and 78?K.
The clean surface of the hydrogen condensation pump, however, which was made of copper, did extract hy-
drogen at liquid hydrogen temperature (20.4?K). As the amount of extracted hydrogen rose, the extraction rate ra-
pidly fell, and at concentrations corresponding to approximately 0.01 monolayer practically vanished. This effect
had not been observed by anyone before, and was rather unexpected for such low pressures. Figure 4 shows the ex-
perimental curve 1 of the pumping rate as a function of the amount of hydrogen coming into the chamber. The
calculated hydrogen pumping rate of the HCP 16, determined by the conductivity of tube 17 (see Fig. 2), is shown
dotted. The deviation between the experimental (10 dm3/sec) and calculated (8?1.5 dm3/sec) values of pumping
rate in the region N> 1017 lies within measuring error.
During the bombardment, atomic hydrogen is present in the chamber, and the adsorption of this differs from
that of molecular hydrogen. In view of this, we made some experiments to determine the amount of hydrogen ad-
sorbed during bombardment at 20.4 and 78?K, desorbing it by heating the hydrogen pump and screen 20. It was
established that the adsorption of atomic and molecular hydrogen took place only at temperatures below 30?K and
stopped almost completely for amounts of adsorbed hydrogen roughly equal to 0.01 monolayer. The total amount
of desorbed hydrogen agreed with the calculated value. Furthermore these experiments showed that a certain quan-
tity of heavier materials (1 to 210 of the number of incident ions) were evolved by the target during bombardment.
The variation of pumping rate with the amount of hydrogen coming into the chamber causes some difficulty
in calculating the penetration coefficient. In fact, in order to determine the penetration coefficient, we must know
the pumping rate. But the pumping rate depends on the amount of hydrogen coming into the chamber, i.e., on the
penetration coefficient. In view of this, the method of successive approximations was used for calculating T1, the
zero approximation being a pumping rate of 10 dm3/sec.
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The measured values of penetration coefficient for
1.0 35 keV, 1100 (current density 150 1jA/cm2) H1+ ions inci-
dent on a stainless steel surface are shown as a function of the
penetrated hydrogen?concentration in Fig. 5. Figure 4 (curve
3) shows the same results as a function of the amount of hy-
0,9 5
drogen entering the chamber. It should be noted that a large
part of the curve falls in the region where the pumping rate
is constant. Hence the penetration coefficient was here calcu-
/0" 2 4 6 8 1018 8 1019 2 lated without correction for the hydrogen condensation pump
N, particles/cm2 extraction rate. As we see from the curves in Fig. 5, as the
density of penetrated atoms rises to N =1018 particles/cm2,
Fig. 5. Variation of Ti with the number of particles
the penetration coefficient falls from 0.96 to 0.93. As the
penetrated per unit surface.
concentration of penetrated atoms rises further, the penetra-
tion coefficient remains constant right up to N=2 ? 1018 particles/cm2. We may well imagine that it continues
steady to much larger concentrations.
In addition to these measurements, we made some experiments to find the amount of penetrated hydrogen by
weighing. This showed that the amount of such hydrogen reached 2 ? 1018 particles/cm2.
These results of ours differ considerably from those of [2]. In [2], the penetration coefficient of D+ ions for a
stainless steel target varied from 0.2 to 0.35 over the energy range 7 to 25 keV. In this range, target saturation oc-
curred, as indicated by the equal flows of deuterium to and from the target. Thus, for example, for 15 keV D+ ions,
saturation occurred for penetrated particle concentrations of 3 ? 1017 cm-2.
The discrepancy between the results of [2] and our own can evidently not be ascribed either to differences in
the masses or to differences in the energies of the penetrating particles. It would appear that the vacuum conditions,
bearing on the state of the target surface, played some part in this. Although we did not make any specific experi-
ments on the effect of the cleanliness of the target surface on the penetration coefficient, certain results indicated
that the value of /I fell as the surface became less clean. In [2], the vacuum in the measuring chamber was 1.3 to
4 ? 10-8 N/m2, in which ?30% constituted impurities. This kind of vacuum is inadequate for maintaining the re-
quired clean state of the target. For example, if the partial pressure of active impurities in the measuring chamber
exceeds 10-1 Nirn2, then up to 0.1 monolayer may form on the target after heating it for 1 min. However, the dif-
ferences in the state of the vacuum can hardly by itself explain the discrepancy between the results; there must be
other sources of error in [2].
We have thus established that the coefficient of penetration of 35 kV Hi+ ions into a clean 1Kh18N9T stain-
less steel surface exceeds 93%. This value of 71 remains unvarying right up to concentration of 2 ? 1018 cm-2 pene-
trated atoms, and no sign of its further fall can be found.
These results suggest that, under magnetic trap conditions, the extraction rate of slow neutral particles may
be taken as at least an order less than the value determined by the rate at which fast particles pass out from a plas-
ma region.
LITERATURE CITED
1. L. J. Varnerin and J. H. Carmichael, J. Appl. Phys., 28, 913 (1957).
2. V. A. Simonov, Nuclear Synthesis. Part I [in Russian], Vena, MAGAT t (1962), p. 325.
3. J. Carmichael and E. Trendelenburg, J. Appl. Phys., 29, 1570 (1958).
4. J. Carmichael and P. Waters, J. Appl. Phys., 33, 1470 (1962).
5. E. Brown and J. H. Leck, Brit. J. Appl. Phys., 6, 161 (1955).
6. J. Koch, Nature, 161, 566 (1948).
7. K. Fiebiger, Z. angew. Phys., 9, 213 (1957).
8. E. S. Borovik, S. F. Grishin, and B. G. Lazarev, "Pribory i tekhnika eksperimenta," No. 1, 115 (1960).
9. E. S. Borovik, S. F. Grishin, and E. Ya. Grishina, ZhTF, 30, 539 (1960).
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PERTURBATION OF PARTICLE MOTION IN THE STELLARATOR
(UDC 533.9)
A. P. Popryadukhin
Translated from Atomnaya tnergiya, Vol. 18, No. 2,
PP. 96-104, February, 1965
Original article submitted January 11, 1964, and in final form June 16, 1964
The conditions under which small perturbations do not disrupt the closed surfaces of trajectories of the
guiding centers of charged particles in the stellarator are derived. It is shown in the linear approxima-
tion that the toroidal stellarator with perturbations of the magnetic field constitutes an absolute trap
for individual particles.
It is well known that, in the drift approximation, the ideal stellarator constitutes an absolute trap for individ-
ual charged particles. By "ideal stellarator" we mean a trap with a magnetic field possessing helical symmetry
[H=-H(r, So?ctz)] and constituting the combination of a field created by helical conductors and a homogeneous field
parallel to the z axis. The loss of particles through the ends in a system with finite length 27rR is eliminated, since
the ends of the system coincide, i.e., the planes zo+ 27rRi=const (i= 0, 1, 2, ...) coincide and form a single plane.
We shall call this the image plane.
In an actual stellarator, there are different forms of perturbations to the particle motion: the toroidal aspect,
imprecise construction of the magnetic system, currents in the plasma, and electric fields in the plasma. The effect
of the toroidal aspect and magnetic field perturbations on the lines of force have been studied in a number of papers
[1-6]. In this paper we shall consider typical effects of these perturbations on the motion of the particles.
Motion of Particles in a Helical,Magnetic Field
where
Let us consider the motion of particles in an ideal stellarator field in the drift approximation.
For static fields [7]
mcvII et rot t) ,
dr ull [H if-c- rot vii
dt
1/-1,2 Jill", v2 = v)
r v2j_ = const,
From Eq. (1) we obtain for the trajectory of the guiding center:
where in the absence of current in the plasma
To Eq. (3) we may add the relations
118
dr rdq dz
117! = =
J_L = H = const, t =
(1)
(2)
(3)
H* H rot vilT. (4)
dz dt v dt
H = H* H ?
(3a)
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In the case of helical symmetry, H=H(r, 0), 0 = co?az, and system (3) has the
integral [71
r.r (a)
uo = Al` -F aril; ,
8 met;1 (5)
8 i 1 ' A*? A + eHl II,
i I
___L -1? where A is the vector potential of the magnetic field. The trajectory of the
I I guiding center of the particles lies on the surfaces
1 I
1 uo(r, 0) ---=.- C =- const, (6)
slightly displaced from the magnetic surfaces determined from Eqs. (5) and (6)
for m =0. Just as in the case of the magnetic surfaces, for the surfaces of tra-
jectories of the guiding center there is a region bounded by a separatrix in
which the surfaces are closed. It is this which determines the absoluteness of
the trap. We write the second integral of system (3) in the form
Fig. 1. Surface of guiding centers
of blocked particles.
de
Z = C2.
(7)
The relation 0 = e (z) may be found from Eq. (7), but for transitory particles (v2?JiHmax> 0) it may be ob-
tained by using the Aeraging method [8].
For one harmonic of the helical field
I I nh,j(x) sin nO,
n2
Hq) = (x) cos nO ,
Itz=110? nh,i17, (x) cos nO,
where x=nar. For en= (hn/I-10)? 1 we may obtain
where
(1) =11)1-1- a?0*Z + En CD (x) sin n (1 ? az,
n2 [ '19(I 2 )
(x)= ] ,
x x 171?y2
co* is the mean torsional angle of the trajectory, given by the formula
aQ (1
v2
A "2 2 ) n2/2
\\ I + [ j-1 ( ) ] -x2x
X ) yl_y2 X4 X2
aQ 3y4-12y2?81.
0)*=
17,441
;,2
1/ x2
2/nrn
+
2
X3 X2
n n
x y2 4 (1? y2)
Considering that the integrand in (7) is a periodic function, it is not difficult to obtain an exact expression for the
torsional angle:
(8)
(9)
2zt
C de
27i
H*r? a (0)*-1) ?
rH a*
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(9a)
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For x ?1 expression (9) takes the form
, n3 (n-1) etx2n-4
22n [(n_lp]2 yi -y2
=
naQ (1-)1
(10)
We note that in these formulas(1-y2)1/2 must betaken with the plus sign when the velocity v11 is directed along the
field H and with the minus sign when v11 is opposite to H.
Let us consider the motion of blocked particles. These will be particles the longitudinal velocity v11= (v2 -LH )1/2
of which may at certain points 01 become zero. At these points the particles will be reflected and vu will change
sign. Since (5) is an integral of motion for all particles, including the blocked ones, they will move along surfaces
r =r?(0) [see (6)], oscillating near the field minimum (Fig. 1). Drift of blocked particles will take place in the di-
rection of the z-axis. In fact, from Eq. (7) we may obtain the increment Az after one reflection:
02
1.
Az = r dO
H;+ - - JIL .1 ?
(P-
01
In expression (4), for 1-14, we take v11 with the plus sign and for H* with the minus sign; 01 and 02 are points of reflec-
tion. With an accuracy of the first order in En we obtain
aAz = 2n2a,o. -17-;22-814-1 [2E (k)? K (h)1,
where E and K are complete elliptic integrals of argument k, and
v2?-J "Ho J _LH oennl?
k2
2f1lfog?ni?
Analogously calculating the time required for the to-and-fro motion of the particles, we obtain an expression for
the drift velocity
1
an3enmc v2 J
Az 2
odr ?At - ell
2E (k)]
x K (k)
(12)
We note that the direction of drift depends on the direction of H, the sign of the particle charge, and the sign of the
expression 1-[2E(k)7/K(k).
Calculation of Image Point Coordinates in the Presence of Perturbation
Let H*= H*0+ 14*, where H*0 has helical symmetry and the perturbation is small. System (3) determines
the characteristics for equation
H*Vu = 0, (13)
where u is an integral of system (3). Considering that u= un-U, in the linear approximation we obtain
VO d-ri*Vuo= O. (13a)
Since the first term of this expression is a derivative with respect to the direction of vector 1-16', we obtain a partic-
ular solution for U:
z
dl? 11?*?1t9 dz
H*0 ? 0 H z* ?
zo
(14)
Integration is carried out over the unperturbed trajectory. This particular solution corresponds to the condition
U =0 for z= zo. We note that Is a function of z and also of the coordinates of the initial poirl of the integration
nl
path U=U(z, C, 00, zo). Considering uo as a curvilinear coordinate, we may derive its variation under the influence
of the perturbation in the length z-z0. Since u is an integral of (3),
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u = ? L?/ (z, C, 00, zo) =C= const,
we obtain from (14)
z
*Vo
uo= C HuH.* dz. (15)
zo z
The correction `O. to 0 caused by the perturbation may be found from the relation w0(0, z)+ ?w (z, C, 00, zo)= C2 ; here
w is determined by formula (14) if we replace uo by wo from (7). Carrying out the differentiation, we obtain
w= ?
1-1; 0?arHzo Hz0) dz. (16)
zo
Let us now consider the intersection of the image plane by the trajectory of the guiding center. The coordi-
nates of successive image points we obtain by substituting
z =4+ 2nRi, 1=1, 2, . . . (17)
into formulas (14) to (16) as upper limit of integration. Let us split the integral between the limits zo z :s zo + 27tRi
into a sum of integrals between limits zo+ 27rR x (k-1):sz -z0+ 27rRk(k =1, 2, ... , i). It is easy to see that the in-
tegrals obtained will differ only in the initial points of the integration path, coinciding with the successive unper-
turbed image points (C, I). Introducing the notation
we obtain for the i-th image point
zo+2.7th
u(0)=H*vuo
dz,
(4, z
? to )
o \
.
It= kU
(18)
(19)
With the help of Eq. (18) we may determine the change in the coordinate uo after one circuit as a function of e,
i.e., u= u(e). Then Eq. (19) signifies that the increment in coordinate uo after i circuits equals the sum of the in-
crements in the unperturbed image points.
We can use the perturbation method on fulfillment of the conditions
a ii*vu a l
f ri*vuo) ?
< 1, ( n 0 < 1.
auo a* a0 H*
The first inequality is fulfilled if, over the whole path of integration, the deviation from the unperturbed surface is
small. Apart from this, however, over a long path of integration there may accumulate such a deviation in 0 from
the true trajectory that the second inequality will not be satisfied.
The convergence of the method may be improved if in formula (19) the value of 0 for the unperturbed image
points e =el is replaced by 0 =0= 0+ 0. Then (19) takes the form
k=1
Condition for the Existence of Continuous Surfaces for the Trajectories
of Transitory Particles
(19a)
We shall suppose that the trajectory forms a closed continuous surface if the imaging points everywhere dense-
ly fill up a closed curve on the image plane.
Despite the fact that for a field with helical symmetry the drift equations have integral (5), describing closed
surfaces uo(r, 0)=C, the trajectory of the guiding center of a particle may not form a continuous surface. This will
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Fig, 2, Position of image
points near resonance of
the third kind,
be so when the trajectory, after one or any finite number of passages around the sys-
tem, closes upon itself. Here we obtain individual image points in the image plane.
The condition under which the trajectory will have p image points may be obtained
by equating the change in the angle after p circuits in formula (8) to a whole number
of 27r. This condition, which we shall term resonance, has the form
MCO* =11+
(20)
where M=27rR/L is the number of periods of the helical winding in the length of the
system.
We see from this that, for the unperturbed trajectory to be described by a con-
tinuous surface, Mw* must be an irrational number. In this way we shall have a se-
quence of numbers of passages around the system pk-)..0 such that image points occur
as near as we like to the initial point (C, en), i.e., for
ph 0 ph, 00, and
Taking account of Eqs. (19) and (21), we obtain
(21)
Ph
urnE u (ei_,) 0. (22)
Pk i=i
bet us consider the meaning of Eq, (22) in more detail. Introducing the line density N(0)= pkn(e) of the image
points on the curve uo(r, e), C, we rewrite condition (22) in the form ?
Urnpa u (0i_i) n (0i_i) A0i =0,
i=t
where AO= ei, qk ei is the interval between neighboring points out of the Pk image points (Fig. 2), and
Thus (22) is equivalent to the condition
Y = (0) (0) dO =- O.
U0-=7C
An expression for 49i may be obtained from relations (7) and (94):
(23)
(22a)
where 6 =Mw*-(vk)/pk (here vk/pk are proper fractions of the expansion of Mw* into an infinite continued frac-
tion [9]).
Since for almost all irrational numbers, except a set of degree zero, 6< (1)/p2k ln Pk and qk < pk, passing to
the limit for pk-*-.0, we find
From (14), (22a), and (24), we obtain
122
no (0) ? 1-6)*
27r H* ?
1?
*
arHz
TI*VUO dl dcp
2m ji (
H*0 ,.,.
arn z
(24)
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Fig. 3. Resonance
splitting of the
surfaces.
Thus
The integration is carried out over the surface uo = C. Let us introduce as ele-
ment of length ds along the curve u0= C, z= zo:
ds =-- er dr +eq,rdp
and calculate the element of area dS = dl x ds of the surface u0=C, where dl =
d/ auo au ,
(erl-170+ e(pH0+ ezHo) H.o. Using the relation dr = / for z= zo
Or o ay)
and
au? ip r au? ? ar11;!,
alto = H*H-arn z ? ? ? r' -az
aq,
ar
we obtain
dS ?
Vuo dl dq,
aH*0 ( 1 II;
arH: J
=
1-:'
uo=c
(25)
(26)
Hence, in the presence of perturbation the surface u0 =C remains closed and continuous if the flux of the perturbing
field H* through this surface is zero and condition (21) is satisfied.
Resonance Action of Perturbations
As already mentioned, when the resonance condition (20) is satisfied, the unperturbed trajectory of the parti-
cle does not form a closed surface, but closes upon itself after a certain number of circuits p. Since w*= w' (u0),
resonance of the p-th kind will be observed on the surface u0 =C, corresponding to condition (20). It is clear that,
for, sufficient proximity to this surface and for sufficient smallness of the perturbation, the image points (uoi, 0i),
where i=kp and k=0, 1, 2, ..., will be close to one another, so that by joining them we can obtain the approxi-
mate form of the surface of trajectories (Fig. 3). According to formula (19), the increment in coordinate u0 after
p circuits equals
P P ?
1 au
- /Lop 00_0 ItOph ==.- U
i=t
i
(27)
where 0_1 are the values of coordinate e corresponding to exact resonance.
Let us calculate the increment 60 to the coordinate 0 after p circuits. If for the resonance surface Op(o_ 1)?
Opk= 2rrni, where the whole number n1=Mp(1?wp*), for the surface uo =Cp+AC, close to the resonance surface
Op (k?1) ?J)h= 2nn1 + 60
and according to (7) we may write
Oph+2,rtn1+60
de
14* ')
Ph (1
arH I 0=Cp+AC
= ?2nMp.
Expanding the integrand in the neighborhood of u0=Cp, replacing d/duil by (dw*)/duo ? (d)/dw, and taking account
of (9a) and (24), for small 60 we obtain
60= MAC dcl)*
' AC = AC0+ u,
n(0) duo
where AC0 is the deviation of the unperturbed surface considered from resonance.
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(27a)
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Fig. 4. Toroidal coordinate system.
The condition of sufficient proximity to the resonance surface may
be established with the aid of formulas (23) and (27). It is clear that the
inequality 60?Aei (see Fig. 2) must be satisfied. Hence we obtain
do)*
M p2duo AC < 1.
(28)
If we take Mco*=Mw*+ 6 where co= co*(Cp), then 6 =Mdco*/duoAC0 and
inequality (28) gives
1 -
6?>M dco/du0U, but at the same time conditions (28a) are satisfied. Equation (29) takes the form
CU 1
73- u (0) no (0).
The surface of trajectories is determined by the expression
0
u 0 (0) = C (A) no (0) de .
eo
(31)
00+2a
r ?
We see that the surface is closed if Y =u (0) no (0) d0 = 0. If however the integral Y 0, the surface winds
.)
60
up (or unwinds) in a spiral, the pitch of which Au0=(1/6)Y(u0). Let us now consider the resonance case 6 =0. Since
the differences in formula (28) are proportional to the perturbation, the second term in the numerator of
the right hand side of Eq. (29) will be of a higher degree of smallness than the first. Neglecting this term, we obtain
the equation
after integrating which we shall have
124
dri
? p (0) nO (0)
d0
PM duo u
(0) = [ 24) k-p (0) no (0) de 1/2 .
[PM W06-0
(32)
(33)
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P
Let us consider the properties of the function V(0) [see (30)]. By definition we see that Vp(0)= V p(e) for i= 1,
2, ... , since the trajectory emerging from initial point q forms the same p image points as the trajectory emerg-
ing from 0. This indicates that the function Vp(0) takes the same values at the ends of the interval (ei, 0i+ q),
where ei and Oi+ q are neighboring image points. Moreover, if condition (22a) is satisfied,
61+g
p (0) O.
ei
In fact, as the coordinate 0 of the initial point varies over the range (00, 0q), the coordinates of successive image
points will vary over (0i, 0i+ q) and
i+g P
r p (0) no (0) clO = ?u (A) no (0) dO = Y.
ei i=t
It follows from these two properties of function Vp(0) that it changes sign at least twice in each of the ranges (ei,
ei+ q), passing through zero at the points denoted by ei and 0.
Since at the points 01 and '02i the values of dVp/d0 have opposite signs, in each range (ei, ei+ q) Eq. (32) has
at least one pair of singular points of the "saddle" and "center" type, so that the surface of trajectories of the guid-
ing center in the case of resonance of the p-th kind acquires a rosette structure.with p-cells (see Fig. 3). The maxi- '
mum breadth of the i-th cell is determined by formula (33), in which the integration takes place over the range el
to 02i. It is seen that this breadth is proportional to (H*)112 and (dw/du0)-112.1 In the absence of gradient the torsion-
al angle dw/duo= 0 and the topology of the surface becomes unstable with respect to perturbations on satisfying the
resonance condition (20).2 On satisfying condition (20) the rosette structure of the surface may also not be obtained
if V(0).- 0.
For the closed stellarator, every perturbation is periodic in z with period 2712. In the case of a perturbation of
the magnetic surfaces (m=0), the perturbing magnetic field may be represented in the form H = v(I), where
"1" = h" rink
h#0
sin (lap + Tho)
After substituting this expression into the formula
1 1 x l
hi
/ Rik I/ sin iccp ? .
.
a, Irt:0
zo- p
p "4? dz
.112 '
Zo
and carrying out some uncomplicated calculations for small 6, we find that V()) 0 0, if there is a harmonic of the
field for which one of the following relations is satisfied3:
_-4=O,ko
(34)
We note a peculiarity of the resonance action of perturbations on the trajectory of a particle. Since w* de-
pends on the mass and velocity of the particle [see formulas (5) and (10)], for one and the same value of u0 and
6n =hn/Ho there may be resonance and nonresonance particles.
Effect of Perturbations of the Magnetic Field and of the Toroidal State
If the perturbation of the motion is connected with perturbations of the magnetic field H, then
= nw
l'An analogous result was obtained in [1].
rotH H ? rot, Ho
2This result agrees with the results of [4] obtained for magnetic surfaces.
3Relations (34) coincide with the resonance conditions obtained in [1].
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(35)
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V V2 ? J_LHO.
Hence we see that div ft * =0, and from Eq. (26) it follows that Y=0.
Thus, small perturbations of the magnetic field do not disrupt the closed nature of the trajectory surface:.
Let us now consider toroidal perturbation. Let us introduce a coordinate system r, co, z. Here z will signify
the arc length of the axial line of a torus with radius R; r and co will denote the distance to the axial line and the
polar angle, respectively (Fig. 4). The metric tensor in these curvilinear coordinates has the form
uth
1 0
0*
.0 0
1 + ?11-.T COS (02
0
For R--0.3 the coordinate system so introduced passes over into a cylindrical system. It may be shown that in this
case div H* In fact,
div. H*=-6115-xl-T-P FikoH h . ail* h
P riL,0.1/* 4- divo H*04-d iv ft.*+f LH*oi
Hence
div ft* = ?1hH0.
Substituting the values of the Christoffel symbols rik, corresponding to the metric tensor gik, we obtain
div IP= (HP cos tp ? M.1;0 sin (i)).
Let us now check the equality of integral Y with zero [see (26)]:
Y= I ace a
d iv fi*dV.
V.
Going over to variables uo, 0, z, we find with the help of (25) and (36)
2rz C 2CH-2aR
duo ? (u0, r (uo, 0)
23IM ?Hip (Ito, 0) ar (uo, 0) HI (110, 0)
zo
cos (0 + az) dz.
Carrying out the integration over z and considering that ccR=M is a whole number, we convince ourselves that Y=0
and closed surfaces exist.' This constitutes a proof of the idealness of the toroidal stellarator as a trap ihthe,drift
approximation for transitory particles.2
Action of the Perturbation on the Blocked Particles
Making use of expression (14), we obtain the change in the coordinate uo after reflection of the particle:
d
?'2 ?*Vu 1-1'17u0
Au H ? di +S101
H*0
so2
Oriy
The integration is carried out along theunperturbed trajectory corresponding to the to-and-fro motion between the
reflection points 01, 02; these trajectories lie on the surfaces S1 and S2 determined from (5) and distinguished by the
sign of v11.
'In [4] the necessity of satisfying condition div 11*= 0 for closed surfaces to exist is indicated, but, despite the"fact----:
that this condition is not fulfilled, closed surfaces here exist, since Y = 0.
2In [10] the proof of this fact is given on the approximation of the conservation of the longitudinal invariant.
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As was seen in the first section, the blocked particles drifting along the z axis pass around the system. Let us
denote the change in coordinate uo after a complete circuit by Y1. Then the condition for the closed state of the
surface of trajectories of the blocked particles will clearly have the form Y1=0.
Let us consider the expression ds x dl, where ds= (are, + ez)dz is the element of length of the line (p ?az= const;
r = const. Using relation (25), it is not hard to confirm that
Thus
dz dl
ds x dl Vuo H*9 ?
Yi ? ( rrds) ,
Az
where dS = ds x dl and the direction of the normal to surface S2 is opposite to Vuo.
If rrdoes not depend on v11, then
Yi * dS = yi,z div ii* dV.
v
The integration is taken over the region enclosed between surfaces SI. and S2.
In the case of perturbation of the magnetic field, we obtain with the aid of formula (35)
1me Uri MC " 11
Az
Y i = div ii dV + me c rot ?vil H dS -- rot-
eAz li rot ?1-- Ho dS -1-- H dS
Ho
V Si SiSi
' eAz
mevo
- rot II Ho dS ? 2me V
'II ?
e
dr ? --- Ho dr .
eAz /JO eAz H1-1 2in c
Az .
S2 ?
(38)
The boundaries of the ranges of integration on the surfaces SI, S2 and Si', S2' are defined as the reflection points of
the particles (S1,2 and S1,2' do not quite coincide owing to the effect of the perturbation on the reflection points).
On the contours C and C' embracing S1,2 and S1,2', we have everywhere v11= 0, so that Y1=0.
In the case of the toroidal state, the proof that the term containing div 1-1* is zero is analogous to that derived
for the transitory particles.
Thus, in the drift approximation it is proven that for small perturbations of the magnetic field the toroidal
stellarator remains an absolute trap for individual charged particles.
We must comment on the group of resonance blocked particles for which Az = 0. Resonance particles are those
having such values of vi/v that in formula (11) 2E(k)?K(k)= 0. For these particles the deviation from the unper-
turbed surfaces in the linear approximation is unlimitedly large.1
Thus the essential condition which the perturbing vector field ji* must obey so as not to disrupt the closed
surface of trajectories of the guiding center of the Earticles lies in the requirement that Y=0. This condition is
satisfied if div 0. Perturbations for which div H* 0 are to be suspected. An example of such perturbation is
the ?toroidalness,? but as we saw the condition Y= 0 is satisfied for toroidal perturbation. Yet another example of
perturbation with div 11* 0 is the perturbation of the magnetic field by plasma currents. In this case, as seen from
Eq. (1),
div 43-cent ?divv11 ?
H2 OH)
We may mention a perturbation for which, apparently, Y this is the slow variation of the magnetic field with t
time (the field was considered constant).
1The existence of resonance blocked particles was noted in [10].
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It is also necessary to check perturbation of the motion by the electric field.
LITERATURE CITED?
1. L. M. Kovrizhnykh, "Zh.' tekhn. fiz.," 32, S17; 526 (1962).
2. L. V. Kbrablev, A. I. Morozov,' and L. S. SOlov'ev, 'Mid, 31, 10, 1153 (1961);
3. I. M. Gel'fand et al., Ibid, 31, 1164 (1961).
4. G. V. Skornyakov, Ibid., 32, 261; 777; 1494 (1962).
5. L. M. Kovrizhnykh, Ibid., 33, 377 (1963).
6. I. M. Gel'fand et al., "Dokl. AN SSSR," 148, 1286 (1963); 143, 81 (1962).
7. A. I. Morozov and L. S. Solov'ev, "Dokl. AN SSSR;" 128, 3 (1959).
8. N. N. Bogolyubov and Yu. A. Mitropol'skii, Asymptotic Methods in the Theory of Nonlinear Oscillations
[in Russian], Gostekhteorizdat, Moscow (1955).
9. A. Ya. Khinchin, Proper Fractions [in Russian], Gostekhteorizdat,,Moscow (1961).
10. A. I. Morozov and L. S. Solov'ev, "Zh. tekhn. fiz.," 30, 261 (1960).
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EXPERIMENTS ON THE BUILDUP OF ELECTRONS IN THE SYNCHROTRON
(UDC 621.384.612)
Yu. M. Ado, E. G. Bessonov, and P. A. Cherenkov
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 18, No. 2,
1 ? pp. 104-107, February, 1965
Original article submitted February 24, 1964
The lifetime of electrons in the synchrotron-accumulator was determined experimentally as a func-
tion of residual gas pressure, accelerating voltage, and particle energy. The experiments were car-
ried out in the 280-MeV synchrotron of the Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences of the USSR,
operating in the accumulator condition. It was found that, for small buildup densities, the lifetime
of the particles was mainly governed by single events of electron scattering by residual gas atoms.
The possibility of accumulating electrons in the synchrotron by the method proposed in [2] was experimen-
tally verified in [1]. We here present experimental results bearing on the effects of various factors on the lifetime
of the particles. The work was carried out in the 280-MeV synchrotron of the Institute of Physics, Academy of Sci-
ences of the USSR [3]. A description of the experimental methods and apparatus may be.found in [1].
The number of particles in orbit was measured from the intensity of the synchrotron radiation and recorded
on a loop oscillograph. Figure 1 shows one of the oscillograms of the buildup process. The buildup takes place on
the rising part of the oscillogram. The falling part characterizes the particle lifetime (microtron switched off). As
particle lifetime we take the value of r for which exp [?t/r] coincides with the envelope of the falling part of the
oscillogram. The variation of r with the following factors was determined: 1) Amplitude of the high-frequency ac-
celerating voltage V; 2) vacuum p; 3) particle energy; 4) peak modulation depth of the high-frequency accelerating
voltage AV/V [1, 2]. In the graphs presented, r is measured either in periods of the variable component of the guid-
ing magnetic field of the synchrotron or else in seconds.
When the synchrotron is operating in the accumulator condition, the particle energy varies according to
E E,+ E cos 23t Tt (1)
The particles are periodically accelerated to a maximum energy Emax= E=+ E0 and retarded to a minimum
energy Emin=E=?E0. The frequency of the variable component of energy is 1/T =50 cps.
1. Variation of T with V. The following quantities were kept constant: Emax = 180 MeV, Emin=
7.5 MeV, AV/V=0.2, p ? 10-6 torr. The amplitude of the accelerating voltage was varied from 1.5 to 1.0 kV.
The relationship found appears in Fig. 2.
2. Variation of T with Vacuum . This was obtained for the following conditions: Emin =7.5 MeV,
Emax = 180 MeV, V=1.5 kV, AV/V =0.2. The vacuum chamber was evacuated with two units operating from dia-
metrically opposite sides. A change in vacuum was ef-
fected by shutting off one of these. It turned out that on
varying the vacuum by a factor of two r also changed by
the same factor.
Fig. 1. Oscillogram of the particle buildup process.
3. Variation of T with Particle Energy.
In these experiments the following were the constant
quantities: E= = 94 MeV, V=1.5 kV, AV/V = 0.2,
3 ? 10-6 torr. The particle energy was varied by changing
the amplitude of the variable component Eo. Particle
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70
60
-o
50
40
30
1000 TWO 1000 1300 1400 V, V
Fig. 2. Variation of T with accelerating voltage V.
C, sec
0
10 20 Emin, MeV
E0, MeV 84 74 64
Fig. 4. Variation of T with the ampli-
tude of the variable component of par-
ticle energy E0'. Continuous curve con-
structed from formula (2) relative to the
experimental value of T for E0' = 86 MeV.
Measurement of r
Fig. 3. Illustration of the reduction in amplitude of the
variable component of particle energy E0 to E0' when
measuring the variation of r with E0'.
buildup was effected for Emin= 7.5 MeV. After reaching
the limiting number of particles, the value of to was rapidly
reduced to some value E0' (Fig. 3). Injection of particles
thereupon ceased. After the establishment of E0', the par-
ticle lifetime was measured. The results of measuring r for
various E0' (or for various Emin, which comes to the same
thing) are shown in Fig. 4 by points. In absolute magnitude
the calculated values of r exceed the experimental. This is
evidently connected with imprecision in measuring the
vacuum.
4. Variation of T with AV/V. The follow-
ing were kept constant: Emin =7.5 MeV, Emax= 180 MeV,
p 3 ? 10-6 torr, V=1.5 kV. The value of V/V was varied
from 0 to 0.6. The relationship obtained is shown in Fig. 5.
After absolute calibration of the particle recording system, the number of accumulated electrons N was also
determined from the intensity of the synchrotron-radiation. It was found that N 5 ? 108 for r =1.7 sec, microtron
pulse current mA, AV/V=0.2, and growth rate of guiding magnetic field at moment of injection 3 ? 105 0e/sec.
As in [1], in place of an inflector system we used a 0.2 mm thick tantalum electron scatterer.
The particle loss mechanism in an accumulator with variable guiding field has a certain peculiarity. Parti-
cles whose oscillation amplitude has increased cannot be lost at once, but only when the energy is reduced as a
result of an adiabatic increase in the oscillation amplitude.
To the single processes affecting T belong Coulomb scattering and bremsstrahlung of particles at residual gas
atoms. It may be shown that the partial lifetime determined by the Coulomb scattering of particles in the variable
energy accumulator is expressed by the formula
OV min OM min+ V2 min
P 41c71,?21V oc 7
(2)
where re = e2/mc2 is the classical radius of the electron, for air z-= 7.2, the number of residual gas atoms per cm3
N0=7.12 ? 1015 p torr, 0g is the permissible scattering angle for minimum energy, and y =E/m0c2. For an elliptical
cross section of the vacuum chamber with semiaxes rk and zk, the value of 0 is determined by the expression
02g ?
1. 1
812 711 '
( ?
where Xr and Xz are the wavelengths of the radial and axial free oscillations of the particles.
The partial lifetime for the bremsstrahlung process is practically independent of particle energy, being [4]
1.92.1013
130
No
(3)
(4)
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70 Also contributing to particle losses are multiple processes such
60
-0
as quantum fluctuations of the synchrotron radiation and multiple
),
scattering by residual gas atoms. Since the dimensions of the sepa-
ratrix are always considerably smaller than the radial dimensions of
750
the vacuum chamber cross section, the particle loss will be deter-
mined by the setting up of phase oscillations, i.e., in practice by
the action of quantum fluctuations [4]. Qualitatively the particle
30 loss mechanism may be represented in the following fashion. Let
0 Cl 02 03 0.4 0.5 0.6 AO us separate out an imaginary trajectory which, for particle energies
E :0.-.Emin, "coincides" with the separatrix in the phase plane. For
Fig. 5. Variation of T with modulation depth E>Emin the selected trajectory is inside the stable region. Then
of accelerating voltage AV/V. all the particles which, under the action of the quantum fluctuations,
have passed out beyong the limits of this phase trajectory will be
lost on subsequent reduction of the energy to -Emin. Here the quantum fluctuations will play a more significant
part than in constant magnetic field accumulators.
In order to find an expression for the probability of particle loss in our case, we must solve the Einstein-Fokker
equation [5] for the particle distribution function U applicable to a variable guiding magnetic field:
au
at dt Ou Cu '
= cht a [ au
u --L 1t2 (t) UU 1 ,
, (5)
where u is the square of the true oscillation amplitude, and
d ln D2
dET 55n ceA
dt
12 173 (1---n)R4V sin (Ps , ,
6 x2 (t) dt
du
dt
- 0.5
Here D2 =e-2j Cdt (y V sin (Ps) describes the adiabatic variation in the amplitude of the phase oscillations and the
radiation damping with decrement t.
The solution of Eq. (5) for zero conditions at infinity is
where Q 2(0 obeys the equation
1
Uju, et/12(l),
Q2 (t)
, 2 d ln
dt
(6)
(7)
For steady dimensions of the particle beam, Q(t+T)= Q(t). Moreover the periodic solution of Eq. (7) has the form
D2 (t) D2 (t
Q2 (t)? Dz (t)_- D2 (t T)
t+T
d-u ,
D-2 (t, ) dt, dt.
(8)
We can determine the particle loss in each period of the magnetic field after integrating distribution (6) over
thrt limits uex to .0. Then the partial lifetime of the particles due to the setting up of phase oscillations by quan-
tum fluctuations of radiation will equal
T q --= T eu ex/P2 Te,
since Q-2- V, as di/dt-.V'. The factor a depends only slightly on V. The ratio uex/Q2 must be taken for
E>>Emin, when the distribution (6) is practically contained in the region of linear phase oscillations. The quantity
Q2 can be calculated from formula (8), and uex determined by the method of adiabatic invariants, starting from the
uex for E
Let us compare the partial lifetimes Tp, TT and Tq for a chosen condition of synchrotron accumulation (see
relationships 1 to 4). The radius of the synchrotron orbit R= 81 cm, the free space of the vacuum chamber rkzk
4 X 4 cm, and n= 0.6. From formulas (2) and (4) it is easy to find that in this case TT lip = 23, i.e., the bremsstrahlung
(9)
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acts considerably more weakly on the particle lifetime than Coulomb scattering. The quantum fluctuations of the
synchrotron radiation markedly affect the particle lifetime, as seen in Figs. 2 and 5 (T depends on V and AV/V). It
is difficult to determine T and T from formulas (2) and (9), since the quantities p, V, E0, and E., are not known
accurately enough. It is however possible to estimate the contribution of the quantum fluctuations and Coulomb
scattering to the particle loss on the basis of the experimental relation between I and V. It follows from Fig. 2 that,
for V=1 kV, r= O.8 sec; for V=1.5 kV, T2=1.2 sec. Using the difference (1/T1)?(1/T2), formula (9) shows us that
4.8. Substituting this value of a into formula (9), we find Tql= 2:4 sec (V=1 kV), and Tq2 = 26 sec (V=1.5 kV).
From the condition 1/11.2= (lfrp)+ (1/Tq12) we obtain Tp 1.2 sec. Hence we may consider that, for V=1.5 kV, T
is completely determined by the Coulomb scattering. This is also indicated by 'relationship 2 and the agreement
between the T/particle energy relations as found by experiment and calculated from formula (2) (see Fig. 4). With-
out discussing the relation between T and AV/V in detail, we can only say that the introduction of amplitude modu-
la.tion has a weak effect on T.
In conclusion we note that, on improving the vacuum, the role of quantum fluctuations of the radiation will
increase. The particle loss may however be substantially reduced if V is increased. For example, from fromula, (9)
with a =4.8, the value of Tq proves to be of the order of a few hours with V=2.5+ 3 kV.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Yu. M. Ado et al., Transactions of the International Conference on Accelerators [in Russian], Atomizdat,
Moscow (1964), P. 355.
2. Yu. M. Ado, "Atomnaya energiya," 12, 54 (1962).
3. A. Ya. Belyak et al., In the collection "Elementary Particle Accelerators" [in Russian], Supplement No. 4 to
"Atomnaya energiya" for 1957, Atomizdat, Moscow (1957), p. 57.
4. A. I. Alikhanyan, S. A. Kheifets, and S. K. Esin, "Uspekhi fiz. nauk," 81, 7 (1963).
5. A. A. Kolomenskii and A. N. Lebedev, Theory of Cyclical Accelerators [in Russian], Fizmatgiz, Moscow (1962).
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ANGULAR AND ENERGY CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE NEUTRONS EMITTED IN U235 FISSION
(UDC 539.173.84)
M. V. Blinov, N. M. Kazarinov, and A. N Protopopov
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 18, No. 2,
pp. 108 -113, February, 1965
Original article submitted January 13, 1964; revision submitted March 3, 1964
The velocities of a fission fragment and of a neutron moving in the same direction were measured
simultaneously by the time of flight method for the thermal neutron fission of U235. As a result, the
emission spectrum of the fission neutrons was obtained. The angular distributions and energy spec-
tra were also measured for the neutrons ejected at different angles to the direction of motion of the
fission fragments. These distributions were compared with calculations in which the emission spec-
trum obtained was used. The comparison showed that the data agree well after excluding small de-
viations in the angular distribution. It follows from analysis of the results that the emission spec-
trum agrees with the data calculated by the statistical theory of evaporation and also that not less
than 90% of the neutrons from U235 fission are emitted in the process of isotropic evaporation of
neutrons from the completely accelerated fission fragments.
The energy spectra and angular distribution of neutrons emitted in the thermal and fast neutron fission of U235
were measured in [1-3]. The measurements were carried out for angles of flight of 0, 45, and 90? of the neutrons re-
lative to the direction of motion of the fission fragments. It can be seen from the experimental data that in accor-
dance with the hypothesis concerning the emission of neutrons by the moving fission fragments, the neutron spectrum
is strongly dependent on the angle of flight. In addition, some information was obtained in these experiments con-
cerning the neutron spectrum in the center of mass system. The results of the experiments show the desirability for
additional experiments on the mechanism of fission neutron emission.
The velocities of a fission fragment and of a neutron emitted by this fission fragment in the direction of mo -
don were measured. As a result of the measurements, the neutron emission spectrum was obtained (the spectrum in
the center of mass system). Similar measurements were also made of the angular and energy distributions of the
neutrons, independently of the type of fission fragment as well as individually for light and heavy fission fragments.
The emission spectrum of the neutrons obtained experimentally was used in the spectral and angular distribution
calculations.
Measurement Procedure
Figure 1 shows the arrangement of the experiment by means of which the neutron and fission fragment velo-
cities were measured simultaneously by the time of flight method. The uranium target, with a thickness of 100 1ig/cm2
and containing 97.9% of U235 on a thin organic film, was placed in a thin-walled aluminum tube (length 75 cm, dia-
meter 10 cm) which was pumped out to a pressure of ? 10-3 mm Hg. The fissile layer was located at a distance of
1.5 cm from the rim of the tube, where a fission detector was installed?a scintillation film with a diameter of
20 mm in a plastic light guide and connected to a transient photomultiplier. "Zero time was defined with respect
to the instant of impact of a fission fragment on this scintillation film. An additional fragment traversed the entire
length of the tube and was recorded by another film detector with a diameter of 80 mm. A correction was intro-
duced for the spread of the time of flight of the fission fragments from the layer to the "zero time" detector. The
neutron counter was located at an angle of 15? to the tube axis at a distance of 65 cm from the uranium target. In
order to record the neutrons, a stilbene crystal was used with a diameter of 80 mm and a thickness of 40 mm and also
an FEU-33 transient photomultiplier.
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Neutron
beam
u35
Vacuum
pump
CF
PM
PM
CF
3
4
5
Fig. 1. Diagram of the arrangement for simultaneous measurement
of the velocities of a fission fragment and of a neutron, and block
diagram of the apparatus: 1) scintillation films; 2) stilbene crystal;
CP) cathode followers; 3) time converters; DI, D2, D3) amplitude
discriminators; 4) two-dimensional analyzer; 5) transmission block;
6) coincidence circuit.
Two "time into amplitude" converters were used in the equipment: one for measuring the velocity of the fis-
sion fragment and the other for measuring the neutron velocity. The pulses from the converters were fed to a two-
dimensional analyzer. The characteristics of the time of flight spectrometer used in this project are described in the
literature [4]. In the present measurements, the effect of the photomultiplier signal amplitude on the time scale
calibration was additionally taken into account which increased the accuracy in determining the neutron energy.
The recording efficiency for neutrons with different energies was determined experimentally by means of calibration
measurements of the well-known fission neutron spectrum of U235, averaged in the experiment with respect to all-fis-
sion modes and all angles of flight of the neutrons. The experimental data agreed well with the calculations of the
efficiency. The resolving time for recording fission fragment coincidences, measured by means of a chamber in
which fission fragment detectors converge up to 2 cm, was found to be equal to 2.5 nsec. The distribution half-
width of the prompt y-radiation, emitted as a result of fission, corresponded to a resolving time for the neutron chan-
nel of 4 -5.tiseo.
In the second part of the project, the angular distributions and energy spectra of the neutrons emitted at differ-
ent angles to the direction of motion of the fission fragments were measured. For this, the device described in [3]
was used; in it the U235 fission fragments were recorded in a gas scintillation counter. In order to fix the direction of
motion of the fragments, a collimator was located at the uranium layer with a thickness of 2 mg/cm2, in which the
mean angle of deviation from the normal of the fission fragments was 100. By installing thin layers (? 200 1g/cm2)
of uranium in the gas counter, it became possible to separate the fission fragments into two groups?a light and a
heavy group, and the neutron spectra are associated with these groups.
The neutron scintillation counter was located at a distance of 65 cm from the fissile layer at various angles to
the direction of flight of the fission fragments (0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90?). In order to record the neutrons, a
thin crystal of stilbene was used (with a diameter of 30 mm and thickness 15 mm) as well as the crystal with a dia-
meter of 80 mm and thickness 40 mm.
Measurements and Results
In all the experiments for measuring the neutron characteristics by the time of flight method, it was assumed
that over the time interval 10-100 nsec there are no delayed 7-rays from fission. If the contrary were the case, this
would change the experimental results of measurement of the neutron spectrum as well as their number. The rela-
tionship between the number and energy of the delayed y-quanta and the delay time for 50 nsec to 10-5 sec was mea-
sured in [5] with equipment having a resolving time of 2.10-8 sec. It was found that over this interval, 5.7% of the
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Number of neutrons, relative units
0
ZO
10
4 En, MeV
Fig. 2, Neutrum spectrum in the center of mass
system measured at an angle of 15? to the direc-
tion of motion of light (0) and heavy (x) fission
fragments in the laboratory system of coordinates.
The continuous line indicates the spectrum used
in calculating the neutron spectra and intensities
at various angles.
total number of "prompt" quanta is emitted as delayed y-quanta.
In view of the poor resolution and the large range being mea-
sured, the interval of time prior to 100 nsec has been inade-
quately studied.
We measured the number of delayed y -quanta over the
interval 25-80 nsec. For this the neutron counter was located at
a distance of 350 cm from the uranium target. Neutrons, on
this base line, were almost eliminated from the range of the
times of flight being determined. No delayed y-quanta were re-
corded within the limits of experimental accuracy. This con-
firms that even in the case of equilibrium distribution of these
Huanta, with respect to time their number does not exceed 2%
of the total number of "prompt" y-quanta. Thus, within the
stated range of times of flight the delayed y-quanta, obviously
cannot have any significant effect on the determination of the
fission neutron spectra.
In the course of the project, measurements were made in
which the corrections for scattering of neutrons from the backing
and from the collimator in the gas counter were determined,
and also for scattering from the shielding. The corrections were
introduced into the data for the number as well as for the spec-
trum of the neutrons. In the case of measurements of the two
velocities, about 15,000 pulses from fission neutrons were col-
lected. For the measurements made at an angle of 0?, 50 ? 103
neutrons were recorded and two to three times less for measure-
ments at the other angles. The random coincidence background
was the same as stated in [3].
Figure 2 shows the neutron spectrum in the center of mass
system which was determined from the simultaneous measure-
ments of the velocity of a neutron and of a fission fragment.
The neutron velocity in the center of mass system was calculated by the formula
2 2
/16 2 -1- v - 21;V0 cos y.
Here v, v0 and ip are the neutron velocity, the fragment velocity and the angle between the directions of motion of
the fragment and neutron in the laboratory system of coordinates respectively. The angle cp was chosen to be the
least possible (15?) in order that the neutron contribution from any additional fission fragment would be small. The
The average energy of the emission spectrum was T= 1.27 ? 0.03 MeV and it can be represented numerically by die
superposition of three distributions
F (e) 17i
TY2
where T1 = 1 MeV, al = 0.696; T2 = 0.5 MeV, a2 = 0.310; T3 = 0.1 MeV, a3 = ?0.06.
It should be noted that the spectra of the neutrons emitted by light and heavy fission fragments agree within
the limits of experimental accuracy (Tr-ih < 0.02 MeV).
The energy spectra of the fission neutrons are shown in Fig. 3 for various angles. For simplicity of comparison
of the spectral shifts the maximum probability is reduced to a uniform value for all values of the angles. The rela -
tionship between the relative intensity of the fission neutrons and their average energies, and the angle (,o for two
cases?the registration of all fission fragments and individually for the light fragmentsl ?is shown in Fig. 4. It can be
1The data refer to the neutron energy region of 0-7 MeV. For energies from 0.3 MeV and above the experimental data are
used ,and for energies below 0.3 MeV these data are used extrapolated to zero. The error of this extrapolation is small. The
distributions for angles 0,45 and 90? are in good agreement with the results of our measurements carried out previously [3].
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0
V,
iii. v4..'?
,
\
r =15 0?0
1
---30?
2:
\V1W
750
90?
WitiSi
-'4i1\114..14
2
4
5 6 En, MeV
Fig. 3. Energy spectra of neutrons emitted at varous angles co to the
direction of motion of the fission fragments.
0,5
30 60 90 120 co, degrees
Fig. 4. Relationship between relative fission
neutron intensity W and their average ener-
gies V, and the angle of flight cp.- all
fragments recorded; ----only light frag-
ments recorded.
seen that with increase of angle from 0 to 900 and with simultaneous
reduction of intensity, a systematic "softening" of the spectra occurs.
Qualitatively this is in accordance with the hypothesis of the ejec-
tion of neutrons from moving fission fragments.
Discussion of Results
Using the neutron emission spectrum obtained for 9 = 150, the
spectra can be calculated in the laboratory system for the various
angles and they can be compared with the experimental energy dis-
tributions. This calculation was performed on the assumption that
the neutron distribution in the center of mass system is isotropic.
Instead of the distribution of the fission fragments with respect to
velocity, the mean velocities of the light and heavy groups were used.
The energy distribution of the fission neutrons emitted at an angle co
to the direction of flight of the light fragments is given by the ex-
pression (see for example [6]):
(I)
?
N (E) dE 1 F ' (e) P (T) dq) dE
vT
180? ? cp2
eF" (8) P (cp) dcp dE .
180*-1:P1
Here, E and e are the neutron energies in the laboratory and center
of mass systems respectively; F'(e) and F"(e) are the emission spectra
of the neutrons emitted by light and heavy fragments respectively;
P(9) is the distribution with respect to angle of the fission fragments
traversing the collimator. The second term of the expression corre-
sponds. to the emission of neutrons in the rear hemisphere from an addi -
tional fragment. The ratio Vi/Vh, equal to 1.10, was used. for the
calculation and satisfied the experimental data best.
Figure 5 shows the ratios of the experimental and calculated values for the average energies and intensities of
the nuetrons versus the angle 9, and Fig. 6 shows the ratios of the probabilities for individual parts of the spectra and
for various values of 9. The errors in Figs. 5 and 6 include the statistical error as well as the deviation between
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Eexpt.
Ecalc
1.0
0.9
Wexp t.
Walc
1.1
1,0
0.9
I
a
1.1
1.0
0.9
Li
1.0
0.9
4-
30 50 .90 0
yo, degrees
?
a
rH
60 10 th0
Fig. 5. Experimental and calculated values Texpt/Ecaic (a) and
Wexpt/Wcalc (b) as a function of neutron angle of flight (c and
d are the corresponding values for recording only the light fission
fragment).
Wexpt- (E)
Wcalc. (E)
1.0
0.9
1.1
1,0
0.9
I.1
1.0
0,9
1,1
0.9
1,0
1,1
1,0
0,9
1,1
i.0
0,9
1,1
yo,degrees
? ? 0
-. 15
4 - -f- fr. f
? ?
, ? ?
?
?
30
45
60
75
90
. 0(L)
0(H)
?
30(L)
30(H)
0 1 2 3 4 5 En, MeV
Fig. 6. Ratio of experimental and calculated probabilities Wexpt/Wcalc
' for various parts of the energy spectra and angles of flight (p. The data
are normalized for maximum probabilities of the spectra.
series. It can be seen that not only the average energies of the experimental spectra agree satisfactorily with the
calculation, but also their shape as a result of changing the spectral intensity by a factor of more than 10. It is possi-
ble that there is a small increase of "hardness" of the spectrum relative to calculation at angles close to 900, al-
though it is found to be within the limits of experimental error. A larger relative intensity can be noticed in the
angles of distribution for angles of 60 and 900 and, thus, a less anisotropic distribution in the laboratory system com-
pared with calculation.
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An estimate of the effect of velocity distribution of the fission fragments and the dependence of D-(A) on the
results of the calculation with respect to angular distribution showed that the error associated with this does not ex -
ceed a few percent and thus cannot exert a significant effect.
An attempt was made to completely reconcile the experimental and calculated data on the assumption that
the neutrons are emitted by fission fragments having partial velocities. As a result of this the angular distributions
are successfully reconciled, but the calculated spectra in this case differ considerably, from the experimental spectra.
If it be assumed, as a consequence of [7], that emission of neutrons is possible at the instant of separation of
the fission fragments, and if the deviation of Wexpt/Wcaic at an angle of 90? be associated with this assumption, then
the number of such neutrons in the case of isotropic emission in the laboratory system should not exceed 5-10% of
the total number of neutrons.
Yet another reason can be proposed for the appearance of excess neutrons at an angle of 90?. If part of the
neutrons is "evaporated" from a fission fragment prior to the establishment of thermal equilibrium by the entire
volume of the nucleus, then it is possible that these neutrons are "evaporated" mainly from a local region where the
nucleons of the offshoot are situated (the part of the neck joining the fission fragments prior to separation). Ejection
of neutrons from this region at small angles to the direction of motion of the fission fragments is unlikely (because
of shielding by the mass of the nucleus); thus, a "shadow effect" is created. This same effect, obviously, should be
observed also in the case of neutron emission from the neck region prior to or at the instant of separation.
The spectrum, in the center of mass system, which agrees with our experimental data has an average energy
7 equal to 1.27 MeV, which is somewhat greater than the value obtained in [8] on the basis of scaling the integral
spectra (T= 1.21 MeV). Here, it is necessary to consider that the deviations at an angle of 60-90? are related to an
addition in the low-energy part of the integral spectrum and thus .soften it. In order to compute whether the spec-
trum in the center of mass system has a cascade-evaporative nature it is necessary to take into account in the first
instance the energy spread of the excited fission fragments with respect to mass and charge, the relationship between
the level density and the characteristics of the fragment and its excitation energy. Over the whole volume this is
quite a difficult problem and it has not been considered in this paper. Simplified calculations have been carried out
for computing the emission spectrum, in which the change of temperature due to the different excitation energies of
the fission fragments and the subsequent emission of neutrons were taken into account. The first calculations,.car-
ried out in a similar paper [9], gave as a result a spectrum close to the experimental spectrum but somewhat dis-
placed to the side of low energies (T= 1.22 MeV). In the second stage of the calculations, for cases of large frag-
ment excitation, when emission of more than one neutron is possible we took account of the relationship obtained in
[10] for cascade evaporation of the neutrons. It was found that this calculated spectrum for a = 12 MeV-1 agrees well
with the experimental spectrum.
Thus, it can be said that despite the small deviations from the calculation, which may be explained by a
variety of reasons, the overwhelming portion of the neutrons from the thermal fission of U235 is emitted in the process
of normal cascade evaporation of neutrons from the completely accelerated nuclei-fission fragments.
It is noteworthy that the emission spectra of the neutrons from light and heavy fission fragments are identical.
If the average value of the neutron binding energy is used for the light and heavy fragments, the quantity -17//17h set
equal to 1.1, and the relationship T cs:)(Eb/a)1/2, then it is found that the average energy of the emission spectrum
for a light fission fragment should be considerably greater than for a heavy fission fragment (by ? 30%). However,
the action of shell effects leads to approximate equivalence of the level plane constants, a, for the region of light
and heavy fragment masses (in view of the inadequacy of the information in [11, 12] it is difficult to obtain more
precise data). The cited effects also affect the values of the average neutron binding energies [13]. By including
corrections it can be expected, as the estimates show, that the ratio of the average spectral energies will be equal to
1.0 to 1.1, which agrees with the experimental data.
Calculations of the energy spectra and angular distributions of neutrons for the fission of U235 by neutrons with
an energy of 14 MeV were carried out by E. I. Sirotinin [6] and for the spontaneous fission of Cf252 by Bowman et al.
[14]. In the first case of energy production, neutron evaporation from the compound nucleus with subsequent fission
is possible. Naturally, these neutrons which are emitted prior to fission make it more difficult to study the mecha-
nism of emission of neutrons associated with the fission process. E. I. Sirotinin came to the conclusion that in this
case the division of the neutrons into two components is justified [1] and that the second component is associated
with neutron evaporation from the excited fission fragments. In [14], dealing with the investigation of the spontaneous
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fission of Cf252 it is reported that about 80-90% of the neutrons from the fission of californium are emitted in the
process of isotropic neutron emission from the accelerated fission fragments. The authors suggest that 10 -20% of the
neutrons are ejected at the instant of separation of the fission fragments and that this leads in the experiment to
significant (- 30%) deviation from calculation at an angle of 90?. It was also observed in the experiment that there
was an excess of the measured over the calculated intensity at an angle of 10?.
After completion of the present project two reports were published [15, 16] also devoted to the study of the
angular and the energy distribution of the neutrons originating as a result of thermal neutron fission of U235. Measure-
ments are presented in these papers which are similar to those carried out in the second part of this project.
The distributions shown in [16] are close to those obtained by us for the majority of values of the angle, cp. Our
data were not compared in detail with the experimental data of [15], since they are presented in a form which makes
comparison difficult. It should be noted that the two experimental energy spectra of [15] differ significantly from our
data. The authors of [15, 16], during the process of analyzing the data, selected an emission spectrum which should
satisfy best of all the observed distributions in the laboratory system. As a result, it was found in [16] that the emis-
sion spectra of neutrons emitted by light and heavy fission fragments match (the conclusion is drawn in our paper and
in [14]). Another result was obtained by the authors of [15]. They stress the considerable difference between these
emission spectra (the average energies of the spectra differ by approximately 30%). The difference between certain
results of [15] and the three papers mentioned, obviously, is more likely due to a discrepancy in the experimental
data than to any incongruity in the calculations. The conclusions cited in [15 and 161 concerning the emission
mechanism agree with .ours.
The authors express their thanks to Prof. D. M. Kaminker for assitance in mounting the project in the reactor
of the Physicotechnical Institute, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, and also to K. A. Konoplev and D. A. Yashin,
and to the entire reactor control team for attention to its operation. The authors also thank S. M. S Solov'yev for
preparing the uranium targets and V. A. Bogutskii, V. A. Kanin, ]. M. Karatayev and V. V. Pikunov for assistance
with the measurements and processing of the experimental data.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Yu. A. Vasil'yey et al., Atomnaya tnergiya, 9, 449 (1960).
2. V. N. Nefedov, ZhgTF, 38, 1657 (1960).
3. M. V. Blinov', N. M. Kazarinov, and A. N. Protopopov, ZhftF, 42, 1017 (1962).
4. M. V. Blinov and N. M. Kazarinov, Pribory i tekhnika eksperimenta, No. 1,40 (1964).
5. F. Maienshtein et al., "Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Energy. Selected Reports of Foreign Scientists [in Russian], 2, Moscow, Atomizdat (1959) p. 297.
6. E. I. Sirotinin, Atomnaya tnergiya, 13, 530 (1962).
7. R. Fuller, Phys. Rev., 126, 684 (1962).
8. J. Terrell, Phys. Rev., 127, 880 (1962).
9. J. Terrell, Phys. Rev., 113, 527 (1959).
10. K. LeCouteur and D. Lang, Nucl. Phys., 13, 32 (1959).
11. D. Lang, Nucl. Phys., 26, 434 (1961).
12. D. Thomson, Phys. Rev., 129, 1649 (1963).
13. A. Cameron, Canad. J. Phys., 36, 1040 (1958).
14. H. Bowman et al., Phys. Rev., 126, 2120 (1962).
15. S. Kapoor, R. Ramanna, and P. Rama Rao, Phys. Rev., 131 283 (1963).
16. K. Scarsvag and K. Bergheim, Nucl. Phys., 45, 72 (1963).
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CALCULATION OF AVERAGE RADIATIVE CAPTURE CROSS SECTIONS
FOR NEUTRONS WITH ENERGIES OF i0-1 05 eV
(UDC 539.17.02)
A. G. Dovbenko, S. M. Zakharova, V. E. Kolesov
and A. V. Malyshev
Translated from Atomnaya tnergiya, Vol. 18, No. 2,
pp. 114-118, February, 1965
Original article submitted January 31, 1964
The average radiative-capture neutron cross sections of 30 isotopes of Rb, Zr, Mo, Sn, and Sm are
calculated on the basis of the statistical theory of nuclear reactions. The calculation uses penetra-
bility values for the nuclear surface which were obtained from an optical model and level densities
corresponding to a Fermi gas model. The results of the calculations are compared with the avail-
able experimental data for an energy of 25 keV. It is shown that satisfactory quantitative estimates
can be obtained for the average capture cross-sections of isotopes for which experimental data con-
cerning average neutron-resonance parameters are not available.
It was shown in [1-4] that the calculation of the energy dependence of average radiative-capture cross sections,
within the limits of statistical theory, with penetrability values of the nuclear surface which correspond to an optical
model, is in satisfactory agreement with experimental results. It is also known that the absolute value of the cross
section is strongly dependent on the value of the average distance between the levels of the compound nucleus and
on the average radiation width. These parameters are usually taken on the basis of experimental data in the low-
energy range. If no such data are available, the average parameters are obtained by comparing the results of the
calculation of the average radiative-capture cross sections with experimental data. The solution of many questions
in the field of reactor construction requires a knowledge of how the average radiative-capture cross sections vary as
a function of energy. The experimental data available today were obtained chiefly for isotopes which become acti-
vated when a neutron is captured. For most isotopes which are not thus activated and for unstable isotopes there are
practically no experimental data. It is therefore of interest to calculate the radiative-capture cross sections .on the
basis of the average-parameter system mentioned in [5, 6]. For a quantitative comparison of the resulting cross sec-
tions, we may use the existing experimental data for an energy of 25-30 keV [7-18]. In addition, by adding the
calculated cross sections for the individual isotopes, we can make a comparison with the experimental cross sections
for a natural mixture of isotopes, which in many cases are known over a wide range of energies.
Calculations were made for the following isotopes: Rb85; Zr"-92,94,96; mo92,94 -98,100; sn112,114 -120 122,124; and
smi.44 ,147 -150,152,154.
We used the formula of statistical theory which is gdnerally used for calculating average radiative-capture
cross sections [1, 2, 15].
Cji (2J+ 1) S
a? = T
2(2/+1) (E)
1 D (U d-E,J) ,
, + (U +E) E2?1T (E k)
k
( 1 )
Here E is the kinetic energy of the impinging neutron; /, /' are the orbital moments of the impinging neutron and the
1 . 1
scattered neutron, respectively; J is the total moment of the compound nucleus; i "=-- I ? la=
are the spins of the inlet and outlet channels, respectively; I is the spin of the ground state of the target nucleus; lk
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TABLE 1. Parameters Used in the Calculation
Isotope
a , MeV-1
eV
U.
MeV
F eV
Y'
lib89* 5/2- .8.50 750** 8.58 0.410
Zr99* 0+ 9.0 1.7.104 6.19 0.270
Zr91 5/2 10.2 1.103 6,49 0.245
Zr92 * 0+ 11,0 3.7.103 579 0.270
Zr94 * - 0" 11.6 6.3.103 5.52 0.220
Zr96 * 0' 14.0 2.6.103 4.65 0.160
Alo99 0+ 10.2 2.4.103 6.71 0;270
Alo94 0' 12.6 1.103 6.08 0.220
Alo96 5/2+ 12.6 220 6.44 0.230
IN4o96 - 0+ 12.9 1.103 5.49 0.160
NIo97 5/2' 13.2 220** 6.15 0.200
Alo96 0+ 17.6 270 4.99 0.102
mom 0+ 18.0 430 4.61 0.090
son
so14
SOH
sn 116 *
soi.7
sous
son*
Snii-29*
son
Sp 124
Srft144*
Srn147
sm148*
sm149
scow*.
&min*
sm 154*
0+
12.1
850
6.68
0.061
0'
12.2
1.4.103
6.24
0.063
1/2+
16.5
50**
6.85
0.096
0'
15.5
600
5.39
0.065
1/2+
15.5
120**
6.60
0.110
0+
15.0
1 ? 103
5.00
0.093
1/2'
15.5
180**
6.30
0.106
0+
15.3
1.7.103
4.70
0.108
0+
16.2
1.7.103
4.40
0.106
0'
15.2
2.103
4.54
0.100
0+
17.0
325
5.40
0.065
7/2-
20.0
14**
5.77
0.059
0'
22.0
175
4.40
0.063
7/2-
23.6
6**
5.27
0.065
0+
25.0
115
3.98
0.066
0+
24.0
87
4,25
0.068
0+
21.0
740
3.80
0.072
*Experimental data on b are unreliable or unavailable
for these isotopes.
*For these nuclei, D(U. J) was calculated on the basis
of with gj ??--; 1/2.
is the spin of the k-th excited level of the target nucleus; EJ and EJ are factors which take account of the num-
ber of open channels and are equal, respectively, to the number of values of j and jk satisfying the conditions
1/-1[ 3 MeV). In the case of serpen-
tine concrete this value is equal to 10.9 cm. If we take into account the fact that the volumetric weight of ordinary
building concrete is 2.4 tons/m3, while that of serpentine concrete is 2.2 tons/m3, the shielding properties that are
obtained for the latter with respect to fast neutrons are slightly higher. It is also possible to compare the shielding
properties of concretes which have serpentine and limonite as their respective aggregates. The results of an investi-
gation on limonite concrete with a volumetric weight of 2.7 tons/m3 were given in [11]; the relaxation length for
fast neutrons was found to be equal to approximately 9 cm. Since the chemical compositions of the two concretes
differ little from each other, it can be assumed that the neutron relaxation length is approximately inversely pro-
portional to the density of the concrete; in this case, the shielding properties of the two concretes are identical.
As is known, [12], the removal cross sections for elements with an average atomic weight vary slightly with
increase in the neutron energy. Since the serpentine concrete that was investigated consists mainly of elements of
this kind, the result that was obtained is in qualitative agreement with the data given in [12]. In actual fact, the
main contribution to the magnitude of the removal cross section is made by oxygen (0.036 cm-1), magnesium (0.01
cm-1), and silicon (0.011 cm-1)?elements with average atomic weights. The hydrogen and these elements deter-
mine the dependence of the cross section upon the neutron energy. Although the hydrogen cross section alters con-
siderably (decreases) in the neutron energy range 1-10 MeV, this is balanced to a large extent by the cross sections
of the other constituents of the concrete.
From the point of view of the attenuation of 7-radiation, the composition of serpentine concrete is no differ-
ent from that of ordinary building concrete. It was reported in [11] that in ordinary concrete the relaxation length
of the flux of y-quanta from the active zone of a water-moderated water-cooled reactor is equal to 13 cm. If we
make allowance for the difference between the volumetric weights of the two concretes, the value that was ob-
tained for the relaxation length of the y-radiation dose rate in serpentine concrete is in good agreement with the
data given in [11]. The same can also be said for the result that were obtained by comparing the y-radiation re-
laxation lengths in serpentine and limonite concretes, and also in concretes of other compositions [13].
Thus, the results of these experiments show that in comparison with limonite concrete the shielding properties
of serpentine concrete with a volumetric weight of 2.2 tons/m3 are slightly better with respect to neutrons and iden-
tical with respect to 7-radiation, and, since the chemical composition of this concrete remains unchanged up to a
temperature of 480?C, its use can be recommended in the biological shielding of nuclear power installations at least
up to temperatures of 450?C.
The authors would like to thank all the reactor maintenance staff, and also V. P. Zharkov for his help in car-
rying out the experiments and T. V. Ruch'eva for her help in processing the results; they are also indebted to
V. M. Isakov, A. P. Kulaev, V. G. Petrov, and A. T. Pogachev for their assitance in making the measurements.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Instructions for the Design of Concrete and Ferroconcrete Structures Built with Special (Heavy and Hydrated)
Concretes [in Russian], Moscow, Scientific Research Institute of Ferroconcrete, ASA, USSR (1959).
2. I. A. Arshinov, In the Collection: Problems of Reactor Shielding Physics [in Russian], State Press for Atomic
Energy, Moscow (1963), p. 337.
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3. H. Hungerford et al., Nucl. Sci. and Engng., 6, 396 (1959).
4. A. N. Komarovskii, The Construction of Nuclear Installations [in Russian], State Press for Power Engineering,
Moscow ?Leningrad (1961),
5. V. N. Avaev et al.,Atomnaya energiya, 15, 17 (1963),
6. V. N. Avaev et al., In the Collection: Problems of Reactor Shielding Physics [in Russian], State Press for
Atomic Energy, Moscow (1963), p, 270,
7. Yu. A. Egorov and Yu. V. Pankrat'ev, Ibid., ID. 304.
8. A. P. Veselkin et al., Atom naya energiya, 16, 32 (1964).
9. Kh. D. Androsenko and G. N. Smirenkin, Pribory i tekhnika eksperimenta, No. 5, 64 (1962).
10. Yu. A. Egorov and E. A. Panov, Pribory i tekhnika eksperimenta, No. 4,57 (1961).
11, V. S. Dikarev et al., Atom naya energiya, 1, No. 5, 136 (1956).
12, B. I. Sinitsyn and S. G. Tsypin, Atomnaya?energiya, 12, 306 (1962).
13. V. N. Avaev et al., In the Collection: Problems of Reactor Shielding Physics [in Russian], State Press for
Atomic Energy, Moscow (1963), p. 193,
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/24: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700010002-5
STUDY OF THE NEUTRON MODERATION PROCESS IN BERYLLIUM
AND BERYLLIUM OXIDE BY A PULSE METHOD
(UDC 621.039.512.4)
I. F. Zhezherun
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 18, No. 2,
pp. 127-135, February, 1965
Original article submitted November 30, 1963; Revision submitted February 29, 1964
The moderation time was measured for neutrons up to energies of 1.46, 0.3, 0.178, and 0.0976 eV
and also the thermalization time below an energy of ? 0.1 eV. The time distribution of moderated
neutrons was obtained to an energy of 0.3 eV. The measurements made it possible to calculate the
correction for moderation of neutrons over the energy range below 1.46 eV and to obtain the square
of the moderation length of fission neutrons at various energies close to the thermal region.
The square of the moderation length L for the majority of moderators used in nuclear technology has been
measured up to an energy of 1.46 eV (indium resonance). A correction for the moderation of neutrons to thermal
energy is interpolated by a numerical method and usually contains a significant indeterminacy due primarily to
the fact that the average logarithmic energy loss g in this region is unknown. The measurement of 14 down to lower
energies has been carried out only for beryllium oxide to 0.3 eV (Pu239 resonance) [1].
The neutron moderation time and its fluctuations have been studied theoretically in a number of papers [2-6].
Interesting results are given in the paper by I. G. Dyad'kin and E. P. Batalina [7] who considered the time depend-
ence of the space-energy distribution of neutrons N(r, u, t) on a pulsed source having, an initial velocity vo. They
found that at distances from the source r Xua (where X is the scattering length, u is the lethargy, and B is a con-
stant of order unity)
N (r, u, st (r, u) No (u, [1 + e u, 01,
(1)
i. e., the space-energy (stationary) distribution Nst(r, u) is derived by the energy-time distribution No(u, t), where
No(u, t) =
2
v
Vol
vt
v):
'
(2)
for t > X/(vo? v).
Thus, the time distribution of neutrons having a velocity v agrees with a Poisson probability for the appear-
ance of 2/g neutrons after a time t for conditions that the probability of appearance of neutrons at any instant is
identical and equal to (v/X)dt.
It should be noted that No(u, t) is almost independent of the initial neutron velocity vo and attains a maximum
at the instant
158
tmax .74'; {(2 Vr213+up2u2 [ 23ct (I Vr2+13ufl2u2
(3)
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2
5
6
7
reZ. Ad,
Fig. 1. Geometry of the experiment for measuring
the transmissivity of boron filters (transverse sec-
tion): 1) filter; 2) boron carbide collimator; 3)
cadmium sheath; 4) counter shielding screen;
5) BF3 cpimters; 6) collimator ports; 7) collimator
mounting (or support); 8) moderator block. The
block shielding (Cd and B4C) is not shown.
0 90
0.80
0.70
0.60
ztt. 0? 50
-
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0
78 1 2
3 4 5 6
W ', .
Ilirelial
tillifillii
111111111iiiII
111$11111
iftillil
11111
igelll
iI
I
,
.11
I!..IIII
3 4
6 8 10
20 30 40
60 80100 ISO ZOO Msec
Fig. 2. Moderation time measurement results:
1, 2) count rate N(t) of the 0.3-eV neutron detector
in the block of Be and Be() respectively; 3, 4)
reciprocal transmissivity 11-1(t) of the cadmium
filter in Be and Be(); 5, 6) the same for tlie sama-
rium oxide filter; 7, 8) the same for the indium
filter. All curves are normalized to unity at the
maximum.
One of the beams from the linear accelerator at the I.
somewhat depending on r (a is a very slowly changing func-
tion of u). The additional weak dependence of N(r, u, t) on
time is contained in the term [1 + e(r, u, t)], which however
differs little from unity for t tmax ? At, where At is the
dispersion of tmax; tmax is the average moderation time of
neutrons having a velocity v. The moderation time at a
velocity v, obviously, will be equal to tm = tmax X/v.
One paper [8] and two notes [9, 10] are known in which
tm is measured in water down to thermal energies; in two
other papers tm 160 ?sec is derived for graphite [11] and
tm = 230 ? 30 ?sec for beryllium oxide [12]. The inadequacy
of these papers is that it is not defined precisely in them to
what energy the stated values for tm should be related.
Some projects have been devoted to the study of the
last stages of moderation?the establishment of the equilib-
rium spectrum?using a pulsed neutron source. Of the theo-
retical reports we shall refer only to [13], in which the rela-
tionship was found between the coefficient of diffusion cool-
ing C and the thermalization time without using the concept
of neutron temperature, and the possibility is shown of de-
termining tth experimentally by measuring the damping de-
crement of the first harmonic in a similar manner as the dif-
fission coefficient is determined from the damping decre-
ment of the zero harmonic. The experimental reports [12,
14-16] should be mentioned, in which tth was measured in
beryllium oxide with a density of 2.96 g/cm3 by various
methods (transmission of a filter of a 1/v absorber, measure-
ment of the coefficient of diffusion cooling , etc.) and a value
was obtained of tth = 165 ? 10 Msec. For beryllium (density
1.79 g/cm3), the approximate value of tth = 172 ?sec is
given in [17], found from measurement of the coefficient of
diffusion cooling.
In the present project, the moderation time was mea-
sured down to various energies E 1.46 eV, and also the
thermalization time in beryllium and sintered beryllium
oxide. The results of the measurements permitted data to
be obtained concerning the moderation length of neutrons
in Be and Be() below 1.46 eV.
Measurement Procedure
The neutron moderation time was determined by
measuring the transmissivity fl(t) of filters with a strong
resonance in the absorption cross section as a function of
the time t elapsed from the instant of the neutron pulse.
V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy [18] was used as a
pulsed neutron source. The pulse duration was 0.5-1 Msec and the pulse repetition frequency was 50-100 cps. The
filters were in the shape of a cylinder and were attached to a small cylindrical BF3 counter, inserted in the modera-
tor block. Filters were used of 0.073 g/cm2 indium, 0.086 g/cm2 cadmium and 0.047 g/cm2 samarium oxide, which
have resonances at 1.46, 0.178, and 0.0976 eV respectively. In addition to the filters, a pulse detector for neutrons
with energy 0.3 eV was used (a plutonium chamber enclosed in a screen of a mixture of samarium and gadolinium
oxides) [19], which was shown to be very convenient for measuring not only tm but also for measuring the time
distribution No(u, t).
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TABLE 1. Measured and Calculated Values of the Moderation Time
at Different Energies, ?sec
Resonance energy,
eV
In beryllium
In beryllium oxide
calculation
experiment
calculation
experiment
1.46 (Indium)
7.2
7.5 ? 1
9.3
9.5 ? 1
0.3 (Plutonium)
15.7
17.5 ? 1
19.2
26 ? 2
0.178 (Cadmium)
20.4
40 ? 3
26.3
51 ? 3
0.0976 (Samarium)
27.6
73 ? 5
34.3
88 ? 5
The detectors were positioned on the axis of the moderator block, coincident with the axis of the beam. By
changing the position of a detector along the axis, the relationship could also be investigated between tm and the
distance r to the neutron source. The mean density of the material in the beryllium and beryllium oxide blocks was
1.79 gicm3 respectively.
The thermalization time was determined by measuring the transmissivity ir(t) of plane boron filters containing
0.012 and 0.023 g/cm2 of boron. The filters, with dimensions 12 x 30 cm, were inserted in slits below the neutron
collimator located at the moderator block (Fig. 1). The collimator was made of cadmium and boron carbide and
had ports with a diameter of 35 mm and a height of 120 mm. Above the collimator were located four B10F3 counters
connected in parallel, with a diameter of 20 mm and length 25 cm. The counters were screened by cadmium, boron
carbide and paraffin so that neutrons from the moderator block could only strike them through the ports of the col-
limator at an angle > 80? to the surface of the block. The distance between the block and the counters was equal
to 15 cm.
The moderator blocks were in the shape of a cube or a parallelipiped with dimensions 60 x 60 x 60 and
50 x 50 x 50 cm for beryllium, and 80 x 70 x 75 and 60 x 60 x 60 cm for beryllium oxide; they were covered on
all sides by a layer of cadmium (0.86 g/cm2) and boron carbide (5 g/cm2). Data concerning the diffusion param-
eters of these materials are given in [17, 20].
The counting rate of the counters with and without filters as a function of time, from which the transmissivity
rim was determined, were measured by means of a time analyzer, used in [17, 20] and also a 110-channel analyzer,
with a minimum channel width of 1 ?sec. The source strength was controlled by two monitors. The background
(which did not exceed 1% of the effect) was determined by the count rate at the instant of time immediately prior
to the neutron pulse.
Measurement Results and Discussion
Moderation Tim e. The results of measurement of the moderation time are shown on a semilog scale
in Fig. 2. For beryllium these measurements were carried out in the block with dimensions. 50 x 50 x 50 cm and
for beryllium oxide in the blocks with dimensions 80 x 70 x 75 and 60 x 60 x 60 cm. The time elapsed from the
instant of the neutrons pulse is plotted along the x axis and along the y axis is plotted the count rate N(t) of the
resonance detector of 0.3-eV neutrons and the reciprocal transmissivity IT-1(t) for the resonance filters. The time
corresponding to the maximum is equal, obviously, to the moderation time tm to a given energy plus the time of
flight of the neutron from the site of the last collision up to absorption in the detector tfj. = [X(v) ? 1/2d]iv (d is
the average cross section of the detector, taking account of the void at the place where it is located) and the time
of flight from the accelerator target to the block (? 0.5 ?sec). ,
The values obtained for tm are given in Table 1. The errors shown (from 1 to 10 ?sec in different measure-
ments) are associated with the finite width of the channel and the inaccuracy in calculating tfi. For comparison,
the values are given for tm obtained in accordance with formula (3) on the assumption that the factor in the curly
brackets, which takes into account the relationship between tmax and the distance r to the source, is equal to unity.
Under our conditions, the sources are obviously the sites of the primary collisions of the neutrons from the beam
with the moderator nuclei, which are located in a plane layer of the front face of the moderator block with a thick-
ness of about 2X(v0) p:s 5-7 cm. The measurements with the 0.3-eV neutron detector in the blocks at various dis-
tances (r -? 30 cm) from this layer did not indicate a dependence of tm on r, which justifies the assumption made
above.
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11(0
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
/00
80
60
40
20
?
,i/T-%
. /
.%
?
N
/
?
% f
\ .
\
+
? ?
-I
+ 4
.
?
, f
0
0 0
i
10
20
30
40
50 1.1ec
Fig. 3. Comparison of the experimental time distribu-
tion of neutrons with energy 0.3 eV with the Poisson
distribution: 0) beryllium; e) beryllium oxide.
A
A?
A
A
A
..-
A
+
a
t
0.577
A
a
?
2
2.
A
0.355

A
;
0 160 320 480 640 800 .960
1120
1280
?sec
Fig. 4a. Transmissivity of boron filters for blocks of beryllium. The curves are derived
visually according to experimental points from different measurement series: 1, 2) for
filters containing 0.012 and 0.023 g/cm2 of boron respectively.
The values for tm shown in Table 1 will be valid also for fission neutrons, since the spectrum of accelerator
neutrons is close to the fission neutron spectrum. It can be seen from the table that for energies less than 1.46 eV
the experimental value of tm is greater than the calculated value. This is obviously associated with the fact that
g in this region is lower than the value of g for collisions with a free atom.
The measurements made with the 0.3 eV neutron detector make it possible to compare the experimental dis-
tribution No(u, t) with the theoretical distribution [see formula (2)]. Figure 3 shows the experimental data for beryl-
lium and beryllium oxide and the matched (accoreing to experimental data) Poisson distributions for No (u, t)
2 vt
( "l e?
with 2/g = 12 for beryllium (continuous line) and 2/g = 18 for beryllium oxide (dashed line).
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280
0 70
0.60
0.56
0.40
0.30
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.?-0
1
o.
.
?
0.517
0.355
I
t60 320 480 640 800 860 1120 180 1440 ?sec
Fig. 4b. Transmissivity of boron filters for blocks
of Be() (for legend see Fig. 4a).
It can be seen that they agree well. The divergence is notice-
able only at large values of t, which is associated, obviously,
with the effect of the term in the square in formula (1) (see
[7]). By using the fact that in a Poisson distribution the dis-
persion is equal to the mean value, it is possiblt to obtain
alio from the relationships (vtmax/X)Be = 12 = 2/Be and
(vtmax/X)Be0 = 18 = 2/ggeo the moderation time tm to an
energy of 0.3 eV for beryllium and beryllium oxide. For
this it is necessary to subtract from tmax the dispersion due
to the width of the energy sensitivity region of the detector
[19], equal to At = 1/2. (AE/E)tm (2.9 and 4.3 ?sec for beryl-
lium and beryllium oxide respectively), and also the time of
.flight at an energy of 0.3 eV. As a result, we obtain a value
for tm equal to 17.3 ?sec for beryllium and 28 Msec for beryl-
lium oxide, which is in agreement with the values found ac-
cording to the position of the maximum. The average logari-
thmic energy losses at an energy of 0.3 eV are as follows:
Be = 0.19, 13e0 = 0.12.
Thermalization Time. The results of measur-
ing 11(t) for the boron filters are shown in Fig: 4 for blocks of
beryllium (60 x 60 x 60 cm) and beryllium oxide (80 x 70 x
75 cm). It follows from the figures that for a time t 1200
?sec in beryllium and t 1400 ?sec in Be() , the transmissivity
attains a minimum asymptotic value corresponding to the estab-
lished neutron spectrum. The asymptotic values have been mea -
sured with a high degree of accuracy and have been shown to be identical for beryllium and beryllium oxide, as would be ex -
pected: 0.577 ? 0:003 and 0.355?0:002 for filters containing 0,012 and 0.023 g/cm2 of boron respectively.
Similar transmission curves were obtained also for blocks of smaller dimensions with a somewhat smaller as-
ymptotic transmission. Thus, for a beryllium block with dimensions 50 x 50 x 50 cm it was found to be 0.0568 ?
0.008 and 0.346 ? 0.002 respectively.
In order to obtain data concerning the neutron energies from the transmissivity H(t), it was assumed that the
neutron 'spectrum has a maj E 2) = E "1 Lc
(9)
(D is equal to 0.50 and 0.54 cm for Be and Be0 respectively.) Thus, for example, the value BeLj (1.46 -* 0.3 eV)
= 5.7 ? 1.2 cm2; Be0I4 (1.46 -* 0.3 eV) = 11.4 ? 1.2 cm2 are in good agreement with the value of 12.5 ? 2.5 cm2
obtained for Be0 from direct measurements of L2 up to 1.46 and 0.3 eV [1], which indicates that the accuracy of
formula (7') is also acceptable over the interval 1.46-0.3 eV; BeLl (0.3 -* 0.178 eV) = 7.4 ? 0.8 cm2;
Be01-4
(0.3 0.178 eV) = 8.7 ? 0.9 cm2; Be-11 (0.3 0.13 eV) = 11.9 ? 1.2 cm2; Be0I4 (0.3 -* 0.13 eV) = 14.3 ? 1.4
cm2 etc. In regions where formula (4) is valid, it is easy to obtain, by using formulas (8) and (9), that
/4 (E1 ---->E2)= Dvetth {2 (-
-11-41 (VE2 -HY-c)
E2 ln
ETe (17W, --:--11E-) (VE72.- VED
(10)
i. e., for E2 Ee, co. The latter result, as already repeatedly mentioned (see', for example [27]), confirms the
fact that it is incorrect to assume the value of E = kTe as the lower limit of the integral in Eq. (9) for calculating
the moderation length down to thermal energy.
Conclusions
The measurements carried out indicate that the moderation process for neutrons in beryllium and beryllium
oxide up to an energy of 1.46 eV takes place in collisions with free atoms and lasts for a relatively short time, not
exceeding 10 ?sec (Table 2). Over the interval 1.46-0.3 eV the effect of the atomic bonds in the crystal lattice is
already noticeable, especially for Be0. The logarithmic energy loss g is reduced on the average by 10% with Be
and by 60% with Be0 relative to its value for the free atom. The moderation time over this interval is 11/2 to 2
165
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times greater than tm up to 1.46 eV. Over the interval from 0.3 to - 0.07-0.08 eV (below which a spectrum is
established which is close to Maxwellian), E for Be and Be0 is reduced to - 25% of its value for a free atom. The
moderation time over this interval is six-seven times greater than tm up to 1.46 eV. The energy-time distribution
of neutrons in the region prior to - 0.07 eV can be obtained by formula (2), if the values of E given above are sub-
stituted in it. Below - 0,07-0,045 eV the moderation proceeds very slowly and lasts on an average for 185 20
?sec for beryllium and 204 ? 25 ?sec for beryllium oxide.
The value of L up to 0,13 eV (5.2 kTo) given in Table 2 for beryllium is somewhat greater (for scaling at a
density of 1.84 g/cn73) than the value of the Fermi age given in [29], in which the lower limit in the integral of
Eq. (9), in accordance with thermalization theory, is assumed equal to 5.2 kTo. The value of LI up to 0.3 eV for
Be0 is in good agreement with the value of 104.5 2 cm2, obtained by direct measurements of L up to an energy
of 0.3 eV for the same for beryllium oxide.
In conclusion, the authors express their thanks to the operating personnel of the accelerator in the beam of
which the measurements were carried out, to M. P. Shustov for the numerical calculations, to A. A. Osochnikov and
G. V. Yakovlev for assistance in maintaining the analyzer's and to Yu. D. Kurdyumov and G. P. Perov for assitance
with the measurements.
LITERATURE CITED
1. I. F. Zhezherun et al., Atomnaya energiya, 13, 258 (1962).
2. J. Sykes, J. Nucl. Energy, 2, 31 (1955).
3. G. Hayneman and M. Crouch, Nucl. Sci. and Engng., 2, 626 (1957).
4. J. Waller, Proc. of the Second. Intern. Conf. on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Unit. Nat.,
Vol. 16 (1958), p. 450,
5. L. Pol and G. Nemeth, Nucleonik, 1, 165 (1959).
6. G. Kosaly and G. Nemeth, Ditto, p. 225.
7. I. G. Dyad'kin and E. P. Batalina, Atomnaya energiya, 10, 5 (1961).
8, M. F. Krouch, Nucl. Sci. and Engng., 2, 631 (1957).
9. J. De Juner, Nucl. Sci. and Engng., 9,-408 (1961).
10, E. Moller and N. Sjostrend, Nucl. Sci, and Engng., 15, 2 (1963),
11, A. V. Antonov, Trudy fizicheskogo instituta im. Lebedava, 14, 147 (1962).
12, S. Iyenger et al., Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. A, 45, 215 (1957),
13. S. N. Purohit, Nucl. Sci. and Engng., 9, 157 (1961),
14, R. Ramanna, Cf. [4], p. 315,
15. V. A. Couhall et al., Ditto, ID. 319.
16. S. Iyenger et al., Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. A, 45, 224 (1957),
17. L F. Zhezherun, Atomnaya energiya, 16, 224 (1964),
18. R. M. Voronkov et al,, Atomnaya energiya, 13, 327 (1962).
19. I. F. Zhezherun, I. P. Sadikov, and A. A. Chernyshov, Pribory i tekhnika eksperimenta, No. 3, 43 (1962).
20, I. F. Zhezherun, Atomnaya energiya, 14, 193 (1963).
21. K. Singvi and L. Kokhari, In the book: "Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Peaceful
Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 1958," Collected Reports of Foreign Scientists, Vol. 2, Moscow, Atomizdat
[in Russian] (1959), p, 675.
22. J. Yuz and R. Schwartz, Atlas of Neutron Cross Sections, Izd. IL, Moscow, Atomizdat [Russian translation]
(1959).
23. I. F. Zhezherun, I. P. Sadikov, and A. A. Chernyshov, Atomnaya energiya, 13, 250 (1962),
24, K. Singwi, Arkov fys., 16, 385 (1959),
25. K. Beckurst, Nucl. Sci. and Engng., 2, 516 (1957).
26. J. Meadows and J. Whalen, Nucl. Sci. and Engng., 13, 230 (1961).
27. E. Cohen, In the book: "Experimental Reactors and Reactor Physics," (Reports of Foreign Scientists at the
International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 1955), Moscow, Gostekhteorizdat
[in Russian] (1956), p. 257.
28. j. yuz, Neutron Research on Nuclear Reactors [Russian translation], Izd. IL (1954), p. 161.
29. L. Weinberg and E. Wigner, Physical Theory of Nuclear Reactors [Russian translation], Moscow, Izd. IL
(1961), 13. 310,
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/24: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700010002-5
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF SHIELDS ON THE RIZ STAND
(UDC 621.039.538.7)
S. P. Belov, V. A. Dulin, Yu. A. Kazanskii,
V. I. Popov, and S. G. Tsypin
Translated from Atomnaya gnergiya, Vol. 18, No. 2,
pp. 136-140, February, 1965
Original article submitted April 2, 1964
The present article describes a stand with a zero-power reactor designed for investigating the pro-
cesses occurring in that part of the shield which is in close contact with the reactor core. If the
processes occurring in this part of the shield (formation of the neutron spectrum and generation of
strong y-radiation) are known, the dimensions and the weight of the reactor's entire shield can be
properly calculated.
The results obtained in measuring neutron spectra and investigating shielding materials (iron,
nickel, and borated nickel) on the stand are given.
Studies of the processes occurring in that part of the shield which is in direct contact with the reactor core
are very important, since the neutron spectrum and powerful capture y -radiation are generated in this part of the
shield. These processes basically determine the dimensions and the weight of the entire shield. It is most con-
venient to investigate experimentally these rather complex problems by means of a zero-power reactor, where the
shield under investigation can readily be mounted or dismantled.
The use of a zero-power reactor for investigating secondary y-radiation is also convenient with regard to
the possibility of quickly changing the power level in a wide range, securing good ratios of the background to the
effect to be measured, and varying the dimensions and design of the shields under investigation.
For experimental investigations of shielding, we constructed the RIZ stand with a zero-power,water-moderated
reactor.
In designing the stand, we considered the possibility of varying the emerging neutron spectrum, convenient
arrangement of the shielding materials to be investigated, and the performance of experiments. Since the main
purpose of the RIZ stand was to investigate the yield of capture y-radiation and the neutron spectrum, attention
was mostly paid to the possibility of securing the optimum ratio of the neutron flux to the y -radiation at the stand's
operating surface.
Description.of the Core, the Shielding Screens, and the Control System
The zero-power water-moderated uranium reactor which we use (the prototype of this reactor was developed
under the direction of V. A. Kuznetsov) has a cylindrical core with a diameter of 335 mm and a height of 275 mm.
The core is filled with distilled water, into which the lattice with the fuel elements is immersed. The fuel ele-
ments consist of 90%-enriched uranium dioxide, which is packed in hermetically sealed stainless-steel tubes. Each
rod contains 10.5 g U235; the over-all core charge with respect to U235 amounts to 3.5 kg.
The lateral shield of the core consists of iron, water, and concrete layers with an over-all thickness of about
130 cm (Fig. 1). The lower shield consists of a miyture of iron and water (60% iron by volume) with an over-all
thickness of 35 cm. A shield consisting of a boron carbide layer with a thickness of 4.5 g/cm2 and a bismuth layer
with a thickness of 8.5 cm is provided at the upper end-face of the core; the diameter of this shield is 110 cm;
beyond the shield is a ring with a width of 35 cm, which consists of boron carbide (7 g/cm2) and lead (6.5 cm)
(see Fig. 1).
167'
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" 4
MONIMMENNOIM.
\\\,\
Steel M Lead M Bismuth
Boron
carbide
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the core and the shielding screens of the RIZ stand reactor. 1) Core; 2) operating
surface; 3) room for the control system and shielding; 4) channels for the control eqiiipment detectors.
The purpose of the shield at the upper end-face of the core is:
1) to reduce materially the yield of hard y -radiation from the core, the structure, and the lateral reflectors
and shields;
2) to attenuate the soft portion of the spectrum of neutrons emerging from the core; this task is fulfilled by
boron carbide that is located directly at the end-face of the core;
3) to reduce the effect of the shields under investigation on the reactor's reactivity.
Figure 2 shows the external view of the shield and the operating surface of the stand at the reactor's upper
end-face.
The reactor is controlled from a room located under the iron-water shield. Boron rods, which are arranged
in the core along a diameter of 215 mm, serve as the regulating and emergency rods. Quick draining of water
from the core is also provided for the emergency shutdown of the reactor.
The detectors of the control and the emergency equipment (boron-coated chambers and counters filled with
boron trifluoride) are located in the water layers of the lateral shield at radii of 32 and 62 cm from the core center.
The instruments of the control equipment and of the emergency protection channels are mounted in the control
panel room (Fig. 3),
The reactor is equipped with an automatic device for raising the power from the zero level and maintaining
it at the assigned level, which is achieved (from the control panel) by meaps of a remote control system for filling
the core with water.
A fission chamber with Th232, which can be moved inside a special channel along the generatrix of the core
by means of a remote control device, serves as the monitor of the reactor's power level. This makes it possible to
extend the range of counting rate measurements by a factor of 15-20.
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Fig. 2. External view of the shield and the operating
surfa6e of the RIZ stand reactor (top view).
Fig. 3. Control panel of the RIZ stand reactor.
Since the stand is basically used as a source of reactor-spectrum neutrons, and changes in the reactor's physi-
cal parameters are connected only with variations in its reactivity as a result of addition of the materials under in-
vestigation at the upper end-face, the core is constructed so that excess reactivity does not exceed 0.3% if the core
is completely filled with water and the material under investigation is absent. This considerably simplifies the
control reactor and enhances its safety.
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Fig. 4. Calculated spectrum of neutrons emerg-
ing from the upper reflector of the RIZ stand re-
actor.
5.)
1000
100
10
x5
I
0 1
4 5 6 7 8 9E5,MeV
Fig. 5. Fast neutron spectra measured by means
of a scintillation spectrometer. 1) At the center
of the stand's operating surface; 2) and 3) at dis-
tances of 40 cm and 1 m from the center of the
stand's operating surface, respectively.
30
5.)
15
0
71=1
5 6 7 8 9 Ei, MeV
Fig. 6. y -radiation spectrum measured by means
of a scintillation y-spectrometer at a height of
1 m above the center of the operating surface of
the RIZ stand reactor.
170
The upper reflector, which consists of boron carbide
and bismuth, reduces the effect of the material under inves-
tigation on the reactivity by not more than 0.1010.
1. Characteristics of the Stand as a
Radiation Source
Figure 4 shows the spectrum of neutrons emerging
from the upper reflector, which was calculated by V. P.
Kochergin. Due to filtration by boron that is contained in
the reflector, the neutron spectrum is much harder than the
neutron spectrum of a thermal reactor. By varying the boron
thickness in the reflector, it is possible to change the neu-
tron spectrum in the energy range below 10 keV and thus
simulate the neutron spectra of different thermal and inter-
mediate reactors. The fast neutron spectrum was measured
by means of a single-crystal scintillation neutron spectrom-
eter [1]. The measurement results are given in Fig. 5. The
solid curve indicates the U235 fission spectrum, while the
dashed curve shows the same spectrum with an allowance
for the attenuation by bismuth in the extraction cross section.
Figure 6 shows the spectrum of y -radiation emerging
from the surface of the bismuth shield, which was measured
by means of a single-crystal scintillation spectrometer for
energies above 3 MeV. The hard portion of the spectrum is
obviously due to the capture y-radiation in iron (in the struc-
ture, the reflector, etc.).
The neutron and y-radiation spectra were measured
in the same geometry and were reduced to the same reactor
power level. This made it possible to estimate the ratio of
the neutron flux to the y-radiation above the operating sur-
face of the stand. The ratio of the number of neutrons with
an energy above 0.5 MeV to the number of y -quanta with
an energy above 3 MeV was equal to ? 20. The ratio of
the total number of neutrons to y-radiation with an energy
above 1 MeV, which was estimated with an allowance for
the calculated spectrum on the basis of measurements with
a stilbene crystal (in the 1-3 MeV range), was equal to ? 7.
The fairly good ratios of neutron fluxes to y-radia-
tion that we obtained made it possible to measure neutron
spectra and even the angular distribution of neutrons, to
measure the yield of secondary y-radiation from different
materials, and to compare spectra of capture y-radiation.
As an example of the latter measurements, we can cite [2],
where considerable distortions of the y-radiation spectrum
for such important structural materials as nickel, iron, and
copper were detected. The described stand was used for
many experiments in investigations of the yield of capture
y-radiation for a number of structural and shielding mate-
rials by means of the method described in [3].
The measurement results for iron and nickel are given
below.
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Results of Measurements on the RIZ Stand
Iron
Nickel
Borated nickel (2% boron by weight)
thick-
ness,
cm
relative
yield of
y-radia-
tion
ratio of
y-radia-
tion
fluxes
B,?1?
thick-
ness,
cm
relative
yield of
y -radia-
tion
ratio of
y-radia-
tion
fluxes
5, ok
thick-
ness,
cm
relative
yield of
y -radia-
tion
ratio of
y-radia-
tion
fluxes
5,5
10
20
40
0.88
1
0.78
0.36
14.1
10,3
8,2
7.6
0,80
1,03
1.21
1,17
4,8
9,6
20
30
0,81
1
0,69
0,36
15,4
9,5
6,4
7,3
1,06
1,47
2,12
1.82
4.7
9,4
13.1
20,3
28
0.54
0,43
0.32
0,20
0.10
?
1.6
?
2.0
?
?
1,07
?
1,0
0.96
Investigation of the Yield of Capture Radiation from Iron and Nickel
Prisms with different thicknesses, which were made up of 900 x 1000 x 9 mm iron sheets, 800 x 800 x 8 mm
nickel sheets, and borated-nickel sheets with 2% boron by weight, which had a diameter of 900 mm and a thick-
ness of 15-20 mm, were placed on the operating surface of the stand.
Shields made of boron carbide, paraffin, and mixtures of boron carbide, paraffin, and water were used for re-
ducing the neutron radiation background. These shields, which surrounded the prism on all sides, were placed on
the surface of the shield under investigation.
The 7-radiation detector was also surrounded with boron-paraffin and bismuth shields. It was mounted at
distances of more than 100 cm from the surface of the shield under investigation. For measuring the background,
the solid angle formed by the detector and the prism surface was cut off by a bismuth shield with a thickness of
8-9 cm. In the y-radiation energy range from 3 to 6 MeV, the effect-to-background ratio was equal to unity even
for iron with a thickness of 40 cm.
As in [3], the end result of the experiments was the determination of the secondary radiation coefficients
8?the ratios of the total number of 7-quanta with an energy exceeding a certain threshold Ethr that emerge from
the shield surface to the total number .of neutrons emerging from the same surface.
The table provides the secondary radiation coefficients and the relative yields of capture y-radiation from
nickel, borated nickel, and iron as functions of the shield thickness. For iron,
Ethr = 5 MeV, while, for nickel and
borated nickel, Ethr = 7.5 MeV.
The secondary radiation coefficients for a Po?a?Be-source placed inside a flat iron layer were given in [3].
Comparing our results with the data for iron from [3], we see that, for thicknesses exceeding 20 cm, the secondary
radiation coefficients are in agreement within the limits of measurement accuracy (the errors in our results are
equal to 10-13%) in spite of the difference between the neutron spectra of such sources as a Po?a?Be-source and
the RIZ reactor. Considerable discrepancies are likely to be observed for smaller thicknesses due to the fact that
the influence of the iron layer under the neutron source is manifested in measurements with a Po?a?Be-source.
In the case of a two-component shield consisting of a heavy and a hydrogenous medium, the capture y-radia-
tion considerably increases, since the neutrons reflected by the hydrogenous medium are absorbed in the heavy
shield. The table also provides the ratios of 7-radiation fluxes for the case where the heavy shield is in contact
with water and the neutrons reflected by boron carbide are blocked (a B4C thickness equal to 0.5 g/cm2 is suffi-
cient for this purpose). It should be mentioned that these ratios depend on the thickness of the next shield because
of the different angular distributions of the 7-radiation produced by reflected and transmitted neutrons. This prob-
lem was discussed in detail in [4, 5].
In conclusion, the authors consider it their pleasant duty to express their deep gratitude to A. I. Leipunskii
and I. I. Bondarenkol for their continued interest in the experiments performed on the RIZ stand, toy. A. Kuznetsov
ilDeceased.
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for his valuable assistance in constructing the stand, and to A. F. Popov and A. F. Sotnikov for their work on the
construction and adjustment of the control and safety equipment for the stand.
LITERATURE CITED
1, V. A. Dulin et al., Pribory i Tekhnika Eksperimenta, No. 2, 39 (1961).
2. A. T. Bakov et al., ZhETF, 44, 3 (1963).
3. A. T. Bakov et al., Atomnaya Energiya, 13, 31 (1962).
4. D. L Broader et al., Problems in the Physics of Reactor Shielding [in Russian], Moscow, Gosatomizdat (1963),
p. 112.
5. B. F. Gromov et al., Atomnaya Energiya, 18, 69 (1965).
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A WHOLE-BODY COUNTER
(UDC 539,107)
Yu. V. Sivintsev, 0; M. Arutinov, V. A. Kanareikin,
and M. A. Banov
Translated from Atomnaya gnergiya; Vol. 18, No. 2,
PP. 141-147; February; 1965
original article submitted June 24, 1964
A description is given of a whole-body counter using NaI(T1) crystals which was constructed at the
I. V. Kurchatov Atomic Energy Institute in 1961. Results of work on improvement of instrument
parameters are presented. As a result of this work, a background count rate per kilogram of scintil-
lator equal to 7800 cts/h was obtained for the energy range 150-2100 keV. From calibrations per-
formed with water solutions of K4? and Cs137 in a phantom, it was determined that the sensitivity
for a y -emitting isotope in the human body was 1.4. 10-11 Ci/kg. The mean potassium content in
males of middle age was 1.96 ? 0.08 g K/kg body weight, and for females of the same age, it was
1.53 ? 0.04 g K/kg weight. A sharp increase in the specific activity of Cs137 in the human body ap-
peared during the period from September, 1962 to August, 1963 (from 35 to 135 nCi/g K) resulting
from contamination of the biosphere by the products of nuclear explosions.
The comparatively great hazard from internal radiation, the negligibly small permissible level of iso-
topes in the human body (fractions of a microcurie in the entire body), and me associated need for reliable identi-
fication and measurement of quantities of radioactive materials led to the construction of a whole-body counter,
Similar equipment has been built in recent years in the United States, England, France, and other countries [1]. The
high sensitivity of such spectrometers makes it possible not only to determine the type and absolute amount of radio-
active isotopes which have entered the human body, but also to solve other problems, for example, such as the de-
termination of the potassium content in vivo, the measurement of absorbed dose for neutron irradiation, the study
of the distribution and elimination of radioactive isotopes introduced into the human body, the inspection of food-
stuffs for radioactive contamination, etc.
In this paper, a whole-body counter constructed at the I. V. Kurchatov Atomic Energy Institute is described.
Description of the Whole-Body Counter
The spectrometer is located in the basement of a four-story building with brick exterior. The spectrometer
detectors and the subject to be measured are placed inside a steel chamber with internal dimensions 2 x 2x 2 m.
The walls, floor, and ceiling of the chamber, which are covered on the inside by plastic sheeting, are 20 cm thick,
and are made of Steel plates. The rolling door of the chamber is put into motion by an electric deive. Four de-
tectors.with scintillation counters (Fig, 1) are set up in the chamber; a canvas litter, on which an individual or
phantom is placed for measurement, is centered vertically in the chamber. Two detectors are located above the
litter and two below it. A suspension system assures independent manual shifting and securing of each detector both
in the horizontal and vertical directions. If necessary, the litter can be moved away from the detectors, or moved
to a vertical position on a wall of the chamber.
The chamber is ventilated by an inflow of heated air (actual flow, 300 m3/11). The air is kept free of naturally
radioactive aerosols by means of high-efficiency, fine-fiber filters. Auxiliary rooms (Fig. 2) are located close to
the chamber which make it possible to eliminate the chance of accumulating within the chamber accidental radio-
active contamination brought in on clothing or on the body. The subject being studied, after registration and medi-
cal examination, goes through a health control point, undergoes radiometric checking for cleanliness of the body
surfaces, dresses in a cotton suit, and enters the chamber for measurement. The main electronic equipment (pulse
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Fig. 1. Inside view of chamber with the four scintilla-
tion detectors of the whole-body counter.
(Sm
Equipment
room
(15ni')
AVA:VAVMVXV:Vill
V
Reception
room
(34m2)
z 2"/
/
Dressing Health
room unit
(5m 2 ) Store room)
Fig. 2. Plan of spectrometer arragement and associated auxiliary rooms.
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Crystal Dimensions and Can and Window Materials Used
in the Detectors
Crystal -
dimensions,
mm
Can material
Window material
diameter
height
200
200
140
140
60
50
50
50
Aluminum
1Kh18N9T
stainless
steel
Quartz
Type TK-16
potassium-
free glass
height analyzer, distribution unit, plate-filament power supply, electromagnetic stabilizers) and instruments for
checking and adjustment are located in a neighboring room.
Each of the four detectors contains a scintillation counter consisting of a NaI(T1) single crystal and an FU-44
photomultiplier with an envelope of type S49-1 (3S-5-Na) potassium-free glass. The crystal cans are made of stain-
less steel or aluminum; the windows are of quartz or potassium-free glass. The table gives the dimensions of the
crystals installed in each detector and the materials used in cans and windows.
The construction of the detectors assures minimum absorption of recorded y -radiation in the entrance window
because the aluminum container which fastens the crystal to the detector covers only the lateral surfaces of the crys-
tal can and has a minimal thickness of 1.5 mm. The materials from which structural elements of the detectors are
made (aluminum, St. 3, Armco iron, SAV aluminum alloy) were previously investigated with respect to radioactive
contamination in order to select materials with minimum specific activity.
A cathode follower with 6N6P dual triodes is mounted in each detector.
Signals from the output of the cathode follower, as well as high voltage for the photomultiplier and the plate-
filament supply of the preamplifier, are fed by cables coming out of the ceiling of the chamber through the labaryn-
thine entrance of the ventilation duct.
Pulses from all detectors are summed in the distribution unit. At the same point, regulators are provided with
which one can vary the high voltage supplied to the photomultipliers of each detector in order to couple them. The
high voltage is taken from two VS-22 high-voltage rectifiers fed by SNE 220/0.5 electromagnetic stabilizers. VS-12
rectifiers are used for the plate-filament supply of the detector preamplifiers.
The pulse height analysis is carried out with ADA-50 or AMA-3S analyzers. As a rule, the latter is kept in
reserve.
Studies to Improve Spectrometer Parameters
The particular conditions under which a whole-body counter is used are, as already mentioned, the small
amount of radioactive materials requiring identification and quantitative determination, and the large dimensions
and complex geometric shape of the volume source and of the absorbing and scattering media. Thus there arises
the necessity for ensuring low background and high detection efficiency for low-intensity y -radiation.
It is necessary to change the location of the detectors from measurement to measurement because of the large
dimensions of the human body and the possibility of a concentration of activity in individual organs. Consequently,
an additional requirement is the stability of detector readings under constant conditions of irradiation. It is there-
fore necessary to eliminate the effect of a magnetic field on photomultiplier operation. For the same reason, local-
ized sources of increased background are not permissible in the chamber equipment or in the detectors.
The complexity of the geometric shape of the subjects measured that has been mentioned makes it necessary
to give up the use of point sources of known activity for calibrating the spectrometer and to calibrate either with
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220V
0 0
". 220/380
IT
6
Fig. 3. Electrical circuit used for demagnetization of the chamber: 1) VSA-5 rectifier; 2)type
PS-500 welding unit; 3) 600 A ammeter; 4) 30 A ammeter; 5) current-reversing switch; 6)
steel shielding.
phantoms or with humans in whose bodies there are known amounts of radioactive materials. Because spectrometer
calibration for many isotopes with a phantom is an extremely time-consuming process, instrumental stability and
constancy of background counts over a period of several months are desirable. In turn, this places rigid requirements
on such parameters as constancy of gain, invariance of the calibration curve for dependence of spectrometer sensitiv-
ity on radiation energy, 'steady background, etc.
In order to reduce the inherent detector background, studies were made of the potassium contamination in
glasses and in canning materials, as well as in the raw materials for the manufacture of NaI(T1) single crystals at
various stages in processing and production, and in the finished scintillators. As a result, a strong fluctuation of
potassium content from batch to batch (of an order of magnitude) came to light. It was further established that,
during the course of the process adopted for growing single crystals of NaI(T1), potassium from .the ceramic forms
migrated into the sodium iodide melt. A satisfactory solution for the problem of reducing potassium content in
finished crystals (down to 5. 10-4?70) was obtained by using quartz ampoules for growing crystals from selected raw
materials.
. The work on growing potassium-free crystals was carried out by members of the single-crystal scintillator
laboratory of the All-Union Instrument Research Institute, and the spectral analysis of potassium content in raw
materials and at various stages of the crystal production process was performed by members of the State Rare Metals
Research Institute and of the Geochemical Institute, both in Moscow, to all of whom the authors take this opportunity
to express their gratitude.
A significant source of potassium background was detected in the glasses used in several types of photomulti-
pliers and scintillators. For example, the use of a type FEU-44 photomultiplier, whose envelope is made of 3S-5-Na
potassium-free glass, instead of the previously used FEU-24, in a detector with a commercial NaI(T1) scintillator
70 x 50 mm in size (potassium content ? 2. 10-2%) reduced the background counting rate by approximately 1.8
times. At the same time, the total counting rate for measured activity in the glass of the FEU-24 photocathode and
in the window of the can of the single crystal mentioned was approximately 9500 and 5000 cts/h, respectively, the
photopeak for K4? radiation being clearly visible in both spectra. A significant admixture of potassium is also found
in the FEU-11A, FEU-13, and particularly the FEU-23 photomultipliers.
In order to select materials for scintillator windows, studies were made of plastic (Plexiglas),1 quartz, and
3S-5-Na and TK-16 potassium-free glass. In none of the materials was any noticeable activity whatever detected
with the exception of TK-16 glass. Measurements of the latter revealed an insignificant rise in counts, mainly in
the 0.6-MeV region. Apparently, this is explained by the contamination with isotopes of the radium and barium
families found in TK-16 glass.
The measurements also showed that slightly active materials suitable for use inside crystal and detector cans
are manganese oxide, polystyrene cement, 1Kh18N9T stainless steel, copper, aluminum, St. 3 carbon steel, Armco
iron, Permalloy-78, and various synthetic materials. These materials were used in the manufacture of scintillator
cans and detector components.
1NaI(T1) crystals sealed in cans with Plexiglas windows were short-lived.
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/
The most suitable photomuliplier turned out to be the
FEU-44 with an envelope of 3S-5-Na potassium-free glass. As
a result, the total background counting rate in the 150-2100 keV
energy range per kg of scintillator was reduced to 7800 cts/h [2].
This made it possible to achieve a sensitivity of 10-9 Ci of a
y-emitting isotope in the body of an individual (1.4 10-I1Ci/kg)
for a counting period of 300 sec. The resolution for the 661 keV
y-quanta of Cs137 was 17-21% for individual detectors and 19%
for measurements with the four detectors.
During tests of the electronic equipment, it was observed
40 40 40 that the main source of unstable operation was the photomulti-
plier. A batch (15 samples) of type FEU-44 photomultipliers
was checked by testing each sample for 24 h. After a four-hour
warmup, variations in pulse height (for pulses corresponding to
the CsI37 photopeak) did not exceed 1% for four of the FEU-44,
were no more than 6% for four others, and were greater than 6%
for the rest. Subsequent measurements were made on selected
samples of stable photomultipliers during 24-h operation of the
equipment.
When using the FEU-44 photomultipliers, it became apparent that the pulse heights at the photomultipliers,
output varied with shifts or changes in the positions of the detectors in the chamber though irradiation conditions
remained the same. The same sort of an effect, although to a lesser degree, was observed with the use of FEU-24
photomultipliers. By shielding a detector with several layers of Armco iron or Permalloy, it was established that
the variations in pulse height were associated with the existence of a magnetic field in the chamber which dis-
torted the electron trajectories in the focussing region of the FEU-44 photomultiplier (in the FEU-24 photomultiplier,
this effect was smaller because the electron trajectories in it are considerably shorter). Therefore, the magnetic
shielding of the photomultipliers (Armco iron, 2 mm thick) proved to be unsatisfactory.
Direct measurements with a magnetometer verified the existence of strongly inhomogeneous magnetic field
inside the chamber whose instensity in particular areas exceeded values typical of the Earth's magnetic field. The
maximum value of the horizontal component of the magnetic field inside the chamber was 0.8 Oe. Evidently, the
existence of such a field was connected with the fact that the chamber was constructed of steel plates which very
likely had previously undergone magnetization.
To reduce the effect of the field on the operation of the detectors, it was decided to demagnetize the cham-
ber with alternating current. To accomplish this, the multilayer steel shielding was wrapped with 20 turns of cop-
per conductor 150 mm2 in cross section. The current supply was a PS-500 welding machine to whose excitation
winding a VSA-5 rectifier was connected to provide current regulation (Fig. 3). The current during a single cycle
was varied manually in such a way that its time variation was approximately sinusoidal. The length of a cycle was
chosen to be 1 min on the basis of the reaction to the skin effect. After each cycle, the current direction was re-
versed by means of a switch. The maximum current amplitude in the first cycle was 600 A; the reduction in am-
plitude from cycle to cycle was 20 A.
As a result of this demagnetization, the field in the chamber became uniform; the average value of the
horizontal component of magnetic field intensity was reduced to 0.06 Oe. When a detector with an FEU-44 without
magnetic shielding was moved around the chamber, the pulse height at the photomultiplier output underwent no
variation.
Fig. 4. Location of detectors for whole-body
counting.
Spectrometer Calibration
There are several methods, differing in accuracy and principles, for calibrating the spectrometer. The first of
these consists of the introduction of a known amount of radioactive isotope into the body of a control subject and the
measurement of the resulting radiation. This method is the most accurate since it takes into account self-absorption
and scattering of the y -radiation in the body of the particular individual. However, the introduction of radioactivity
into the body is accompanied by the acquisition of an additional dose of internal radiation, which is undesirable de-
spite its negligibly small amount. A second, less exact method of calibration is based on a comparison of y-ray
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?
4=,
1500
a)
co
C1.1) 1000
t.Q
t)13
.0
soo
\\.
Et= 0,66t MeV
(Ci137)
1
0 10
E =146 MeV
1
k 4 0 )
x x
0
00 3
50
Channel number
Fig, 5. Analysis of a radiation spectrum for an individual dontaining 127 g potassium and 15,7
nCi Cs137 (subject 121, female): 1) spectrum of radiation from the individual; 2) difference
spectrum for radiation from the individual and from a phantom containing KCI; 3) difference
spedtturn for radiation from the individual and from a phantom containing KCI and Cs137.
spectra from a person and from a phantom filled with a solution of one or another radioactive material of known
activity. In our investigations, We used the second method, which is not accompanied by the drawback mentioned
above. the phantom,. Made of plaStic, had the dirnensionS of the so-called standard man (176 cm in height, 70 kg
in Weight). TwO isotopes, K40 and Cs, which are most widely distributed in people's bodies, Were chosen for cali-
bration. The long-lived radioactive isotope 1 5
Cl h 2
Rn lu 1, they are extracted in 20-30 revolutions at up to 5010 efficiency; the radiation dose rate is 300-400 R/min ? m.
A 100 kV external injector has been proposed for use in the industrial inspection betatron system.
M. Sajdl (Institute of Plasma Physics, CSSR) read a theoretical paper on the electron capture mechanism in
betatron acceleration and reported on experimental research which confirms these theoretical conclusions. In his
view, electrons are formed in bunches, and in the bunching process an appreciable portion of the electrons become
lost with high-frequency oscillations resulting. Contraction of the instantaneous orbits ensues as a result, and the
remainder of the electrons bypass the injector.
Prof. A, A. Vorob'ev (USSR) drew attention to the fact that this theory can possibly explain many experiments
on electron acceptance in the acceleration mode.
C. C. Ilescu (Institute of Atomic Physics, Rumania) submitted an account of a 25-MeV Rumanian betatron,
The equilibrium orbit radius of the betatron is 25 cm, the pole gap aperature is 6.74 by 7,8 cm2, and n 0.75. At
an injection energy of 30 keV, the radiation dose rate is 42 Rimin. The betatron is being employed, in research on
the interaction between nuclei and electrons, and in nondestructive testing.
L. Schmalz and E. Burger (Physics and Engineering Institute, East Germany) reported on the design of a 30-MeV
betatron. Am improved Kerst injector is used in this machine. Conductors leading to the heating filament are en-
closed in metal tubes fabricated together with a Wehnelt cylinder, in order to reduce the field intensity. The fila-
ment and the Wehnelt cylinder form a single replaceable unit. High-loss steel was used in fabricating the elec-
tromagnet, requiring a water-air cooling system to allow continuous betatron functioning for 6 h. Details in the
center of the betatron poles are water-cooled,
Prof. S. Nowicki (Institute of Electronics, Poland) described the design of a 30-MeVbetatron which has been
in operation since 1956. The betatron generates radiation at dose rates up to 65 Rimin? m. The energy of the ac-
celerated electrons is stabilized and subject to smooth control. Cold-rolled steel with a maximum induction of
17,000 G in the rolling direction and 14,000 G transverse to the rolling direction is used for the electromagnet. The
vacuum chambers are made of porcelain or of epoxy resin.
Prof. A. A. Vorob'ev (Tomsk Polytechnic Institute, USSR) reported on projects for developing miniaturized
and high-:current betatrons, and on betatrons for nondestructive inspection of thick-walled structures under industrial
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conditions. The miniaturized betatrons (developed under the supervision of L. M. Anan'ev) and their use in practice
are subjects of keen interest.
V. A. MoskaleV (Nuclear Physics Research Institute, Tomsk Polytechnic Institute, USSR) reported on the de-
velopment of high-current dual-chamber stereobetatrons and betatrons for physical research. As many as 1012 elec-
trons are accelerated to 25 MeV in a pulsed stereobetatron by increasing the gap aperture of the electromagnet
(220 by 290 mm) and by high-voltage external injection (350 kV). The intensity of the 25-MeV betatron no.w being
manufactured, operating at 50 cps, is 780 R/min?m even at 15 MeV, and should be several times higher when the
machine is brought up to its full energy rating.
A high-current bantam-size 3 MeV stereobetatron is designed to operate at frequencies to 1000 cps. Its
magnet is wound from thin-sheet cold-rolled steel. It is suggested that its intensity will be about 10 R/min?m,
with each accelerating system in the stereobetatron operating at the frequency 400 cps.
M. F. Filippov (Tomsk Polytechnic Institute, USSR) reported on engineering calculations procedures for de-
signing a betatron electromagnet and for optimizing chamber dimensions in terms of a specified energy and speci-
fied dose rate,
V. A. Vorob'ev (Tomsk Polytechnic Institute, USSR) reported on applications of bantam-size 3-5 MeV beta-
trons for inspection of seam weldments under industrial conditions, and also reported on variations in absorption.
The reporter suggested an approach for calculating the sensitivity of radiation flaw detection techniques in hetero-
geneous materials,
W. Polit (Institute of Biophysics, West Germany) reported on techniques for measuring the intensity and energy
of y -radiation. The design of calorimeters, flow-type and extrapolating ionization chambers facilitating absolute
measurements of both intensity and energy of y -radiation, was described.
A paper by F. Klapper (Physics and Engineering Institute, German Democratic Republic) was devoted to mea-
surements of y-radiation intensity at energies from 7 to 30 MeV, using a thick-walled chamber. The energy de-
pendence of the chamber current over the 7 to 30 MeV energy range was shown to remain within 110 variation
when the walls of the ionization chamber are 4,5 mm thick.
J. Slaba (Materials and Production Technology Research Institute, CSSR), I. Leibovici (Institute of Atomic
Energy, Rumania), G. Nietzsche (Physics and Engineering Institute, German Democratic Republic), F. Klapper
(Physics and Engineering Institute, German Democratic Republic) devoted their reports to betatron nondestructive
inspection of thick-walled stuctures and parts. J. Slaba reported that on the development of contrast-enhancement
screens of monolayer films of fluorescent material coated on metal to improve the productivity and sensitivity of
betatron radiographic techniques. Because of the minute thickness of this screen, the sharpness of the resulting
image is far greater than when screens on a cardboard substrate are used.
The report by G. Nietzsche told of the first work in the field of betatron radioscopic flaw detection under-
taken at the Physics and Engineering Institute. The use of contrast-enhancing screens made of tantalum was found
to be less expensive because of the long service life of the screens. When the betatron intensity was stepped up
from 80 to 140 R/min, thick-walled parts could be inspected with acceptable exposures. The paper by I. Leibovici
reported on the reduction in size of the focal spot when a protruding target was employed.
Prof. R. Widerbe reported that the Brown-Boveri Ltd. firm has delivered 31 medical betatrons to various coun-
tries throughout the world (USA, Japan, Italy, the Netherlands, West Germany, United Kingdom, etc.). These be-
tatrons produce a beam of y-radiation or an extracted electron beam; they are equipped with a 90-100 kV diag-
nostic x-ray tube. The firm delivered seven betatrons for industrial flaw inspection (the USSR was customer for
one of these). Impregnated tungsten cathodes capable of generating emission currents of 250-300 A at a tempera-
ture of 1050-1080?C and capable of long service life are being used as a new feature in betatron injectors; some of
the cathodes have already been through 23,000 h of operational service each.
Prof. P. Winderoe feels that radioactive radiation sources must be replaced by the miniaturized betatrons,
since about 3000 isotopes have been used in West Germany alone during the past half decade.
W. Polit, in reporting some of the results of treatment of patients by betatron irradiation, noted an important
psychological factor to be taken into account in the therapy, in addition to the high penetrating power of the be-
tatron y-radiation, the low scattering outside the collimating beam, etc. This psychological factor consists in the
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freedom from radiation sickness symptoms (nausea, vomiting, headaches) which unfailingly accompany x-ray therapy,
but which do not plague betatron irradiation therapy. The fact that the patients are readily willing to undergo treat-
ment improves the chances for success. Polit reported that seven betatrons of energies randing from 10 to 50 MeV
are in operation in various West German cities, in experiments following a single master plan. All of the labora-
tories share a common system of accident prevention and maintenance provided for by the supplier.
The colloquium revealed a high demand for betatrons; the main problem now is simplification of operating
procedures and improvements in the intensity and reliability of the machines.
Mention was made of the unfeasability of raising the electron energy above 30 MeV. A decision was made
to convoke the colloquium annually in one of the nations participating regularly in the Jena colloquium.
The colloquium demonstrated in life the creative contact of the socialist countries in the field of research and
development work on induction accelerators.
Representatives of all the socialist countries engaged in work on betatrons, with the exeption of the USSR, were
included on the staff of the organizing committee of the colloquium (as in the case of the two preceding colloquia).
Our feeling is that an official participation by the USSR in this organizing work would have been desirable.
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CONFERENCE ON THE PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY
OF ALKALI HALIDE SCINTILLATORS
R. V. Bakradze and Yu. A. Tsirlin
Translated from Atomnaya gnergiya, Vol. 18, No. 2,
pp. 193-194, February, 1965
The April 1964 conference on the physics and technology of alkali halide scintillators was held at the All-
Union Single Crystal Research Institute in Khar'kov. The purpose of the conference was to seek out ways to im-
prove the scintillation efficiency and resolving power of alkali halide single crystals.
E. R. Il'mes et al., (Institute of Physics and Astronomy?Academy of Sciences of the Estonian SSR) submitted
a report "Mechanism of photoluminescence and radioluminescence in ionic crystals" pointing out how the scintil-
lation efficiencies achieved at present in the USSR and elsewhere fall below the theoretical estimates (see Table 1),
The reason for this appalingly low scintillation efficiency is said to be large inertial losses and partly migra-
tion losses.
A. B. Lyskovich (L'vov State University) reported on a study of the effect of etching quality in growing NaI(T1)
crystals by the Kiropoulos method. A correlation was established between the resolving power of the crystals and the
slow component in scintillation quenching. The results confirmed the dual (exciton and electron-hole) mechanism
of energy transfer in NaI(T1).
A paper presented by K. K. Shvarts and E. D. Aluker (Institute of Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the
Latvian SSR) cited data on the radioluminescence of thallium-activated KCI, KBr, KI, Nal, CsI crystals excited by
y-x-ray bombardment and in-pile radiation. The thermoluminescence spectra, the temperature dependence of the
steady-state luminescence in excitation by x-radiation and y-radiation, by a-particles and by pile radiation, were
studied. The temperature dependence of the radioluminescence yield was found to deviate markedly from the tem-
perature dependence of the yield of luminescence within the impurity centers. Differences were also found in the
behavior of the yields for the fast and inertial components of radioluminescence. The variation of the luminescent
yield with temperature differs substantially as dE/dx varies (e. g., in the case of a-radiation and y-radiation). Even
though the detailed mechanism underlying the temperature quenching process remains obscure, experimental data
indicate that quenching of radioluminescence leads primarily to radiationless electron-hole recombination, i. e.,
to external quenching processes.
Findings of a study on thermal and thermo-optical de-excitation and on excited absorption of NaI(T1) crystals
exposed to x-rays were reported in a paper by Z. B. Baturicheva (Single Crystal Research Institute). Diminished
absorption of paired thallium activator centers (>max 310 mg) following x-ray treatment was reported, with the
?
absorption recovered exponentially with a period of 3 min. Redistribution of electrons over trapping levels (F cen-
ters and thallium centers) as a result of plastic flow and changes in thallium concentration was also considered.
TABLE 1. Radioluminescent Efficiency of Alkali Halides
Substance
Radioluminescent
efficiency, lo
experimental
theoretical
KI(TI)
UI(Tl)
'MI(H)
31
25
33
(i
15
The reporter found a number of glow peaks due to
breakdown of the trapping centers, which are as-
sociated with thermal microimperfections in the lat-
tices. The proposition was advanced that the large
light sums stored in certain crystals are due to the
presence of impurities in those crystals, and parti-
cularly to the presence of anion impurities.
A report by A. N. Panova (Single Cryatal Re-
search Institute) was devoted to an investigation of
the excitation spectra and kinetic behavior of NaI(T1)
single crystals containing both cationic and anionic
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impurities. The presence of copper and of anionic impurities appearing in the crystal during the growth phase was
found to lower the luminescent yield in the absorption region of the host material by recombination losses. Lead
impurity introduced into the crystal, principally with the activator, was also found to reduce the luminescent yield,
both by competition in the absorption of the exciting radiation and by reabsorption of thallium emission. The con-
clusion was reached that the inertial response and the ratio of the excitation in the lattice to the excitation in the
long-wavelength activator band may be used to estimate the quality of the scintillator crystals (homogeneity through-
out the volume, freedom from impurities).
A paper by Ya. A. Zakharin provided a review of the research conducted at the All-Union Single Crystal Re-
search Institute on the development of a fabrication technology for variously dimensioned NaI(T1) crystals of spec-
trometric purity. The significance of the quality of the raw material and of the preparation techniques prior to
crystal growing was demonstrated. The best specimens of NaI(T1) crystals 150 mm in diameter featured 10-11%
resolution (over the Cs137 y-ray photopeak).
A paper by T. A. Soovik, N. E. Lushchik, Ch. B. Lushchik contained the results of research by the Institute of
Physics and Astronomy of the Academy of Sciences of the Estonian SSR on surface activation of alkali halides in or-
der to produce scintillation detectors.
Problems related to the production of raw material for scintillators and to their fabrication technology were
also discussed at the conference.
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"ATOMIC ENERGY" PAVILION AT THE 1964 EXHIBIT
OF ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE USSR NATIONAL ECONOMY
L. I. Petrenko
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 18, No. 2,
pp. 194-197, February, 1965
The "Atomic Energy" pavilion at the exhibit of the achievements of the USSR national economy underwent
substantial rearrangement and renovation in 1964, and was housed in a new building.
Approximately 130 research, design, and civil engineering organizations, industrial plants, educational insti-
tutions, and medical institutions demonstrated their achievements in the "Atomic Energy" pavilion, in over 550
exhibits.
The pavilion was opened to the public with a display of results achieved in the development of nuclear power
and controlled fusion research. The public showed special interest in models of the I. V. Kurchatov nuclear power
station at Belyi Yar and the nuclear power station at Novyi Voronezh, the OGRA, OREKH, TOKAMAK, and PR-5
thermonuclear machines, and the nuclear-powered icebreaker LENIN. Color film shorts on the work of Soviet re-
search scientists in the promotion of nuclear power and plasma research, and film shorts on the navigation of the
nuclear vessel LENIN were shown. Moving color displays presented the visting public with an opportunity to
acquaint themselves with the operating principles of nuclear electric power stations, and exhibits of designs of fuel
elements and various materials used in nuclear reactor construction and design provided a lucid picture of the com-
plexity of the problems resolved by our scientists and engineers.
The adjoining hall showed the results of work in building unique accelerator facilities intended for the study
of the structure of the atomic nucleus and for the production of new transuraniuni elements. Models of accelerators
built at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research are on display here (the 10-GeV proton synchrotron, the multiply-
charged ion accelerator, and others), as well as machines in operation at other research centers. Excellent display
stands give the public an idea of the scope of the construction work on the world's largest accelerator in the Serpu-
khov district?a 60-70 GeV strong-focusing proton synchrotron.
Here the public becomes acquainted with the principles for recording nuclear radiations, and with a wide ? ?
variety of radiation detectors manufactured for that purpose by our industry. Gas discharge counters, scintillation
crystals and plastics, photoelectric multiplier tubes on exhibit were indicative of the unyielding growth and advance-
ment of this new field in scientific instrumentation. The accompanying table cited technical data on some of the
photomultiplier tubes which the visitors displayed peak interest in.
A considerable portion of the exhibit in the pavilion was devoted to methods in the use of nuclear radiations,
stable and radioactive isotopes in various branches of the national economy, and in the production of isotopes. This
section took up about half the entire floor area of the pavilion, and was opended by a stand display showing the
USSR isotope production picture.
Visitors manifested keen interest in models of research reactors such as the VVR, IRT, and SM-2 piles, and in
exhibits demonstrating the possible uses of nuclear radiations in radiation processing of materials and in radiation
chemical processes. Findings of research on radiation modification of cotton, radiation processing of polyethylene
cable insulation, thermoradiation vulcanization of rubber tires, were presented to the public here. Industrial en-
terprises in such districts of the national economy as the Western Siberian, Donets basin, L'vov, Volgo-Vyatsk,
Byelorussian, and others demonstrated their achivements on incorporating isotope techniques in industry.
Radioisotope studies of special aspects of the process of reduction of phosphorus pig iron melts and high-load-
capacity tilting open hearth furnaces, and tracer studies of wear on the hearths, have been carried out at the Sergo
Ordzhonikidze "Azovstal" Zhdanovo metallurgical plant; these studies have resulted in anew improved technology
for maintenance and overhaul of the furnace hearths.
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TABLE 1, Engineering Data on Some Photomultiplier Tubes
Engineering
characteristic
FEIJ-49-B
FEU-52
Design
Photocathode material
Diameter of effective
photocathode area, mm
Number of amplifying
stages
Electron focusing
Spectral. sensitivity
range, A
Wavelength correspond-
ing to maximum spec-
tral response, A
Peak height, mm
Peak diameter, mm
Largest weight, g
Number of base pins
Minimum integrated
sensitivity of photo-
cathode,
Dark current, 10-8 A
Cs137 peak amplitude
reolution, %
Time resolution (not
inferior to), 10-8
Peak supply voltage, V
Ambient temperature,
?C
*As in Russian original--
Glass Glass, baseless
Antimony-potassium-
sodium -cesium, semi-
transparent, on inner
side of envelope
150
12
3000-8000
203
171
1000
35
80
3000
+ 70
= 60
Publisher.
70
12
2000-8000
4200 ? 500
133,3
81
180
20
50
6
< 14
6
2500
+ 70
? 60
FEU-53
FEU-54
FEU-55
FEU-56
Glass, baseless
Glass, baseless
with hard or
soft lead-in
wires
Glass, baseless
with hard Or
soft lead-in
wires
Bismuth-
silver-cesium,
semi=
transparent
Glass, baseless
Antimony-
cesium, semi-
transparent
Antimony-cesium,
semitransparent
45
16
16
70
14
14
14
12
Electrostatic, alloyed louvers
2500-6500
4200 ? 200
117
3300-6500
4000-100
- 200*
90
3300-7500
5000 ? 200
90
3000-6500
4000 ? 200
133.3
51
21.5
21,5
81
120
25
25
180
20
22
22
20
25
20
20
30
< 10
< 80
<
80
< 10
< 12
.<
13 ? 2
< 14
6
2500
+ 70
? 60
1800
+ 85
? 60
1800
+ 85
? 60
6
2500
+ '70
? 60
The Luga isotopes laboratory has carried out extensive work to promote the use of radioisotope devices and
means in automatic process monitoring and control in that region. A y-ray inspection method for monitoring joints
in rubber conveyor belting buttressed by steel lines has been installed at the Novo-Druzheskii mine pits, thereby
aiding in the organization of timely preventive maintenance and bringing about savings of 25 thousand rubles an-
nually by eliminating teats in the belts. y-ray electronic switches for monitoring fill levels in dumpcars, automa-
tion of skip hoist operation, automatic filling of wheelbarrows and automation of other processes in loading, un-
loading, and hauling of coal are being used at the Talovskaya-2, Artem No. 10, Krasnyi Partizan, and other mines,
thereby freeing a certain number of miners from underground duties.
At the Angara oil refinery in the Eastern Siberian district of the national economy, the introduction of radio-
isotope instrumentation has meant significant improvements in production and working conditions at absorption
plants, thermal cracking plants, and in apparatus where corrosive materials are used.
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Annual savings not less than 40 thousand rubbles have been achieved at the State Razdol'skii Ore chemical
processing combine via improvements in sulfur technology resulting from the implementation or radioisotope instru-
ment techniques.
A display sponsored by the Il'ich Zhdanovo metallurgical plant was quite popular; this stand showed the orga-
nization of radioisotope work for process monitoring and research. A special class II radiometric laboratory was set
up, equipped for work with unsealed radioactive isotopes. Four teams are working in this laboratory on electronics
and radiometry, on blast furnace and steelmaking production, on steel rolling and allied production, and on radia-
tion safety. Staff members of the laboratory are principally engaged in the study of metallurgical production pro-
cesses using radioactive tracers, and in the development and implementation of automatic control plans involving
the use of commercial radioisotope instrumentation. The servicing and operation of radioisotope instruments in-
stalled in production premises are carried out by a special division of the instrument and measurement workshop.
The radiation safety team is responsible for the systematic checking and supervision of the proper use and implemen-
tation of radioisotope techniques, for elaborating instructions on safe work practices, for indoctrinating servicing
and maintenance personnel in the basics of work with radioactive materials. Radiation safety posts headed by lead-
ing laboratory technologists have been set up in those shops of the plant where radioisotopes are in general use (the
blast furnace section, the steelmaking section, the rolling mill section). The electronics and radiometry team and
the radiation safety team are headed by engineering physicists, while the team responsible for radioactive tech-
niques in blast furnace, steelmaking, and rolling mill production are engineering technologists in the specialties
involved.
Stands demonstrating the predominant use of radiation sources and isotopes in the prospecting, exploration,
and development of mining ores are well designed and equipped; the work of the All-Union Institute of Nuclear
Geophysics and Geochemistry and the "Tatneftegeofizika" petroleum geophysical trust, and others is represented in
the display. Among the instruments on display is a variety of isotope equipment for process control and monitoring
and special-function instruments, The IGN-1 pulsed borehole neutron generator designed to aid in the study of the
actual composition of rocks encountered in prospecting and exploration work at ore deposits is an original design,
and is used in pulsed neutron-neutron logging work in boreholes over 127 mm in diameter and down to 3000 meters
in depth. This is a reliable instrument for tracking down displacements in water-oil and gas-liquid contacts in strata,
and is a tremendously useful tool in monitoring the development of oil and gas fields, and in reducing loss of pay
ores. A miniaturized ion accelerator in which fast 14 MeV neutrons are formed by bombarding a tritium target with
up to 0.3 MeV deuterons, is employed as the neutron source; the average yield of fast neutrons is 5. 107 neutrons/sec;
the pulse rate is 200 Hz with pulse duration from 50 to 200 msec. Slow neutrons are recorded by means of propor-
tional counters filled with boron trifluoride. The diameter of the well drilling rig is 102 mm, and the length is
2900 mm.
Visitors manifested special interest in the SDPU-1 smoke and fire alarm system; it is designed for remote
detection of smoke from a conflagration, and may also be used as an alarm device for overheating or hot spots in
electrical equipment and as a sensor for actuating fire-dousing equipment. The device operates on the basis of
the difference in the ionization brought about by a-particles emitted by the isotope Pu239 in pure air and in smoke-
filled air. The facility features 100 distinct sensors which may be stationed in different rooms, and serves to monitor
an area of about 10,000 m2. The facility is supplied from a 220 V ac supply, consuming 80 W power.
This section is completed with a display on applications of nuclear radiations and isotopes in construction,
biology, agriculture, and medicine.
The Institute of Experimental Biology of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR presented the results of
the derivation of new strains of the cotton plant by radiation-induced selection experiments. Two new strains of
cotton featuring distinct advantages over their precursors were obtained. One of these is distinguished by larger
bolls weighing 9 to 9,5 g, and by an increase in the number of bolls, to 11 bolls on a single plant. The second
strain produced had smaller bolls (0-7-1 g less than in the parent strain), but yielded a very slender silken fiber.
Substantial changes have been brought about in the outfitting of medical institutions in recent years, with
the use of nuclear radiation and radioisotopes in the therapy and diagnostics of a variety of illnesses and malfunc-
tions, and this was properly reflected in the exhibit at the pavilion. The Semashko Central Clinical Hospital de-
monstrated techniques for utilizing P32 in the treatment of erythremia, a blood disease. Small doses of radioactive
phosphorus were introduced over a 5-7 day interval, to make up a total dosage of 8 mCi. Normalization of the state
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
NEW BOOKS
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 18, No. 2,
pp, 198-200, February, 1965
A. M. Kabakchi, Ya. I. Lavren.tovich, and V. V. Pen'kovskii. Khimicheskaya dozim-
etriya ioniziruyushchikh izluchenii [Chemical dosimetry of ionizing radiations]. Kiev, published by the Academy
of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, 1964, 156 pages, 65 kopeks.
This compact item, written by prominent Soviet research scientists, consists of four chapters and a short in-
troduction. The concise first chapter (16 pages) presents a clear outline of the field of applications of chemical
dosimetry techniques. The next chapter (30 pages) carries a description of the fundamentals of chemical dosim-
etry. Radiation similitude of the medium investigation and of the dosimetric system, dependence of the radiation
yield on various factors are presented in compact format, and a description is given of the techniques employed in
recording chemical changes in dosimetric systems, with formulations of the basic requirements regarding radiation
chemical reactions exploited in dosimetry. The highpoint of the book is chapter III (63 papers) which is devoted
to chemical dosimetry techniques. Here the authors report information on the three.basic types of radiation chem-
ical systems; aqueous solutions and gels; polymers and organic compounds; glasses and ionic crystals. The elec-
trochemical method for dose rate determinations is also described briefly in this chapter. The last chapter takes
up dose determinations of several modes of radiation by chemical methods.
Each of the chapters features an extensive bibliography, and the total number of references runs to 435titles.
The book is intended for a broad readership of specialists engaged in measurements of the absorbed energy
of various types of ionizing radiations.
Directory of Nuclear Reactors. Volume 5, Research, Test and Experimental Reactors [in English]. Vienna,
IAEA, 1964, 327 pages.
The International Atomic Energy Agency has now issued the scheduled fifth volume of the reference series
on nuclear reactors, this one serving as a supplement to the second and third volumes. Volume 5 cites reference
information on 78 research, testing, and experimental reactors in operation or under construction in 16 countries.
As is the case in the preceding volumes, the reactors are grouped, principally by the type of moderator used.
Two such groups are formed by reactors using ordinary water as moderator. The first group includes pool
type research reactors; OWR, SPR, WPIR, UWNP, HHLP, PRPR, Buffalo, TR-1, IRT (Sofiya), SPERT-4, TRR-1, Siloe,
Siloetta, and the IISNR reactor. Of greatest interest in this group is the French 15 MW Siloe reactor, and the uni-
que SPERT-4 reactor (USA) built for research on reactor kinetics and reactor stability.
The second group is formed by pressure-vessel type research reactors. These are mostly high-power modern
reactors intended for nuclear engineering research: tests of fuel compositions, tests of fuel elements, controls, struc-
tural materials, and reactor parts. The reactors are also designed for isotope production and physics research. Worthy
of mention in the reactors of this group are the improved test reactor ATR (250 MW power rating), the ETR engineer-
ing tests reactor (175 MW), the WTR (60 MeV), NASA-TR (60 MeV), and the Pegasus (30 MW) reactors. The ESADA
nuclear superheat Vallecitos reactor and the HFIR high-flux reactor for isotope production, engineerin g and physics
research are of enormous interest, This group also includes the NASA-MUR, Peggy, and SAFARI-1 (20 MW)reactors.
The next group is constituted by the now quite popular ARGONAUT family of reactors. In most cases these
are low-power reactors (from 10 to 10 kW) with light water as both moderator and coolant. They are designed for
training purposes and for nuclear physics research, Of the 17 reactors in this group, many are the property of uni-
versities and other educational bodies.
The fourth group combines two types of homogeneous research reactors. These include six pulsed TRIGA-2
in regular production, designed for prolonged operation at 200 kW power. Peak pulsed power is 250 MW. The second
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of health of most patients so afflicted in the hospital was the result of this treatment, the blood composition being
normalized for a 5-y period, after which the treatment is to be repeated, 209 patients have undergone this treat-
ment in 12 y at the hospital, and the rate of recovery is 9250. The results of using Cr31 tracer to measure the vol-
ume of blood circulating through the organism as well as, the mass of circulating erythrocytes, and the use of Fe59
to estimate the activity of blood formation and to determine the causes of spleen enlargement were other applica-
tions displayed.
The Moscow municipal oncological hospital No. 62 had a display on the treatment of malignant tumors by
radiative therapy combined with other familar techniques.
New equipment for use in the treatment of various malignancies was on display, including models of a medi-
cal accelerator, a medical betatron, and the y-therapeutic ROKUS facility. The rotary-convergent y-therapeutic
ROKUS facility is built for convergent, pendulum type, rotary-convergent, tangential, and static y-ray therapy of
superficial and deeply embedded tumors. The radiation source employed is radioactive cobalt of up to 4000 Ci
activity. The lesioned organs are treated by several fields of irradiation which are designed to minimize damage
to unaffected tissues. The dose rate at one meter from the source is 60 R/min.
Other new pieces of equipment being introduced into our medical institutions are the diagnostic scintillation
facility DSU-61 for making scans of the 1131 in the human organism, and the general-purpose 8-probe KOMETA
radiometer for localizing malignant tumors by recording the P32 accumulated in them, and for intracavitary and
skin examinations.
The pavilion displayed instruments and equipment used in radiation safety and health physics work, including
remote-control devices, auxiliary equipment, instrument kits and materials for safe handling of radioactive isotopes
and nuclear radiation sources. Visitors were familiarized with documents attesting to the international cooperation
of the USSR in the field of peaceful uses of atomic energy, and with literature published by ATOMIZDAT.
Many of the organizations which put up displays in the "Atomic Energy" pavilion were awarded diplomas
by the administration of the Exhibit. Among these were the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, the Power
Physics Institute, the Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics, the D. V. Efremov Electronics and Physics
Instruments Research Institute, the Moscow Design Institute, the Union Instrument Design Research Institute, the Joint
Institute for Nuclear Research, the All-Union Institute of Nuclear Geophysica snd Geochemistry, the V. I. Lenin
Nevskii Machine Tool Factory, the Shcherbakov Moscow Silk Combine, the Moscow Vacuum Tube Plant, the All-
Union Research Institute for Medical Instruments and Equipment, the Radiological Division of the Moscow Municipal
Clinical Hospital No. 40, the Moscow Research Institute for Safe Work Practices in the Coal Industry, and many
others. The staff members of these institutions who took an active part in the development, design, and implemen-
tation of radiation techniques were awarded with medals and monetary prizes.
In addition to the main exhibit, the pavilion systematically organizes topical exhibits devoted to specific
aspects of the use of atomic energy, which are accompanied by .a discussion of the most important displays pre-
sented to the public and by an extensive exchange of experience.
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/24: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700010002-5
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NEW BOOKS
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 18, No. 2,
pp. 198-200, February, 1965
A. M. Kabakchi, Ya. I. Lavrentovich, and V. V. Pen'kovskii. Khimicheskaya dozim-
etriya ioniziruyushchikh izluchenii [Chemical dosimetry of ionizing radiations]. Kiev, published by the Academy
of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, 1964, 156 pages, 65 kopeks.
This compact item, written by prominent Soviet research scientists, consists of four chapters and a short in-
troduction. The concise first chapter (16 pages) presents a clear outline of the field of applications of chemical
dosimetry techniques. The next chapter (30 pages) carries a description of the fundamentals of chemical dosini'
etry. Radiation similitude of the medium investigation and of the dosimetric system, dependence of the radiation
yield on various factors are presented in compact format, and a description is given of the techniques employed in
recording chemical changes in dosimetric systems, with formulations of the basic requirements regarding radiation
chemical reactions exploited in dosimetry. The highpoint of the book is chapter III (63 papers) which is devoted
to chemical dosimetry techniques. Here the authors report information on the three,basic types of radiation chem-
ical systems: aqueous solutions and gels; polymers and organic compounds; glasses and ionic crystals. The elec-
trochemical method for dose rate determinations is also described briefly in this chapter. The last chapter takes
up dose determinations of several modes of radiation by chemical methods.
Each of the chapters features an extensive bibliography, and the total number of references runs to 435 titles.
The book is intended for a broad readership of specialists engaged in measurements of the absorbed energy
of various types of ionizing radiations.
Directory of Nuclear Reactors. Volume 5, Research, Test and Experimental Reactors [in English]. Vienna,
IAEA, 1964, 327 pages.
The International Atomic Energy Agency has now issued the scheduled fifth volume of the reference series
on nuclear reactors, this one serving as a supplement to the second and third volumes. Volume 5 cites reference
information on 78 research, testing, and experimental reactors in operation or under construction in 16 countries.
As is the case in the preceding volumes, the reactors are grouped, principally by the type of moderator used.
Two such groups are formed by reactors using ordinary water as moderator. The first group includes pool
type research reactors: OWR, SPR, WPIR, UWNP, HHLP, PRPR, Buffalo, TR-1, IRT (Sofiya), SPERT-4, TRR-1, Siloe,
Siloetta, and the IISNR reactor. Of greatest interest in this group is the French 15 MW Siloe reactor, and the uni-
que SPERT-4 reactor (USA) built for research on reactor kinetics and reactor stability.
The second group is formed by pressure-vessel type research reactors. These are mostly high-power modern
reactors intended for nuclear engineering research: tests of fuel compositions, tests of fuel elements, controls, struc-
tural materials, and reactor parts. The reactors are also designed for isotope production and physics research. Worthy
of mention in the reactors of this group are the improved test reactor ATR (250 MW power rating), the ETR engineer-
ing tests reactor (175 MW), the WTR (60 MeV), NASA-TR (60 MeV), and the Pegasus (30 MW) reactors. The ESADA
nuclear superheat Vallecitos reactor and the HEIR high-flux reactor for isotope production, engineerin g and physics
research are of enormous interest. This group also includes the NASA-MUR, Peggy, and SAFARI-1 (20 MW)reactors.
The next group is constituted by the now quite popular ARGONAUT family of reactors. In most cases these
are low-power reactors (from 10 to 10 kW) with light water as both moderator and coolant. They are designed for
training purposes and for nuclear physics research. Of the 17 reactors in this group, many are the property of uni-
versities and other educational bodies.
The fourth group combines two types of homogeneous research reactors. These include six pulsed TRIGA-2
in regular production, designed for prolonged operation at 200 kW power. Peak pulsed power is 250 MW. The second
249
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type includes the very-low-power training reactors (0.1 W) manufactured by the West German Siemens-Schukkkert-
werke firm, reactors which require no cooling. Both the TRIGA line of reactors and the four West German reactors
belong to educational institutions. Aside from training of specialists, the TRIGA reactors were also designed for re-
search on neutron physics, reactor physics, and for isotope production.
Of special interest in this group is the EBOR experimental high-temperature gas-cooled reactor using beryllia
moderator. It is manufactured in the USA for engineering tests and for the study of the operating characteristics of
its type.
The fifth group consists of 11 heavy-water-moderated research reactors. These are all pressure-vessel type
reactors. The reactors NORA, ZED-2, DAPENE, and PDP, of several hundred watts power rating, are designed solely
for physics research. The remaining reactors in this group feature power ratings from 5 to 60 MW and are designed -
for a broader range of applications. Especially interesting among these are the HWCTR (61 MW) reactor for com-
prehensive testing of fuel elements, materials, and parts; the HFBR reactor for neutron physics research and solid
state physics studies, and the Haller' reactor built in Norway for the study of the dynamics and miscellaneous char-
acteristics of boiling heavy-water reactors.
Characteristics of graphite-moderated research reactors are cited under the next heading; GLEEP, Zenith,
RB-1, and HECTOR. The most interesting reactors in this group are however the experimental and testing
reactors: the high-temperature gas-cooled Dragon reactor, 20 MW, the ultrahigh-temperature UHTREX reactor
(1320?C helium temperature at the reactor exit) which has been in operation since October 1964, and the original-
design MSRE reactor in which fluoride salt melts are used as nuclear fuel and coolant. These reactors are designed
to verify engineering solutions, and for investigation and demonstration of the power capabilities of future reactors.
The concluding group encompasses seven fast research reactors: EBR-1, AFSR, LAMPRE, VERA, HPRR, Zebra,
and Mazurka. Most of these reactors are being used for physics research associated with further development of fast
reactors. The LAMPRE reactor burning liquid-metal plutonium fuel should be singled out here.
The following information is presented for each reactor in the handbook; the over-all characteristics and
purpose of the reactor, data on reactor physics, core characteristics, fuel element specifications, data on the reactor
control system, fuel element design, design of other important parts (pressure vessel, reflector, shielding, etc.), data
on in-core heat transfer, costs, experimental reactor equipment.
This handbook will prove highly valuable to a broad range of specialists, the more so in that the last publi-
cation of a handbook on research reactors (Vol. 3 in this series) appeared as far back as 1960. In addition, one
should not fail to note the unfortunate timing of the publication of this volume, i. e., on the eve of the third Geneva
UN conference on the peaceful uses of atomic energy, a circumstance which prevented the compilers from supple-
menting the handbook with data on new research reactors and testing reactors made available at the Geneva
conference.
Radiation Chemistry. Proceedings of the Tihany symposium. Budapest, published by Publishing House of
the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1964 [in English], 482 pages.
A detailed report on the symposium may be found in this journal, Atomnaya energiya 14, 595 (1963).
The book will be found useful by scientific workers engaged in research in the field of radiation chemistry.
250
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C)
lzy. AN SSSR
0(td). Kh(im). N(auk)
lzv. AN SSSR
0(td). T(ekhn). N(auk):
Metall). i top.
fzy. AN SSSR Ser. fiz(ich).
lzv. AN SSSR Ser. geofiz.
lzv. AN SSSR Ser. geol.
lz. Vyssh. Uch. Zav.,
Tekh. Teks. Prom.
Kauch. i rez.
Kolloidn. zh(urn).
Metallov. i term.
Met. i top.(gorn.)
Mikrobiol.
OS, Opt. i spektr.
Paleontol. Zh(urn)
Pribory i tekhn.
eks(perimenta)
.Prikl. matem. i mekh(an).
PTE
Radiotekh.
Radiotekhn. i elektron(ika)
Stek. i keram.
Svaroch. proiz-vo
Teor. veroyat. i prim.
Tsvet. metally
UFN
UKh, Usp. khimi
UMN
Vest. mashinostroeniya
Vop. onk(o1).
Zav(odsk). lab(oratoriya)
ZhAKh, Zh. anal(it). Khim(ii`
ZhETF
Zh. eksperim. i teor. fiz.
ZhFKh
Zh. fiz. khimii
ZhNKh .
Zh. neorg(an). khim.
ZhOKh.
Zh. obshch. khim.
ZhPKh
Zh. prikl. khim.
ZhSKh
Zh. strukt(urnoi) khim.
ZhTF
Zh. tekhn. fiz.
Zh. vyssh. nervn. deyat.
(im. Pavlova)
lzvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR:
Otdelenie khimicheskikh nauk
(See Met. i top)
lzvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR:
Seriya fizicheskaya
lzvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR:
Seriya geofizicheskaya
lzvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR:
Seriya geologicheskaya
lzvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedenii
- Tekhnologiya Tekstil'noi
Promyshlennosti
Kauchuk i rezina
Kinetika i kataliz
Koks i khimha
Kolloidnyi zhurnal
Kristallografiya
Metallovedenie i termicheskaya
obrabotka metallov
Metallurg
Metallurgiya i toplivo (gornoye delo)
Mikrobiologiya
Ogneupory
Optika i spektroskopiya
Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal
Pochvovedenie
Poroshkovaya Meta Ilurgiya
Priborostroenie
Pribory i tekhnika eksperirnenta
Prikladnaya matematika i mekhanika
(see Pribory i tekhn. eks.)
Problemy Severa
Radiokhimiya
Radioteknika
Radiotekhnika i electronika
Stat'
Stanki i instrument
Steklo i keramika
Svarochnoe proizvodstvo
Teoriya veroyatnostei i ee primenenie
Tsvetnye metally
Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk
Uspekhi khimii
Uspekhi matematicheskaya nauk
Vestnik mashinostroeniya
Voprosy onkologii
Zavodskaya laboratoriya
Zhurnal analiticheskoi khimii
Zhurnal eksperimental'noi i
teoreticheskoi fiziki
Zhurnal fizicheskoi khimii
Zhurnal neorganicheskoi khimii
Zhurnal obshchei khimii
Zhurnal prikladnoi khimii
Zhurnal strukturnoi khimii
Zhurnal tekhnicheskoi fiziki
Zhurnal vychisliternoi matematika i
matematicheskoi fiziki
Zhurnal vysshei nervnoi
deyatel'nosti (im K P. Pavlova)
Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of
the USSR: Division of Chemical Science
Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences
of the USSR: Physical Series
Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences
of the USSR: Geophysics Series
Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences
of the USSR: Geologic Series
Technology of the Textile Industry, USSR
Soviet Rubber Technology
Kinetics and Catalysis
Coke and Chemistry; USSR
Colloid Journal
Soviet Physics ? Crystallography
Metals Science and Heat Treatment of
Metals
Metallurgist
Russian Metallurgy and Fuels(mining)
Microbiology
Refractories
Optics and Spectroscopy
Journal of Paleontology
Soviet Soil Science
Soviet Powder Metallury and Metal Ceramics
Instrument Construction
Instruments and Experimental Techniques
Applied Mathematics and Mechanics
Problems of the North
Radiochemistry
Radio Engineering
Radio Engineering and Electronic Physics
Stal (in English)
Machines and Tooling
Glass and Ceramics
Welding Production
Theory of Probability and Its Application
The Soviet Journal of Nonferrous Metals
Soviet Physics ? Uspekhi (partial translation)
Russian Chemical Reviews
Russian Mathematical Surveys
Russian Engineering Journal
Problems of Oncology
Industrial Laboratory
Journal of Analytical Chemistry
Soviet Physics ? JETP
Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry
Journal of Inorganic Chemistry
Journal of General Chemistry USSR
Journal of Applied Chemistry USSR
Journal of Structural Chemistry
Soviet Physics ? Technical Physics
U.S.S.R. Computational Mathematics and
Mathematical Physics ?
Pavlov Journal of Higher Nervous Activity
Consultants Bureau
Columbia Technical Translations
American Geophysical Union
American Geological Institute
The Textile Institute (Manchester)
Palmerton Publishing Company, Inc.
Consultants Bureau
Coal Tar Research Assn. (Leeds, England)
Consultants Bureau
American Institute of Physics
Acta Metallurgica
Acta Metallurgica
Scientific Information Consultants, Ltd.
National Science Foundation*
Acta Metallurgica
American Institute of Physics
American Geological Institute
National Science Foundation**
Consultants Bureau
Taylor and Francis, Ltd. (London)
Instrument Society of America
Am. Society of Mechanical Engineers
National Research Council of Canada
Consultants Bureau
Am. Institute of Electrical Engineers
Am. Institute of Electrical Engineers
Iron and Steel Institute
Production Engineering Research Assoc.
Consultants Bureau
Br. Welding Research Assn. (London)
Soc. for Industrial and Applied Math.
Primary Sources
American Institute of Physics
Chemical Society (London)
Cleaver-Hume Press, Ltd. (LiDndon)
Production Engineering Research Assoc.
National Institutes of Health**
Instrument Society of America
Consultants' Bureau
American Institute of Physics
Chemical Society (London)
Chemical Society (London)
Consultants Bureau
Consultants Bureau
Consultants Bureau
AmerIcan Institute of Physics
Pergamon Press, Inc.
National Institutes of Health**
16
18
7
23
4
18
1
14
2
6
26
25
6
53
2
4
3
22
4
16
" 6
19
30
13
5
1
33
66
29
15
39
7
24
7
28
33
4
19
23
1
26
1
11
1
3
1
1
1
3
1
8
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
7
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1952
1954
1957
1958
1960
1959
1960
1959
1952
1957
1958
1957
1960
1957
1960
1959
1962
1958
1962
1959
1958
1958
1958
1962
1961
1961
1959
1959
1956
1959
1956
1960
1958
1960
1960
1959
1961
1958
1952
1955
1959
1959
1949
1950
1960
1956
1962
1961
*Sponsoring organization. Translation published by Consultants Bureau.
**Sponsoring organization. Translation published by Scripta Technica.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/24: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700010002-5
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/24: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700010002-5
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Annoitncing - ? . , .
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' An: important 'new 'book,.. ft9.th Plerium'Press, , ,
in die field of Geophysics :',.? f. -\?
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' O MAGNETISM -'-'seoOnd revised editioW
'Rock
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This book, the only available on the subject of rock magnetism,
? ,, ? Is ,, , _
'
has been carefully reviied'and considerably expanded in .light , ,
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of the fourfold Increas-e in research being\Oarried Out-in the field
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' It ;beg i ns 'with:a nutl i n e of ferromagnetism and,.descriptions-of the, '
instruments Used in the 's,tudy of rock.megnetisrri. Accounts are given
. Of the Magnetic properties of rocks and of roak-forrnipg Mineral's 7- ,
the latteran area in which Japanese' research,ers-have,been . 5
'outstanding: Thedifferent Weys in which rocks become Magnetized,
. .
. , ,
are then dealt with, i.e., TRM-(thermal remanent magnetization), \ .'-
a.
;CRM (chemical remanent magnetizatIon,-7 a-Subject of great
importance to 'paleOmagnetists), 13RM" (depositional remanent-
magnet;ization), and other types of secondary magnetization ?) ?
A COnsideretiOn of the ways in which rock' Magnetism has been--",- , ---
-,N ,. , , -
put to work i,p\geolOgy and, ge'ophysi'cs 4onclt.ides'th4 bpok. -, ., . ?-' .? ,
' ReSearCher's'in rock magnetism as well .s'irl'relaied fields such as
k
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.palpornagnetism and archeomag'nefim, will this work an
, .,. -??
, r
- invaluable refer,ence:_lt is also pertinent to,.geophysiCists interested in
'-'the interpretation of magnetic anomalies caused by rockbodies!'
_ \ -,- '--
`\ 362 pages i', . .e..- ? 1965 , ? '.. t $9.50(---
-/ / , ? i 1 '
, - I 1
' I / ' 1
1;
Plenum Press, 2'7
.. W. 17th. Sireet,, New York, N: y:- 10611 '
' 4. 1- ? ,- i \
;
5y-T. Nagata '
A-,
I 4
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/24: CIA-RDP10-02196R00670601000215 ,
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