GEOGRAPHIC YEARBOOK, VOL. 61, PT. II

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• Document Page Count: 140
• Document Creation Date: January 4, 2017
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• Sequence Number: 3
• Publication Date: February 8, 1956
• Content Type: REPORT

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Ardr075647"--"
'010.GRA P I I 5
'VOLUME 61
?P A I/ T II
J. L, 'fra, 3 U OH
mersw,frAmplomilimoorwhowilMiliowirroloww
Gustav Fochler-Hauk
Gustay. Fochier.Ha
Bogodar Viinid
Ernst Reiner
PUBLISHER:
GE
C MONGOLIA (19384954)
NORTJ-EAST CHINA (MANCHURIA) (19264953)
MIER INDIA (SU/TIM:MT) (19264953)
ZEA1AND (19384952)
VED TEMANNAAACK
Georaphisch-Kartographische Anstalt Gotha
. 1956
OCRAPUISCHES JAHRBUCH
VOLUME 61) PUT II
VEBIIITATHAAC4
GEOGRAPUIFCHE.KIRTOGRAPHISME ANSTALT GOTHA
1956
ofyraphisches Jahrbuch
.1,0% Ida& swoodea.o. MikiAo..????nea...?
Volume 611 Part II
Publisher and Editor: Prof. Dr.Dr.honoris causa Hermann Haack, Gotha, Justus Perthes
Strasse 34.
Publ?
shed under Licence No. 435..320/14/55 of the 1.3ureau of LAirature and Publicati.
ons and No. 2218 of the Ainistry of the Interior of the German Democratic Re
public. Printed by: VEB MON HAACK, Geographisch.Kartographische
Anstalt Gotha.
FOREWORD
om letes
The following "Part olume 61, the last of the volumes of the
Geographische Jahrbuch to be published under my signature as editor.. In the pages
of Part II G. Fochler.Hauke contributes two prt reports, particularly valuable at
the present moment, on Mongolia (1938-54),and North-East China (Manchialia) (1937.
1953). E. Reiner now adds a report on Ntro-Zealand (19384952) to his earlier report
on India, which leap,contained in Part IQ For the valua.le supplement added to
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E. liner's report on India. those who are going to make. use .of the, Jabrbuch have oc-
casion to feel''vrateful to Hr. t3 itid, no less than I do as thc editor. 1'am par-
ticularly glad to submit his suggestiont concerninpjuture adaptation of the Aeports,
since an entirely:new werkirr...prerram is. to be worked out in Connection with the
c'alre of editors
.berizmip.p.1..i.ith Volume 62 Prof. Dr. 00 ,Berninger will sign as
the editor? I wish to take advantagc of this opportunity also to express my sincere
thanks to all the .collaborators who made it possible for me to keep the Jahrbuch
alive trough the difficult years of the post.car period.
GOT!, February 1956
Pages VI-VIII:
TP.13LLOi CORTI..fITS
Foreword
Abbreviations
4011GOLD (l93849). GUSTO FOCHLE.4-:11U1.4',
1. Haps end Atlases, Studies OP Terrain an 'Geo-
graphic ;lames
2. General Accounts, Research eports, Descriptions
of Parts of the Rion
30 Geoloffy and Qeomorphology; Soils, Climate, Flora
and Fauna
4o istory, Population, and Colonization
5* Economy, Settlement, and ConnuniCationS
60 Governlent, Adlinistration, Politics :Accounts
of Travel
N0RTN-E407 CUINA OAAHURIA) (19374953)
G. FOULER
-
V
187435
188.491
1914.97
197..206
206 218
219424
22..235
F ?UKE 237!,256
1. Bibliographies 238-239
20 Manuals, Ann ua 1 l'.:ports 3 and Covernment deports 239
3. Naps and Atlases 239..240
.General ,Accounts, Researc1 lepor1s4 Descriptions
of Pails of the Region 210.24iti.
50 Ueology 071 Geomorphology 2457246
6* Flora and Fauna, 2146-247'
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8 FEB. 56
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?
7 a lastoiy,
savicrwifferworriaarsewonimist,
3
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247-249
8. Econoty. and Communications 249.-253
90 Government, Adml.nistration, Politics, reneral
Descriptions 25,3-256
LOaR MIA CEYLON TIBET NEPAL 1926-1953 ? Supple.,
ment to Goo:raphisches jaheouch. Vol. 61 I. 130p0DAR
WIND 2570.269
271'294
NEW .ZEAIAND. (19384952)? ERNST. REINER
? 10 a) Biblior.raphies ReferenceDiarks, general Ac-,
counts
272474
b) Individual Parts of the Islands, r,eographic ?
.studies 274-275
20 Travel Reports 275-276
3. History of: Discovery,. and !listorial Geography 276-277
40 Geology and Morphology 277-285
a) Geophysical Comment 277-278
b) Volcanism 278
c) General Geological and Morphological Investi-
gations 278
d) Special and Asgianal Investigations 278-280
e) Coastal Areas and Islands , 280-
f) Glacial Geology and Morphology 280-281
g) qydrolegy 281
h) Soil Erosion 281-282
So Climatology
6. Flora and Fauna 28-287
70 Settlement and Population 287-289,
8? Agricultural Geography 09-292
90 Locaton of Settlements, Econolgy.., and Communica..
tions 293.7294
295-299
28.286
Index of 4uthors
r.
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ACSI FORM
8 FEB. 55
corzompericoxrignP4
i3T3EVIA TI
? Alpine J., London :n. Alpine Journal, 12.141on
AmhseetrGeolTulsa ? iulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geo-
. loists, This a:(Qklahoma, USA),
AnOssAmG., 'Iancaster m,4nri4s olitT.It.:Association of kdorican Goo rapMers?
Lancaster (Perisyivanid?' TS10
AnnG. us Annal,es tie....!gbrai.)460
Ann.Rep.Stithsonian.In. .0 Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution,
? ? 1.ashi1gton . ?
Austr Geo . le lbOurne m, Australian . Geo rart er Melbourne ?
Botan. Ztschr,m Botanioche ,ZoittchriiV
BSGItal., Roma Bolletino della Societe:Gt. ografica Italiana, Roma
1.3.45od. des .01cdtnistes m Societtdes Oceanistes, Paris .
,Bull. GoOprf. Inst. of, tbo Tokyo Un#0. Bulletin of the Geographical Institute
:of :the Tolwo University
Bull.Geol.inOteDairerm 9Ulletin of the Geological Institute of Dairen
Dt Jcoloniaiti!. 1-1).e6tsche Kolon.! alteitUng, Berlin
EcOn.G. = EconoMic' 9tographyo. Worcester (Mass. USA)
Record :.Econo!dC: fiecord.
Forsch. u FOrtsc:hr., Perlin us 'Porschungen' und Fortschritte, Berlin
anz. .geo.,taphischer Anzej.ger, Gotha .
Geogr. :Helvetica m GeorapAca Uelvetica, Bern
GJ. m ne' Geocraphical Journal, London
' Vag., LondOn. Gecrtaps4ical Magatine London
GReV. m;GeOraphical lieViewl New York
OZ. m QeOgrapU cbe Zeitschrift, . Leipzig
, Rdb .d .GeogrJ4ss m Handbuch der geogr4phischen fissenschaft,
Int,Sociol.Sc,BtiUo Tnter17.14ional:SociolOgicA 'Science Bulletin
Joacon.Hist 401. York. m journal .of...LcOnomic astory, New .York
J. of the Fac. of '.Sc.? Imperial Univ. :Joutrial of the Faculty of Ecience,
'imperial University, Tokyo:
JGeol, New York*m journal of qeology, 4w7, York
.J.ofGeomor'ph.? Ncw York m Journal of GeOmorphology, New York
J. of Glaciology London m Journal of ClaciOlogys London
j0Polyn.S.T:lawaii.m Journal. of ,the Polynesian .Society, Hsaii
Met Map'.? London m Meteorolorical Magazine, London
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I TELLIGEN E TRAN
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ACSI FORM
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MOGes.Wien =.Mittoilunp:en der GeOcrraphischen Gebelltchtft
Nat. w Nature, London
NZCentenniai Surveye.= New Zealand Centennial Surveys
NZDept.Sco'andind4stroaes. = New Zealand Department ,of Scientific and Industrial
NZG. .0hriptchurch's, New .2,ealami Georapher, Christchurch
NZGeolonet.a. = New.:Zedlani.i Geological iemoir
NZGS. Reprint 3cr0 'New 'zealand Geographical Society print beries, Dunedin
N2HOlydAy,Guide m New. Zealand jolyday 'Guide
nirffuwr----dr
S TAT
NZJ. of Agricult. 0 New. 7.Jealandhurnal of Agriculture, liellincton
NZgerechno? 01the N.cw Zealand.Journil of .Science and Technology, Wellington
Ostas. Rdsch. 0 Ostasiatische Rundschau, Hamburg
PA. = Peermanns litteilungen Gotha
Proc.41 Phil.S. Proceedings of the American Philosophical. Society, Philadelphi
RecoN'zG.Soc..w.ew Zealand Ge6rraphi.calSocietir, Record of Proceedings of the
Soc.l.etyHand its BrancheshristChurch,' ? ? ? ?
Repo of'the:Inst. of fc..iiesearch?ofnchoUkuo 51. Aeports of the Institute of
Scicntlfic Research ofAanchoukuo;lisingking
Rev 173Uehos Aires 0 lieVista.GeOgrafiea American, Buenos Aires
Royal Central Asian Jo 0 Royal Central Asian Journal, London
R.S.Empire Sc. Conference Papers Roral Society Empire Scientific Conference
Papers, London
RSOZDunedin? Rep. m Royal Society of New Zealand Dunedin Reports
RSNZTrPro60 . Royal Society of New Zealand, Transactions and Proceedings, Dunedi
ScottG1ag0 The Scottish Geographical 'Magazine, Edinburgh
aleomorphol. 0 Zeitschrift far Geomorphologie, Berlin
ZGeopol. m Zeitschriit ffir.Geopolitik, Heidelberg
Ztschr0f0Erdk0 Zeitschrift ftr Er6unde, Frankfurt a., &
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?age 187:
GEOGRA
===.411.ammaLA=00440=42.4214111
MONGOLIA
remartesisteguilkeis
( 2.111.=.12.5.1 )
By Prof. Dr. GUSTAV FOCHLEY-HAUKE Munich
In the pages of the ."......usGeo!at12919.2212Ebu2.A" Mongolia has been given
attention, only in certain reports on Upper Asia.' To a large extent the litera.
ture dealing with this region afInner.Asia is accessible, in the Western eounIsi
. tries onkylOth'difficulty, if at all, As a result of conditions in general,
the o.called Outer.Monevlian'region has during the last few decades 'remained
closed to scientific investigators not only from the Western countries, but
also those of China and Japan, Russian scholars no4oubt:have traveled ex-
tensivelthroUgh'the areas in question, but their findings mostly have failed
to become known outside the Soviet Union; and even the publications based on
.47.! A4 .s4
',nose 1.1.ne.1.40 ueve in
?11^04.
041.1WV
instances failed to find theireay into the Western
libraries, cuitc a number of the studies published in the languages of Western
Europe are based on field investigations made prior to, or shortly after, the
First 'Zorld War; and many of them are devoted to problems of a political nature
Of particular importance in this connection is the "Physical Geography of the
Moncolian Peoplels Republic" by E. M. Murzaev, the first, German, edition of
which appeared in 1948, and was followed in 1951 by the Russian edition which
appeared in Money, This treatise reports the results of a large number of
invEstigations made by SovietmRussian scientists who worked in Mongolia during
the last dew debacles. Its Annex contains an extensive bibliography of writings
by thc before-mentioned scientists. The most important of these publications
will be mentioned in the following, and will be evaluated on the basis of
Murtaevls in many instances textually reproduced material derived from them.
!MIL!
The region known as Inner Mongolia was far more readily accessible
prior to the last war, since as a rule the Chinese did not prevent travelers
fro l entering these areas, When the Japanese during the thirties, kept pene-
trating further and further into the territory of Inner Xongolia they also
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fiLLIGENCE T RA STIPT571.1.4"1""""."11'"...."4.4"
(contid,)
sent out representatives of the various fields of scientific research) notabl,3i.
r,eologists and biologists; but their studies to the extent that they were
lade public at all -- have rumained almost entirely unnoticed in the western
countries.
011efibeall0001141/2*MaataINININIMAILOMANullatifff
STAT
Despite the above-mentioned circumstances a report on the Mongolian
territories is st this time not w1' oily lacking in interest, since a colprehensiv
review of the scattered individual studies reveals the landscape and its in-
habitants to some extent from a new point of view; and this holds true especial-
ly for tqc most recent developments in t111.- field of economy and political geo-
niaphy, since the events in question have failed alaost entirely to become
knmn to t'e general public, alt)ow..h they are of such nature as to have con-
siderable importance aim fral the point of View of geovraphy. The territory
inhabited by the 3uryst Xongols will receive little attention in the following,
since t' at part of the subject is treated in the literature on North(rn Asia
and thc soviet Union, respectively.
Most of the titles of publicatix_s in the Chinese Japanese, and Aus-
sian languages will be cited here in the German language, unless the original
publication includes a title spelled out in the Latin alphabet. So far as pos-
i.ble, the titles cited will be Aven in faithful reproduction of the original.
cunae in some parts of the bibliographies .are due to the difficult conditions
evailing at this time.
1. MARS AND ANA ES STUDIES ON TERAAIN Aim OTHE/ GEOGRAPHIC RAMS
Ling. ia, and Chin-Chi-An: Chung Hua Jen-an Kung-Ho.
Kuo Fen-Sheng Ti T' u. (Atlas showing the Provinces of the Chinese People's
Republic, Shanphai 1950, 52 K. (Chino)).
Ting Wen-chang, Ong Ilen-hao? and Tsleng Shih-ying: .Ne W Atlas of China.
5th Edition. Post-mar edition revised by Ts'eng Shih-ying and Fang-Chtn.
PT
Shanghai 1948, 94 texts, 58 K. S. (Chin.).
Fuchs, W (.bditor): The "Mongol Atlas" of China by Chu-Ssu-Pen and the
Kuang-YUX 32 pp., 48 facsimile maps of ab. 1555. Monumenta Serica:
Jou
VII
mal of Oriental Studies of the Catholic University of Peking, Mong.
I Fu Jen Univ., Peiping'19460
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,40 Kzal(yeVich, V.A.: MO:ern Mongolian. Toponomy (Original publishO'bythe
2242111a,NdUk, ReSearch Committee for tile Mongolian People!vaepublic:
Works Of the Mongolian.Cotamisson No: 13, le.ningrad.19314); translated by
F.D.iiessiog, Berkeley, pa1ifornia,.1942. Detailed revicv by'D. Troxel
(in GRev. XXXVII, No York 1947) .
Plaetschke, B.: In landscha4skundli,ches Eartenwerk ilbOr die Nordmongolei.
(04x. XII, 19142)8. Petai.10.4iscussion:61..landscape-study maps produced
by J. :Oran8 on the bzis of his travels prior to the First tTorld Liar.
Murzaev, liarte der. Monpolischen ,Volksreptblik, 1:50060002 in colors;
Supplement to No, 25. TUs is at present the best general physical map
available for Outer Mongolia. Distinguishing 8 different levels of alti-
tude it furnishes a clear picture of the relief. It distinelishes between
the occasicAlally dry and tho permanently 4iwing rivers, and between lalces
of sweet water and salt water. :Sandy. 4reas And dune regions are, indicated,
as well as the wallas and lakes. The more recent settlements and routes
of communication. are Shown, thoUril the very recently completed railroad
line from Tsining, Inner Monrolia, to Ulan-5'ator is, of course, not shown.
Of real Importance is the fact that the various mountain ranges and rivers
are accurately desimated in accordance with the present state of knmiledre
Page 189:
and official ort! orraphy.
Volks.
7. Respalov? N D ? Bodenkarte (vrounc formation nap) der 24ongo1isc1 en bibs
republik. Supplement to No. 25. This appr. 1:85000000 map edited by BA.
Folynoy marks considerable progress as compared with our present state of
knowledge. It distinguishes as many as 15 types of ground formation. In
the, mountainous marginal areas and in the Changai the predominant types in-
.
ACSI FORM
8 FEB. 56
elude the following soils: mountain-meadow, gray forest, mountain black sal
and chestnut-colored mountain soil.
The central parts have prEdominantl,y
the chestnut.colored steppe soil as well as solonets and solonthak type
combinations. The Gobi Desert has to some extent brown soils of the dry.
steppe type.
Junatov, A.A. (Yunatov?): Vegetation 4ap of the Mongolian Peo)le' Republic.
bcale the same as No. 7; 'Supplement to No. 25. Yunatov, one of the best
46_
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experts on Mongolian flora9 distinruishes 16 different formations, apart
from terrain without vegetation. He is the first to distinguish bOureen
different.typs of Mongolian mountain forests;and the High4lountain Taiga
is considered apar.4. Particulrly interesting is the au:blitz's differentia-
tion. of steppe vegetation. (among others, moUntain steppes feather-grass
stepl* and wormvood zteppe).
more. recent
Host of the specia map8 of Mongoliamieiritory, notably those brought
out in the Soviet Union and japan canna be included here for evaluation,
since,thoy are not accessible. The Provincial Itla's Of .China (no. is
printed in five colors and Rives surface formation, bOundaries, settlements
and routes Of communicatl.on. A.separate map is provided for Outer Mongolia
The regions of Inner MoOolia are shown on ,a scale of 1:4. Million, except
that the formcr Province of Tschabar is: presented on a scale of:10.
on. Tie "New Atlas,' includes 13 million maps of the 13rovincias of Inner
Hongoli4 and the pap of Outer Mongolia .is drawn on a scale of only l:705
million.nThe soil nis show, among other things, that the distinctly des-
ert-type soils of the former Province of:NiOhtia are less widespread
than has been assumed heretofore. The Mongol...Atlas" (No.3).brought out
by the well-known Guman sinolod.st W .Fuchs is, above all, of great his-
torical value and is indispensable for inquiries of that kind.
The treatise 1ylava4yevich (No.04) furnishes proof of the very close
#90; relations between the Mongolian nomad population and the, area's through.
v'rhiell it moves; for ,a highly varied and accurate body of designations is
available Werrin to every kind of topogxphic details. any of the
designations used also reflect impressively' the social structure and the
relirious ideolOgy of the Mongolians. Under the WIdence of ndmerous
extant Mongolian travel, accounts Of the unprofessional and fhantast# sort,
there is a ide-spread tendency to associate ilbhthe:vord the idea of
a wateri,ebs,satidy wasteland: but the Mongolian uses this term to refer to
? a more or 'less level sandy or gravel-Covered surface which, tbduft at long
intervals,- possesses' a few water 11610 and, in-soMelh8taild6i, even 'water
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, ?
in the form of ,a spring, and a sparse grow*of .ha:rd grasses, and .t a few rare spots
.6
grove of tre6s0
perhaps even ledpiantibonniticxxx? Dunes foamed by wind-blown sand 'are known as mar.lal.than
and bare, dark 'surfaces as Issliaarobi, while.dried-out. salt pits are called dabs.
Sources and fountains often are named according to the vegetation 'growing in their
vicinity. 'Thus one frequently encounters the, tem jag(axaul) derepen (feather-
grass)? ithulusun (reed grass), imam thicket).; and sukhai (tamarisk). On
the "Khara 'Gobi" .beim'een, irtisin-p.ol and the frontier of Sinkiang the designation sad
is very freq.uently 'foun4, often in .thE comb;ination. shax.s. (yellou saxau,l) or
khara (black or dead saxaul). 11.1e. names ..of settlements, li1rii, frequently
are derived frox the vegetation.. Thus., the name Uljasutai conveys, approximately, the
IncanIng of 'place where there are aspen trees." The suffix tai or tu (t24. ta) is
ati.,ached to a noun to indicate the presence 'of something or other. Consequently one
often meets vith names of localities such as ishmartu ("place where there is sal*,
shubcrtai ("place where there is clay"), and the like. Hot wells are known as arshan
. Many of ? the .naines includefthe. d'esignation'''of 'a color, due to :the tact that'.in'a bare
landscape tho coloiving u:=3u,1,1.12y, is very noticeable: to).,orTri.=Thite Summit, boro obo
Gray Obo, .ulan nal! Red Ls*, koko ula = lue Aountain. Topograrhical desimations
?,.
such as khOni (sheep (plural)), .mori, (horses), ukher (cattle). occur very frequently
and call attention' to the important/ part played by cattle in the life of the. =ad.
Numerous are also the temple names to be found On the maps, usually With the geni-
tive ending i or in (e Lamain stme temple of the Lamas; rhadain surae temple
of the steep cliff). The highest title of honor, pssido ("Lord"), V)ich is reserved
for the living. Buddhas, has in a good many instances been aypIted els? to impOrtant
mountain summits that are regarded as holy. Of extraorti inari 1y frequent _ ocourrence
in the Mongolian landscapes, are .the obosA a tern used in combination with a varietr
of adjectival expressions as a geographic designation. These tokens Z?f Shamanist
?ideology--consisting of branches, rags, and sheep's feet -- rise above a cairn of
loose stones to serve as inTortant landmarks and serve to guide the traveler. Throug
the obo the Mongol gets in touch with the local spirits, the a arin e en, whom he
Pas.:ELL.917---
regards as the real masters of the earth, whereas man is 'regarded merely as an inter
loper. In may instances th.c names of the mountains bear evidence to the :nagic
character of the world as reflected in the imagination of the simple henistaen, fre-
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kNUWBR
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Pae 191: STAT
quently indicatl.ng fear of certain mountain summits, sometimes .even of their very
names, names that sOme natives would not dare to speak. Few treatises are so well
suited as that published by Kazakyevich-(N) to bring home to the reader in a con-
crete rianner the distinctive character of the relations between man and nature as
reflected in tile Mongolian eographic nanies.
Aurtdev (No. 2, p. 19 44 :likewise deals with the',;pocr.raphic names
of Nongolia, presenting.a larre #ntherof:pr6graphic hydrOraph#1 and regional
terms. 11e also cot,raSts the liusSi,an?:orthoqapti.,as:used.bytts,'wit4 the genuine
longolian names (Gobi UlT44 =
\
derived fro the Chinese, Thbetan .(conneced with 4maism) Auss,ian, and the Turk-
menian languages. ..SOme of the TurkMenian elements, go back very ,far In history, but
the influence 'of modern Tuiicinenian peoples is likewise reflected in the toponymy of
nonrolia.
GERLL.ACQOUNTS, ilLSEA'RCEPORTS, DESCRIPTIONS OF PARTS
OF THE REGION ??
Pax Bespalov, 1.D.: Die Wen (soils)'. der. *gq.Lischen Volksrepublik (In': Studies
of the .Mohgolim Connissith;) of the hcademy of 4cience .of the EISSR, No. 51,
etc.), and calls attention to designations
Moscow 2951 (?ussian)).
ya. Cressey1 ?G.B :.Asia's Lands and Peoples, 1st Ed., New lork 19414; 2 Ed. 1952
(Lnglish). Contains among -other things a brief geopTaphic account of Mongolia.
U. Dann, I,: Die Inner? Mongolei. (oz XLVIII, 1942.)
12. Demtdov, S.S.: Die Monrolische Volksrepublik. Geographic Publications Moscow,
1952 (Russian).
13. FocIller.Hauke? G. Asia, Manual Geogrdfico,I, p.90 ff.(Buri?atia); II, p.326 ff.
(longolia? Mongolia Exterior, A Interior, Mongol Olos).,Tucum4 1953 (Spanish).
Mongoleil Nandschurei, Korea: Ltinderkundliche GrundzUge (geographic fund
mentals); unpublished manuscript with the Siebenberg.Verlag.
15. -.: Das Steppenhochland der Barga4plateau steppe of the Darga). 14. Die 'Andschur4, geidelberg 1941 113.364 Illustrated; .KaPs)i
15a. Die MandsChurci.(Manchuria). 1,leidelberg 1941, 14148 pp., Illustrated; Maps.
16. *Oral, J-G.: Nongolische Landscllaften und t)r%ichkeiten.(Mongolian 'landscapes
and localities): A Geography of Physiof7hothic Types 'and Uniform Areas I. .(Publ.
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cE T SLA
t
1
Page 19].: (cont')
by.'inst. GeOtT ? Univ. Turkuensis, No. 19, .fielsinki 1911$ 291'pps$ .2 MaPs4 3
Fire, 27 Pictures).
Gerasimov? iepo an L.A. Lavrenko: Traits of the Iongolian
Peo le's ?epublic. icort 5 of the .cadely of 7.Jcience of the Soviet Union,
Pories11.190 1 l03c0w.l952 (Russian)).
18. Granard,Y.: La Hai* Asie (Inner Asia). (Chanter: La Mongolie0h: G(graphie
.Universelle$ VoLVIIT, Paris 1929,:pP41244-860.2ictures, Maps (French)),
19.
19. Nedin, S.: Die AuawertUng der Lrgel.inisse mether.Zentral-Asien-47pedition
1927-35.(evaluation of results of expedition into Central Asia). (FA 19)44
305-19),,
Page 1921 .
20. Ko1am,IP.T.4 Th :People of ti...,e-soviet Far Last. London 3.954,(4ngliSh)..t.in this
volume P'ut.,er.Apngolia is mlistalce Itropresented as an.exaCt copy of the .5oViet
Union 'as re?ards:political Social, anci,pconOic organizatl.on,cf.. also Review
in .GJ Lont.i.m. 1951, 508. .?
21. Ko71?ov? Mongolia, Alido .and ie Dead City of .Chara-Choto. Moscow. 190
(itussian),..:k .new edition of the farriotie research report first publishd in 1923.
22. ?: Trip into Mongolia .192,3-26;. edited by E. . Murzaev. Rotes of the Geo-
graphic ..t?ociety? of the .L;oviet? Union, New 'Series, Vol. 7 Moscow .191:9 (Aussian)0
toe
STAT
23.
2140 Lautensach, H Dor Geographische ?Porrrenvandel. Bonn 1952,
25. Murraev, E.M. Die MonFolische Volksrepublik. ueoraphy Account.
Gotha 1994, Pictures, Maps. Gernax.. transintion of the Russian original work
(1st ed. 190, 2nd ed. 1953.
KUpletskt, N.: Eastern gongolia. Lenl.ngrad 1938. (ussian).
10 ff.
26.
be
The Mongolian People's epublic. Land, populatio $ economy. Leningrad 19117
(itussian). Tut gecwrap?l-rj of the Mongolian Pep...lei tepublic vas also published
In 19431 in V-Ielorigolian. language, .at Ulan-Bator. Ir No. 25 of this Diblio-
graphy the autilor. fux7ishes, on p. 32 if., brief account of Vie governmental
stricture, the population, and the country.t s econorry. .
27. --: Geographical Explorction of the Mongolia.n. ,People's itpublic$ published by
the Acadev of 'Science Aoseow- inprad 19118 (ktiassian).. This is the best ac-
count so far available of investirations of tilis part of Central Asia, No. 25
gives a brief excerpt frol the text. The more ,iodern type of systematic in-
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IIIVTELLIGEIViteRSUV"""1-"T'W'rwal"."7"`"-7
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STAT
Page 192i-(contla
!restigationwas f"rst started in 1921 as result of fornation of the Scientific
Colmittee of the: Mongolian ?eople s Republic, and has been intensified since
1942 as result of te opening of the Aorlolian, State LniversitY at Ulanialiator
and the creation of its library, which at present is'in possession of lore than
200000 books end manuscripts. . J.ven lore ikortant for modern scientific re-
search:was, the .establishment, in 192, of the NonFoliail Commission in the Soviet
Union, V7ose:contributions are pa in the nrudi KomfolskoI ii."
Since then a nLn1)er of. Soviet and .Mongolian expeditions have been co tinuinv
th(.: praiorthy tradition of earlier decades in lials@an studies of Aongolia.
The -aork of the follarzim:. authors, above all, must be mentioned hue in that
connection: 1",00 Bannikov, A.N. 'Pommy, N.N. Lebedov? 2.A. Lebedova, A.A.
Yunatov?.I.A..Krashinnikov, IT.V. Pavlov, IR. P4ynov, and A. Ya. Tugarinov.
28. 01Schki, L.: Aare? Polo's Trecursors. Baltimore 1913. IX and 100 pp. Maps.
Unvlish).
29. Perlin, B.: _Ae gorgolian People's Republic. Moscow 19b1 (Russian).
30. Plaetschke? B.: Landschaftskundliche )Asenszage der ostlichen Gobi. (In: Wiss.
Verbff. d. Dt. f. lAnderk. Leipzig, N.F., No, 7, Leipzig 1939, 105445,
Pictures.)
31. ?emus, Zuriat.;iongolia. (Publ. of th( Inst. Pacific.. Aelationsl New York
19113 (Ln7lish)).
31a. Pomus, V. J.: The Buryat rlonfrOdan i(epubiic. loscow 1937 (Aussiaa).
32. Potanin,'G...: A Trip throl..0h Mongolia. Moscow 1948 (Fiussian). 2id Edition of
the well-Imovn volume "Sketches of Northvestern Mongolia," which appeared in
severalvolmes.in St'. Petersburg 1831 and 1883..
330
The Chinghai-Tibetan iarginal i.rea of China and the Central Hoserow
1948 (itussian). New edition of the ITork formerlTpublished 188345. Like No.
32, it ,;as edited by V.V. Obruchevr.
Prseevalskiy (ItuevalSkiy), Abngolia and the Tangut (dountryi I-II. Mbs-
cog 19146 (Russian). 2nd Edition, edited y-E.I. Hurzaev, of the well-known
trnwl and scientific rcports formerly publ;ped:in St. Petersburg i87/76
Pate 193:
----S5T?Saposchnikow (r/pozhnikov ) V.V.: The Mongolian Lltai at the sources of the
? ACSI FORM
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Irtysh and Kobdo, published under the title"Through the Altai," as a new editio
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aissuessimpronmsromossommooprisiiimor
at
Page 193: (cont d) STAT
-- edited by Obruchev -- of a'tirel report publishtd at Tomsk prior to the
First orld :Tar. MOSCOW 19119'(Auisian).
?Steimr, A.J. and ;LA. navies: oviet Asia. London 1943 ( nrtlish).
Thiel, h.: Sowjet-Fernost (Eoviet Far-Last) Munich 1953. 329 1,1). Maps.
36.
37,,
38.
39. 'ie.geners Die 4T,o1ei,(Ionplia). (IN: Udb. d. eo T. "..riss., Vol.: Nortile'rn
!sial, Central and Easterioisja, Potadam 1937, 411 ff.).
. )40. Zapldn liepublic. 'Moscow 191t8 (Aussian).
.Most of the above-cited studies furnish a. brief peo7raphic survay of
Konolia as part of a treatise on larger areas, Thiel (cf. 1o.37), in dealing with
the far4astern territories of the Soviet. Union, also .indicates briefly at Various
points the o:ra, ' ic fundalentals,,the economic conditions c.nd populction policies
in the Autonomous .BuryPt-Aongolian Republic.' Most of the general acceunts of the
longolian l'eople's Republic pu'Aished In the Russian language were not available to
t%e author of this article.. Allow the best eoiirarhic sketches of Aongolia published
in one of the 'Jestern languages must be 'cited, as heretofore, the trEatise by
Grenard (No? 18). Consequently this vork was listed here once more, althoupt it
The
was pl.f.lished as ion - arro as 1929, appr. 100-page.geographic survey by Poc4er-
Hauke (No. 1h) deals in dean also -ith the more recent econanico-geo!rapic facts
but is still awLiting publication. Olsc'ki (No. 28) gives, to some extent from nave
points of view, an objective account of travels undertaken in,Gentral-Asia prior to
'Marco Polo, klthough.the. detailed study by Oarnb (No. 16) is based upon investipa-
tions that are no longer 'quite up4o-date, it can still be reEarded as One of the
mbst important contributions, so' farp'to the geomiplve of Mongolia The volume
Vargin N.: he :lonroliar People's ilepdblic. _Moscow 1949 (itussian).
'ives careful accounts of individual portions of Mongolia, with emphasis upon the
met'ods of geopraphic investigation. The observations made during the author's own
travels (1906, 1907, 1909) in the Tuba Country and :Jorthern Mongolia were interated
there in the most conscientious lanner with the most .important of the literature
extant on the subject. One of the most characteristic types of Aongolian landscape
is the called Lake Aegion, liMch forms an in part very. narrow zone between the
Altai and the Charrai country.
It. ytends for (dietance lf 1300 km. from Tuba in
the north to points east of he.Ongin Aver; an(:3 in this region the Ubsa-dlasin
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Pane 193J (cont'd)
(830 m. above sea level) is tlie lowest depression of the ground in Outer 'Mongolia.
Flat.coetours, steep cliffs end monadnocks, sOdy Or stony desert-steppe, salty
lakes and periodic water courses are the dominant features of the landscape. The
Kobdo4ltai soetheesteard Wh-mountain chains with iniervening pleteaus. andstret-
220.111 ? .
ches of hilly land. The hiehest elevation, located An the northvestern part, is the
glacier-covered Tebun-bogdo 4653110 in height. Aenumber of fairly large lakeke
located w
1,5
STAT
ithin the druina e nrea of the Kobdo in basins at the foot of :leciers
tet, datc back to the ice eeriod. it elevations between 1500 and 2000 m. on the
elatve1y ioist outer slopes of the Altain-murugie areas of coniferous growth,
I separate the Dsun7arei desert-steppes from the Alpine meadow-lands of the
high lountain range. The largeet colpact landscape is that of th,e Chanai (KhangaL )1
ch retches elevation ep to /!031 ma on VI(.. Otchon-ttngri and which, together with
surroundeLee areas is taken to have been the ancient. homeland of the
Archa
presc
:Anc
ic and protermoic schists prcdominete there, ancLeranttes are extensively re-
nted. In the northern part one finds forests of latch, intermingled with
d birch; and tcre are intervening large mountain-meadows; farther south
the sleepe-land bens to predominate. In the same treatise Garnb also enters into
a number
chains we
of special problems
eace, the problem of glacial invasion
The highest
re to a considerable extent transforqed by -1.acial invasion. The con-
elomeretes
are recogn
marls, sands, an6 clays deposited in the Jurassic and Tertiary systems
bed by the author as hevinr furnished the starting material for the wide.
spread area
a whole the
the forested
s of drifting cand and for the fields of rrevel and rubble. Taken as
landscapes inve'tiated by the author forn transitional areas between
mountain lands of Sibiria ad the Gobi Desert.
Lautensach (NO. 24) also briefly examines geoeraphic morphological
changes in Aoneolia, appl;yinv his on specially developed methods to concrete in-
stances presented by his topic. He reaches the conclusion that planetarian morpho-
logical changes
there is no need
are of such slight importance in the areas under consideration that
to discuss theme Similarly the trypsometri.c conditions (broadly
co-sidered, a flat
minentiy, by minor
,ACSI FORM
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basin 6004100 m above sea ;.evel subdivided, but not at all pro-
basins, fresidual knob chain6,and sheets of basalt) are not suited
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STAT'
Ifve.:12/4/2 (cont'd)
to serve as basis for delimiting?ge'orraphic sul:divisl.ons. The 'most dteitinguishing
characteristic is that of dryness? .especially .in the interior of LLstern Mongolia,
where the clim.ate permits the development oi13,1r ota 'de'sert-Steppe with. species of
ilrtelisia. This core is surrounded by a belt' where the aridity is less. On his
Map No, 6 Lautensabh finally breaks down the East-.4ongolian territory, in keeping
ltith the small amount of ?peripherzil-central.change, into a 'number of ring-shaped
zones. , Thus the central core red.on is assi;ned by him the peographic formula IfI1b.6
(cold-1.1nter Zone deree ..6);4 .11o2 (2nd Mongolian echelon,. as viewed' from the frony)
22/z2 (a formula de indicate position, of the area with respect ,to the central region
as indicated by the.numbcr of trz-:',its characteristic of the central region); 112 (2nd
degree of rOve of altitude, -i.e. 5004500. .above sea level).
Plaetzchke (No. 30)' has made a ,study especially of the eastern part
of the {obi desci ecological conditions in the forest-steppe areas. Apart from
the usua;ly predominant solid sand cover there' are also extensive stretches. of dunes,
especially. along: present and former, river Courses. The prevalence of northeasterly
winds with 'occasional 1..restern? or southwestern winds is indicated by ground surfaces
and cavities ground by sandy winds. The dunes of recent origin const_pt mainly of
quantities of old sand that have been shifted. At sand of the points where old
sands have been shifted fossil horizons of thc. ground have been laid bare, exhibit-
ing a thickness of several decimeters. The finds consisted mairay of local stone-
age tools. Foehler-Hau4e (No. 15) furnishes, on the basis of his own travels as well
as the extant literature on the subject; a geofrraphic account of the Barge, i.e0 the
farthest :ortheastern tip of the AongoliAn Plateau a region which at present belongs
politically to the Autononout, Inner gongolia of the Chinese People's, Republic.. The
subsurface layers become visible only in certain. localities, in the form of isolated
granite hills and in thascnist formations of, gentle swellings of the ground. There
is a depreosian extend 'ng from the southwest toard the north or northeast, and this
depression contains the large steppe lalies of the Dalai-nur and the Buir-nur. In
some localities there are vulcanian series laid open, which in some instances have
coal-bearily,
(VaV757-ne and and schist clays cropping out above them. In the east this depression
has slopin7 down into it a flat steppe area with al erosively broken up steep edp.e.
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I
NTE-TITERFWAVTIfferwm"-"m"."1"14""
Pa....&222 (centid)
1
?
?
STATS
of moderate height and radient, this area beir4aosed. at the estern foot levels
of the Great Chingan. West of the depression spreads out a treeless flat area with
,e
scanty dune formation, where one en6punters. more or less,frepuenqy hill ranges con-
ting of the rocks of the ancient subsurface and of more recent_vulcanian forma.
tions. .The climate is to a high. degree 'continental. The western part of the 3arga.
,
is practically vithout drainage, since at the present time the Dalai-nur(Kulun-nor
??
?
w1-1,ch xeceives among other /..aters those of the Xeruleiti, nust be retarded as a ter-
lilal lake. The former outlet to the Argun now carries water at beet sporadically;
and duritv the high viater season VT Argun, in turn, is sometimes forced back into
the lake, throuh the Autny Protok. Pmdominance 'roes to chestnut-colored soils of
srwht t'?!ickness of layer with only a small content of hUmus. The vegetation.in.
eludes intermirrled representatives of neighboring vegetational regions. The easte
steppe has mostly the natgras61'and the western steppe has predominantly a worlwood
veretation. .0allery fovets have developed a1on7 narrOW strips of land. The fauna
is generally speakiinr povr both as rerards'nuMber of species and nueoer of indi-
viduals. Stppe feuna and water birds art in the majoritje Woodchucks, or f-round.
hof-s are very numerous ad are of importance for hunting. Historica4y and ethnii'.
caliy the Barga has been a quiet corner, and as not diredtly touched by the great
Aonvolian qovelents of the 12th and 13th centuries. The Dara lonpols? who are the
doninatin- element of the population, are not of the same descent as the Aongolians
no- present east of the Chinn or those of Outer Mongolia; and ih part they differ
also as to their political h,tory. Resettlements under the Aanclnu Dynasty, as well
as var44ous recent movements, have brought Sultu, liauri? and Buryet-longolian elements
into the Barga. Trobably there are not more than abut 30,000 Mongo4ans living as
nomad herdsmen in this territory.' During recent decades, in connection with the
constructlon of railroas, they have been crowded back a reat deal by Chinese ele.
lents. In the north small liassian pioneer settlements have been formed since the
rirs?oridaer in the forect-steppe areas and their vicinity.
2 The find :'ns of the Hedin expedition into Central Asia (No.19) arc ?
some of the. -
9.ghly significant also for ikimarrinal areas Of Nonfrolia. 1104in h.itself collected
a large number of geographic observations and has mblished them in various contexts,
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Pa.12.2.2.46;. cont104..
especially in-connection with his trip from:Peilmingmiap.throuth large areas of Inner
Ungolia as far as. Kalgan. Essential, above all, are meteorological and climato-
logical observations made by Halide, espec3.a1%f on the Bogdo-ola. Hummel, although
. of the medical profession, made.val.uable collections in his quality as botanist and
.zoolcristrand among other things heAnvestigated the vegetation of the Edsin-vol
and of a laigeliumber of salt depressions On. the Bogdomola." Bergmann's investigation
of the treices, of stone.age settlements.betWeenthe Edsin.gol and the Sinkiang border
have yielded important neW ingormatl.enoconcerning the mode of life of palaeolithinc
inhabitants of those territories. Mongolia, th,srefore, belongs .. as earlier investi
gutions, h:;ve informed us, must be counted ampl*, the anciently settled
areas. As , I have .mentioned, early s tones-age settlements have been discovered also
? ? and ,
? in the 1.3arga (110?015, p..1134 between .Chalainoerh and lailar; settlements be.
longing to. the :More 'recent periods of the stOne-age were ..of relatively coarnon occur-
rence.
Unquestionably the most iraportant more or less recent geographic
treatise on Mongolia is the book. by: Murtiev (no 25), which, fortunately for us,
was translated by. Tutenberg and edited by H. Illubert, and ws published in this
form as part of ?a series of important scientific treatises originally written in a
foreim, especially the 4ussian, language. The principal sections of Part I deal
with various individual geographic factors on the basis of the author's own investi-
gations as well as the Most recent especially. Soviet. cussian, literature on the
subject. Part II, the synthetic part of the book, defines the four great physic?.
geographic zones, as follows: the mountain-forest steppe, the highs-altitude steppe,
the desert steppe, and the total desert. The first of these zones is divided into
a mountain-mear3ow region, a mountain.taia region, and a region of Mountain steppe
and forest steppe. According to Vlurraer.thiS region takes up about one-third of
the area of Outer Idongolia. The steppe-zone .and the desert-steppe zone occupy each
(Murtsaev)
about one-forth, and .the desert zone appr. ope.sixth of the total area. urzaev
Ls&
points out that the 'Mongolian .population has..lon.r. since been with a nomen-
clature of .these regions that is. concretely based on experience and observation, and
distinguishes .,as principal, zones the and the ',Gobi." 1r Ilehangai," however
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NTEMETWITEONST"'"?.?"
2i.97: (cont'd)
the Mongolian means not only the moutain range that bears this name, but an entire .
mouniainous landscape of .medium elevation where a good grazing foundation for the
' him ,
cattle is to be found; but beyond that even, the word "Changai" means to tuathe
'
G
19
STAT
fulfillment of a wish and a foundation for living?
l'te "Gobi" is quite the oppcsite:
a landscape of deserts and eemi.deserts:with little water and characterized as pre.
.viously mentioned '(110.14.)? 'by stony, sandy, or salt-containinc soils. "Gobi?"then?
is for the Aongelian.not pay the .4esert.steppp anti desert land circumscribed by the
limits of. Outer Konoliaand:contigtious areas but rather a frequentlY:encountered
type of landscape? ,,Aecortting to lurtsaev the northern limit of the Gob3eoincides?
in the. purely ..c.:orraphical sense, with the southern Wilt of distribution of the
Tarbagaroundhpg?,since.tho latter, being a typical representative of the mountain
steppe fauna,' is .not.elolieged in the Gobi.
In that part of his book which.deels with the individual regions,
Murtsapv'pravides a well-foundd systematical division of the.MengoliansPeople's
liepublic; accordinvjo the natural diversification of areas; for his own purposes
he applies to the nature.defined areas the term "physico.geop7rophic districts." In
doinc,T so he arrives, on the basis of his own personal knowledge of Mongolia and of
the abundant litcrature interated by him, in some respects to conclusions that dff.
for widely from those reached. by Lautensach (No. 2L); and he distinguishes between
five areas as defined by their natural landscape, areas whJ.ch4tthen proceeds to
subdivide further0 These are as fellows: the'Altailpountain District with four,
t.,.
the Great Lakes i)epression with three, the Charrai and .Keritai (C114nt63) with eight,
the High Plateaus of Eastern Mongolia :with six, and the Gobi District with seven
subdividions.,, In arriving at, this systematization the relief of the terrain and
the zonal.latitudinal characteristics are his principal criteria.
3. &WW2' AND GEONRPHOLOGY; SOILS, CLIMATE, FLOW AND FAUNA
41. Ale seychik, 8.7. and A. Ya..Stefanenko: Die, flaugteige der Tektenik der .Stid.
ostmongolei (Principal TectOnic Traits of Southeastern Mongolia). (IN r Soviet
Geoloa, Collection Volume A, Moscow, 190 (Russian)).
42. Bannikov? A.G.: Provisional Zoographic Divisions of, Aongolia? Based on Da
fraa the Zoology of Mammals. (IN: ScAntific Notes of the Mongolian state Uni-
versity, Vol. I, Ulan-Batoi 108 (iiiissian)).
ACS1 FORM
8 FEB. 56
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(CONTINUATION SHEET)
.??
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INTEITAT C TRANS
IC TO
ate1.111 (cont Id)
????? .
1,
20
" STAT
42a, -0: Fauna Limits of the Gobiln MOngolia0.(IN: Proilee0DI t of the Academy of
.science, Vol? 1117, to. 7, Hoscow 1947 (Russian))(1
430 ..: Mammals of the Aongolian People's Republic. Dissertation Aoscow 1952
? (Russian)*
44. Bespalov, N.D.: The Soils of the longolian People's iieptiblic, (IN: i'roceedings
of the IonOlian Comaiission of the Acadeny of science of the soviet Union' No.
410 'Aoscow.1951 (Russian)),
h5 Dann, Sandgebirge (sand mountains) im Alat,oSchan. Geomorph. XI 1939)0
Pae 18: .:
Sand?und Saxaul in A1agsclian0..(anzaliII, 19111)0
--: Das Sandtebirge (sdOl*auntains) Iladang Dschering. (Ghnz. XLII,19111.)
148. EfraMav, Provisional Results, of Studies by...the First .ongolian Palaeon-
tological Expedition of the Academy of Science of the Soviet Union, 1946*
Material for Geomorphology and Palaeontology. -(IN: Studies of the Mongolian
Commission of the Acadely of. Science,' No. 38, MosCow-Daningrad 1949 (aussian)).0
1,190 Haode lemerkungen 7ur Entstehung der starken Sommerregen Wber Ostasien,
(aemarks on the Origin of geavy Somner Rains over. Eastern Asia)..(Eidkunde
Bonn 19I9, 2)11ff ).
50. Milner, 11. and P. Chen: Alternatin Lakes. (iiyllningsskrift tillArnad Sven
Hedin, Stockholm 1953 (English))
Ivanov, A.CH.: Glaciation of +he Northeastern Part of the iongolian Altai.
(Studies of the Mongolian COm4ssion.of thekiademy of 5cienee of t' le Soviet
Union No 380 Moscow-Leningrad 1949 (Russian)).
52. Junatov, AJ.: 25..Years.oliiesearc13 on the flcas, of Mongolia. (Studies of the
Scientific Committee of he Mongolian People's AepUblic,'Ioce2 tiap-Dator
19)46 (Russian)).
530 .,..4,Macrial'or.1 the Geography and .4co1ogy of the most Important Species of
Trees in longolia. (Scientific jote6 of the NongolianState University,-Vol.
3 -Ulan-Bator 19)46 (Russian)10
'.the
540 201al.ar4 Regional Divisions of the Plant Cover of Iongolign People s
"epUblic. (Lieports of t,le Geop:rap'ic society of the Soviet Union, Vol. 1?XXX0
No 141 Moscow-Leningrad 1948 (Aussi4n))0
550 Principal Traits of the Plant' Cover of the Mongolian People' s "epublic.
13A DISSEMINATION FORM. FOR INTELLIGENCE TRANSLATION
? .MONTINUATION?SHEETI
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8 FEB. 56
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Declassified in Part-Sanitized Copy Approved for Rel
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0
INTEILMTNCE
1.110111011131211211i1LINISINIM1
ran Intiver"---"wm
STAT
Lase. ( con t d)
1
$ix (Studies of VIc gongolian Commission of the kadeMy of Science of the Sovie
Union, 39t Jd., gpscw-Leningrad 190 .(ussian))..
56. Machatschek, F.: Das elief der Erde'(the 4:lief of the GlObe)Vol.I,2rld Id
Berlin 1955
130
260 if.
57t, Obruchev, V.A.: East-Monjolia, I and II, Moscow.Leningrad 1947 (Aussian))0
58
Short Physico-Geographic Sketch of &Et-Mongolia. (Iports of the
? .Acaderriy of Science of.the.Soviet tiflons .P1P9gr tYq. beries? Vol. X, No.2,
Moscow-Lerrivrad 19146 (Russian)).
590 Polynov, Linovskiy: Provisional deport of the Soll-eogrqhy
.6iDedition into ,Yorthern.4ongplia? etc. (IN:Aaterials.of the 'Commission
the :
for Research on lon,olian aA the wituvinialf People's epublic and the
1. ASSR,'No. 91 Lenirv.:rrad.,1930 if. (Aussian)).
60. deports of the ,.cientific Expedition :to the New ,Vrovrices or China under
the leadership-of.pr. .Sven Updin, Publ. 8, Vol. IX,' Aeteorology I (W.Haude
- 1940.
on .1?asit. prolems .and the results of the ascent of "kite), Stockholm 02xx
.- Publ. 114, Vol. IX, 4etcorol.'2.(F.Albrecht and P. Irosse.concerning radia-
tion ani3, econoly of heat on the earth s, surface), L:tockholm 1040 (English))
61. "SaposOrikv (Papozhnikpv Zapozl*ikov ); V.V.: Trip throuFh the Russian and t
4orgolian losciaw 1949 0.hissian)) ?
6 2 o Sawai, T. ad K. 4araguchi.: geology of tharelf and illa:0.1d.6halet de.
posits of the San-ha.District, (IN: 11111110Geol.boc..outh Ancurian
way Co. Dairen 193743, 75:ff. Tables' Fig. (Japanese)..
63. Chaftoriv V.K.: N..e?ata concerning :the Geo).ogy of .the Central Part of
the Mongolian Peoples Republic. (IN.:2rObleIls of Soviet ,Geology,
4oscow-Leningrad
1935 (Russian)),
Zigmat, S.: Sketches of the Physical Ceography and Former Olaciation of
,lountain Lands in Hongolia. (IN: Collected Volixie of eicientific Articles o
the Scientific Committee of the "Aongolian Peoplets *public Ulan.Bator
1951 (Russian)).
65. Grabov, V I. arid gunatov: Principal Characteristics of the Flora of
the gongoliarcPeople's -tepublia's Related to its District Divisions.
(Botanatscli.r.,Vol X)tip No 1, 1952).
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8 FEB. 56
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INTELLIGENCE TRANS T ON
?4,
jP...aT 199:'
22
STAT
I
Irmgard Dam (NO045-47) traveled throu#h southern AongOlia as early as
1933/34 and in her studies devoted herself 'chiefly to the problems of
dune formation and the distribuiion of dunes. Machatschek (No. 56),
although he had not yet had the benefit of the most recent Soviet lit-
erature on the. subject, gives in his treatise a succinct, clearly form
aated and critical summary. of geological and geomorphological field
invOstigations in Aongolia.-MOngolia:belorigS to the northern part of
Central 4ia and thus with the type of extended and fairly elevated
trunk iandsCapes of relatively slight energy of relief, a type that
are thq result of ancient. erosion and are,due. to the dryness of the
climate, in most instances oniy.uo a small extent intersected by
erosive cuts? The horst:type of mountain.and residual mountains be-
long,to a number 'of different systems of mo'untAn Trame which, apparen
3y, converge in the inner part of the area into flat curves open tma
the north, NortilwesternMongolia lies within the range of the .old.
palaeozoic foIdings.and takes:st,preent the. form of a plateau-forma-
tion type of country, with . geS.of horsts extending west-north-west,
wAch Must be rerarded as relatiVely repent dislocations of a flat
relief plat.lgy date back:t.'oAhe *middle..tert4.ary. Platkau.'formr4ion
. odUr -nur:
stands out clearly also-in:the undrained -lake region (Ubs,
and Durga.nur, etc.). The fault _depressions still retain mio.
pliocene Hanhalayers and diluvial river deposits of from periods of
more abundant precipitation and less evaporation? The Altai nountains
which have their ororrqphic origin in the qhanpai, extend as far as
the ?Orchoe (Orkhon?), formint.a:flat curve in east.southeast.east-
northe6stern direction, and exhibiting a uniform .relief which, howevero
at some points more prominently glacial contours. The ancient flat
centr
body surface is at an points still well proserve4 at 2,500-3,000 me
? elevation.' The Gobi-Altai, rising Lip to 4,500 .me and glaciated at
individualpoints,..is based 'inthe optthvestern part of the Kobdo.de-
pression and breaks off 1# step-formation, descending to Dzungaria
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falgit.(tont!d).
..depresSion level whose 'undrained.tnbuTshaped.depressions are in some instances filled.
with lake waters. Eterfeen,t4e former and the Changii lies the Dsapchin Step Fault,
extendng.into the. Gobi. East-Mongolia pr6senis the form of a large flat bowl,
the surface. of Ilhich is broken up by gentle elevations of the around into subordinate
basins (Thias, Gobis)0 The. subsurface, last in the upper .palaeozolx, is
covered over large areas by Angara layers that exhibit a varied intensity of folding
activities, and have resting above them relnants of cretacean-tertiary Gobi sediments
in the fon of edge formations and basins.
The question is still open nhether the
thee extant systems of surfaces must in every instance be regarded as formations
by
of different age.. Very recent crust movements are suggested intercalated talus corn-
?
partments gradually replaced by rock terraces as one proceeds farther into the moun-
tain ranpes., but it seems possible also that their formation was in part determined
by diluvial.Variations of climate. The eastern and southern edges of /Jest-Mongolia
form part of the Richthofen nLandstaffelnb .(land. echelons) where the peripheral parts
of hest-i.sia have dropped to a relatively lower level as compared 1-;ith the more
elevated central-body surfaces of the interior. In the vicinity of Kagan several
rip24.0
plateau formed of faulted blocks 0 mostly of one-sed.structure, extend toward
the southwest and represent the break "letween the southeastern Gobi and the rigid,
relatively lowered Ordos Plateau (9btau) where following a period of levelling,
the relief "as formed by fractural movements, persumably during the early tertiary
period. The Alashan (Holanshan) up to 3,500 in
in height, has its steep slope di-
rected toward the nOangho :the large bend of which partly follows the fracture edte6
of the Ordos Table -Land., The desert mountains of the Peshan, ?OM - 3000 in. in
height, separate the Central plateau body of the Gobi trot the.Tartm. Basin; And its
individual chains rise above talus-filled tectonic deprestionso Ikie to the pre,
vailing dryness of the air Mongolian landscapes are affected chiefly by the mechan-
ical weathering Of dry areas with inte,nsive alternations of temperature.
According to fairly recent Soviet investigations (No.41) Carried on
in southeastern Mongolia the depressions between tbe.hprst7type ranges originated as
early as the cretaceous periods but were to a.large.extent not formed until the
,r.
times of the passage from the mesozoic to. the cenozoic; and these investivators
4ACSI FORM
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INTELIGENTrfinigaTib177-7777
/r
awamonareummosismaannormeuramaiwovesimami
?Eg2.2221 ("ntfd)
?
ngrintrOreral.""W
STAT
expressed the opinion that this ty:pp of*ruqture; tho::MI it has a certain kinship.
pith that of the Trans-Balkaliil mountain rani*, is colisiderably less complicated.
Gerasimov and Levrenko (No47) distinguish five geomorphological districts in Outer
Hongolia: 1. The mountain Ian4 of -1.,he 0harigai and Kontai; 2 the Mongolian Altai;
3. the "Great Lakes " depression; 10 the East-Mongolian Hir;hlands; and '5. East-
Mongolia's 1114y lands of the. "Gobi Type." According to these investigators a spe-
cial.position Iwt.be'alloved for marginal areas such as the Great,Chingan, the
eastern Marginal chains of the Tienshan, and the eastern mountain land of Dzungaria.
Between 100 and 1020 latitude lowo different types. of'Otructure Meet one another in
MonoIla: id.th'northeastern orientation the structural lines Of,thelnesozoic move-
mentsy and kawnim.oitientation of theCentral-hsiatic (Tienshan) orogenesis,
i.e. the nortlwesterr direction in this'in#ance.-ACcording.to.Kalenko (No.25, p.
' 4
2)5) procisdy.these areas were particularly subjectto volcaniagactivik, as shorn,
rvolcanitke
anon. other Vlinrs, by trelendous volcanic -effusions. The most recent intspanaz
activities in. Mongolia have not yet been adequately studied. Well-preserved vol-
canos are to be found especially in the esstern parts; but they exist also in central
Mongolia, and these:pentra1-4orwolian volcanoes were described by Potanin as earlY
as the past century.. In the Chingai.one can 'find, within the Dzapchin area, a number
of lioraine systems of'differont age covered over 1,11.th layer's Of basalt.. Even more.
recent than the basalts Of this region are the volcanos of the .Dardeanga in the south
east. 1:1*e some of th roups of volcanos in northernlanchuria they were probably
still active in historic times. Of particular interest are the evidences Of vigorous
post.flacial tectonic activity (cf., anont. others,. Kusnetsav, No.25, lo0 173 ff?),
- . ? - .
especially in the "Groat Lakes" depression, extensive novements of the block
type prevailed. In the Zagan-shibetu chain, east of the Saljugem, quaternary pebbles
were raised to a level of 500 to 600 no above the present bottom level of the de.
pression. Generally speaking, however, the post-glacial movements in the Test-Mon-
golian inter-mountain depressions seem to have been of a minor nature?
So far as can be judged from the more recent investigations, the
ice-time climate was slightly more humid than the present climate; and the relative
humieity of the air, especially, was very much greater than it is now. Even in the
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INTELLIGENCE TRANCATAri"."1"."
INHOOMMIRMIONIWAIIVIRIAMSOMMINIO
110.02 ( cant, d)
4
mramstram"!-----m
, 25
rematoimosonswaswarsoimaieurawnimesowar.)
STAT
at present extremely dry Gobi-satai there occurred a considerable amount of glacia-
tion in some localities, as for instance on the Ourban-bogdo and the Gurban-sajchan.
The rivers carried more water, and the procesteti.of erosion and washout were more
forceful. Glaciers in the 'Mongolian Altat attained lengths up to 140 km. and, in
some instances, a thickness of 500 mil (cf. No06I). 'The West-Mongolian Altai, espe-
cially, exhibitsipronounced.glac#1. reforming of surfaces. In the Changhai it was
:the top of the: northern.ko0e where the glaciation was Most powerful; and likewise
in tho.Kenai, where the snoW.liaiit probably was somewhere between 1900 and 2000 %.,
have been found, according to the Mom recent reports of Mongolian,investigators
(No.64). considerable, traces of glaciation. 4cCordifir to Murtsaev (No. 25, p0202 ff.)
'it would be premature to. compare the inStances of glaciation in Mongolia, and those
of Inner-Lsia.in :Orieral? to those of more.fully.known areas such as the Alps, as
did, for instance, ikatchanov,'Granb, Berkey,. and Morris. It seems assured, however,
that there were two .periods of glaciation, former covering very much more ground
han the second, Ivanov(No01)cOunt.s three glaciation periods in the northeastern
art of the Mongolian Altai, and he attempts to connect them with different phases
of
gi
uplift It has not been ponible, so far, to demonstrate that there were several
aciation periods in the Gobi-Altai due to the fact that glacial deposits there
hay
e not been found extant with sufficient completeness. The amount of present gla-
ciation is very slight, and is limited essentia4y, to thc northwestern mountain
frame (Tabun-bogdo, Munch-casatu, Charchira, etc.). The biggest ice current of the
Kong
dimen
liar Altai (the .lotanin Glacier) is 20 km. in length. A snow field, of small
sions, is to be found; in the Changai only on the 0tchon-t6ngri, whose summit
has an
the Ke
elevation of 4031 m. Neither glaciers nor perpetual snow are to be found in
ntai0
the sec
Recent researches have rendered evident that there occurred during
ond half of the mesotoic period t modification of the climate in the direction
of mere
humid pe
the uppe
press ions
ased dryness; but there was alternation of relatively 'dry and relatively
nods. Studies made by Russian palaeontolorists have shown that durf.ng
.cretaceous period a fair abundance of watei'was to he found in the de-
? Durinr- the tertiary periods, owever the dryness
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-INTELLIGENCE TRAN SLAT
0110118010.101.0041101111010006014.11//
,
rireeMinr
STAT
very much more prenounced.'Ihe question, of .the studied
above all by F.K.Morriss N.Hbrner? Chen, Orili .7.1.POI7nav (cf. No.50 and 59). Dur-
, particulailys
int the early part of the post-lacial period, he aridity of t4s region became ab-
rivt4r i.ntensified a fact that can be clearly discerned, amonr other thinvAs in
the, net of water Courses: the lakes becane smallex, the rivers were choked off, and
the desert areas spread onto .These developments were ore strongly .accentuated here
than in the eastern or the northern areas. There is difference of opinions also with
respect to Mongolia, concerning the assumed recent spread.. of. aridity. in the terri-
torics of'Central4ia. BergOurtsaeve's and other investigators point out that
the assumptions in favor of such inert se of Aridity are very unreliable,and'Are to
some .extent based on unverifiable .information furnished by native residents; and
the assertion that an.increase.of the salt content of the lakes has been?demonstrated
is taken by these ,authors,as still unproven, since they consider that many of the
samples had been taken under unequal conclitionsvi.et4n some instances near shores
in other from .the riddle of the lake and also during different seasons of the year,
Yithout,making.allowances in the conclusions* for these highly essential differences.
Aurtsam also declines to accept tka contentions to the effect that recent cropping
out of the Central-;Asiatic.mountain.ranges.mmst have accelerated the increase of
aridity; and he considers that those uprisings were too slight to have produced the
Although
results in question? K0K0 Markus shares with Murtsaev the opinion that the post-
glacial change of climate in the.directiomtoward'int,ensifie0 aridity there is no
definite proof of a recent drying...out period, and that in fact's any such assumption
had been disproven by recent results of investigation, ,.The.same as de Terra did
respect to other Central-hsiatic territories) YIursaev believes that the heavy
spread of deposits of rounded material must be held rfasponsible for the lowering of
the ground.auater level and for the dying out of the lower course of some of the
rivers. Moreover, during :historic times man has in a number of localities caused
changes to arise as result of irrigation woAsi chailm that ,qight be erroneously
ascribed to climatic conditions-. 1.M. KrastheniTatilicqr ,ard other botanists hold the
opinion that historic anal;ysis of the developpient.P4 te41.9rof-the areas in
Question (e.g along the northern edge ofrke Gobi) does not in any way indicate ,
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iyittraTaTerarifrotr,-e-t."---
Pe 202: (contld) ?
a modification of the climate, durinF histortp, times in the direction of increased
Junatov
aridity. Similar conclusions were reached also .by the botanist A.A. intitsxx(Yuna-
tov ?) (No052055). AccOrdina tP him the maximuni.of, 4e4ccal4on and desert formation
dates back several thousand years, as shown, along other, things, by increased renova-
tion of forest growth in northeastern Mongolia, by the advance of forest growth into
the steppe areas, and by extant remnants of polyhedrons of desert land with desert
RMilETARN?""""'"
27
STAT
"varniSh"? in the thin
Pa Re 20
The marginal mountain ranges catch the moisture.; and an annual preci-
pitatipn of 2.503001-,mm .such. as is the average in some areas i is receive& .
only in.those.?marginal 4reas'of'YfongoliaMliell..are located in the vicinityof these
. . the suminEr monSbon6:Oflaat4sia
mountains, Jr discussing titax4iAls64nniAdmiuno0Octompi (N0.49) Haude finally pro-
ceeds to :comment on his observations inAoftgOlia and is earlier'phlicationsoand.
thus:also:the precipitation rerime of '11.eterr.l.tortes in question. 'Observations
ex's of soil of grass-eovereOlOmaps of et142? Central Gobi,
made .as eari;i:as the suriiner'of 1927 in the .eastern steppe zone of the Gobi had shown
thLt thcre zit any rate, the mechanism n of 'the summer monsoon is of a type that pro-
ceeds in individUal, separate thrusts, so that there is no occasion whatever to speak
? "rain-bearing!, ?
of a continuouslxixdonximAtrnonsooll current, Oen at that early time there was
an impression that tin the lore deeply penetrating humid "monsoon current in vicini-
ty of the giound" should .be ed.as.due to disturbances of the general circula-
tion. he kite ascents effected ?in later 'pars made it
possIlle to clear up
some
of. the partial It' found4hat ppOrly all of the *ciAtatien of
sumer rain in the'eOtern Gobi .1Wa&. with
air after dgys of heavy ra4iation combined with hi0,0ay-tl.me minjAmtemperatures."
The cold masses Of'airOther come in froM northein Sibiria, lavedV:the
Polar front, or else from the western Maigiiial areas of the Pacific Ocean. At all
events, these summer precipitations occur in connection with the passage of cold.
fronts .2ut in lotion when they eptered the. precincts of a frontal. zone. A prerequi-
site of ,any Sort of heavy rainfall tar .in the areas #1jciuestl..en-is the presence of
sufficient water vapor in Vie atmosphere, and there must be, especially, 0449*.t
vertical MoveMent.elso t 'lis:her altitudes, bo as tO7prOdudethe pOcessary, Moisture
lability in the structure of the atmosphere. . The ,humid masses Of a# move in chief-
ly from the south and southeast and, at the higher altitudes, also from the west,
ACSI FORM
FEB, 56
laroftwitarii!imik.
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"
1 I
INTELMCE SLATIO
EaLlal (contld)
STAT
The requisite amount og, vortical moVeMe# 'it' dependent upon development of a frontal
zone. 1,10bservationt in the eastern Gobi lead to the conclusion that at least the.
instances of heavy rainfall there occur times'when'the frontal zone recedes toward
the south, so that there will. be an inflow of air of a relatively lower temperature
These. pmcipitations. occur fol colbination with -strong vertical movements and tftunder-
storms?-ald are strorgly indicative of phenomena ofliUbversion following ,a. state of
lability" In the event of .a douthward.shift of the frontal- zone, therefore, and
upon an ;.ilvasion of relatively cold air,' they are classifiable as "instability" rains
All of the climatolo-ical studies puhliShed-so far suffer from a
lack. of reliable and sufficiently extensive 'data; and at the present time conditions
are still unfavorable to. investigations of this typei although during the last 15
Page 2OL:
, ?
years a:numbci.of metcorological.Stations were established botb in Outer and Inner
Aongolia so that Ithas' been possible noW to obtain a Considerable anoint of in-
formation based on systematic observations, or else 'to prove -or disprove some of
the older opin:l!ons. More or less casual m'eteoroloi!ical observ4ions coveriing short
periods of .time are of slight significance especially in such strongly continental
areas asAonpolia; and ti recent Obserrations have shown, for-nstance, that in
'has
successive years the precipitation in places like illintor varied from 137 mm to
331 mm., but tt,Kobdo, for insta.nce from 178 maft$ to 68N0h. 'ecent studies (A. A.
.Kaminsay et cl.) have as shcvn-by Aurtsaev in his treatise, 'demonstrated the cor-
rectness of laude's view thLt to far as longolia concerned there is no contiauous
rain-bearinr sulmers.morsoon current. Ihe'so-called lionsooh.trends" are during the
sumer nonths less pronounced than the northerly and 'westerlyWinds4
Responsibility for chan-es Of weather and for stilmer precipitation is
no
ascribable first and above al to the monsoon-.circulatiOn but 'to cyclones whose paths
. etc. -
usually lie north,of:the TannuOlal Aticcordinr-,to'recent investigations P811,n
are strongly developed epsecially in the vicinity of Kobdo. In that be lity
it ,!as possible to observe during'a twelve-hoti.peried tithe winter temperature
increases .of nom, than .23? and a correspordingly reat decline of the relative -hu-
midity.. The driest of the deserts are probably. those of Innter tiOngolia,.1:there along
the lower Edsin-gol for instance, the average: annual precipitation is very likely
not More than 25 mM. The extremely pronounced colitinental nature of the climate, the
ACSI FORM
8 FEB. 56
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? It
, I
I NTECErGiirerehte
N
( cant d)
0111011411,WOMINOMMOOMMWAI
,? 1,
29
wimerareserimmomovassig;wassommemimplarimal
STAT
extremely cold winter (absolute minima at UlanwDator, Kobdo, Etc(' 447 to pi 480 Co),
and the very thin cover of winter snow bring it about that in, Aongolia perpetual
frost on the ground extends farther south than elsewhere. The southern limit of
netuai frdzen rround probably runs from Chubsu.;gul across the northern Changai,
and tb.en south from Ulan-liator and the Kerulen to the SMon i'llunku-chan, and finally
northeastward as far as the Buiroinur. Similar4r the northernmost dry desert of the
globe .is probc:.:.bly located in gongolia, .in the western part; in the depression of the
"Gret.4.t. Lakes," i.e. .approvimately at 500 northern lattavie. The most recent investi-
gations .have shown, however, that in Outer4viongo,lian territory the Gobi is, for the
gr cater part not .a desert, but is characterized primarily by desert-steppes and
semi-deserts, Very stronply desert-like is the 'Tvmstiltai Gobi, "hich has the dis-
tinguishin4z traits of a pebble desert. The nature of its soils I,:fas previously re-
ferred to? in the Sectior clealinp T;ith maps.. In the Mongolian, and to extent also
the Gobi Altai, the chestnut-colored soils predominate. In the territories of the
ell-deserts predominance c!oef.-) to brown carbonate soils with little humus, the
lonets-type of soils 9 takyr tracts, and sands. The sand areas am, in most instan-
05:
s not of very large extent. The largest of them are those of the l'Great Lakes"
so
Pa e 2
cc
depression, cover a maximum of i1,000 sq. km., wile only two of the sand areas
SO
Par discovered, in the Gobi cover an area of more than 1,000 spekrut Piled-up-sand
area
bare
are
s of 23 mo diameter are er very frequent occurrence in the Gobi. Chains of
_tans (crit-.shad dunes) are relatively rare. In many inFta.nces the sands
1?,
el.d. in position y 'plant g,rbwIths.
The raters of ???11,-.1?golia :have i.),ot yet been intigatecl very much.
the large lakes the Ubs, the Cliirris, and' the .)rok?onur are salt lakes, ile
'nom-
the Ch
dosu, Chara-ussu, 6.11d the Durga-mr are sweet -Water lakes. Of the Edsin-gol
terminal lakes the Gaschun is salty, and the F.';ogo has wet Water. The -..latershed
divides Lre in many lustances very va.;7.uely defined Most of he valleys consist
of re valley stretches of unequal age. The rivers ire ice-covered 'throughout many
months of
? -'hia wa
the year, and some of them freeze all the way down to the bottom. The
Jen, of the summer come in sudden spurts, and they are heavier than the
high water
,ACSI FORM
8 FEB. 56
13
flcr of the spring season. Taken all in all there are 'great variations
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. . ....., ' .41.1, ...I 'I. ?????,,....', .k. e. ?1?1111.,i 1 ,.. NO. 4...6.01,I,0 0 .
I I I .
I ? . ,
IffELLIGENCE-itiANSLATIOV
.,
ralCIUSTA"'
30
1.2E1911 (contld) STAT
in the amount of water Carried. In, some localities the rivers. are of importance for
irrigation. Alt the presOnt.time.,ihere, is no. noticeable decline Of :the water .net
in longolia. .14ring the suMmer months steamers truvel on the Belenga as far as
Suche.Bator, and on. the Cilubsu-gul between Changa.and Chadchal. As to the rest,
the rivers and ?bodies of water are of no importance for shipping, though in many,
localities they have importance for fishing. The salt lakes are in some localities
exploited for the production of salt..
. A brief report concerning the. vegetatimwas inclUded.under.Section I;
in connection with comment, upon the more recent general and special treatises. It
should. be.emphasii.;ed.once lore at this point that in the northern marginal areas
there occurs a:transition from the mountain forests of the Sibiro-MOngolian border
liountains to the steppeoan4 desert steppes of. the Gobi. In tile interior of hast-
Aongolia a, meager type of ikrtemisia steppe predominates; which, however; also pre-
vails to some extent in the east, i.e. in the western Barge.. is core region of
the desert steppe is surrounded, in conse'Oence of the ;Teter amounts of precipita-
tion; by a. steppe. zont.'of stipa and festuca species which due to round water
obtained inyells,-and due to the presence of slif.7htly salty lakes that are periodi-
cally or at least occasionally filled with water furnish a basis for the nomadic
pasture econov of the Oongolians. (ohcrecteristic for the barchans of northeastern
Aonp.olia (i.e. the foreland of the middle raires of the Great Chingan)are groves
and thin. forests of pine (pinus silvestris L. var monplica Litw ) Viose ecoloitical
requirements have been studied; above all; by Pladischke (No. 30) and Fochler.Hauke
(No. 15). :,owhere in this region do the pine trees grow and solidly packed old
Page 206:
sands or'on solid rock
The fact that they are tied to dunes and recent sand drifts
is no doubt ascribable t the particularly favorable conditions of the location, i.e.
relatively good storage of ground water combined With relatively slight evaporation,
as might be expected in view of the re dy seeping of water t'..)rough the,rehtively
loose sands. The more closely crowded together the dunes are; the denser will usual.
1;y be the pine groves, and vice versa. Pine groves often are encountered where wind.
blown 6-ands are piled up on otherieise treeless slopes of steppe land. Pine growths
are being crowded out considerably in the Barga as result of human interference, e.g.
bunters for ifro,ind hog and Chinese mushroom gatherers 'who cut down the ummi trees for
ACS1 FORM
3 FEB. 56
r)
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ovgf141GENCE TRANScrIO
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/10/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500210003-4
INTELLIGEN E
(cmt
firewood, or else chopped down by the native Tunpusians
?The most importent of the recent studies on 'the reorraphy of plant.
life in Outer ilongolia were contributed by A.A Junatov'(tunatov) (No.52.55), on
which to some extent kliirtsaev also depended in determining the kb: divisions of his
"natural districts." The mountain-forest stepp, (i'lich corresponds to the same type
of formation in Trans-ai4alia particularly Tdde-spread in the Changat and Kental
areas, where it is of economic 'importance;. Aonpo4an Altai this type of
formation occurs .only in narm.strip islands. Of significance as a transition zone
to the Gobi is the. so.called high steppe zone, the latter bcing the main pasture 1 n4
of the Mongolians. 'According to Yunatov there exist in Outer illongolia appr. 2,000
species of plants0 Most numbrously represented are, as a rule, the boreal and the
Sibirian, species, with only a small.number (640%) endemic species. ecent studies
.older .
corfirm the established views accordinF 'to which the desert.steppe flora consists
chiefly of xerophi desc'endants of Alpine- and sUb.Alpine complexes. Yunatov and
V.I. Gr?uloov divide te pint.life of Outer gongolia into 16 flora.districts, The
total forest area of Outer Pionrolia 'proi)aky covers an area of appr. 112,000 sq.km.,
over 7% of the territory of the Aongoiian People's IlepUblic.
There is a great alount of mutual penetration of fenetically discrepc
ant typos of flora and fauna, i.e. the northern (Sibirian and Altaic) elements pene.
trate, ithin the mountain areas, far into the south. Lccording to sober* (Ku-
cheruk ?) and other' investigators (cf. No 51 p. 310fft), the steppe fauna consists
in the main. of.endenic Aongolian elements while the forest aaimals are of relatively
recent date and conform to the neighboring Sibirian-Tralailklian species..
IiISTORY? POPULATION, AND COLONIZATION
Die GoIdene Horde (The Golden
Uorde). (In: Geschich*e der Vblker der Sowjetunion Vol. 1, Ljasel 1945 if,
In: Grosse ? Vblkerkunde, Vol. II
68. Bosshard Ktihles Crasland.i4ongolia (COO. rassland :longolia). Berlin, 1938.
Ner:= Ed. Zurich 1910. 217 pp., 2 saps. Illustrations.
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10,
INIONOWM11101110111?114111111101411101411001111111
?lain (conttd).
69. Buryat-Mongoliya I'arsunder Rae 'Collected 1947
(itussian).
70. Christensen, H ? t Zajagar.. Stuttcart.19380
71. DaXridovichl:D.A.: Colonitation in. Aanthuria and 'Northeast Mongolia, p01. by
thenEast-Institute." Aosow 1937 (Russian)a
72. Eberhard, Ifiultur404 Siedlung der Randvo*pr.Chinas Culture and be#lemcnt
ofyie.MarOlal Poples of thina).Jeiden 1942..
734 Elck6te#:, E. v,: gassendynamik voOsta6ien, Chl.na.und 4pan, Tat ,und cmer vonx
Oer;UrzeitlAs heute (Dynamics of thc.Races of East-Asia, China and Japan, Ti
and, CaMbOdia,. from.the-Primit#6 Tipes up to tIle ?resent). Berlin 1944.
111. Ekvall, 4.1.ations on, the Kansu-Tibet. Border. XIII and 87 pp.
Chicago. 1939 Univbrsity of UhicappTress.
75. Fociller-Hauke,'G.: Starke. und 8chwiiche'der movolischen Steppennomaden (.5trength
ard Weaknes of the l'orgOlian 4eppe Nomads). In: Die gandsoburei? qeidelberg
1941,161ff ).
76. Fox, 'R.: Chengis Khan. New .Lark 1936. XIII and. 285,pp. (Lnrlish.)
77. Fulonggha:,Yeghe:Mongol-on:Yuwan:Olos-an..Sodor (tiistory .of the Great gongol
Yuan 1,1ati.on).:Kalp;an 1936, Chahar Mongol Library. XX and 245 pp. .
78. Glpsmapp, JL v.; Der BU4d4snus in der KriSe der.Gegemiart4D sn in the
Crisis of the resent lira) (Scieoulum TV, H 'Frcibuxig im Dreisgau 1953.)
PA
STAT
790
Grousset,jt.: LIEopire deeteppes.*Pari0 191,1 (French). .
81. Haenlsoh, E.: Dip Xu1turpoli4k des longoliscben"eltreiches-(The, Cultural
Policy. of Vie Aon olian.7orld.'Empire) (Vortrare und Schriften der nmeu8sischen
kkadenie der qissenschaften:17, BerXin 19)130
82. Hae nisch, E., and H. N. Sthaefer(Editors):.Das Monrolische ''eltreich r(The
llongolian %orld Empire 1). (ruellen nd 4r4hunen? Leipzig 19 1.)
83. Haeni eh, 0: Mbnrbol un niuca tobcalan? 1..(extrekonstruktion. (The secret his-
tory of th!AiloTwols? translated by E. Haenisch). 2nd hd. Leipzig 1948. (For
revie cf. aeculum 1952 H. 2, p4.2190'
84.. Heissig? 1,: Die Aongolischeechichtsschreibuntt im 18. und 19. Jh. (Mongolian
qlstoricai ';ritings dun* the 18th and 19th Cent. .(baeculuM 1952, 11.21 p.218
,renard? F.: Geng,this-Khan. Paris 1935. 206 pp. (French.)
ACSI FORM
8 FEB 56
AmaimesisagerearWinuormasserimis
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(CONTINUATION SHEET)
rr%no?r. e.1 I $j"
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. ? ?' ? a. 1,, ? ?I :` "
?
NTELtigiNtrgi n'r.Atblr""""4"1"li"."if
Eme.21211( co nt ' d)
85. Heissig,'W.t Die Pekinger lamairtischen Blcokdrucke in moni:olischer Sprache
(The Peking Lamal.stic l3lock Printsin tile,&ongolian Language). (90ttinger
Asiatische Forschungen, Vol. 2, Aesbaden 19511. 250 pp., Table).
66. Herrmann, A.: Landbeziehungen zwischen Orient land China (Inland Aelations betweem
tl%e Oriet aid China. ( osthumous Aanuscripto)
87 YakUb+ A. and B.D. Grekov: The Golden Horde. Leninprad 1937. (Russian.)
80. Koirninp Noll.: K voprosu o turetskopp-rrionolskom reocitilifra (Op t1-.1e Question of
l.rurco..,Monp,plian ,Feodalism) ? LeTrill rrol..Irktrtsk 1931! (Aussian).
89. Kudr,antsev, .F.A.: Istoriya Buryat.dorigolskogy Naroda (History of t'le uryat-
lo-p,olian Nation). Moscow 1914.0 ("ussian).
90. Lattimore Inner. Lsian, erontiers of China. (itmer.GcoPy.Soc., Res.Leries 21,
XXIII and '585 Pp., .11 laps, i;ew York, 19140 (onglish).
91.
011 WI
The Aonp:ols of Aancuria: Their Triaal Oivisions, geovraphical distribution
Ustorica re1tion8 andlus.and Chinese, and present political problems,
NCF ',fork 193)j. 311 pp., taps, and Bih1ioi';ra9hy (Enfaish).
92. Leimbach, W.: Die SOwjetunion. btuttreart 1950. 163 ff;, 171;0 191 if., 2060
93. Levine, J.: Le Mongolie: Historique Vograpl-ique, politicue. Paris 1937.
252 pp., Maps (Freach).
A. McGovern, U.M.: The Larly LMpire of Central Asia. ChApel Hill 1939, X
pp., Maps, Bibliography (Lnglish).
P :e208: .
9 ? gontell, G.: Durch die Steppen der Mongolei (Ishrowh. the Steppes of n:!olia).
btuttgart 19380 176 pp.
960 itiasanovsicy, V.A.: Fundaenta1 PrisLciples of longol L. Tientsin 1937 ("ngl.).
97. Schwind, H.: Die Goldene Horde (The Ciolden Horde). A co-tribution to historical
geography. (Geogr.Halvetica, IT? l, Zffrich 1952, 350 ff
980 Spuler, B.: Die Aongolen in Iran (The Mongolians in Iran). Leipzig 1939.
990 Die Goldene Ante. Die Mongoleri in Austland (ihe Golden Horde. The Mon-
Holians i i ussia)(1223-1502). Leipzig 19430 556 pp. 2 Maps.
100. VladimiroV B. Ya.: Die Gesellschartacninung der Mongolen (The 3ocia1 Order of
the nongdlians). 223 pp. (Aussian0) Translation Viadimirov, V.Y.: Ie regime
social des Kongols. Paris 19116 (4ench.)
ACS1 FORM
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MOM,
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II
INTE11SWO
Page 208: (cont'd).
.101: *ikon C0C : Jenghis Khan. (London 1939, English.)
102: Yana Jinichi: Kindai miloshiKenkylt (Studies on Recent Aongolian Histo
Edition Too 1940 (Japanese).*
103: Duman, L.I : The Agrarian Policy of the Ch'ing Dynasty in Sinkiang toward. the
? Close of the XVIIth Cent. Ioscow-Lenint!rad 1936, Acadely of Science, 256 pp.
(Russian).
1..
,
STAT
3rd
The studies by 'Eberhard (NOON 'and Eicksterit (N0073) throw light also
.
on the lip,rations of the steppe.popAv.tions .n the Mongolican Central.Asiatic areas,
as well as important political-historical implications. Particularly. meritorious is
)I,
the translation? .with comment, of the "secret history of the Aongols kdating back
to the 13th century). by Haenisch (No.83). This. history reveals the. side-by-side
existence of tribes living on the forest-steppes, hunter stems, and cattle-raising
nomads. hissig (No.8)4) has made an important contribution dealing with methods and
aims of lonfjoliar Mstoric writin(s of recent times,.a contribution which, like that
lade byllaeni ch, is 11 thu. more valuable because up to that time little was known,
in the es em countries conccrning the historic Nrifins of Abncolians. An account
of leendary. history cov? rinc the times before Genghis Khan is prefixed to a History
-01,6077) H
of lorroliall)laned.at th:J. :time and written.durirr the Japanese occupation by a
Tschahar (Uhahar?) scholar, to a considerable extcnt primarqy on the basis of. Chi-
nese Sources; and this legendary account is .followed by aAreatibe on.GhenAs Khan
and his descent, which takes up more.than half Of the volume. Relatively short
capters are devoted to the reigns of Ogodai, .Gujak, and. Aanglai. Many of the geo-
grahie names mentioed.are citcd.both,'in longolian.and Chinese, in this -manner fa-
cilitatin.orientation, The most important Of-the.dates are according to the
sternscalendar as well as in terms of, Tibetongolian animal and color Odle. The
account 'given brings out clealy the different phases of the Mongol conquest of China
and also the differences of pollcy.adopted by the con(ueror in dealing with the forme
:Aancliu Oyilasty .(china) nosrth of toe i.luan00-and the ?1110,. of Central C4na.0 Concernil
the hip'nly controversial lepitirnacy of the birth of Dschotschi (Dchotchi?), the older
motherls
son of Ghengis Khon's wife, the book defendr the honor, who, as the book states, did
Pare 209:
.........
not have intimate relations thirini7 her captivity with her abductor. This emphasis
Of1 t.1C older son's lecitimacy is all t: e dore Forth noting since generally
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r
oh, '4 .41 ,t I..., .11 t 011'00?I .
"NE' 1.17VedirrINN. " Atii7aga".*".";1 1;144.111118111.
EN/LEL (contid)
view of the large nui0er of *then cuStomary, abductions, of this sort
serroplasposmiramosarompirowalammoroWiesposa
STAT
-- no prticular
importance was, attached .to the, question, of IefAtimaCyr provided that the on of
did H H .
doubtful descent ltstri his part in p::uardinv.the hevls and participating in the i!tar-
1
like enter,rises of tile lather's rie.'iltful husband. It is in oustanding ,chaiacteri
tic oi: these 'historical acco.:nts that they cloriti the past of the Mongolians, a
trait generally encountered in lonp:olian historic writings.
intoresting,'account -- though at some points it is not dependable
ard is based excl.,-,sively on the older and ? on oile-$ided sources -- of the lpforld em-
pire founded., by Ohengis Khan is tqc treatise , by Fox (No.76), 'fienich fuznishes a vivid
picture of V e interm,inglin and side-bp;sidc of warfare for booty ar:d iron measures
of pacification, dissolution of tribes and fop:lac:ling of a world power, local Unrest
and protection of traffic .routes across the whole continent. .Like L. luntington and
lackinder, Fox. rec.Orni0e6 the key riote of Asiatic Astory in the ceaselss strife
bc.,4-ween the herdsmen of the pasture lands... and the agricultural peasants. ccording
to Fox ti.c? conquest of China was brow:tt on by the increasing anarchy in.th.-.t count
and by the compelling, necessity of supplementing the products of a nomad econav
with those of a settled population. .ffe:.states thzt the pease which .the, nomads en-
forced in Central, and Licstern Asia made possible, thatirip.. the U?th rid 13th Centuries,
t.
a commercial.eycliange. vtmeen China and the -est ,such as in sonic respects bor./rvile
characteristics of a world commerce. This commerce, he s ys,. contributed 'toward
establi6hing. in Europe an .influential and wealthy commercial community, and in this
iianner likev-ise. toward ? the indeliendence . of the cities and the dissolution of the
. this
faiadal structure, while in China Ida exchan, e of goods and ideas, though unquestion-
ably Of iMportance,' failed to exert an influenOe upon the social Order. ,The novelty
of Foxos work must be seen in his effort tio.br:InF the ilongolian -.qorld. empire iliore
closely than h(,:rotofore into the developments. of t' arid history in general.
Of importance are also some ,of the 'other recent studies devoted to
the, :Iongolian e:npire and to Gheng,is Khan in particular, e.g. the ,f.t.mport nt, earlier
.book by 'B. Ya..Vlaclimirov G.ends nano .loscow l922 English 'Translation by L.S.
London 19.30); zind there :are alsb . the studies .by Grenard (No.79) and .q1a,lker
101).. 0 ''La..tiimore..has given detai3;ec.I critical discussions of these books
(Pacific liffai
ACSI FORM
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37, P. 46e:, if., and 1914O ,'p. '222 ff.)
discussions which must
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acisnommisraomilwiriporrommemnouswasesammosio
GE
I
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likewise be regarded as impdrtant contribution on,theabOjecto
? The boO101y ialketi.a?Canadian officer, concerns' itself p4mari1y
with the campaigns of Ghengishan,:whose successes were due largely to a combinauui
tion of great .mobilitSi. and strict discipline,.. to the .use of skilled reconnais.
same agents, methods generally familiar in those days in steppe warfare. GhenF.is
Khan exibited 4 particularly?hih degree of skill, however, in adapting this mode
of.warfare to conditions in ..agricultural countries that were 'being defended from
walled cities0.Wheilevcr,necessary he made use,in his sieges, of the science of
Chinese phd Pemianjortifl.aation engineersi'and he never subordinated his strategic
aims to the requirements of siege tactics. But ,Ohengis Khan leigS by no means merely
a l'warrior.of the steppes.:" his personality is explicable only in terms of a complex
interplay of 'forces and experience derived from nomadic, semi-nomadic, and ext-nomadie
elements with elements derived from habits such as ro vith a settled lode of
life.
The laps. that accompany Wrilkerts treatise furnish rat:6y insight into the military
and geographic problems vhich
they Great than had to contend,
? Grenard lakes it plain that Ghengis Khan was not a phenomenon sui.
generis, but .Only the mostontstanding of his kind in the nomadic life of Asia. It
was only .graduallyi b;',r .dint of intelligence and loyalty towari. the minor tribal ,
chiefs of the much .fragmented.,14orgolian .race, that he ,Was able to bring the Mongoli-
ans together in large roup associations and to obligate. Capable military leaders
permanently to his service.
? Due to .his. energy. and diOcipline, qualities he was able
to impart to .his generals and descendants', the precipitously advancing Mongolians
were not merely a' series of ungoverned kisintles, as has been insisted se frequently,.
but) all, excesses not+itis...ba.n.ding,. a well-ordered and ri idly controlled army... No
other assumption .0ould Make it seem reasonable that Snbutai, with only 30,000 warri-
ors, should have been able to advance through the entire continent as far as Silesia.
Like other "barbarian" arny leaders before and after hint he understood that it was,
desirable to govern the conquered arricultural em4res from a distance, so as to
avoid the daner of assimilation. . Lattimore is comet in pointing out that Grenard,
in his excellent Trorks, does not sufficiently bring out the fact that. the Aongolians,
like other nations of the stec;pes, did not have by any means an exclusively noraadic
econow arc) mode of living,' but :that to gbme .extent and at different, times, hunting
ACSI FORM
8 FEB. 56
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""illitalGfNCE IRAN LA 11 s
EtE23,14....:.( cot tad)
an.d agriculture were of some importance and that, above all, the 'economic resources
? LA
derived from .her4inr activities were being s.upplemented by tolimerce raids, and
subsidies paid by threatened or. subjected agricultural areas? hen Ghengis Khan be.
gan to lay the foundation of the world empire, liorth-China was to some extent under
the domination of the, Menc.nirian Yw-Plen?dynasty of :the Chins, whose rulers forced
Page 211: ? " ?. * ? ?
subsidies from the. Chinese Sung, uynasty in the 'South, while at the same tine mc ing
themselves such payments to the Mongolian tribes of East-Mongolia so as to maintain ?
peace in these' exposed border areas. .The western part of Aongolia was ruled ,by a .
Turco-Mongolian. federation. Ghezigis Khanowas .at first operating between these two
lain forces and then del'Onstrated the F,4iiiity to exploit for his min benefit not only
the force of 'the strictly nomadic tribe, but also that of the border tribes, who
were more strongly exposed to the influence of the agricultural civilization of
China and Persia? In essence, therefore, the conquests of Gheng;ts Khan were in part
the result also .of his clever policy of exploiting, in a competent manner, the exist-
ing social and .eitienom' ic and political conditions. prevailing within his ?ken, a ?policy
such as was pursued later also by Nurhatsi, 'the, great unifier among the Manchus?
Haenisch (No.81,02) and Grousset .(No.80). deal frptri new points of view
. ? ? , other .
with the organization and structure of the ?gongolian Empire. . Unlilp most founders
of great .crirpirerP tlle ? Mongolians failed to. develop any culturally creative 'forces,
they failed to create a iculture" in thenarrower sense of the tern. Irhey did
succeed however, maintaining; themselves none ? the lets as .a "nation," i.e. as
a ?self-conscio:s ethnic body, wOen-the unified stfqtes created by them had fallen
own
?
apa.rto. .They mace up for the lack Of artisans Of their sam by using Chinese and Tur-
,kestm..-i-1.:estrilsiatic. artisans; and. they Obligated Turkestan and Chinese experts to
offset the lack .o.f officials to govern the vast empire, and to maintain the commercial
and clerical personnel required to keep the highly complex economic mechanism func-
tioning. Tolerance was practiced' with respect to the various religious coanunities;
and finally even the spread of conl'usi.anism was encouraged, ,because its was recog-
nized to he effective as a force supporting the Statee
i!or similar utilitarian
reasons the gongolian C;overnment also encouraged the studies pursued by iesteni
merchants and mission scholars
nized
92,
A small conservative stratum of the population recog-
ellaracteristie
cix Or,30402140114grgn traita
angers implicit in thils attitude
an
4
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1
(cpntid)
thus for the strength of tie )1origoliaii, State; and these 'iroUp.s occasionally .incited
the population toward destruction ef'grevt.massea 6f Chinese resident's. Before very
however, Chinese had, acquired such powerful influence that finally
Kublai Chan himself became one of its great promoters.
FrgiliMell"?"""
38
Prom.,:mmiessaara;teriarsarimaxor
STAT
1 Schwind (Mo.97) concerns h5.mse3? in his historico-reorraphic study wit
the (Teat treatise by SpUlei? (110.99) on t7.1p subject of the "Golden gorde,lit, a treatise
based on exploitation. e a number of. importatit Slavic, East-Roman, and Soutivestern-
.tisiatic sources; and for purposes of comparison he also draws upon a number of more
or less recent .AuSsian publication.s..(No 6.6,,lio.87). It was not until quite recentl,y
that any large amount of attention was.deiroixid, to this important part of the area
under Mongolian power. ? Ohenic.;is rlan turned over to his oldest son the Kypak, i.e.
Pane 212:
? . - ? ? ?
the country .of :the .o.caUed "Gol.dep...tiot0?":4.territork which ?extended eastward as
far as Lake iqoal and included the important oasis city of Choresm. In the south it
lar7e1y extended to the upper course of the Kura and in part also the Terek
Further?vest it reached. t. he ilPrt.herz-, shore of the Black tiea, although the extent of
this dora4in?was.highly variable in the. northYtiest and north. Podolia was included
for a tine; and in, the north the boundary line probably followed the watershed divide
between. the Volga and the Dvina Avers The center of. this ,:i.f7anti.6 domain of appr,
sq.ka. was the capital city of Sarai, fo nded by; Batu, which had orip.inal-
iy been l'aobile,. in?the form of a tent city 7.-?rouped argund. the Old-plated tent of
state inhzbited by the ruler (ordt aurea he,ce "(1.)o1iclen.!forde",).. For .compelling
reasons this city ,of tents was. later changed into a city of solid houses; but in this
connection the location of .:;arai was shifted froM its raobile location (several days'
journey *above, the Mouth of tie Volta) to the 'vicinity of the bend of the Volga, a
point afforanti better control over the great trade routes to. Kiev and the Urir' nea.
The sane location is at present. occupied by the city of Tsareva..,
This city was inhabited ,by a population of rigidly defined social
strata and composed of highly varied ethnic elements (apart from the Tatar city it-
self there, were the city quarters for Russians, Circas4ans, Byant1nes, and so forth
E7'cavations have ftirnishcd..evidence of the .imposing dimensions of Vie cities public
v
squares, streets, mosques, ev..TIC1 baths; 'end the populatico in 1333 is reported to have
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' 39
STAT
MaIMPUM1171111101111111011111111
been not less 200,000. The population throughout the .11ptak,was very :Auch di-
versified. ethnically; but !TaduaAy the principal iacial.contiitgente came to be
quite closely 141termingled espe..cialy the Aavoliati o'nd Turkish groups of the Chan
with the Turkish grOnps previously nttled there, thus, producing the Tatar elements,
who f1al1y embraced the.reliAon of the Ilam. As a result' Islamic-Oriental cul-
tural ele:ments have been of importance to this day from Kazan to the, Imea and all
the way to Tannu-Tuva. In their dealings with
of the other nationalities the
Tatars shotged%themelves very .broad-minded. They provided safety'for.the.Old-estab-
lished rout(A oT.commerce and gave'.permissiOn to the .cities .of Genoa and V. nice for
the thb1ishment.oftrandport bases (especially in .the criaiea).. New routesroUtes of com-
merce wem:ostal)lished; and. new cities were sounded notwithstanding the at first
still nomadic retods of.cattle-raisinevlOich made an expansion of aniiculture et
best a very -radual process and.notvithstanding the:nomadis.aversion to hrge-scal.e
settlements in pernanent:locations. These new cities, to be sure, were always in
a large measure.4ependent upon th? support of non.Tatar elements (e.g. Astrakhan,
BulEar)., 311e city settleinents were distinguished aionf-. other thinr,c6 by their cita-
- .
dels (Rusian;'kremli6) city 'walls, and'suMmer dwellings outside the city walls.
000000..~1.???^???
The ridc of the. Tatars, -.ich lasted until 1502 had the effect of isolatinr, the
or or loss definite
development of La tern hurope or %ore than five centuries from that of Western -
Lurope and of stimulating thE .liussians to establish. a Ti7 o rk. power of their own -
a fact tivt can found emphasized in modern Russian historical writin,,:s (No.88)0
Page 213:
Schwind supplemented his study with a map based on the work of Spuler;
and the extent of the areas cover by the IltoclOaki as well as the .m?st important of
fr .
the routes of commerCevare sham on that map.. Spuler(No.98) also has devoted a
detailed treatise to the Mongolian. rule in Iran, a re-giMe which disintegrated, sub-
sequent to the death. of Timur. Lattimore-(170099)gives.an eminentlTexpert analysis
of the historical movements of nations in themargInal regions.be.Ween Manchuria and
Tibet, basing his work on his own egkensive travels as well as upon Chinese and other
sources. Eta investigated the peo,frapqc conditions underwMch those moveMents took
place; and he cites rumerous historical examples that have a bearing:onpreseht oc-
currences and probl.ems; and in doing so he devoted special attention also to the Non-
other nat.A.onalities.
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21): (contid)
TAT
iy cultural difterentia0:on,be?reeri North China ind'Aongolia, uponAhe social and
edonomic differences and tensions between the Chinese atriculturalpeaSants and the
Aongolian tribes of the steppes., and also upori certain phases of the Iii'story.of these
tribes and the functional explanation.
Of importance, likewise, is the treatise by McGovern (N6.910, esPeci-
ally some of the chapters that afford'a good insight into the history of Mongolia;
because it is an often forgotten facttilat the steppe nations living in North China
origina4y,were hot horsemen, but presuMab3,y hunters end tillers of the soil, and
did not begin until about 1100 B.C. to take on the lode of living of cattle raising
lotInted nomads. In contrast with. Lattimore avine (No.93), in the relatively less
specific discussions contained .in his yawls, fails to become aware of the functional
relations of the.Nomolians. as a shepherd nation and their geormihic environment,
and of thelhlih.:degep:ofcomplexit of:,adminiOtrative principles in the AkingoIian
thelaneh?mule? where it became necessary to take into account
not only the tribal.otan.5.zation_Of the Mongols and the Lamaist Church, but also
the:exiedies *posed by the bhinese.Empire-Tuled over by this foreign dynasty and
the facts..arisingOut.d the Chinese relations of barter trade. &van, in his book
on cultural relations .in the Kansu-Tibet:BOrderAreas.(No070 treats along other
things of the Multiplicity of cantede? t strata between the (41iite5e: elements of the
population on one hand and the Tibetans and Mongolians on the other, and the diffi-
culty of properly recognigng the developmftnt of this process and of evaluating the
resultant forces. From the book by Duma (No0103) one can acquire a new insight into
the character of the JestYjongolian Dzungars and into the nature of theeipire ere.;
ated by them durinir the 14h century be4ween the Altai and the Tienshan, and among
other thinf:Is.also concerning policy adopted with respect to *them by the Kanchu
Dynasty. The collapse of the Dzungar elpire sire(' the middle of the 18th century
Pare 214?
bscame an occasion of? numerous tribal wars vhia were extended also into East-Mongo-
lia and made it more and more difficult for the Dzurwar rulers to utilize in their
awn behalf the economic power or the Turkestan oasis peasants without losing the
military reservoir provided by the corresponding Mongolian tribes. fAlhen'the Manchus
conquered the oases of Sinkiang they broke the backbone of the iviongol-Dzunrsr rule.
Vladimirov (ko 100) wrote:his very' valuable book on the "nomadic
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Emig!, (cant d)
feudalism" of the Mongols time years
though it was published incomplete
rketdh its contents (cf. detailed
125 if). According to Viadimie
early t:thies although the fact lust seem surprising in view of their nomadic type
of economy -- a feudal form of, organization of the social and economic relationships.
FAMITTOM7---
STAT
of the period cOvered by this report; but al
-
after his death it is desirable here briefly to
review by H. Moore in "2acific leffeirs" 1936, p.
ev there existed amone the Monrols ever since the
The author states thet although they did not have any law of landed property in the
Astern sense of the term
ilitely determined, so th
beloneed. to individual
eerson.s? ith the rese
to the will,of 'their
pasturage territory
and tribal organiz
their herds grew
the routes followed in t'eir seasonal migrations were defv
at it was a question of migrational areas that had at first
ribes .but subsequently.got under the control of individual
It that fina1y tcesUbbrdinate groups of herdsmee .were subject
"feudal lord," arid were not at liberty to move into any other
c, The same text remarks further that a break-up of the family
ation occurred ellen individual owners of herds were compelled, as
too large, to detach themselves from their own group or, in times
of danger, when the mi: or hetowners eleced themselves under the protection of the
gore powerful
analoeous to
. In this manner, we are told, there developed a hierarchy of power
that of the feudal system ever since the 11.13 centuries; and the feuda
empire of r,,heneie Khan is ttken by the same author as awing its existence in part
to the gr
cattle-
tribal
Khan
on
adual extinction of the exogamic tribal organiation of the hunting and
aising nomads0 jnd we are told further that although in that empire the
4
infleences had to some extent been still of considereble Importance L'heneis
had for military reasons relied, in many par/'of the empire, in many instance
personally obli(eted vassals as local overlords in preference to the tribal lead
er
s. According to Vledimirov the collapse of the Moneol Empire was for the above.
lentioned reasons followed by a second phase of feudalism d.rin:? .-ich it reached
its cdiminatiorip during the time from the 13 to the 17th centery, then the social
(dylEpls? common people, slaves))
hierarchy iscame to be even lore sha' ler.defined as result of numerous strueeles
alone the different ?feudal overlords' Dering this period he .oes on to say, the
Lamaistie Church attained its importance as 4 great feudal institution with spiritua
andeeorIlly paver.. Je art told further that the third phase, be inning the latter
Page 215: . ee
part of the, 17th century, merked the beeinnine decline of Aongolian feudalism, as
..........
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INTELLIGENCE T A LA ION
Pa e 2 (contld)
STAT
result of the Military inroad, coerce, and coloniving'efforts,of,stronger powers,
i.e. the Chinese and the Rustiansa. Vladimiroy's.views are based upon an extremOy
rich bibliography.;
Similar views are advocated in the book by tozmin (No.88). Lattimore
(cf. Pacific Affairs 1937, pe1.64.ff.) voices criticism against these .efforts to
make out a case for the existence of genuinely feudal conditions; and according to
him these conclusions go too far. Ire .claims that trgi main emphasis was at all times
upon the tribe not so much in a genealogical as in a political. sense, and that the
territorial Conceptions alwais remainedfsubordinate to the tribal conception. In
times (T .:Insecurity., st4es.;[4attimore the first endeavor had been to keep the tribe
together, irrespective of territorial considerations.: .4.6cording to hit view it was
only duri.nF the'? times when closely unified eniAres were formed (Mongolian,_ Chinese,
and others) that the territorial: considerations exerted a more powerful political
influence tin the tribal considerations, without ever being able *quite to overcome
the effects of the latter,
The most colprehensive account of the tribes and their subdivisions,
of the gewrapic spread, and of the historic relations between the Mongols of Man-
churi and the C'etinese the 4anchus etc .is fdrnished.by Lattimore (No.91). During
the ei.och of the Monj:o1ian-7or1d empire the spread of, the Aonpols on Manchurian ter-
ritory reached its greate t extent, subsequently shrinking together again for a
number of reasons, Still settled in the north, in the Nonni region, are rennants
of the ilephe Ainggan," who are kin to the.Oelbds and were slifted at one time
fma western Mongolia. More Important than the others are sple different tribes and
"banners" of the ittierim" 4eague, w!lich must be rcparded as the easteramosi fragments
of the Mongolian population. In Jehol the Chosoto and the Cho-ota associattons are
specially worth mentioning. As result of the rapid forward thrust of the Chinese
agricultural colonists these Manchuria Mongols have during recent. years been either
assimilated or pushed back farther and farthere May of their psroups have turned
to settled life or have gone over to a partially a,t7ricu1tura1 life. .The Mongols
living outside the Autonomous Inner Mongolia, i.e. in part. within the northeastern
provinces of China (appr.300,000) are most likely to disappear within the next few
4,
generations completely among the Chinese population,
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INTELLIGENCE 11,1iAtirMosTraw.m."7741"4-?11.""
F.
atailL(c?nt'd)
hAlmates of the nuMbor of MonFolians differ l'idely? Bleichsteiner
(No067) places their total nuMber of on3y'206 mi1lioi,Aile others arrive at a
STAT
firure of appr. million, inclusive of Kalmucks.
'the, most reasonable assumption
wOuk. seem to be that the, total is about 3. million,.ab..75% of these .bein'0, Last-Mon-
golians, whe can be subdivided further as follows:the Xhalka Aon:ols.of Outer Aon?
golia (this being the largest group); ty16.previously mentioned associations in Man-
'Page ?
'Magi the liirguts Of the?3arga; and the Challais, .Tumedsillashan.KongoisvOrdos?
etc. of Inp'erAelrolia. .M.e) who dwell chiefl in.?Pzunaria and
co' ti areas, include the'following:subdivisionsx, ramong others: purbed, Oldeds?
'ait,ALnghit, Tsakhachin, and Termd. .the latter include the Volga-Kalmucks and
those of the Autonomous Kirgbiz Republic of the boviet Union, a total of about
l3O,OOO It beeps very likely that the Volga.Kalmucks wandered away, in part, toward
the east and to sone extent were resettled?during the last war, since their autono.
lous republic has been dissolved. The North.4ongolians, or Buryats? hardly com-
prise more than aquarter of a Million; and even in the Autonomous Buryat.nongolian
Ipublic of the, Oviet Union they constitute only a minority of the population?
.Leimbach (No .92) calls attention. to the process of assimilation by Russian elements.
Educational mea ures., including it= adoption of the Cyrillic alphabet (1940) are ef.
fective in the direction of this tendency, According to Thiel (No. 37, p01014) the
percentage of BUry=ati in the republic named.aftertiwm amounted in 1941 to no more
. reaches
than 008%0 The total hutber of Mohp:ols iii:the Soviet Union hardly Emit 400,000,
ard in China the total barely reaches..a.boli1105-million.
The indreasing amount of influence. exerted .by the Buryats-upon.the
other '..longolian:groups? especially.the'lcilaika Mongolsols described by Lattimore
(No.90), The BUryats, who ,possess the highest degree of education in the Modern sense
of the term, -vork in the longolian leople!s Republic as technicians, ',a1a4 as economic
or educational.a4visers, thus influencing iNgx in various matters the other Kongols?
who live there. The Ent.,Marwolian KhPUardialact, which was formerly the most im.
portant dialect of the. Mongolian language, is in this manner subjected nOticeably.
to the influence of the North-Ungolian dialect of the Buryats. In the travel re.
ports of of Christensen (No40), Bosshard (No468), and 4onetc11 (No.95) the last
ACS FORM
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14411.
iNTECO VE I Er ri 40k-TH r
/PI 34 i?
1"4"""'"`"'""*"""
TesetniEr."1"1".""
la2,216: (centld)
STAT
books contain exeeptionally'fin'e.pictorialillustratiOns.mm contain valuable inform
ation Concerning some of the groups'Itving-iii*Innermgongolia Bossha0 had the bole
fit of advice from F.,A0Larson, the famous nuke of fiingoliall and others. He became
acquainted, above all, with several of the Chahar ubanners," with the WesmSunid
Ilbanner" of the Silingol League, and with the Durbed "banner" of the Ulankhab
Montell had visited, 'among others, the, .Torguds of the lidsin-gol reyion, who live
pretty, much in isolation from the other 4ongo.16 and have thus preserved numerous
distinguish:Lig characteristics, although in most recent times they have been crrded,
more and more, by Chinese colonists advancinn rapidly into this region()
Relations between the Mongolian horsm?population and t .c Chinese
agricultural'pea.sants,wilo0 to some extent 'arrived on the scene quite early, but
chiefly trod rated durinn the second half of the past century into thetYlotrolian
pasture regions, can be found
EM.217:
p.'Strff.
described in the w s. of ?Foenlermilauke (No.15a,
and 113 ff.), who cites as example Viol -Jehol, West.Manchuria, and the
Barga. Cressey, Lattimore, and others had dealt with this problem of inner Moncolia
before btu Chinese colonization' is directed precisely toward the best of the past
lands of the Mongols.. In maw instances. the Chinese officials simply have been as.
sirning desirable Mongolian lands to the Chinese colonists; but even the Mongolian
nobility themselves have in many instances frauelfish motives delivered land into
the hands of the Chinese, through .sales or leases. Moreaver, the various, attempts
made by some of Vne. Mongolian 'ethnic elemerts to hold on to their lands by changing
from the pastnral to an. ,agricultural economy.havii not always been successful. Fre.
guently the Mongolian peasant had to give tip the struggle because of the. superior
skill of. the Chinese peasant in .matters of peasant farm operation and because of
indebtedness to Chinese traders. For the average longoliari tilling of the soil is
not a. goal worth striving for: and the decision to settle down on the land is, in most
instances not made With a. view to advancing into .a higher form of culture and economy
but merely because no other means' seem available to ward' Off Chinese penetration of
the land. During the Japanese Occupation measures to protect the Mongolians were
taken in. Manchuria and in some parts of Inner.4Ongolia.. It .is not possible. at this
time to determine the extent to which ani. such measures continue in force under the
Chinese Republin of Inner 4ongolia0 In Outer: longolia it was not found possible for
1...aoldemperosaw
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1alit? t ?? INTLUo
aii*"."1"?46".""4"."4-"""
Pamouriiimirgasiiiiime;mtramsocumorrmworampoommerremowerverwinwaromerrabi
..E2p.p.4417.1.(cont,d)
the Chinese to ge;Lil. a foothold. as ItieasOt colonists", since .during the last few
theta
decadeS,the country was closed to icimi for politiaal'reasons.
.present .nost of the i?iongolians follow .the Lain'aistic f the
13uddl'1st religion; and it is only among, the Burrits ttiat orthodox Christianity
has to some extent been accepted? Buddhism found its way into Mongolia as early
as the liddle of the 13th century.; but since the collapse of the Mongolia empire
it has lost i.bs importance ,in those, regions0 Reconversion was to the Lamaistic forii
throur.h th'e reformed" Yellow Church The.. former Uria (ilan-riator) was given at that
time a special lonttiolian head of the Church, a Livinc Buddha (Khutuktu). Relations
with Ti ..tet were at all ti'ios very close. Glaseilapp.(No.78) has shown, however, that
at the present moment Lamaism in 'L'Iongoll.a is in every respect in a period of decline
In Inner Mongolia it had recently achieved once nore a certain apogee, since the
Panchen-Lama had taken his exile there? Since the time of incorport.tion in the
Chinese People's'Republic, however, Lamaism his once entered into a period of de-
cline -- havinry occcIsior.ally produced a hindering ethct upon the country's general
clevelopmeni, as result of excesses of monastery lire. In Outer flongolia, since the
Page 218:
Var, the Khutuktu had been intervening also in political matters, in
behalf of, the country's indepenrience. Since his 'deAh (1924) he was for political,
anti Lam'istic reasons, "reborn" no longer in kittitzi i'ongolia, but in ,Tibet; and
since 1929 a beginning was made with confiscation of monastery properties as well
as those of the nobility.
Glasenapp einphasizes that after the turn of the century Czarism was
making, an effort to win political influence in ,'t.bet by 41'4- of the Lariaism of Buryat!-
Mongolian and other Buddhistic _citizens? In riorecent times, in theoviet Union),
Lamaism was called upon to join the issue with clidieAid Materialism. According to
Lattimore (Pacific Affairs 1937) po 1,72) the LimaiSt'Chittich in Mongolia has revealed,
and tattle
(trea.ter v tality, however, sad than the gongplian
An intelligent appreciation of Mongoliitii history calls for acquaint-
ance with the Mongolian iconcept's of law and their relation 'to the Lamaist Church and
to the country's social orarization. .Imporbant ?n biitiobs on this subject are
furnished by a collection of source
ma.terial
btouitht
Ith? critical analysis of this col.lection (Pacific Affairs 1937
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. ? ?I ;I ? 14. ???? 10.11 0i, I.
TELL EN
contld) ,
Inalproter----""
146
STAT
? 07 ff.). gyazanovskty bses his conclusions above all on :the frapm4nts of Ghengis
' Khan's Code of Law; Rpixthe"est-Mongolian Code of 1644 the Khalka'codes of the
18th century; Buryat traditions concerning the .istory of aongolian law; and legal
develo ment and
'forms in Outer longolia prior to 1924. The author discusses the iri?t influence
..of Chinese and .aussian 'legal c'oncepts...Lamaism, especially durinr the 18th century,
exerted a. strong ,influence upon development of the law; and likewise of c.f.i.:vat irrOort-
ance were 1,1.)e 'confieperices resultinr:r .from the foundation, on nomad territory,. of
monasteries in permanent locations; ..and the ,assignment,to these monasteries, of
? large croups of individuals as monks.,. who, in this manner, were removed from. the
jurisdiction of 'tribal law. `: he 'nobility tried to preserve its influence by placing
:nerabers of.. the nObility in. imj.)ortant , ositions of the church hierarchy.; whi,,le the
-- to .to.em
:Ianchus ? interfered with any dngerous trend teward tribal centralization, or centlali
zatidn of territories or church power. . Their purposes :ere serVed also by the ."ban-
filling
ner"-type.of Orgaritya.tien. ? They ik.:...sued orders, moreOver, to prevent xbutioq-
tle hirl,:her church positions with close relatives of i:Ioncolian tribal princ.es.
Pitho1..riany quer.tions are. tll1 left unanswered, tir* more recent
studies have contri!.)Uted'iralLiortrInt3zr toward Ma'ami it possible to form at least an
adequate ge.neral idea of the political, sotial, and clerical orpanir, ation of the Aon-
g.ollans throughout tre course, of their -;istory.
50 ECONOIY SETTLEALI'l AZ.JD COnviiMILATIONS
105. Chesneaux, J.: .:k:coi.!struetion et Reorientation ria,ns la. Vie iSonomiue 'de la
C'fline. Nouvelle. (Reconstruction and iteori.entation of the .Lconomic Life, of t:e
7:107 China). (A ales de Ciceogro LX No. 319, Paris 1951, *33 If. (Prench.)
30$ Denisov, 1,1.0 L. : Cattl.eaisingt, in the longolian eeople ilepublie. Ulen-asitor
11/7?;/ '64471-r)
19146 '(itubSian ami Mongolian).
108.
r.feissig, W.: Das Gelbe Vorfeld; die ilobilisierung der chinesischen Aussenlan,ideer.
(The Ielltn: Yorefield; lobilifiati,on of the Outlying Chinese territories). i
delberg 1941. 162 pp. Maps. Pictures.
1,09. ?
Der-raon'r:olische Kulturwandel in den lisirvtan 'ixvvinzen Mandschukuos
an cultura1 Chan. es in the sir an Provinces of Mancl iukuo). (in: Asien,?Perichte
if. 944, Vienna 1941/42.)
107. Mongolia0 Politico-Economical Journal. 1J1an04sator 19.33142 (Mongolian and Aussian
imimesommon 40111010,
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v OA,
INTELLIGEWEnaraartr..."17111."Wari"."8".
?age 219: (cont' d)
110: Kapnb Atr Jxpeditioi ?st AgriculturalTests'in Abilgolia (In:
Edonenics .of the:16nrol4 No,, laan.aator (Russian and Morigolian).
!,
.111: Kramer, W.: Die longolische Volksrepublik (The Aongolian People's Republic).
(In: Zeitschrift fur den Erdekunde-Unterricht. Rerlin 1950, p. 135 ff.)
112: Litovchenko, G. IL: Sheep 4?eedir,in the Moncolian People's te-.1:)alic.'. (Studies
of tie scientific Coranittee of tie Mongolian l'ooriels Aepublic, io 3, Ulan-Bato
19I6 (Noncolnn and Aussian).
113. Lattimore 0.: The l'hantom.of :.lengkuo. PaCific idfairs, Alf; York 1937, P.
/120 ff.(Engl.ish),
114. Luss, I. Ya. (Edttor):.The Domestic Animals of Imwolia. (In:btudies of the
Aorolian Committee of t'le Acv.dely of Science, No. 22, NOscw-Lienin'prad 1936
(Aussian)G
115. Mongolian icoplels iiepublic. (In: T1) Statesman's Year. ..-look 1953,
1218 if. nglish).
?116. Olbricht, P.: Das Postwesen in china unter der aogolenherrschaft in 13. und
lb. Johrhundert (Postal rvice 1.n China under the lonolian'Aeime duriyw the
London, 860 if
13th md 14tr. Centuries
baden 1951i4 130 pp.).
(In: G8ttiner Asiatiche Forschurren:Vol. I 'les-
,
117. Problems of the Bury4t-rlonLolian Autonomous Socialist boviet.epublic) Vol.
'and II. joscOw-Leninurad 1935/36 (Aussian).
113. ShUbin, V.F.: Agriculture in Ao'n.rolia. (In: ;Audies .of the Grokiy k.ricultural
institute, VOL Tr, No, 1, 19)48 (1Lussian).
119. Shultsenko, I.F.: licTort on Studies of Cattle-Raising in longolia. (In: 4)tudies
'4
of t1-1(.., Lcientific Comittee of t'oe Mongoliar People s Aepublic, No. 1 Ulanf-uto
19)46 (Moncolian and RusSian).
119 ao Tang Chang-yin: The Lconomic JevelolAent of Inner angolia.
Shanghai 1933 (LNY-
The natural prerequisites of the economic deVe.4pment. were briefly
Set forth by IJ. Haude in ah earlier publication (cf. flyllningsskrift ti114rnad Sven
Hedin-: published in honor of Ljven Hedin's 70th 3 rthday, by the Swedish. InthrOpOlogic
al and Oeclalapqc 6ociety, Stockholm 1935).
In the northern marj.nal regions of
Outer nongolia them prevails except at tie hthest elevations) where the climate
ACS1 FORM
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NTELLIGEN RA SLAT Z. .."..".1.?17":"mear
Et.,141:94(00wd).
and vegetation .have tundratharactekatics u! a side-by-side'dloOreal:agricultural-
. 04, '
steppe pnc steppe climate, Which condition is followed farther south by a belt of
nastuml-steppe climate (snit like that whici Is characteristic also for the eastern
marginal areas), and at individual points this zone contains areas leo that have
ES2.221 ? ?
a desert-steppe or a rteppe climate* In 7:rest-Iongolia and in Wngaria one occasion-
ally encounters an oasis with a,ricultural-steppe climate; and sitililar conditi.ons.pre
vail also south of te Gobi, as for instance' in large .portions of the, se-called In-
ner Aonzolia0
rarniffillEr""'.?'-,
imeemplesurstivolor millrommaimmouria
STAT
The ecOnolic life of the longoliant is to this day based alMost en-
tire4r upon stock-raising,.lariely.in the nomadic manner.. The number of a7ricultur-
al'Aongolians continues to be small; and these,aricultural croups, especially, are
VOW
in Inner Mongolia -- exposed to the danger of absorption by the Chinese? The
rCsing of sheep and bovine cattle predominat the sheep being first in importance
as a source of meat, milk, and wool? The. horse is tie most important of the animals
.used for riding; but the caAel is to sone extent used as thc beast of burden in a
numer of local areas*
The development of In4er 4ngolia has in recent. times pas-ed through
.a number of different phases (cf. I,R30. 113 .and No. 10 a). Ibe C)inesp agriadlttrists
and tradesmen who 1:Ire s.thce the last century pushed forward irto the southern and
eastern marrinal areas of ion.golia are now in possession of a large part of the
c'..,oicest lands in those reAons; and as result of political event 6 during the last
tio decades, partieulzrly the great floods of the thirties alpn the lower
flooding over-
additional tens of thousands of Chinese have come in,toxfinma the marginal territor-
ies of In-er Mongolia? :hen the Japanese .occupied Tnnerillonrolia, the Mongolian
econo,4 was in a low state Of 'decline: partly due to the loss of lands tO 'Chinese
peasants, and partly as result of indebtedness to the Chinese traders. T
sure,
t).e Japanese protected theAongolians from further losses of land to the. Chinese;
they also started a certain reform of the archaic Aongolian economic procedures;
and thIreogganited commerce and created model trade .stations to improve the de-
liveries of wool and meats. it the same time, however, they were interested primari-
ly in their own advantages especially in the natter of trading by middle-men
and the Mongolians felt disappointed, 4thouEh 4Aiimmigidabbecause of their dislike
ACS! FARM
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41 ". ? o.4?r cc, ,
Ea2220!:(cont 1 STAT
pley mi#*
for ne collectIvizatien measures adopted ir Outer ;Iongolia have been favorribly in
dined to cooperate A.th the Japanese.
?
It was not possible to chane the. basic .factOrs of. ,the situation; and
the Chinese peasants continued in possession Of a, belt zone, which has in the Chahar
a width of more than 100 km., of that were at one time the best of the Mongolian
pasturelands. 6o far as the Chahar is concerned, certain possibilities of deve1op-
ment conti ue to exist only in the northern part, in the tem:al:tory of the SilinrOl-
Lipa? h oh at present forms part of the Autonomous Republic of Innler Mongolia. In
Ninchsia the oases are settled almost entirely by the Chinese
and the Torpuds,
Alashan longols*,.etc. have only few opportunities, left to strengthen their economic
power. In Suiyati the loess areas in the east and the oases along the dwanp-HO have
Lat.2.4.!
in ixrt been Co1ioni7ed by the Chinese since the ancient days, but chiefly since the
ed(nt of the."Feking-Suiyuan The,Ordos Aonols, the Duiteds? etc0 are
along tose Monols who were economicalvmore retarded than any of the 'others.
A107 thc econol.ically most important rer4ons. of Inncr Mongolia can 'le mentioned
the forter Chinr!an i.,ravinces. of, yrhere great'succestes ritme been achieved
1932..19h5 in t C. ITAsi* of sheep '(cross:ing of MonOlian sheep Ath merinos, obtain-
tnis marmer.not only' a better quality of wool, but also tvo and'three times
the former yield of wool) ',j.ithin the area.ofthe former Chingan provinces one could
probably count 11 lAllion sheep, 600,000 head of bovine cattle,'several hundred
thousand each of horses and .-oats? and about 12,000 camels.
The exploitation (starte
by the Jananese and no contirbed by ?eking) of hard coal and soft coal deposits,
.1
of t)e fairly extensive iron ore deposits and of the, presuMably not very large oil
reserves benefits first of?allthe Gtlinese.elements of the population and will in
the lonc run have the effect of Weakening. Still further the position of the Mongols.
-
The currency .reform carried into effect by Vle Jalanese during the
occupLtion?period
103) had resulted in a measure ?of financial stability which,
thow:h 3kx.ely conti7entt exceeded all expectations, but Was followedi-after 191451
by another period of great uncertainty, The, "three-year pians" undertaken by the
Japanese called, in kmAx their first Section, gor the production, among other things
qovermilent
of 500,000 t. of pool within the 'Mengol.kederation'o' -present
of the :Autonomous iieptiblic of Inner filonOli, has PrPF5114.PC5,9,9,70,tc::P1.0? . 1.ts ?0'110
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? 4. 0 I 1% ! 4%1 I . ilt
"MIMI ENC T
alle.M..(aontd)
vossraimearivirm,spos
,
?.in 1950, for instance, 40,000 hectares of land were newly assigned, so that at that
time the area of cultivated land (mostly settled by Chinese) comprised a total of
9k00000 'hectares.
Moreover, 200 million trees were to be pl'Olted by 1950, so as to im-
prove local climatic and edaphic conditions and to place the forest economy on a'
rational .basis. ith a view to better exploitation of the forest of the southweStern
parts of the Yreat Chingan present plans call for the construction of nearly. 300 kino
of railroad. social and political organization.0,the Mongols in "banners" has
. and in order
not been interfered with so fart thmximtmkkandmKtiog to protect both, the Mongols and
the Clinese,.from exploitation bythinese traders, a ber!inninFyas made,during the
last. few years, with. the estabil.shmentoof associations, whose ruembership.was in 1950
reported to be 500,000 in Inner Mongolia. .There has been a considerable increase
of lotor traffic, serving in part to haul freight and passenFers for railroad sta-
tions in territories; and a railroad line completed in 1954 handles
traffic from. Peking through the. Gobi to 'Ulan-i-si,ttor (Outer '4ongolia)? as well as from
halgan.to Tolua. and 'also to Jehol. The traditional caravan traffic still predomiii-
.Eav 222: . .
nates in. the interior areas. There is an airline from .eking vialialgan and Ulan.-
11ator to:Irkutsk., ttl.d another from larbin via thc'flarga to Chita in the Soviet Union.
Tho dwelling of the Mongol stj.11 consists 'predominant3'y of the Yurta? i.e. of a'
quick15 built and cuickly dismounted dwelling. that consists Of a wooden framework
covered with felt. The settled Mongols have adopted the type of house used by the
colonists of ,Jorth-China thou* in some localities they have developed curious in-
termediate types between this type of house, and the Yurt40' Tie larger cities offer
the appearance of, typical jorth-C:linese colonial cl.ties and harbor only small 4onr..-61
linoritiesi e.g. Honor (HUlun, 40,000 inhabitants), Ulanhot (.:angychmiao, 30,000
inhabitants), TolUn (50,000 inhaUtants), Kalpan(Changkiakow? .janchuan? 150,000 in-
habitants), Kukukhoto Nkeisui, Suiyuan,.200,000 inhOitantsL Ninchsia (5,000 inca
habitants), etc. A local industrial center is in course of development at Pautu
(Paotow).
Autonomo
In uryat-Mongolian Soviet Republic (cf :400 37, pp. 125 ff9,117)
the economic structure has during the last few years undergone =V profound changes
VallOWX111
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IIN14LIGENqrrea1iVirs77.74"7"141
ligalIMUPPOINMIL
cant' d)
t' an in ,agy .other of theIonfiolisn territories, Most,, the Buxyats have by this.
,
Ost
time becbme sedentary of seiii-sedentary and are, like the 'Aussial.I part of'thtopula-
tion, 6.evotinv themselves.tp- agriculture(rye, Itteat,..pati46"although.in some of these
area the crops are endangeredlly dry weather and by:niht,frosts... Anilal husbandry
(beef cattle,.. sheep, horses, F:roats, camels) has ma0 qreat prof:Tess in these areas,.
as result of crossing of breeds, improved feeding, establishment of model stations,
and so forth. Cuickly developing.exploitatjari of the .underground wealth (coal, iron,
bauxite ,:raphite,t#.) .has. helped to promote an influx of non-Buryat,elements
sins), a1thoh the. Burats themselves have 1#6wise::in an increasing measure found
employment In the industries. The capital city of Ulan-Vde (formerly
Verkhne Udinsk?. nearly 150,000 inhabitants) has a prOominantlymen-Buryat population
and is an important industrial and traffic center. Alere is a side branch leading
from the old .Trans-oibirian,itailroad to illan-Dator in Outer Aonrolia.
ConsideraAL changes hrlre superiehed.4so in the peOnany of the Mon-
. .
Folian People'spub4c.(No. 25 pp. 48 ff., 11143,,. 1i8) The raising of beef
cattle predominates in the northern and northwW6ern territories; nd there,as well
as in the eastern part of the country, the raising .of sheep ,is like ISG pursued.
Callas are being used chiefly ir the interior marginal revions.'.In recent decades,
and usually under the direction of ussian and Bury*Oongolian advisers, a large
number of measures was adopted to in improved aethods of cattle-raising, to
improve breeds, and to ensure better utiliation of. #10 products., Thus a large
number of nev. watering p4.aces were provided (ponds, up116) and recomlendations were
offered for conductin the graiing and care of, pastures in accordance with modern
Page 2231
-73753Ts; and t.i thtrod.uetion of Erass-ractang machines and4Anter7feeding' in stables
funirhed an entirely approach to thejaks of gelyting away from the primitive
nomadic methods of tock-raising.
Durinr the atter part of the twenties VIE', innovations, .especially
the collectivization experiments, had been initiated i:ith so much precipitation that
in 1930 serious resistance mamlfosted itself among the population (4., among others,
Noa 108); and durinF the years.that.followed SO AQ of-the'herdsmen's Itmilies and.
their herds. Moved away 'into certain pit of Inner.KOnfi,olia. In of the
,
hazaydS incident to has:f, measures a moderate policy was initiatedin 1932; and
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Page 223: (c.ont.t.d)
STAT
even the newly created state farms in t.he. North had te shift their principal effort
.once moiv:.trom grain 'cultivation: to stock-raing? because It had been recognized
' that Under the exiirbing conditions the really vital requirements of the Republic
could be net only by a,pastural f.oundation. The.aovernment created a.special "Veteri
nary and .Zootechnical Adraini tration:(and at Ulan siator a school for veterinaxy's
assistLnts was created); and so far as possible veterinaries were established in the
country districts. In 1921 the nuMber.of heads of cattle per person was only 18; but
in 19141 the number had risen to about 30 per capita of the population (15.9. million
sheep, 2.8 million beef 0 ttle,.206 million horses,. 5.5. million goats, about 700,000
camels and a like nunber of yaks). In the Aima-Dund-Gobi the number of cattle per,
?LOAtMr9.4/ ?
inhabitant is 506 . In former times hundreds of thousands otianimals perished each
year as result of plagues, shortage of feed, smooth iced surfaces, and so forth.
These enemies .of the stock-farmer are now being fought by the erection of shelters,
preparatien.of hay, and other measures, ..As early ar 1950 there had be established
no less than 55 mowing-machine stations (grass-mogers). .Cht sane year 1 million t0
of hay were brought in, as compared with barely 10,000 t. in 1939. A fiveilear plan
(1A8-52) Was ?adopted in 190, and called, among other thin s, for: expansion of
irrigated areas; development of industries; and adyaaces in mechanintion of the
leans of transportation (cf. No. 115). It was, intended that upon completion of the
fiveultar plan the 'total numbcr. of heads of cattle should tom reach 32 million.
The area of cultivated land (1950: )45,000 hectares) was likewise to be increased
considerably
'The state farms cover at this time approximately 12,000 hectares.
The area .pOtentl.alAy amenable .to irrigation farming has recently been estimated. at
3 million hectares. The agricultural areas are located chiefly in the belenga-Tallpy
along the Orkhoniver as along the Phara, a region populated &doily with Chinese
prior to the Revolution. Ulan-Bator has now a large meat nbombinat u as well as a
number of minor plants for the processing of wool a so qp factory, a brewery, and
a Small paper 411 on the banks of the Iro River. The capital city now also has
in o 1r .
a'sma 1 e ectric plant, printing shops, leather-processing ettablishments? and auto.
mobile repair shops.
Similarly the larger cities of the interior of the country have
established wool-washing plants .and mechanical shops.
The unit of currency,
since 1925? has been the Tukhrik (approximately equivalent to the ruble of the Soviet
ACSI FORM
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?e 221k.:
Union) a 100 Mongo The Government's budvet for 1951 anticipated expenditures in the
amount of 35104 million and an income of 346.4 million tukhriki Stabilization of the
STAT'
Jr
53
currency made it possible import mining 'materiel and vehicles from the Soviet Union;
and these imports, in turn, favored the exploitation of hard-cpal and soft-coal de-
posits. (Nalaicha? Bain Dulak, Under Chan, yugodsir, and DsunmBulak)? of deposits of
graphite and rock salt (in the vicinity of the Chubsu-pul, near the northern border),
and of a number of smaller deposits of gad, silver, marTetic iron rock, and chro-
mium (in the Mongoiian'Altai? etc.).
Road-construction was speeded up. A number of former caravan trails
can now be traveled Itr automobiles. The highway- Ulan-lide khan Bulak -- Ulan..
Bator partakes at present of the characteristics of a main artery of traffic.
In the
Northwest, te Soviet Unien is connected with the People's Republic by way of the
Chwa Hi hway of the idtai. As was nentioned earlier, the Ulan-Bator -- Tsining
section of the Peking --Suiyuan Aailroad was completed in 1956 Since 1939 the
railroad lines Ulan-Ude Ulan- ator and Ulan-Jator Nalaicha have also been com-
pleted. till another railroad connects &dbalsan (the' former Kerulen or Bajan
Tnmen) with Borsja on the Transrsibirian Aailroad. The capital city is also con-
nected by an airline, with the Chinese net of airlines and that of. the Soviet Union.
A limited amount of river traffic is maintained on the Orkhon and the Splenga.' Ulan-
3a.tor has 'a wireless telegraphy stationvand is connected by a telegraph line with
Ulan.-Ude. -]*)th? domestic arid foreign commerce are almost. entirely in the hands of
the Government. Prior to the First world War the foreign commerce moved primarily
via China; but later the Chinese traders were expelled. 4xports and imports are now
under the control of the IlSovmentori (a state-owned commercial association), and
the Soviet Union is almost exclusively the party' of the second part inthe transac-
tions. The exports consistithiefly of horses, wool, leather, undressed skins
and lining products; the imports include food products (flour), vehicles, machinery,
and other industrial goods. The caeital city, Ulan-jator, has approxitately 100,000
inhabitants.. It has greatly .changed its appearance in conseOuence of the construc-
tion of factories, schools', and administrative buildings, in the .other larger cities.,
such as Altan-Bulak (Maimatshen, 10,000 inhabitants), DzhiripAantu (Kobdo, 10,000
inhabitants), and Dzhibkhalantu (Uljasputai, 10,000 inhabitants) .a number of outside
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.P.21,e 224: (aontid)
?Vvit
GNtTER
54
STAT
and foreign structural conception The most recent of tbe.ilci,tie's". is Sukhe.13ator,
at the terminal point of the Solenga river shipping, and the second largest of theM
le
s Cojbalsan (San-bejce, 3ajan-Tume'n).
225:
.120. B
6. GOVEIDEUT ADATNISTRATION POLITICS ACCOUNTS OF TWVEL
a/mini, L.: Mongolische Reise (Trip through Aongolia). Leipzig 1910.
121. Carlson, The Chinese Aongol Front in Suiyuan. (In: Pacific Affairs, Camden,
New
Jersey; 278-85 (English).
122. Chen-ling-Seng: A Critical Survey of Chinese Policy in Inner Mongolia. (Pacific
hrfairs,
123. Christens
Caitden, New Jersey, p. 557 ff. (Lnglish).
en, U.H.: Neue hindrUcke unci Erfahrungen in der Ostmongolei (New Im-
pressions and Experiences in Li'ast.'iongolia). (Ostasiatische liundschau, Hamburg
19380p0 175
ff., 192 ff.)
la. Thirty Years o
(Mongolian).
Fodhler-Haukel G.
f the longoliar People's Revolution, 192149510 Ulan.Lstor 1951
? Asia Manuel GeogrAico (Asia, a Geographic 4anual), Tucumgn
1953, p. 329 if. (
panish).
126. ..: Georraphische Grundzftge der neuen,Verwaltungseinteilung China's (Basic Geo-
raphic Traits of the
p. 137 if., Ke40
127. Forbath, L.: ThEy ew long
new Administrative Divisions of China). (PH 1953) Hap
olia. London 1936 (English).
128. Friters, G.: The Internatio
nal Position of Outer Monp:olia: A contribution to
Russia's and Japan's Policie
s in the Far Last. Introduction by L. and O. Latti-
more. Baltimore 190 (Lnglish)
0
1290 : The Development of Outer Mo
golian Independence. Pacific Affairs, Camden,
71ew. Jersey, 1937, 315-36 (En7lish
13M. Coto, T.: The Federation of Auton
(BunFei Shunju 1939, p. 129 fro)
1300 Ginsberg, M.: China's Chanuing Politic
new York, 102.17, Maps (LnOlish).
)0
ous Governments of the Mongol Provinces.
al Geocraphy. (Th c Geographic Aeview 1952
132. Hazard, J N The Constitution of the Mongol People's Republic and Soviet In-
fluences. (Pacific Affairs, gichmosild, Virgi
nia, 2948, pp. 162-700
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V.? ? , .; ? I 0,. ? ; . ? " "
NTELLI0ENTrilmitgji"="e?1?
?? '
wriossmitionisommo,irsrumermii
Page.211 (contid.)
STAT
133. Haenisch, K.: Die Mongolei (Nenmlia). (Orient in deutscher Forschune, edited by
q.H. Schaefer, Leipzig 1944).
Heissig, Wo: ZurAeinungsbiIdung in 4er Aongolei 'ormntion of Public Opinion in
Mongolia). (Asien-lierichte 60 Vienna I910),
135. --: Bildunps- und qypienepropaganda in der Usingan-Mongolei (Educational and
lypiene Propaganda in asingan-Mangolia). Weopol ileidelberg 19)410)
136:. --: Lie luiorrolei des larschalls Choibalsan. (20eopo1.? Heidelberg 1942,227-30.)
137. Eorostowez: Von Chinris-Chan 7ur Sowjetrepublik (From Ghenrisnan to Loviet Ro
public). Berlin 1938.
138. Larsen F.A.: Die Mongolei (Morpolia). "Berlin 100
139. Lattimore, O.: The Phantom of Aengkukuo. (Pacific Affairs, Camden, New Jersey,
19113, pp. )120-27 (Enrlish).
1140. Lattimore, O.: :IonEol Journeys. London 19k1 (Panrlish).
141. --: Hew aoad to P,sia. (The Natioral GeograOhdo Aagazine, Vol. 66, .4ashint?ton
19)11, pp. 64447 (arliSh)0
142. .....: Solution in hsia. Baltimore 1946 (Lnglish).
ii or or Floodgate (Mongolia: Filter oder Schleusentor). (The
7Iational ca: r4hic Aarazine, Vol. 71, (lashinfeton 19)19 (English).
1/140 --: The Lines of Glecvage in Inner longolia. (Paciftc Affairs Camden, New Jeme
1937, p. 196 ff. (Lnglish).
it Ma Ho-Tien: Chinese int in Monrolia. Translated by John de Fralcis. Bdtimore
19)19. XVI and 215 pp., iltps, Diarrams, Index (lonaish)0
146. Maslennikov? Ihe Monrolian Problem.(Mirovoye Khozyaistvo i Mirovaya
Noscow 5. 5. 1936 (tu sian).
7. lishimal Y., and Tomio Goto: A Japanese glen of outer lonuolia. Tra) slated and
condensed by A.J. Graydantsev. (I.Ped. Publ. min., New. York (inglish).)
Pa e 226:
Petro, Inner Aongolia, Kansu and Sinkiang. (Royal Central Asia J., London
1939p p. 205 if. (Lndish).
1)19. Philipps) Geporio: Russia, Japan, and Aongolia. London 1942. 104 pp. (taglish.)
150. Rupen? "lotos on Outer longolia since 19/15. (Pacific Affairs, 1955, 9 000
151. Schafer, D.: Die Sovjetpropaganda in der Aongolei. (7,0eopol. Heidelberg 1939,
p. 162 ff )
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ELL E
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? ?01 fAl.pivo"I'PP.e.. 10 ' ? , .9
cont rd)
WNW'
STAT
lammiplowamearrionin
Tedayeva, Grammar .of the ,:!toder) Viongolian Laiviiage..Moscow 1910 (Russian.
1,
am, N.: Sommer in der Mongolei, (Summer in Mongolia). Perlin 1936. 278 PP.,
Pictures.
? .
Walter, Inrerasien Rinren der Machte (Inner Asia in 'the 1`.3tvaggle of the
Powers). Ber3,in 1940. .
155. Warneck, So: Pie Cliniesische Innere 4ongolei (Chinese Inner Mongolia
.pc100 l'eidelberg 1939, pp. 3142, 114470)
1560 Yakhontoff, V.A : Mongolia: Target or Screen? Pacific ilfairs, Camden, New
Jersey, 1936,1V 13-23 (Lrwlish).Y
157. Zapkin (TsaPkin )0 &V,: The 4ongolian People's gepUblic. Roscow 1948 (Russian
The accounts of, travelistorical accounts, etc0 listed in this Sec-
tion (No. 1200 127, 133, 1370 153)0 as well as those mentioned in another context
(No. 68, 690 9)) contain observations concerning the land and its People, such as
are of value also for the geographer.
Quite a considerable number of publications concern themselves with
the political events that transpired during the most recent decades in the different
Sections of Mongolia. To s)me extent they throw light on the Soviet, Japanese; and
Chinese points of view; and to some extent, as for instance the studies; by Lattimore,
HeiSsig0 and Fritters', they Seek to interpret from an objective point of view the
conditions and the factors by Which they were determined.
After the disintegration of the Monkolian World empirethe.Mongolian
regions lost their importance, were fora longtime left practically to themselves,
and finally developed more and .more into a bone of contention for the neighboring
great Powers., To :a larre extent the great awakening of the Mongols was connected
with the eastern penetration of Russians during the 16th .and 17the centuries. The
longols? who for centuries had lorded it' over large parts. of Russia now fell themselves Under Russian dominion (cf. Wo. 150:0 The Buryat Mongols, who' in 1648 were
,.. ? Air:
still ?able to beat back the cossacks, and whose trips had under the leadership of
the "Noyons" an almost state-like organization, finally became subjects of the empire
of the Czar, and the border town of Kyakhta acquired 'great importance for, trade be-
tween Russia and China. With the close of the 19th 'century Russification measures
after , ? .
became intensified; and al the turn of the century a beginning was made with:determ-
12fteo-
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Page 226: (con:tid)
STAT
ined efforts to interlard the 3uryat. setticMent territories with Russian settlers,
by confiscating any landed property .in excess of 16 devatins700istributing these
'lands checker-board fashion among Russian colonists? During the revolutionary year
.of 1905 the Buryats drove out some of the foreign chiefs of the communities, and the
Pa e 227:'
raditional steppe .meetinFs were to some extent resumed? When the Revolution had
been suppressed, an even more forceful liassification policy wasitcloped?
As result Of the. Revolution of 1917 the Buwatsplikewise, becaMe
restive again. They, formed associations that brought about a anion of the western
with the eastern Buryats and included also the aimaks of the region of Guchitsk. The
erritory was organized in the form of aimaks (districts), whose dissolution was un-
ccessfully attempted by the Kolchak Gover'-rnent0 Part of the Buryats fought with
the Red Amy not only against the Kolchak troops, but also against the regime of
Baron Unp.ern-bternberg which vas removed from power in Outer Mongolia? Establishmen
of.
he Soviet Government resulted in the West (Sibirian Oblast') in the establishment
of an Autonomous Buryat-'aongolian Territory; and in Trans-Baikalia, likewise, an
auton
Last.
(nous Buryat territoy was created within the then existing Republic of the Far
'Aen conditions had become stabilized,. the Autonomous 3uryat-Mongolian Soci-
alist S
oviet Republic was established on 1 Aagust 1923, witl-tin the Federated Russian
3oci alis
in 1939
oapital
t Soviet Republic, covering an area of 331,400 sq.km. with 542,170 inhabitant
in 1994 presumably ab. 620,000; density of population per sq0kni0 about 2;
lan-Ude, 'with appr. 150,000 inhabitants). To be sure, even at that time
the Buryat
melee of
.longols were in the minority as compared with the Russians; but in conse-
.he lost recent ...very energetic measures to speed up industrialization the
relative pi
a M4:111y.pro
portion of Buryats is decreasin- still farther, even though they form
gressive element of the population -- at present they have hardly any
analphabets left anew- them and; although, as previously mentioned, they exert an
increasing. ..:nea
sure of influende also upon the neighboring KhaIkas4ongOls .(cf. No. 37,
141) 1L3) 149)0
Union as regard
The Buryat ilepublic is one of the most imioortant areas of the Soviet
S production of excess cattle.
The political s Vitus of the former (cf. No. 128,129,92,p.
20) was rather it
Oeterminate for quite a long time, this territory being regarded
as belonging uncle
.ACS! FORM
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r Chinese sovereignty, since the &:arist Gmernment of Russia had
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LIGEN
(cont
in 1864 renounced rights of, possession 'that were presumed to have existed since' 1727.
It is true that in 1012 the Czarist.Lmpire had proc3,4ime4'a sort of protectorate Over
this source area of the Yenisei River, but due to the World War and the RevolutiOn
this protectorate had. failed to become effective. Generally speaking Uryankilai had
been rearded as a sort of outpost of the Chinese.controlladFand the inhabitants,
the Trvildians, who 'do not exhibit any close kinshillsith the Mongolians, are regard
as Turkeied.Samoyedes and-were .organized as aUCh in five ,!banner" during the Manchu
Page 228: ?
ru e. Outer nongolia had always been sending an Oficial to Tuvaldha bore the Manchu
title of qitbann and yes, in turn, subordinate to the "banner" reneral in command
in qyassutai. Uhile the Ciirist 'Government had as Into as 1916 referred to its
ri!-hts in the protectorate', the .Soviet.Governmeht acknwledgel.in.1921 the indepen-
dence of that territory, and the; latter was convert,ed into a Free.6ate under the
name of Tannu-Tuva (Tangno Toba). In 1925 a Soviet.Outer-Aongolian commission settle
the questions still left open, and in 1926 the Aongolien People's Republic and Tannu.
Tuve signed a treaty that provided for mutual exchange of diplomatic representatives.
In 1941 Tannu-Tuva began to take part in the war on the side of the Soviet Union; and
on 11 October 1944"the Pree.6tate as received, as an autonomous territory (Tuvinskaya
Autonomnaya Oblsts) as a member of the Russian Socialist l'ederative Soviet Republic
of the Soviet Union. The territory in question comprises an area of 166,000 sq.km.
and about 70,000 inhabitants, only about half of whom are Tuvinians livinfr as stock-
Weeders
ism= and hunters; and the administrative center is at 4yzyl (Liam, 10,000 in.
habitants)0
The Chinese lievolution of 1911 created an entirely new intellectual
ard political situation for the leading groups of Mongolian territories under Chinese
dominion. These' groups had been acknovledging the overlordship of the Manchu Dynasty
that was ruling China, but felt no sort of obligation toward the new Chinese Republic
(cf. No. 128). In 1911 the !Aongolians of Outer Mongolia addressed to t.Petersburg
a request for support against the Chinese claims; and in 1912 there was simed at
Urge (the present Ulan.Jator) a treaty Ddrksk between the Russian Bhpire and Outer
Ao golia which
commonwealth,
ing, their
to all intents and purposes recognized tlyi latter as an autonomous
During the same year Russ**, and Japan came to an agreement concern-
spheres' of interest in Inner Mongolia. To kesia were assigned the
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whimemitsieti
Em. 9 , 228; coni d)
Fari
STAT
59
territories west of ,the. meridian of ?eking, and to 4apan, those lying east of that
meridian (of also Noo 147 and No. 349).0. During the First .World liar China made an
effort apaip to' strengthen her, dominion over .OuterIlongoll.a, seeing that Russia was
not in a position to intervene. In 1919 -- with the tacit consent of' the Japanese
Goverment, which 'did notwelcomeAhe advance ? of the 'Russian Amy in Sibitia
Chinese aimed. forces. under General :11*Shu4seng were sent to 00t Mongolia, where
. Imprisobing.
they estalliShed a rule of tyranny,. anpng other things, impiNg;the niving Buddha!'
(DzebtsundaMba Khutuktu) of:Urga ap a hostage. The confused situation then enabled
Ungern-sternberg:ta invade Outer nongolia'andto 1,eitap in touch with the'Ataman
E20.229:.
? Semyonov, yho enjoyed Japanese support. Ungern-sternbert.occupied Urga, on Febru-
ary 1921, drove but the,Chinese:.troopand.installed a GoyernMent foxed by Mon-
rolian princes and by the.visiving.Buddha'." Meanwhile revolutionary Mongollan ele-
ments had been holding,1919?in:14birial:apanrMong0.1an congress, and guerilla war-
fare minst .Uno,ern-4ernberg.were organized, with the support of the Soviet Republic
of the Far, East, by. the later Aongolian Marshaltjbalsan and the Aotgolian.national
hero Sukebator, who is.censidered.to have been the real liberator of Rengolia. On
1 Aarch 1921 these groups founded at Kyakhta the 4ongbl.ian Revolutionary
Part, and on 13 liaxch they famed a Provisional Government of Outer TIongolia? re-
ouestinr aid from the Soviet government. On 6 July 1921 the fmerilla warriors, sup-
ported by the Red ArAy, conquered Ur,a,,and this city was declared to be the Seat
of government of the Aonoolian People's *public (4.,;4o. 136, p. 228). The'!astory
of the Mongolian,National. lievolution" brought out by Cojbalsanis at present being
rendered into English at John Hopkins University, 34timore).
In Ilovember 1921 6 first treaty was 'concluded between the Soviet Uhio
and the Mongolian ;People's Republic (Bughut Nairamdakh 4ongol;i4at Olos) (
129) in which .the tw6 parties mutua34 acknowledged equal rights. The new Govern-
w&' Only able to pet Control iradualIy,:and was at times canpelle4 to get sup-
port from the nobility and the lamaists against whom the revolutionapy movement had
been directed.
Difficulties arose also between the Government and the Revolutionary
People's Party. Bodo, the President of the Council of Ministers was shot in 1922, a
in 1924 also Daman, the Commander in Chief of the newly created Mongolian Amy,
both havinci: been accused of Secret understandings with China. lift4T the death of,
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NT623EMONTOnitirt7717
(id
STAT
Ealit142.("PtId)
of the "Livin Buddha!" (Bpgdo Gegenillian),.who had Oen. regarded. as :the nomiOal head
of, the.governmentl, d stricter revolutionary policy was adoi)ted0. Despite
im friendly relations with Outer langolia the Soviet Government acknowledged the
latter a treaty concluded with. China in 1224 to be an integral part of the
Chinese. Republic. In 19,25 the soviet 'troops were withdrawn from Outer
DuriT.:. the time from 1921 to 1925 the ,nobility and. the Lunaist Qhurch continued to
offer,resistancei but between 1925 and 1928 the 'Revolutionary. People's Party was able
? to 'strengthen its position, and during the time from 1929 to 1932 the former ruling
classes lost their influence entirely. It is true that a long-continued resistance
developed. apainst socialization measures, a resistance supported by the broad masaes
of herdsmen. 19337 under ?Pojbalsan? all forces taken to be anti-revolwtionary
were expelled.from the Party and from .the State, and strong measures were taken es-
Page 230:
peciall;y4nst.the. .I.Jamaist monks; but finally the Revolutionary People's Party
was #inmphant. A decree alendinr the Constitution declared, 28 5eptember.1944,
that Lamaist :monks, exploiters of the people, slave ho1ders0.and so forth, no longer
?? organiz .? . ?
possessedflany power of resistance against the revolutionary .'trend and no longer were
any menace to Its existence (of. 'No. 1361.p. 229).
In 1935 there occurred along the Ichalk.a, in the border area on the
44-
:lanchurian frontiervsome.firstskirmishes with Manchuria-Japanese troops whe,"despit
the efforts of mixed frontier commissions continued until the year 19390 'It was
a
presumably .xs result of thc. continued presence of. the Japanese. in Manchuria when on
2 April 1936 the .soviet Union and the Motvoliar People's Republic concluded a mutual
'broadened
assistance treaty that viz confirmed .and nix** an earlier agreement concluded
in 1934. -,On.:.Aptil.7th China protested against the mutuil-assistance treaty as being
in violation of the Chinese-Soviet agreement?of 1924# but the Soviet Union .turned
down this protest, on April 8th, stating that the new agreement was not directed
against the Interests of any third parties(cf. No. 100 p. 103). aawhile a system
of universal Com.ipUlsory military service was built up In Mongolia, and tle country's
armed foxes were sUbjected to a thpronch goinr process of Modernization, so that
a force of 80-000 .mon vas ready in AtTubt 1945 ard intervend, at the head of the
troops of the Soviet Union, against Japanese troops in Manchuria and I
r Mongolia.
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INTETCWirc*.
LIfe 230: (contld)
In a treaty mvoluded
:1
61
ft
STAT
?,
on 111 Auf..ru6t 19115 between Chin's, and the boviet Union China de..
.clared her.readinesS,to acknowledge the 'independence of Outer Mongolia, provided the
population voted as a pOpulir 'majority in favor of indepeidenceci The plebiscite was,
held on 20 October 1916 and ,resulted inan..almost. unanimous decision in favor of 41-
dependence0 On .juluary 1946 China acknowledged in.the independence of the Mohuo-
lian People's Republic. A trct concluded on 14 February 1950 between the Soviet'
Zoverr*nt and tl*Chiliese. People's 114ubliCof?Peking similarly guaranteed the In-
dependence :of the IonfpIian People's 1*i:1:blies On 27. February 1946 the latter sig-
ned?with the Soviet Union at Moscow another friendship and assistance treaty. On
October,1952followed the signature, et Peking, of an economic and cultural treaty
between thc.Chinese.People's. liepUblic and. the Mongolian People's Republic (cf. No.
115, p. 1219).
Friters (No. 128) and Hazard (No.132) reproduce, with comment, the
. text of the Consti.tutionof the Mongolian. People's. Republic as adopted in 1940. In
working:out.their Constitution the Mongols, who are still predominantly nomadic,
were able tosOmeext.ent? to build.onexperience with the ,revolutionary.constituti-
. c4oviet.. . , ? ?
ons.Ofthe1926)556lic'of?Rhoaratmi 4nceHthelatter had to deal with analogous
Page 231: ' . economic
problems, ,such as :the appiication.pflarxl.st,:theories'to a.population with predomin-
antly nomadic economy. As to the rest,theAOngaians, although their Own Consti-
tu?4on bears, the .date of 1240, relied largely upon the older Constitution of the
soviet Union instead of the more recent Constitution,of,1936. The real power of the
State resides in the Great PeOpl'els Council" (the Alreat Khural where %bra]." has
has approximately the meaning. of "sovieti.e. a general council forned by a general
election in which all men and WOrtieh over the age of 18 have a vote); and this Council
has exclusive pTer to 'Iodify the Constitution. It also elects the "Small Peoples
Council" (Small Khural), W1Ach consists of 30 members, ' and exercises the powers of
government ald is responsible to the Great Mural. Strictly speaking the executive'
powers are exercised by asmall "Preesidium" consisting of seven members who are cho-
sen the the Small Khural. The.folloving are excludqd f.'..rom the right to vote: .1.1e
.RhUbilgans, the Khutuktu, the Pyazak, 'and the N,adzaz4k,l'pec; Mem12.ers' of the former
ruling classes of the population.
The Republic is subdivided in 18 provinces (27mak)
and 322 districts (somon). Its area of appr. 1531000 sq Ion supports a population of
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'0 l4 ?'?'* 4.! ...'!?41 I ? ? 4 ; ???1 ? ! ????? !'
'?''? .7?,.;1! ? f..4,...?11,
MILL GEN E TRA LAT
maloosnerairoperrel
/161111111110MMIMIIIIIIIIIANSWOONSW11.1M1
INE.224(contld)
? ab. 900,000 inhalAtants? more than 90% of whom are ,Mongols. In 1951 the country haa
374 elementary, 32 intermediate and 15 evanced-let'rel schools, attended by about.
69,000.pupils and students, as well as 15 technical high schoolitpd 3 high school in-
stitutes attended by a total of 3,500 students. In 1946 the old MongOlian alphabet .
was replaced by a new alphabet based on the. Cyrillic script. The number of analpha-
betes among the total population is at present estimated to be about ix 13% (No. 25,
TrATFULT?'
62
STAT
There existed unquestionably in at leaet part of the Mongolian. popula-
tion a desire to exploit the .successful march into Inner Mongolia in 19)45 for the
purpose of timiim bringing all Mongols under one and the same Government; but this
idea had to be given up at the same, due to the fact that the Chinese People's Repub.-
lic refused to renounce to these territories. I request made by the Mongolian Peep-
legs Republic for, membership in the United Nations was declined in 6eptember 1946,
due to the opposition of Great Britain, the United States, and others.
The political fate of the Manchurian and the pargal Mongols during
the last few decades was similarly eventful. In 1911 and 1915 the Barga witnessed
uprisings of the Mongols against the Chinese adninistration., China felt prompted
to grant a certain measure of autonomy to the Darga Mongols; but there followed prac-
ticali7 no change with respect to Chinese infiltration (cf. No. 1080 p. 31 ff.); and
the limited amount of self-administration that had been granted was rescinded again
by a Chinese Presidential .uecree in 1928. During the summer of 19282 under the lea-
2?.2221
dershipMersai0 there wer renewed Mongol uprisings against the ullinese dominion, an
action that had the support, especially, of the "Young Mongol" movement founded in
North Jehol and the Barga as far back as 1922, and was led by politicians some of
whom had pursued 'their studies in Moscow, Vladivostok, and so forth. The Japanese,
likewise, began at that time to esert an influence upon the Mongols The conferences
of Mongol princes called together by the Chinese Central Government in 1930 at Mukden
and Nangking did not produce any results favorable to the ,Mongol strivings for a*-
tono*. When the Japanese advanced into Manchuria in 1931 they met with no resist-
ance from the Mongols residing there. During the time that followed, Japanese policy
depended primarily upon support from the nobility and the monasteries. In 1932 con-
sultations were held by representatives of Japan, i.e. of the Aanchurian Government
.01111161110,
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INTELLI0EfIc4 TRARIS, ?
,
Page 232: ( cont d)
STAT
instituted by them, and representatives of thelDargaLMongols,,as well as those of the
Jerim, dho.ota, end Khossoto associations... These discussions led to the fOrmatiOn
of an autonomous Chingal-Provinde comprising four districts), which was ad.linistered:
under the Ministry of Kongo]. Affairs (known since 1937 as the "Ch1ngan-juileau0?
a Japanese.Mongolian authority. An attempt WaP made also to revive former bonds
between the Mongols and the Manchu Dynasty -- consequent upon the.coronoation of ?
olian:
Pgyi (MongitimEmpteror Engke) as Emperor of Manchuria. 'The'monasteries were
22M reorganized, Mongolian schools were estalishedpand.Mongolian troops. were train-
ed. In 1939 the provinces Of North Chinran south 04inran,:ast Chin van .and West
Chingan covered together an area of 425480 6q014;m9, with a:population of about 1.8
nillion.among whom were included, however, not more than about 480,000 Mongols. The
latter, consequently, were faced with a'Cknese majority, but en,loye4 a completely
autonomous ,administration.. Due to the fact that the ?Nongols'in Manchuria do not
show much of. a.tendency to form closely united settlements, not more than barely
one.half of the Mvigols. living in. those rcgions were included, under the autonomous
.-certain
Province Of Chingance. No. 15a, p. 355 ff.). After, the Japanese collpase secticps
of the 1.1ongol:population in Ulanhot (langyehmiao) proclaimed in v.'estern Manchuria
an Inner.Mongolian People's Republic which, however, did not continue in existence
very long.
Sun Yet-Ben, the ',father of the Chinese Revolution of 1911 had pro.
claimed the equality of the people's of China, butat -the samc time had also demanded
the transfer of great masses, of the Chinese populatiOn.ft from the overpopulated
provinces to the thinly settled marginal areas. Among others, these areas included
the territories of Inner Mongolia, where soon thereafter large numbers: of Chinese
farmers and traders loved in, as was mentioned in the foregoing. Japan employed
T.511.233'
agents in an.effort to exploit in her own behalf the discontent of. the AongOls; and
Tenmants
at the sarde time China went about destroying such xximinut.of Mongol autonomy as
had still survived fron the Manchu times.
The Chinese wroked to disrupte not only
the tribes themselves, but also the Manchurian league system .. a system under which
the Manchmian tribes h&. been broken up and reorganized in "banner" groups, so as
the prevent the complete unity of any tribe as a whole(cf. Mo, 156, p. 16 ff.). But
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NTECtratwarrattntra771?77-""
IIEL2210contid)
nernmar.,..,?
64
STAT ?
it was not until 1928 that the Chinese q6veraleitt began .to d?it* TA17:th the notion
of Mangolia?".by reorganizing these territories as provinces; 'and the .
Mongolian pasture lands there then distributed among Oe .provinces of
Seiyuen and Chahar (cf. No. 125, pp. 116 if., 3421f., 461 if., 231 ff.). Chinese
efforts to penetrate the Mongolian pasture lands were made easier by the la& of
unity among the Mongols :themselves; but there developed. among the younger MongOls,
to some extent Under the influence of study in foreign countries, certain national-
istic currents calling for 'autonomy. In, 1930 the Chinese Goveihent called together,
at Nanking, a Conference with Mongolian leaders, and the Mongols were promised cer-
tainspecial 'forms of assistanceim matters of economic.andsly cultural reconstruc-
tion; but t1io3i never really received any.asstitanceand were never granted any real
measure of autonomy.
During the years that followed, an increasing measure of propaganda
effect was .e).(ercised, upon the Mongols left in China, by the Japanese autonomy
-
measures in .the Province of Chingan and by events in Outer Mongolia. kn increasingly
important role. was played, among .the Mongols in China, by Teholdang, the Prince of the
West.SunnitBanner:ofthe 8ilingo14eague'(located in the northern part of what was
then the Province of Chahar, and the only torritory that had been touched very little
by Chinese colonization). He created an ariy of,Aangol horsemen and attempted a
reorganizatit6 of. the monasteries, in order to keep a majority of the young men from
goinp into the monasteries (cf. also No. I08, p. 118 ff.) . When the Japanese OCCII
pied Tolun one of the .border towns of Chahar, and the local Mongols joined them,
Teh.;Yang called in 1933 a conference of Mongolian.princes.at 3aturkhalak (Ptilingmiao
Avni
in southern Suiyuan), for the purpose of demanding autoomy fon the Chinese. The
latter thereupon appointed a Government Commissar for Inner i4ongolia, but .made at
the sane time an attempt to weaken the MongOlian.demands, making uSe for this purpose
of the Panchen-Lem, one of the two highest dignitaries of the Lamaist Church hierar-
chy. It was not until 3 March 1934 that the Chinese were willing to grant autonomy
when the effects of Japanese influence exercised upon the Mongolians from Manchu-
ria had become dangerous to China.
r Inn olia?
In April 19311 a 'local AutOriaTious Political Counci was formed at
Pa .e 2
?
Baturkhalak, with Teh.:-ang as its first presiding officer. lowever, this Council
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(cont?
65
STAT
had only limited possibilities of functioning; and Tell Yang soon found his efforts
toward genuine autonomy restricted due to the defcttion of the Ordos Montrolaa and.
part. of the lanOisia Mongols (who succumbed to Chinese promises), and due to the in-
creasing amount of collaboration between the Jehol longols under Li-Shou-Hsin and
part of the Chahar 'Iongols with :the Japanese? In January 1936matedx the Chinese
Government. created for the Suiplan l'On$164, a "Mongolian Political. Council" which
0 KA
functioned .eiclutively under Ilinking, with the result that ? Tehang' s influence was
restricted _still further (cf. also No. 121). Tehujani! thereupon joined forces with
:Hsin ? ?
Li,Shou4ixx lOving.the Seat of his own Government to Chapsar, in the East, where
he started. upon closer cooperation with the Japanese, without, however, losing sight
of his ultimate p'pal0 In 193? is Mongolian troops, jointly with Japanese units,
conquered all of Chphar and $:uiyuan, forcin7 the Chinese bakk to the South. On 28
October 1937, at Kutukhoto (Sutyuan? or Kweisui) a meeting of 500 representatives of
the tribes of Inner Mongolia :decided upon ,the formation of an "Autonomous Government
of the lOngol Leagues." The oreios,loOols and the iqridiia'4onFols, remaining with
China, were not represented, at this meeting. E short time later Teh41ang became
the kresident of the new Government?
But prompted by Pconolic and general political considerations the
Japanese caused in November 1937 formation of a union that comprisecthe Chinese-
settled part of South.Chahar and llorth.ehansi alone with the Mongolian areas al-
though Tehang's influence remainedto some extent intact even after the reoganiza.
tion of 1939. The newly founded ("Mengeliang l'ederation" (Men.Chiang'm approxate-
ly,
"Iongolian frontier territory")comprised an area of 11661000'sq.km. with appr.
3 inhabitants, only 105 of whom were Mongols Of. also Io. 1311. Although
the Japanese'exploited this."wbonomous" State for purposes of war, Tehang de.
clared on papeated occasion that creation of ti Greater Mongoliam EMAre -- extend.
from Buryat Monjolip. and the 3arga all the 'ay to Chirran, Alashan, and Ordos
continuedArrevocably to be his goal. The Japanese did not ever 'come to his aid to
the extent of placing him .at the head, for 'instance, Of V e Japanese.controlled
territories of the Barga and a the Province of Chingan. Since the Japanese inter-
vened even in the purely local 'affairs Of the Moliolian administration, the distrust
of the 40n.'ols kept growing during the vox since they came to recoftd,ze tore and
snaserwerawaiiiiiiere
I
'
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.? ? , ? ,? ,
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117
STAT
' more that they were mirely being used as.the.means to an end (cf. No 139). .
A possibility of bringing the Mongols ()fall the different region?
,under one government, or at least more or 1Sess loosely to unite them, might have
existed in 1945, when the troops from Outer Mongolia were helping to occupy the
lands of Inner Mongolia and to disarm the Japanese troops. however, as was nentioned
in an earlier context, political considerations of a higher order prompted the with-
drawal of these troops, and thelands of Inner Mongolia as well as the !ongoliaarts
of Manchuria remained in Chinese hands. In 1947 the Barga and most of the other part,
of the former autonomous Chingan Province of Aanchuria.w.ere combined witgthe northern
? Chahar and certain parts of Jehol and Sui,yuan to form Int the "Autonomous Aegion of
? Inner Mongolian as part of the Chinese People's Republic.; and .hen the Province of
Chahar was dissolved in November 1952 some parts of the latter were 1kewisnc1ixIed.
The capital of this region, until 1952, was Kalgan (Changkiakcw); and since then
Unhehot has been the capital city. The "Autonomous 114,gionu comprises appr. 700,000
sq.km. with about 6.1 miatlion inhabitakts, about 20% probably are Mongols (cf. No.
1)5 ps. 860 if.; No. 126; No 130; and Zeitschrift fur den Erdkundeunterricht 1954
H.5.1 Map, Aedited by U. Heidenreuter; and &hie I-Yuan: Changes in
China's Adiinistra-
tive Divisions in; People's China, 1955 5.10,.pp. 28-30). The ',Autonomous Region"
is subdivided *ording to Hasa" (tribal associations): Chinon Mongols, Ordps Mon-
pols, Huna League; Chahar Mongols, Jerim league; Cho-alba-Associations Silingol League
and so forth. The political distribution of the Mongols ,in. their East, and Central
the
Asian main areas of concentration IS at present approximat as gales's: Buryatmon-
rmiska? AMR (Autonomous RepUblic of the North-Mongols); the Fast-Orda National
District:of the Irkutsk Oblast, and the National District of the Buryat Mongols in th
Chita Oblast of the RSRSR of the Soviet Union; he Mongolian People's Republic (in-
habited chiefly by'El.a.alcha Mongols and 1-Inked with the Soviet Union by a friendship
(inhabited
and assistance treaty); the Autmomous Region of Inner Mongolia itittesedalt chiefly
by Barguds and Inner-Mongolian tribes), in the Chinese People's epublic; and a
number of other Mongolian tribes in the Phese provinces of Kansa (Alashan Aoncols
in the forner Province of Uinghsial etc.) and S? .est-Mongolian groups.
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?
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sestommotwoodisnimm,""'"""
NTELWE TTIAlarrrat,
Tat.237:
N 0 it THE. A?A'
MANG , URIA.
Famarcaraa-ritlikattili
ay Prof. Dr.
GUSTAV FOCHLER4AUKE Munich
abtor's
The bibliographic report on Manchuria publishedin the oplagm:
?
Alt10111F-1"?""""
67
ische Jahrbuch' covers a period of ten years; it included more than 50 pages of
4
tex
t, and include* 600 publications (cf. Geographisches Jahrbuch 1938, pp.
275.326); but the report that follows covers fa.1.? less ground, although it
Aes a period of, 17 years. Some of the 1937 publications received attention
in the
tists h
last report. During the war, however, practically none but Japanese scien.
ad any opportunity to conduct investigations in Manchuria. Their published
work has
bee one kn
..?
come out 'rst1y in the Japanese language, and with few exceptions has not
own in'the Western countries. The sane holds true also for studies on Man.
ehed
Since the conclusion of the war,
churia that were publi by Chinese authors.
scientific
field investigations in Manchuria were preclude! by the prevailing po-
litical cond
it ions;' ani for linguistic and other reasons the studies that have ap.
peared during
al cases. Exc
the last few years in the Far East have become 4nown only in exception-
ept for citieens of the Soviet Union, foreign investigators had no
possibilities f
or reseasch in the country itself during the last few years.
A
lthough the number of publications dealt with in the present report
may be relatively
portance. An effo
small, there is occasion to treat of several works of basic un-
rt was made loreover, to give the research results in greater de.
tail than heretofore
heretofore was given
war, since these have
T420138:
so as to afford an adequate genera view. More space than
also to developments that have occurred during and since the
become little known to the general public0
es of books written in the Chinese Japanese, and Russian
The tit
laneuages will be cited
here in German (i.e English only in this translation),
except in those instances
in the Latin alphabet, So
where the original publication furnished a'. title written
titles'
far as possible, the Waits were reproduced directly
ginals. Any lacunae in Some of the bibliographic indi-
the conditions prevailing at this time,,
and faithfully from the ori
cations must be ascribed to
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68
immempiwowissirimberbielloommaimemalomma
STAT
painfOGRAPHIES
1.? The Section'nBibliogiaphyn in O. Fochlerwilauke: Die MandsChurei Manchuria). '
Heidelberg 19412 pp. 3834419.
2. Tbeller-Hauke, G.: Die M'andsehurei (Manchuria). ilaturforschung und Jed41n in
Deutschland (fiat Acview of German Etience)..Vol. 45: Geography, Part II -Aes-
baden 1948) Pp. 85-90. .
3,? Fochler-llaukel G. : Der deutsche Anteil an der Erforschung Ostasiens (The German
Share in the Exploration of itsts.Asia). (Zeitschrift far Lrdkunde, Fraikfurt an
Main 1940, Pp'0 351-620)
Durinr the time covered by this report no separately published bibli-
or!raplv has become known. The work cited under I above, however, contains what
has so far been the most extensive bibliography on aanchuria? including 1005
published titles; and this bibliography devotes attention no onizr to western
publications since the beAnning of the 18th century up to about 1939, but also
includes references to .orks pblished in the i?ussian, Ch;mese, and Japanese
languages. The more recent report,(No.2)lists and discusses publications on
Manchuria that have come out in the German language during the time from 1939
to 1946. Although these two reports also include the Barga west of the Great
Chingan, this longolian marginal re 'ion is not treated in the present report,
because since the war it has become part of the Autonomous acgion of Inner don-
? golia and for that reason was given attention in the bibliograty on Mongolia.
(Cf. thc present volume, pp. 187-235.) ? The share contributed by Germans to
Manchuria
research on blingatiax (No. 3) has been quite considerable at all times: Peter
Simon Pallas, Gustav itadde, L. v. Schrenk, A. Th. v. Aiddendorf, and many ethers
have conducted investigations, during the 19th century, in the Russian Amur
? country and in neighboring parts of Manchuria; their botanical, zoological,
? ethnological, and cartographic results have retained validity to this day.
Ferdinand v. ltichthofen conducted 1869/74 his basic and permanently valid ge? e-
logical-morphological investigations in southern Manchuria and it was he who
recognized, Owe all the basic structural features of .the mountain ranges of
Liaoturr and.Liaohsi. The 1geologist E. v. Ahnert, who had ,gene to Manchuria
in charge of the expedition sent out 189698 by the Imperial...Russian Geographic'
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! 1.00, Co!
NTELueENIMMtTer"?i?,
vgaromemitaiirentamoimemosmerolomaraimmiestormadkg
Pa 23': (cont Id)
wargrariErmsa"--"w"
69
STAT
Socipty?'mado the greatest, contribution toHthe :studies' on that country and spent .
several decade6 at werk. there. The following nates call for special mention among.
the German scientists Who'eonducted field research in Mtnchnria and have published
their results: G. Fenzel (1931)1 00 Foc,)ler-Hauke (1927/28i 1935/36), 0. Franke
(1890 an6 1896), H. Maier (1927), B. Plaetschk (1932),V. bt8tzner (1926-27)4 E0
Thiel (1936-37), and 0. Weigo41 (1916).
2. MANUALS. ANNUAL WORTS AND GOVFARNiNil WORTS
40 The JapanHManchnkno.Years-Books, Tokyo ('nglish).
50 Manchukuo Year-Book, Usinking 1941, 961 pp..(Lnglish).
6. EconomicConditions in Manchukuo? publ by the. Foreign Office, Rbinking 1940.
111 pp.'(illglish).
The -well-known Year-Books (No. ) No, 5) continued to be published during
the years of the war. ,Like the numerous reports published by the Ministries in
ffsinking.(No. 6 et al.), they contain valuable statistical data that will continue
to be of value for research on the economic development during that important period
of times, even though to some extent these data may pnly be conditionally valid.
3. EATS At ATLASES,
Manchuria-Terrain, Relief Model prepared .by Staff Service *del bection, A.H.S.,
Department Of .State, Division of Map Intelligence and Cartography, vt:ashington,
D.C. 1946. APpr. 161000,000.
Chin-C4ng4u? Ling Ta.lisia? and Chin Chi4n: Chung-Huai, JeneMin Kung441e4uo Fen
Sheng Ti T!ti ()\tlas of Provinces of the Chinese People's Reptile, 52 Maps,
Shanghai 1950 (Chinese)0
10.
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Ting IJe .chang, Ong Wen-han and Ts'eng Shih-ying: New Atlas of China, 5th Ed0
revised postwar edition by Ts'eng Shih-ying and Faag-ChWn. Shanghai 19480 58
Map Pages 911 Texts (Chinese).
Fuchs W (Editor): The "Mongol Atlas" of China by Chu-Ssu-Pen and the Kuaag-
Yu.Tn. 32 pop 48 Facsimile Hap of appr. 15550 Monumenta berica: Journal of Ori.
ental Studies of the Catholic University of Peking, Mong.VIII, Fu Jen University
Peiping 19460
Before and durin the war the countries interested prepared a large
number of maps of Manchuria; but most of these 944
.r9,04,....:#1e:Oporal:
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Page 239: (cont d)
the exception of Japan, all of the countries concerned were restritted to the
use of compilations. One of these)), based on the old Russian 2-verst maps and on
more recent Japanese .maps 1:100,000, etc., was brought out by the U.S'.A. Department
of State (No.7) in the form of a relief map. The latter, ungitestionably affords a
A'Llninia----"0"-ftw
70
STAT
'goo'd general impression of the relief conditions, but conveys in many of its details
Page 240:
q"..7rg1eading impression. of the nature of the surface) especially the course followed
by some .of the Inountain? ranges, as for instance in the norther.) part of the Great
Chingan? .in the Little Chinran, in Jehol, etc.' Some of the recent atlases of China
(No.8) contain hypsographic charts in several colors, and the political divisions
are shown. The northeastern provinces are shown on a scale of 1:3 million' or (No.9)
of 1:5 million. An..outstanding accomplishment is the edition, by J. Fuchs (No.10),
of the HMOngol Atlas," which is of great historical Interest also st, far as the study
of Manchuria is concerned,,
Ito GMERAL ACCOUNTS RESEARCH RETORTS DESCRIPTIONS OF PARTS OF THE REGION
11. Cressey, Asials Land and Peoples. let Ed. New York 19I4. Includes a
brief account of the Manchurian area.
12. Fochler-Hauke$ .G.: Die Yiandschurei (Manchuria). Heidelberg 1941. 1148 pp. Maps,
Index.
13? --: Die Mandschurei (Manchuria) Handboot 'or Frontier Gernans and G'ernans
Abroad 3, Breslau 1940.)
1110 Manchoukuop ,Geo?,raphy, History Economy. Milano 1914.0. Compilation of Sev-
eral articles, based in part of No. 120
350 Imanishi,. Kinji: Ecological Observations of the Great Khingan laxpedition.
New York 1950, ppo 23643) Maps, Pictures.)
16. Laute
oh, H.: Der Geographische Formenwandel (Georraphie Morphological Changes)
Bonn 1952, p. lLb ff.
17. Manchukuo To-day. Publ. by the Foreign Office at lisinidng 1940. 10 pamphlets.
PolitieoZconomic survey against a background of propaganda. I
The first complete geographic account of Manchuria (N0012) was based
its
on tot author's own extensive travels and on a comprehensive bibliography. After
first surveying the country's location and area, and tich the history of its explora-
tion, the book treats of the country's fundamental geoVaphic traits. Emphasis is
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71
STAT
placei upon the general traits of extensive unified landscape's. The geegraphic core
:of the country as a whole, the Manchurian Plain, is &tectonic depression delimited
by fractures and warps, and is filled out chiefly with luatemary deposits. The
ancient substrata appear at the surface only in individual localities. Details of
the morpholory vary Fraatly from one place to another. For thousands of years this
plain has witnessed great migratory movements of the populations. At present it is
settled alnost exclusively by Chinese families and mit constitutes the core of the
country's economy. The SouthwestiZanchurian MountaintLand, which essentially, coincid
with that of Jehol, is likewise one of the anciently settled areas. It is possible
to distini:mish a number of geological-morphological zones. The rock types of the
table-fornation are approximately analogous to tile Taishan-Complex of China. The
intcrmediate zone has Sinislan and palaeozoic foldedqimestones pushed ,to some extent
over mesozoic sediments. The general structure was determined primarily by t,e meso
zoic foldings of the Yenshan Movement The penrimmt formation of the present relief
Eara,e
(1422.2z241)
NOliTtlEAST CHINA (MANCHURIA)
LEGEND: See Lake; 2212022thttAars . Sea of Japan; Grosser.,- Great..;
Kleiner.. - Little; Golf von .. Gulf of 0.; Mandechurische Ebene - Manchurian
Plain; Ebene - Plain; UilL1 Country and
Lower-ledium Mountains; ielEhEf1.112122.21121Egra m Main Divisions of the
Landscape SUdwestmands&urisches Bergland Southwest.4anchurian Mountain Land;
Ostmandschurisches Bergland - East-Manchurian Mountain Land.
Eat-IL
started out with tertiary elevations and faults accompanied by eruptions, the latter
being revived during the quaternary period The climate and the flora exhibit a
transition from Central-Manchurian, North-Chinese, and Mongolian conditions. The
Monolian population was crowded out, by Chinese colynists, toward the northern mar-
ginal regions. The Great Chingan, up to 40 km. 511144th amiAppr. 1,400 km in
length, attains at only a feu points an elevation ?f..2
411
in
and has predominantly
the characteristics of subdue mountains. The palaeozoic folding, like the marginal
fractures of later date, has no direct connection any longer with the ,current relief.
Ever since von 'Aichthofen's imestigations this relief has been regarded as one of th
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(contld)
STAT
gr'eatitst-Asiatic marginal step. faults; and it constitutes 'a marginal upthrust'which
drops off at a fairly steep grade to the Manchurilan Plain, and at the same time ribes.
as a clearly distinct, relief feature above the level of the Mongolian Highland., be's-
pite the savage destruction of forests in recent times the northern and central parts
predominant .
of, the mountain ranges have to ta s day a ()rest Cover, with Chinese colonists !kettle
in the.valleysp.though remnants of Tungusianplements can still be found roaming
about in the. North Little has'becoMe knounszo.fars concerning the fundamental
geological-Morphological traits of the Ilchur-Alin and the Little Chingan. Recently
active volcanoes are to be found along tpho southern edge of the,' latter and point to
continuation of the 'tectonic movements. Conditions in the west indicate close re-
lations.with the northern portions of the Great .Chingan; but in the East can be noted
a transition:from:the latter' s larch and birch forests to the abundant mixed decidui.
?us forest of the h4st4lanOurian Mountain, Land. The 1ast-M4nchurian Mountain .Land
is subdivided into a northwestern and 4 southeastern portion' by the Suifun-Chanka
Depression and the AUtankiav fault trough; it .forms a highly varied upthrust zone
the structuie:of which is extremely complex. It exhibits disconformities as between
the'Arthaeo7,oid and the llgorlian systems, and also Idthin.the. latter itself. The
latest powerful faultl.ne7s occured subsequent to the Jurassic or.during.the Upper
-.strata
Cretaceous. The Coal-bearing Oligocene tom of Fushtth were affected by mild fault-
ings. rOmOtion of the fractures, some.. of .which date back to the quaternary, was
accompanied by extensive volcanic effUsions. The volcanic annular mountain range of
the Paitoshan rises within a fracture zone that. is locatedat the loeRinning of the
Tungusian and Korean bends of tka Rdchthofen's Manchurian step fault. The Mountain
Lando relatively humidond warm it the sur, ranges climatically between the areas
of Steppe climate in the west and an oceanic climate, humid and' cooler, in the east.
The flora. and fauna are characterized by penetration Of northern and southern forms.
An analoFous penetration prevailed originally also with respect to the population.
The Tungusian tribes,. united during the. 17th century am* tinder the name of vManchu-
rianssv have long since been crowded out by North-Ch niese steppe peasants, who' pene-
trated along the valleys. Rice-farming Koreans penetrated into the swampy valley
landscapes. In the North, on Ussuri territory, small remnanits of GoIdi are still
surviving. A distinct position is occupied, in the south, by the Iiaotung Peninsula,
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ELLIGEEMAI: I tatriiirs"..."
tap (cOntld)
which has become the most important point of departure for 'foreign economic and po
litical influences?
The same author gives a detailed account of the towns and villages,
where the North-Chinese colonial style predominates. Some of the cities, such as
Harbin Mukden Changchun and Talienwan, have exhibited an American rate of growth
in connection with modern industrial development? The history of the Manchurian area
liMB R
73
STAT
is characterized by an extremely rapid succession of varied conjunctures; and in re-
latiVely recent times Manchuria has been one of the most important bones of conten-
tion of world patties. The book devotes attention especially to mutual relations
anant,:the'differunt indivi4ual races, especiaAythe cultural and economico-social
contentions between notads? semi-nomads, and sedentary peasants. The extremely rapid
victorious progress of the Chinese colonists is possi14y, in its min way, unique.
Its massed power and mOmentum exceeds in,some respects all other' similar processes
witnessed in Asia and this holds true particularly of the. more recent epoch, initia-.
ted by Czarist Russia and by Japan, an epoch which revolutionized nearly everything
and hasivought great success especially in the industries and in mining?
H..Lautensach (No.16) in his basically important treatise' on the
systematics of the landscape (leegraphic Morphological Changes) briefly treats also
of Manchuria and the neighboring lands He considers that parts of the Manchurian
step fault, which 10 .composed of strikes extending SW-NNE, argue strongly in favor
of the assumption of stratigraphic divisions in keeping with an east.mestern direc-
tion of changes. In the basic climatic.characteristcs Iikewise,le.discerns a
systematic progress of change ;In the way of interference mdbuith of "planetary
chanes with the pest4restern or centripetal changes." Changes as to the level of
vegetation he exemplifies particularly by reference to the Chinran and the Paitoshan.
On the basis of his investigations, finally, he assigns to Nanchuria a place in the
koflandscapeina,
sa.RaYgTiardeveloped for a very broad expanse of Asian territory, although he
passes rather briefly over the cultural geographic factors?
Imanishi (No. ]5) accompanied in 19b2 an expedition that moved from
Hailar up along the pan River into the region: 'of the sources of the Bystraya; and
.ACSIFORM
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to some extent he vorked in areas where thelerman geographer Bruno PlaetschkepYhose
untimely ,death is to be regretted, had made iniportant investigations. It was there. .
that Imanishi's group met with membere Of. an expedition that had started out from
Amur (Moho), Special attention was devoted to the ecological conditions of the
Daurian larch forests (Larix Gmelini), of the so-called forest steppe and of. gallery
forests in the northern part of the Great Chingan region. Tovard, the east, the ex-
pedition also studied the narrow belt of deciduous forest (Cuercus mcmgolica) located
between the -larch forest and the; Manchurian steppe plains. Traces of quaternary
glaciation caps were not found. The amount of settlement in these regions is extreme4.
"horse-riiingr m
ly meager. The ft:eft:ism:x*6W Orochons, one of the northern Tungusian tribes,
live chieflly on the forest steppes as for instance along the Gan River; but parts
.of their former haunts in the lower Valleys were lost to. Chinese and Russian. peasant
.colonists. They live in cone ..shaped o1e yurtas, leading a very- meager existence*
The products of their hunt areused for their own supply and for barter trade. They
use rifles nowadays, and cover larger areas since they have been using horses. Ac-
cording toImanishi their mode of hunting, well-adapted for aim regions, represents
not
ecologically a ufilimax phaseu and should, from a technical point of view, be regarded
as rating lower. than-the Chinese pioneer methods of farming The rreindeer-ricline
lungusians, who are erroneously called "Yakuts" by the "horse-ri4fTungusians,
originally immigrated from Sibiria ani live in the central and northern parts of
the territoryHinvestigated by the expedition, especially the areas that drain into
the Bystriya,'where the "barren grounds". support everywhere a growth of Cladonia, a
plant that is typical for the upper tundra regions and indispensable as food for the
. horseflesh, ? -?
reindeer, iapt as the Ithorse,OWO Orodhons do not eat Wunommak; the "reindeer-
Orochons do not eat the .flesh of the reindeer, though both groups pa who, by
the way, do net communicate with one another:-- drink the mil* of their respective
animals;. The hunting territery Coveted by the rreindeer" drochonsis richer than
that of the flhorse" Orochons .so that their standard of living appears to be higher*
Moreover, tey,maintain close contact with Aossian civilization - and have to some ex-
tent accepted Orthodox Christianity, while #3.etr relgttires Of .the other tribe have
continued asShaManists* ,The 'Russian 'pioneer settlers engage in a,mixA.economy
based on agri.culture.and'stodk4arming.; and in the forest steppes they show a pref..
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1E141 EN. fatirarr---
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ii??????????????uromeron?scomamoniamoronouts?anow
("nt/d)
erence, in the forest.steppe areas for locations 'on the,hill and mountain slopes
thqm)
rather thenril the valley bottoms, where the danger of frost As,greater0 The Chinese
agricultural pioneers have shown less capability for adapting themselves than did
the Russians; and they use part of their products to supply the Chinese gold miners,
who, in the North, must be regarded as properly speaking the pioneers.
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rarrdrar?war
STAT
5. . ogoLoar 'AND 'GEOMORPHOLOGY
18. Ahnert, E .0eoological Researches along.tliellorth-lanchurian hallway in the
Great Phingan. (Reports of the Institute of Scientific Research of Manchukuo,
Bsinking.1938 II No. 3,; 12i-420)
190 ?4 History of Research (especially geological research) and of Mining in
Manchuria0 I vol0 of text carton binding, Tokro (Aussian).
20. Kudos, Sop and S. Ytbe: Report on the Coal Fields and Oil...Shale Deposits of the
Feng.Ning IJstrict, Jehol. (Btull. 'Cecil. Inst., Dairen 3937 PP? 35-39) I Map
(Japanese).
21. Machatschek, : Das Relief der Erde (141e Relief of the 'axth), I. Berlin 195.5i
p. 287 ff.
22. Ogura, T.: Erkoshanyolcano? Lung Chian: Province. (Survey i(eportis of Volcanoes.
n e-als
Ln lancuria, No. 2, Ilyojun 1938, 21 pp., Tables, Map (Japanese and Engl. ?))
23. Sasakura, Ueda, et al.:. Geological and Minery Description of the Southwestern
Part of MAnchuria. Dairen 1937, 1534p., Pictures, Naps (Japanese).
2140 Tada, F.: The North lanehurian Basin. (Bullocleca.Inst. of Toro University,
1950 161 pp. (Japanese and Enflish Z. (numerals?). .
Topographical and ueelogicalPescription of South. est Manclluria (Jehol).. Publ.
by the Geol Inst. of the 8outh-Kanchurian Railway, Dairen 19370 158 pp0, Pictuke
(Japanese).
26. Fochier.Hauke, Eduard von Ahnert. Die Multur in leben der Vblker, Munich
1941.)
27. Plaetschke, B.: .Eduard von Ahnert. (FM 19390)
28. Deasy, G.F Landform Regions Of Manchuria. (Ann. of the Ass.Amer.Geographers,
1941.) An attempt to e tablish morphological divisions.
The treatise by, E. v Ahnert (No 19), 101.ch has been published Also
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4
6I!, ,V I 1. ;O. .
91"
..taya.e2111 (cont d).
in a Oprmar; edition is one of the, most informative books so far published on the
subject of Manchuria. . A large portion 'o the text is devoted to an account of iMpor-
tant research expeditions: Poyarkov? Khabarov, Stepanov, Pashkov; and other Russian
,scientists, who worked chiefly in the northern part of the territoy; and others, down
'to v. 4chthofer4 CholnoXy? and Fritsche? who were active primarily in the South;
and the expeditions of recent years,. which are given particularly detailed treatment
by v. Ahnert. 'However, emphasis is placed by thtt author at .all times upon the geo-
logical problems and upon the existence, discovery, and exploitation of the under-
ground. wealth. .:Ahnert was the best amang.geological experts on Aanchuria and .had
himself.discovred several .important coal deposits, so that he was particularly well
q'ualified to giVe a.chronaogical account of the geological investigation ot Manchu-
ria. '(Nothing has become known concerning. the ultimate fate of this scientist, who
is known' to havestill been residing in Manchuria during. the period of the last wax.)
Fochler-flauke (No.26) and.PleetsclIke (N0.27) both have eulogized this pioneer of
research, who 'had' proffered extremely valuable advice, to them at well as to others,
in the course of their expeditions.
? The before.rmentioned treatise not only furnishes a history of mining,
but also, in:dealing'with the riches of the subsoil, a competent estimate of the
existing 'reserves ard,of the possibilities.-of'exploitation. The text.. itself of this
important
ureatise is supplemented by 'a large number of Mape that show the routes followed by
research expeditions and the distribution of, the underground wealth. In another
treatise, Ahnert ?(No. 18) summarizes the results of recent research in the railroad
area of the Great Chingan, showing then In. relation to earlier investigations, in
which he had himsel.?1 an important share0 The Japanese geologist Ogura (N0.22) one
of the best geological experts on ManchUria aside from Ahnert, has contributed an
excellent study of the group, of volcanoes located on the northern edge of the Manchu-
rian Plain, pointing out that these volcanees presumably test upon a cretaceous base.
They rise 'out of Pleistocene deposits;. and they are not known to have had any recent
eruptions, in contrast with the volcanoes of the Wutalienchi.Group,which are located
farther north. .Tada .(ffe2).1.), to whom we are 'indebted also for, basically' important
studies on JehOl? has investigated the Horth-Manchurian Plain and reached the coni.
erelfEir76a-
nuomairommatralumaisorramosomuip
STAT
Arrimagixtummoir.
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Le22116.1 (cent! d)
77
STAT,
elusion that ix present form is the resattoF of th'e action of mcirphological forces
connected with the replacement of arid Conditions by a humid climate. F. Machatschek
(No021) includes in his globe-covering opus a short survey dealing with the geomor-
phological basic traits of Manchuria.
6 FLORA AND FAUNA.
29. Utigawa? M.: Lineamenta florae Manchuricae. Pep. of the Inst. of Sc. xiesearch
O f Manchukuo, 3., Appendix 1, "inking 19390) '
30. Kuchler, AJ!.: A New geetation Map of Aanchuria. with text-map "Natural Vege-
tation of Aanchria" by A.W. r*hler and X Takernichi. (Lcology, vol029, N0041
October 190.)
31. Lukashkin, A.S.: On the Avifauna of North 'Manchuria. (Repo of the Inst. of Sc.
Acesearch of Manchukuo, III41 Hs inking 1939 32 pp..(Enrlish.))0
32. Takahashi, M.: Studies of the Systel of Plant Leolog 1.iased on field Intestiga-
tions made in Northern l'iast Aida. (J. of the eac. of Sc., Ilperial Unlverv.,
Tokro, sect. iII,S, To4yo 1944) 427-6490
330 Takenuchi, M.: A Preliminary Report on the Conifera Indigenous in Manchukuo,
with Special lieference to their Taxonomy and their Lastribution. (Zikkenri-Ziko
Of great interest is tle study recently brought out by Kftchler in col
laboration with Takenuchi, where Manchuria is. subdivided, according to its physiog-
nomic types of vegetation, in accordance with the vegetation card-index system de-
vised by Klichler. The small map provided with this volume (1:12,000,000) indicates
C rests of
larch and evergreen coniferous trees for the northern:wet parts of the Great Chingan,
Ilkhur-Alin, and Paitoshan, and evergreen coniferous forest for large portions of
central parts of the East-Manchurian lountain Land. The Central parts of the Great
,
Chingan are shown to have a cover of medium-high larch forest. The East-Manchurian
EmAll
Mbuntain Land is kept distinct as having tall xied forest consisting of deciduous
trees and evergreen conifers. Southern lanchuria, according to this map, is an area
of medium-hiA deciduous forests, and the same holds true for a major portion of the
Northwest-Manchurian plain, while the sonthwestern plain is represented as a savanna
with medium-high grasses and interspersed deciduous trees. The eastern Barga and the
Argun Valley are also shown as savannah land, but with short icasses. Grass lands
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" t .v ...F.) '?," .o..0i4.
ELLIG N NS
(oont'd)
are entered,on this map, for the.East-Barga and tot Small areas on' the West-Manchu-
rian Plain. In keeping 1.th the author's methods, the floristic aspects are left
out of considerationx entirely. The treatise in question is beyond doubt highly
athorgritery
78
STAT
valuable, 34b it fails to do full Justice to the :extraordinary variety of Manchurian
.The colprehensive Soviet literature on the subject has not yet been suf-
ficiently evaluated (cf. Bibliography in No.2). The extent of forest destruction is
actual
ar greater thai. the author assumed. A large portion of the Manchurian Plain onigin.
al)y consisted of grass,stoppe. ,The southern part of the East-Barga does not have
short-grass'.savannh with groups of deciduous trees, but consists in .reality of
a.graSs-ancl-herb steppe with scattered groups of pipe (Pinus silvestris Lo var mon-
golica Litw.), while the western Barga partakes chiefly of the nature of a wormwood-
herb. steppe,-mid nO that of a'grass steppe. Along the edges of the nort.hern Great
Chingan are to be found strips of typical forest steppe (with birch). Along the
lower Sungari the Mountain Ind with its mixed forest extends in many instances all
the way to the banks of the river, -leaving no space for the development of gallery
forests. Lukashkin (No.31) gives a systematic- account of the fauna. of the North
which belongs chiefly with the Sibirian '60b-Region, and is marked by a great amount
of penetration of. northern and southern elements. The Amur tiger, frequently en.
counteredin the earliEr.days? is now become quite a rarity.
70 ..........1.20mT(*JELEELLEEMELE.
34c, Dorbeck, F.:Das Mandschurische Klistengebiet und die Jdeheer (The l'anchurian
(10.140
Coastal 4e4ons and the HUdeheer." (Asien-3er0? H. 90.0,11/12,15/16917918,19,
15443o).
35*
1tberhar11U.: Kultur and Siedlung der.RandOlker Chinas
of the illarginal4rea People's. of China).' Leiden 1042.
36. Eickstedt, E v.: Rassendynamik von 04stasien, China, Japan, Tai und Killer von
(Thailand)
der Urteit bis heute (The Dynamics of Race in East7Asial China, Japan, Ta9''''
and Cambodia, for Primitive Times until To-day). Berlin 1944.
370 Fochler-Ilauke? G.: Staatpidee und NationalitItenpolitik in MandschutikUo (The
Concept of the. State, and Nationality Policies, in 4anChuk4o). (Volksforschung,
5, Stuttgart 19410 .
38. Franke, 00 Das, Volk der Ehitan und seine Spradhe (The Rhitan Nation and its
Culture and bettlement
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79
STAT
Language. iorsch. u..Fortschr.., Berlin 1940, p. 280 ff.) ?
..;90 Michael) F.: The Origin of Manchu duie in China. Baltimore.1942.' 127 pp.
40. Newel, N Usinking. (I)t, Kolonialztg., 5l, 2, 1939)0
41. Schwind, M.: Bei del:). ersten japanischen Kolonisten in Mandschukuo. wAsiati-
sche Rundschau, 20, Hamburg 1939.)
42.
1130
W.
?
an al a
Schwierigkeiten und Erfolge japanischer Kolonisation in Mandschukuo (Dif-
ficulties and Accomplishmants of Japanese Colonization in 4anchukuo)0 (az.
Leipzig 19110.)
fOO 011,
1,ATanderrichtung des japanischen Bev81kerungszuwachses (Direction of the
ligration of the Population increases in Japan). (GC., Leipzig 1940.)
Slamik? A.: :andschu. (In: A. Dernatzik: Grosse V81kerkunde Leipzig 1939.)
45. .Yamaruchi? : Some Notes of. Villages of Northern Manchuria. (Kimbun Chiry
"Ahthropokography," Tokyo 1949 (Japanese with kinglish title.)
460 Evers Ijo: Diellintwicklung der Saisoparbeiterbewegung in Mandschukuo (Develop-
lent of the Seasonal Labor Movement in Aanchukuo). ciAtscilr. f.'211dk., 12, 19444,
The treatise by Michael (NO.39) makes use tO some extent of materials
from.the:archiv.es of the .Aanchu Dynasty, .which have during the last few decades
evalulated by a.larO num'per.of.investigators; and it .Offers an excellent intro-
duction .to the nature of :Manchu policies. It appears that the Manchus were
well prepared cultural.ly as well as from the military and political point of
view at the time they left their original native hoMe to proceed to the con-
quest of China, and that they were capable of skillfully exploiting the Chinese
political ideologies with a view to adapting them to. the Manchu principles of
administration they made a conquest first of Ale Liaoning, where they sec=
cured for themselves a solid base in the Midst of a Chinese agricultural region.
At the same time they developed a system of "banners' adapted to certain models
that had been furnished by the Ming Bureaucracy; and in doing so.they streng-
thened tbe position of the monarch, at the expense of diversified tribal charac.;
teristics. The Manchus also proved themselves capable of preserving, even after
establishment of their dominion in China a certain indePen4ence with regard to
their political and social-cultural organization. Slawik (No 411) gives a, brief
survey dealing filth the racial descent culture, and religion of the Manchus;
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) m'sdr
"ITNTEMTENC
la016.1.(cont%
80
ammowinumnsummo?pmftwiwasa
STAT
but it erroneously estimates their mber at 6-7 million, whereas actually their
number is not likeZy to have exceeded 3 million (cf. No. 2, T4 355, where one can
find also a detailed account of relations of the Manchus with the neighboring nations
and of their gradUal assimilation by the Chinese civilization; cf. po 261 ff.). Von
Eickstedt (No036) and Eberhard (No.35), whose treatises are devoted to China as a
whole ard to the larger subdivisions, also include comment specifically on Manchuria,
a topic for which the boom by Eberhard, especia4y, is of importance. The function
of South-Manchuria as a bridge for national migrations from China to Korea and Japan
is Clearly broUght'Out in his account. Wrbeck'(No.34) treats of the ndeheerNdechel
tribes a Tungusian remnan who have survived in small groups in the southern part
of the UssUri country, and wilo apart from the Gold I, were more strongly influenced
by the G'Anese-than'agy of the other Tungusian tribes. Franke, a leading expert on
East,Asiatic historyi.examines from a new perspective the origins and language of
? the Khitan. btarting out from Manchuria as a basis, ,the Khitan founded during the
roe':
, 10th century' the powerful .empire of the liao Dynasty. One might* say they were the
first to Introduce Manchuria into the general background of the norId's history.
Newel (No040) gives a description of Hsinking, a city which side by
side with the old town of Changchun (whose name it now bears again) was developed,
through Japanese initiative into one of the most modern administrative centers in
East,Asia and functioned as the capital of the short4ived impire of Manchukuo. As
result of its favorable location Hsinking has retained its importance to this day.
Yamaguchi (No0h5) furnishes one of the few detailed studies available on the subject
of the Manchurian village. Schwind (especially No. hi and h2) deals with the methods
by which the Japanese chose colonists for Kanchuria? and also with the economic ard
neneral prerequisites of the fluctuatiO success of the japarles cOlonizing. effort
(cf. also No. 2, p. 289 ff.).' The Japanese settlers vere returned to Japan after
the close of the Second 'Z..c/ld War. Part of the Korean population, likewise, was
settled elsewhere. .Evers (No.46) examines the problem of the Chinese Seasonal wor-
kers, increasing nulbers of whom were brought from North China to Manchuria at the
turn of the century, in connectipn with the modernization of Mandhuria?and who in
numerous instances remained.t4ere as settlers* .iit?first the Japanese cut off this
influx, but had to rescind their measures, in view of the great demand for additional
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INTE1114ENCE' TRANSLA1.476""ilan*m"."7
Page 242! (contid)
Frarromir-
81
STAT
agricultural and industrial labor forces? Fochler-Haul.ce (No.57):analyzes the policy
of nationalities adopted in Manchukuo under Japanese leadership. Its aim was to
sepregate the great masses of Chinese in Manchuria cutturally.and politically from
the. native country, and at the SAM time to weaken them by promoting Korean and
Japanese colonization and by lending: support to non-Chinese ethnic groups. With this
opecial
purpose in mincriqe-Onomic, cultural, and political support xsti (autonomy for the Mon-
():ols) was ?ranted to Monrols, Koreans, Daurians? and so forth.
80 ECONOMY 4) COMUNICATIONS
50. Chesneaul(0 J.: La vie ecor,omioue de la Chine Nouvelle(The Economic Life of the
New China) . (Ann. de ueogr., No.. 319, Paris 1951, pp. 88409 (irench)a)
51. Ginsburg, N.: Manchurian "sillily bevelopment. (Eastern 4larterly 1948/49 (Eng-
lish.)
52. Grydantsev? A.J.:.Manchuria: An industrial Lurvey. Pacific Affairs XVIII,
No. .49 .Orange, Con., 195, pp. 321-39: (Lnglish)).
53. Ischboldin, R.: Die Goldindustrie MandsChUkuos (The Gold Industry in Manchukuo).
(Osteuropa4larkti Ktinir.:sberg 1937.91119 531, 39.)
540 Krejci-Graf, K.: Kohle und Eisen in China (Coal and Iron in China (Natur und
Volk, 69, 1939)
550 Leke A.: Kohle im Fernen Osten?Coal.in the liar-East.) (Der ((tuerschla, 5,
19390)
Page 250:
-56;---1itsushima? K.:(The Development of Agriculture in Manchukuo):"Die Lntwicklung de
Landwirtschaft in Manchukuo.' ,(Ostasiatische Hundschau, 20, Hamburg 1939).
57. Rodgers A.: The Ylanchurian Iron and Steel Industry and its Resource Base. (GRev
XXXVIII, No. 1, New York 1948, pp. 40(.540)
58. Schumpeter', E.P. (et al.): Industrialization of Japan. and 4anchukuO 1939/40,
New York 191tO (English)).
590 Sera, S.: Die Schwerindustrie lanchukuos (The Heavy Industries of IanchukuO).
Ostasiatische Rundschau 20, Hamburg 1939.)
60. Thiel, E.: Mandschukuo. Fqhrer durch die mands&IUrische Artschaft4ManchUkuo.
, . introduction
A Guide through the Manchurian Lconony)0 Mrigsberg 19390-A short Amidexxx
with statistical data.
610 Die Schafzucht Mandschukuos (Sheepraisin Aanchukuo) Schafzucht, 29,
19L00)
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ELL EtIc t""TTOXTsM"f6rr":"""'"
Etr.252:t (contld)
82
STAT ,
62. Idischniakowsky, B.: in vierzigjhhriger Kampf um die VerIcehrswege der Mandschu-
rei (A Forty-Year Struggle for the Traffic Routes of Manchuria). (Ostasiatische
Rundschau, Hamburg 1938, pp. 48749.)
63. Glusphakov, P.!.: Manc.lurtra: Ekonomiko-geograficheskye .opisaniye (Manchuria,
, ($004,4
an Econolico-Geogrqphic Addount).(Russian.) &emit 2948.
Fochler-lauke (NO.2, p.'293 40) givLS'an account of the economic de-
to'
velopment Of 4nchuria since the last century and up the beginning of the Second
World War, with sPecial.attention.to conditions during the Japanese Occupation. Litt
le information has reached th61:est concerning developments during the war and in the
most recent types. Prior to '1945 the agricultUral output amounted, as an average,
to 4 million t. of soya beans,' L. million t. of Kapliang, 3 million t'0 of ordinary
millet, 2.5:million t. of maize, 105 million t. of wheat,and 700,000 t. of rice.
The cattle holdings prior to 1945 included appr. 50 mp.lion hogs, 2' million sheep,
1.8 million horses, 1.7 bovine cattle, 1.2 million goats, and appr. 1 million don-
keys and mules. . The airicultural output suffered at firstIdue to conditions during
the ? last years of the war and during the earlier post-war years. Since that time
there has to some extent occurred a fundamental change. The large land-holdings
were broken up. It seems probable that appr. .2 million. peasants had land turned
over to them as result of the agrarian reform law of 1547. In a number of areas
large state farms have been established. Measures have been initiated to extend
mechanization of agriculture. The total agricultural, production amounted in 1949 to
about 13 Million t., and 'in 1951 to appr. 18 million t. Obviously the Wartime and
postmwar decline had been overcome even at that time, and the level of the 1943
figures had again been attained. In rcSpect Of transportation Manchuria is the most
highly developed major region of China; and normalftatiOn 'of. the means of transpor-
tation has had the effect of helping to restore not only the agricultural but also
the industrial powers cf production. With its 15,000 10. length of rail, in 1943,
Manchuria alonewas ahead of all the rest of 'China.
Fairly detailed numerical data concerning the development of mining
1 and industry during the war period are furnished byAraydantsev (NO.52) and lipdgersh
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STAT
(cf. Map p. 251 of the original document).
The lost Important of' the Deposits of Underground 'e:ealth.
11-;OETTIO: See- Lake; Wichtigste - the Most Important; GoIdvorkommen -
Gold Deposits; Kohlenvorkommen Goal Deposits; Eisenerzlager - Deposits
of Iron Ore.
Page 252:
(No. 57); and 0hesneaux (No. 50) supplies some information concerning the nost re-
cent times. :The estimate of coal reserves as of 1938 was only lilliard t.; but
in 19114 Taketora Ogata's basnu his conclusions on investixations carried through by
VT, Japanese, ?c:Ites a?fl.gure of 27 milliard tos mostly hard coal. The most important
of the deposits, such as Fushun and Fuhsiens are located not far from the coast, and
also in :the vicinity, of the great iron deposits of Penshilu and Tunfjpientao (near
Tunhua) The coal of the basins of ifokong and Aishan lends itself well to coking?
Since 1931 (9.6 million; 1938 15 million to) the output had increased with extreme
rafddity to more than 110 million t. in 1944/ but
after that dropped abruptly as re
-
suit of war 'conditions. in 1949 the output was only 11 million ts; but by 1950 it
had risen again to 17 .million t. Since then it seems probable, a level of more
than 20 million. tO has been reached again so that Manchuria once more occupies an
important positl.or,among the cbai-producin.g, countries. The deposits of oil schist
(near leushun).have recently been estimated at 7 milliard t.? with an average oil
content of 5-6% of the weieht of the schist. Estimates of the iron reserves vary
ereat3y. In 1938 the iron deposits were estimated at a total Of ,1.8 milliard t0;
but according to more recent Japanese estimates the reServcs contained in the two
main deposits -- Anshan-Kungchanraing and aaberhkouaitoushat .- contain 144t mil-
liard t0 of law-quality ores. To this -iust be added 60 million t0 of high-quality
ores in these localities. The output of iron ore was 924,00d to in .1931 and 2 mU-
lion ifl 103,
increasing to 5.3 million t0 as early as 1943 nearly 60% of this
quantity being supplied by the Anshan district. The crude iron prodUction. in 1932
was oy obout 370,000 to and in 1937 about 760,000 to, and reached its rnaadmurn with
1.7 million to in 1943. In 1944 only la 'million, to were produced and during the
years that followed production declined still further, db.?0 the ser4ping,of.pl.antss
and for Other reasons. In 1950 VAR crude j.ron,praptucticamouOtOd ta700,000
?
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untagarlossainstwassasswommorsomvartmassaisr
EmE254 ( contld)
.' 84
Milmmilligmlumm""allawm".11119111.11"
STAT
but since.that.tite recovery has been rapid, since special. 'teaurOtti have been taken
to aid not only the crude iron production, but 'all of the heavy.industrieso In
1935 the crude steel production amountedon;y to 136,000 to Later; as result of the
construction of steel works of the most modern types, especially in Anshan, bringlng
their total nUmber up to 17, steel productior reached its maximum in 1943, when the
Anshan alone produced 103 .million t. of crude steel. In 1946 Production was stopped
entirely; by as early as 1950 a total of 540 000 t0 of crude steel were again being
produced.
Down into the first years of the war great prov.ress was beinj mad.e by
. the textile industry (1939: 500,000 spindles and 10,000 looms, providing for one-
third of the domestic requirements) and by. the chemical industries. Ship-building,
Page 253:
ewise, has made rapid progress; and shipyards at Dairen. (Talienwan, or Dalni)
have produced vessels up. to 5,000 BRT. Aining and the .yldustries wouId not have been
capable of plwressin as rapidly as they did had it not been for well-planned
larN-scale development of the sources of energy. The Japanese had planned for the
construction of .a total of 50 water-power plants of an average output of 3.2 1J/hr.
The followinr were actval3y built: the great Yalu stations (Utilized jointly by Ian-
churians.and Koreans); the .new.7engman ilant on the Sungari; the Tsinbu-Lake plant;
the fhaven plait on the Uw.lho; and a number Of other important stations. Upon re-
storation of the destroyed plants, the total of electric power produced amounted in
1949 to 1.14 and in 1950 to 2 milliard kv./hr,
The conversion of Manchuria from a predominantly cf7rarian country into
a territory where agricultural and industrial production are of nearly equal import-
ance has during the last few years been brought to completion with astonishinT ra-
pidity. The value of the industrial output prior to theiiiir:amourited prObably to
less than one-third of the total output, and in 1950 this figure:had.already risen
as iligh as 43%0 Plans ttnticipated a share of 565 for 1952. .In other parts of China
only 10? as an average, of this figure were actually achieved, although the regional
1950
differences there are very considerable.. In six-seventh of the industries had
been taken over by the State. The preference shown to the heavy industries is evi-
denced.by the fact that in 1950 as much as 85% of all investments were devoted to the
heavy industries, The outstandanding position of Manchuria also was brouFfht out by
ISM(
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NROMAVOULIICIANAINII114411'11411?11011.64410,MOMPUIONIUMWMPANI IMMIONINFAMMII
Pa Ye 2 (cont!d)
lanchurib
the fact that in 19, 6Erthe only major aUbdivision of Chiba where several important
branches of induttry had nearly reached again, or even eceeded, the level of their
pre.1945 maximum output. .The same chalve of the economic structure also was rendered
apparent by the fact that, in contrast with earlier times, the majority of laborers
, no longer
immieratim from other parts of China were 1Wborers for emplayment la agriculture,
but for employment in the industries and in ming. The number of immigrants in 1949
was 240,0009 while More than a quarter of .a million laborers arrived during the
first ten months of l90 along.
90 GOVEETAENT, P,DMITISTRATION POIZTICS GliNERAL DESCRIPTIONS
64. Aufhauser)4.: Jehol, der ',v':eiten Welt geoffnet (Jehol Opened to the World at
Large). (Ostasiatische Rundschau) Hamburg 19379 ppo 1590640 A short travel
report) with emphasis on Ohengte and OD the Temple of the Valley of the Lions.
65. Bain, HLF.: Manchuria: A Key Area. .(Foreign Affairs, Vol* 25 1946-47, pp. 106
observations.
- 117.) Economico-politi,caI gmmaidmIcismsx
401242
tonoschin, B.: A Sojourn as. IThysician:in Mandschu.di guo ("Als Arzt in
50-Yr 2013/10/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500210003-4
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PreTIVATIA----"
85
STAT
CUP:
Mandschu-di Guo. (Mtinchener Medizinische lAwhenschrift 1937, pp. )499-960)
67. Fochler-Hauke, G.: Gwraehische Grundlage der neuen Verwaltungseinteilung
Chinas. (PM 1953 H02, MN 137-399 with Napo)
68. Jones) F.C.: Hanchuria since 1931. (Royal Institute of Int.Affairs Publ.) London
19119 (Lnplish). An objective political and economic account of developments*
69. Slanar, H.: Mandschutikuo? die heutip:e 4andschurei?Manchokuo9 the Manchuria of
To..Day). (MGOes,Hien 19439 p. 86.) A brief survey.
70. Smith, Sara R.: The Manchurian Crisis, 1931/32 New York 1948. 281 pp. (English)
A detailed account, based upon documents published prior to 19140 of the part
played by the United States of America and by the League of Nations in the so.
called Manchurian Conflict.
71. Sorge) W.: Eriebtes Mandschukuo (Experiences in Manchukuo). Berlin 1938. 308 pp.
1 lap, Pictures. Many-sided journalistic observations on Manchurian problems.
In keepinvi with the many political chwes undergone by Manchuria in
the course of her varied career) the country's administrative divisions have been
revised and reorranized a number of times. Under the Manchu Dynasty the so-called,
Northeast Provinces (Tung Ban Sheng) had for a long time beep,
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1NTElrairoTntucnrcTr--
Pae 2 l? (contld)
86
"""1"1"4"1"111.14".4".".1".1
STAT
? degree of independence ; and subsequent to the.fall of that dynasty thti:t independence
came near( under men such as.ChangtsoIin) amounting to complete authonomy; and the.
? Japanese leased area of Kwantuilg on Liaotung Peninsula, as well as the territories
along the Abohom "East-Chinafailrodl" where the Czarist Empire, and later the Soviet
Union, had acepAred. certain special rights, had definitely come to occupy a special
position. :Is result of the Japanese invasion of Unkf? uria and the foundation of the
Manchurian Empire, in 1911, the .Aanchurian territories became calipletely separated
fran China and rue incorporated in the Japanese sphere of interests. After passing
through.a seriesof,administrative reforms Kanchuria had., in 1939 , 19 provinces,
baba among' them Chientao, .a province with'iks certain Korean special rights, and
the autonomous Chingan Provinces, Where the Mongols enjoyed a certain measure of
occupied,
autononlyo In 194 '5
50 after the Japanese capitulation, the country. e
tmporarilAby
_
troops of the Soviet Union. Japan had to renounce all her possessions and special
privileges. In 1935 the Soviet Union.had sold to the Manchurian State the Russian
rights to the nEast-China Railroad" but under the terms of a treaty concluded with
China in 1945 these ridits were acquired anew. After the 'withdrawal of the Soviet
troops of occupation the troops of the People's Government of Peking conquered the
Aanehurian provinces, in 1948/49.. Under the terms of the treaty concluded in February
1950 between the Chinese People's Republic and the Soviet union tk Manchuria is re-
cognized as an integral part of the former, with all railroad rights reverting to
the latter. The ultimate status of the port of Talienwan (Dairen, Dalni), which is
under joint administration, is to be determined subsequent to signature of a peace
treaty between both Pavers and Japan. Under the treaty of 1950 the naval port of
ge 25
? (Map on p. 255 of the orivinal text.)
Page 256:
Settlements, Railroads, Administrative Divisions.
(The Province of Jehol was dissolved in July 1955. The course followed
by the present boundaries has not yet become known.)
LEGEND: Provinzhauptstlidte - Provincial Capitals; Landesgrenze . National
BonnJary; Provinz renzen . Provincial Boundaries; unter - less than
hber - more than; Lisenbahn Aailroad; kisenbahn im Bau Reilroad
under Construction.
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..?
rGTIMETZ--
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STAT
Port Arthur (Lushun, Itrojun) was to be returned to China' not later than 1952; but
in 1952 the Chinese People's Government requested the Loviet Union to leave the Rus-
sian troops there, for the time bein, for purposes of defense. These troops have
in the iieantime been withdrawn.
Under the adnintstrative divisions adopted since 1949 the greater part
of the Chingan ?rovinces, Ihich had been autonomous under the Empire) was joined with
first, formed
ti)e Lutonomous Inner Aonvolia. Manchuria, at talmodimpforms to:ether pith Jehol the
"Adariqistrtive Zone Northeast" of tie Chinese People's depublic. These territories
were governed by an Autonowur People's Grovernent functioning under Pekiniv, and
covered an area of 879,000 sq.km. with 38,L50.,000 inhabitants (1952). This Administ
trAive 2one is subdivided into the following provinces:
Liaotung (103,000 sq.km. Ath 8,560,400 in.labitants), capital: Antung,
(220,000 inhabitcnts. Liaohsi (56,000 sq.kme with 7,3900000 inhabitants), capital:
Chinhsien (120,000 inhabitants). Kirin (1190000 sq.km. with 6,390,000 inhabitants),
capital: Kirin, or Yungki (120,000 inhabitants). Sungkiang (205,000 sq.km. with
150,000 inhabitants, capital: Harbin, or Pinkianir, (700,000 inhabitants); 0 fleilunr-
kicng (282,000 sq.kra. with 5,520,000 inhabitants, capital: Tsitsikar, or Lunpkiang
(100,000 inhabitants). Jehol (131,000 sq km. with 4,900,000 inhabitants), capital
Chenrte (100,000 inhabitants). The seat of the Government was at Mukden (henyang,
1,500,000 inhabitants). The followinp cities occupied a special position by virtue
of not being subject to the provincial governments: Talienvan-Ltishon (1,100,000 In-
habitants); Fushun (250,000 inha'itants); 1.shan (40,000 inha"Atants); and Penki
(100,000 inhabitants). Since the latest changes were enacted, which included abolis
rient of te Province of jehol in June 1955, there art now left only the Province
of Teilungkiarw (capital: Harbin), he Province of Kirin (capital: Changchun), and
the -ravince of Liaoning (capital: Senyang). The area and numbEx of inhabitants
had
of se new, rret1yenlarged, provinces imme not become known when Wm the fore
into
study went print.
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INIENENCE TRANSLAT 0
4.
.124,22.511
SUPPLER:11T TO THI:; BIBLIOGliki'llY OF
LO',1?71I;ll INDIA CEYLON TIBET NEPAL
( 9 2 6 - 1 9 5 )
=G5arlaaWarsrammt
By BOGODAR WINID, Lecturer, 1Jarsaw
88
STAT
A bibliography compiled by Emil Trinkler dealing with the above-men-
tioned areas was published in 1927 (Ceogyaphisches Jahrbuch, Vol. 112, 1927, ppo 3 -
22). It comprised the period from 1913 to 1926, and contained 262 titles. The new
study by Ernst Reiter (Geo raphisches Jahrbuch, Vol. 61, Part I, pp04 to 175) reports
on a period of 27 years and offers 2,166 bibliographic items. The selection had been
based on material in possession of the German libraries and those of London. The
material cited is distributed over the different individual areas as follows: Lower
India (138 pp.), Ceylon and the Indian Ocean (16 pp.), Nepal (4 pp.), Tibet (9 pp.);
and to the foregoing are added several supplements (4 pp.) and a list of authors (11
pp.). The aut!or of that bibliogrOly fails to bring outthe fact that Tibet is now
.a part of the Chinese People's Republic. The Porturueee and the French possessions
are not treated separately, but together with the publications on 'India.
All aside from other considerations, the difficulties of the times
would have made it impossible for Reiner to achieve completeness; yet his contribution
constitutes a creat advance as compared with the work by Trinkler, and is thus of valu
for geo(r.raphdrs, orientalists, and other scientists concerned with the areas treated.
A numcr of important titles not listed by :leiter will be found cited in the following
by way of supplement to the various individual sections of his Compilation.
In its main division "Lower India," Reiner's Section I ("Reference
Werks"i........pti,....22ELL....11forrritS,116...keiten") lists 38 bibliograp'ic items in the way of
statistical journals and year.books. Under this heading a few important titles must
be added here, notably those of the most recent statistical publications (No.1 and 2);
Af2221
and it should also be noted that the headquarters fpr official statistics have been
transferred to New.delhil with the result that the titles of some of the relevant
publications have been changed. To be newly added here are the compilations by G.B.
Crpssey (No. 200) and Shannon McCune (No.201). Reiner's list of periodicals is limit.
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Me .R
89
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ed entirely to Indian geor,Tra.ehic publications, and omits the European and American
publications that deal with Asia (e.g. the "Journal Asiatique"), and omits Indian
special publications in narrower fields such as geograpily, economics, and the like.
In dealing with books and pamphlets published as part of a series Reiner does not
indicate the composition of series as a whole, and also fails to list the large num-
ber of official publications that rive information concerning the economic condition
of India (No. 3, 97 and 203).
in his Section 11 ("Geographic Research") Reiner included, in addition
to marks that h:. ye reference to the history of India, the works thet deal with topo-
graphic and cartcrraphic ouestions. He does not, however, furnish a list of the maps
that heve appeared -- neither individual maps nor series of maps; and consequently
his data do not enable us to fon a clear idea of the present status of topographic
surveys of the country. Tgo summary accounts that have been published since the war
(No. 3 and 4) furnish a certain amount of information on that sub ect.
The tldrd Section0"Iedien in EinveldarstelluniYen" ( ccounts ofqxgW;g.
1000NMNegylIndia), lists both, studies in which India is treated separately, and
those where India or parts thereof are made the subject of a general account, also
including travel reports0 ruite a number of Utiles beloneinr under this category
have to be added 'Jere (No.507, 1044).
Section IV, "Geology and Aysiography," comprises 320 titles cited
by Reiner, who disMe ruishes between general and regional accounts, the latter being
subdivided further according to major eeoiYra')hic regions (Himalaya and secoldary
groups, Brahmaputra Valley, Ganes Plain, Indus Plain, and Indian Peninsula). Here,
again, several additional works need to be mentioned (No. 15120) which have con-
tri.buted greatly to our knoeledge of th( terrain?
?!ith read t,) Reiner's Sections VX it must be noted that the various
individual subjects were quite unevenly treated by him. The part on "Seismology and
Geophysics" has 25 titles, "Soil Study and Erosion" sg 19 "Hydrology and Oceano-
lora
graphy" 35p "Climatology" 67, "Ftxxx and Forestry"3 0 and "Fauna " has 9 titles?
&mover, the choice of titles is extremely casual and quite a number of important
accounts (Ho. 21-29, 136-189) were omitted by himo A number of important titles
(30-41) need to be added also under Section XI, "Man in India, and his Activities,"
iCS1FORM
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Pa,e 29
?
90
STAT
a section that deals with the 007 historical background, ethnology and anthropolo.
gy, distribution and movelents of the population, religion and social problems, ?and
questions of hygiene and sanitation.
Under Section. XII, "The Cultivated landscape," Reiner presents in 189
'titles the literature on problems of irrigation, agriculture, and settlement. In ?
his opinion the :general traits of the landscape are not influenced by man's economic
activities. By Way of correction one. ay point to a large number of studies (No. 42
. 108) that.wereleft, unmentioned by Reirier.
Section XIII, "Economics,". is broken down by Reiner in such manner
that the general accounts are cited after those dealing wit ividual parts of the
country or with individual problems; and the latter are followed, in turn, by studies
dealinr with the industries, with commerce and with communications. The 171 titles
listed by him are the result of an extensive choice, so that a number of important
titles (e.g. No. 109.163) were left unmentioned. Problems concerning the fisheries
(No. 161,-168) are left out altogether. In some instances more recent editions are
available. Thus the treatise by Vera Anstey Deiner's NO. 1448/49) is now available
in its fifth edition, and not merely in the third. In the case of the study by
R. N. Dubey (Reiner's No. 1466) the years of publication is 19146, and not 1939.
A section on "Political Problems" (50 titles) has reference to the
problems of the former, British India; and the main body of Heiner's bibliography,
the part that treats of LaNer India, concludes 7ith 32 titles on nThc Division of
India" ("12121221111ELLEISILE")ft
In the. Chapters on Ceylon, Tibet, and Nepal Reiner does not follow
a uniform procedure as to the arranp.eMent of subject matter; and among the titles
on Ceylon, especially, one misses indications relating to the important subject of
industries. Cenerally speaking,quite a large number of titles have to be added on
the subject of Ceylon (No. 169486, 191-199)0
Some of the persons included in the List of Authors appear under dif-
ferent names there, as for instance Ahmad Nafis (p.176) Nails Ahmad (p. 182); Ahmad,
Kai, S. (p.176) = Ka2i S. Ahmad (p. 180), . the correct.form.is Kazis, Saeeduddin
Ahmad; Kedarnath?Srivastava,(p. 181) = Srivastava Kedarnath (p4 185). Likewise
identical are the names Vakie, C.N. and VaK1, C.N. 10q.
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?age 29 cbrYtId
aeinerlimited'himself i his bibliolrapV essentia4y to the German,
Envlish, ancj part of the French literature.. Italian studies Are less fully repre-
sented., and Soviet7Russian publications, as well as those of Asiatic countries (ex-
Pace 260: (1)
gjarrndia) are not cited.
41041.16AMAINWWWW......"0...100.1011WWW.A01.1~0.1AMMONIONOWSWOOMMOMWMAAMAIWOMA00400410.4.WOOD
3.)
T;le author of the supplements presented in this article would like to
take alvantage of the opportunity to express certain wishes concerning the form of
reports bro cit ?unto in future, in the Geographische Jahrbucho he reports riven
should be lore of a practical nzture, i.e. they should not on17 furnish a more or les
complete survey of the extent literLture in question, but should also convey informa-
tion concerning the current status of geographic research dealing with the respective
country or countries, and concerning the aims aspired to or accomplished. The bibliot
gralies should be complete so far as the literi.ture in the votstimemx bibliorrepher's
own larlguare is concetned, and there should be no important lacunae in the lists of
foreign literature. Pie connectirr text, it seems, should deal with the organization
of
Id additional research, with studies undertaken or completed, and with the plans
fomulated by FeoloAcal, meteoroloffical, rfeodetic, and cartorraphic bureaus, in-
clusive of work in the fields of economics and economic planning; and this should
be done in connection with an account of new developments in the respective sciences.
Special ewhasis should he riven to savernment offices entrusted with ueouraphic work
both in the way of research and teaching. By way of supplementing the text of the
ruport small survey charts or maps should be added, exhibiting the current status
he
of pro ress on geodetic and geological surveys and in cartographic representation
of each country, as well as the rules of observation, and the like. Lech report
should start out from a treatment of individual elements of the geographic milieu,
treatinr the country as
marimodennam a whole0 ilext in oxder would then follow the monos.jraphs and
after them studies on individual regions. The report should not fail to give a list
of periodicals used, pu'olicetions in series, special bibliographies, and special li-
braries. Throughout the arrangement of the bibliography account should be taken of
the country's current political subdivisions; and the country's national accomplish-
ments must be given full expression.
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?
ouswasonsgrommowservassoremeareim
Ea2..??.2.1 (coal0
92
STAT
lo Ghani, A.R. Comp.: Pakistan, a selected. bibliography. . Lahore 1951, 339 pp.
20 Subramanian, So (Office of the Economic Adviser): Guide:to current official
st6ti!Itics.
30 Heaney, G.F.: T.he Survey of India and the Second World War. (Mc jeographical
'Journal 118, 1952, 3, pp. 280.96, Maps.)
Stringer, K.V.: Aerial Photographs as an Aid to the Scientific and Economic De.
velopment of India . pith Special it4erence to Economic Geology. (The Indian
Geo raphical Journal 22, 1947, No. 1, pp. 1430
50 Chatter, Atut Chandra: The New India. London 19480 G. Allen et Unwin. 201 ppo,
Maps.
6. Platt, Rgye R.: Pakistan, (Focus 2, 1952, No. 5, 1aps0
70 Reguin, Albert: Les indes (L'Inde). NeuchAtel 1952, it la BaronnAre. 12?,167 pp.
8. Ministry of Transport: India, Tourist Information, New Delhi 1952, Publications
Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. 63 pp.
90 India, a Pictorial Survey, Delhi 19500 Publications Division, Ministry of Infor-
mation and Broadcasting, Government of India. 185 ppo
10. Thaw, Lawrence Chapley, and Aargaret bo Thaw: In the Realms of the Mahajaras.
Me National ,:,eographic sAarazine 78, 1910, No. 6, pp. 727-64.)
11. Jensen, Kr. M.: India og (and) 2akistano (Geografisk Tidskrift 51, 1951, ppo
51-620)
12. hidlitz, Walther: Unknown India; a Pilgrimage into a Forgotten T.Torld. New York
1952, Roy Publishers; 192 pp.
13. Huehl, John riederick: Intervie1:7 with India. New York 1950, J. Day Co., 310 pp.,
Maps.
14. Siegfried, Andre: Voyage aux Irides (Trip to India). Paris 1951, A.Colin, 160
Maps.
15.
Visher, S.5.: Regionalization of India. -(Annals of the Association. of American Geo-
graphers 380 1948, No. 4, pp. 282.300, Aapso)
16. Zoha, S.: The Physiographical Personality of Baluchistan. (Pakistan Georraphical
review 5, 1950, No. 2, pp. 145; No. 1, 1952, pp. 20.29, Maps.)
17. Ministry of Transport: Tourist Traffic Branch, "Kashmir Calling, a Tourist?Guide'
New Delhi 1952. 51 pp. RaPso
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Kauszudi: Kashmir; its Cultural Heritarf.e, Bodogy 1952, Asia Publishing House;
205 pp., Maps.
Rich, q. Thompson: lagic Land of Assam. (Canadian Geographical Journal 39, Noo
5, 190, pp. 191401, Maps.)
Houlton, John: Bihar, the Jeart of India. BoMbay 1949, Orient Langmans. 223 pp.
M44s.
Gorrie, R. ,laclagan: Soil Lrosion in India. (Science and Culture 5, 1940, 140010,
Agarwal, R4 i1,01) and S.K. Mukerji: Gangetic Alluvium of India; Pedochemical Char-
acters of the Genetic Soil Types of Govakhpur District in the United Provinces.
(Soil bcience 72, 1951, No. 1, pp. 21-32, Maps.)
Naqvi, S.M.: Coefficient of Variability of Monsoon Eainfalls in India and Pa.
kistan. (Pakistan 1,,ieo-rraphical ieview L, 1949, No. 2, pp. 747, Maps.)
Roy, A.K.: Rain-Makilr and its Possibilities in India. (Indian Journal of Aete.
orology and Geophysics 2, 1951, No0 h$ pp. 2111,490)
Satakapan, V.: Rainfall Analysis for Xultipurpose Water Power Projects in India.
(Indian Journal of Meteoroloq and Geophysics 2, 1951, No. 1, pp. 9-2h, Maps.)
511, J.M.: Pot,,rer. (Indian Journal of Heteorology an0 Geophysics 3,
27 Trotter, H.: Manual of Indian Forest Utilization.
University Press, Indian 3ranch, 419 pp.
28. Flovard (Sir), Herbert: The Forests and Forest Resources of India? (Journal of
the Royal society of Arts, 95, 1947, No. 045.0 PP0 W34-96, Maps.)
29 Stewart, Ralph Eandles: The Grasses of Northwest India. Prittonia 50 1945, No.
Mandelbaum, David G.: laterials for a Biblicy'raplw of the Ethnolopy of India?
Berkeley, California, 1910, University of California, Dept. of Pnthilopology,
Ananthakrishna, Lyer L K.: The Mysore Tribes and Castes. Vo103 1935, Mysore
University?
Fuchs (Le Are Stephen): The Children of Han; tidy of the Nimar Balahis in
the Central Provinces of India. Vienna-1956,Jlerold?LXVIII and 63, Chart,
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lfitil:ralTaitanaturriNim."6"."""""
94
101100111111111111011.111?001111111111011111101.11111001111111.111111,
Page 261: (contld)
STAT
330 Davis, Kingsley:. The Econotic Demography of India and Pakistan. Talbot "South.
Asia in the World To-day," 1950, Philips, pp. 86400
314. Tagbacarne, Guglielmo: Demografia dell' India; Studio di Demografia Oomparata.
(Studi e Monografie della Locietl Italiana di Demwerafia el.tatistica, Rama
1949, No. 1, 53 pp.)
350 Sovani, N.V.: The Population Problem in India; a Aeqional Approach. (Gokhale
Institute of Politics and Economics, Poona 19142, No. 8, px 221 pp.)
144
36. Davis, K.!Irsley: Deloo?aphic Fact and Policy in India. (Milbank Vlemorail Fund,
Demo,r-raphic Studics of Selected iireas of Rapid growth, 1944, pP035-570)
37. Mandelbaum, David G.: Population Problem in India and Pakistan; Economic Pro-
gress in Running a Grim Race with Census ?'j urea in the Sub-Continent. Its
Victory Depends in FL/it on Social esearch Lnd Planning. (Far Lastern Survey
18, 1949, No. 2/40 pp. 283.87.)
Page 262:
-787-7Reile, Pierre: La Population de l'Inde. (T4Ionthly Publication of the Institut
National d'audes Dgmo-raphiques, 191.18, No. 10 pp. 127-46, Aapso)
390 Sarkar, Benoy Kumar: Uncertainties in Indian Demorra (Science and Culture
5, 1939, No. 6, pp. 360-67.)
140. Jammu and Kashmir: Approximate Distribution of Population, 19141. Lake Success,
New York, -united Nations, 190. Map No. 190, 1:1,000,000.
1110 Singh, R0110: The Trend of the Growth of Population in the United Provinces.
(National Geographical Society of India, 1947, Bull. No, 3, pp. 17-290 Maps.)
42. Maas, Walther: Some Problems of Social CzeorTaphy of Last Pakistan. (Pakistan
Economics and Commerce 1, 1952,- No. 9, pp. 551-540)
430 Akhar, S.M.: Economics of Pakistan. Lahore 19041.
443 Firman, David: Leneral aspects of the Georrarihtof IrrifIation in India. The
Geographer 5, 1952, No02, 111 pp.)
45. Ben, Sudhiv: Later Planning in India. (Asian horizon 1, 1948, No.30 pp. 1960,-
Maps.)
46. Kazmi, A.H.: The 'iiater Supply of Baluchistan. (Pakistan L;ological Survey 30
Karachi 1951, Part I0 105 pp., Maps.)
470 KitChinman, 60P0: The Punjab Irrigated Plantations, The Empire.Forestrylour-
nal 23 1944, No, 2 pp. 115-210)
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INTELL GENCE TRANSLAT
oimmotimulermoreroadimaismokimmusnusionmwoolumeftwin
am.a.6.2.1 (cont'd)
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95
STAT
48e' Talib, and p.K. Gaswami: Eponomies of Well-Irrigation in the Thal. (Punjab
Pakistan, Board of Economic Inquiry, No, 98, Lahore 1950, 9) ppop Maps.)
49. jounus, Mohamma6 State Tube-Well Irrigation Scheme and its afect on the Rural
Economy of the U.P. (Indian coraphic Journal 16, 1941, No.2, pp. 153-650)
Dept. of Uommercial Intellience and btatistics:
Fricultural btatistics of
India 19304939; area, classification of area, area under irrivation, area under
crops, live-stock and lanc revenue assessment (?). Delhi 1945/L6, 2 Vol., Maps
Vol. 1: In Liritish India; Vol. 2: In certain Indian btates.
51. Ramdas, Rainfall and Agriculture: Usc of Routine Rainfall, 'Ieports for
crop outlooks. (Indian Journal of rieteorolofv. and (Jeopkrsics 1, 1950, No04, pp.
262 to 274, Mqs0)
52. Enr,ebretson, I.O.: ktriculture and Land Tcnure in India. ioreign Agriculture
15, 1951, No, 12, pp. 262-67.)
53. Royal Institute of international ffairs: A Food Plan for India (Preface by
Prof. A.V. London 1945) U. Milford, Oxford University Press, 62 pp.
54. Wright, S.: Some lwricultural Problems of Pakistan. (The i'siatic Review ).17,
1951, No. 170, pp. 10245.)
55, b. J,: Sane Agricultural Problems of Pakistan. (Journal of thc
Royal Society of LA 90, 1951, No. 4849, pp. 573-830)
56. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Publications Division: tgriculture
in India, Delhi 1950, 52 PP*
57? Kay (Ski) Joseph: India's Cotton Textile Industry, 1952. (Journal of the 'toyal
Society pf fats 1000. 1952, No. 4386, PP. 34349.)
Spiellan, Henry V.: Cotton Production in India. (U.b. Office of Foreign Agricu1.
tural tZflations. Forcipn riculture Report, 1o. 45,
28 pp., laps.)
590 Spielnan, Henry V.: Cotton Production 'n Pakistan. (
eq
7,J
Washington, D.C. 1950,
.S. Office of Agricultural
lidations, Foreign A7riculture Report, No. 42) Washinton? D.C., 149, ?13 pp.)-
#
60. lie Pakistan Central Cotton eomlittee: Cotto lap of Paki tant, Murree 1951
Svrvey of i'aRistan, 1:3,168,000. (HWIway lap of Pakistan,.urre0 1952, Survey
of Pakistan, 1:3,168,000.)
61. Elai? M.K.: Jute, the Golde: Fibre. (Pakistan GeO,:.:railical.,teVi.pw:
No. 1 pp 142).
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62. Crtit, Eugenio L.: Jute Industry in. Pakistan and New India. (The ihilippine Jour-
nal of ApTiculture 111v1949, No, 4,?pp. 323m330)
63. Walker, W.A.M.: the Growth of the Jute. Industry in India and Pakistaa. Journal
of the Royal Society of Arts 97, No. 4749, pp. 409-20, Maps.)
64. Ghosh, Aare: Suear Cane and the Sugar Industry in India. (Science and Culture
la, 1947, No. 10, 466-78, Maps.)
65. Whittaker, Ainold: The Development of the Tea Industry tn India and Pakistan.
(Journal .of tbe Awal Society of Art 97, 1900 No. 4800, 'pp. 673.870)
660 Miles, (Sir) Charles: The Tea Industry in Northern Irdia and Pakistan. (The
Asieic.,ieview 18, 1.952, No. 176, pp. 292-305.)
67. R69erts (S r). William, and 4ngh Kartar: A Tod-Book of l'unjab Arriculture.
(Civil and Ailitary Cazettel Lahore 1947, 588 pp., Maps.)
680 Gureshi, J.H.: Livestock Survey in the Punjab. (Punjab, Pakistan, Eioard of Eco-
nomic Inquiry; No. 103, Lahore 1951, 74 pp.)
69. Khan, Rana Nasib: Production and Requirements of desi Cotton in the Punjab.
(Punjab, Pakistan, Board of Economic Inquiry, Lahore 1952, No. 104, 45 pp.)
70. Khan Abdur Rauf: A Salple of Land UtilizatIon Survey of the Orangi Valley. (The
Bulletin of the harachi GeoFraphical boeiety, 1949, pp. 43757, Xalpse)
71. Talib, B.O.: Survey of Smail ffolding 0ultivat7.on in Kanpra District. Ludhiana,
?unjab? India, 1951. T. binp..h. (Board of Lconomie Inquiry, No, 11, .63 pp.)
72. KOJI', SO.: Food Problem of Last Bengal; How to Solve it. A short
culture development plan. (Pakistan Economies and Commerce '1 1952,
433-39; No. 9, pp. 555490)
730 .Godfryd, Marthe: La .Jute ttu !1(rra1.
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770 Prakash? Om: A. Statistical Analysis of the Economic Conditions of Peasants in
term agri-
Uo. 8, pp.
Ann ales de Geo-raphie, Mo. 315, 1950, pp.
a village of
Bo
Pattabhi
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80. Ilahi, Faiz: An hconoaic Survey of Lauri, a Village in the Kangra District of
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ENUMBER
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107. Bristow, bir) Robert: The Port of Cochin, South India: An Account of the De-
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117. iiao, V.K.R.V.: India's Eirrt Five-Year Plan a Descriptive Analysis. (Pacific
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118. Vakil, C0 N. and P. . Brakmananda: Reflections on India'sgive-Year Plan. Pa.
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LX.00,71.1:0811.01..
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130. Rastogil T.N.: Indian Industrial Labour r1t Special liefercnce to Textile La-
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131. Dalakrishna, R.: Industrial Development of ysore. Bangalore (Jity 1940. 319 pp.,
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13L. K.rishnamurti, Rao Saheb N.: Papanasa ifydro-Electric Project. (The Journal of
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135. 'Boni, iNndr4e1 Social and Lconolic?Pro-ress in ysore. (International Labour
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.136. Mayer, ji-drien C.: Land and 1:)ociety in Malabar. (Preface by Raymond Firth.) 1952,
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101
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137. gureshi? Anwar Iqbal: The Economic Development of lyderabad. Bombty, Orient
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150. Gee, Bor.: D)) Mineral ;sources of Aorth esten India. (eo1o4cii I Survey
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153. Mitchell, (Sir) Kenneth: Roads and Aoad Trans,ort in India. (Journal of the
Royal bociety of Arts 95 No. )4748 pp. 592-6100 1947.
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154. O'Dell, Andrew C0: .Some Geogra,phicali%spects of Railways in India and Pakistan.
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157. . Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. ?UblicAiJns Division: The Railways
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163. Rahimullah, Prospects of Marine asheries of Western Pakistan. Bulle,
tin of the Karachi :koyraphical ociety4. Ed, )950, pp. 12-21.)
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183.. Irvin, Alan ;v1aurice: The Tea Industry of Ceylon. (Canadian Geographical Journal
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cultural Trends in Highland Ceylon. (Economic Oeorraphy 28, 1952) Noo 4) ppm.
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of Economic Development in both) Asia. (International 6ecretariat? Institute
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105
STAT
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202. Calder, C. C.: An Outline of Veetation of India. An Outline of the Field
Sciences of India, Calcutta 1937, PP. 7190.
2036 Worland, C.W.B.: The Weather of India. An Outline of the Field Sciences
in India. Calcutta 19372 PP? 1.16.
Page 269:
N/T-Trii-Oxford Pamphlets on Indian if fairs (1942417)2
30 The Economic Dackpround (K.T. Shah).
8. The Food Supply (R.K. Aukerjee).
90 The Land and its Problems (T.Vijayarar:thawachaya.).
10. industrialisation (P.E. Lokanathan).
20. Tariffs and Industry (J. Matthai).
23. Nutrition (W.R. Aykroyd).
28. Mineral Resources (A.M. Heron).
32. Industrial Location (D.C. Ghose).
340 Transport (F.P. Antie).
390 Cooperation (T.R. Setthiandhan, J.C.Ryan).
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NEW ZEALAND
(1936 .- 1 9 2)
essmamoss~aamosommoirmorommoZeommosaw?
By Dr. Ernst REIM% Canberra
106
STAT
than
As seen from Europe, New Zealand is even blether removed inin
Australia from the general view of geographic observation. For the period from
1927 to 1937 R. Geisler (Geoct.r. Jahrbuch 53,11, 1938) counts onky 86 studies.
Naw that another fifteen years have elapsed approximately 300 publications have
been added. This serves to indicated that during the period under considerati-
on in this article a basic change has taken place.
An intLrest taken by the. New Zealanders in their own country and
georfraphic exploration was evinced in 1945 by the folndation of a Geographic
Society and by the pu')lication, in connection with the latter, of a periodical
flow
entitled Ilhe New Zealand 3m.r.rapheronwhich maintains an uninterrupted siptin
of contributions toward systerhatic knowledge Of the country. The most modern
means of geographic investigation an kept available for .study, as for instance
the photographs taken from the air. TM official map of Uri Zealand, on au
scale of 1:632333 i.e. 1 inch el 1 inile), was composed from photomaps and af-
fords valuable assistance. The contributions so far published during the eidit
years of the New Zealand Geoi.rapher (NZG) are -without exception well balanced
and include, in addition to important articles on the country's morplielopy, also
many valuable studies on the cultural geography0 kgeneral survey of the total-
ity of the geo:Taphic researches brought out durinp the period covered by the
present report reveals, however, that durirr? the time from 1930 to 1952 a very
064941
Ve Illrairizo;amd
definite emphasisron the problems ot morphology. None the less, even the re-
latively small number of .yublished irxestirat4.ons sot the cultural ,i.f.eograpby
clearly reflect the c'enp?es that have taken place, within only a small number
years,' in the economic life of N Zealand. These chanrzes ht:ye affected not
only the social structure but also the reneral physiognow of the population.
It can also be noted that an increasing am,ount of thoughtful care has been
devoted to investigations dealing with the relations between the whites and
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,
107
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the native population, the Xaoris, concerning whose social structure and settle-
ments a larva number of studies have been prblished that partake nore of a his-
torical character.
Taken cis a whole, the publications cited in the following furnish a
mod moaraphic cross section of New Zealand; but stranre to say, apart from
a very 'small number of mere general accounts sod compklations the geographer
does not yet Imve at his disposal a complete geographic treatise covering both
of the islands?
1.a) BIBLIOGRAMIES RIFERENCE WORKS GINERALACCOUNTS
10 Bibliography of Post-:Oar Publications of bconomtc Interest on New
Zealand. (Econ. Record XV, Oct., 1939, Supple) pp. 258400)
2. Introduction to New Zealand. Produced by the list. Branch of the De-
partment or Internal Affairs; New Lealand. Wellington 1915. 271 pp.
30 The New Zealand Official Yearbook 1944. Census and Statistics Dept?
5/1.d Edition. 714 pp., laps. Also the following Ldition:
40 Population Census 19456' Census and Statistic Dept. '.1ellington 19470
S. HaxTopp A.J.: My New Zealand. London 1939; 320 pp., Pictures.
6. Harsh, N., and R.4 Burden: New Zealand. (The British Comlonwealth
in Pictures.) London 191420 48 pp., Pictures('
70 Nash W. New Zealand: A Workinr. Democracy. London 1944. XI0290 pp.,
Aaps.
80 Lowe, U.S. and .a.T0G0 Airey: New Zealand Dependencies and the Devel-
opment of Autonomy. (Pacific Affairs, New fork, 18 1945, pp. 252-72.)
t?
90 Soljak, Ph.L. New Zealay,d0 Pacific Pioneer. New York 1946. XIIID197Ppo
100 Belshaw, Ho: New Zealand. (United Nations beries.)Univ. of California
Press 1947. XVII, 320 pp0, 21 Pict. Ref.: GJ London l]bD 19500 103.
U. McCarthy, D.: Scotland in the Antipodes. ((.14ag.?Lmdon, 210 1948p
ppo 226-322 ?Pict&
1,20 Given, FoHoW.: ain1y about the South Island. NZG, Christchurch,5?1949,
PP. 1374460)
13. Cumberland K.B. This is New Zealand? A Pictorial Description Christ-
church 1950; 84 pp., 120 Pict.
140 --: New Zealand in Outline. A Pictorial Geogrartr. Pictorial. New Zealand.
Photop?raphic Studies. Christchurch 1951. 60 ppo
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?mark (cold' d)
108
STAT
15. Cumberland, K. 13.: Naw Zealand: Land of Lverythingo A Pictorial Survey.
Christchurch 19430 36 pp?
16. Duff, Sir Po: The Romance of New Zealand. (United Etpire, Landon, 41,
1950, pp? 13480)
17. Fysh, Bo: The South Inland of New Zealand. (Ualkabout, Sydney, 16,
1950, pp. 13 ff.)
180 Cumberland, K. New ?Zeitland ind the South 1::est Pacific. (Scott(Ma'!0
66, 1050, pp. 14.16, 1 Mapo)
190 Panton, H.S.: New Zealand, A Preview of t)e Land of the Long white Cloudo
London 1951. Xs? 198 pp., Maps, Pict.
200 Walker, II.: New Zealand, Pocket Wonder Worlio (NatGMag0101,19,52; p0419ff0
210 Beaglehole, JoCo: The South Seas Regim.al Commipsion, Part II. Prepared
for the Brit. Commonwealth Reiation Conference 19450 1944 folio
22. Mulgar, A.: Literature and Landscape in New 5ealand.(N202,1946,pp0189.
206.
23. Cudberlando K. B.: Geography on the University of New Zealand. ScottaNaF0
65, 1949, p0 93 fro)
24. Melentaeo DX.: New Zealand Mosaic Map. (NZG 8,1952,ppo 138.450)
25. Bowmann,H00.: New Zealand. (In:Gecrraplly of the Pacific, by 00Freemanno
New York 19519 573 pp()) (Ii442.349?)
25a0 Fieysh, H.: The South Island of New Zealand. Cla.lkabouto Melbourne,160
1950, A). Mo 13.180)
ion
A comparison of t two main i dstrith respect t their lo
was dr up by King ($26.).4t11 of th other .stud
of the is so especially the outh Island/Woo
good photographs. Basing his loark
and import
d only with
on exce
good photos
while Pasco' (No.28) treat
in
accompani
? ,1.1!
ted phot', Cumber
$
No .2
Instances) t sions of the 0
putting mphasis on an ace
ly of the moun
t of
e.!
t ?
has showni ith
te tory,
portions of
hardships f the e o
One of the coaptal sectors was st
S raqroad line an/Occasion merely of th eonfines
0
by JObberns N
th e`444ands
the sheep.
making
e territory.
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209
STAT
Sincd phd geography of New Zealand is treated most] in connec-
tion with that of the far greater land mass of ihe Australian continent there
are hardly any separate bibliogralllies of New Zealand, to)* founds althowh a
survey of the primarily economic studies .(No.1) proves ? fairly helpful. Just as
in other recently acquired .territories of the Dritish Commonwealth that are de-
pendent upon imligration from Europe, the Government baa either. itself published
a series of panphlets to. provide information or has, -caused them to be published.
Those pamphlets afford a general survey of thc; land.and US economic development,
and contain good photographs. Tb. Official Yearbook (No03) furnishes good infor.
motion concerning all statistical datao The Census of 1045 also has been pub.
lished separately with all details (N00100
When the Second World strongly involved the mother country
.. and also subsequent to 1045 -- tore attention came -to be devoted to the ter-
ritories that had been spared the sufferings of wax. Accounts like those of Har-
rop (No .5) or .Nash (No. 7) called attention to the outright paradisal social con-
ditions prevailim in sone of those countries. Consequently a number of studies
concern themselves with these more or less political questions. A light touch
of propaganda is'uanistakableo Among all these a particularly eminent position
is occupied by the book of Belphaw?(No010). In a number ,of Lapters-prepared by
different authors .this book affords a sound geographic general view. Clark des-
cribes the natural contours of the land, as well as the cultured landscape. .Su-
therlaad devotes a detailed discussion to the problal:of the laorls and the half-
breeds, and the lakslazo Beaglehole, who is thoroughly familiar with conditions
in New Zealand s wrote a history of the country's. discovery. .selected biblio
graphy accompanies the chapters. Very good, instructive photographs are provided
by Cumberland (Nbo 1391.4015) in his little pictorial vo1u4eso-
Many of the shorter articles describe both islands, but nost of them.
only the .South Island, in a slightly romantic lights, a indicated by the titles
themselves (No. 16, 19). A very important contribution was made by Alan Aulgan
(No. 22) in an article that contains a wealth of mate4a1andy14,014espite its
preelinently philolorical nature deserves attention also from the gt oAktero- In
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Page 273: (cont,d) STAT
many instances it takes the vision of .a poet to fit a landscape' into its
broader setting... Mnlgan cites several examples of ways of regarding New
Zealand and instances of how different writers react differently to the
sane landscape. Unfortunate3or this, canticle is lacking in precise 'literary
references, and it han no bibliography. Worth noting are his. critical re-
marks concerning connections with geography* A general view concerning the
AMA!,
.possibilitios for geographic study at the universities, where chairs of
.geography were etablished.recently, can be obtained frmn the article tr
Cumberland (No.23).
1 b) INOIVIDUALIPtATS OF THE ISLANDS moomAxo MDIES
260 King,L10001 Theilelation.between the Major Wands of New Zealand*
(RSNZ0 Trans. and Proc., 68, 1939, pp. 56648, 13ii1.,11409)
270 Cumberland, K.B.: Canterbury .Landscapes. A btudy in New Zealand Go-
ography. (0Mev0 30, 1940, pp. 1940, SAt0)
28. Pascoe, J.: Canterbury High Country. he Sheep and SheeptaNtift the
Mountains. (NZG 1? 19459 PPo 1939,fti acto)
29* Jobberas, G.: The Marlborough Coat Route of the South Island Main
Trunk Aailway. (NZG 2, 1946$ pp(.! 23546, 7 Photos, 1?Viap.)
30. Clark, A013: South Island, New iealand, and Prince Edards Island,
Canada: A btudy of "Insularity." (NZO 3, 1947, pp0137400)
31. Gamier, B. J.: The Face of Otago. Dunedin 1948* 86 pp*, 26 Pict*,
Otago Centenary Publication*
32. Fox, J.K.? and R.G.Xiister: The qalatea..Bisin: A geo!.?raphic Reconp.
naissance. (NZG 5, 1949, pp* 19046, Piet.)
33. Mpeatskill, M.: The Coromandel Peninsula and the Thames Valley. (NZG
5, 1949, pp. 47.441i a Figo)
340 Jobberns? G.: The South Island (NZ) High Country. Repto27, Meeting
Austr. and NZ Ass. Hobart 1949, ppt. 254400
350 Fox p Ma Te Kdti and the Noellern King Countay. A Region O Agri.
cultural Transition. (MG 6, 1950, pp0 125t053.
360 Cwftberland, .and Lo. Pollan: The North4?Coroniandel Re tone (in:
Geo.rapilic ions of New Ze4ando Post .Primagr. School '13u114.911004,
25 pp*, Maps.).
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DIE.214:..(conted)
Ui
STAT
37. Rose, A0 J0: T4aka Valley Northwest Nelson. (11Z0 6, 1950, 00154m700)
38. Harrison-Smith: The Far North. (NZG, Record Publ NO03s 1951, pp. 15 ffo)
38a. Roche, Violet A.; Mount Cook and the Mackenzie Country (110 Zealand).
(Walkabouts Aelbonrnes 7, 1940/41, No. 3, P)* 29440)
38b. Coastline of Romance. (alkabouts Ablbourne,6,1940. J08.41P0 33-.350)
38e. 0.: Glacier Land. In, Nev Zealand Southern 'Alps. (alkabouts Aelbournes 6,
19400 No. 9, pp. 29=320)
38d0 Otago so New Zealand's ,Southein Province. (ulalkabout,Aelbounie ?6 2
1940, Noo 92 pp. 424i50)
390 Pallas LA.: The Outlying Islands of Neu Zealand. NZG4, 1948, ppo
2744, 1 Mapo)
400 Redwoods R.: Chatham Island. (Walkabout, Sydney, 14 1947,14405-370)
410 Pallas RA.: The Chatham Islands. (NZG 6, 1950, pp. 17120)
42. Jacquiers H.:Act:x*4, un coin ou: 114 de France aux Antipodes (Acaroas
a Fomotten Corner of France in the Antipodes. (B.Soc.desOcganistes,
Paris, 8, 1951, W0247400)
43. Magee, B.: A Turbulent Island (hit? Island). (v;a1kaboutstsydney,18,
1952, p. 44 fro)
43a. Rewood0 R.: ArounA the lutton0Bird Islands. alkabout, Aelbournes
60 19390 No. 3p pp034-360)
A conparison of the position and importance of the two main
islands is carried throwth by King (No.26). All of the other studies deal
only with parts of the islands, especially the South Island. Like the ar-
ticle by Cumberland (No.27)$ fneY are in many tnstancps Accompanied by good
photographs. Basing his work on excellently interprete4 air photos, Cumber
Pe 27
land cit u thc divisions of the Canterbury aroa, while Pascoe (No.28) treated
,
only pf the mountainuus portions of the lands puttine emphasis on an account
of thc hardships of the life of the sheepmen. One of tlw coaAta/ sectors was
studied by Jobbers (7:1o.29)s makin thc railroad line merely an occasion for
describii the outer limits of the area. Clark (No.30) draws an interesting
compprison between Prince bdward islands off CDnada? apd new. Zealande He
reaches the conclusion that Prince Edward Island, thoriAl located so tear Cana,.
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112
dap is in reality more of an isolated country than New Zealald? A most excellent
block diagran is sup:plied with the Otago Amorial Velma by Gamier (No031), who
is one of the lost outstanding geograp:lers of New Zealand. Six collaborators,
among Them D0H0Cotton, who treats of tHe Physiograp17, convey a general geo-
graillic view of the Province? McCaskill (No033) reports on Coromandel Penin-
sula, a region noted for its gold and ore mines and its wealth of timber, rhils
Fox (No.35) bases his study of tle landscape on the meeting of 2, laorie and white
settlers He devotes special attention to the types of settlenent. Cumberland
(No.36), who has had an important share in stimulating geographic, chiefly
culture-geo raohical, investigntions of Diew 7,ealand, provides, joInt3y with
Pownall, a scheme of geoivaphic divisions, with speclal emphasis on the mor-
phology and the economic factors? The very detailed study by Rose (No037)
gives his i?iT cstigatior of one stvle valley which, because of its coal de-
posits, is rather closely settled. The main settlement there is studied from
a rrea+ many different points of views Rase pays attention also to the func-
tional organization of the trades. Roche (38a6?38d) has made a number of con-
tributions on the subject of the South Islaad, giving detailed attention not
only to the topography, but especially also to the process of settling the
western side of the Island, between Port Nelson and Hohitika? Some .space is
devoted to the fold rush. The description of the glaciers is designed more
for the requirements of the tourist4300? Falla (No.39) describes the is-
0.nhalA_Jted
lands located on a submerged flat southeast of the South Island? The iut'?an
Islatds, 346 nautical miles from Littleton, are described in two studies, by
Redwood (lIo.140)* and by Falla (Noll), the latter being the more important.
20 TRAVEL X.:PORT$
late spoengi, 14.: Streifstige durch Neuseelands Berge (Roving Expeditions
tolroirh the :lountains of New Zealand. (Die Alpen.Bern? XIV,1938, pp.
l38, 14 Plates.)
1450 Pascoe, J.: Unclimbed New Zealand? kip:tile Aravel in the Canterbury and
i!ectland Ranges, Southern Alps. 233 pep. Pict. London 1939;2ndEd0 19500
,N2.1?;11.
Bra.:ne, /100.: To the Bumlit of Taman from the '..estcoast0 (041 99,1942,
pp. 19663201, 14 Pict.)
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STAT
470 Holloway, J. m.: The Lesser Known Ranges of the Otago Alps. (Alpine J.,
London, 54, 190, PP* 44-510)
48. Greig, RD.: Taraima &tory. (PabI0 in Callemoration of the silver Jtbi-
lee of t'le Tara:.Ma Trampi)v Club. 'ellington 1900 108 ppo) ?
49. Pascoe, J.: The lountains, the Bush and the Sea. A Photogra.)hic ,;tTort.
C'-ri.stchurch 1950. 96 Plates.
50. .0: The Southern Alps: From the Kaikuras to the ganOtata. Christchurch 19510
96 pp*, naps, Pict. (NZ RoIydOy Guide No0 30)
510
0
100 f53 0
The Ren-itata Valley() (11m0NZG.Soc.No. 80 1944 p06 fro)
520 Cottrell, V.D.: New Zealand: Thermal .:onderland. (Ualkabout, Sydney,13?
1952, 0034-370)
52a. Scanlan, N.M.: Marll?orowh Sound. New Zealands Ax&avala. (:alkabout,
Melbourne, /5, 1939/40, No0 9, 17400)
The books that contain a general account of New Zealand deal
chiefly with the mountain rekions. Spoerri (No044) gives a t. 'r ac.
count; but Pascoe (No045;)49;59) has thc capability of describing the
mountains
verbally and in pictures. A large number of sound geographic
comqents can be found inserted; and the topogrqphy, above all, is treated
in detail?
3. HISTOY OF DIECOVLi D 7.1rTO1ICLI, GEOGRAPHY
530 Monmrpengy? K.: From Uhaling to Sheep R4n: Beginnings in New Zealand,
(Colonial Ldventure and Achievement). London 19380 XII, 103 ppop Maps,
Pict0
540 Deaglehole, J.C.: The Discovery of New Zealand. (NZ Centenary Survey 2,
'e1linr-,ton9 Dept. of Internal Affairs, 19390 XVIII, W PP
55, Harpers A.P.: Old Days in New Zealand? (G4ag?11 0.94040.28044,Pict0)
56. 13eaglehole,J.X.:Abel Janszoon Tasman and the Discovery of New Zea1and0191420
5$0 Mulgans A.Lo: Ncw Zealandt. Country and Peopleiwith an Historical Out-
line contributed by A.1? lulcan? etc. 19430
From Tmck to Uistory. A 2ort ..Istory of New Zealand. Christ-
church 1191440 127 pp,'
59. Reeds A Ho: Tic Story of 'Jew 24a1and. 2nd Ed? ellington 19460
?
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1112115: (contld)
Otago. Age
60. Reed, A.H.: The Story of Nexxiscalgotet of Adventure) to ienich is appended:
A Joirney through Otago in 1872, by Anthony Trollops. Niellington 1947.
367 pp., Pict.
61. Beaglehole, J.C.: The Exploration of the Pacific. tad Ed. The Pioneer
listories. Iondon 1947. XV, 410 pp.
62. Cunt' erland, Astearoa Maori, Niw Zealand about 1750. (ORev. 39,
1949, pp. 401440)
63. -ea:A Land Despoiled: Neu Zealand about 1838. OWN 1950, PP013 340)
64. Wright, 00: New Zealand 182601827. From the French of Dumont d'Urville.
An English tranAation of theyagede ...9.olabe (in New Zealand
Waters). 'Tellington' 1951, XII, 252 pp.
650 Melymont,IJ.C.: The Exploration of New Zealand. i:.ellington 1948, Dept.
Internal Affairs. XVI, 202 pp.) Ups, Pict. (NZ Centennial Surveys.)
660 Niland, D.: Aerial :ioneers. (1..aikabout, Sydney, 17,1951,N005,1*0330.370)
67. Bolithoh? H.: karly Travelers in New Zealand. (G4age214,19,52, pp.5270.32,
1214
STAT
589-96, Pict.)
277:
Reed, A.H.w.and A.W. (Editors): Captain Cook in New Zealand, Journals
of Captain Cook. Wellington o. J.
69. Cumberlawd K. 13.: The Status of Topographic Mapping in New Zealand.
(Oaev. 36, 1946, p. 135 ff.)
70. Gentilli? J.: Mapping New Zealand's agriculture. GJ ;ondon ID4, 1949,
Po 1460)
The fact that Europeans happened just at the time to recall
4(141
their settlemen at that the only a hundred years old, 'resulted in the
contribution of quite a nuniber of studies to the centenary celebration.
Lven at that it is not possible, however, to form from the literature an
uninterrupted picture of the course of historical events. One of the
lost important presentations, based on careful source stu4y especially
with respect to the Maori period, was prepared by Beaglehole (No. 54),
at the direction of the linistry of the Interior. Harper (No.) shows
lore of a tendency to place emphasis on the progress of settierientp and
Cumberland (No062)-develope a picture of New Zealand such as it was
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dollarfr the time around 1750. In his chorological account of the Countryvs
STAT
development froq a whalinr! station (No 63)to its first European settle,.
merit he exhibits a capacity for highly vivid description' of the old-time
conditions; An analogous account is to be found in an attractive book
written for the schools by Kathleen Monnypenny (No053) Malymont (No.
65) stresses particular the share of the aboriginal 'population in the
odiscovery? of the country. At the same time he also deals quite in dew
tail with first exploration Of the Islands by prospectors and geologists
He treats the various individual landscapes in great detail? Captain Cook
and the Frenchman Dumont dqUiville? the two famous woriti travelers, have
both visited New Zealand? Their travel notes have been republished, and
a detailed account of their observations has bean supplied (No06567;68).
in relAy to a survey by Platt in Geographic Review, New York, Cumberland
(No.69) Mode a valuable contribution to our Imowodge of' the topograp70
His remarks indicate that topographical study of the country was pursued
with the most modern means, and that msr a map 1163,330 is now available,
comprising 169 sheets for the North Island an4 191 sheets for the South
Island? All of these 360 sheets were prepared frdm topogr4hical air
pllotos. They are of good quality, but still in anther Unfinished con-
dition? Inaccuracies are being eliminated by currently supplied correc.
tiono. The important fact for the geographer, presumably, is that we
now have a 6vap1ete'set of maps available that will permit studies deal-
ing with any and all parts of the country.
40 GEOLOGY AilD MORPHOLOGY
.44 GEOPHYSICAL COMMENT
71. ftdriniak, Nok and &Marsden: Experiments in Geophysical Survey in New
Zealand. (NZ Geol. Mem. NO04? Wellington 1938, 92 pp., 30 Maps.)
720 Gam Mop aM.10 McNeill: Geophysical Investigations in the Area between
Wainta and Merrijigs. (NZITScTechn.22, 1940, pp01550650)
73c He ILCog The Seismicity of New.Zedland (NUSe1echn023449419pp.
521 Aaps.)
(NU8cTechn.22,1941)
Earthquake Jriirx in the New Zealand Region.infix pp. 225-30.
?
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p Avitemsidt9 STAT
75* Ongleor, M.: ilairarapa Earthquake of 214th June 19112, together with Map
Showing Surface Traces of Faults Recentl,y Active.(NZJacTechn.25119113,
p. 67 ff.)
760. Fleming, C.A.: Larthquake Traces near Waverley and their Tectonic Seto,
ting. (RSNZDunedin, Rept.6th,Session 19479 pp. 273430)
770 Hayes? R.C.: Earthquake in New Zealand du#ne the Tees 19470 (NZJScTechn.
300 191480 p). 102005.)
b) VOWANISM
78. Bartrum, J.A.: Unusual Weathering of Basalt and other Volernic Phenomena.
at Edendale, Aueiclaid. (ITZJScTechno 20 39410 pp. 2009,5. ado)
78a. Speight, R.: The Basal Beds of the Akaron Volcanoes. (TrESNVellington
70, 1940, pp060460)
790 Benson, The Basic Igneous A-tocks of Eastern Otago and their Teen,
tonic Environment. Part 3. (BStIZTrProc. 72, 1942, .p.1606,780)
80. Modriniak, N.:Thernal Resources of Rotorua. (NZJScTechn.26,1911140 pp0
277490)
81. Fleming, C.A.: liydrothermal Activity at Ngawha, North Auckland. (NZine0
Techn.2601914$,Pp02550,760)
82. Cottons C.A.: Volcanoes as 'Landscape Forms. Wellington 3914401416 pp.,
223 Fig.
8 Volcanoes as Landscape Forms. (AmAssPetrGeolTulsa 29,1.916)pp01046 4480 )
814. wtap: Some Volcanic Landforms in New Zealand. (Jaeorsorph.,Ncw York, IV,
191410 pp. 297403070
85. McPherson: E.O.: The Pula Hot Springs. '(NZ?IpoTechn.26,19145,pp02140540)
86. Oliver, R.Y40: FurthQr Activity of Mount Ruapehusillige?July 19145o (NZJSc.
Teehno279191452 ppo2/4=320)
870 Activity at Ruapehu NarchtoApril 39450 (NZJScTechn027,19115)Pp03.7430)
88. McPherson0E.D.: An Outline of Late Cretaceous and Tertiary Diatrophism
in :;ew Zealand (NZDeptoSc. and Industi. Res., ueoloa No06,19146032pp.)
89. Schoffield,J.C.: Distribution of Lower Oligocene Volcanoes in New Zea.
land. (MiSeTechn.139 1951/52, pp. 9n1 ca07 )
0) GNIERa C73.....OLO6ICAL AND 3ORPH01OGICAL
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JJj (contgd)
90. Crustal Structure of New Zealand? (Nat01479194100 f
910 Cotton, C.A.: Geomorphic Provinces in Aw Zealand (NZG 1,19459pp0404470)
920 The Outline of the Geology of New Zealand (to accompany the 16 inch to 1
117 STAT
ni1e?)eoloftical Map) .13y Ufficeirs of the Geological Survey,Fellington 1948.
930 Fleming:, C.A.: The rzeolop:ical History of New Zealand with Reference to the
Orin and :Itstory of the Fauna and Flora? (Tuatura 1,1914992,pp07263900)
940ItUi, A.R0: Note on the Geological Structure of New Zealand.(RSNZTrProc
79? 3951p pp* 218w590)
9Itao Margicit; Jard 11.J.Finlay: The Divisions of the Tertiary of NewZealand.
PacoScoCongro?Derkeley and an irancisco 1939,Lositngeles 194
Vo1.11,pp.503,0220)
d) SPECIAL ,AND RI GI MAL INV. STIGATIONS
95 Grange,L.I.; rrha? Geology of the Rotorua and Kairtianowa Division. (
010
Surrey of NewrZealand,B Uo037 1937,138pp0,20 Maps, n Figs, n Ta le80)
279:
,-:.4"ley? M.: The Geology of the Kaitagata.G Subdivisions,Eastern
Op
and Central Otago Divisions. (Geol. Survey of NewZealand,B No038 NJ,?
Wellington 1939. 90 pp., 5 Fig., 8 Haps, 5 Plates.)
970 /Cotton, C.A.: Some Ilenepination in Otago, Canterbury, and the North Is-
land 1 ideliZealand. (NZ4cTechn. 200938, pP010.80)
98
=Deo:
Lateral P1anation.J:11 NewZealand. (NZacTechn.20,1938
990 Marwick, J.: The Geology of North ?tarp and South Cante
\19146?Dept,1,? of itducation School Publ. 3ranch. 31 pPo
oe"
3.00. Raeside, J0D : The Origin of Schist Tors in Central
pp07246, 3 Pict.)
-l'arclp W0110: The ors of Central Otago? (NZJScTechn
,pp0227w320)
*try. Wellington
00 (MG 5 3.90,
0331,19510p019140200.)
1020 I:Anita:7MT), 110 The Geology of the Naseby Subdivisions Central Otago.
(Geol.Survey of New Zealand, B No0 390 141 pp op 23 Tables0)
1030 Wellrean,H0 1. : Geological and Geophysical Survey, Colb Vallw Nelson.
(NZJScTechn.20:940,11;052-600)
106 Gage, 1,10: Th kam and Karori Valley-8 and
graphic history of lt.renington. (RSNZTrProc
?
Benson911410N., and I.T.Hollmay: Notes on t
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theirBearings upon the Physio-
069?1940,pp.4010199
he Geor,raphy and Rocks of the Ran
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agUlt (cont2d)
118
STAT
gen between the Pyke and Matukituhi Rivers, NW Otago? IENZTrProco 70;
1940, ppo 12/40
1060 moo: Landslides and Allied Aatures in the Dunedin District/8 in Relation
to Geological Strticture; Topography and Enp#Oering? (115NZTrProco 1940/41;
pp? 219-630)
1070 Mason; BA? : The Ueoloa of Mount Grey District; .North Canterbury. (16NZ
TrProc. 71; 1942; ppo4t3u270)
1080 The Geology. of Mandernas Pheres District; NewZealando (RSNZTrProco 72;
1942; ppo 4031280)
1090 Cotton; 0.A.: Notes on nro Travers-Profile Geomorphic Problone. (RMIZTro
Proc0171,19410p01050)
L100 Wellman; W.: Geology of Coal Oreeko (NZJ8cTechno2749145$PP0844o)
111. Adams, G0 J0: Upland Terraces in Southern Newtealand (JGeolo;New York (?)
53, 194501)0289'312')
1120 Cotton0C.L.: The 'pine Fault of the South Island of New2ealand from the
Air. OISNZTrProco 76,1947;p003690311;Pict0)
1130 Adkin,G0L0: The Tararua flange as a Unit of the GeOlogical btructure of New
Zealand? (RS1122 Dunedin) Rept06th. Sc0Congre8s9Mag0 20,39190,pp02600.720)
McPherson0?D.: The Otaihanga Faukted Outlier and Notes on the Greensarxd
Deposits? (NZJScTechho 30;1948;pp070m830)
13.50 Coomba9D0S0: The Geolou of the Northern Tarringatura Hill; South:lAnd?
118NZTrProc0 78 ; 1950 ; pp?4260480
: Two New Zealand ilivers following Tertiary' Transverse Furrows?
a5NZTRProc .78 91950 9PP 0329 440 )
1170 Cotton; CA? : line eke de difoilnation transverse Ix Wellink,rton (A Transversal
Damnation Coast at ?.,,'ellini7ton (New Zealand).(ReveGgoiorpho Dynatique;Paris
2, 191419 ppo 914090)
1180 Fault Valleys and Shutter Ides at Wellington? (MG 70/9510p062-68?)
1190 Posteollokonu Orogeny9 Erosion .and Planationo(NZJSoTeohno33,19510)
1200 illunclen9 &WO: Notes on the Alpine Faultollaupiri_Valleyo(NZJSetrett;no 33$
2952 pp0404,080)
? ?4
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.1
280:
STAT
121A WellmanD U7.: The Alpine Fault in Detail: River Terrace Degacement at
Marmia River '(1 EcTechn033$1952$004090,)40)
121a0 King$L0C.: Late Pliocene and 'Pleistocene Tectonic Abvemtnts in the Central
Regions of New Zealand. (ProSixt 2ac.Sc.Conrls0,Berkeley. and San Francisco
1939D Los Angeles 1940$ Vo1011$pp0815-23.)
121b. SpeightsAo The Geology of Banks aninsula. A Auvision. (TrilSoca Welling-
ton, 73$ 1943 1346.)
122. Waitomotaves$ Naaealand$ and the 1:.!or1dmFakvious G1ow.4orm Grotto. Welling-.
ton 19390
1230 HendersonDJ.: Petroleum in New Zealand. (NZacTochn019$1937hp0401460)
124: --: The copper Resources of New Zealand. (NZJScTechn020$1939,pp0177-810)
125: Mason$B.: The Utilisation of Net/Zealand Iron Sands as a Source of Irony
Titanium and Vanadium? (NUStTechn026p 19410459 Pp0227m380)
126: Pascoe.; J0: Coal from the Buller. Ciro 14919L8ppp0163-690)
e) COASTAL AREAS ED ISLANDS '
127: Healys,J.: The Geology of the Coastal Strip from Big Bay to Prbfessor Creeks,
North.,.:;est Otago. (NZJScTochn.20$1938Dpp080.0940)
128: CottOn2C.A.: Plunging Cliffs, Ityttelton ? Harbour. (NM 539499pp01.30m360)
129: al19E0D0: Some Unusual Shore Platforms near Gisborney$ Nbrth Island$ New
Zealand. (RSNZTiProc48$19140$?13.64c.68$ Pict.)
130: Speight$ R.: Am Eroded Coast LinedRSNZTeroc. 78$1950$pp.3.13;Pict0)
131: Flemings, C.A.: The Geology of Mokokinan Island$North Auckland.(RSNZTr.
Proc. 78$ 19502 pP0255=680)
132. F1eming$0.A.$ and .J.J.Reed: Memo Bank, koast of Canterbury$NewZealand.
(NZJScTechn.32$1951$pp.1702300)
1330 Cottoil$C.A.: Seacliffs of Banks Peninsula an YelIinton? Some Criteria
for Coastal Classification (Part 1). (NZG 7$1951op0103-20$11 Pict0)
1340 Accidents and Interruptions in the Cycle of Marine Erosion. (Gil 107$
1951;0 pp? 343400)
135,1 tg Theljell,ington Coast. An Essay in Coastal Classification. (NZG3$19522pp.
48 to 620)
) GLACIAL GI:OLOGY A oatroFq
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6
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foute122! (conted)
120
STAT
1360 Willett, Wirot A Glacial Valleys Mount Aurum Skipper's Creek Survey District?
(tIZJScTechn02131939 ppp01050,120)
137 Totton, C.A.: Glacial SpurwTruncatinn in New Zealand* (J* of Geamorph0,New
/York, 1939,pp?7042, 3 Fig0)
1380 Speight0R?: Sone Aspects of Glaciation in New Zealand? (lep0Austr0 and NZ
Ass.AdvoSe., Canberra, 1939, PIN 49410)
1390
0
0006 0
The Rangitata Glacier: The qpestion of its Maximum 1!xtension0 (REIZTr?
Proco 71,194111PP01.690800)
140: wm: Note on the Franz Josef Glacier? (RENZTrProc071
19141,pp .128.0330)
141. 0,04 Ice 1Jastin,; and Glocier &treat in New Zealand? (J0ofGeomorph0,New
York?3? 1940, pp0131-1430)
1142 0
MOP 0
A Detail of the Pakahi Xoraine0 (RSNZTrProc072,1942,pp0199m2190)
143. Wellmann, WO, and R0W0Willett: The Geology of the West Coast from Abut
Heal to Ailford Sound?Part 2,Glaciation0 (RSNZTeroc?72,0424P019902190)
146 Cotton,C.A.: Basal Remnants of Truncated Spurs in Glaciated Troughs. (J. of
Geomerph., New YorkA,1941,pp1865400)
1450 Suggate,R.R0:Franz Josef and other Glaciers of the Southern Alps, New .Zea
land (J. of Glaciology, London, 1, 1950, 'v0422480)
Page 281:
c"m
0 m Josef Glacier, Aarth 19510 (NZJScTechn?33,195241) 29703040)
1470 Gage,M.: Malting of the Canra6 Glacier, Arrowsmith Range, Canterbury?
(NZJScTechn03391951/529001384410)
1480 0.0: The Dwindling Glaciers of the Upper Rakara Valley, Canterbury, New
Zealand? (J0 of Glaciology, London02; 1951, PP105040070)
2490 mot: The Cameron Glacier, New Zealand. (J0of Glaciology,Lop.don?1?1951,p05820
1500 Harrington, Ha.: Glacier 1:astin and Retreat in thc Southern Alps of New
Zealand. (J of Glaciology, Locni, 2, 1952D p0 120)
g),HYDROLOGT
1510 Bartrum, J0A.: Peculiarities of Drainage Evolution near Aucklands New
Zealand. (NZJScTecn0 49 1939, 00143460)
1520 ifenderponD. Jog Undergronnd dater in New Zealand. (NZatTeel.m.23; 19419
oPo 974120)
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age ?81: (contld)
1530 Bensen$W.U.: Notes on the Suspended Loads of the Waimakari,ri. River?
(NZJSc? Tee1/n.270 1946PPo4200126 )
19.1.0 Ha I.Tater Supply for Coastal Ana between Foxton and Lewin? (NZJ8o0
Techn? 27 D 19116 p pp0431,4,340)
155. AdlidnpG.L.: On, the Occurrences of Natural Artesian Springs in the Hirowhenna
District? ( NZJScTechh029;:1940 'pp 0266420)
156. Gage, DL: Stream Patterns in the Greynouth Districto, (BSNZTeroc078;19501)
pp0418450)
1$70 Sohnackenberg?L.C.: Extreme Flood Discharges? (NZ In t041:0J.sPellingtonp
19149; pp? 3764270)
h) SOIL EROSION
1580 Dixon,)j.K.: &lulDl baits in New ZealandOoils. (NZacTechn019;19380m0
691-960)
1590 Zotov, V.D?: Certain Types.of Soil Erosion and .lesultant..Relief Features on
the ligh Mowntains of New Zealand? (NLIScTechn?21;19,40;pp0256m1620)
1600 CumbeAand,K.B.: Soil Lrosion in New Zealand, A Georrai;hical Reconnaissance?
Wellington Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Counoi10,'4ellington.19440
227 pp.,Bibl.,Naps. Pict0;Index?- Afef0 :GRev036; 171f0
161. .7,c.: Contrasting iiegional Aorphology of Soil ilirosiDn in New. Zealand? (GROv034;
.91414,pp077=9.50)
1620 -.: A Geographic Approach to Soil Lrosion in New Zealand :(Austroaeogr.;
:Aelboume,141943;pp?120.31.)
1630 Campbellp D0A.: Soil-ContNrvation Studies Applied to Farmingin Hawkes-Bay,
Part 1: InvcrAigatione into L'Iln-Off and Soil Loss (NZJScTechn. Wellington,
Seet.A,2691944p0301420)?.
164c Gibbs, 1.S.? and J.D. Raeside: Soil 'arosion in the 11341 Counttrof the South
Island? (NZ Dept0 of Sc. and Ind1.1!-:fr.Res.Bull.No?92; Soil.Survv Public? No.
10. 'elIinrY:ton 19L5) 72. pp 0; MaPs0)
1650 Grange,LOI.: North I4and,Zoils? (NZLofAgricult.,7P219451,00387-97 )
1660 Holmes9J.M.: Soil Erosion in Australia and New Ze4and. SydAPY.' 1946.
296 '-iip4tiapsAill0iPict0. .,.Refo: GJ ipBt 19)4601820)
1670 Campbell D.A.: Down to the Sea in Slips. (NZ Soil Conservation and Rivers.
Control Councils: D. No 5. Wellington. 1946. 25 pp0)
STAT
?
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Ett.E12.,0;
168: Campbells, IL: Soil trwa:I.on and Conservation l'roblems iu New Zealand. London
1946.
169: Raeside0J.D.: The UriLin of Salt Vans in Central Otago* (NZJScTechn.30?
1948, pp0964010)
170: Grant? A.P.: Soil Conservation in New Zealand* (N22rocoEng0,Wellington,
322
STAT
19
509 pp.269-3130)
(A)
The large number of studies that have appeared, during the few years that
have passed since the 1st deport (l938) indicate clearly thnt an effort is being
made to f
her kno. ledge of the two Ie1an150 So far as geophysical investigations
are concerned
0 both Islands, but csiJecially the North Island, have long since been
Bed as a testing ground* All tie investir:ations made so ft v can be found lxiefly
recorded in a capably prepared study by Modriniak and narsden (No 71); while Nage
(72) confines bins
elf aore or less to one subject. Hayes (No073) subdivides the
two Islands into fo
frequency*" Ongley
ur seislic areas, on the basis of "maximun intensity and medium
(NO075) deals with the visible surface results, such as cracks
and faults noted after
the -,:airarapa earthquake. Fleming (No076) reports on similar
types of phenomena in ti
ie 't;averley area.
(b) Volcanic erupti
on, notably the forms of weathering of the volcanoes, are
known from widely scattere
d parts of the country. Bart= (lo.78) and Benson (No079)
have investigated the forms
forces are considered by Mod
of weathering. Possible ways of utilizing the volcanic
riniak(No.80). Aore detailed than the others, aL4 high-
ly v aluables are the investigat
ions conducted by C.A. Cotton (No.82084), whose au-
thor has endeavord to find solutions for various morphological problems presented
by a large number of regions in, di
fferant parts of the South-Ii146d* His articles0
and also his detailed work on vole
oes as forms oi the landscape (No*83), are valu-
able contributions to the general norphology of this type of mountain formation.
Valual-ae supple nents to these studies
are supplied by the work of McPherson (No.
88) and Sc:offield (No089). Schoffield
nakes use of a sketch map to indicate where
volcanoes Aerie active during the Lower.i0
ligocene* He demarcates two lines, on the
eastern and on the western side of the Southern Alps. It is especially worth noting
that at the time of their activity these volcanoes were of the submarine type. A
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)0
W.02: (cont'd)
good general account of the activity and the neology of the volcanoes i unplied
by Oliver (1700809 in his report on the activity of lount Ruapehlio
(e) A good topographical, and morpholorical discussion Jos contained in all
of the above-mentioned and, especialAy.itle below-mentioned studies, althowh in
.many inetances they deal pith purely geological problems. Cotton has made an es-
sential contribution also to the lore general type of studies dealing with the
country's geology? It ':as he who contributed the division of, the two Islands in-
to eleven distinct morphological provinces, where the ,subdivisions for the North
Island are more numerous than those of the South Island. (NO.91). A genera1 view
of the,eology is furnished by the acco-vanying text of the geolojcal maps of
E10e28:
the Survey (No.920).
(d) There are about 70' studies 'available that treat of various indi-
vidual parts of the country and thus supplement those contributions whi.ch only
serve to bring out the lore general traits. Special attention is deserved by
a
those articles whidh contribute information concerning Otago, since in that
area, as Ugrd (aoolol) has pointed out, peneplanation occurred on two diffe-
rent oecasions once during the Cretaceous period, an4 then wain during the
STAT
Terbiery. The
ors" that loom up there nowadays above the erosion surface
have been investiated repeatedly. Several authors have developed theories to
account for theft existence of those "tons." Raeside (110.1po) jointly with
Cotton (No.98), assumes that erosion by the winds acted upon these mesoschists
to elaborate residual knows. The vicinity of 1.Jellington was studied by Gage
(VC .104) and the vicinity of Dunedin by Benson (No .105)v The re are several
studies dealin with the?econotic *cots of geology, and.these repOrts on
deposits of coal' and copper. Abst of tiler:a studies are accompanied 137 good
photonraphs, and many of them even have well-interpreted oir photos. This
fact stands out clearly in the studies on coastal geology, a subject which,
in vier of the highly developed shapes of the coasts of New Zealand, has re.
ceived ..)articular attention.
The faults are in many instances outstandina lanamarks, and
have for that reason been given detailed treatment in many instances. Cotton
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(cont'd) Q
STAT
(No0112) interprets air photos of such faults on the Nem Zealand Alps. He also
deacribes faults in the Wellington area (No0118), in connection with another
No.
study (No.117) that deals with coastal formations. Munden (120 and Wellman
(NO0121) have published studies covering the same territory.
(e) The coast of Otago exhibits4 great variety of forms, which have
been studied by Mealy (No.127), who also discovered traces of glaciation there.
Cotton (No0128), who has Ivou.ht out several studies on individual sections of
has
the coast of tIle South Islands sumurized his individual investigations: which
exhibit a strong orpho1oicl bias in a critique of the classifiOation of
104$4
coastal' types (N001339134)i Since extensive "tangs and depressions.have occur-
red in the territories of the South: Island,' there developed in many instances
littoral platforms, w)ich were studied by Gill (No0129) in the ,Gisborney area
and by Flemings (No.132) with regard to the at present submerged areas off the
South Island, at the Mer1oo4anks. The difficulties encountered in deternining
the divisions of the Ternary were discussed by Weidk and Finlay (94a) in their
report to the Pacific Congress. Their work affords a. complete general views and
also atteApts a Coordination with the European divisions. This work is completed
by the addition of a Systematic !!:tratigraphy? comparisons of Oe macro-fauna and
inicrootauna. it supplementary contribution was contributed by King (121a), who
Page 2811: he existence o
preFents in brief form his reasons for am= a former connecting link between
the North Island and the South Ic1xt and also discusses the tectonics. Unfor-
tunately he does not give any preclim chronological data, though he allows the
experiment to speak for itself. Speight (No.121b): finaUys arrives, on the
basis of the most recent knouledge available, at a detailed revision of the geo-
logical conceptions More an4 more in the direction of the tectonics of the Banks
Peninsula, which he discussed in his first effort as long ago ad 1917.
(f) The South Islands in its Southern Alps, exhibits a large amount
of glaciations which during the Pleistocene covered large portions of the land
and; in some instances reached down as far as the coast. In vlelr'r of the in
effort.made in recent years to determine the ceuntryAs r.,,eology and mor.
phol.egy it was hareay possible to disregard these 0.aciation phenomena. Here
again it was Cotton who40ev9e (Ne0137): by weyof supplemen#w Speight.t's tsar-
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aftalE! (e?nVd)
4701 101,N.41,04411,414, 4,10;
?
125 STAT
lie6 studies, reported on the part plAyed by ice in forming the landscape? In
Nam Zealand, too, a tendency to retreat can be noted on nearly all of the glam
eters? Their dimensions are discussed by Speight (No0139), Gage (No.147), and
lia.rrington (No.150). There have been many special investigations of individual
glacier territories, c!liehy the Frana-Josef Glacier, presumably due to its
ready accessibility (To ? )40;11!5; and 146).
(g) The aeprAty of utility waters in tlea Zealand has not so far
been a source of many difficulties, and consequently there have up to this time
been only feu investicttions death,- pith that matter. The subject of VdrixTaphy
itself, however, has received a rcater amount of attention, since Vdroeraphic
developments are, of course, intimately connected with the geological development
durine the varioii individual periods. Reports on this subject have been con-
tributed by Bartrum (No.151) and by Benson (N0015.3)0
(h) Such questions as the conduction of water and silting receive
a certain amount of attentiari also in the studies dealing with the destruction of
soil; and literature on this particular subject has been forthcoming in increasing
quantities during recent years. The ruthless exploitation of the toil that was
initiated since the beeinnl.ngs of settlement by Luropeans has produced extremely
pernicious effects ? The worst of these consequences was that the surface soil,
after it had been laid bare by burning the erasspwas subsequently destroyed still
further by wind erosion and intensive pasturing of cattle, thus causing untold
damage to aericulture. In many instances the landscape absolutely was converted
into a .deseTt. Nom that the damage caused has taken on frightening proportions
there are efforts being made to take countercAeasures. Special committees were
appointed, and the Government took a hand? Bulletins (No .164),
and also private
individuals, report on the danger. Uolmee (No 166) has contributed a comprehen-
sive survey dealing arith Australia and New Zealand; and Cumberland (No?160;162)
made use of air photos in determining the extent of such destruction of the soil
And reporting changes exhibited by the landscape? Zotov (No0159) reported on the
damage caused to land in the elevated parts of the country'. &aside describes
(No?169) a numbEr oS?alinebasins on Otago territory, and the process of their form.
?
,
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Page 285: (cont 'd)
1314.1
ation; and ports on current improvements in a number of different articles
(No.1683170).
ed
(5) CLIMATOLOGY
171. Bacre, J. C0: Climatology and Meteorology of the New Zealand Area. A Biblio-
graphy. (NZG 3, 190, pp0129-360)
172. Gamier, D.J.:" The Climatil of :!ew Zealand accordiv, to Thornthwaite's Clas-
sification. (AnnAssAmG., Lancaster, 36, 1946, pi). 151-71.)
1730 m-:
(hditor): New Zealand TA:ether and Climate. Auckland 1950. 194PP.,Pict.
(The NZ Gco.T.S.? Dunedin, 1isc0?er.No010)-Ref.:ScottGnage67,1951,1990
174. Kidson?I.,.: Climatic Notes: New Zealand Districts. 'Zellington Net.Office?
Note 17, 32 pp.
175. Climates of the l'orld: Australia and New Zealand. (leather, London,7,1952,
pp.279=820)
176. Willett, The New Zealand Pleistocene Snow lane, Climatic Conditions
irid Suggested Biological Lffects. (NZJScTechn.32,1950appi118?43iMaPs0)
177. Raeside, J.D.: Some Post-Glacial Climatic Cllanges in. Canterbury and their
Ftfect Fornv.4-ton. (RSNZTeroc.77,19118$pp0153-720).
178. Watt, Ji.. .M.: Forecastin? New Zealand Weather. (112G 2, .19115.0 PP0119-380)
1790 'to.: The &lotions Of New, `i.ealanci Weather and ?limits.: An Analysis of the
(NZG 3, 19147, pp.115-290)
180. Seelye 0C . J. : Tornadoes in ilex Zealand. .( NZJScTechn. 27,191! 5 ap.116 7140)
181. Hitching, ?Yi.G.: -Campbell Island, a Sub-Antarctic tt:oather .',tation.(Weather,
Londen,11,191: 9 ,pp0389
182. Bondy?F.: Drougilts in New Zealand.. (NZJSc"echn.32,19590p014010 )
183. White's Aviation Ltd. New Zealand. Lenticular I4ewave Cloud over New Zea.
? land. (MetoMago,London? 81, 3952, p057ff0)
Seelye,C0J.: Welliton City itaintall. (NZJScTechno$269/9414,PP0364160)
1850 cl?4!): Fluctuations and Secular Trend of New Zealand. Rainfall. (Met .Off.,
Wellington p No0360)
186. C"4 Th. Frequency of Hem Daily Rainfalls in New Zealand. It3ITZ,Rept0
6thScoConfTess, ;%'.ellin ton, 19147, pp .6640 )
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187. Seelye?C.th: Variations of gonthly. Ralidall in Neu Zealand. (IEJScTeOhn.
27,1946,pp.3974050)
188. Variability of Annual Rainfall in New riealand. (MacTechn.22,1949,
p.18. ff.)
189. Garnier?B.J.: The Application of the COncept of Potential Evapotranspi-
ration to .1(')isture Problems in New Zealand.(NZG 7,19510p043..610)
190. Btrtings,10, and P.E. Simons: Climatic Zone,and'Domestirc ficat!_ng in
New Zealand. (NZacTechn.32,19510p44m530)
A short bibliographic survey of the most/Important among the
climatolcrical studies is furnis'ied by a compilation published in the New
Zealand 'cOorapher (!T0.171) in 190, which has since been supplemented by
3arnieros study (11o.173). It combines the results of studies that had ap-
Wn
peared at an earlier time; and it contains chapisers on the organization of
the meteorolordcal service, a history of the' latter (by Robertson), and also
Garni(rgs.(No.172) Classification (pub101946) of the Climate according to the
ThorntImaite Classification. More .important, honver? is for the geolispher
a study like VIA of larnierls, which investiates the climate of the various
individual districts actording to the seasons...WilIetts (NO.176) presents a
map and a cross section to trace the lowering of the icemperiod snow line.
AccOrdinF to him thc periglacial zone is likely to have covered th South Is-
land in its entirety, arid also the southern part of the North Island. The
the
present vegetation and distribution of notophagOs are in his opinion close-
ly connected 7-ith that problem. Watts (No.178)? who is interested in weather
propostication? engaes in a.study of the winds. Nea4y_40% of the winds
all cone in from the northeast. SeeIye (No.130) has devoted a very competent
study to the tornadoes. About nine tornadoes are reported anivally; but the
number actual) occurring is apt to belarger. fle discucses the various
types; their occurrence, aid their formation. Bondy (No0182) gives an account
of the arid sells and locations and their periodicity, while Seelye (10.186-
189) devotes a. numb.cr of articles to the Subject of pieciliitatiens. 4e notes:
(No.180) a decmase of. precipitations in proportion to the latitude, and an
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increase as one advances from west to east. A stufly of rather a more technical
implication was brought out by Bastings (N00190), who jointly with Simmons asm
certained the quantities of heating fuel required in each of the different cli-
matic provinces.
(6) FLORA AND FAUNA..
1910 Clark,A.1i.1 The Invasion of New Zealand by Peoples, ilants, and Animals. (The
South Island.) New 3runowick 1949. XIV ,465pp0,81 Fict.mlief010J 116,104.
192. Madden. E.A.: The Grasslands of the North Island of New Zealand. (Dept. of
Sc. and Industr. Aes. Bull. 79, Allington 191100 55 PP0)
2930 Zotov0C.T.?et al.: An Outline of the Vegetation and Flora of the Tararua
Aountains. (RSNZTeroc. 68, 1938, pp. 25903240) .
194. Waders, H. Alpine Flowers of the Southern Alps of New Zealand. (Walkam
bout, Sydney, 15s 1949, pp031m370)
19501aker, E.H0: New Zealand, a Botanistgs Paradise. (Ann.Rep.Smithsonian
Inst. 19k9s 00317-48.)
196. PoolekA.L.: Flora and Vegetation of the Caswell and George Sounds District.
(ESNZTeroc. 79, 1951, pp062m830)
197. Post, Loy.: PoLlendial!ramme aus Neuseeland (Pollen ijiagrams for New Zhand).
Excerpts from a lecture. p. 219 Int.Ver.f.d.Otudoi.cuartars INQUA. (Vh.III.
IntoQuoriKonfo Vienna 19360 Vienna 1938. 394 MO
198. Clinkari Lo: Le pin kauri en Nouvelle Zeilande(The Kauri Pine in New Zealand).
(Revanto du Dois L38,4V0 400 pp., Pict. pp.2080100)
1990 Cockayne, L., and J. Ph. Turner: The Trees of New Zealand. 411ineton 19430
176 pp. ,Pict.; New Ed. 1945.
2000 Stebbing,L.P.: Forest in New Zealand? riat0149,1542,p0672 fr0)
201. m-: ForeFA of New Zealand. (Nat.156919450p0600)
202. Champion, U.G.: The Kauri Tree in New iealand0(Nat0163,1949, 238 ff.)
203. Tidmarsh,C.: Tho Utilization of Exotic Forest in New 'Zealand. (NZG 7,
1951, pp. 69-730)
204. Hill, T. L: New Zealand Forostry in Transition. (J. of Geol.,Chicago,
1951, pp. 265m76, Pict.)
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205. Lawing,Ii4V.: A Century of .Fore.st Life of New fealando(NatelL5019W,9113.)
206. Fell, 11013.3 The FauAa of New Zealand* (Nat. )47,19411 Po 253 ffo)
New Zealand's biological balance, such as it had developed in the
course of the various geological poriods as result of the country's. isolated
position, suffered its first disturbance throuh the. :Island's. conquest by the
Polynesians. Later on far. more radical changes took place as result of settle.
lent by the Europeans. Clark (No.191) provideo information on this subject in
his comprehensive and deeply penotrat7 study* He considers all of the ques.
tions involved from a historico-biological point of view. His work is supple.
mented by a critical bibliography that is vcry helpful in any effort to under.
stand New Zealand. The open territories, which are of such great importance
for the raising of herds of sheep, have been, made the subject of a large number
of special sttdies. In wily instances they present the results of investigations
ordered by the Ministry of National .Lconopy; and in them the various problems are
treated from the point of view of agriculture, i.e an offort is made to deter.
nine in each case the economic values. A report on the Alpine Flora was given by
Wders (No 19)4) The spread of the kauri pine and the rapid growth of 'needle.
bearing timber has been treated in a number of studies. Cockayne (No l99) dis.
cusses all of the species of timber; and Stebbing (No.200,201) has:provided two
brief reports on the -forests. In the matter?of fores7too, there has been a
definite change ,as compared with the earlier times. Hill Ob.204) describes
these new developments of forestry., a service that has come to aim exclusively
at the maximum of utility and gives preference to exotic species of timber if
these seem promising of quick profit. One among these species is the Aontergy
Pine. This study is of importance for the geographer inns since its author
contributes a map showing the distribution of forested areas. The fauna has
so far been reported on only in a study by Fell (No.206).
(7) SETTLELITTJND POPULATION .
2070 Beaglehole, Lc Anthropology in New Zealand. 0 Polyn.S.Hawaii 1938P .
pp0152.620)
208. Donne, T*E.: loeurs et eoAumes des laoris (Aorals and Customs of the
Maoris. Trans'. fral Eng. by 1.Fain,Paris 19380298 pPAaps, 25 Picto
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2090 Elliott: The Maoris. Ong010,1939$14)
0
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210. Sutherland, I.L0G. (Editor): Maori People To-Day. London 1940$ 1449Ppo
(Pacific Relctions Int0ries0Ser0)
2110 Beatlehole, E0: Some Modern 1aori0 e1li.nton 19L6. XXI, 347 pp0 (New
?
Zealand Council for Educational gesem4h, Educ.Res09Ser0No0250)
Page 288
21270ien,I0.10: The Development of Maori Culture since the Advent of the
Pukehn. (J.Polyn.S. Hawaii 56, 1947, pp01730870)
2130 MulgansA0E0: The Maori in Picture. A Brief Survey of Maori Life past and
Present. Ed. by A.E. lulgan. Oiristchurch 19400 71 mu
214. Ke117? L.G.: Tainu: The Story of Hotoroa and his Descendants. ..Tellington,
Polyn.Soc0,1949, 483 pp.
2150 Rose, A.J.: The Aaori in Northuest Nelson about 18400(NZG 8,1952,63m680)
2160 Metgedo.The laori Populction of Northern New Zealand, (NZG 8,1952, pp.
1014-2110 lapao)
2170 Alley,R.: The Cinese in New Zealand.(China J.,Shanghai,23,1938,pp070-790)
218..Michel0E.: Emigrazione livornese nella Nuova Zelanda (Emigration from Li-
vorno (Leghorn) to New Zealand.(Dtorico Livornete? Livorno? 2,1938,3950)
219. Cowan,J.:Settlers and Pioneers. Wellirvton 1910. 153 pp .:4 10 'Acta
220 Slim1air0H.I.: Population: New Zealand Problem. Dunedin 19114,189 pp.
221. Rolleston, H.M.: More English than tIle English? NOW Zealand Victorians.
(Mag.17, 1945,pp0459-5090)
222. Tooker, A.H.: Population :;)oliey in LW Zealand and Elsewhere: A Review
of Objectives. (NZG 1, 19450 001390480)
2230 CuMberland?K.B?: Population Chan-vs in New Zealand. (GJ 108,1946,p.12=0)
2240 Calvert, G.N. The 4iture Population of New Zealand, a i'tatisticalrAnalysis.
Wellington 1946. 162 pp.
2250 mc!: New Zealandls Population Prospects. (UZG 3,1947,148, 5 Fig., Diagr.)
2260 leei,R0L.: SOle ieatures of New Zea1and9r Racial 'Probicms? NZG 3 1947$
pp.75.820)
227. Japoby,E.G.: Rural Sociolog in New Zealand RPIPapt..6tn Se Congro,
19h7p pp. 236400)
228u lowthl4aite,G.: The Population of Aot6aroa, its. Nuiaber and Elstribution0
(NZG 6, 1950$ .14)03.54.52o)
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131
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2290 Beaelehole, E. i SOMR SO O'i.03.0fI!jetil: iiitiPiidtt4` Of Relation& in New Zealand?
(Int. Sociol. Sc. Bull. 3$ 19519 PP0 253480
2300 DUI*, RA.: The impae..t) of Ian upon Nature in New Zealend. (Proc.km.P'
S., Philadel Ya, 95, 1951, pp. 569m820)
231. --: Man and Nature in New Zealand? (NZG 8, 1952 pp.
A.
tendency to turn back to t4e* own past history was quite no-
ticeable in the writings on historidal geography; and the same tendenCy is no-
ticeable also it tle evolution of relations with the country?s primitive inha-
bitants. In the publicetions that deal with the Maoris and their customs or
with the progress ofsettloment there is reference to historical probloills as
well as to the purely anthropogeo graphic questions. Many of the studies pUb-
lished do not ret beyond the scope of a reneral account, however; and the pro."
social adaptation ,
blem of taxxxsizammiatiguskipx of the laoris is one of the favorite topics.
Mary of these netives are at present occupied as hired laborers, and it is im-
portant to raise their social level and to heve these people take a part in solv-
ing the problems posed by the country's condition. Sutherland (No 210), there-
2
ore, makes a detailed appraisel of their social st0u0; while Deaglehole (No.
11) merely concerns himself with tile problem of incorporating them properly in
th
e labor process. iiiimilems C awes in ilaori civilization since the advent of
the Europeans are dicussed by iticiwen (No0212). Rose (No0215) examines politic-
al conditions and the state of the settlements. Meek (No.226), in discussing the
Pw 289: es
situation of the Aaoris ineludlee several alarming reports concerning their rnuc.
meri
and
cal increase but at the sante timte also concerning their high lortality ratei
le concludes his study with an aepeal to have the Maoris participat ore fully
in th
e work of the State.
The process of settlin- the country by the 01.1U poeulation is dis-
in a number of articles, most of eM.ch are of a historical type, e.g. Cowan
) or else of a historical nature, e00 Sinclair (No.220). Rolleston (No.
cussed
(ao0219
221) gives a highly instructive account of the preservation of old customs of the
former
imndrants down to the present time. This has in many instances been the
result o
f isolation. Tocker (No 222) considers the eueetion of population too
much fron
?
an, xclesively Nee Zealard point of view; and his work is not of great
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twat (contld)
importance, but Cumberland (No0223) has treated coloetently, tho4h brieny? of
charwes in the population. The natural progress of development of the populam
4ion is described by Calvert (No 221), who also brings out clearly the trend
toward movement into the larger centers of settlement. The social composition
is treated by Jacoby (No.227); and Lewthwaite (NO.228) has studied the number
of inhabitants and density of settlement during the times of the Mani rale*
Murphy (No0230) concerns himself with changes brought about by thc.; Luropeans
on both Islands.
STAT
(8) ACMCULTURAL GEOGRAPHY
232. Drasch? Ch.: Neeor Zealand. Man and Nature. (O4ag.12,19490 PP?332443, Pieta)
230. Cumberland, LB.: A Century's Change from Natural to Cultural Vegetation
in New Zealand. (f,Inev.30,1940,pp.5294440)
234* Alley?G.T., and D. Hall: 1:11c: Farmor in New Zealand. 7:ellington 1941. X,
150 pp., Dept. of Internal Affairs.
235. Grange, L0 I: A Basis Scheme for Land Classification. (NZScTeenn0,Sect.
A., MD 1944, pp.1360410)
236. Cumberland, KO.: '41e Survey kttd Classtficatioi of Land 7n New Zealand: a
Basis for Planning. (flSNZTeroc. 74, 1944, PatI, pp0185-950)
2370 Clark, A.H.: The Historical Eplanation of Land Use in New Zealandc,
(Jr. of Econ.Rist. New York, 5, 1945, pp.2150.300)
238. Granve, L.J., U %Hamilton, P.4.Slal1field: Problems of Land Ltilisation
and Conservation in New Zealand. (ADS timpire Sc .Conference Papers, London
1946, 5 pp.)
239. Mulgan0A.L.: Pastoral New Zealand,. Its *hes and its ?eople. A descripa,
tive survey of the Dominion's Farling (with illustrations). Christenurch
1946, 96 pp.
240. Farmilw .1n 4vor Zealand. (NZDept.of Agric.B.No.252,WeMngton 1946.199pp0)
241. Cumberland, KO.: Land Problems in New Zealand. A Review. (GROv.26 190,
PP? 1374410)
2420 The Importance of the Land g the atare of New Zealand L7ricult. re. NZ,G
Reprint :Jer. 1005, 19148o)
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IMLEY?:
243. McCashill, Lo"02 Some Problems of Land Use in Now Zealand.(NZG S.Rec.
Publo 1948, 7o06s, ppo 8,0100)
STAT
440 Cumberlad? K.D.: The kricultural Ae@ons of aew Zealand W11201949,
pp. 43.063.)
245. Stanton, C.R.: The Vengeance of Taneo (GX047,0224949,1V01984030)
21460 Slallfield, P.10: Land ImprI;vement. (NW. of Agriculture 79,1949,P0421-320)
247. CuMberland, K0 B0: New Zealand Agriculture, 19304040Ftev043,194301)0117-19)0
248. Zotov, V.D.: S:rvey of the TussoCkwGrasslands of the South Island of New
Zealand. (MJScTechn.,Sect.419330130197002440)
2490 CuMberland, Durniiv Tussock Grassland, a Geogro Survey. (NZG 1,
1945, PP0149.4, X., 14 Picto)
2500 Allan, HZ,: Tussock Grassland or Steppe. .(NZG 2, 19469p02230,340)
2510 Hamilton, g A Survey of the Dairy Industry in New Zealand. (NSjSc.
Techn. 235, 1942, pp. 1--35; 15745; 2570,850)
2520 Cumberland, K.D.: High Country nRun." The ...,Praphy of Extensive PaBto-
ralism in New Zealand? (EconG? '!oreester? 20, 1944, PP0204m200)
2530 Sears, P.D.: The Regional VeriOT of Pasture Growth in New Zealand.
(NZG 1, 1945, pp057c-820)
254. Riccardi, .110: La Aodificatione apportata della colOnizzazione europea alla
veetasionc della Nuova Zelanda(Changes wrouht in New Zealand Vegetation
as Result of European Colonization). (BSGItal.,Roma, ser.VII,1945,0010490)
25S0 Deane, J.: Thc Lobuxn Run: North Canterbury.(NZG 2, 1946,140.0454142ict0)
256. AMen?1.: The :laniototo Basin, Central Otago: from Natural to Cultural
Landscape. (NZG 3y 1947, PP059ca74,PiCto)
2570 McIeoaP.: The Condition of the Sheepqarming Industry in New Zealand?
(NZG 6,1950, P10072-780
2580 Chritchfield., !loth: Pastoral4urihiku. (NZG 7919,51,ppo1m200)
259. Daviesp N.J.: Irrigation in .the Canterbury Plains. (Geography?Manchester,
25,.)9b0, pp068-75 )
259acCottre1l, 'VAL: Gift of the Gods.. alkabout 141:0041118 '19 0 140912p.PP0
19200)
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1252.222! (ecntod)
2600 Cunningham, G.H.: The Introduction of Plant Diseases into New Zealand.
(NZG.2; 1946, pp0247-520)
259b0Farre11; Loon, New Zealand. A.Study of 'Landscape Change'
and Aeelanation. (EconG. A)rcester 28, 1952,Wo160007,30)
25960Moke, JOA.: No. Zealand: Aarketing a Pastoral Surplus. (Econ.Weorcester
2392947, PP0248450
261.Pohlen?I.J.,,C0S.Harri6, et al.: Soils and some Related krieultaral Aspects'
.of Mid Rakes Day. (NZ Dept. Sc. and Industr. i1es.B.30.940 Soil Bureau Publ.
.No. 159 1947, 176 pp.; Nape)
262. Packard, W0 P: Lake Coleridge Catchment: A Geogra)hie Suivey of its Pro-
blems..(NZG 3; 1947$ pp019409,13 ?Jett))
-2630 Adamson, N0 J0 The Fruitgrawing Industry of Nelson. (NZO 5, 19499pp0147-570)
2640 Roche, V.A.: Seafishing in New Zealand. (iialkabout, Sydney, 15; 1947; pp.
29-32, Pict.)
2650 Pattm. D.: Zealand fisheries, a 'General Survey.' (NZG 8,1952,pp 914030)
2660 ]3urns3 k F:1osphate .in New 'Zealand Arjleulture. (NZG 83952;pp0125c0370)
Very likely the lost trelendous change ever .undergone by New Zealand
was occasioned by the sudden irruption of leluropeans and of the animals and Aants
th&t came with gTR ard acted as the,most poiJerful factor in changing the factct
the landscape when the latter was .subjected to cultivation. On this subject Braseh
291:
No 32 has contributed an interestik: report, and Cumberland (No0233) shows how
the change into a cultural landscape was effected in this manner.. The organiliation
of the Islands ' agriculture was treated of in a lengthy pamphlet (No0240) browtt
out by the. lltistry of the Interior; where much emphasis it plade4 on the aspects
of .development. Differences of the soil in various individual territories, and
have
the classification of these spilt, Wm been the subject of several studies by
a practical
Grange (No. 238)and CuMberland (No0236). rie former tends more to supply as example
or jud-in- the sons, while Cumberland concerns himself with the question of their
istriblition over different areas and the .problems of planning that result for the
STAT
future. A detailed treatment of the pasture areas is also provided in Bulletin No.
2
52 (No.140) published by the linistry of Arrieulture0 At the sane time, however,
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135
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attention is devoted also to the cultivation of the: different species of commer-
cial crops? CuMberland (No0241) has evaluated these stualess alOnr With otherss
in "nis survey. He likewise discusses the pro)lems that arise for avricultural
from the special situation created by the lack of phosphates? He takes up the
extraordinary channea that have occurred in the agricultural structure and in
the conditions of crop-raisings both of which have undergone striking modifies.-
tions since 1935? He calls attention to the very valuable study by HaMilton
(No? 251) on destruction of the salt) a development that has inflicted mat
disadvantages upon the Country's agriculture? this was the occasion for his
study on the future of agriculture in New Zealand (No02142). This various stu-
dies, finally, led Cumberland (N0.244) to devise a subdivision into a number
of "Agricultural Zones?"'grxd a classification that must be taken into account
also in est&lishing systematized divisions of the lahdscape? A nutber of re.
latively short publications deal with proposals for improvinp the a;licultures
especia4y by way of soil improvement and improved methods in the use of fer
tilizer 13y 1:ay of sumnarys Clira')erland then supplies (No0248) a,survey of
developments during the time from 1930 to 19500
One can readily understand that a large amount of attention should
have been devoted to the pasture lands, since these constitute the principal areas
of utilized land surface. Use is being made chiefly of certain areas on the South
Islands areas thickly.covered nith tuft grass. 'Cumberland (No0249) has checks*
up on the prairie.burnin: practices hitherto used to inCrease the fertility of
the land, and he has strongly emphasized its disadvantages? A decline of the
gass-cover can be observed especially in Central Otege, Where the .steppe land
former] comprised 255 of the total area, and where the practice of burning has
N2.19.11.
Tiirflii-e:ffeet of turninn useful lands into a desert? He cites the literature
nublished on this subject since 1869? The above-mentioned work is probably the
lost instructive that has appeared on the subject of:pc.storal economy on the South
Island? Zotov (1'Jo?28) furnishes lere a survey of this topic? Allan (No0250)
analyzes the term "steppes" which .is being applied to the tussock grasslands?
There exists considerable difference of opinion concerning the term. in question?.
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Hamilton tudy (No 02S1)of cattleafareing ani the use of its products is the most
complete treatment of the subject that has appeared so far (cf. NO0240). The great
variety of t'se pasture lands and the differences occasioned by' the climate have been
described in detail by sears (110.253)0 (ears endeavors to provide a eeographic into
terpretation of the various individual territories. The history of one sinele farm
since 1861 forms the subject of a study by Joyce Deane N0 2S), this farm serving.
as an example of farms in the Otago region. Aitken (1100256) deals with the deteri-
orations and thue chanees of an entire territory, caused by the use of untuitable
methods; and he nen discusses readjustment to more modern methods of cultivation
and utilization of the product. In localities where agriculture is endangered by
a nhn-type of winds, an effort has been made to provide a remedy by irrigation?
Davies (No. 259) gives a detailed account of the region between. Rangitata and Rakaia,
where shelter belts failed to provide a remedy, and where the irrigation of appr.
16s000 sq.km0 of land is now expected to brine help? This systematic plans; which
calls for canals lining the rivers is presented by Davies with the aid of illustra-
tive sketches and air photos? No further studies are concerned with improvement
of the soil. Cottrell (No0259a) describes tele changes that have affected the coast-
al region as result of the Napier earthquake in 1931, an occasion where a lagoon
was converted into 79500 acres of fruitful fareland where intensive farming is now
in progress. Farrell (No.2,59b) shows how in the coastal areas mechanized scientific
farming has produced a ,00d yield from formerly barren lands? The contrast between
the relative sterile hill-lands and the coastal lands, eroded by drainage from the
formers and nee rendered fertiles is effectively brought out by this author. lloke
(No. 259c)s finallys gives an analytic stufly of markets for the post-war period of
New Zealand.
Cunningham (No0260) has discussed the plant diseases brought in by
the import shipments of seeds for the farms. The process of erosion that has re-
sulted from destructive methods now even threatens to paralyze the supply of elec..
tric energy. This result it discussed by ittReOlgs Packard (No.262), who uses
Lake Coleridge as an example? The fidheries being a supplementagf branch of in-
dustrys offered the first occasion for gettine a foothold in New.Zealand0 After
the ehale-cateh had declined it took a lone time before coastal fishing could be
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revived. There are two articles riving information on this subject. ?(No016402650).
(9) LOCATION OF SETTLEAEUTS ? BOON= AND COMUNICATIONS
2670 Brody? C.T.: Nueva Zelandia., y pueblo.(New Zealand9 the Land and the
Peo')le). (RevCam., Duenps Aires, 319 19)49, pp.85m90.) ?
2680 Adkin, Horowhuma9 its Haori Place-Names and their Topographic and
Historical Background. Uellington 2948. Wellington 19480 446 PP0,159'
Figa? 12 'Ups, and 8 Tables. Photos.
269. The Growth of a City: Auckland 18404900 (NZG 6, 19.50, P14190470) m
Ref.: NZG So DT..,111;.:DET No09D 1950, 3?.40
2700 Pawnall, L.L.: Metropolitan Auckland 170021945. (NZG 6,1950,107-2)4 , .1apso)
271.
tg? 0
P.letropolltan Auckland: The Contemporary Character of a New Zealand
Metropolis. (NZG 7D 19511 PP021-)420)
272, ,,,sFeiiding:A "ural Tolmship and its Region0(=3,19)47,16147,10 Picto)
2730 'Needle, A.D.: Land Utilisation in Metropolitan Dunedin. (NZG 8919529
.PP30471, MOPspacto)
2740 Somerset?H.C.D.: Iittledene: A New Zealand eural Community. Auckland,
London 1934, 102 pp09 Pict0
275. Parks, F.: Lan0 Utilisation in Metropolitan Christchurch. (NZG 2g 19)469
pp0279-.73149 14 Pict., llap.)
2760 Mulgan9 A.s The city of the strait: Wellinc,;ton and its Pravince. A Cen-
tennial Histo '4:calm:ton 1939a 349 pp,
2770 Duncan9 The Forn and Function of North Canterbury Township. 5p
19499 pp,774,85 Maps.?Fict.)
2780 Furkert, j.';!.: Westport Harbour.(R5NZTrProc076919)4?,3734,02,1aps,Diagr.)
2790 BottsD A K0 Sole Problems tn New Zealand ?s Politica. Geography. (Science
(monthly), Neu York, 19111, pp.5C5=180)
2800 Hewland? J.L.: Manufacturing in New Zealand, its Oustand4mg Characteristics,
(NZG 2s 19)46, pp0207,1.22 naps, Pict.)
2810 Pappe, H.O.: Manufactueng in New Zealand: a 4ccific Example. (MG 2,19)46;,
Po 329449 Pict.)
282. Insull,H.A.H.: The Solar Salt Undertaking at Lake 'Irassmere. NZG )4 ,19)48
PPo 155c.621Maps Act.)
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2830 IIithers?Lotio: Itildro41ectric Development in New Zealand. Reviewed: NZG
?o08, 1949, p10 9490
2840 ..: The Development of 4ydroelectric Power in New Zealand? NZG 6, 2950,
pp.53w71, Picto)
2850 Johnoton;03.: The Dov91opment of Communication Lines across Taranaki Upc.
lands. (NIG 6, 19500 pp0,171-89 Pict.)
2860 Fox) JoIlc RailiW Transport in New Zealand. (4 7, 1951, pp02514.0610)
2870 Bishop,Foi Air Trans _)ort in New Lealando (NZG1391.9520p01570.620)
The studies on social geor.:raphy and those on the country's eco.
now constitute only a small part of the literature that has been published
on the subject of Dew Zealand. The settlement of a former Haortterritory has
been described by Adkin (No0268) in an account dealing with florowhuma? where this
author makes use of a great variety of discovered remnants. This study is accom-
panied by an excellent topo*raphic introduction, and Yields an abundance of in-
formation concerning the re7,ion described. Some of the New 2.ea1and cities, which
within a small num?..)or of years developed into nuclei of settlement, have been dealt
with by a nutbcr of different authors. Among the many studies the t, convey inform-
tigLga
tion concerning Auckland, those by Pounall,(No0270,271) were particularly rich in
results. Uith the help of excellent illustrations this author gives an account
both of the development and the function of the inner core of the city. Likewise
highly informational is the study that deals with Fending (1160272), though one is
ilpressed with the fact that all these geo.raMicu of the cities follow pretty much
the same plan of presentation frObably the best of these
studies was contributed by Parks in his dissertation of which the, article in NZG
(No0275) is lerely 'an extract. The article by Duncan (No0277), likewise, is of
great value? It contains an exemplary interpretation of air photos. The country's
industrial development, to which more attention has COW to be paid in recent times,
is treated in an arttcle by Hcwland (NO0g30). Citing as an exavle the four large
cities (Auckland, UeUin ton, Christihurch9 and Dunedin) he discusses the increase
of areas taken up and attenpts a classification of the industries. The statistical
data used by t' 1?author -o back to 19380 Pappe (o .281) who treats of the same
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hp 221Q (cont?d) '
subject, using s however s onli one factory to illustrati the discussions clearly sets
forth the difficulties encountered in operating a factory profitably In New Zealand.
This point of view lust be brought to bear also on the production of salt at the.
northern eytrelity of the South Islands this production being intended to eliiinate?
if poss. bled the necessity of importing.salt. Of sone importance also has been
the increased utilization of water power, especially since sufficient cinantitics
of water and suitable locations are 'available. This subject is taken up in two
aAicies by 'Athens', (11b.283s 284). The heavy freight traffic handled by the rail-
roads can be found described in an article by Fox (No0286). is article con
of
tins a '.'s,al-dravri conrison imimmanxthe two Islands, as rearsdensity of train
traffic rith 4&.e conditions nou prelailing in "ncland. The author discusses the
61fficultie6 thnt will h;ve to be overcome. Airtransportation has not until re-
cently occLpied position of prominence. This subject is discussed in an article
by Lishop (No. 287).
in concluding; if we am briefly survey once lore the studies brought
oat 6.1.0,
out concerni7T the two Islandss that only a very small. number highly meritorious
.i;ublications or. the subject can be regarded as geolrahic treatises.. in Tne strict
sense of the term. Outstanding among these are the morphological studies by CoA.
Cotton, and also the articles by KoD,Cumberland Which however, are primarily conc,
cerned with the cultural aspects of geography.
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