SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY - VOL. 34, NO. 4

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• Document Page Count: 116
• Document Creation Date: January 4, 2017
• Document Release Date: September 15, 2013
• Sequence Number: 4
• Publication Date: October 1, 1973
• Content Type: REPORT

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Russian Original Vol. 34, No. 4, April, 1973
SATEAZ 34(4) 305-416 (1973)
SOVIET
ATOMIC
ENERGY
-ATOMHAR 3HEP114fl
(ATOMNAYA iNERGIYA)
TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN
CONSULTANTS BUREAU; NEW YORK
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? SOVIET
ATOMIC
ENERGY
Soviet Atomie?Energy is a cover-to-Cover translation of Atomnaya
Energiya, a.publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR:,
' An arrangement with Mezhdunarodnaya Kniga, the Soviet book.
export agency, makes available both advance copies > of the Rus-
sian journal and ,original glossy photographs and artwork. This
serves to decrease the necessary time lag .between publication
' of the original and publication of the translationand helps to im-
prove the quality Of the l4ter. The translation began with the first '
issue of the Russian journal.
Editorial Board of Atomnaya Energiya:
Editor: M. D. Millionshchikov
Deputy Director ?
I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy
? Academy of Sciences of the uspR "
,Moscow, USSR
?
Assofciate 'Editors: N. A. Kolok011sov
,
N. A. Vlasov.
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal'
V. S. FUrsov
I. NI Golovin
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. I. Leipunskii
A. P: Zefirov
V. V. Matveev
M. G. Meshcheryakov,
P. N. Palei
V. B. Shevchenkb
D. L: Simonenko
VI. Smfrnov
A. P. Vinogradov
CopyrightC1973 Consultants Bureau,,New York:a division of Plenum Publishing
Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. All. rights reserved.
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SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of Atomnaya Energiya
October, 1973
Volume 34, Number 4 April, 1973
L'va Andreevich Artsimovich
Hydraulic Resistance and Velocity Fields in Tubes with Artificial Wall Roughness
? M. D. Millionshchikov, V. I. Subbotin, M. Kb. Ibragimov, G. S. Taranov,
CONTENTS
Engl./Russ.
305
and L. L. Kobzar'
306
235
Investigation of Swelling of Structural Steels in Carbide Zone of the BR-5 Fast
Reactor ? V. N. Bykov, A. G. Vakhtin, V. D. Dmitriev, Yu. V. Konobeev,
L. G. Kostromin, and V. F. Reutov
316
247
Thermokinetic Analysis of Helium Evolution from Irradiated Materials
? V. S. Karasev, V. S. Kislik, G. F. Shved, and R. V. Grebennikov
321
251
Neutron Exposure during Studies of Radiation Damage to Materials in Nuclear Reactors
? E. A. Kramer-Ageev, S. S. Ogorodnik, V. D. Popov, and Yu. L. Tsoglin. . .
325
255
How to Calculate and Estimate Integral Characteristics of Ideal Two-Component Stages
with Arbitrary Enrichments per Step ? N. A. Kolokoltts0V, N. I. Laguntsov,
and G. A. Sulaberidze
329
259
New Method for Determining Hydrogen and Helium Isotope Content in Thin Samples
? K. P. Artemov, V. Z. Gol'dberg, I. P. Petrov, V. P. Rudakov,
I. N. Serikov, and V. A. Timofeev
334
265
Space?Age Distribution of Neutrons Arising from the Spontaneous Fission of Uranium
Nuclei in a Two-Layer Medium with a Cylindrical Interface ? Yu. B. Davydov. .
339
271
REVIEWS
The Metrology of Neutron Measurement in Nuclear Reactors ? R. D. Vasil'ev
345
277
ABSTRACTS
Moderation of Resonance Neutrons in Matter. Communication 5 ? D. A. Kozhevnikov,
V. S. Khavkin, and V. A. Belizhanin
350
283
Calculation of the Effective Attenuation Factor of 'y-Radiation in a Microscopically
Inhomogeneous Medium ? L. I. Shmonin and G. K. Potrebenikov
y-Scanning Distribution of Heavy Elements over Polished Sections of Spent Fuel
351
284
Elements ? V. K. Shashurin, E. F. Davydov, A. V. Sukhikh,
and M. I. Krapivin
352
284
Distribution of Neutrons in Workrooms at Nuclear Installations ? L. S. Andreeva,
A. A. Savinskii, and I. V: Filyushkin
353
285
Efficiency of the Decontamination System for Radioactive-Gas Waste at the VK-50
Atomic Power Station ? E. K. Yakshin, A. G. Cherepov, Yu. V. Chechetkin,
B. R. Keier, and G. Z. Chukhlov
354
285
High Burnup in Uranium Cermet Alloys ? A. I. Voloshchuk, V. V. Votinova,
Yu. M. Golovchenko, A. Ya. Zavgorodnii, V. F. Zelenskii, Yu. F. Konotop,
and R. A. Timchenko
355
286
Autoradiography of Microsegregations in a Radioactive Matrix ? V. N. Chernikov
and A. P. Zakharov
355
287
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Calculation of Inner-Group Fast Neutron Spectra ? V. N. Gurin, V. S. Dmitrieva,
and G. Ya. Rumyantsev
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Effect of Burnup of Indium on the Melting Points of y-Carriers of Hot Loops
? D. M. Zakharov, G. I. Kiknadze, and R. B. Lyudigov
CONTENTS
(continued)
Engl./Russ.
356 288
358 289
Diffusion of Carbon in Beryllium Oxide ? V. P. Gladkov, V. S. Zotov,
and D. M. Skorov
360
290
Determination of the Integral Parameters of the Interaction of Neutrons with Carbon
? V. T. Shchebolev
361
291
A Procedure for Comparing Various Atomic Electric Power Plant Systems
. ? G. P. Verkhivker
364
293
Cost of Irradiation in a Research Reactor ? A. S. Kochenov and P. Gitsesku
367
295
Estimated Activity of a Thick Specimen in a Multiplying Medium (Conjugate random
walk method) ? V. B. Polevoi
369
296
Energy Distribution over the Cross Section of the Track of Charged Particles Having
the Same Linear Energy Transfer ? I. K. Kalugina, I. B. Keirim-Markus,
A. K. Savinskii, and I. V. Filyushkin
372
298
Change in Optical Properties of Polyethylene Terephthalate Film Irradiated with
25-150 keV Protons ? S. P. Kapchigashev, V. P. Kovalev, V. A. Sokolov,
and E. S. Barkhatov
374
299
Experimental Study of Current Formation in Direct-Charge Detectors with a Rhodium
Emitter ? V. I. Mitin, V. F. Shikalov, and S. A. Tsimbalov
376
301
INFORMATION: CONFERENCES AND MEETINGS
Third All-Union Conference on Charged-Particle Accelerators ? L. N. Sosenskii .
380
305
XVIth International Conference on High Energy Physics ? S. A. Bunyatov
386
309
International Symposium on the Physics of High Energies and Elementary Particles
? S. M. Bilen'kii and V. M. Sidorov
390
312
International Conference on the Interaction of Laser Radiation with Matter
? P. P. Pashinin
393
313
Third International Conference on Medical Physics ? V. S. Khoroshkov
395
315
Symposium on Handling Wastes from Reprocessing Spent Nuclear Fuel ? N. V. Krylova
and A. N. Kondrat'ev
397
316
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL CONTACTS
Visit by USSR State Commission for the Use of Atomic Energy Delegation to Belgium
and the Netherlands ? 0. A. Voinalovich
400
318
BRIEF COMMUNICATIONS
402
319
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Items Published by Atomizdat (First quarter 1973)
404
321
BOOK REVIEWS
I. L. Karol'. Radiation Active Isotopes and Global Transport through the Atmosphere
? Reviewed by B. A. Nelepo
412
325
P. Quittner. y-Ray Spectroscopy ? Reviewed by L. V. Groshev
414
325
The Russian press date (podpisano k pechati) of this issue was 3/28/1973.
Publication therefore did not occur prior to this date, but must be assumed
to have taken place reasonably soon thereafter.
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L'VA ANDREEVICH ARTSIMOVICH
On March 1, 1973, L. A. Artsimovich died; he was in his sixty-fifth year. The editorial board of the
journal "Atomnaya Energiya" wish to express their sorrow on the occasion of the death' of this outstanding
organizer of 'science and public-spirited person.
L. A. Artsimovich was a great man, as is evinced by the titles he held and the positions of responsi-
bility he occupied: Academician'?Secretary of the Department Of Physics and Astronomy and member of
the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR; Scientific Director of the 'I. V. KUrchatov Institute
of Atomic Energy, Academy of Sciences of the USSR; Chairman of the National Committee of Soviet Physi-
cists; Hero of Socialist Labor; Lenin Prize Laureate; and winner Of the Academic State Prize of the
USSR.
The death of L. A. Artsimovich is mourned by?all relations, friends, and pupil's of this outstanding
man of science.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, April, 1973.
' 0 197:1 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y.-10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
305
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HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE AND VELOCITY FIELDS IN
TUBES WITH ARTIFICIAL WALL ROUGHNESS
M. D. Millionshchikov, V. I. Subbotin,
M. Kh. Ibragimov, G. S. Taranov,
and L. L. Kobzar'
UDC 532.542.4
Modern technology is frequently concerned with channels containing projections of various kinds on
their surfaces, being either necessitated by structural considerations or provided in order to intensify heat
transfer. Such projections may validly be classed as surface roughness; however, the theoretical and ex-
perimental study of flow in rough-walled channels has lagged seriously behind that of flow in smooth chan-
nels and is inadequate to meet practical requirements. The problem is complicated by the great variety of
geometrical characteristics encountered in practice with rough surfaces.
A considerable amount of experimental material has now been gathered together in relation to this
problem. A high proportion of the data relates to flow in tubes with annular and spiral linings [1-3],
single-threaded surfaces [4, 5], sand roughness [6-9], and flow in tubes with natural roughness [8]. Dif-
ferent types of rough surfaces have been studied for flow in a plane channel [10-12]. The experiments have
shown that the effect of roughness on flow hydrodynamics cannot be characterized simply by the relative
height of the elements of roughness, as would follow, for example, from the laws derived in [6]. The
shape of the elements and their mutual disposition also has an effect.
Existing experimental data relating to flow in rough tubes is insufficient for a complete elucidation of
flow structure in the presence of a rough wall. Witness to this is the absence of any universal approach to
the problem under consideration based on the geometrical characteristics of the rough surface.
Attempts have been made to describe flow in tubes with different kinds of roughness by using a single
parameter ? the height of the projections, k. However, this single quantity cannot embrace all possible
types of roughness. Further, comparison between different experiments involving sand roughness [6, 7]
shows that this parameter does not always facilitate correlation of experimental data, even for roughness
of one particular type. Thus, in the experiments of [7], sand with a grain size of 1.35 mm caused a resis-
tance which in the experiments of [6] would correspond to sand with a grain size of 2.22 mm.
The use of an equivalent roughness parameter keg as a surface characteristic fails to solve the prob-
lem, since it cannot reflect the complicated manner in which the resistance coefficient varies with the
Reynolds number Re for various forms of roughness.
There is at present a pressing need for the development of universal computing relationships reflect-
ing the connection between the hydrodynamic flow characteristics and the geometrical characteristics of the
rough surface; this necessitates studying flow in channels with rough walls in which the shape, size, den-
sity distribution over the surface, and mutual disposition of the roughness elements are all known.
In the present investigation we studied turbulent flow in round tubes with a regular artificial wall
roughness. The experiments were carried out in air (Re = 4 103-2 ? 105) and water (Re = 7 104-106) test-
beds.
The vertical working section of the air system was connected at its upper end to the suction line of a
fan through a damping tank. At the entrance into the working section, a filter, a honeycomb, a nozzle, and
a turbulizing ring were arranged along the path of the air. The ring was needed because of the low turbulence
Translated from Atomnaya Lergiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 235-245, April, 1973. Original article
submitted January 8, 1973.
306
O 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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of the flow after passing the nozzle, as a result of which the development of flow in the inlet section was
delayed (for example, in the case of a smooth tube the laminar mode of flow existed over a considerable
proportion of the tube right up to Re = 5 ? 104). The air test-bed was used for measuring the hydraulic re-
sistance and velocity profiles.
In the experiments with air, small drops in static pressure for low Re numbers (4000-20,000) were
determined by means of a bell-type balance micromanometer based on an analytical laboratory balance (the
VLA-200G-M). This micromanometer measured pressure differences of 0.05 mm water to an error of no
greater than 1%. The static pressure drops for Re = 15 ? 103-2 ? 105 and the velocity profiles were measured
with an inclined liquid micromanometer having a minimal scale coefficient of 0.03. The maximum error in
determining velocity close to the tube wall when measuring the dynamic head with an inclined differential
manometer could be as high as 2%.
The water test-bed was made of Kh18N1OT stainless steel. The working section was arranged hori-
zontally. Distilled water was used as working medium. We used the water system solely for determining
resistance coefficients. To this end we employed U-type differential manometers containing carbon tetra-
chloride and mercury.
The velocity profiles were measured in the exit cross section of the working parts, using a Pitot tube
with an external diameter of 0.86 mm and a wall thickness of 0.18 mm; the tip of the tube had a spherical
trim and passed 5 mm into the tube. The static pressure was taken from a measuring cabinet containing
the end of the working section. The Pitot tube was moved by means of a locating system with a micrometer
screw. The instant at which the sensor touched the tube wall was established by reference to an electrical
contact, using an ohmmeter.
In measuring the hydraulic resistance the static pressure was selected by means of probes. The
section in which the measurements were made amounted to 20 bore diameter; it was preceded by an inlet
section 90 diameters long. In the air experiments the pressure drop was measured between the take-off
point in the measuring chamber at the tube outlet and a static pressure probe placed in the working section.
The probe constituted a tube with an external diameter of 1.8 mm and a wall thickness of 0.3 mm; the tip
of the tube was sealed and rounded; at a distance of 10 mm from it four apertures 0.3 mm in diameter
were drilled uniformly around a circle. In the water experiments we used two static pressure probes made
of a tube 3 X 0.3 mm in diameter with six receiver apertures 0.3 mm in diameter. The static pressure
sensors were placed at a distance from the tube wall equal to half its radius. The additional resistance due
to the first sensor (counting along the path of the working medium) was determined in experiments with a;
smooth tube by comparing the static pressure drops measured in the same section of a tube 20 diameters
long by wall sampling in the presence and absence of the sensors, respectively. The resistance coefficients
of the sensors were independent of the Re number. The pressure loss due to the sensor was approximately
7% of the measured pressure in a smooth tube at Re = 106 (this proportion naturally diminished with de-
creasing Re number).
As flow meter in the air test-bed we used a nozzle placed at the entrance into the working section.
The nozzle was calibrated by integration of the velocity profiles measured at the exit cross section of the
smooth tube. For small flow rates corresponding to Re numbers of under 2 ? 104 the flow-meter nozzle
was calibrated by reference to the velocity profile measured in an auxiliary nozzle placed rat the outlet
from the tube, creating a contraction of the flow equal to a multiple of 9. This increased the accuracy of
flow rate measurement. In the experiments in the air test-bed we used flow-meter discs calibrated by a
volumetric method. For determining the temperature of the working medium we used mercury thermom-
eters with a scale division of 0.1?C.
The local mean flow velocity was determined from the equation
u=1'/ 2AP
Pi
where AP is the reading of the differential manometer; and 2 are the corrections for the compressibility
and viscosity of the air. The density of the air was determined with due allowance for its humidity by using
the equation of state for ideal gases. The correction for the compressibility of the air was calculated in the
same way as in 1131. In order to calculate the correction for the viscosity we used the data provided in [14]
in the form of the dependence of the coefficient 2 on the Re number calculated from the internal diameter,
of the receiving aperture of the Pitot tube and the local velocity.
307
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25
20
15
10
545 1,0 1,5 20 2,5 30 3/5 eg q
Fig. 1. Velocity profiles in a smooth tube (5 = u/u* is the dimensionless velocity,
where u* is the dynamic velocity; r) = yu*/v is the dimensionless distance from the
wall, where v is the viscosity of the liquid).
2
a'
?
0 .?
? 0..1 ?
..
? Ci ti.4".
V. ..
,
4
Ls there is a spherical layer of average radius 1.0 at each point of which the
thermal neutron density is independent of the source spectrum in the range 0.5-15 MeV.
We consider the quantity
N (r) (2)
S N (r) r2 dr
where N(r) = N'(r)?Ncd(r); N'(r) is the thermal neutron detector counting rate at point r in the moderator;
and Ncd(r) is the counting rate due to epicadrnium neutrons and the background of accompanying radiation. ?
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of experimental arrangement.
Translated from Atomnaya gnergiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 291-293, April, 1973. Original article sub-
mitted November 10, 1971; revision submitted January 19, 1973.
C 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
361
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5
4
3
2
1
Po8
Ra Be
PuBe
Cadmium
rUtawe4
82
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 2005cm
Fig. 2. Normalized thermal neutron dis-
tribution curves in graphite.
4
0
300 350 550
re.
Fig. 3. Determination of the age and mean
energy of neutrons from various sources:
0, fb) data obtained at FIAN and VNIIM re-
spectively.
1
PO-firid
a
r-31
MOON
r=4,3 ,
r=47 ?
r=51 .....
_......--1
ral
.
.Ra-a7,5?,AT
u-a
c-a-Be
-Be
... .--
...,--"
P0-8
...--
400 450
500
TABLE 1. Measured Values of Slowing Down Assuming that the thermal neutron counting efficiency is
Length independent of r we find b(r) = kp(r), where k = const. It
follows from (2) that S bi(r)r2dr = 1, where the subscript i
indicates that the curve b1(r) is obtained for a source which
yields a flux Qi of neutrons of energy E.
It should be noted that b(r) is independent of the prop-
erties of the detector and the counting equipment. Figure
2 shows the experimental results for the sources T(d, n)
He4, Pu?Be(a, n), Ra?Be(a, n), Po?B( a , n), and a ther-
mal source (Cd). They show that in graphite the region of
constant sensitivity is at a distance of 0.82 m; i.e., the results agree with the theory. The same result
was obtained with Po?Be(a, n), Ac?Be(a, n) sources and with a spontaneous Pu240 source. However, the
sensitivity for a Ra?Be(y, n) source was approximately 4.8% lower, and that for the thermal (Cd) source
about 13% lower.
Neutron source
Ls, Cm
Ei, MeV
T (d, n) He4
22,70
14,1
Pu ?Be (a, n)
20,54
4,5
Ti)
20,22
4,6
Pa ?Be (a, n)
19,91
3,6
Po ?B (a, n)
19,11
2,8
T (d, n) He4 [6]
22,78
14,1
If a spherically symmetric source of thermal neutrons is placed in a cavity in a moderator the density
distribution is given by
p (r)?
QT
4nL2 (1+1)
A thermal neutron source was obtained by placing a cadmium sphere in a cavity in the graphite sphere and
a fast neutron source at its center. A series of accurate measurements showed that the diffusion length
L = 0.520 +0.002 m.
_r?ai
(3)
The fact that the functions pi(r) and b1(r) can differ only by a multiplicative constant permits the de-
termination of the neutron age Toi by a comparison of these curves provided that at the point ro where the
spectral sensitivity is constant pi(ro) bi(ro). They must agree at all values of r if the correct values of
Toi and L are used in the calculation.
Since the relation p = p (r, To, L) cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions with a factor
To, the age was determined by a trial and error minimizing of the dispersion of the equation obtained.
In the 0.3-0.6 m region where the function p(r, To, L) is most sensitive to a change in To the experi-
mental and calculated values of the density of thermal neutrons from the T(d, n)He4 reaction agree within
0.2-0.4%.
362
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In determining the age by the method proposed the error 6T0 depends on the errors of the experimen-
tally determined quantities N(r) p (r) and L.
If it is assumed that the dispersion D(L) = 0 the dispersion D(T0), is found from the relation p(r)
= f(To) I L = const? Then we obtain D(p) = tan2aD(T0) (Fig. 3). The average value of l/tana RD' 2.108, and the
mean square error S(p) :5_ 10-8. In addition it can be assumed that Sp = k6T0IL =Const =I6LITo=const, e.,
6T0 = 6L for D(p) = 0. Thus the maximum error in determining the age is 6T0 = Sp + 6L 0.8%.
Table 1 lists the measured values of L = /To in graphite with a diffusion length of 0.520 m for neutrons
,
emitted by various sources; the average energies are taken from [3-51.
It is easy to see that the ages of neutrons from .the reacticn T(d, n)He4 determined by a pulsed method
[61 (error ?2%) and by our method (error 0.8%) agree. This indicates that there are no significant sys-
tematic errors in these measurements.
Figure 3 shows the relation ln Ei = f(T0i) which should be a straight line according to 'Marshak's theory
for 2 MeV < Ei < 5 MeV. If it is assumed that the mean energies of the neutrons from Po?B, Ra?Be, and
Pu?Be sources have been determined correctly, the mean energy of neutrons from an Ac?Be source,
measured by the method of nuclear recoil, is an overestimate; it should be taken as 4.1 MeV. A similar
conclusion was drawn in [71 where the fraction of neutrons with energies below 1 MeV in the spectrum of
an Ac?Be source was determined.
LITERATURE CITED
1. V. T. Shchebolev, Trudy Metrologicheskikh Institutov SSSR, 89 (149), 133 (1967).
2. P. Wallace, Nucleonics, 4, No. 2 (1949).
3. J. De Pangher, J. Nucl. 1-nstrum. and Methods, 5, 61 (1959).
4. K. Yeiger and J. Jarvis, Canad. J. Phys., 40, 3-3 (1962).
5. 0. Runnals and R. Boucher, ibid., 34, 949 (1956).
6. Z. Dlougly, Atomnaya Energiya, 9, 182 (1960).
7. B. N. Krylov and V. I. Fominykh?, Trudy Metrologicheskikh Institutov SSSR, 124 (184), 198 (1970).
363
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A PROCEDURE FOR COMPARING VARIOUS ATOMIC
ELECTRIC POWER PLANT SYSTEMS
G. P. Verkhivker UDC 621.039.553.34
Comparing various thermal systems of atomic electric power plants (AEP) is much more compli-
cated than comparing systems of thermal electric power plants (TEP) operating on fossil fuels. A change
in efficiency at constant electric power leads to a change in thermal power, and consequently to changes in
the capital investments in the reactor and the fuel component, determined not only by the thermal but also
by the neutron-physical design. The comparison of different versions is simplified by assuming that the
thermal power of the reactor is constant. Then the cost of the reactor and the fuel component remains
unchanged for all versions of one kind of reactor; the change in electric power is compensated by the
electric power output of a replacement plant which operates on fuel, closing the power balance in the eco-
nomic region under consideration.
This is particularly true of reactor-multipliers which combine the generation of electric power with
the production of secondary fuel, proportional to the neutron flux and consequently also to the thermal
power. Since making secondary fuel is very important for the development of nuclear power, it seems
that the thermal power of reactor-multipliers of a given type should be chosen as large as possible, and an
AEP should operate in the base load band of the load curve [1]. With such an arrangement the popular
notion that fast reactor power plants have a low efficiency when the fuel component is small turns out to be
wrong. A change in efficiency will not lead to a decrease in the amount of nuclear fuel consumed by a par-
ticular atomic power plant, but to a saving in the fuel inventory, which is known to be the most expensive
for a given economic region.
To derive analytic relations determining the effectiveness of various changes in an AEP we use the
idea of a "basic version" proposed by Yu. D. Arseniev [21. We denote the efficiency of the basic version by
77* and the capital investment by K*; the efficiency and cost of any other comparable AEP are vi and
(1)
where A is the difference between the investment in the installation and that in the basic version; A can be
positive or negative.
The total investment in the power system (p.s.) for the variant as compared with the basic version is
found from the expression
KKi+QT (T1*
p. rep
(2)
The cost of the fuel consumed per year at the replacement plant is given by
_Pr Or (3)
cr,
lrepQPH
Krep is the specific capital investment in replacement power; QT is the thermal power of the AEP, 7/rep
is the efficiency of the replacement plant; CT is the cost per ton of the fuel inventory; Qp is the heating
power of this fuel; and T is the number of hours of use of the installed power per year. Knowing the in-
vestment in the versions being compared and the cost of the fuel consumed, it is easy to determine the esti-
mated cost of each version.
To determine the economic efficiency of a change in the installation in comparison with the basic ver-
sion we use the concept of fixed charges for electric power. Then the variable part of the estimated cost
of a given variant is
Translated from Atomnaya tnergiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 293-295, April, 1973. Original article
submitted July 10, 1972.
364
O 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
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,AEP
Cvar, +aAEPICi+'pers,i+ QT (1* 115feix
and the variable part of the estimated cost of the basic version is
Cvu'ar PK*+ aAEPK*-Pupers ?
Here cpL gives the fixed charges for electric power; p is the standard efficiency of capital investment;
and aAEp is the total rate of amortization of deductions, expenditures for current maintenance, and other
expenses for the AEP; CAEP and CAEP are the yearly salaries for the AEP personnel for the basic ver-
pers pers,i
sion and the variant, respectively, determined by the number on the staff NAEP, the average yearly salary
AEP
of an AEP worker Csai , and the installed power of the AEP QTri* and Qvi.
The variant will have the same economic effect as the basic version if
Cvar, i = gar.
we find after some simple transformations of (6)
(4)
(5)
EP AEP
Assuming CpersA =,
'pers,
Tfi,ct
A ?
P a AEP
The changes in the installation will be economically expedient if for >n* the extra cost does not
exceed A, or if ni < n* the decrease in capital investments is larger in absolute magnitude than A found
from Eq. (7).
The economic efficiency of a given change in the system is
Or
EC v*a r ?Cvar
? 100%
C.
QT 1*) t?(Prix ? (p?ap)
E= 100%,
C.
(6)
(7)
(8a)
(8)
where C* is the total estimated cost of the basic version of the system.
In more exact calculations the time for construction and shake down of the plant or unit before putting
it into normal operation must be taken into account. Equation (8) then takes a somewhat more expanded
form. Thus, for example, let us assume that the first unit of the AEP must be built in two years. In the
first year ni is included for the cost of construction, and in the second year n2; then in the third year, the
year of shake down, the number of hours of use of installed power is T3, and in the fourth year under nor-
mal operation T4. We use the general formula for determining the estimated cost:
Te
Kt UN
C = P (1 +Pre)t-i + ,1+ predr_1 rubles/yr.
t=1
where p is the standard efficiency of capital investment; Pred is the coefficient for reducing the costs in
time (henceforth we assume pPred = 0.12); Tc is the construction period; Kt is the capital investment
in year t in rubles/yr; t is the number of years from the start of construction; and UN denotes the operat-
ing expenses in a year of normal operation. Then the economic effect, reduced to the year construction
began, from a further capital investment A changing the efficiency of the AEP from n* to j is
100 1n2 1 (9)
i+p (1+0 '
E =r 1QT (li ?Tr') (Pfeix [OH-Ts/3)2+ (1 T4+p)] A [P (ni+ \ +aAEP (1 + p)2 + 1 ) ]}
Equations (7)-(9) enable us to determine the expediency of various changes in the thermal part of the
system, such as the introduction of additional heaters, changing the temperature drives, etc., without
performing complete design studies of the AEP. Only the change in the capital investment A and the effi-
ciency of the installation need be estimated, and ordinarily this is not difficult to do.
As an example let us assume that the thermal power of a reactor is 2500 MW, n* = 0.35, C* = 68- 106
rubles, T = 7000 h/yr, aAEp = 0.0966, A = 0.2 ? 106 rubles, i = 0.351, and cpPix = 1.2 kopecks/kWh. Then ?
from (8) the economic effect is about 1%. However, an increase in the capital investment to 3.2.106 rubles
for the same change in efficiency gives no saving in estimated cost. It should be noted that this procedure
can be used only when the changes in the installation do not lead to a change in the conversion ratio or the
cost of nuclear fuel, and involve admissible values of the parameters.
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Thus the change in efficiency of an AEP operating in the base load band of the load curve leads to a
change in the cost of replacement power and fuel inventory. In view of this the problem of increasing the
efficiency of an AEP is no less important than the problem of increasing the efficiency of a TEP. The
procedure presented permits a very simple estimate of the expediency of various changes from the basic
version of a system and an AEP of a given type.
LITERATURE CITED
1. N. A. Dollezhal! and Yu. I. Koryakin, "Some problems of operating atomic eleatric plants in power
systems," Atomnaya Energiya, 25, 387 (1968). ?
2. Yu. D. ArsenieV, Similarity Theory in Engineering Economics Calculations [in Russian], Vysshaya
Shkola, Moscow (1971).
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COST OF IRRADIATION IN A RESEARCH REACTOR
A. S. Kochenov and P. Gitsesku UDC 621.039.5.55
The great power of modern research reactors leads to a considerable nuclear fuel consumption. This
explains the attention now being paid to the optimization of research reactor parameters [1-5]. The con-
cept of the "productivity of a research reactor" was introduced in [4], this being defined as the quantity of
usefully absorbed "excess" neutrons ("excess" with respect to a chain reaction). The concept of the "effi-
ciency of a research reactor," or the proportion of usefully absorbed neutrons, was introduced in [5].
Naturally the cost of investigations will be lower, the more excess neutrons are used. However, in
determining the cost of irradiating samples, allowance must be made, not only for the quantitative aspect
(the number of absorbed neutrons), but also for the qualitative (the level of neutron flux, the level of back-
ground radiation, etc.).
In certain reactors the thermal neutron fluxes in different experimental channels differ by more than
an order of magnitude from each other. If, in this case, we define the fuel constituent of the cost of the
neutrons employed solely in accordance with the number of absorbed neutrons, the cost of irradiating the
samples in an experimental channel with a large flux may be several times lower than this, because of the
overestimated cost of irradiation in the channels with the low flux.
It is not hard to convince oneself that the cost of the neutrons employed depends on the magnitude of
the flux. By way of example, let us consider the thermal neutron flux in the active zone.
Let us suppose that, in the absence of experimental samples from the reactor, the mean depth of
burnup of the discharged fuel equals Bo, the neutron breeding factor in an infinite medium equals ko, and
the mean thermal neutron flux in the active zone for a power Q0 equals (Do (4. being the mean neutron flux
in the presence of the sample). On loading the experimental samples into the active zone the reactivity
usually diminishes. In order to preserve the critical state, we may either reduce the depth of burnup,
leaving the volume of the active zone intact, or reduce the volume of the active zone, without changing the
burnup (of course we may also change both parameters at the same time). Let us consider the case in
which only the critical volume changes on loading the samples
(the reactor power remaining constant).
The productivity of the reactor with respect to excess
neutrons per unit time equals
45 1O0/00
Fig. 1. Dependence of the fuel compo-
nent of the cost of the neutrons on the
neutron flux.
!co-1 Qo
R0= vf
ko E f
where vf is the number of secondary neutrons per fission;
(1)
Ef is the energy per fission.
However, in carrying out experiments we use only some
of the excess neutrons, a fraction eRo (here = (R0?R)/R0
= 1? (k-1)/(14-1) ? ko/k; R and k are the corresponding
parameters when samples occur in the active zone).
It is well known that the fuel expenses go are propor-
tional to the power and inversely proportional to the depth of
burnup:
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 295-296, April, 1973. Original article sub-
mitted August 22, 1972.
? 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
367
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Qo
go
Bo
(2)
whence the fuel component of the cost of the neutrons Cf (in high-flux reactors this is the main component)
referred to a single used neutron is given by
Cf go I ? . ko
eR0 Bo ko ?1 k ? 1 ko
1
k0 ?I k
If the influence of the experimental samples on the neutron migration length is negligibly small and
the effective increment much smaller than the radius of the active zone, we have
11:1 k ? 1 \3/2
(1)0 ko?i ) ?
Using Eq. (4), we may rewrite Eq. (3) thus
ko [1+ ko (ID/00)2/3
Cf
Bo k0-1 1? orwmo)2/3 -1 ?
(3)
(4)
(5)
The dependence of cf on 43/c1)0 is shown in Fig. 1 for various ko. It follows from this that, as the flux in-
creases, so does the fuel component of the neutron cost. For 43/(130 ;
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gtn(k t) = a (i 4 k)/atn(k);
(k k ? 1) = (k ? 1) / (k);
eel (k k) ei (k))1(ni (k),
where r is the boundary for inelastic collisions. In the subgroup treatment [2], the same functions be-
come:
crtn (1E k)= cj (k) WEIL;
aei k)= ((lief): aiEh (1_ Eh \ cri eh-taiEh -1 Eh-t \ WO.
Ault r Auh-i I '
41(1 E k E k ?1) = (fief 11-1 ajek -1Eh-taiek Math-la:1 (1 E k);
ill E k ek) = ajefhajEh (i_.) Eh ",zek,,+ 17 e
AUlt
(1E E 0= ain (1-4.10010/otn (k).
On the basis of the proposed algorithm, the distribution of activation over a sodium indicator foil
0.68 cm thick and placed in a homogeneous medium consisting of a mixture of nuclei U238, Pu238, oxygen,
and carbon (in the ratios 1:0.071:2.08:0.73) was calculated on an M-220 computer. It was assumed that
flux depression near the indicator would have no effect on the distribution of fission events in the medium.
The calculations were performed on the basis of constants cited in [3], in which groups 12-14 were broken
down further into nine subgroups in order to facilitate a detailed description of the sodium resonance. The
results obtained appear in Fig. 1. The effect of resonant self-screening is clearly in evidence. The acti-
vation density at the center of the indicator is 1.59 times lower, and on the surface 1.44 times lower, than
the activation density in an infinitely thin specimen. The activation density is seriously affected by mod-
eration of neutrons traversing the sodium.
The author takes this opportunity to express his heartfelt thanks to M. N. Nikolaev for the formulation
of the problem, and for the kind assistance rendered in solving it, and also M. Yu. Orlov for invaluable dis-
cussions and counsel.
LITERATURE CITED
1. B. Eriksson et al., Nucl. Sci. and Engng., 37, 410 (1969).
2. M. N. Nikolaev et al., At. Energ., 29, 11 (1970); 30, 426 (1971).
3. L. P. Abagyan et al., Group Constants for Nuclear Reactor Calculations [in Russian], Atomizdat,
Moscow (1964).
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ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OVER THE CROSS SECTION
OF THE TRACK OF CHARGED PARTICLES HAVING
THE SAME LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER
I. K. Kalugina, I. B. Keirim-Markus, UDC 539.12.08
A. K. Savinskii, and I. V. Filyushkin
In [Uwe obtained the distribution of the energy transmitted to the medium in the radial cross section
of the track of heavy charged particles. The data were represented in the form of a universal function of
the maximal energy of (5 electrons Eomax and the distance r from the axis of the track expressed in frac-
tions of the maximal length of the path of 6 electrons Rmax = f(Eomax).
Figure 1 shows the radial distribution, calculated according to the indicated function, of the energy
over the cross section of the tracks of three particles having the same linear energy transfer in water
D(r), rad
t.
a
D( r), rad
108
10
10
10
io4
p(60keV)
p (>40 keV)
p (4, 5 MeV)
/ 2 3
1057777A t I I Lt 10,50,,,, ,,,,,,e,,,,,,,Te,,,,
_A I
0 1 . 2 5 4 5 r,nm 0 20 40 60 BO 100 I; nrn
Fig. 1. Radial energy distribution over the cross section of tracks of protons
with energy 60 and 140 keV and y particles with energy 4.5 MeV having the same
linear energytransfer in water (Lc? = 90 keV/.t). For claritytwo different scales
are given in the figure (a and b).
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 298-299, April, 1973. Original article sub-
mitted September 27, 1972.
372
C /972 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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Loo = 90 keV/pt: protons with energies 60 and 140 keV and a particles with energy 4.5 MeV. In Fig. 1 we
give dimensions of typical biological structures: the radius of a nitrous base or a nucleotide of DNA (1);
the radius of a small virus (2); and the radius of a large virus (3).
It is known that the biological effect of radiation is related to L.0, it being assumed that charged par-
ticles with the same Lez, also have the same radiobiological effectiveness. On this basis the coefficient of
quality of radiation OF that is used in radiation safety is unambiguously related to Leo [21.
As is seen from Fig. 1, the radial distribution of energy in the tracks of the three forms of particles
with the same L varies considerably. Near the axis of the track of the protons the absorbed dose is so
large that a large fraction of the atoms are ionized at a distance 2-5 A, corresponding to the radius of a
nitrogen base or a nucleotide of DNA. The transmission of a particles can cause the ionization of isolated
atoms of the nucleotide. A similar effect will appear also with respect to other low-molecular groups of
cells. With passage of charged particles through a small virus we can expect a local action of protons on
part of the virus, while an a particle generates a comparatively uniform radiation. On comparatively
large viruses, the action of a particles will be local, just as it is for protons.
Thus the calculations verify that L.. cannot sufficiently completely characterize the features of bio-
logical action of various forms of radiation.
LITERATURE CITED
1. I. K. Kalugina et al., Radiobiologiya, No. 4 (1973).
2. Norms of Radiation Safety (NRB-69) [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1971).
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CHANGE IN OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF
POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE FILM
IRRADIATED WITH 25-150 keV PROTONS
S. P. Kapchigashev,,V. P. Kovalev, UDC 541.15:539.125.4.02
V. A. Sokolov, and E. S. Barkhatov
Convenient dosimetric methods are needed for use with low-energy heavy charged particles in radia-
tion chemistry and radiobiology. One such method is based on the use of thin organic films whose optical
properties are affected by ionizing radiation. In addition these films have dosimetric characteristics (ef-
fective atomic number, electron density, mean excitation potential) similar to those of many media of
interest in radiation chemistry and radiobiology [1].
We have investigated the characteristics of polyethylene terephthalate (PETPH) film 9.5 ? thick (with-
out plasticizer) having a density of 1.4 g/cm3. The film thickness was monitored in all experiments by the
measurement of a-spectra.
PETPH is a linear polyester formed by the condensation of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid [2];
(? ? CH2? CH2? 0?CO ?C6H4-- co )n?
0
300 350 400 .450
Fig. 1
nm
3. 4 5 6
Dose ? 1014, protons/cm2 sec
Fig. 2
Fig. 1. Change in the absorption spectrum of PETPH for various energies
of the incident particles. Protons: 1) 100 keV; 2) 50 keV. Mixed beam:
3) 10 keV; 4) unirradiated film (control).
Fig. 2. AS as a function of the radiation dose. Protons: 1) 150 keV; 2)
100 keV; 3) 75 keV; 4) 50 keV; 5) 25 keV. Mixed beam: 6) 50 keV; 7) 25
keV; 8) 10 keV.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 299-300, April, 1973. Original article sub-
mitted October 2, 1972.
374
? 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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Radiation damage results mainly in the breaking of the ester groups and intermolecular cross linking
The dosimetric characteristics of PETPH were investigated by irradiating films with 25-150 keV
protons. The protons were obtained from a modified NG-160 neutron generator. The protons could be
separated from the heavier ions in the beam, H, H+3, and ions of impurity gases, by a magnetic separator
at the generator exit. The uniformity of the proton current over the cross section of the beam was moni-
tored by the method of interchangeable diaphragms and also by the uniformity of the optical absorption of
films placed in various parts of the radiation field.
The change in the optical absorption of PETPH films characterizes the extent of the radiation damage
(Fig. 1). The measurements were made with a wavelength of 320 m# corresponding to the flat part of the
absorption spectrum. The optical measurements were made with USV-1 (German) and SP-700 (British)
spectrophotometers.
Figure 2 shows the change AS in optical density of PETPH films as a function of the radiation dose
in the 25-150 keV energy range. Each curve is plotted from the results of from three to five series of
irradiations. The maximum error in determining the dose does not exceed 10%. The dashed curves show
similar relations for a nonseparated ion beam. In the energy range investigated the proton ranges are
significantly less than the film thickness and therefore the change AS is uniquely determined by the product
of the number of protons and their energy. To use the film as a dosimeter it is necessary to plot calibra-
tion curves or to use the linear initial parts of the curves (up to 1014 protons/cm2) as proposed in [4].
The effect was independent of the dose rate in the range 1.5 ? 1011-1.5 ? 1012 protons/cm2 ? sec. It was
established that irradiated films stored in darkness at room temperature for two months did not fade.
LITERATURE CITED
1. A. M. Kabakchi, Ya. I. Lavrentovich, and V. V. Pen'kovskii, Chemical Dosimetry of Ionizing
Radiations [in Russian], Izd-vo AN USSR, Kiev (1963), p. 151.
2. A. Charlesby, Atomic Radiation and Polymers, Pergamon Press, New York (1960).
3. R. Bolt and T. Carrol (editors), Radiation Effects on Organic Materials, Academic Press, New
York?London (1963), p. 164.
4. J. Boag et al., Radiation Res., 9, 589 (1958).
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EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF CURRENT FORMATION
IN DIRECT-CHARGE DETECTORS WITH A
RHODIUM EMITTER
V. I. Mitin, V. F. Shikalov, UDC 539.1.074.8
and S. A. Tsimbalov
A study of the properties of direct-charge detectors [1-3] has shown that these instruments may suc-
cessfully be used as neutron flux monitors when constructing systems of intrareactor control. However,
increasing demands as to measuring accuracy, rapidity of action, and other parameters have necessitated
a more detailed investigation into the mechanism of current formation in direct-charge detectors under the
conditions of reactor irradiation. The aim of the present investigation is to study the influence of reactor
'y-radiation on the readings of a direct-charge detector and to refine the kinetic parameters of detectors
with rhodium emitters.
For this purpose we used DPZ-1P detectors with rhodium emitters made in the All-Union Scientific-
Research Institute of Current Sources. The length of the detectors was 50 and 100 mm, the diameter of
the emitter was 0.8 mm. The measurements were carried out in the displacer of the working channel of
the MR reactor of the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy [4]. A dry measuring channel of internal
diameter 6 mm was placed in the displacer. The external diameter of the detectors with their stainless
steel sheath was 4 mm. This construction enabled the detector to be moved rapidly over the height of the
active zone.
For recording the currents of the direct-charge detector we used a measuring system consisting of
semiconducting electrometric amplifiers of the PEMU-3 type, a K-107 loop oscillograph, and a KSP-4
Fig. 1
Fig. 1. Current of the direct-charge detector and background current
ducing the detector into the active zone (oscillogram).
Fig. 2. Direct-charge detector current after rapid withdrawal from the active
zone.
I, rel. units
f00
10
Ty4
4
M,M
150 .300 450
Fig. 2
600
750 t, sec
on intro-
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 301-303, April, 1973. Original article sub-
mitted June 12, 1972.
376
C 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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rel. units
0,5
0,5
42
Fuel
A
A
0
-2,2 -18 -14 -10 -6 -2 2 6 10 14 18 22 16 hrun
Fig. 3. Result of measurements at the active-zone/reflector
boundary: 0) current of the KNT-11 y-chamber; 0) activation
of the copper wire; A) current of the direct-charge detector (the
instantaneous component coincides with the statistical measure-
ment).
automatic-recording potentiometer. The detectors were coupled to the, measuring system (16 m long) with
a double-screen AVKE-1 cable.
Before starting the measurements the direct-charge detectors were placed in the channel at a dis-
tance of 50 cm above the upper edge of the active zone. When the start signal was given, the detector was
let down in approximately 0.2 sec to a specific point in the. active zone, held there for around 4 sec, then
rapidly restored to its original position. The corresponding recordings of the detector current and the
background current Ib are given in Fig. 1 (I is the current of the emitter and coupling line).
Dynamic Characteristics of the Direct-Charge Detector. The time dependence of the direct-charge
detector current determined by the activation and 3-decay of rhodium is described by the system of equa-
tions:
I (t)=16.iN 1(0;
dNi(t) - k5N 1(0 2N2X (t) GINO (1);
dt
dN 2(t) - ?2N2 (t)cr2NO (t),
dt
(1)
where X1 and X2 are decay constants; Ni(t) and N2(t) are the number of nuclei; at and o-2 are the cross sec-
tions of formation of the isotopes for Rh104 and Rhlum, respectively; N is the number of Rhi?3 nuclei; and
1.(t) is the neutron flux.
By solving the system of equations in Eq. (1) we find that, when the detector is instantaneously with-
drawn from the active zone after previously being held in a neutron flux until saturation has been achieved
with respect to both isotopes Rhi" and Rhn4m, the time dependence of the current will take the form
I(S)_?k [(a2+02) PADe+?J?X 02MD
X2
while on instantaneously introducing the detector into a steady-state neutron flux with zero initial conditions
it obeys
/ (t)= k 1(02+02) NO (1? 43-44t) ? ?h 02Nat (e-X25-- e- it)] .
z
Figure 2 illustrates the changes taking place in the detector current on rapid withdrawal from the
active zone and fairly prolonged cooling.
From the recordings-of the transient processes (Figs. 1 and 2) we see that the detector current con-
sists of instantaneous and retarded components, the time dependence of the latter component agreeing with
the foregoing relationships. Repeated measurements at various points of the active zone with a small y
background showed that the instantaneous component equalled (7.3 ? 0.5)% of the total detector current.
377
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Instantaneous Component of the Direct-Charge Detector Current in the Presence of a Rhodium Emit-
ter. We devoted particular attention to determining the nature of the instantaneous current component in
view of the fact that the literature contained insufficient information regarding this phenomenon. The phe-
nomenon was explained in [2] by the "ejection of electrons from the emitter on account of the capture of
'y-radiation in the silver" and in [3] by the effect of the reactor 'y-radiation on the emitter material.
We ourselves considered it more likely that the instantaneous current from the direct-charge detec-
tor with the rhodium emitter involved two processes. Firstly, the first stage in the reaction
,RhiCam
R11103(ny)
1:th1194
in which the transition of the compound nucleus Rh103 + n into the state Rh104 or Rh94m was accompanied by
the emission of y-quanta and conversion electrons of different energies [5]. The conversion electrons and
also the electrons leaving the emitter as a result of interaction with the y-quanta of the transition (Compton
effect, photoeffect) create an instantaneous component of the detector current. Secondly, the y-quanta of
the fission reaction and the capture radiation of the materials surrounding the detector, interacting with
the detector materials, create an instantaneous flux of charged particles which make their own contribu-
tion to the detector current. In order to discover which of the two mechanisms had the greater effect on
the formation of the instantaneous component, we carried out a special experiment.
Keeping the state of the reactor active zone constant, we measured the distribution of the thermal
neutron flux and the intensity of the y-radiation over the height of the channel. The thermal neutron flux
distribution was determined from the activation of a copper wire, and the intensity of the y-radiation with
a KNT-11 y-chamber without any covering, the sensitive part being 50 mm high and 4 mm in diameter.
Then we measured the current distribution of the rhodium detector over the height of the channel. The de-
tector was held at the points of measurement for at least 15 min. At these same points we determined the
instantaneous component of the detector current by withdrawing it sharply, and at the same time estab-
lished the value of the background current. The results of the measurements are shown in Fig. 3. Par-
ticularly indicative are the results of the measurements in the region of the upper reflector, since here we
have a sharp difference between the current of the 'y-chamber and the activity of the copper wire. This is
to be expected, since at the fuel/reflector boundary the flux of thermal neutrons increases on the reflector
side while the intensity of the 'y-radiation diminishes. The distribution of the saturation current of the de-
tector with respect to height agrees closely with the distribution of the activity of the copper wire. A slight
discrepancy in the region of the reflector and above may be explained by the different spectral sensitivity
of copper and rhodium, the neutron spectrum becoming softer at this point of the reactor. Since the distri-
bution of the instantaneous component of the detector current coincided with the distribution of the satura-
tion current of the detector to within 1% (or better) at each measuring point, we may confidently assert that
Rhium
the first stage of the reaction Rh103(ny) plays the main part in creating the instantaneous compo-
NRIii?4
nent of the rhodium detector current. The contribution of 'y-radiation to the creation of this component is
insignificant.
Thus at all measuring points the distribution of the instantaneous component of the detector current
is proportional to the distribution of the saturation current of the detector, with an error of no greater than
1%. This indicates that the instantaneous or prompt component has a neutron origin, since in the region of
the reflector, at which the neutron and y-radiation fluxes have different distributions, the distribution of
the instantaneous component is proportional to the neutron distribution and not the distribution of y-radia-
tion.
In addition to this, allowing for the fact that the coefficient of proportionality between the instan-
taneous component and the detector saturation current remains constant to within an error of ?1%, we may
conclude that the contribution of the y-radiation to the detector current is negligible.
We may thus consider that the detector current is due, on the one hand, to the 0-particles of Rhim
formed as a result of the reaction Rh103(ny)Rh104 and as a result of the 'y-transition of Rhium into Rhim.
This component (which may be called the activation component) produces 92.7% of the direct-charge de-
tector current. On the other hand, the electrons formed in the first ("instantaneous") stage of the capture
of neutrons by rhodium make their own contribution to the current. The proportion of the instantaneous
component relative to the whole detector current equals ?7.3%.
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' In conclusion, the authors are pleased to thank L. I. Firsov and V. V. Semak for help in preparing
for and effecting the measurements, and also A. A. Voronin and E. N. Babulevich for constant cooperation
and interest in the work.
LITERATURE CITED
1. N. D. Rozenblyum et al., At. Energ., 10, 72 (1961).
2. I. Ya. Emellyanov et al., ibid., 27, 230 (1969).
3. I. Hilborn, Nucleonics, 22, No. 2, 69 (1964).
4. V. V. Goncharov et al.,_ Third Geneva Conference (1971), Paper 323 (USSR).
5. G. A. Bartholomew et al., Collection of Measurements of Gamma Radiation Arising from the
Capture of Thermal Neutrons, Part I (Z = 46) [Russian translation], Atomizdat, Moscow (1969).
379
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INFORMATION: CONFERENCES AND MEETINGS
THIRD ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON
CHARGED-PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
L. N. Sosenskii
In the beginning of October, 1972, in Moscow there took place the Third'All-Union Conference on
Charged-Particle Accelerators, attended by about 600 scientists and engineers from Soviet and foreign
research institutions.
The work of the conference concentrated on the following basic areas: 1) high-energy and superhigh-
energy accelerators; 2) colliding-beam apparatus; 3) meson factories; 4) use of superConductivity in ac-
celerator technology; 5) computer control of accelerators; 6) new acceleration methods; 7) increasing
the power of existing accelerators; 8) acceleration of heavy ions; 9) use of accelerators in related areas
of physics and in medicine.
1. A group of scientists from the Institute of High-Energy Physics (IHEP, Serpukhov), the Scien-
tific-Research Institute for Electrophysical Apparatus (SRIEA, Leningrad), and the Radiotechnical Insti-
tute (RTI) of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Moscow) proposed building an ?2 TeV accelerator-storage
complex in which superconducting magnets would be used for the main proton?synchrotron ring and the
IHEP accelerator with energy 76 GeV and beam intensity (after reconstruction) of ?1013 protons/pulse
would be used as the injector. Such a complex could also accelerate electrons to energies up to ?40 GeV.
Such a complex would make possible studies of colliding beams of various types: proton?proton, proton
?electron, and proton?antiproton.
The IHEP accelerator operates successfully at an energy of 76 GeV. The principal recent accom-
plishment of this accelerator was the introduction of a high-energy extraction system for the "Mirabel"
liquid-hydrogen chamber, about which IHEP and CERN made a joint report. This system assures extrac-
tion in the energy range 30-76 GeV with efficiency ?98%, the feasibility of triple extraction in each accel-
erator cycle, high dimensional stability and hitting an external target with the beam. The introduction of
the high-energy extraction system significantly increases the efficiency of the accelerator.
Work on perfecting the 6 GeV Erevan electron synchrotron is continuing. The vacuum system of the
accelerator has been reconstructed: the metal epoxy chamber has been replaced by a ceramic one, meta-
lized inside with a molybdenum?manganese alloy; the beam extraction system has been modernized.
There was no report at the conference on the start-up of the Batavia (USA) 200 GeV proton synchro-
tron. Nevertheless, this fact was at the participants' center of attention, since it heralds a new outstand-
ing step in the development of accelerator technology.
CERN has begun construction of a several-hundred GeV proton synchrotron. The first stage for this
accelerator (200 GeV) has been planned with a setup of omitted magnets, allowing significant increase in
the energy in the future. Contracts have been let for the manufacture of ferrous magnet blocks. Two
variants of the second stage have been considered: filling the entire ring with ferrous magnets (-400 GeV)
and installing in the spaces superconducting magnets with fields of 4-5 tesla, not including the ferrous
magnets (-500 GeV). The choice should be made by the end of 1973.
The report by the specialists from the Stanford accelerator center considered a new proposal for
reconstructing the 25 GeV linear electron accelerator. The administration of the center rejected a plan
for remaking the accelerator into a superconducting one (increasing the energy to 100 GeV) and stopped
studies on using superconductivity in rf systems. It consists of introducing the electrons accelerated in
380
Translated from Atomnaya Pnergiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 305-309, April, 1973.
o 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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the existing machine into a closed recirculator, where they circulate 120 times in the interval between
pulses of the rf field of the main accelerator; then, the electrons are injected into the main accelerator
and are accelerated by the next pulse to ?45 GeV. The recirculator contains two incomplete rings of 95 m
radius at the ends of the main accelerator. The rings are connected by two long linear sections located in
a tunnel of the main accelerator above them. The overall length of the recirculator is ?6.9 km. The
authors of the project expect to receive by the end of 1974 the necessary funds (18 million dollars) and be-
gin realizing the project.
2. Many nuclear and accelerator scientific centers give primary attention to colliding-beam appara-
tus.
At the Institute of Nuclear Physics, Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, there
is being constructed a new electron?positron ring VEPP-2M for maximal energy of 670 MeV, in which it
is expected to achieve in the first stage a luminosity of the order of 5 ? 1030 cm-2 sec-1 at an energy of 500
MeV and beam currents of 40 A. Later, luminosity could be increased to ?1032 cm-2. sec-1. In July,
1972, electron capture in the synchrotron mode was achieved. On the VEPP-3 a system for controlling
the beam dimension in a storage ring was studied.
CERN has operated for more than two years proton storage rings with beam energy of 25 GeV, in
which there was observed the unexpected effect of beam loss due to pressure increase in the vacuum
chamber. To control this phenomenon, the vacuum chamber is now heated before it is pumped out at
300?C over 24 h (instead of 200?C over 5 h). Besides this, the pumping rate of the pumps will be increased
to 800 liter/sec and their number increased to 500. The first measure alone increased the current at
which the pressure rise begins from 4 to 10 A. There are assurances that the completion of the planned
program will increase the current to the projected level of 20 A.
Two electron?positron storage rings began operation in the USA in 1972: SPEAR at the Stanford
accelerator center and the storage ring at the Cambridge Electron Accelerator. At Stanford, a luminosity
of 2. 1030 cm-2- sec-1 ? the maximum obtained anywhere up to this time ? was obtained at an energy of
2.3 GeV (maximum energy 2.8 GeV). The program for developing SPEAR, providing for increasing the
maximum energy to 4.5 GeV with luminosity 1032 cm-2 sec-1, for which a new rf system is necessary,
should be completed by July, 1974.
The reconstruction of the Cambridge electron synchrotron consisted of constructing magnetic bypass
channels, including portions with small 3. The maximal obtained luminosity at an energy of 2 GeV (3 ? 1028
cm-2. sec-1) is still insufficient for the planned experiments, and work is now going on to increase it.
Three projects for new storage rings were presented. A combined Stanford?Berkeley group pro-
posed constructing a complex allowing proton?electron?positron colliding beams (PEP) with electron
energy 15 GeV, proton energy 72 GeV, and luminosity ?1032 cm-2 ? sec-1. The electron?positron and
proton rings are to be located in a single tunnel, one over the other.
At Brookhaven National Laboratory (USA) the ISA project is being developed, which envisions the
creation of two intersecting accelerator-storage units with superconducting magnets for proton?proton
collisions at energy of 200 GeV. The protons are injected from a proton synchrotron at an energy of 30
GeV. After storage of currents of the order of 15 A, the protons are slowly accelerated to 200 GeV and
then collide in special interaction regions with luminosity of the order of 1033 cm-2. sec-1.
In the DESY laboratory (Federal Republic of Germany) there is being built an electron?positron
storage ring DORIS for 3.5 GeV with injection from an existing electron synchrotron. The system con-
sists of two rings, one above the other. The projected luminosity is ?1032-1033 cm-2 ? sec-1.
3. In the Soviet Union, RTI, AS USSR, and SRIEA have planned a meson factory for 600 MeV energy
and 0.5 mA average proton current; the basis of the meson factory is a linear accelerator producing a
proton beam with pulse duration 100 ?sec and off-duty factor 1%. Simultaneously with protons in the linear
accelerator, 11- ions with average current of 50 ?A and polarized 11- ions are accelerated.
At the exit of the linear accelerator is a storage ring-extender using overcharged injection of H-
ions. Slow escape from the storage ring gives a continuous proton beam with a current of 50 ?A; fast es-
cape gives short pulses.
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The Nuclear Problems Laboratory of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) has for several
years studied the possibility of using ring accelerators (isochronous 'cyclotrons and high-current phaso-
trons) as meson factories. It has been shown that when Qz = 1.1-1.4 proton beams can be accelerated with
currents exceeding 100 mA. A new method for beam extraction has been worked out, based on widening
the closed orbit in a limited range of radii, while preserving the beam emittance. This method will allow
achieving a beam spacing in the extraction zone of 5 cm/cycle with an emittance of ?1 cm ? rad. A project
has been worked out for a phasotron with energy of 700 MeV and average current of 50 A. Construction
of the phasotron should be completed in 1975.
A large installation being constructed in Vancouver, Canada, is the TRIUMF meson factory based on
a sector cyclotron weighing 4000 tons. The energy of the particles accelerated in the cyclotron can be
varied smoothly from 160 to 520 MeV while one can extract simultaneously from the accelerator several
beams with varying energies and off-duty factor 100%. The most intense extracted beam has a current of
100 ?A. Start-up of the accelerator is planned for 1974.
A meson factory is being constructed by the Swiss Institute for Nuclear Research in Zurich with final
energy of 590 MeV and current of 100 ?A. The first experiments with the beam are expected toward the
end of 1973.
4. In recent years, interest has risen sharply in the uses of superconductivity in accelerator tech-
nology.
Workers from RTI and SRIEA gave reports on work in the field of superconductivity. At RTI, sys-
tematic investigations of superconducting pulsed magnets have continued since 1969. In this time, solenoid
and dipole magnet models have been constructed with maximum fields up to 6 tesla and cycle rise rates up
to 4 tesla/sec. In the dipole magnet, a field uniformity of ?0.2% has been obtained. Presently, there are
being constructed several superconducting dipoles with low parameter variation and also a dipole whose
dimensions are close to natural.
Superconducting solenoids have been studied at SRIEA. Methods have been worked out for impreg-
nating the windings so that the conductors are stationary.
In 1970, the Rutherford laboratory (Great Britain) and the scientific centers in Saclay (France) and
Karlsruhe (FRG) created a commission (GESSS) to coordinate their efforts in creating pulsed supercon-
ducting magnets and applying them to accelerators. Encouraging data have been obtained. The GESSS
laboratories have produced a series of models for magnets for a superconducting synchrotron. The mag-
nets were tested in thousands of cycles of pulsed operation and gave satisfactory results in both the re-
quired field accuracy and reliability.
The next stage will be the creation of magnets suitable for mass production and testing their accu-
racy and reliability in millions of cycles.
Since the problem of pulsed magnets is close to solution, main attention in the near future will be
directed at the system for liquefying and distributing helium over an object several kilometers in extent.
A no less important system, whose production entails significant difficulty, is the power-supply system
with stored energy of ?500 MJ.
The possible vacuum system variants for the ISA storage complex are being studied at the Brook-
haven National Laboratory. A warm chamber is preferred, although use of a cold chamber could, in prin-
ciple, lower the cost of the superconducting magnets through decreasing their aperture.
At the Argonne National Laboratory (USA) a project has been devised for a superconducting storage
ring with a constant field for use as a beam extender in a zero-gradient proton synchrotron. The ring will
double the average intensity and increase the off-duty factor of the extracted beam by a factor of 5. It is
located in the main synchrotron tunnel.
At the Institute for Experimental Nuclear Physics in Karlsruhe (FRG) there has been constructed the
first section with spiral retardation for a superconducting linear proton accelerator with projected energy
50 MeV and current 1 mA, which is a model for the projected superconducting accelerator with energy
?500 MeV. Superfluid helium at a temperature of 1.8?K is used for cooling. The first section operated
stably for several hours at an intensity of 1.3 ?A with accelerating field 1.3 MV/m.
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5. At the present time methods of computer control of accelerators are being incorporated into most
working installations, and the computer is an important part of all accelerators being built and planned.
At RTI, work is continuing on creating and perfecting methods for controlling closed orbits and for
correcting multiple distortions of the magnetic field. With the participation of workers at IHEP, an ioniza-
tion profilometer has been devised for measuring the transverse dimensions of the IHEP proton?synchro-
tron beam with spatial resolution of ?1 mm. Presently, apparatus is being designed for introducing infor-
mation from the profilometer into a computer.
At the Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics (ITEP) a profilometer is also being devised
for work under special conditions of the Institute's proton synchrotron at energies of 7 GeV, at which it is
extremely difficult to screen the device from the stray field of the magnet. In 1970, the profilometer was
tested experimentally on the accelerator and allowed measurement of the transverse dimensions of the
beam with accuracy of 2 mm and time resolution of 50 ? ? sec.
At the Institute for Nuclear Physics, Siberian Branch AS USSR, since May, 1971, a system for the
VEPP-3 storage unit has been in use which controls the magnet, the storage mode, and the equilibrium
orbit. The system is used also for measuring the beam parameters, controlling the pulse system, and
analyzing complex situations. A Minsk-22 computer is being used.
SRIEA has devised an automatic system of pulsed power supply of 95 drift tubes for the 38 MeV linear
proton accelerator ? the booster injector for the IHEP proton synchrotron. The system provides for re-
mote programed control of the apparatus from a central console, and also interrogation and control of the
current amplitudes.
Studies are continuing at the Erevan Physics Institute on a system for correcting the magnetic field
of the electron synchrotron at high energies. This system decreased dynamic losses in the dipole and
focusing magnets to ?10-4 using self-compensating circuits which equalize the fields in all elements of the
magnetic system.
The first complex system for controlling a large accelerator, planned as an integral part of the ac-
celerator, has been introduced and used successfully: this is the control system of the meson factory in
Los Alamos (USA). The entire start-up process of the meson factory (completed in June, 1972), from
turn-on to the final adjustments, was accomplished with the help of the control system. The system has a
modular structure: 8500 channels connected to sensors and control elements serve 64 modules which send
information to the computer, which is located in the central control room, where there are two control
panels. The system as a whole is organized around the computer, which works on-line, so that the meson
factory can function only through the computer. With the help of this system, one can, in particular, find
malfunctioning elements of the accelerator, and also diagnose the beam parameters and study its dynamics.
In contrast to the Los Alamos meson factory, where a single relatively large computer is used, the
projected control system of the 200 GeV CERN accelerator is maximally decentralized. The use of secon-
dary minicomputers for solving simple control problems reduces the load on the central computer. The
decentralization of the synchrotron control system is taken to its logical end by the fact that even the cen-
tral computer is a complex of medium-size computers, each of which carries out a strictly limited volume
of functions. Control of the closed orbit allows decrease of the vertical magnet aperture exceeding a fac-
tor of 1.5. The correction algorithm for the closed orbit from information on the beam presumes two
sources of orbital distortion: remanent fields and incorrect lens placement. The algorithm is a succes-
sion of iterations in each of which correction is accomplished by special dipoles on the injection level and
translation of the basic quadrupoles on the high-energy level. The latter is accomplished when the ac-
celerator is turned off according to results of closed-orbit measurements at high energy.
A complex control system is also being constructed at the TRIUMF meson factory, where six mini-
computers combined into a single system are being used.
6. Reports about work on collective methods of acceleration show that in many laboratories in the
USSR, USA, and FRG some successes have been achieved in the construction of such accelerators. How-
ever, up to the present, the difficulties arising during attempts to achieve high proton energies with these
methods have not been overcome.
The idea of a linotron continues to attract the attention of physicists.
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At SRIEA, the possibilities of using a linotron as a high-current accelerator are being studied. The
limiting beam current at which the mode of acceleration with double recirculation is possible has been cal-
culated.
The idea for a new accelerator, called the driftotron, arose at RTI. The driftotron is a cyclic ac-
celerator in which the particles are accelerated by the rf field during their motion (drift) along the spiral
equilibrium orbit in the axially symmetric field, which builds up along the axis of symmetry. The rf field
is created by the accelerating gaps and the magnetic field is produced by a nonferrous magnet.
The recently organized interuniversity labc?ratory LIRF (Italy) devised a project for a 500 MeV lino-
tron which should become the main accelerator at tn.L_ laboratory.
7. The problem of increasing the power of existing accelerators 'and the associated problem of high-
efficiency extraction of intense beams from ring accelerators attracts, as previously, the close attention
of specialists. At present, the problem of achieving intensities greater than 1013 protons/pulse confronts
proton synchrotrons with energies of several tens of GeV.
Great interest was given to reports of the proposed fundamental reconstruction of the IHEP proton
synchrotron for an energy of 7 GeV. Three stages are planned: 1) reconstruction of the magnet system to
create long linear gaps; 2) creation of high-efficiency, low-energy extraction with transport of the beam
into a special "proton" building; 3) increasing the beam intensity to ?1013 protons/pulse by increasing the
injection energy to 300-400 MeV. A detailed plan for the first stage has been worked out.
As a preparation for the second stage, SRIEA and IHEP are studying measures to improve the mag-
netic field, in particular, measures to lower the field-pulsation coefficient to 10-6/f and decrease the field
instability to 10-4. Similar measures must be applied for extraction at low energy from the IHEP accelera-
tor.
Interesting studies of methods for decreasing the transverse beam instability in linear electron ac-
celerators were conducted in 1969-1971 at the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR. The basis of these studies was the devising and testing of an accelerating sector with a high critical
current (theoretical value 3 A), at which a beam was obtained with a current of 700 mA in a pulse of 15
?sec long at an energy of 15 MeV with no signs of the instability effect. Studies of the dependence of the
critical current of a multisegment 2 GeV accelerator on various factors showed that significantly increas-
ing the critical current (to 100 mA) can be accomplished only'through replacing the working sectors by
sectors with a high critical current.
At the High-Energy Laboratory of JINR a system was devised for resonance high-efficiency beam ex-
traction from a synchrophasotron operating at a radial betatron oscillation frequency of 2/3. At the begin-
ning of the summer of 1972, the beam was extracted from the accelerator chamber and introduced into the
experimental building. The extraction efficiency is no less than 90%. At the Leningrad Institute for Nu-
clear Physics there was devised an integrated system for low-energy extraction and single-cycle discharge
of the beam onto an internal target. The efficiency of the low-energy extraction reaches 75%.
Adjustment of the system for single-cycle extraction of the electron beam with energy 1.35 GeV from
the VEPP-3 storage unit has begun at the Institute for Nuclear Physics, Siberian Branch, AS USSR.
An important step in solving the problem of increasing intensity has been made at CERN, where ad-
justment of the 800 MeV booster is being made very quickly. By the end of September, 1972, CERN
achieved multicycle (15 revolutions) injection into the booster, acceleration to 800 MeV, and extraction of
the beam from four rings with its subsequent reconstruction and introduction into the main synchrotron.
At present, half of the projected intensity has been achieved at the 800 MeV level.
8. The most significant results in accelerating heavy ions have been achieved at the Bevatron (USA),
where there is now a whole series of extracted beams of various ions in the energy range from 250 MeV
/nucleon to 2.1 GeV/nucleon, with the following particle intensities in the pulse: 1012 for protons, 2 ? 1011
for deuterons, 2 ? 1010 for a-particles, 108 for carbon, 107 for nitrogen, 1.5 ? 107 for oxygen, and 105 for
neon. The emplacement of a new injector is envisioned, which would further increase the intensity. In the
past year, 20% of the Bevatron's working time has been devoted to the use of heavy ions.
Work is continuing on increasing the efficiency of using the LVE synchrophasotron at JINR for ac-
celerating heavy ions, where the acceleration proceeds in two stages with recapture. At present, 95%
deuteron-recapture efficiency has been achieved.
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Xenon ions with energy ?7 MeV/nucleon and intensity 2 ? 1010 particles/sec have been obtained by the
accelerator system of the Nuclear Reactions Laboratory at JINR. The system consists of a classical
cyclotron with radius 310 cm and an isochronous cyclotron with radius 200 cm.
In March, 1972, the isochronous cyclotron at the Nuclear Physics Institute of the Academy of Sci-
ences of the Kazakh SSR was started up with regulated energy 7-30 MeV for protons, 14.5-25 MeV for
deuterons, and 29-50 MeV for a-particles. The extracted-beam current is 30 ?A for protons and 12 ?A
for a -particles.
9. A special session of the conference was devoted to questions of the use of accelerators in medi-
cine, industry, and related areas of physics.
In medicine, accelerators are used mainly in treating cancers. Proton beams with energy less than
200 MeV and r-meson beams with energy ?500 MeV are especially valuable for radiation therapy because,
when they are used, the dose at a subsurface focus may exceed by a factor of 10 the dose at the surface of
the irradiated body. Besides this, bremsstrahlung from electron accelerators with energy ?20 MeV, and
also electron beams with energy ?40 MeV are used for radiation therapy. Experimental high-energy pro-
ton beams for medical uses have been created at the synchrocyclotron at the Nuclear Problems Laboratory
of JINR and at the IHEP proton synchrotron. Beams with regulated energy of 100-120 MeV have been used.
At the present time, there are being worked out a project for a multichannel proton complex for massive
irradiation of patients, based on the IHEP proton synchrotron, and also medical specifications for the con-
struction of a clinical base using it-meson beams of the LYaP synchrocyclotron at JINR.
The use of accelerators in related scientificareas is connected at present with the use of synchrotron
radiation whose spectral region 1000-1 A (10 eV-10 keV) attracts the most attention, since it has the fewest
efficient radiation sources. The sharply expressed directionality of the high degree of polarization of the
synchrotron radiation and great energy density (tens of watts per cm2) open up qualitatively new possibilities
for experimental studies in solid-state spectroscopy, molecular biology, photochemistry, extra-atmo-
spheric astronomy, etc.
Now, besides using existing electron synchrotrons, special machines (accelerators and storage units)
are being created for this purpose. A project for such a storage unit has been devised at the Institute for
Physical Problems, AS USSR. A 20 MeV microtron is used as the injector. The electron energy is in-
creased to 1 GeV in the storage ring. The beam current is 100 mA; the lifetime is several hours. The
beam gives 4.4 kW synchrotron radiation with wavelength at the spectral maximum of 4.7 A. The use of
special radiative magnets (superconducting with 7.5 tesla field) produces a wavelength of ?1 A.
The 1.3 GeV electron synchrotron under construction in Krasnaya Pakhra by the P. N. Lebedev Insti-
tute of Physics, AS USSR, will be widely used as a source of synchrotron radiation. In the storage mode
with local orbit distortion this synchrotron will give a high level of radiation in the range 0.5-100 A.
The conference was very successful. This was in no small degree due to the excellent work done by
the Organizational Committee headed by its chairman, Academician A. L. Mints.
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XVIth INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HIGH
ENERGY PHYSICS
S. A. Bunyatov
The XVIth biennial.International Conference on High Energy Physics was held in the USA (Chicago
and Batavia) on September 6-13, 1972. More than 800 physicists from 45 countries took part. Approxi-
mately 1000 reports were presented including 110 reports from the Soviet Union and OIYaI. The following
main topics were discussed: strong interactions at high energy, weak interactions, electromagnetic inter-
actions, and research methods in high energy physics.
1. The most interesting, accurate, and complete experimental results relating to strong interactions
were presented, in the main, by the IFVE, OIYaI, ITEF, FIAN SSSR, and Erevan Institute of Physics
Laboratories using the 70 GeV IFVE (USSR) accelerator and by the laboratories of CERN and its member
nations where experiments were performed on the 28 GeV accelerator and 2 x 25 GeV colliding rings. The
first results from the American National Laboratory at Batavia (USA) were of a preliminary nature due to
large errors.
Total Cross Sections. Experiments performed at the IFVE accelerators studied the energy depen-
dence to 65 GeV of the difference between particle and antiparticle total cross sections for particles be-
longing to the same isomultiplet. A series of experiments by Yu. D. Prokoshkina et al., shows that all
total cross section differences decrease with increasing momentum, thus verifying the Pomeranchuk
theorem. The first results on total pp-cross sections from the Batavia accelerator (100-300 GeV) and the
CERN colliding rings (equivalent energy up to 1500 GeV) do not contradict the constancy of the pp total
cross sections at the energies measured. However, these results are for the moment characterized by
large errors (1.5 mb).
In the last several years, the energy dependence of the total hadronic cross section for y-rays has
been measured at SLAC (USA) up to an energy of 18 GeV. New results at higher energies from the electron
beam at the IFVE accelerator (Erevan Institute of Physics, FIAN SSSR, IFVE) were presented to the con-
ference. These showed that the total hadronic cross section for 7-proton interactions is constant at ener-
gies higher than 20 GeV. This is in qualitative agreement with the vector dominance model.
Elastic Scattering of Hadrons. New data on the ratio of real to imaginary parts of the forward pro-
ton?proton elastic scattering amplitude at an energy of 270 GeV was obtained at the CERN colliding rings.
The magnitude of this ratio (-1 ? 7)% is in agreement with the energy dependence found earlier at the IFVE
accelerator by V. A. Nikitina at energies up to 70 GeV for both pp and pn collisions.
Measurements of elastic pp scattering in the region of the diffractive peak for four-momentum trans-
fers of 0.01-0.5 (GeV/c)2 at the CERN colliding rings show the existence of a break in the differential cross
section at a four-momentum transfer value of 0.1 (GeV/c)2. New data from Batavia and CERN on the slope
parameter for elastic pp-scattering show that the slope of the pp-scattering peak continues to grow with in-
creasing energy.
The first results on elastic scattering of pions, kaons, and antiprotons on protons at energies higher
than 20 GeV were presented by two groups working at the IFVE accelerator: the IFVE?CERN collabora-
tion (L. G. Landsberg, V. Kinzl) and S. B. Hurushev's group (IFVE). In the momentum transfer region 0.1-
0.4 (GeV/c)2 the slope parameter is practically independent of energy for 71--- and K--mesons with momenta
up to 50 GeV/c. In the case of p-scattering, as energy increases, the slope parameter approaches the
value of the pp-scattering slope parameter.
Translated from Atomnaya tnergiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 309-311, April, 1973.
O 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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New data from the CERN colliding rings exists on elastic pp-scattering in the region of large momen-
tum transfer (greater than 0.5 (GeV/c)2) at energies up to 1500 GeV. The differential cross section here
has a simple diffractive structure.
Charge Exchange Scattering of Pions and Kaons. Results of a series of experiments by IFVE (Yu. D.
Prokoshkin's group) on and K--charge exchange scattering at energies greater than 20 GeV were pre-
sented at the conference. These experiments determined the differential cross sections of r-p-charge ex-
change at zero degrees which is directly related to the ir-p- and r+-total cross section difference.
The K--charge exchange cross section on protons was measured at the IFVE accelerator and the
Brookhaven accelerator at lower energies. It decreases with increasing energy much faster than predicted
by the Regge pole model. Significant deviations from quark model predictions of 1r-- and K--charge ex-
change scattering are found at energies greater than 20 GeV.
Coherent Regeneration of le-Mesons. The study of the coherent regeneration amplitude energy de-
pendence for le-mesons on protons allows a direct check of the Pomeranchuk theorem for kaon and anti-
kaon interactions with nuclei from measurements of both the modulus and phase of the amplitude. The re-
sults obtained at the IFVE accelerator by the LVE OIYaI group (A. I. Savin et al.) show that the Pomeran-
chuk theorem holds. The modulus of the regeneration amplitude decreases with increasing energy while
its phase remains constant (about ?130?) up to 50 GeV/c. As a result of these measurements the energy
dependence of the K?-neutron total cross section difference has been determined. The data is in good
agreement with the independent measurements at IFVE using a K?-meson beam and confirm the growth of
K?-neutron total cross sections.
High Energy Production Processes. Many-particle production processes are becoming more and
more important in the study of strong interactions. This is due to the fact that, first, many-particle states
with multiplicities of up to 30 and total center of mass energy of up to 55 GeV have become available for
study at the new accelerators (IFVE, CERN, Batavia Laboratory), and, second, because of new experi-
mental verification of fundamental laws of scale invariance discovered in these processes. Furthermore,
the possibility of effectively utilizing Regge pole ideas in constructing theoretical models that describe
many-particle processes has been demonstrated. These trends stood out quite strikingly at the conference.
A group of theoreticians from IFVE (A. A. Logunov et al.) began studying processes with one secon-
dary particle singled out as early as 1967 (these later acquired the name "inclusive"). Scale invariance in
the formation of rr-- and K--mesons and antiprotons on aluminum nuclei in the proton energy range of 20-
70 GeV was discovered in an experiment by an IFVE?CERN collaboration (Yu. D. Prokoshkin and G. Allabi).
The first results on multiparticle production from the CERN colliding beams and from the hydrogen
bubble chamber at Batavia have confirmed the existence of scale invariance up to the highest accessible
energies. It has been possible to explain a number of observed regularities by using the generalized optical
theorem in conjunction with ideas about Regge poles. The tendency for a widening exploration of multipar-
ticle production processes will doubtless continue in the next several years.
In the field of strong interaction theory (F. Low, USA) no new approaches were discussed. The im-
portance of calculating the effect of cuts was particularly stressed. In connection with this, the calculation
of the Reggeon? Baryon scattering cross section presented by K. A. Ter-Martirosyan (ITEF) was mentioned.
2. In the field of weak interactions particular attention was devoted to discussion of the CP-invariance
violation problem in le-meson decays. A large part of K. Rubbia's rapporteur's talk was devoted to a dis-
cussion of new results concerning the lifetime of the neutral shortlived kaons: (0.8958 ? 0.0045) ? 10-19 sec;
(0.899 ? 0.005) ? 10-19 sec which are quite different from the preconference accepted values (0.862 ? 0.006)
? 10-19 sec.
The new data lead to a significant change in the parameters that characterize CP-invariance violation
in the decay of neutral kaons.
The greatest interest was aroused by the discussion of the Kt ? 2/2 problem. The problem consists
of the fact that A. Clark et al. have experimentally determined an upper limit to the branching ratio for
this decay of 1.8. 10-9 while the theoretical lower bound, which follows from the unitarity condition is
6.10-9. A report from a group of physicists from Brookhaven who have begun a new experiment searching
for the two-muon decay of the long-lived kaon was presented. They have found four to six cases of such a
decay which gives a branching ratio for two-muon decay of 1 ? 0.45 ? 10-8. This value is in strong contra-
diction to the result of A. Clark et al.
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Several models have been proposed in 1971-1972 to explain the Kto- 2? decay. The most interest-
ing one can be reduced to the assumption of CP-invariance violation in KL ? 2y decays. As a result of
this assumption the existence of a two-muon decay for the short-lived kaon is theoretically predicted with
a branching ratio of ?10-6.
According to reports from CERN groups the decay les ? 2? has not been seen at a level of 4. 10-7.
The theory of weak interactions was discussed at a plenary session in a report by B. Lee (USA).
Particularly great progress has occurred in the field of constructing models of weak interactions based on
spontaneously broken chiral symmetries. This is connected with the proof of renormalizability of such
models. The possibility has appeared of creating as complete a theory of weak interactions as, for in-
stance, quantum electrodynamics for the electromagnetic interactions of leptons. The new theory unifies
weak and electromagnetic interactions. The new models of weak interactions demand the existence of
heavy leptons (particles with the same quantum numbers as electrons and muons but with considerably
greater mass) which have not yet been seen experimentally. In connection with this much attention was
given at the conference to the phenomenology of heavy leptons whose possible existence was first examined
in the papers of E. M. Lipmanov (USSR).
3. In the field of electromagnetic interactions interest has shifted to many-particle photo- and elec-
troproduction. Particularly interesting are studies of the dependence of many-particle production cross sec-
tions on the square of the mass of the virtual photon. It has been discovered at Stanford that with increas-
ing virtual photon mass not only does the mean multiplicity not increase (as was predicted by some popular
models) but it even shows a tendency to decrease. The study of these regularities is very much in the
forefront in connection with intensive experimentation using fast cycling hydrogen chambers and streamer
chambers with liquid hydrogen targets in the working volume.
Much experimental data has been accumulated on two-body electromagnetic reactions. Some of these
regularities have turned out to be difficult to interpret in a simple and unique theoretical manner.
Considerable progress has been achieved in the field of study of electron?positron interactions
(Orsay, Frascatti, Novosibirsk, Cambridge). Significant new results have been obtained on the production
of hadrons in electron?positron collisions. A new vector meson, the p'-meson, with a mass of ?1600
MeV and a width of ?350 MeV, decaying into four charged pions, has been discovered in these collisions
as well as the production of proton?antiproton pairs. The study of multiparticle production has begun using
colliding beams and it has been shown that (contrary to theorists' expectations) the total cross section for
hadron formation is three times larger at 4 GeV center of mass energy than the cross section for muon
pair production. This field will grow rapidly in the next several years due to the completion of new collid-
ing beam accelerators (USSR, USA, FGR).
From the theoretical side, attempts at explaining scaling in deep inelastic scattering from the point
of view of field theory were most interesting. It has been shown (N. N. Bogolyubov, V. S. Vladimirov,
A. N. Tavkhelidze, SSSR) that the scaling hypothesis does not contradict the basic postulates of field theory
and, furthermore, that scaling is quite probable from the point of view of finite charge renormalization
(A. V. Efremov, SSSR).
4. A special section chaired by L. Alvarez was set aside in the conference program to discuss the
newest achievements in apparatus for experiments at modern accelerators. Invited talks concerning the
most important new directions of experimental technology and a small number of original reports on the
most interesting recent developments were presented.
The most significant recent accomplishments in the detection of transition radiation in the x-ray
frequency region have come from the Soviet Union (Erevan Institute of Physics). In connection with this,
A. Ts. Amatunits report in which he presented the results of A. I. Alikhantyan et al. on detecting transition
radiation and pointed out future possibilities of using transition radiation in experiments at very high energy
accelerators was interesting. This methodology is now being investigated at a number of laboratories and
could become quite practicable with particle beams of 1 TeV (1000 GeV) energies.
Interesting news in the field of coordinate detectors was presented in a report by V. P. Dzhelepova
(0IYaI) on the development of a solid argon wire detector. The possibility of creating such a detector has
been demonstrated (A. F. Pisarev et al.), its characteristics have been studied, and a proposal has been
made to use it to develop coordinate detectors.
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Results of research on total absorption detectors performed in Hofstater's laboratory at Stanford
were presented. Unique cylindrical sodium-iodide crystals 60 cm in diameter and up to 40 cm thick have
a resolution of up to 2% for 16 GeV electron energies.
At the present time many laboratories are equipped with streamer chambers. As a rule, these are
one or two meter streamer chambers with a liquid hydrogen target within the working volume. A new de-
velopment in the creation of streamer chambers which are also gas targets was presented in a special re-
port of Yu. Scherbakov (0IYaI). It has been shown possible for the first time to create a high pressure
He3 streamer chamber. Chambers of this type are a quite promising tool for high energy physics experi-
ments that require a visible interaction vertex and the detection of short range tracks (as in the case of
coherent production). The importance of the development of streamer chamber technology was underlined
by the fact that immediately after the Batavia conference a special international conference on streamer
chambers was held at the Argonne National Laboratory.
?The main trends in the development of large liquid hydrogen bubble chambers are: the change to a
multiexpansion regime per beam spill; the triggering of the photographic system of the chamber by a
trigger system which selects a given reaction type, thus reducing the number of photographs to be scanned
and increasing the statistics of good events.
In the field of new experimental technology used at accelerators, the system of cylindrical wire spark
chambers with magnetostrictive readout built in Stanford for experiments with colliding beams should be
mentioned. The system consists of a solenoidal magnet with a 3 m inner diameter. Four concentric cylin-
drical wire chambers subtending scattering angles in the range 45-135? are placed inside the magnet.
Special note should be made of the rapid expansion of the role of computers in high energy physics.
Expenses on the development of computing centers at large laboratories constitute about 10% of the yearly
budget. All large laboratories are equipped with powerful computing centers using IBM 360/91, CDC-7600,
or several CDC-6600 machines. Most of the electronic experiments are performed directly with a digital
computer. These are usually small machines of the PDP-11 type or similar machines produced by the
firm of Hewlett?Packard. All digital computers are equipped with a multitude of external attachments
(displays, teletypes, plotters, magnetic disk memories, photomemories).
Participants at the conference had the possibility of visiting Argonne National Laboratory where a
13 GeV proton synchrotron is in operation. After the conference, trips were arranged to other major
accelerator centers in the USA: the Brookhaven National Laboratory, equipped with a 33 GeV proton syn-
chrotron; the Lawrence Laboratory in Berkeley where experiments are performed on a 6.3 GeV proton ,
synchrotron and a 740 MeV synchrocyclotron; the Stanford SLAC Laboratory, with a 20 GeV linear elec-
tron accelerator; the Los Alamos Anderson Meson Factory equipped with a 800 MeV linear proton accele-
rator with a projected mean current of up to 1000 mA.
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON THE PHYSICS OF
HIGH ENERGIES AND ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
S. M. Bilen'kii and V. M. Sidorov
The symposium was organized by the Combined Institute for Nuclear Research and the Institute of
Experimental Physics of the Slovak Academy of Sciences and took place on October 2-9, 1972, in Czecho-
slovakia (Strba Lake, High Tatra).
Physicists from the USSR, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Poland,
Bulgaria, Mongolia, Rumania, and Austria took part in the symposium. Forty-five reports were delivered.
The results of recent experimental and theoretical research concerning a wide range of problems of the
physics of strong, electromagnetic, and weak interactions were reported. Several reports were devoted
to new methodological studies in the field of high-energy physics.
New concrete data obtained at the Dubna, Serpukhov, and CERN accelerators were presented.
A review of data on p?p and p?d scattering through small angles, obtained at the accelerator of the
Institute of High-Energy Physics (IHEP), in the energy range 10-70 GeV was presented by M. G. Shafronova
(Joint Institute for Nuclear Research). These studies allow us to verify the basic theoretical conceptions
about the behavior of scattering amplitude at high energies.
Explanation of the anomaly in the decay KL ???- is one of the important problems of recent years.
In connection with this anomaly, a hypothesis was expressed concerning the possibility of a relatively high
probability of the decay Ks ? 2y. V. A. Shabanov reported on searches for this decay. Analysis of
?500,000 photographs showed that r (Ks ? 2y)/F (Ks) < 5 ? 10-4. In connection with the problem KL
hypotheses were were also expressed concerning the possibility that there exists a light boson which decays into
12+ and J. Gladky (Czechoslovakia) presented results of searches for this particle from the IHEP ac-
celerator. No such boson was observed.
M. Novak (Czechoslovakia) told of studies of Ks meson regeneration with hydrogen and carbon, which
was accomplished using the IHEP accelerator. These experiments give information on the amplitude dif-
ference of elastic scattering of K? and le mesons. Ya. Ruzhechka (JINR) presented preliminary results
of searches for the Dirac monopole at the IHEP accelerator at proton energies of 70 GeV. An attempt was
made to observe Cerenkov radiation which could be caused by the monopole. It was shown that the crea-
tion cross section of the monopole?antimonopole pair by protons at nuclei is less than 8.10-40 cm2 on con-
dition that the monopole mass is ?5 GeV.
Great attention was given to experiments which studied single-particle processes. In experiments
on the 2 m a:1\TR propane chamber, reported by R. Sosnowski (Poland), data were obtained on multiplicity
in interaction processes between 7r mesons and protons and neutrons. It was shown that in a wide energy
range the equality ncharge = 2%. holds. The inclusive spectra which were found are in agreement with
scale invariance.
Several reports concerned results obtained using the JINR, 1 m hydrogen chamber irradiated by Ir
mesons with pulse of 5 GeV/sec.
I. M. Gramenitskii reported on the results of the first experiments using a deuteron beam acceler-
ated in the JINR synchrophasotron. This work studied various interaction processes of deuterons whose
momentum was 3 GeV/sec with protons. A. Mihul (Rumania) reported on interesting ideas concerning new
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 312-313, April, 1973.
0 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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means of presenting and analyzing experimental data. V. A. Shakhbazyan (JINR) reported on-results of
searches for resonance in many-baryon systems.
Reports were made on studies of low-energy processes. V. M. Sidorov (MIR) told of results of
studies of the capture reaction of r mesons by nuclei of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. The probability of
forming B8 through the capture of 7" mesons by nitrogen nuclei was measured. V. S. Roganov (JINR) re-
ported on a wide-ranging program of study of chemical compounds using ti mesons. The depolarization of
was measured in various media. The dependence of the tt- depolarization on the length of the carbon
chain in alcohols and chloralkides allowed determination of the radius of the chemical-interaction zone for
mesonic atoms.
The theoretical reports were mainly devoted to the following questions:
1) devising methods for analyzing experimental data which would completely take into account ana-
lytical properties of elements of the S matrix;
2) the use of dispersion relations for studying strong interactions;
3) electromagnetic interactions and scale invariance;
4) studies of inelastic processes based on the Regge and Veneziano model;
5) weak interactions and the physics of K mesons;
6) devising methods for determining resonance spin and parity.
The review report by P. Preshnaider dealt in detail with a new statistical method for presenting ex-
perimental data through analytical functions, which was developed by theoreticians in Czechoslovakia.
A. Nogova and J. Pisut used this method to determine the parameters of 3.3 resonance in a r?N system.
The values obtained differ from those accepted earlier (M = 1204 MeV and r = 73 MeV). P. Lichard re-
ported on results of applying the statistical method for determining the pion?nucleon coupling constant.
It was found that f2= 0.794 ? 0.0020. On the basis of dispersion relations, taking two-particle unitarity
into account, M. Blazhek has constructed a model for describing hadron-scattering processes at low and
moderate energies.
The work of V. I. Zhuravlev and V. A. Meshcheryakov (JINR) is devoted to a detailed analysis of the
dispersion equations of Chu and Low. New solutions to these equations have been found. S. Dubnichka
(JINR) used dispersion relations to calculate the real part of the amplitude for elastic scattering of ions
by He4. S. M. Bilenykii (JINR) presented the results of analysis of all available data on elastic e?p scat-
tering and extremely inelastic scattering of electrons by protons. M. Petras (Czechslovakia) has con-
structed a model of nonlocal electromagnetic interactions. All physical consequences of the Petras model
coincide with those of ordinary electrodynamics. M. Nog (Czechoslovakia) examined several consequences
of scale invariance. The author showed that at the limit fir ? 0 and rn, ? 0 the Pomeranchuk theorem fol-
lows from scale invariance. A. B. Kaidalov et al. (USSR) constructed a multiperipheral model with Regge
pion, which allows one with one parameter to describe a large collection of experimental data. The results
of calculating the inclusive spectra on the basis of the dual B6 model in the Mellor theorem were presented
by K. Bilbo et al. (GDR). There is good agreement with experiment. General limits on the quasipotential
parameters were obtained by S. V. Goloskokov and V. A. Matveev (JINR). S. M. Bilentkii in his review re-
port presented the Vainberg theories of weak and electromagnetic interaction. Analysis of the possible
effects related to weak second-order current was reflected in the paper by G. Pichman (Austria). M. Lokaj-
cek (Czechoslovakia) gave a detailed analysis of the interrelations of unitarity for the S matrix. It was
shown that a consistent formulation of field theory is possible without the principle of superposition and
unitarity relation. J. Votrub et al. (Czechoslovakia) offered a new method for testing the SRT theorem.
V. Novak (GDR) told of phenomenological methods he developed for determining the spin and parity of a
system of three pions. The report by M. Bendar (Czechoslovakia) was devoted to methods for determining
spin and parity for three-particle baryon resonances. A. V. Tarasov and L. G. Tkachev (JINR) examined
coherent and incoherent interactions between high-energy particles and nuclei.
The above indicates the multiplicity of problems discussed at the symposium. We should mention
the work of the organizational committee headed by the director of the Institute for Experimental Physics
of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Professor I. Dubinski. The close scientific ties and the unconstrained
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atmosphere allowed the symposium participants to discuss in detail experimental and theoretical research
on the physics of high energies which is being conducted in the socialist countries.
The symposium papers will be published by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in 1973.
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE INTERACTION
OF LASER RADIATION WITH MATTER
P. P. Pashinin
The conference took place on October 9-13, 1972, in Marly-le-Roi (France). It was organized by the
French Commissariat on Atomic Energy and the research center in Limeil and was devoted to one of the
present trends in modern physics, namely, obtaining a high-temperature plasma using lasers and thus
solving the problem of controlled thermonuclear reactions.
The conference is similar to the Gordon conferences, to which only a limited number of specialists?
most active at a given time in the field are admitted, and only by invitation from the conference organizing
committee.
The main purpose of the conference is the operational exchange of information concerning the latest
experimental results, new promising means of solving problems, new types of equipment, and programs
of work at basic-research centers for the near future. About 110 people took part in the conference (of
them, 50 were French scientists, mainly from the Limeil and Saclay centers). The foreign scientists
represented practically all major world scientific centers at which such work is conducted. The Soviet
delegation included Academician N. G. Basov, 0. N. Krokhin, T. G. Kryukov, and P. P. Pashinin. Fifty-
five reports were delivered. The conference materials will not be published.
One can conclude from the reports that no significant successes have been achieved recently in
heating a dense plasma by using lasers. Several laboratories, following the lead of French scientists,
obtained a stable neutron output of -2.104 neutrons/pulse based on nanosecond neodymium-glass lasers
with energies up to 100 J and using solid targets of deuterium or deuterized polyethylene. The record re-
mains ?106 neutrons/pulse achieved upon irradiation of a target at the 10 channel laser installation at the
P. N. Lebedev Institute of Physics, AS USSR. Apparently, the most important results in this field are the
determination of the strong dependence of neutron output on focusing conditions (research center at Limeil)
and also the observation of a strong decrease in neutron output when using a yttrium?aluminum?garnet
laser as the master oscillator in the laser system (Institute of Plasma Physics, Nagoya, Japan). The
latter result is still difficult to explain even in qualitative terms.
Several theoretical reports were made on the mechanisms of energy transfer from the laser to the
plasma. They analyzed various types of instabilities in a plasma in a strong field and their possible role
in increasing the efficiency of the energy portion, including the role of the forced Brillouin scattering type
of instabilities and parametric and beam instabilities, etc. Experimental work in this field is, as before,
in its infancy, and new results are purely qualitative. Changes in the type of radiation reflection from the
plasma dependent on the growth of flux density of the laser radiation, and also the appearance of fast neu-,
trons, hard x-rays, and fast ions were observed. It is significant that in theoretical work the leading
laboratories (Los Alamos, Livermore, etc.) have gone over to broad application of modern computers for
designing numerical experiments. This allows more accurate evaluation of the relative role of various
nonlinear interaction mechanisms between laser radiation and the plasma, and clearer presentation of the
physical picture of instability in both time and space.
Notable progress has been achieved in devising methods for laser?plasma diagnostics. A diagnostic
technique has been worked out for fast ions with simultaneous determination of the absolute output of fast
particles and the energy distribution of the particles. It was shown that a significant portion of the hard
x-radiation in laser experiments is caused by radiation arising at the chamber walls when fast particles
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 313-314, April, 1973.
C 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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hit them. This complicates plasma diagnostics using continuous-spectrum x-rays. Developed in more
detail were methods of studying plasma parameters using absorption and radiation in the spectral lines of
heavy multicharged ions. This method is very promising, since it allows one to move into the field of very
high plasma densities, where the application of other methods is limited. Especially interesting was the
report by P. Jeglay (France) on theoretical and experimental studies of nonequilibrium distributions of the
state populations of highly excited ions. These results are important not only from the point of view of
devising correct laser-plasma diagnostic techniques using spectral lines in the x-ray region. The authors,
essentially for the first time, proved experimentally the possibility of obtaining highly unstable states,
which allows us to expect that x-ray lasers will be produced. In general, perfecting of spectral measure-
ments in the x-ray region, together with perfecting methods for measuring the distribution function of fast
ions, apparently, will serve in the near future as the basis for laser-plasma diagnostics, especially for
plasmas with very high densities.
Work on laser systems for obtaining high-temperature plasmas can be divided into two tendencies.
The goal of the first tendency is devising the next generation of 103-104 J nanosecond and picosecond lasers.
This apparatus is mainly for conducting experiments to determine fusion-energy output, electron and ion
temperatures, the role of instabilities, and the efficiency of the energy contribution from the laser energy
and power and also from the type of laser target. Main attention, as previously, is given to neodymium-
glass lasers. The Livermore Laboratory, Los Alamos, Rochester University, and the Naval Research
Laboratory (USA) propose to begin work in 1973 with -103 J lasers. The Livermore Laboratory and the
laboratory of KMS Industries (USA) plan -104 J lasers. The Institute of Plasma Physics (Garching, FRG)
is now working on creating a 1-2 GW laser with pulse length 10 nanoseconds based on photodissociation of
CF3I (or C3F7I) with wavelength 1.316 p. A 103 J system is now being devised.
The goal of the second tendency is the more long-range prospect of solving the problem of controlled
thermonuclear fusion. In this case, increasing the laser system efficiency and the feasibility of working
in various spectral ranges are necessary. Electric-discharge lasers at the CO2 molecule vibrational tran-
sitions with wavelengths 10.6 p are promising. The Los Alamos Laboratory is now devising such a laser
system with energy of the order of 103 J, with the prospect of further increasing it to 104 J. The National
Research Council in Canada has produced a 300 J CO2 laser with pulse length 60 nsec.
Attempts are now being made to efficiently transform infrared laser radiation into the visible and,
possibly, ultraviolet spectra using nonlinear optics methods and induced effects.
The main burden of work on controlled thermonuclear fusion using lasers has changed to the analysis
of proposals for realizing superhigh compression and heating of the spherical solid D-T target to densities
103-104 times the initial density. Qualitative examination has been made of the stability of compression
and various aspects of the interaction of the laser radiation with the target and the surrounding plasma
corona. Plasma instabilities in the region of strong laser radiation and their role in the efficiency of energy
transport from the laser beam to the plasma, forced Brillouin and Compton scattering, and parametric,
two-stream, and relativistic instabilities have been analyzed. Special attention was given to the possible
influence of non-Maxwellian electron distribution arising through these effects on the heating of the com-
pressed central target nucleus. This may greatly decrease the achievable compression.
There were new results concerning calculations of the compression of the D-T spherical shell. In
the range of low laser energies this model gives less optimistic results than the solid spherical target.
However, it is attractive because, in principle, it allows one to use long laser pulses and decreases the
extreme demand for laser-beam focusing. Calculations show that at laser energy of 0.8 MJ one can obtain
an energy amplification factor of the order of 100.
An interesting model for a thermonuclear target, in which the D-T fuel is compressed by a heavy
spherical liner, was analyzed by S. Kalizski (Poland). Two cases were examined: ignition of the sphere
using an explosion at the surface, and ignition using laser radiation. The given plan is advantageous since,
because of the great system inertia, ignition can occur more slowly (and, consequently, the laser pulse
duration can be greater, the power lower, and the role of instabilities less) and the D-T combustion con-
ditions are improved.
In conclusion, we may note that in the most advanced countries recently, intensive work is being
conducted on theoretical analysis and the creation of unique laser systems for testing the prospects for
laser-induced thermonuclear fusion.
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THIRD INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
MEDICAL PHYSICS
V. S. Khoroshkov
The Third International Conference on Medical Physics took place in Goteborg, Sweden, from July
30 through August 4, 1972. It was organized by the International Organization for Medical Physics with
the cooperation of the Swedish National Committee on Medical Physics and the Goteborg Center for Medical
Technology. About 320 reports were given at 29 sessions. Many of the sessions show at a glance the
broad range of physics and engineering trends which were reflected in the work of the conference. A series
of reports of interest from the point of view of atomic physics (radiation sources, including heavy-charged-
particle accelerators, dosimetry, and the production and use of isotopes, etc.) was also rather extensive.
About 20 reports were devoted to accelerators and their beams. More than half of these reports con-
cerned proton, heavy-ion, and r-meson beams. Basic physical research in radiation medicine and biology
is devoted to beams of heavy-charged particles. The two most complete review reports (M. Raju, USA,
and B. Larsson, Sweden) reflect the situation in this field. Comparative analysis of the physical properties
of beams of various heavy-charged particles are being conducted and the fields in which they can be applied
in biology and clinical practice are being elucidated. It is known that beams of heavy-charged particles,
due to the physical properties of their interactions with matter, allow one to produce a more sharply de-
fined dose field than the dose fields associated with x-ray, 7-ray, and electron beams. They have a higher
relative biological efficiency, and the radiation effect depends less strongly on the oxygen content in the
irradiated tissue. This allows one to produce a better ratio of the dose at the focus to the dose which acts
on surrounding tissues and the organism as a whole.
At the world's largest accelerators, a close interrelationship is being effected between oncological
and radiological centers which conduct both research and clinical activities. An interesting report was
given by L. Skaggs (USA), which was devoted to the prospects for developing medical and biological re-
search at the world's largest proton synchrotron in Batavia. The use of three types of radiation is pro-
posed: a'66-200 MeV linear-accelerator proton beam; a r--beam generated by the proton beam from a
booster synchrotron; fast neutrons generated at Be and D targets by a 37-66 MeV proton beam from a
linear accelerator. The report included the expected radiation parameters, which are evidence of their
usefulness both in biological research and in clinical practice. The Los Alamos scientific laboratory of
the University of California (A. Landy et al., USA) plans to begin biological research using a meson beam
as early as the middle of 1973. The expected beam intensity assures a dose rate up to 35 rad/min, which,
in general, is sufficient for clinical use.
At the Bevatron of the Donner Laboratory of the University of California (H. Maccabee et al., USA)
research is being conducted on a 200 MeV/nucleon oxygen-ion beam. A depth-distribution curve for the
dose was obtained which takes into account the contribution from secondary particles; the ratio of the dose
at the Bragg peak to the dose at the plateau is ?6 with peak width 3 mm. After the introduction of a new
injector in 1973, the beam intensity will reach 109 ions/pulse, which is also sufficient for clinical use.
There is great interest in the report by E. Hall et al. (USA) on studies of a 3.9 GeV nitrogen-ion
beam. The beam was produced at the Princeton proton accelerator (Columbia University), which was re-
constructed in 1971 as a heavy-ion accelerator. Studies were made not only of the depth distribution of the
dose (the depth of the peak in water is about 15 cm, the ratio of the dose at the peak to that at the plateau
is ?4, and the peak half-width is several millimeters); ma series of biological tests, the relative biological
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 315-316, April, 1973.
1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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efficiency (1.5 at the plateau and 6 at the Bragg peak) and the oxygen effect (2.5-3.0 at the plateau and 1.25-
1.4 at the Bragg peak) were also measured.
The report by B. Winston (USA) was devoted to continuing biological research with the ir--meson beam
of the Nimrod 7 GeV proton synchrotron. Clinical work in neurosurgery using a-particles is being de-
veloped in Berkeley (J. Lyman et al., USA). In the Soviet Union, medical and biological research and
clinical work using proton beams are being conducted at the synchrophasotron of the Nuclear Problems
Laboratory of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (Dubna) and at the synchrotron at the Institute for
Theoretical and Experimental Physics (Moscow). L. L. Golidin et al. (USSR) presented the main results of
medical application of the 70-200 MeV variable proton beam of the ITEP synchrotron. One hundred and
sixty three patients have undergone a course of radiation therapy using this beam since 1969.
Several reports dealt with applications of electron beams in radiology. There was interest in a sur-
vey of the history and present development of linear medical accelerators given by K. Karsmark and
N. Perin (USA). The Swedish firm Instrument AB Skanditroniks presented a report on a new microtron
(electron energy 10 MeV). The apparatus includes, besides the accelerator, a system for distributing and
expanding the beam, attachments allowing the use of both electrons and bremsstrahlung, and, finally, ir-
radiation stands.
We should note that reports were presented which confirm the great effectiveness of the physical ap-
proach to explaining biological mechanisms. The results of original research given in the report by E. L.
Andronikashvili (USSR) are very interesting. Comparative activation analysis of microelements in cell
nucleus and nucleic acid molecules of malignant tumors and healthy tissue reveals ways to explain a series
of chemical and biological processes which occur in tumors. This allows one to establish hypothetical
mechanisms for some radiation reactions which are important during the use of heavy-charged particles
(especially the oxygen effect), but which have never had a single accurate explanation.
New methods in dosimetry for various types of radiation were presented along with the development
of familiar dosimetric methods (ionization chambers, TLD, photodensitometry, etc.). The report by
N. Ramsey (England) presents data on the variation of conductivity of an irradiated polystyrol due to tem-
perature. The mechanism of conductivity variation is similar to the leaking effect in thermoluminescent
dosimeters, but the recording technique (measurement of the conduction current) is definitely simpler.
Interesting results on the variation of the resistance of water under irradiation were presented in the re-
port by J. MacDonald and K. Short (England).
Also examined were problems concerning the production and use of isotopes in biological experiments
and clinical practice. Short-lived isotopes were discussed at a separate session. The advantages and
capabilities of C11, 015, Nu, and F15 in diagnostic use were shown clearly in reports by T. Jones (England),
M. Ter-Pogossian (USA), and J. Laughlin et al. (USA).
A special session and a series of models at a technical exhibit were devoted to the use of computers
in medicine (diagnostics, monitoring organism functions, planning treatment, etc.). An interesting report
by J. Cunningham and J. Niderer (Canada) showed the feasibility of studying biological mechanisms through
the use of mathematical models.
The conference demonstrated the wide inculcation of atomic physics in medicine and confirmed the
urgent necessity and promise of close contact between these two sciences and the effectiveness of using
physical methods in biological and clinical research. The conference was well organized. Abstracts of
the reports are to be published in the journal Physics in Medicine and Biology (England).
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SYMPOSIUM ON HANDLING WASTES FROM
REPROCESSING SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL
N. V. Krylova and A. N. Kondrat'ev
A symposium on handling of wastes from reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels was held in Paris from
November 27 through December 1, 1972. This symposium was organized under joint IAEA and Euratom
auspices. Participating were about 250 specialists from 27 countries and 11 international agencies. Pos-
sible methods for handling high-level radioactive wastes forming in solvent-extraction reprocessing of
spent fuel were discussed: storage of liquid wastes in tanks, burial of wastes in underground strata and
in artificial voids, formed by nuclear explosions, immobilization of wastes by vitrification and bitumini-
zation. Other reports were heard on handling wastes resulting from nonaqueous techniques of reproces-
sing spent nuclear fuel, separations of the transuranium elements, and also reports on estimates of radia-
tion hazards accompanying venting of radioactive iodine, krypton, and tritium to the atmosphere.
Some of the USA reports dealt with new methods of wastes disposal: transmutation of long-lived
fission fragments, launching of high-level wastes into outer space, and disposal of solid high-level wastes
in Antarctic ice masses by burial.
In dealing with problems of how to handle radioactive gases, the contributing authors reached the
unanimous opinion that venting radioactive krypton to the atmosphere would not bring the radiokrypton level
near critical tolerance limits in the air before the year 2000, but that krypton would have to be trapped in
all countries in order to prevent local pollution of the atmosphere. The krypton trapping technology has
already been developed and meets cost requirements. After krypton has been extracted from the wastes
stream, it is to be stored in tanks or dumped at sea to depths of 4000 to 5000 meters down, in leaktight
containers (p = 150 atm). But in that case there is still danger of gas leakage from the storage container,
and danger of entrainment by bottom strata of water saturated with krypton to the surface of the sea via
convective processes.
Methods for concentrating tritium by selective ion exchange and fractional distillation are expensive
and practically inapplicable in the case of large volumes. These difficulties lend added emphasis to the
earlier preference for two methods of tritium removal: by venting to the atmosphere with vapor and by
dumping sufficiently diluted condensates into rivers. But burial of liquid wastes containing tritium in
naturally-formed underground strata is a more reliable alternative.
The most reliable method for storing liquid radioactive wastes, as experience acquired in the USSR,
USA, Britain, and France has demonstrated, is storage in stainless steel doubly shielded and cooled tanks
with the aid of a flow coil for removal of heat generated in the radioactive decay process. The tanks are
to be blown with air in order to dilute the hydrogen given off in radiolysis of the solutions.
In other countries, in contrast to the Soviet Union with its practice of wastes disposal by under-
ground burial, feed of pulsed-flow or bubbling-flow air is envisaged as a means of mixing the solutions in
order to keep precipitates from settling and accumulating on the tank bottom, and also in order to blow out
gases formed in radiolysis. The cost of storing high-level solutions is estimated at one to two dollars per
liter. Storage of liquid high-level wastes in deep-lying geological formations is now looked at skeptically
(USA, West Germany, Italy). The degree of risk inherent in this method is now being determined.
A report by USA representatives analyzed the possible use of underground cavities dug out by nuclear
'explosions as suitable sites for disposal of high-level wastes by underground burial. When acted upon by
Translated from Atomnaya tnergiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 316-317, April, 1973.
o 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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heat generated in radioactive decay, the solutions heat up to the boiling point, vapor is given off, and the
dry residue heats to the melting point, so that the surrounding silicate host rock also melts to form a
vitrified mass which cools down within 90 years to form a monolith. The danger lodged in this method is
that the void maybecome filled with water. Moreover, the structures of the wastes reprocessing plant
must be capable of withstanding an underground explosion.
Solidification of high-level wastes was in the spotlight at the convention. Reports submitted by rep-
resentatives of the USA, Britain, France, and West Germany cited results from the work of pilot plants
and scaled-up semi-industrial plants in this line of work. For example, three distinct methods of vitrifi-
cation (a two-stage technique with calcination in a spray dryer and subsequent meltdown in a crucible, a
single-stage process involving vitrification in a crucible, and a continuous process by which phosphate
glasses are produced) were put through experimental paces at the WSEP pilot plant at Hanford (USA), in
order to secure information needed in selecting the appropriate method in the designing and servicing of a
wastes solidification plant. This plant has been in service for four years: as a result, calcination and
subsequent meltdown of the glass in a melting pot of refractory steel is considered the optimum variant at
this stage of the game. But despite the promulgation of a law in the USA stipulating that plants reproces-
sing nuclear fuel are obliged to solidify liquid radioactive wastes over a five-year period, and to transport
solidified high-level wastes to a Federal storage site for permanent storage over a ten-year period, indus-
trial implementation of wastes solidification processes is being put off to 1980, and the wastes storage site
will be ready for service only by 1986.
A fluidized-bed wastes calcination plant with a throughput of 250 liters liquid wastes per hour has
been in service in Idaho (USA) since 1963, and has been producing 45 liters calcinate per hour. The cal-
cinate powder is stored in air-cooled pressuretight tanks. The plant costs, including storage costs, is
1.25 dollar/liter. But the general assumption is that the powder will have to be vitrified sometime in the
future.
Pilot plants designed for vitrification of real high-level wastes, with plant capacities ?20 liters/h,
are also in service in Britain and France. The technical possibility of realizing the process both from the
standpoint of producing glasses with sufficient stability to both radiation and chemical attack (borosilicate
glasses for the most part) and from the standpoint of cleanup of the off-gases, has been demonstrated.
We should note here that industrial implementation of wastes solidification plans in Britain is scheduled for
not earlier than the Nineties, while French plans call for earlier implementation in the coming years.
Experiments on solidification of high-level wastes, carried out in West Germany, did not go beyond
the framework of scaled-up laboratory facilities working on simulated wastes. For example, the possi-
bility of converting wastes to borosilicate glasses is being verified at the facility, and the development of
a thermite process of wastes solidification utilizing the heat from chemical reactions (specifically, mix-
tures of Mn02 and Al), under laboratory conditions has commenced. The assumption is that industrial im-
plementation of wastes vitrification processes in West Germany will become a reality not sooner than 30
years off.
Bituminization of wastes with specific activities to 10 CV liter is being carried out at the Euro-
chemik plant (at Mol, Belgium). Temporary storage and long-term vitrification is envisaged for high-level
wastes. A low-temperature process for vitrification of liquid wastes, involving transformation of the
wastes into alumophosphate ceramics (the Lotes program) is undergoing development. The resulting prod-
uct exhibits excellent thermal conductivity and high chemical stability. The low temperature of the pro-
cess (300?C) eliminates the materials selection problem, but the technology of the process is far from
completely worked out.
Specialists discussing techniques for storage of vitrified waste products reached the conclusion that
the storage site should be built in the vicinity of the wastes reprocessing plant, as a rule. Air cooling or
water cooling of the burial grounds is viewed as mandatory.
Disposal of solid wastes by burial in salt mines is still on the agenda in the USA and in West Germany,
but these countries have not yet made final decisions on organizing full-scale storage of wastes in abandoned
salt mines and pits, since this involves a great risk and no agreement has been reached yet on the storage
times required (300 to 600 years).
Investigations on reprocessing of high-level wastes accumulated in nonaqueous processes of nuclear
fuel regeneration were reported on only by the USSR and France. Conversion of wastes to solid monolithic
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preparations (phosphate glasses, cryolite structures) appears promising. A report by USSR representa-
tives elicited great interest, particularly on the part of French scientists.
Reports submitted by USA specialists provided estimates and assessments of such problematic topics
'in the handling of high-level wastes as transmutation of long-lived fission-fragment isotopes, launching of
high-level wastes into outer space, burial of solid wastes in the Antarctic ice masses, and so forth. But
all of these techniques are in the initial stage of development and still far from practical implementation,
while the costs of removing wastes by those methods are still far higher than generally acknowledged.
A lively discussion was provoked by reports presented by Soviet specialists on vitrification, bitu-
minization, and underground burial of high-level liquid wastes. In contrast to scientists representing
other countries, the Soviet scientists showed that the vitrification method is not only more reliable, in
terms of technology, but also cheaper than other methods for storage of liquid wastes. The reason is that
long-term storage of liquid wastes calls for constant rebuilding of new storage facilities to replace those
that are no longer serviceable (over a span of 20 to 25 years).
Soviet specialists also demonstrated and provided costs estimates for the possibility of pumping high-
level wastes with specific activities of 10 to 30 Ci/liter into underground strata. Work on studying bitu-
minization of wastes with specific activities as high as 100 Ci/liter is now under way.
In conclusion, results of the symposium were discussed with answers solicited from experts on
general topics. These experts included specialists from the USSR, USA, France, Britain, West Germany,
and India.
The reports, and the concluding discussion, showed that the countries now leading in nuclear power,
development have accumulated vast experience in handling high-level wastes.
The proceedings of the symposium are to be published in the first half of 1973.
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SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL CONTACTS
VISIT BY USSR STATE COMMISSION FOR THE USE
OF ATOMIC ENERGY DELEGATION TO BELGIUM
AND THE NETHERLANDS
0. A. Voinalovich
On October 2-16, 1972, in accordance with the agreement on cooperation, a delegation from the
USSR State Commission for the Use of Atomic Energy visited the Netherlands and Belgium. The delega-
tion familiarized itself with accelerator installations at research centers and universities in these coun-
tries, and also electrophysical apparatus and automatic systems and devices which provide for control of
accelerators and conducting physical experiments.
In the Netherlands, the Soviet specialists became acquainted with the reactor in Petten, with the 12
MeV tandem accelerator at Utrecht University, and with the 30 MeV proton cyclotrons at the Free Uni-
versity of Amsterdam and at Groningen University.
An interesting project for a 500 MeV linear electron accelerator with off-duty factor up to 10% has
been devised at the Institute for Nuclear Research in Amsterdam. Permission has been obtained for con-
struction and until financing begins various subassemblies of the accelerator, in particular the modulators,
are being perfected in mock-ups. Construction of the accelerator should take 5-6 years.
At Groningen University a modern three-sector isochronous cyclotron has been put into use. It was
devised by the Philips company with the following beam parameters:
Particles Energy, MeV Current
Protons 5-70 25
Deuterons 10-80 25
Hes 15-165 10
He4 20-160 10
A 60 kV electrostatic deflector assures extraction of protons with energy 50 MeV and beam emittance
25 mm ? rad. At the end of an ion tube 30 m long and 46 mm in diameter, the beam dimensions are 5 x 10
mm. Physicists can already use the machine, but there is still an insufficiency of experimental apparatus.
In Belgium, besides several standard electrostatic generators, the University at Ottignies is opera-
ting a four-sector isochronous cyclotron produced by the French firm CSF Thomson, with the following
beam parameters:
Particles Energy, MeV
Protons 10-80
Deuterons 10-40
Hes 20-120
He4 20-80
The internal current of accelerated protons and a-particles is 1004A, and that of the extracted beam is.
20 ?A.
The delegation visited the nuclear center at Euratom, located in Geel (near Mol) where they were
familiarized with the 70 MeV linear electron accelerator delivered by the French firm CSF Thomson in
Translated from Atomnaya Pnergiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, p. 318, April, 1973.
C 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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1965. With pulse duration of 10 nsec, the current amplitude is 5 A, which assures obtaining >1 ? 1018 neu-
trons/sec at a uranium target and produces good conditions for experimenting with neutrons when using
transit-time methods.
The physics centers of Belgium and the Netherlands are well supplied with computer technology and
measurement apparatus.
In the Netherlands, at the Institute on Applications of Atomic Energy in Agriculture, our delegation
was shown two irradiation devices, one using isotopes and one using a 3 MeV electrostatic accelerator.
Both installations were produced for experiments as well as industrial applications in a single building,
but their load is insufficient. The Institute devised several processes for radiation treatment of food prod-
ucts in order to preserve them longer, but the Institute specialists believe that the consumer is not now
prepared psychologically to use irradiated food products.
An important place at the installations is given to working out rules for irradiating medical prepara-
tions and instruments. The rules will then be instituted at the industrial y-installation which our delega-
tion also visited. The "Gammaster" installation was constructed by a consortium of pharmaceutical firms.
It is located in a separate building. According to an official announcement, it is unique in the country, it
works without losses, and is designed for a 1 MCi Con source. The initial loading was 160 kCi. The
source and equipment were delivered by the Canadian firm AECL. The installation works 24 hours a day.
Besides the director, an operator and a workman work one shift. The rest of the time, the installation
building is closed and a conveyer works automatically with a 25 min exposure for a 2.5 Mrad dose. The
daily output is 12 m3 of various products with average density 0.1 g/cm3.
The design of a similar installation has been completed in Belgium. Construction is expected to be
completed in 1975.
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BRIEF COMMUNICATIONS
A conference of Soviet and Czechoslovak specialists on 1973 scientific and technical collaboration
between the State Atomic Energy Commission of the USSR (GKAE SSSR) and the Czechoslovak Atomic
Energy Commission (KJE CSSR) was held in Prague from July 31 through August 4, 1972.
Information on the progress of work in planning 1972 collaborative efforts and information on plans
for collaboration during 1973 was made available.
On August 4, 1972, the representative of the KJE CSSR, J. Neumann, signed a working draft, which
was co-signed on August 7 in Moscow by the GKAE SSSR representative A. M. Petrostyants, of the 1973
plan of scientific and technical collaboration, stipulating details of joint work and joint research to be pur-
sued and continued in the following avenues: fast sodium-cooled reactors; water-cooled water-moderated
power reactors; nuclear chemistry and nuclear technology; materials science and testing; nuclear
physics, solid state physics, plasma physics; radioactive isotopes.
The collaboration incorporates a huge volume of work in the field of the peaceful uses of atomic
energy, and in particular the development of special types of equipment for nuclear power stations, as
well as comprehensive research on structural materials. A broad range of scientists and specialists is
to be tapped by the GKAE SSSR and KJE CSSR in order to carry out these plans.
A USA national conference on linear proton accelerators was held in Los Alamos (New Mexico),
October 10-13, 1972. The conference attracted an audience of 160 scientists representing 35 scientific
institutions in eight countries. The most numerous were the delegations from the USA, West Germany,
Canada, and France. Also participating in this conference was a delegation of Soviet specialists (six per-
sons from four distinct organizations).
Of the 64 papers presented at the conference, 38 were read from the floor, including eight papers
combining several submitted contributions, and seven invited tutorial review reports on various aspects of
accelerator science and engineering. The remainder of the papers will be published.
Linear proton accelerators were the subject matter of 27 papers, including nine submitted by col-
leagues of the Los Alamos meson factory installation, which is now in the mop-up stage of preliminary and
adjustment operations. The initial portion of the Alvarez structure 100 MeV accelerator is completely in
operation; a maximum pulsed current of 3 mA has been attained. The beam has already been passed ,
through the entire accelerator, but particle losses are still considerable in the last portion of the tract.
The conference demonstrated that almost all linear injector accelerators for proton synchrotrons are also
being employed in research in other areas of science, notably medicine and biology.
Heavy ion accelerators were the subject of another six papers, and electron accelerators were dis-
cussed in five other papers.
Reports by D. Bohne and T. Niwednitschanski (Darmstadt, West Germany) covered the Unilac accel-
erator project, which will be capable of accelerating nuclei of all elements from hydrogen to uranium with
design intensities of 1014, 3 ? 1013, 2 ? 1012 particles/sec, for respective masses to 70, 164, and 238.
According to a communication by B. Panowsky, pulsed currents were successfully increased from
20 to 80 mA at the Stanford linear electron accelerator, after work had been done on suppressing trans-
verse instability in the accelerating sections, and partial replacement of the 20 MW pulsed klystron am-
plifiers by 30 MW tubes made it possible to raise the output energy to 23 GeV. Complete replacement of
the klystrons made it possible to attain energies of 25 GeV.
Klystrons designed for as much as 60 MW pulsed output power are being developed. Design work on
a beam recirculation system capable of increased electron energies from 25 to 45 GeV through double beam
transits through the accelerating structure has now been completed.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, p. 319, April, 1973.
0 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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Eleven reports dealt with applications of superconductivity in accelerator engineering. An invited
review report by W. Matthias stressing shortcomings in the study of superconductivity to date, which hold
up the applications of the phenomenon in resonant type linear accelerators, provoked a lively discussion on
the floor.
Of the four reports forthcoming from the Soviet Union, three were read out at the conference, and
the fourth will appear in the printed proceedings of the conference. These reports dealt with a project in-
volving building a meson factory, increasing currents in an existing linear proton accelerator, multipur-
pose utilization of linear accelerators, and several special topics in high-power radio electronics. The
reports stimulated interest and a lively discussion.
A conference of IAEA experts on the dosimetry of fast neutrons was held in Vienna, November 20-
24, 1972. This conference discussed the use of neutron radiation in radiobiological research and in radia-
tion therapy (radiation shielding and radiation protection were not discussed). The need for such a con-
ference was prompted by the undeniable complexity and specific features of neutron dosimetry in the study
of biological objects, and by the low level of development of special procedures in this area.
Experts from Austria, Great Britain, Hungary, India, the Netherlands, the USSR, USA, France, and
West Germany, as well as an IAEA representative, a total of twenty specialists, participated in the- con-
ference. Requirements applicable in dosimetry in radiobiological and radiotherapeutic uses of neutrons,
and neutron dosimetry in particular, plus topics concerning mutual intercomparisons of dosimetric data,
were discussed in the eleven papers presented. The neutron dosimetry procedures touched upon contrasted
rather interestingly: ionization detectors, thermoluminescent detectors, chemical detectors, and threshold
detectors are currently in use in this work (the threshold detectors involve recording of both induced activ-
ity and tracks of instantaneously emitted heavy ions).
The conference participants came to agreement on the need to work out an international system of
standards covering irradiation of biomedical objects by neutrons. The recommendations forwarded to
IAEA include a proposal for intercomparisons of absorbed-dose measurements and separate determinations
of neutron components and y-components. The standard dosimeters recommended in this work are ioniza-
tion type condenser chambers with tissue-equivalent walls and detectors designed to record y-radiation
primarily. The insistent need for work geared toward securing information on radiation quality in neutron
irradiations, particularly under clinical conditions, was also concluded in the deliberations.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
NEW ITEMS PUBLISHED BY ATOMIZDAT (FIRST
QUARTER 1973)
A. A. Makarenya, N. G. Karpilo, and I. N. Filimonova
(compilers), D. I. Mendeleev, in Reminiscences of His
Contemporaries*
This book is a collection of reminiscences of the life and works of D. I. Mendeleev written down by
contemporaries of his. The latter sketch a picture of Mendeleev as an original and independent-thinking
scientist, and a patriot of old Russia. The authors of these reminiscences are scientists and public acti-
vists spanning two generations. Among them are some of Mendeleev's co-thinkers (I. M. Sechenov, K. A.
Timiryazev, V. V. Stasov, I. E. Repin, and others) and Mendeleev's disciples (V. E. Tishchenko, D. P.
Konovalov, G. G. Gustayson, and others), as well as prominent Russian and Soviet scientists (Academicians
A. P. Karpinskii, V. L. Komarov, N. S. Kurnakov, V. A. Kistyakovskii). Reminiscences of relatives of
D. I. Mendeleev, of his wife and children, are also included.
The first edition was dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the publication of D. I. Mendeleev's peri-
odic table of the elements. The second edition of the book is supplemented by reminiscences from the pen
of F. M. Dostoevskii, A. Blok, T. Torpe, and others.
The book is written for a broad audience.
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
V. M. Baier, V. M. Katkov, and V. S. Fadin, Radiation
of Relativistic Electronst
This book is devoted to a systematic presentation of the theory of bremsstrahlung and pair produc-
tion in the passage of a high-energy particle through an external field, or in collisions of high-energy
charged particles with polarization effects and spin effects taken into consideration. The special features
of electromagnetic processes at high energies which tend to simplify their radiation appreciably are singled
out for attention. This book is the first monograph to shed detailed light on this domain of electromagnetic
phenomena.
The book is written for specialists working in the field of high-energy physics and the physics of
elementary particles, and concerned with design and use of accelerators and storage rings, and may also
prove useful to instructors, and to graduate and senior undergraduate students specializing in physics.
* * *
B. M. Smirnov, Asymptotic Methods in the Theory of
Atomic Collisionst
This book discusses processes involving collisions between atomic particles. Attention is centered
on resonance processes occurring with large cross sections, and playing the major role in phenomena
*Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973, 2nd Edition.
tAtomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
404
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 321-326, April, 1973.
p 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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taking place in gases and in plasma. The first part of the book deals with investigations of the interaction
potentials of atomic particles separated by large distances. The second part of the book makes use of
those interaction potentials in order to find the cross sections of resonance processes, and in studying the
mechanisms underlying the transitions discussed. The presentation of these problems from a unified point
of view relies on the asymptotic method, which is far superior to other theoretical methods of relevance in
its potentialities for this range of scientific problems. Results of experimental research on these prob-
lems are presented. Problems drawn from different fields of physics and engineering, where these pro-
cesses are of some practical importance, are presented to the reader.
The book is written for senior majors in physics and engineering departments, and also for research
scientists whose object of investigation is plasma or gas (e.g., gas lasers, shock tubes, thermonuclear
facilities and high-temperature facilities, the upper atmosphere, astrophysics, plasma generators).
* * *
E. Storm and H. Israel, Studies of y-Radiation
Interactions (for energies from 0.001 to 100 MeV
and elements from 1 through 100)*
This is a handbook providing tabulated reference material on interactions of y-radiation with matter
in the case of elements from 1 through 100, and also for air, water, concrete, and sodium iodide, over the
range of y-photon energies from 0.001 to 100 MeV. The data obtained take into account results of recent
experimental and theoretical investigations, and differ substantially from the values of cross sections in
common use at the present time'.
The book is written for physicists, engineers, research scientists working in research institutes and
at design and planning institutes and laboratories, and for graduate and undergraduate students. It can also
be useful to persons working with radioactive materials and with sources of ionizing radiations.
ELECTRON PHYSICS EQUIPMENT
V. P. Volodin, B. A. Korotin, and E. A. Ryabova,
Operation and Upkeep of Equipment for Measurement
of Ionizing Radiations. No. 3, Dosimeterst
Reference data on the characteristics of the basic types of ionizing radiations and their interaction
with matter, the basic concepts of the dosimetry of ionizing radiations, terms, formulas, and relation-
ships linking the characteristics of ionizing radiations and dosage levels, specific requirements imposed
on dose-measuring devices and devices designed to measure the dose rate of ionizing radiations, are cited.
Conditions and regulations regarding the operation of dosimeters of ionizing radiations, how they are to be
checked out and calibrated, and verification of the basic parameters under the operating conditions of re-
pair shops, are described. Detailed information is made available for each type of dosimeter, on rules
governing adjustments, maintenance, and repair, and the monitoring and measuring equipment to be em-
ployed in their upkeep and calibration.
The book is written for dosimetry service equipment personnel, and also for specialists whose work
involves radiation measurements.
NUCLEAR POWER
G. M. Kuzovlev, Special-Purpose Hydraulic Engineering
Installations at Nuclear Enterprisest
The first edition of this book (1966) was met with interest by specialists, and received? a positive as-
sessment in the periodical literature as the first publication in practice to provide comprehensive coverage
*Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973. Handbook, translated from English.
Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
405
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of the specific topics in the design and construction of hydraulic engineering facilities for performing tech-
nological process operations with fluids other than ordinary water, and with solutions of radioactive mate-
rials at hazardous concentration levels. In the second edition, amply supplemented with new data and re-
worked with due attention given to the latest achievements in this area, the author lays bare topics in the
design of installations intended for storage and transport of liquid radioactive materials at atomic industry'
plants. In the elucidation of migration of radioactive isotopes, descriptions are given of the principal
physicochemical processes affecting the flow of contaminants.
The book is writen for engineers and technicians engaged in the design and construction of special-
purpose hydraulic engineering installations for atomic plants.
* *
B. I. Taratorin, Simulation of Stresses in Nuclear
Reactor Structures*
The book is a first experiment in a consistent presentation of the theory and practical methods of
simulation and polarization-optical investigation of stresses in the structural members of nuclear reactors.
Some original results on methods in the production of optically sensitive polymeric materials, on the theory
of simulation and on practical techniques for stress simulation in inelastic strains and inhomogeneous tem-
perature fields, are cited in the text. The theory and methods are illustrated by examples of polarization-
optical stress studies relevant to structural members of nuclear reactors.
The book is written for research scientists, design engineers, and graduate students specializing in
research and stress calculations in the design of nuclear reactors. This text may also prove useful to
students and instructors in technical colleges in "dynamics and strength of machines" courses.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING. RADIOCHEMISTRY. RADIATION CHEMISTRY
R. V. Dzhgatspanyan and M. T. Filippov, Radiation
Chemistry of Halogenated Organic Compoundst
This book discusses radiochemical halogenation processes from the standpoint of their utilization in
chemical engineering. Radiolysis of organic halogen-containing compounds, radiation chlorination and
sulfochlorination of organic compounds, telomerization of olefins with halogen-containing compounds, hy-
drobromination of ethylene, etc., appear among the topics described. Current processes of radiation
halogenation and processes of possible technological interest in the immediate future, are also described.
Extensive bibliographies are appended to most of the sections in the text.
The book is written for research scientists interested in radiation chemistry and radiation technology,
for chemical engineers interested in radiation technology, and for seniors majoring in related topics at
college level. It would also be of interest to research scientists and chemical engineers concerned with
chemical kinetics, photochemistry, chemical engineering, and petroleum chemistry.
* * *
S. V. Elinson, Spectrophotometry of Niobium and Tantalum*
The book outlines spectrophotometric techniques in niobium and tantalum determinations, which are
of great importance in quality control in the production of structural materials used in the nuclear power
industry. ,The complexity of the chemistry of niobium and tantalum includes the proclivity of compounds of
those elements to undergo hydrolysis, polymerization, and copolymerization with elements of neighboring
groups in the periodic table of the elements, the readiness with which they form colloidal solutions and
complex compounds, and is responsible for the widespread reliance on spectrophotometric methods using
*Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
t Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
406
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organic reagents suitable for obtaining color-sensitive reactions with niobium and tantalum. Reliable
methods for determinations of niobium and tantalum in ore materials, in concentrates, metals, alloys,
and in numerous products incorporating those elements, are described in generous detail.
The monograph can constitute a useful manual for analytical chemists working at enterprises of the
nonferrous metallurgy industry and ferrous metallurgy industry, and at scientific research institutes.
* * *
Vikt. I. Spitsyn and V. V. Gromov, Physicochemical
Properties of Radioactive Solids*
This book discusses topics in the radiation chemistry and radiochemistry of solids ? one of the most
urgent and newest topics in modern physical chemistry. Special attention is reserved for changes in the
physicochemical properties of radioactivepreparations inresponse to their own radiation, as compared to
similar effects occurring in response to external ionizing radiation, a topic which is of importance both in
nuclear technology and in applications of radioisotopes in scientific research.
The book is for the most part the fruit of the labors of the two authors, who have been engaged in re-
search, over the course of the past 10-12 years, on regularities in changes in the properties of highly
radioactive solids (catalytic activity, surface structure, adsorptivity, contamination, etc.) in response to
self-irradiation.
The book is written for research scientists, engineers, graduate students and senior undergraduates
majoring in the radiochemistry and radiation chemistry of solids.
NUCLEAR MATERIALS SCIENCE AND MATERIALS TESTING
0. Week (editor), Plutoniumt
This handbook consists of four major sections: plutonium chemistry, chemical engineering (Vol. 1,
Atomizdat, Moscow, 1971); and plutonium metal science, nuclear fuel (Vol. 2).
The book is written for specialists on research and production of nuclear materials and fuel elements.
It will also be of considerable interest to engineers and research scientists in various fields: chemists,
physicists, metallurgists working with other rare metals.
* * *
V. Muller, G. Blacklidge, and J. Liebowitz (editors),
Metal Hydrides*
Up-to-date information on hydrides of the transition metals are reviewed in this book written by
prominent American specialists. Physicochemical, mechanical, structural, and heat transfer properties
of metal?hydrogen compounds are cited; the fabrication technology of hydride materials is described, as
well as quality control measures, and information is presented on various aspects of applications of metal
hydrides in nuclear industry. The translation is embellished by commentaries and supplements. An ex-
tensive bibliography, a survey of a multiplicity of experimental and theoretical information on hydrides,
combines to render this text a valuable handbook for engineers, production experts, designers, and re-
search scientists specializing either in nuclear materials science and testing or in powder metallurgy,
chemical engineering, aerospace, solid state physics, theory of chemical bonds, etc.
*Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
tAtomizdat, Moscow, 1973. Handbook, Vol. 2, translated from English under editorship of N. T. Chebo-
tarev.
*Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973. Translated from English under editorship of R. A. Andrievskii and K. G. Tkach.
407
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N. S. Kostyukov, F. Ya. Kharitonov, and N. P. Antonova,
Radiation Stability and Corrosion Stability of
Electrical Ceramics*
This book is devoted to a current problem concerning applications of ceramic materials in the nu-
clear power industry, in radio electronics, and in other branches of industry. Experimental data on testing
of ceramic materials in corrosive media (water and steam, vapors of special fuels and oils, melts and
vapors of alkali metals, etc.), are cited. The effect of ionizing radiation on ceramics and on ceramic-to-
metal bonds, the effect of chemical composition and structure on the corrosion stability and radiation sta-
bility of ceramic materials, are discussed, and the principal fields of applications of electrical ceramics
in modern industry are analyzed.
This book is intended for research scientists, engineers, and technicians engaged in production and
research work on structural materials for nuclear industry.'
SOLID STATE PHYSICS. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
A. A. Predvoditelev and 0. Troitskii, Dislocations
and Point Defects in Hexagonal Meta1st
This book discusses the nature and properties of imperfections in the crystal structure of hexagonal
metals. Various methods are presented for experimental studies of imperfections, and an assessment is
given of their potentialities and the basic findings obtained through their use. Dislocation mechanisms in
plastic flow, and in the movement, interaction, and locking of dislocations are discussed. A critical re-
view is given of competing theories on strain hardening in hexagonal metals. Data derived from experi-
mental studies of point imperfections, specifically those of radiation origin, and on the interaction between
imperfections in the crystal structure and electrons in the metal, are analyzed.
The book is written for research scientists, graduate students, and engineers specializing in solid
state physics.
* * *
M. Steel and E. Veural, Interaction between Waves
in a Solid State Plasmal
This book presents the properties of solid state plasma and wave interaction in a solid state plasma
from a unified vantage point. The book is in two parts. The first part discusses interaction between
waves. The presentation is done in the language of quasiparticles. The derivation of the macroscopic
hydrodynamical model is done on the basis of fundamental microscopic models. In the second part of the
book, the macroscopic model is utilized in a discussion of the interaction between electrokinetic waves,
and also their interaction with other collective excitations in the solid. The book contains an extensive
bibliography of both theoretical and experimental papers.
This text is intended for engineers and physicists interested in solid state plasma, and also for stu-
dents majoring in this and related subjects.
APPLICATIONS OF ISOTOPES AND RADIATIONS
V. A. Vorob'ev, V. I. Gorbunov, and A. V. Pokrovskii,
Betatrons in Nondestructive Testing**
This book discusses practical applications of sources of high-energy bremsstrahlung from betatrons
for quality control of products in the manufacture of power machinery. The physical fundamentals of the
*Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
tAtomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973. Translated from English.
**Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
408
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method are outlined in brief, and the advantages of the method are discussed. Radiographic and radio-
metric methods of recording radiations and their applications in industrial nondestructive testing work are
described. Radiometric flaw detection instruments incorporated in various systems for high-speed auto-
mated quality control under plant conditions are discussed, as well as their design, allocation, and controls.
The book is written for engineers and technicians in industrial plants concerned with nondestructive
flaw detection in materials and products.
* * *
N. V. Churaev and N. I. Ilt in, Radiotracer Techniques
for Studying the Flow of Underground Waters*
The book discusses the theoretical fundamentals of applications of radioactive tracers in the study of
moisture transport processes in porous media, and the flow of underground waters. The accuracy of radio-
tracer methods is evaluated, and results of experimental verification are cited. A special section of the
book is devoted to procedures for carrying out radiotracer measurements in field work. A review of the
present state of the art in application of radiotracer techniques in hydrogeology, hydrology, and hydraulic
engineering is also included. Descriptions of research done by the authors personally takes up much of
the space. The first edition appeared in 1967 and was soon exhausted in sales.
The book is intended for research scientists, engineers, and technicians concerned with the study
and implementation of tracer methods in the investigation of flow of underground waters.
?DOSIMETRY AND RADIATION SHIELDING
D. L. Broder, L. N. Zaitsev, M. M. Komochkov,
V. V. MaPkov, and B. S. Sychev; D. L. Broder
(editor), Concrete in Shielding of Nuclear
Installationst
The text outlines the basic tenets of design and calculations of biological shielding for nuclear re-
actors and elementary-particle accelerators developed as a result of analysis of theoretical and experi-
mental investigations on shielding of nuclear facilities. Information on cost estimates of concrete shielding
for reactors and accelerators is provided; optimized selection of materials, particularly concretes, from
the standpoint of minimum cost of the shielding and of the installation as a whole, is discussed. A large
array of reference material needed in shielding thickness calculations and in determining engineering costs
of shielding structures is reviewed.
The book is written for engineers and technicians engaged in the design and building of nuclear instal-
lations. It will also prove useful to students in engineering and physics colleges and civil engineering colleges.
* * *
I. A. Arshinov, G. A. Vasil'ev, Yu. A. Egorov,
et al.; Yu. A. Egorov (editor), Serpentinite in
Nuclear Reactor Shielding$
The book describes the physicomechanical, heat transfer, thermal, vibrational, shielding, and other
properties of serpentinite concrete. With its excellent shielding properties, serpentinite concrete is be-
coming increasingly popular in reactor construction applications. Constants are cited, as well as pro-
cedures for design calculations of serpentinite shielding. Fabrication, preparation, and laying of concrete
in the construction of shielding are discussed.
The book can be a useful handbook for engineers and designers concerned with shielding of nuclear
reactors.
* * *
*Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973, ,2nd Edition.
tAtomizdat, Moscow, 1973, 2nd Edition.
$ Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
409
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N. D. Ponikarov and V. I. Chumakov, Shielding
Structures in Underground Workings*
This brochure provides validation for the possibility and feasibility of using underground shelters to
protect people from the effects of nuclear weapons blasts.
Special features of the effect of striking factors of a nuclear explosion on underground cavities are
outlined. The characteristics of underground structures are discussed from the standpoint of the protec-
tion they afford to people inside. Basic requirements for correctly adapted underground structures are
cited, and recommendations are given on the design of underground shelter installations.
The brochure is written for specialists in mining work and in civil defense concerned with the utiliza-
tion of mining type structures for the protection of the population.
* * *
S. M. Gorodinskii, Personnel Protection Means in
Work with Radioactive Materialst
The book presents basic Soviet and foreign materials on protection of personnel working with radio-
active substances. The basic designs of equipment for protection of breathing organs and skin of person-
nel in different sets of production conditions are described. Special attention is given to work under con-
ditions typical of repair and accident situations. Close attention is given to techniques for evaluating the
effectiveness of personnel protection means, to their correct performance and use, and to repair and de-
activation. The first edition of the book came out in 1967. This second edition is greatly revised and
supplemented with information secured in recent years. The second edition goes into much greater detail
on general questions of theory and method in radiation protection of personnel.
The book is intended for research scientists, physicians, and engineers working in the field of radia-
tion safety.
* * *
M. Frank and V. Stolz; I. B. Keirim-Markus
(editor), Solid State Dosimetry of Ionizing Radiation$
This book, written by specialists of the German Democratic Republic, is devoted to a trend in the
field of dosimetry of ionizing radiations which is current and promising from both theoretical and practi-
cal vantage points; dosimetry using inorganic and organic solids. Here for the first time we find as-
sembled ample material on research in this field completed to date'in all countries around the world.
Considerable attention is given to description of designs and to practice in the use of solid-state dosim-
eters. Integrating solid-state dosimeters, scintillation dosimeters, semiconducting and thermolumines-
cent dosimeters, get their share of attention. Numerous diagrams, photographs, and tables of data are
provided.
The book will be of interest to research workers and practical workers. It can also be recommended
as a helpful text for instructors and students in colleges with courses specialized in this area.
RADIOBIOLOGY
L. A. Pertsov, Ionizing Radiations in the Biosphere**
This book discusses the basic regularities in the formation of natural radiation loads, within the
sphere of influence of which the life activities of all plant and animal organisms take place. The reasons
*Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
t Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973, 2nd Edition.
$ Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973. Translated from German.
**Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
410
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for oscillations of those loads are pointed out. The effect of modern technical progress and of intense
urbanization on shifts in components of the radiation field in the biosphere and sociosphere are discussed.
Indices of radioactivity of components of the environment, in tissues of plants, animals, and humans, are
cited. Detailed descriptions are provided of the properties of various radionuclides, their distribution
and migration through the troposphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and pedosphere as a function of the
physical and chemical properties of the radionuclides, with attention given to features of the landscape and
terrain, climate, meteorological conditions, and so forth. Quantitative and qualitative estimates of the
degree of hazard in probable uncontrolled access of radioactive mixtures to the environment are advanced.
The book is written for instructors at college level, for research scientists, health physicists, public
health personnel, and engineers.
COMPUTERS
Engineering Mathematics Techniques in Physics
and in Cybernetics. Collection of Articles No. 2*
This collection of articles cites results on the development and utilization of engineering mathematics
techniques in theoretical and experimental physics, cybernetics, and computer work. Methods of descrip-
tion, numerical analysis, and simulation of complex processes and systems are reported. Some computer
calculations are presented.
The book is written for research scientists, engineering physicists, and students majoring in com-
puter work and in cybernetics.
*Atomizdat, Moscow, 1973.
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BOOK REVIEWS
I. L. Karol'
RADIATION ACTIVE ISOTOPES AND GLOBAL TRANSPORT
THROUGH THE ATMOSPHERE*
Reviewed by B. A. Nel ep o
This book by I. L. Karol', a leading specialist in the field of tracer investigations of atmospheric
processes, is most timely. Methods for determining the*lobal propagation of radioactive isotopes would
come in very handy at the present time in the solution of problems involving overall contamination of the
atmosphere. We now have the opportunity of applying the methods of nuclear physics to allied branches of
science and engineering.
The first chapter (there are eight chapters in all in the book) surveys the experimental data providing
a picture of the fields of concentration of radioactive isotopes in the atmosphere and of variations in the
characteristics of those fields in space and in time. Results of research on radioisotopes of different
origin are also surveyed; the text offers a review of data on the disperse composition of radioactive aero-
sols in the atmosphere.
The text proceeds further into a discussion of a model of global transport of impurities through the
troposphere and lower stratosphere; it derives the basic equation and the boundary conditions; a correct
estimate is given for the terms of the equation for different groups of isotopes.
A special chapter (the third) is devoted to vertical transport and to removal of radioactive aerosols
present in the troposphere. The author attempts an analysis of these little-studied processes that affect
removal of radioactive aerosols, for which a few quantitative models relating those processes to the
physical characteristics of the troposphere are investigated.
The next chapter generalizes upon traditional concepts on the distribution of medium-zone param-
eters of transport in the troposphere and lower stratosphere.
The fifth chapter presents a procedure for numerical solution of the boundary problems for the equa-
tions of global transport of atmospheric impurities.
Analysis of the special features of propagation of radioactive contaminants present in the aerosol
state and the vapor state enabled the author to arrive at some adequate solutions. That is demonstrated
through the example of the formation of fields of radon concentration, as well as radioactive products of a
series of powerful nuclear weapons explosions (this is covered in the sixth and seventh chapters).
The last chapter in the book discusses some interesting problems concerning the shaping of fields of
cosmogenic isotopes.
The author thereby clearly formulates principles of tracer investigations of global transport of im-
purities. Optimum time averaging scales (one month), height averaging scales (1 km), and horizontal
averaging scales (10 degree zonal belt in latitude) are determined, so that it becomes possible to dis-
tinguish ordered and macroturbulent transport through the planetary atmosphere.
The solution of numerical problems corresponding to the models constructed made it possible to
analyze the fields of concentrations in the atmosphere up to 25 km, and fields of fallout for the following
210, 210, 210, Bi po
radioactive isotopes: Rn222, pb and Na22, Be2, P32, P33.
*Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 1972.
412
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, p. 325, April, 1973.
0 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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Planetary distributions of artificial and naturally occurring radioisotopes were calculated, and con-
firmed by results of experimental research. That makes it possible to utilize the methods developed by
the author both in order to forecast the radiation situation and in order to solve problems involving trans-
port of various pollutants through the atmosphere.
There is every reason for assuming that this monograph by I. L. Karol' will meet with great interest
on the part of specialists, and that it will prove useful in the solution of many problems in nuclear meteb-
rology and nuclear hydrophysics.
413
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P. Quittner
y-RAY SPECTROSCOPY*
Reviewed by L. V. Groshev
Applications of electronic computers to modern 7-ray spectroscopy, using scintillation detectors
and semiconductor detectors, are discussed. The basis of this book is the author's work in nuclear
physics laboratories and nuclear chemistry laboratories of the Central Physics Institute in Budapest and
in various laboratories in the USA.
Literature appearing up to the end of 1964 is covered. Results of several more recent papers ap-
pearing while the book was being written are also covered.
There are ten chapters. The first chapter (a brief introduction) takes note of the need to use com-
puters in processing the very large amount of information obtained in modern 7-ray spectroscopy with the
aid of scintillation detectors and semiconductor detectors.
The second chapter deals with statistical fluctuations and smoothing of spectra. Measurements of
intensities are also discussed in this chapter, and the concept of mean value and dispersion are introduced.
The spectrum smoothing process is discussed in quite some detail. Numerical examples are cited as illus-
trations.
The third chapter discusses the determination of the shape of the detector line (response function).
Basic mechanisms active in the interaction between 7-radiation and the material comprising the radiation
counter are cited, and the shape of the expected line is given for the case of monochromatic 7-photons. A
table of sources of 7-radiation should be useful for calibrating counters. The shape of the total-energy
peak is analyzed, then relationships between the parameters of this peak are discussed. Shapes of lines
outside the total-energy peak are also described in this chapter. The results are illustrated by a number
of concrete examples.
Total-energy peaks contain the most valuable information in 7-ray spectroscopy. The position of the
peaks determines the energy of the corresponding 7-photons, while the area under the peaks determines the
line intensities. The fourth chapter is devoted to determinations of the position of the peak by a variety of
methods: by searching for maxima in the distribution to be analyzed, by the method of smoothing the first
derivative, and by the method of generalized second differences.
In the largest chapter, the fifth, we find a treatment of determination of the area under the peaks,
i.e., of the intensity of 7-radiation. The relationship between intensities in the case of the total-energy
peak and a peak with both annihilation photons taken into account is discussed. The latter is, of course,
the higher-intensity peak at energies in excess of several mega electron volts. Relative and absolute
measurements of 7-radiation intensity, calibration of detector efficiency, and various related difficulties,
are covered here also. Methods for determining the area under a peak when the contribution by back-
ground is taken into account-are described, and a method for selecting the end channels of the analyzer for
determining extrapolation of background is also described. A program is put forth for computer work, one
used by the author in determining the position of peaks and the areas under the peaks in the case of a
Ge(Li)-detector.
Modern computers are capable of analyzing complex 7-ray spectra with great facility, byutilizingthe
method of weighted least squares. The sixth chapter is devoted to this method. The author notes that the
*Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, 1972.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 325-326, April, 1973.
C 1973 Consultants Bureau, a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N. Y. 10011. All rights reserved. This article cannot be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever without
permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
414
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000400010004-6
exposition in this chapter is restricted to the basic assumptions and principal mathematical concepts of the
method, and refers to other sources for more detailed specific information. Three basic assumptions are
pointed out as underlying the method: 1) the spectrum to be analyzed is due to a mixture of known nuclides,
and the exact shape of the standard spectra of those nuclides is either known from direct measurements or
is subject to calculations; 2) the activities of the individual components add up linearly and the shape of the
line in the detecting system is independent of line intensity; 3) each component of the complex spectrum
possesses a different spectrum, and all of them are linearly independent. In practice this condition is even
stronger, because of statistical fluctuations and the instability of the electronic circuitry, so that the
spectra must differ substantially. How these assumptions are likely to be met under different sets of con-
ditions is also discussed. The equation of least squares is derived and the validity of the results obtained
by this method is discussed; a method for compensating gain is also pointed out, etc. The selection of
weighting factors is described, a method for bringing out discarded components in the calculations is ana-
lyzed, determination of intensities by measuring the area under a peak and by the method of least squares
is compared. Numerical examples are advanced.
A method of graphical expansion of a complex spectrum into its components, starting with the upper
edge, is presented later on in the text. This method is admittedly of restricted application.
The eighth chapter discusses various applications. Decay curves are analyzed, different methods
for solving this problem are discussed, particularly the method of maximum likelihood, which is described
in brief; optimization of programs is analyzed, and programs for activation analysis are discussed, and
so on.
The ninth chapter deals with special-purpose measuring equipment (anti-Compton spectrometers,
pair spectrometers), coincidence techniques, and the summing method.
The brief last chapter discusses possible experimental errors in the measurement of y-ray spectra.
The book is provided with a generous list of related literature.
This publication thus covers a broad range of topics related to the use of scintillation detectors and
semiconductor detectors, and up-to-date techniques for processing data acquired with that equipment, to
record y-radiation.
415
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000400010004-6
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