SOURCES AND MEANS OF SPREADING BLACK LOG OF POTATO

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80R01426R009900020001-4
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 335
• Document Creation Date: January 4, 2017
• Document Release Date: March 22, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: January 1, 1949
• Content Type: REPORT

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76
Rorotkovs-, P. I.
Sources and loans of Spreading Black Leg of Potato
Dok. 14(5):39-45. 1949. 20 Akl
Translated from the Russian
by S. N. lonson
Black lug of potatoes is a bacterial disease of which the inducer is
Brwinia phytophthora (APP) Pergey. The bacteria destroy potato tubers, then
penetrate into the stems, causing infection of the root nook and finally the
death of plants.
The distribution of black leg is fairly wide. Oblasts of moderate and
}Hasid climates, especially those having heavy clayey soils, are most favorable
for the development of black is
Kany researchers have engaged in the study of the sources of infection
and the manner of its distribution, and have established that the inducer
of black leg is resistant to low temperatures and able to winter in the
soil. Iaohevaki (1) indicates that bacteria is capable of wintering in
potato tubers that remain in the soil after harvesting. Naumov (2) considers
bacteria causinC black leg as typical soil organisms. Be therefore recd mends
forestalling the appearance of the disease by alternating crops in such manner
as to return potatoes to the same field no earlier than every 4 - S years.
In the years 1933-34 we engaged at the Leningrad Zonal Potato Station
in work on ascertaining the eifnifioance of soil and need material for the
distribution of Liam black log disease.
Two Plots were set apart for experiments: one had formerly been waste
land, where potatoes had never grown before, the other had previously yielded
a potato crop. Diseased foliage was plowed into the second Plot in the fall.
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Irorotkova .. 2 -
Both plots were planted with tubers of the EPICURE variety taken from both
healthy and diseased plants. The latter were planted in whole and in out
tubers, the cutting of the tubers being done on the day of planting so as
to prevent the formation of a cork on the cut surface. In addition, tubers
were planted so as to have the out came closest to the soil (cut downward),
in order to effect a closer contact with the soil. The rest of the work in
caring for both plats vm,s the same.
The results of the infection of plants by black leg are presented in
Table 1.
Planting of healthy whole tubers
0
ill
Planting with diseased whole tubers
18.0
16.0
Planting with healthy cut tubers
0
1.0
Planting with diseased out tubers
19.6
19.9
The data indicates that despite the severe infection of the second
plot planted with both whole and out healthy tubers, the percentage of dis-
eased tubers was insignificant. The planting of diseased material' ?howevor,:
independent of the plot, produced a conaidereible ea cunt of infected plants.
The cxpcriment was repeated in the follo+rring year with tro varieties,
EPICURE and GREAT SCOTT, of which the tubers were planted on a plot severely
infected with potato foliage and tubers decayed from black leg. The results
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F orotkova ... .. 3 -
Our observations conducted on large industrial plantings of potatoes at
the same expcrimnt station also showed the close connection betreen the appear-
ance of black leg in the field and the quality of seed material, I.e., its
degree of infection. Varieties infected with black leg invariably produce a
large amount of diseased plants, Irrespective of the plot and its predecessors.
At the Leningrad Potato Station potatoes were frequently distributed on a clover
they were
bad, crhoree under the prevailing crop rotation Ict returned to the same plot no
earlier than after 7 - 8 years. This long period, according to Ieoheveki, is
ample for clearing the soil of infection, and the potatoes planted on such plots
^coree not supposed to become Infected by black leg. Actually, however, the degree
of infection of several varieties planted on clever beds was significant, as
seen fro: Table 2.
Table 2
Bel ladonza
Wohitn
Cobbler
lapioure
Per cent of Infected
plants
The difference in the degree of infection of varieties on this plot depended
exclusively upon the infection by the seed material, since all the remaining
conditions vreree the some and all varieties were equally susceptible to infection
by black log.
After oxe fining hundreds of diseased plants we came to the conclusion that
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the infection of potato plants is only possible during the presence of the
maternal tuber. Without it there is no infection. This explains the abso-
lute non-infection of seedlings of the first year, an well as of potato
seedlings. Our observations, confirming the above, are submitted in Table 3.
Table 8
('entifolia
Variety 421
Variety 43.4
Planter inn
tubers
8.3
The infection of potato tubers in the field may take place in different
ways: bacteria nay penetrate from diseased stems through etolons and young
tubers, "hare they produce darkening and decay of tissues. The characteristic
feature of such infection is considered the presence of a dark, depressed
spot in the stolen part. An analysis shored that abet 10 per cent of these
tubers decay in the soil prior to harvesting, one part of them decaying during
winter storage and thus constituting a source of infection for other tubers.
The infection of tubers may also take place through contact with dis-
eased foliage during harvesting. In this case bacteria penetrate into tubers
through various injuries. The result of the activity of bacteria is usually
unobserved, but such tubers, when transplanted into the field, produce plants
infected by black: log. This possibility of the infection of tubers: proved
in the following manrert Tubers from healthy plants were taken; one group was
mixed with the diseased foliage of potatoes, the other served as control. Both
of acted plants
r.oed
out
ktot pricked
out
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groups wares stored under the same oonditions. In the following year the re-
sults were an follcwrss tubers infeoted by contact with diseased foliage pro-
duced 52.9 per cent of infected plaritz, while the control grew completely
healthy plants. The appoaranon in the field of plants diseased with black
leg is observed throughout the vegetative period, Eras the time of sprouting
to harvesting. An exceptionally widespread is noted in the second half of
aurmer.
Iachevski (1) indiostec that during wane rainy weather the disease is
widely distributed in plantings pausing the destruction of plants within 3
to 4 days. He attributes this to the results of the secondary infection ob-
tained from the spread of the disease through tireworms and other insects above-
ground. According to data by Pronioheava (I) nematodes may also serve as disease
transmitters since by Injuring the tubers they facilitate the penetration of
bacteeria.
In order to verity the role of above-ground insects as potential
transmitters of infection, we experimented on a plot possessing a rather
thick population of wiroworns. Healthy and diseased tubers were planted in
one hill. Both healthy and diseased tubers were next transplanted alternately
oheakerwiee. The infection of plants grown from diseased tubers equalled 15,7
per cent, the infection of clumps obtained from healthy tubers and transplanted
into the same hill with diseased tubers, amounted to O.; per cent. No infection
of plants was observed in alternating diseased and healthy tubers in checker
order. In another experiment (an a plot planted with healthy tubers) artificial
foci of black leg were created by planting diseased tubers. The infection of
such foci a zountc to an average of 27.8 per cent during the summer as compared
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1!orotkma ... 6 -.
with an infection of 1.3 per sent fbr the remaining plot. The appearance of
black log in the plantings was not limited to the foci alone, but was observed
all over the plot, irrespective of their proximity. The possibility of the
transmittance of black leg by underground insects may not be denied, although
are believe that their role in the general picture of plant infection is not
significant.
In examining diseased plants via became convinced that the period of ap-
pearance of black leek; depends upon the rapidity with which the maternal tuber
decomposes. Tubers in which decay in rapidaandraomplete produce a large
number of diseased atoms and show the disease much earlier.
Rapidity of tuber decay depends in the first place upon zeprological
conditions. It has been observed that in rainy years infection of plantings
increases substantially as compared with dry years. Under Leningrad conditions
the appearance of black leg proceeds more Intensively during the second halt
of the vegetative period, usually associated with more abundant precipitation.
The rapidity of tuber decay depends also upon the variety. Such varieties
as Belladonna show early and close infection. Centifolia produces its
largest number of infected plants towards fall. Apparently this is a matter
of the physiology of the particular tuber and its resistance to decay.
On the basis of numerous observations we established that apparent traits
of the disease (ohlorosie, wilt, etc.), take place only when the entire above-
ground part of atoms is decayed and the clump practically destroyed. The
entire period preceding the appearance of the disease remains unobserved. This
period we named "hidden." Because of the bidden form of the disease, potato
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Korotkova ..4
plantings always possess a certain degree of black leg infection which may
appear in severe form during a rainy season when the decay of infected tubers
and sterna is particularly intensive (Table 4).
Variety
ob ding stage
Io of infected
plants
apparent bidden
form form
Wlooming stage
of infected
plants
apparent hidden
form fore
Harvesting
% of infected
plants
apparent hidden
form form
Thus black leg develops primarily not from secondary infection but as the
result of its hidden state follo%xing a primary infection of tubers.
The cutting of planted material exerts considerable influence upon the
increase of infection by black leg. }y applying this method the infection of
potatoes increases several times (Table 5).
Table 5
Varieties
't'1ohltmann
i a jestia
Hare nevski
Epicure
Great Scott
Rud s inaki
P1
er cent -of infected p
tine of out tubers
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Borotkova ... - 8 -
Thus, by cutting tubers, among icb there are also diseased ones, we
are transferring the infection onto healthy tubers. BY piling up out material
a still greater possibility for infection is created. Increases in temperature
and moisture which are observed in these piles create particularly favorable
conditions for the subsequent dcvslopurnt of black leg.
Our estimate made in 1935 indicated that among a group of varieties
planted with out tubers, the number of plants which did not mature was con-
siderable. One group of tubers perished without producing shoots, in. others
the shoots decayed before reaching the surface (Table 6)*
Table 6
Percent of
recip itati
Variety
Planting with whole tubers
Planting with cut to ere
Variety 414
29.0
iforenevski
26:8
Cobbler
19.0
The cutting of tubers may prove harmful only in the event that the seed material
if Wonted*
1. The principal source of infection of black leg lies in infected seed
material. The influence or infected soil as a transmitter is not con-
n ide ratle .
2. Distribution of black leg under field conditions may take plecHe during
the caring of crops through iemplements. The possibility of contamination
by above-Ground insects is also not excluded.
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Karotkova ..
3. The infaatton of seed material in the field any occur in various .ye.
Bacteria my penetrate through stolcros from diseased stems into young tubers
bearin
and produce ar, infection within the tuber xxxxt e characteristic symptom of
a darkened, depressed spot in the stolen of the tuber. Bacteria may during
harvesting also penetrate the outside t issues of the tuber, when in contact
with diseased foliage, and not show any risible signs of infection.
4. The cutting of infected seed material is one of the principal factors
sovoreiy affecting the degree of infection of plants by black leg and it is
equally rosponosible for the reduction in yields.
Literature:
1. A. A. Iachevski "Haoteriozy of Plant:," 1935 (Pacteriolysis)
2. td. A. ZTau ov "Diseases of Garden and Vegetable Plants," 1936
3. 11. A IDorozbkin,
L. Ii. 1hre Anikov,
A. S. Favdo "Diseases of Potatoes and '.:a thuds for Their
Control," 1934
Kazan Govornrent Station
relivered to publisher
May 4, 1947
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Luk' ianov, M. 1. Prevention of the spread
of potato canker. Sad i 0 orod 1948 (9):
12-13. Sept. 1948. 87 Sal
Translated from the Russian by
8. N. onson
One of the results of the tee iporary occupation of the Ukraine
during the war rae=n the importation and the distribution in the Ukrainian
'Eepuhlio of a quarantined disease, that of potato canker.
The daana&ea caused by this disease is exceptionally large. Infected
areas rer{ain unsuited for potato groe'rt, for many years. The rot de-
xaendable rethod of stoppinC. the development of potato canker is the pro-
duction of canker-resistant varieties.
The Goverment Ccrirnission of varietal experi'-enting on potatoes,
vegetable and melon fields, and forage root crops of the Ukrainian
republic arren ted for the followingreegionaalization of best canker-
resistant potato varieties on the baste of three years of experimentation.
or the Xiev, Chernirov, Zhitoe ir, and 3:, ensts-?odolsk oblaste -
the -varieties l'rimel, Cobbleer, Clktiabrenok (5-144), Yu1iel, Parnassia,
Cornea, and Ostbooat; for the Vinnitaa oblast - Y rur; 1 Courier, Cobbler,
Oktiabrencik (8-144), YuLel, Psrefassia, Coza, Ost oat, and Priska;
for the Chernoviteksya oblast - lrtima1, Cktiabretiok (8-144), Yu el,
Parna sia, C'renldmark. Corhea, 3sthoat, and Prinka;
for the Rherson, I ikolaev and Ise lsk oblasts - Courlyer, Cobbler,
Oktiebrendc (8-144), and "renxmark;
for the Odessa oblast - Courier, Cobler, Cktiabrenok (8-144),
Lich Mick, and Gredimark;
for the 8tanislavasky oblast - lrume1, Oktiabrenok (8-144), Yutal,
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buk ? tanov, L. I.
/ v/ / /
Parnassla, Grens ark, Cornea and Gotboat;
0,/'
for the Dro&obyohsky, Lvov, and Ternopoisky oblasta - Frumel,
flktiab ~creno (G- , Yu el, i'aratassia, Phytophthora-Res
istsnt (5-87813),
11-11
GrenKmaxk, Cortnoa, 0atbo .t;
/
for the Rovno and Volyn obiaats - Fruusel, Cs -' 3or, Oktiabrsnok
(8- 44): Yu'bel, Parulzsaia, Gr.na~mark, Cornoa, and O*tbooaat,
in order to betablish seed funds of the most valuable canker-rosis-
tant varieties of potatoes in other oblasste of the Ukraine, the Govern-
ant Commission reoot ends to propagate those varieties in amounts ade-
quate to meet the demands of the arose of seed plots, in 1954. For the
Stalin, Voroshilovgrad, Saporoshie, Dnepropetrovsk and KirovoCrasd ob-
V' /
lasts - the varieties Courier, Cobbler, Oktiabrenok (3-144) and Grek
mark;
for the Poltava. Sumskaya, and Kharkov oblasts - Frue1, Oktiabrsnok
(G-144), Liao b11ok, Gren rk, Cornea, and Prila'ka.
For the dried swampy areas of bottom and low lots (the zones: of the
Polesssie and forest-steppe) the Government Cosaaiesioh recommends ,thee
following canker-resistant vartettea of potatoes: i'rissel, Oktiab>~isnoic
i
(844), Yubel, Berli ingen, Cornea and Vekeagic, and of varieties
s. we V
non-resistant to cankers gpron, Stekhanovots (8-3893) and Polesski
(8-38), as varieties producing the highest yield under those conditions.
For the Southern Ukraine it 'reaosnoase:sds the canker-resistant varls-
ties Courier, Cobbler, Oktiabro k (8-144) and Gre rk, and for dried
swampy areas, bottom and lore-landa the non.-resistant to canker variety
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Luk'ianov, L. I. - 3
Epron as well.
The yield of regionalized canker-resistant varieties of potatoes
in the Ukraine varies within the following figures for the three post-
rear years (in centners per hectare) - Frumel from 113 to 279, Courier
from 102 to 170, Cobbler from 106 to 200, Oktiabrenok (8-144) from 165 -
230, Lichtblick from 160 to 240, T'ubel from 182 to 277, Grenzmark from
219 to 459, Cornea from 182 to 381, Cetboat from 182 to 269, Phytophthora-
Resistant (S-8670) from 214 to 264, Priska from 215 to '380.
In 1947, at 4 Ukrainian collective farms the following areas were
approved and accepted as varietal, that were planted with potatoes of
canker-resistant regionalized varieties (in hectares)s
Framel - 3,5; Courier - 425.8; Cobbler - 89; Yubel - :3.166.8,
Lichtbliak - 24.5; 13erlichingen - 4, Priska - 638, Parnassia - 6,675.7;
Cornea - 611,7; Ostboat - 115;
Sowings of other canker-resistant varieties of potatoes were also
passed upon by approvers.
In the Spring of 1948 the Experiment Selection Stations of the
Ukraine transmitted to seed nurseries of collective farms, 1,460 centners
of elite canker-resistant varieties of potatoes.
In 1948, all spring sowing of non-resistant to canker potato
varieties was prohibited on farms located in populated areas, known
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OV, 11.1. - 4 ?
as nidus (nidi) of potato canker, as well as on farms which closely
adjoined those populated areas. A plan for the summer planting of
potatoes of canker-resistant varieties was established for collective
farms, peasant households and lots adjoining fame lands, as well as
for privately owned gardens of work-ore and officials, which represented
900 hectares altogether.
Peginning January 1, 1948 eighty control border quarantine posts
were established in the Western oblaats of the Ukraine at principal
points of c+ unication. 0hemicala were brought into locations where
potato canker was prevalent.
The threat of the distribution of potato canker obligates Soviet
agricultural organs, agronomists and collective farmers to keep
account of all available scorings of canker-resistant potato varieties
and use them for seeding purposes.
Goverrment Commission on varietal
testing of potatoes, vegetable
and melon crops and forage root
crops of the Ukraine.
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Luk' ianov, H. 1.
Prevention of the Spread of Potato Canker.
Sad i Ogorod 1948(9):12-13. Sept. 1948. 80 Sal$
Translated from the Russian by
S. fl. Monson
One of the consequences of the temporary occupation of the Ukraine during
the years of the Patriotic TXr (vrorlai Car 21) is the introduction and spread in
the Ukrainian 5SR of the quarantined disease-potato canker.
The harm done by this diceare is exceptionally great; plots affected by it
remain for years unsuited for potato cultivation. The safest method of prevent-
ing the development of potato canker is the production of canker-resistant
varieties. The Government Commission on Varietal Testing of Potatoes ("Gos-
cc mmisasia"), Legumes and Forage Root Crops of the 'f krainian SSR has approved
for regionalization the beat canker-resistant varieties of potatoes on the
basis of three years0experimentation. For that
Kiev, Chornigov, Zhitomir and Ramencts-Podolsk oblasts: varieties Pr{imelles
Cobbler, Oktiabrenok (8-144), Jubel, Parnassia, Cornea and Ostbote;
Vinnitsa oblast: i '&elle, Courier, Cobbler, Oktiabrenok (8-144), Jubel,
Parnassia, Cornea, Ostbote and Priska;
Chornovits oblast: Frdmelle, Oktiabrenok (8-144), Jubael, Parnassia, Grants-
mark, Cornea, Oaatbo to and Priska;
Fhereon, tiikolnevsk and lzmailsk oblasts: Courier, Cobbler, Oktiabrenok (3-144),
and Grant smaark;
Odessa oblast: Courier, Cobbler, Ctiaabrenok (3-144), Lichtblick, and Grants-
mark;
Stanislav oblast: Fribeile, Oktiaabraenok (5-144); Jubel, Parnassia, Grentsmark,
Cornea, and Ostbote;
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Drodobyah, Lvov and Tarnopol oblaste: FrE -aelle, Oktiabrenok (5-144), Jubel,
Parnassia, Phytoplbthora-Beeiatant (5-8670), Orentsmark, Cornea, 0lstbote;
Rovno and Volyn' oblastn: Frtimolle, Cobbler, Oktiabrenok (5-144), Jubel, Parnassia,
Grentnmark, Cornea, Os tbo to .
In order to create seed Aids of the most valuable oanker-resistant potato
varieties in other oblasts of the Ukraine, the Government Commission recoeratends
the propagation of these varieties in a volume which would provide for seed
plot. areas by 1950. The following varieties were regionalized for the Stalin.
Voroshilovgrad, 3aporoshiee, Dnepropetrovsk and firovogrsd oblasts: Courier,
Cobbler, Cktiabre,nok (5-144), and Grentsmark;
For Poltava, Sumy and Kharkov oblasts: rr Belle, Gktiabrenok (5-144), Liohtblick,
Orentsmark, Cornea, Friskay
For the drained, ee ampy plots of bottom lends (Poleseie and forest-steppe zones),
the Goiarxment Commission recommends the following canker-resistant potato varieties:
Frtiraalle, Oktiabrenok (5-144), Jubel, 13erliohingen, Cornea, and Vekeragis,
and from among the non-canker-resistant varieties: Epron, Stakhanovete
(5-3593) and Poleaskii (3.36), as those bringing the highbst`?yieids under
looal conditions.
For the southern Ukraine the canker-resistant varieties Courier, Cobbler, Ok-
tiabrenok (5-144) and Grentsmsrk are reconwnded; while for the drained, swampy
plots on bottom lands also the non-canker-resistant variety Epron.
The yield from regionalized canker-resistant varieties within the boundaries
of the Ukraine varies within the following limits (ceertners per heotare) in the
three post-war years: Frdmellee from 133 to 279, Courier from 107 to 170, Cobbler
from 106 to 200, 0lktiabrenok (5-114) from 166 to 230, Liahtblick from 160 to 240,
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dubol from "182 to 177, Orentsmark from 219 to 459, Cornea from 1.82 to 381,
Ostbote from 182 to 269, Phytophthora-Resistant (8-8670) from 214 to 264,
Priaka from 216 to 380.
The following canker-resistant regionalized varieties have been approved
for the collective farms of the Ukraine in 1947 (in hectares): Prrmelle 3.5;
Courier 425.6; Cobbler 89; Jubel 3,166.8; Lichtblick 24.55; Berlichingen 4;
Priske, 638; Parnassja 8,675.7; Cornea 611.7; Ostbote 115. Approved were also
plantings of other canker-resistant vaarieties.
In the spring of 1940, 1,460 oentners of elite caanker-resistant potato
varieties were transferred from, experiment selection stations of the Ukraine
to seed nurseries of collective farms.
In 1948 spring plantings of potatoes of non-canker-resistant varieties
yore prohibited on farms located on territories of populated regions recognized
as focuses for potato canker, as well as on farms immediately adjoining these
populated sections. A schedule of summer potato plantings of canker-resistant
varieties was established for collective and peasant fame, for individual
plots of collective farmers and the private gardens of employes and workers,
representing a total area of 900 hectares.
Beginning January 1, 1948, eighty control quarantine posts were eatab-
fished in the western oblasts of the Ukraine on the rain roads of communica-
tion. Chemicals ecre brought into the sections infected by potato canker.
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The threat of the spread of potato canker obligates Soviet agricultural
organizations, agricultural specialists and collective farmers to estimate
their supplies of available canker-resistant potato varieties and use them
for seed purposes.
Oovernuent Canmiesion on Varietal
'bcperi entation on Potatoes, Legumes
and Forage Root Crops in the Ukrainian
SSR.
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Rozhdestvenski, I.
In Selskokho:iaistvsnnaia entsiklopsdiia
rlgriculturwl $noyelopsdia). vol. 3
)ioskva,. 1934.
Translated in part by
3. s. Monson
POTATO LISEASE8 AND TJ-EIR COXIMOL (p. 29-31)
The tubers and leaves of the potato are easily infected by many
fungi and bacteria which cause potato dines,". The principal diseases
and those causing the greatest harm are listed in table 4 (p. 293(1.
(This table - In photostat form - is attached).
In the years of the greatest distribution of diseases of the potato,
Iosses in yields reach 34 percent= one half of all these losses.results
from the Potato disease caused by pbytophthor*. In aoditior,, the tubers
infected by phythophthora easily succumb during their winter storage to
fusartum and bacterium., which occasionally oanplstely de tatoss
(see the spread of phythophthora in the past years p. 29- . Smaller
losses in yield in the central belt and a drastic ion to yield in
the South are produced by a group of virus diseases. At a high rats of
daamge by virus diseases (crinkled mosaic and curly top)' even a complete
destruction of sowings is possible, These diseases are transferred from
year to year by seed material. Other diseases are not of as destructive
but the harm they cause may be considerable in sore areas.
A pathological condition called "kudriash" (leadroll), which alters
the appearance of the plant (in severe oases its leaves lose their
incisions (T) ["rassechennost"1 and only the &d lobe remtoe which
greatly increases in size). Leaf roll reduces the yield of eo vnercial
tubers considerably.
Y5
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Roahdeatvensk#,, lip
.Potato Diseases and their control.
in order to control phytophthora1, it is necessary to spray the
potato plant with the Bordeau mixture at the first sign Of a disease*,,
Repeated spraying increases the yield 10-20 peere?nt, as compared to the
non.sprayad potato. If the leaves of the potato plant carry traces of
disease at the tie a of harvest, they have to be out and removed from
the field 7 to 10 days prior to harvesting, otherwise they will transmit
the phytophthora to the tubers,
Finally the replacement of non-resistant varieties (for instance#
Early Rose, People ?a) with varieties of higher resistance (Loroh, Woltman)
also helps in controlling phytophthora
To control virus diseases (Bacterium solanacearum and leaf roll) the
diseased plants have to be pulled out from the rows, especially on lots
of sear plantings and on seed farms?
To control Rhysoctonia? scab and Bacterium solanacearum, it is
necessary to plant potatoes in such rotation that they should not return
to the some location any earlier than every two years or even the third.
There is no potato cancer in the USSR.
. The principal enemy of the potato is the Colorado beetle, spread in
the USA, but not found In the USSR. In order to prevent the introduction
of cancer, the Colorado beetle and other diseases and parasites to potato
areas, the quarantine administration of the V KZ of the USSR has estab-
lished control procedures for a potato quarantine which were confirmed by
the Collegi s of the NKZ of the USSR , dated May 19, 1932. According
to these regulations the potato provided with a certificate is permitted
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? Rozhdes tv.nski, NE:
Potato diseases and their control*
to be imported from abroad only at specific points where it is subjected
to special inspection.,
In border areas speotal oaneer-resistant varieties of potatoes are
selected for propagation, such as absl, Greatecotty Parmssie,, etc,
End of urtol?.
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8hchegole', V. N.
8.1'sko1rhoziaistvennaia entomologlia;
vrcditeli eel'skokhozinstvenfykh kul'tur
i mery bar 'by s nimi [Agricultural
entomology; pests of tam crops and asures
for their control],, Ed. 2, rev, and *Al,
Loekva, Ss1'khozgis, 1949. 764 p. 423 Sh2S
Translated in part by
:. 49. Monson
P 1f'AT0 ':STS (p. c97 - 608)
Over 60 species of insect-pests of potatoes have been identified In the
tJS?S1:, but the lartoct z a jori'ty of these are accidental end non-specialized.
Pests specific to potatoes (nspeoinlizirovttnnvo") have so far not been die-
covered in the USSR.
Of primary importance are insects which injure the roots of potatoes.
Among these are wirewormc which represent )Armful posts; tubers damaged by
theta are not destroyed but are 11l suited for table use and unsuited. for pro-
longesd,ctoring.
The second group covers the above-ground sucking insects. They have
little effect upon the ultimate yield but act as transmitters of various.
chiefly viruus, potato diseases, i.e., leaf roll, mosaic, eta. The green grass
bug and different species of cicadas are constant inhabitants of potato plants
and their robs as transmitters of virus diseases has not been taken into account
sufficiently.
The third group are the leaf-gnawing insects and carry little significance.
Pleas and primarily caterpillars of highly-poisonous butterflies are found on
potatoes. They are seldom found on potato plauta in mass quantities. Among
this group only the 28.-spot potato ladybird (Ppilaehna Vigintio Punctata F.)
97
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Sbcbegolev, V. N. - 2
is of significance an a post in the Far East. Stem pests occasionally cause
damage to potato plants by injuring the inner part of the stem; i.e., swamp
stem borer.
Thus the fauna of potato pests In the USSR differs rad ical ly from the fauna
in other countries, particularly that of America, the birthplace of the potato
plant, where many dozens species of insects live on it as parasites and of hicb
arany represent pests specific to Solanaceae. The introduction of these posts
into the Soviet Union should be retched out for and in this connection the potato
quarantine acquires great significance. Among Insects which carry particular
importance for quarantine is the especially dangerous Colorado Potato Beetle and
the Potato -'oth.
COLOR,AJ=t1 POTATO FEETU - Leptinotarsa deoemlineata Say
(Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae)
The Colorado beetle or, as it is also called, the potato leaf-eater (Illus.
221, p. 599) is the most dangerous potato post. It does not exist in the USSR.
It represents a quarantine object. The beetle is of chart-oval shape, pronounced
bulging, shiny, vividly colored, reddish-yellow with lighter upper wings, and
dark spots on the head and front back. Each upper wing has five black stripes.
Its length is 9-12 z. The eggs (larva) are almost smooth, shiny, reddish-
yellow to light orange and orange In color, elongated-oval with rounded ends.
Length, 0.8 rim.
The larva in flat below and protruding above; the body is particularly
bulging in the central part, fleshy, viscous, sparsely covered with hair. The
basic coloring of the body Is at first ora%o-red, gradually turning orange-yellow.
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Shchegolev, V. B.
The head, front part of back, the elongated rows of warts on each side of the
body, the last tergites of the belly, and the logo are black. The adult larva
to pear-shaped; slightly curved.. Length 1J-16 =.
The pupa to free, of pink or orange-yellow color,, reproduces the shad
of the beetle. The birthplace of the pest is .i!exioo, where it dwelled first
on the spiny Solanum rostratun (buffaloburl with whioh it slowly spread north-
ward. In 1824 It was described. as found in the Rocky i`ouctains of Borth
America, but did not appear to be haantful at that time. In the early forties
when pioneers were turning west rd and planting cultivated potatoes, the
potato beetle slowly spread from the west. In the late fifties the meeting of
the beetle and the potato took place in the State of Colorado (hence the name
given the post. From that time on its rapid distribution. and dangerous effect
became known in America. Mthir, 16 years it spread to the Atlantic Ocean,
traveling 3,000 miles (moving at the rate of 185 km. a year) and penetrated
into Canada. Beginning with the seventies the beetle was repeatedly brought
into Western Europe (Germany,, England and Holland), but these countries usually
managed to destroy It.
During the First World 'Bar the beetle was carried into France (through the
port of Bordeaux). From that time on it became acclimatized in Europe and moved,
traveling at the rate of 160 to 400 kn. a year, all over France (1918-1938),
13elgitum (1935-1930), S)vitzerland (1935-1941), Luxemburg (1936-1938), Germany
(1936-1946), Holland (1937-1940). penetrating even. into Spain (19366), Portugal
(1943), Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Italy, England and Poland. Thus, at present,
the beetle }stn come close to the boundaries of the USSR.
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8hchegolov
The basic food plant of the beetle and its larva is potatoes; it feeds
in addition on eggplant, tomatoes, and among the wild growing plants, on
black, spiny (butfalobur) and bitterest nightshade and several other repre-
centattvan of the 8olanaceae family.
The beetles + n.ter. In the spring they leave their wintering dwellings
at different periods, depending upon climatic conditions, as well as the
structure, t speraturee and moisture of the soil.
High temperatures contribute to their early appearance on the soil
surface, i.e., early and middle of April. As soon as it appears, the beetle
begins to food, with particular avidity during sexual activity. Following a
rather lengthy period of additional feeding it mates and begins to lay eggs.
Both fertile and sterile eggs are laid but the latter do not develop. In the
warmest periods the beetles fly distances of tons and hundreds of motors, even
kilometers. Mass flights take place in dry and warm years; the rapidity of a
flight reaches 8 km. an hour. Egg laying, which usually takes place a month
after the beetles leave their wintering abodes, lasts throughout the entire
vegetative period. Eggs are laid on the l r part of potato leaves, eggplants,
tomatoes, tobacco and. other colanaeeao, and are placed In heaps of 25-30 at one
tire. The total fecundity of a female averages 54X) eggs, but them are cases
when one female lays over 1,000 eggs.
The embryonic dovelop font depends upon temperature anc' moisture; at 16?C.
eggs hatch in 5 days, at 12? in 17 days, at a temperature below 12? egg laying
does not take place, nor do eggs devealop.
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Shobegolev
The larva begins to fend on leaves immediately and completes its develop-
ment within 15 to 22 days. Pupation takes place in the soil, close to the roots
of plants, at a depth of 10-12 cm.; 7 to 8 days later the beetles emerge. The
life duration of a beetle averages 12-14 months; some specimens may live two
years. During the summer the beetle may be found on potatoes in all stages
of their development, Within one year one to three generations may develop.
The beetle and larva are both injurious. One hundred larva can destroy
up to 80 hectares within one month, while 100 beetles within the same time
will injure 424 hectares of foliage. Beetles may however live through con-
siderable starvation periods; this should be taken into account in appraising
the post es, uarantine object; for instance, beetles which ire not given any-
thing but water stood thin diet for 11 months.
The rapidity with which the Colorado beetle spread in the USA testifies
to its vast capacity for active settlement; it spreads equally fast in a passive
way; cases of the transmittance of a beetle by man through clothing or their
introduction by various means of transportation, wheel wagons, boats, steam-
ships, automobiles, agricultural implements, i.e., spades, rakes, are not in-
frequent. Domestic and wild anirale may also contribute to the transporting
of beetles, especially the long-haired specimens. Of considerable importance
for its distribution is running water, but the greatest danger lies in Intro-
duction through soil s}wrein there are beetles, larva and pupae.
In the USSR the Colorado beetle could, judging from its areal distribution
in the USA and Europe, if introduced, got acclimatized in the Crimea, the Cau-
casus, Central Asia, the Ukraine, and even some of the northern regions.
The above makes quarantine measures in the USSR highly advisable.
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shchegolev
'aETPODS OF CO1JRROt: For the USSR quarantine measures and complete em-
bargo on the importation of potatoes, the prohibition of the importation of
rooted plants with soil, and the most careful examination of everything that
is imported from countries infested by the beetle are basic requirements. Since
the possibility of introducing individual specimens of the pest into the USSR
and the formation of isolated focuses is not precluded, it Is imperative that
careful observation of potato plantings, particularly in regions adjoining the
Vestern boundaries, be made to cover literally every planted area. It is
essential to acquaint the population, of villages primarily, with the Colorado
beetle through the medium of films, radio, press, etc.
DV T is used among insecticides for the destruction of the beetle and its
focuses to spray the above-ground parts of plants, as well as calcium arsenate,
Paris green in common dosage; for the treatment, of soil carbon bisultids
(20 g/m2), dichioretan, and watering of the soil on the infected territory
with poly-chlorides of bonsol.
To eliminate the focuses of the beetle all quarantine measures established
in the special instructions of the t part nt of Agriculture of the USSR have
to be followed.
POTATO 07H - Phthorimaaa oporculella Zell
(Lepidoptera, Gelichiidao) (P. 601-603)
The butterfly is silver gray, with dark spots on the back border of the
front wings are fringed, shorter and narrower than the front wings. The belly
yellowish-ash-gray on top and grayish-white below. The male has at the base
of the last segment of the belly a clump of hair along the sides. Ring spread
of the butterfly is 12 to 16 mm.
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Shchegolev
The eCg is oval, pearl-white in color, sieve 0.36 mm.
The caterpillar cream-white, rose or green, its head dark brown; size
to 12 mm. in length and 1.5 amt. In width. At the base of the prolego
("loxhbye") a black thorax projection with throe bristles ("shohetinki") in
a row, On the second see rent of the belly the third bristle moves towards
the belly. The pupa is in a silver-gray cocoon (Ilmue. 222, p. 602).
Distributed in America, Australia, Africa, Asia (India) and the islands
adjoining the respective parts of the world, as well as in Italy, Spain,
France, Portugal. It causes damage to potatoes, tobacco, tomatoes, and other
solanaccae .
The potato moth accts as a potato pest under field and storing conditions.
In the latter it propagates constantly if the temperature and moisture are
conducive to it. Under natural conditions the moth flies out in early spring
and is active usually in the evenings and at night. The butterfly deposits
two to three eggs on the lower surface of potato leaves and other aolanaceae.
In storage it lays its eggs in heaps, principally over the eyes of tubers.
Caterpillars emerge after 5 to 30 days from eggs; at a temperature of
27?C. the entire cycle of development is completed within 25 days. In the
southernmost parts of its areas of distribution the moth may produce from
6 to 8 and more generations*
Under field conditions the caterpillars injure the above-ground parts of
plants; they bore into the leaves and undermine them; also Injure the petioles,
stems and fruits (tomatoes and eggplants). In storage they make pathways
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Shohego lev
within the tubers; a few days afterwards a pink coloring on the tuber marks the
place of their penetration. The damage caused in the fields is relatively much
smaller than that caused to potatoes in storage where caterpillars have full
opportunity to destroy the tubers. The potato moth as a post is second only,
to the Colorado beetle to damage caused to potato plants.
I HOtS Or. C "ROL are very, difficult. In countries where the moth has
had the opportunity to develop deep planting of potatoes (15 to 25 cxn.) is
recommended, destruction of *veds, especially black nightshade, early, harvest..
fog before the drying out of potato foliage, and the destruction of the latter.
Cathorod potatoes are Immediately transported from the field. It is not
permissible to cover them with foliage. All potato residue, foliage, injured
tubers, should be immediately destroyed after harvesting.
tmong the most effective chemical methods are fumigation of potatoes with
carbon bisulfido (3 s) and exposure for forty-eight hours at a temperature of
20-220; at a temperature below 15? there may be no fumigation. During the
winter two to three fumigations are made.
Than discovered, the post should be immediately destroyed, together with
the plant, as should all seeds of the uol ceae family.
End of Chapter
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Sigrianskaia, N. D. [Author is a "candidate
in agricultural sciences; equivalent of MS
degree.] Resistance of varieties to potato
canker. (in Russian). Sovet. Agron. 1947
(6)s 92-93. June 1947. 20 8o34
Translated from the Russian by
S. ]5. Monson
none is known radical qu .ranti ne measures are undertaken to prevent its
Canker is an extremely harmful potato disease. In the countries where.
introduction or to localise its loci, aiming at eventually eliminating it.
Until recently the production of canker-resistant varieties was con-
sidered the satont and most efficient method for controlling potato canker.
The problem of controlling the disease appeared relatively yomplicated, so
long as it was thought that the inducer of canker lacked biological races.
Towards the and of 1942, the oldest German phytopatbological journal,
the Eeiteohrift fur Pflansenkrankheiten, (vol. 42, No. 11) published an
article by Ch. Braun in which reference was made to biological speciall-
cation in the inducer of potato canker, the fungus 8ynochytrium endobiotioum
(. shi-Th )-i'ers: ratifri a+F:atei that in ' huriagia, in the town of Giasubler,
canker had appeared on the German foanker_resiart&nt"varieties- EDDA and
03TB01E, the purity of which was considered beyond doubt.
In control experiments of artificial infection undertaken at the
Government Biological institute (Berlin-Dahien) of the infectious material
from Gissubler, these facts were confirmed. The race G. (Giesub1er) proved
extremely virulent and almost all varieties succumbed to it which up to
that time had been considered canker-resistant. Only two varieties proved
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Sigrianskaia, 11. D. - 2 -
q M
resistant, 11W1 and 1 RIM UORRCIER. The segregation of biological races
in the inducers of potato canker, along 'with the reference concerning the
particular aggressiveness of race G., which affected varieties certified
by Government varietal testing, (in these experiments 148 varieties Vero
affected out of a total of 105 **oanker-resistant" varieties) evoked con-
ctderable* and understandable excitement among selectors, specialists and
practical potato grocers.
In 194 appeared an article by Dr. CchlO"berger - "The Authenticity
of fixperinants of Potatoes to Canker-Resistance" (Forsohungsdienst, vol.
16, to 5), which briefly cited the course of experimentation on potatoes
for canker-resistance. The object of the article was to prove that 4"
concerning the possibility of infection of varieties by canker, certified
as as er-resistant in Germany, should not shake faith in the recults of
government e%perirents in potato varieties with regard to their resistance
to canker.
The segregation of biological races In Inducers of potato canker is
not to be vied as something extraordinary, since in recent years consid-
erable variations in. the degree of infection had been occasionally observed
during tests. This had led to the belltef in the possibility of biological
specialization in this fungus as sell. The appearance of this particularly
aggressive race of a gradually increasing virulence is easily understood
in a mountainous region of very high humidity; and in .mall individually-
owned households which grow potatoco year in and year out on the same
locations.
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Sigrianskaia, N. D.
The experiments for canker resistancewere conducted simultaneously at
d n
many points; in Germany at Dahiem near Perlin, at l"unster and Lubeck;
in Britain at Ormskirk, Phillipstown near Edinburgh (g'ootland) and at
:ilkiel in florthern Ireland. A variety V' TLs considered certified for canker-
resistance only when the results at all these, centers eorrespond?& every
point.
in 1931 the Polish researchers Lechchenko and Gerbovski (;corks of the
Department of Plant Diseases of the Government Agricultural Institute of
Bydgoshohi) pointed to the circumstance that canker had been introduced
into Poland from Germany. Its spread in Poland and especially in Germany
was caused by the production and distribution of not immune but pseudo-
immune potato varieties to canker, as a result of which Germany became
the locus for the distribution of potato canker on the European continent.
This is explained by a laxity in they approach to the evaluation of the
resistance of potato varieties to canker.
The application of a more "minute" method in laboratory experiments
(P. Glynn - "Infection by Summer Sporangia") which permitted the discovery
of the initial stages of canker infection, established that many varieties
considered until then immune to canker did not actually possess this immunity.
In Britain control experiments of varieties, considered canker-resistant,
confirmed this factor in the majority of cases. In Germany, they did not
desire to take into consideration the results of control experiTentc of a
more detailed nature, and in their official listings of varieties recommended
as oanker-resistant, varieties susceptible to canker continued to be listed.
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Sigrianbkaia, N. D. - a.
In connection -with the fact of the absence of canker resistance
in many varieties, listed as canker-resistant in official listing
Germany began to distinguish among "fully resistant", 'ulrsost resistant"
and susceptible varieties. As the result of the distribution of the
"fully canker-resistant" varieties, canker was spread all over G=ermany.
For Germany, almost entirely infected by canker, it may possibly
not have fzLd any significance, since under those conditions the matter
of obtaining high yields was paramount and could be ensured by the pro-
duction of lightly susceptible varieties. The problem was entirely
different in other countries where there was no canker and where it was
the
of/utmost importance to prevent its penetration. For those countries and
areas the situation with regard to potato canker, as created in Germany,
should serve as a serious warning.
?polish authors provide a list of 37 pseudo-immune varieties.
The works of lAshehenko and Garbovski or experirents on canker-re-
sistance of potatoes are rather outdated at present (1931-1932) but they
preserved their significance ("aatualnost") since prior to the war, canker
loci in the USSR were restricted only to the western M'kraine, and at that
to very few places. At present it Is necessary in testing potatoes for
canker-resistance to consider another most significant factor, the presence
of the bi ologioal race in the fungus.
In Germany infection occurs, as evidened from the article by Dr.
Sohlumbergor, in tests on canker-resistance by the mixture of infectious
+e "
material from different infected locations In Lubeck. Munster or Dahlem
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Sigrianskaia, N. D. - 5 -
(the Dahlem mixture being the most aggressive). Consequently, one may
not speak of tests on the canker resistance of a variety, with reference
to a single race, since a mixture is responsible for its infection.
In confirmation of the correctness of the method accepted in Germanys
Dr. Sahlumberger mentions that during tests on phytophthora-resiatanee
the work is also conducted with a mixture of infectious naterial of
different origin and that the particularly aggressive race (Stamm S) is
not being considered.
It is flarther indicated, however, that newly produced varieties must
be teettd separately on their resistance to the race G. (Giscubler), since
some potato varieties have proved resistant to this race.
It may appear that in mass experiments conducted for production pure
poses it may ohly be important to establish whether the given variety is
susceptible to canker and that it may not be important by which of the
races, that had entered Into the compound of the mixture, it is affected.
In practice this may not be the case, It is possible that canker races,
as do the phytophthora races, will differ slightly from each other in
their respective virulence. But if among phytophthora races in Germany
there is an especially virulent race S, while ours will be the Arzamaaskaia,
then the race Gicaubler in canker will be the more aggressive. There exists the
danger that when working with a mixture of races, individual races may be
overshadowd.
The correctness of the .method must be established experir,..entally by
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Sigrianskaia, IT. D.
studying the virulence of the races separately aeaid in mixtures.
The recultu of the unsuccesaeful control of potato canker in Germany
should be taken into consideration in our country with regard to selection
and teats of potatoes on cankcr-rosistancd.
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10\
3inakina, V. A.
On Wilting of Potato Plantings
Sad i Ogorod 2960(7):74-76. July 1950. 80 Sa13
Translated from the Russian by
S. V. Monson
In the May issue of "Sad i Ogorod," 1949, in his article on "Potato
Degeneration and Methods of Controlling it in the South," the author, V. V.
Arnautov expressed the opinion that potato wilting is caused by the stifling
of the root system of potato plants, the result of au extremely close-grained
and saturated moil.
Our experiments conducted in 1949 at the Sunzhen Experiment-Meliorative
Station (Grozny oblast) established that the principal cause for potato wilt
in summer plantings is their reaction to high temperatures. Date concerning
the potato viold of the variety LOME for the different periods of summer
planting is furnished in the table below.
Yield
Dates of Planting
In a h
n per cent
June 20
0.5
0.0
July 1
14.8
8.6
July 10
33.5
19.6
July 20
171.2
100
The soil was well prepared for all variants of the experiment and all
plantings were given the most attentive care. The plot designated for the
experiment was autumn plowed to a depth of 25 cm.; in early spring it was
harrowed in two rows ("aledy") and several days later (April 8) gone over
with a tractor with web-footed (?) ("lapohaty") cultivator; on May 15 it was
cultivated again and in another month fertilized with super-phosphate (5 oentn.rs
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8imakina - 2 -
per hectare), and the soil again plod to a depth of 20-22 M. The plots of
all variants were watered 2 to 8 days before planting and as they grew dry
ammonium sulfate (S c/b) and potassium salt (potash) (2.28 o/'h) added; then
the soil was cultivated to a depth of 16-18 cm. with a horse-driven spring
(coil) cultivator and herrowed. Vernalizeed whole tubers of medium size were
planted under the spade. All variants showed good close growth on the 11-12th
day after planting. During the vegetative period the plots were v,atered,
cultivated between rows and weeded. Despite the goad preparation given the
soil and the thorough carer accorded the plantings of potatoes, the variants
of the first three periods showed mass infection by wilting and produced a
poor yield. The first period of planting failed to produce any yield.
The variant of the fourth period of planting did not show any wilt and
produced the ieighost yield.
On the basis of this experiment it is possible to draw the conclusion
that wilting of potato plantings occurs generally under the influence of high
temperatures.
Proper periods of suer planting, combined with other agricultural
methods ensure a si.gnif leant increase in yield under southern conditions.
Sunzhen Experi ant Station
Ororny Oblast
The problem of causes of potato vdlt has not been solved. r:'e agree
with Comrade Slulna concerning the importance of high temperatures as baelo
factors causing potato wilt but consider that under definite conditions the
strangling of the root system is also of significance in the distribution of
the above disease. The most careful observation of the entire complex of
agricultural methods in an essential requirement for controlling potato wilt.
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,ukhov, K. S., and Vovk, A.VL. New data
on atalbur of potatoes. (in Russian).
Sovet. Agron. 5(4)s 72-75. Apr. 1947 g,b
20 So84. -
Translated from the Ruesion by
S. IT,, L"on$on
having in 1921 studied the problem of potato virus diseases in the USA,
Iachevakt began his observations in the USSR and came to the conclusion that
crinkled mosaic was the principal cause of potato degeneration in the USSR.
His conclusion was based on his knowledge of the cultivation of the potato
in the central oblasts of the European USSR, but the potato degeneration which
prevailed in the southern regions of the country remained outside of his
field of observation. In the meantime the idea of the decisive significance
of crinkled mosaic in potato degeneration was generally accepted by phytopath-
ologists and in explanation of the degeneration of the southern potato as
?rA
The argument concerning the nature of the degeneration of the southern
potato, begun in the 80'e between Lysenko and the phythopathologists, resulted
in recogniqing the considerable gap which existed in our phytopathological
science. Lysenko claimed that in the south many varieties of potatoes degenera
within a short time after repeated reproduction even without the evidence of
crinkled mosaic. In accepting a high temperature of the soil during tuber
formation as the principal reason causing degeneration, Lysenko proposed to
use the method of summer plantings as a practical measure to control the
situation. The p ytopathologists, however, attributed the beneficial effect
of summer plantings to the change in conditions unfavorable to the spread of
mosaic.
re have in the past two years conducted a study of virus diseases of the
southern potato which established that Lysenko had been right in his main point.
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Sukhov, K. S., and Vovk, A. M.
Our research proved that for a series of varieties, such as Lorkh, Veltman,
Korevski and a few others, crinkled mosaic is a factor of secondary impor-
tance; still, these varieties degenerate in the south after one to three
years. As shown by our experiments, the potato variety Lorkh, consistently
grown near Krasnodar, was "freed" of crinkled mosaic in five years, but in
spite of this almost all plants degenerated. The problem of controlling
crinkled mosaic has since been solved by our selectors who produced the
variety Lorkh but the struggle against the degeneration of the southern
potato has yet to be won. Such varieties as Early Rose and Epicure, most
susceptible to crinkled mosaic, suffer more from it under southern conditions
because they react more strongly yet to the new, powerful factor of degen-
eration which exerts a damaging influence even upon varieties resistant to
mosaic.
This new factor in the virus big bud (stolbur"). It was first identi-
fied by us in 1945. In periods of severe epiphytotic diseases infection by
big bud of such Solanum crops as tomatoes, peppers and eggplants amounts to
100 percent. Sections where the quantity of diseased tomatoes amounts to
25-30 percent are condidered safe? The big bud virus is not transferred by
seeds. The'degree of infection of annual plants depends therefore upon a
variety of conditions which control the preservation of the virus in 'seeds
and the propagation of its carrier - the cicada. The situation is different
in the case of the potato. As established by us, the big bud virus is trans-
mitted through tubers to succeeding vegetative generations. This leads to the
fact that in regions of an "average" distribution of big bud, potatoes degen-
erate altogether in the course of two to three years. During severe epiphytotic
diseases identical results may be obtained within one year of reproduction.
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Sukht v, R. S., and ' Vovk, A. ?',
A similar picture is observed on potato seedlings during the first year of their
growth from seeds. In this instance the term "degeneration" is difficult to
apply, since under degeneration one usually understands the gradual reduction in
quality of an organism which occurs under the continuous influence of negative
factors,
In appraising the conditions of reproduction in the ease of the southern
potato, no one could take that particular disease (big bud) into oondideration.
Its harmful effect entered into the 'general evaluation of potato degeneration
from ecological causes.
7,e consider the main task of research in the nearest future to be the
separation of these two factors and the establishment of the independent role
of either, with respect to potato degeneration in the southern USSR.
The data we have at present permits us to review several problems connected
with suer plantings of potatoes in the south. The tentative information we
secured concerning the periods of carrier migration, relating to the distrib-
ution of the potato virus "big bud" among potato sowings and other crops, prove
that the most dangerous months are those of June and July. The duration of
this period may change, depending upon the weather*, In 1945, during a moist
and cold spring, the development of the carrier was delayed. The planting of
potatoes done on June 25 proved infected by big bud 50 percents Astute
Hyalesther obsoletus could be found even in the beginning of august. In 1946
spring was early and hot. The winging and migration of the vector took place
earlier and as a result June sowings showed a low percentage of attack (about
3)? A considerable lowering of the degree of infection was observed on control
plantings and other Solanum crops. Pepper, planted June 20 was infected 7.2
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Sukhov, K. S., and iovk, A. M.
percent, eggplants 2,4 percent, tomatoes 7.8 percent. Tomatoes planted in early
August were infected only 0.7 percent, while plants adjoining the plantings of
of this crop, planted in ray, were infected 20-25 percent by big bud.
This data proves that in years of an early development of the vector, the
potator summer plantings are preserved from considerable infection. In the
Krasnodar territory June 25 is considered the period for planting seed potato
of medium and late ripening. But In years of a belated development of the vector,
this planting period proves unsatisfactory.
The variety Tiolunan which we studied is a late variety, hen planted on
June 25, its tuber formation took place at comparatively low temperatures of
the soil and as a result one did not expect a "catastrophic" degeneration of
its tubers from ecological causes in the first year of its production In the
south. Nevertheless, this variety degenerated SO percent in 1945 because of
big bud, This example provides an explanation for the fact that in some
southern regions potatoes planted in the summer, drastically degenerate. The
premature wilting of the leaves is a characteristic symptom of the appearance
of big bud on potatoes. Wovikov and Bordiukova point out that " with the spread
of summer plantings of potatoes, beginning 1957. It was learned that the pre-
mature wilting of leaves was observed on summer plantings in the south". In
many southern regions premature wilting of summer planted potatoes represents
the most harmful type of disease. Observations have proved that diseased plants
frequently do not form tubers or only a small quantity of tiny tubers. A
considerable spread of premature wilting is observed on summer plantings in
the Ordzhonikidze territory where it caused much damage to the seed growing of
potatoes. During June sowings (June 20), in the years 1937-1940, a premature
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Sukhov, 1. S. , and Vovk, A. 11.
wilting of the following varieties was observed on the Individual farms of the
territory: Early Rose, torkh and Woltrsan (from 8-46 percent) ... An
identical situation was observed in summer plantings in the Crimea. rremature
wilting of potatoes planted in the suer takes place in the Rostov oblast,
as well as in other regions of the USSR.
Koroi wrote concerning the potato disease of summer plantings: " In 1939,
in many regions of the Ordzhonikidze territory, mass disease of potatoes was
observed with premature wilting of leaves, causing considerable loss to
potatoes planted in the summer. This disease was noted In the succeeding years
as well, though on a reduced doale. Its cause has not been established difb -
finitely.,. In the most severe cases the plantings are affected within
several days by wilting 80-100 percent... The diseased plants either do not
form any tubers at all or form one or two weak tubers..."
Our own observations and the data provided by lovikov and Koroi convince
us that if periods of summer plantings of potatoes are advanced to July 10-15
there is a drastic reduction in the development of big bud. (See table 1, p.
74).
On the basis of these observations one would suppose that the planting of
seed potatoes no earlier than July 10 would prove a radical means of controlling
big bud. We drew this very conclusion in 1945. However, our observations of
1946 have complicated the problem..
On April 23, 1946 we planted the potato variety Lorkh at 1 rasnodar,
obtained from the Krasnodar Vegetable Station. This potato had been propagated
for five years by late July plantings exclusively (no earlier than July 8).
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6 -
Sukhov, X. S., and Vovk, A. M.
It was natural to expect that there would not be much big bud on it. Nevertheless
during the period of blooming, at a time when symptoms of big bud infection
were lacking in that year, a mass infection of the tubers of these plantings
(up to 42 percent) took places
This experiment permits us to draw two suppositions. That in the course
of the preceding five years there had been eruptions of belated big bud leading
to a noticeable infection of July plantings, or that prior to the July planting
the potatoes had already been considerably infected by big bud,
The question of the significance of July planting, as a radical means of
controlling the disease, requires, therefore, futher experimental checking.
During the corresponding tests an immaculately pure seed stock material has to
be used.
The beneficial effect of July plantings upon potatoes grown from infected
tubers has nevertheless already been established. While tuber-big bud of
spring plantings reduces- the yield and the commercial value of potatoes
drastically, it produces only a relative lowering of the yield of July plantings.:
The characteristics of the variety appear distorted in July plantings as well;
thus, for instance, in spite of their large size, tubers are greatly deformed,
frequently misshapen, but their gross yield may reach 10 tons per hectare.
This radically distinguishes the development of diseased plants of spring and
eurmer plantings and clearly demonstrates the influence of ecological conditions
upon the development of the diseased potato.
Observation of the tuber-big bud of spring planting showed that even in
the early stages of the potato's development the virus remained in a latent
state and barely accumulated in the tissues. Only in the blooming stage an
increased reproduction of the virus took place, the tissues gained a noticeable
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Sukhov, K. S., and Vovk, A, M.
degree of infection and external symptoms of the disease appeared simultan-
eously. Thus, in spite of the fact that the virus exists in the tubers from
the very beginning, the development of the disease statte only after a long
incubation period which terminates in the blooming stage. The incubation
period of big bud depends in the strongest measure upon temperature. An
experimental deliberate infection of the tomato made in early June produced
external symptoms in 24-3O days, while during an infection made in the third
creek of July the incubation period of the disease was extended one and a
half months and more.
The late development of potatoes of July planting and the longer incuba-
tion period of bt,g bud of tuber origin cause potatoes planted in July not
to show any external symptoms of the disease. The absoe of symptoms or
their very late development point to a latent condition of the virus and
its weak reproduction capacity and activity. If the concentration of the
virus is limited and its activity curtailed, the harm it will cause will
naturally also be -low. Plants grown from infected tubers planted in July
show consequently a radical increase in yield.
It is true that this circumstance does not free the germinated tubers
from the virus. Only the "depression" during the period of tuber formation
is lacking.. At subsequent spring planting the reproduction capacity and the
activity of the big bud may prove high enough to cause severe 4nfeetion and
a strong reduction in potato yield. It is equally likely that a part of the
July tubers may escape the infection since the virus is not present in large
amounts in the tissues of the maternal plant and is unevenly distributed. The
solution of this problem requires further special tests.
The above data shows that Lysenko's method, provided July plantings are
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Sukhov, K. S., and Vovk,, A.. Lei..
kept up , represents a powerful means of increasing potato yields in southern
regions that are distinguished by a wide spread of the disease? it is,,
nevertheless, essential to point out that this method is not sufficient to
preserve all varietal qualities of the potato in oases where the tubers are
infected by the virus. The solution of the problem concerning the protection
of July plantings from big bud is an actual problem and demands special
investigation. The elimination of big bud on late July summer plantings will
result in a rise in the potato yield in the south. The situation is different
with regard to varieties sensitits to crinkled mosaic. Observations show that
such varieties as Early Rose,. for instance, are subject to rapid degeneration
when infected by mosaic, not alone in the south but also in the central
oblaate, and not only in spring but also in summer plantings.. The rapidity
of the processes of degeneration varies in different latitudes.. It is lover
in the north.- and higher in the south; in. the central oblasts such varieties
suffer greatly also from mosaic, In this connection the problem of selecting
resistant varieties is important and should not be delayed.. t=:e still do not
possess early varieties that are resistant to mosaic.. They have yet to be
produced.
It is also necessary to widen the work of selecting varieties resistant to
big bud. Here we may point to the success achieved by the Scotch who already
possess varieties of potatoes resistant to the virus of leaf roll which
closely resembles that of big bud.
le ourselves possess such splendid varieties as Lorkh, resistant to mosaic.,
If on this basis new varieties would be produced, proving equally resistant
to big bud, the problem of southern potato growing will be solved. Varieties
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Sukhov, K. S., and Vovk, A. I%
of tomatoes have already been developed possessing relative resistance against
big bug - these are the "shtambovie" tree tomatoes. The resistance of the
tree varieties is so far not too high but they represent good initial material
for the selector to start from. It is essential to determine the varietal
Wk
reaction of the potato to the big bud viers and to segregate the most resistant
At the Krasnodar Vegetable Station we observed the planting of the peren-
nial wild potato - Solarium giberulosum. Plants of this species grew without
change on this lot for three years and among them were observed only a few
plants infected by big bud. Simultaneously, annuals growing at a compara-
tively close distance from them, i.e. tomatoes and poppers, were infected by
big bud 60-70 percent. It is possible that among the wildings there will be
forms which when hybridized with cultivated potatoes will produce varieties
resistant to big bud. The significance of genetic work with potatoes has to
be propagandized.
Interesting experiments are produced at the Krasnodar Vegetable Station
by N. X. Rubashevekaia. She is testing the hybrid Brigitte X Solanum
boecense, of which two-numbers (4-29, Kubanets and 19-51, Krasnodarets)
represent ultra-early varieties. The potatoes of these varieties produce easily
two yields in the south because the tubers collected early from the first
harvest when planted in the. soil grow well without any special cultivation.
This offers the opportunity of planting these varieties in periods which escape
the infection by big bud. For this purpose the first gathering of the crop
is done in June and the second planting at the end of July. The methodical
approach to the working out of measures of controlling the ecological degen-
eration of the potato and the virus diseases of this crop should vary.
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- 10 -
Sukhov, F. S., and Vtovk, A. Y.
Unfavorable ecological conditions are overc?ne by summer plantin-; in conformance
with Lysenko's methods. To overcome the harmful influence of virus diseases
on June plantin;s resistant varieties have to be produced. In this case
additiohal methods may be used, specifically, ehenical methods designed to
destroy the vector. The utilization of effective insecticides against
liaulesthes obsoletue nay have wreat significance for annual 5olanums which
by the nature of their crop do not tolerate late plantings.
End of Article
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Uspenski, E.
In So lekokhoziaii.ctvennaia enteiklopediia
gricultural, Encyclopedia], vol. 3
Moskva, 1934,
Translated from the Russian by
S. N. roeson
TER ORGANIZATION OF SCIE?TIFIC-TESEM Ch O ?K
or PC?ZATO GROWING (p,, 32)
Scientific-research work on potato growizng in the USSR is conducted
by the ViIIEII (All-;Union Scientific-Research Institute of Potato Economy)
and its network. The, institute was founded in 1931 at the former $orenevo
Potato Selection Station (village of Korenevo, Ukhtonzaki region,, Moscow
oblast).
Five zonal stations enter into this system of the Institute. They
are - the Leningrad, Minsk, Voronezh, Ukrainian, and Central Volga
stations. Each station serves its corresponding zone. The t!!oscow zone,.
the West and East Siberian zones, the Fa.r East. ( ), the Northern
Caucasus, Trans-Caucasus and Central Asia are directly taken care of by
the Institute.
The zonal stations in turn have their bases at state and collective
farms which conduct practical work on potato growing in accordance with
agricultural practices,, and also take care of seed growing, seed testing.
mechanization, control of disease and storing.
The principal problems concerning methods in scientific-research work
are solved by the scientific council of the VNIIKR Problems of planning
and organization of work are subjected to consultations at the All--Union
Potato Conference which is called once every two years. Skilled cadres
of potato specialists are prepared by the VNIIKH ("aspirantura'")Ipersonnsl
)O3
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Uspeaeki, B.
The organization of soientifiof5research...,
the medium level is trained at spsciai potato teehnicums, frequently
Located at the tonal stations of the VITIUCH. The lower padres (approvers,
examine", seed growers) are given special courses arranged by the VNIXKR
and at all zonal stations,
of article.
Bibliography:.
Afanaaiev, 1. Handbook on the application of fertilizers for potatoes?
toe cow-Leningrad, 1933*
Veselovski, P. Potatoes. Leningrad, 1930,
Klapp,, F. Potato Variety .Growing. ,"oscow-Leningrad, 1935,
Rozhdestvenski, No and. Uepexsski, 'g. Potatoes and their Storing. oscow.
Leningrad, 1931?
Sobachenkov, P. Storing Ensilage of Potatoes, r0scow-Leningrad, 1931,
Present Conditions of Potato Growixig. toscoer-Leningrad, 1-931.
Potato Approver's Companion. Vosco -Lanixrgrad, 1931,
? The York of the V!TIXEH, 1-54. Pose ow. 1933.
Chernishova, 0a, How to protect Potatoes from Diseases. iloscorr, 1932.
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Uspenski, Be
In Selskokhoaiaistvennaia enteiklopediia.
Agricultural Encyclopedia). vol. 3
Moskva, 1934.
Translated in part by
S. W. IFonson
TIDE STORAGE OF POTATCP S (p. 31-32)
The rational organization for storing potatoes is of great importance.
According to data provided by the Oosplan, losses from storing potatoes
represented 12 percent of the entire yield in the years 1929-1980. Accord-
ing to tests made by the VNIIEH# performed in 1931 and 1932, the natural
loss in weight during storage amounted to 7-8 percent, while during the
winter months it averaged 3 percent a month, increasing by spring to
2 percent.
Stored potatoes must be dry, healthy, sorted, not damaged by frost
and without rough mechanical injuries. Healthy potatoes, if properly
stored in warehouses in the fall, will not require any further sorting
during the winter. Different varieties of potatoes show a different
reaction to disease, and mixtures of varieties therefore keep. worse than
identical
stored uniform varieties of potatoes. The largest percentage in loss is
Incurred from the tuber disease - water and dry rot, The freezing of
potatoes during untimely harvesting or inadequate transportation aids the
spread of disease.
The normal temperature of a warehouse should be kept at 1-3? without
drastic fluctuation, in moist air - close to 85 percent, An adequately
equipped incoming-outgoing ventilation system serves (aside from the
heating, where it is necessary) as heat and moisture regulator in storage
/04
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Uspensici, E,,
The storage of potatoes.
places,, air being supplied from below and extracted from abare. The bin
should not-be filled over 1.6 meters.
Theare permanent and temporary potato warehouses. Among the first
are special storage-_plaoss, transit storehouses, large railroad storage
iss where the loading and unloading Is done during the winter
(illustration 13), basements, cellars, etc. To the second belong
mounds ("burtii"), holes, ditches, *too
Permanent storehouses must be equipped with bins having a grate floor
that rises above the ground. Tba walls between the bins must also have
double grates. The most suitable site of a bin is that holding one oar-
load. Prior to loading potatoes in bins, the storehouse is disinfected
with sulfur, in the proportion of 20-40 g.. of sulfur to 1 m2 of the area
of the storehouse; line is also applied within? It is advisable to add
to the lime some copper sulfate (1 part of copper sulfate to 20 of lime)..
Mounds ("busty") may be above ground and deep.. Their depth depends
upon thee ' Iswl of ground waters. The usual width of a mound is 2 meters.
The height of an above ground mound is I as and of a deepened one, I.e.
0.5 m., should be 1-1/2 m. The length varies according to the need.
Ventilation is by vertical and horizontal wooden pipes. The covering of 11
a mound should protect the potatoes from freestng. In the Central sons
of the USSR the covering consists of a layer of 50 cm of straw and 50 an
------ ----
of earth (illustration 14). Per the temporary storing of potatoes
(2-3 months), one may widen the mound to 3-4 and over meters (if potato
manufacturing plants are available). The temperature within the mound or
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Uspenskl ,, E
The storage of potatoes,
hole is observed by dropping thermometers into the ventilating pipew.
A rapid rise of temperature during the winter, of above 60, points to
the beginning of rot among potatoes, Rounds or holes have to be opened
without delay in such oases and the potatoes transported into a cellar;.
Considerable losses are experienced in the transportation of potatoes*
The potato is a product not adapted to transportation, winos it contains
about 80 percent of water and easily spoils in transit. 'The loss of
young potatoes in a transportation lasting 4-6 days say amount to
40-60 percent. According to data furnished by the MSPC for 1928.29, the
losses in'Pall transportation amounted to 12-14 percent. It is therefore
advisable to bring the potato areas as close as possible to the points
of consumption and reduce railroad transportation to a minimum.
End of artioler
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Kirakosian A. V., an. Rhachatrian, O.A. Tranal. 195: Potatoes
Virus diseases of potatoes cultivated in Armenia.
Akad. Nauk Armianskoi SSR. Izv. Biol. I Sel'sk. nauk.
3:3330344. 1959. 20 Er4
Translated from the Russian by S.N. Monson.
Considering the economic importance of potato production and its cone-
siderable impairment by virus diseases, a study of the spread of three
diseases was undertaken by a survey of potato plantings in different rt..
gions of the republic. Surveys were made in three regions which differ
ecological conditions: Echmiadzinak, Stepanavansk and $irovakenak regions..
The results revealed a considerable spread of mild mosaic, necrotic
mosaic, and diseases of yellows. Less prevalent were aucuba-mosaic and
gothic. In addition to the above diseases, observations included.necrosis
of potato leaves and leaf roll of lower leaves affected by necrosis.
Studies showed that the spread of virus diseases in the above three
regions differs. Diseases of yellows are more widely spread on low lands
(Eehmiadzinsk region) where the percentage of diseased plants amounted to
2.0 to 2.6, while in the mountainous region of Stepanavansk, it amounted
to 0.4 to 1.3:/,Wrinkled mosaic (necrotic) was found in low regions where
damage amounted to 2.7%. Leaf roll of lower leaves with necrosis was also
hone;?frequent in low sections. Such diseases as mild mosaic (5~ injury) and
leaf necrosis (60;) have a wider spread in high mountainous regions of the
republic.
In order to determine the relative impairment by virus diseases of the
different varieties of potatoes tests were made at Erivan, on. the former
experimental plot of the Agricultural Institute, on the varieties Lorkh and
No. 34, as well as on the Leninakanak experiment field of the same Ineti9
tuts, on the varieties Lorkh, Kalitinets, 17oltman, Seven, Phytophthora-
Resistant, Narodny, Imrkhan, and.No. 34. The results of these studies
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Kirakosian A. ii., and Khachatrian, G. A. Transl. 1.05.
proved that the varieties Irrkhan, Lorkh, :':'ottman, Seven are more affected
by yellows. The pereentage among the above varieties was 2 - 7. 7rinkled
mosaic aff*ated primarily: 34, Lorkh, Kalitinets,Woltman (3-7,p'). Mild
mosaic was largely spread among the varieties Immkhran, Lorkh, '."oltman,
Narodny, and No. 34. Leaf roll with necrosis was noted at Erivan only on
Lorkh. Leaf necrosis was particularly noted among the varieties Imkhran,
it
Bevan and 34. The varieties are listed in the order of the/infectivity.
to
It is important/stress that the potato variety Lorkh, substitutitd in
Armenia for many local varieties, succumbs in some degree tr other to all
ping
Experimental work on determi4virus plant diseases was conducted in
the following mannerv: 1. artificial inoculation of indicator riants;
2. planting of tubers of diseased plants in order to obs,.rve the course
of the disease from year to year.
Young plants grown in vegetative vessels were artificially inoculated.
Indicator-plants were: potatoes grown from seed, tomatoes, poppers and
tobacco. Inoculation was by tubbing in the juice of diseased plants, as
well as through the host-insect of virus diseases, the peach aphid. In
inoculating with juice, the leaves were crushed in water in a porcelain
mortar, previously sterilized for tan minutes, the surface of plants then
carefully smeared with the extracted juice. Inoculation by insect was by
feeding the peach aphid on diseased plants in small test tubes; into the.i
latter young leaves of tested plants were placed for 2-3 days. Aphids thus
transferred infection upon healthy plants.
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Kirakosian A. V.
Khachatrian, G. A.
Diseased tubers were Lathered for planting from suburban zones of
Eschmiadcin and Leninakan and planted in the second and third year on the
experimental field of the Agricultural Institute at Erivan. In addition
to tests made during the summer, a record was kept poi` ie 8a'iP ge tuber yield
from one clump.
Plants of apparent health were also submitted to virus analysis; first,
to act as control, secondly, to reveal the latent "X" virus in them.
Below are publishel the results of the analysis among healthy plants
and those inoculated with various virus diseases,
TESTS MAMS r ITH !T'ALT- ' POTAT0rS; Leaves of
ealthy potatoes of the
variety Lorkh were taken from potato plantings of Erivan and Eohmiadsine.
Table I presents the result or 4 ei analysis in artificial inoculation
with juice of healthy plants. According to these figures, no infection was
observed as a result of the test. But in inoculating with the juice of
potatoes brourht from Echmiadzin, symptoms of the disease appeared in the
form of leaf necrosis and mosaic on potatoes, mosaic and ring spot on pep-
pers, in addition to distortion. Control plants occasionally showed symp-
toms of the disease. This circumstance must evidently be ascribed to the
fact that our tests were mostly conducted without isolators. When peppers
diseased with ring spot were inoculated a second time, the plants exhibited
again the s.me symptoms.
Inoculation of plants through the peach aphid showed that the disease
is not transmitted by the insect.
Virus obtained from a healthy plant was tested for resistance to tem-
perature and propagation to identify it. The juice of the diseased plant
(pepper) was for this purpose submitted to a temperature of 60-70* for ten
minutes and both peperS and tomatoes were inoculated; uninfected control plants
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Airakos ian, A. V.' 4 Trana 1. 105
Khachatrian. G. A.
were left.
Results revealed that the virus becomes Inactive at Testing of
virus at 0.01, 0.001 and 0.0001 dilutions showed that the virus becomes
inactive at dilution of 0.0001. Studies of healthy potatoes lead to the
assumption that the potatoes were infected by the latent "Xn virus (Solarium
virus 1 Orgon), (K.Smith classification), although the temperature obtained
by us differed from the temperature of inactive OX" virus.
Table 1.
RF.3ULT OF ARTIFICLkL I}?OC.LA?I W' OF HI-ALT-J-7 F-LANT 1TH JI ICE
Location ? Infested plants No. of No. of $'ycpucs of disease
where plants infested
specimen plants
was taken
from
potatoes
Control
Tomatoes
Control
Potatoes
Control
Necrosis and imy$ng
of lva. z s08aee on
one plant.
None
Tomatoes 5 3 Necrosis of Iva.
Echmiadain Control 2 2 Necrosis of Iva.
Popper 4 5 Mosaic, then ring
spot with Necro.
sis and drying of
leaves.
Control 2 d3 ?one
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Xirakosian, A. V. 5 Tranal. 105
Khachatrian, G. A.
WRINKLED MOSAIC,.
Virus diseases are rather prevalent in different regions of the ArienQ
Ian SSR. Typical symptoms of the disease are: mosaic, wrinkling of leaves,
necrosis, first along veinlets of leaves, than along the entire leaf, dry-
ing of lower leaves in upward direction, bare stems, and in the majority
of cases rapid death of the entire plant. Analysis of potato viruses
No.
were performed with specimens of potatoes/34 gathered from the plot of the
Institute of Technical Crops at Echm.iadzin. The result of this analysis
of diseased potatoes bearing symptoms of wrinkled mosaic is submitted in
table 2,
Table 2
RESULT OF ART "FIC.IIAL INIOCUULkT IOr WITH J1ICE OF 1u13IASrD POTATOES
(WRINKLED MOSAIC) and APHIDS""
Inoculated. Summer of Number of Symptone of Number of Num or of Symptons of
Plants Plants infested Disease Plants infested Disease
Plants Plants
Mosaic, leaf
necrosis, one
plant dried
soon
Necros&s
of leaves
and stems
Bone
2
0
None
Peppers
3
3
Mosaic and
2
2
Mosaic and
leaf necro-
leaf necro-
sis
ais
Control
2
M
Noma
2
0
None
Mosaic on new
one
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Khachatrian, G. A.
This disease is also transmitted by juice and aphids. Repeated inocu-
lation with the juice of diseased peppers gave the setae results. Trans-
mission of the disease by juice and aphids and the -ature of external symp-
toms of the disease bring it close to necrotic mosaic, especially wrinkled
mosaic, originating from potatoes infected with "Y" virus (Solanum virus
2 Orton, classification K. Smith).
In addition to tests of artificial inoculation, tubers of diseased po-
tatoes were planted to study the degree of transmission of a disease by
tubers from year to year. In the first year, i.e. the year of tuber gath-
ering, the disease exhibited the symptoms described at ova. Results of
No. d
tests on the development of wrinkled mosaic in potato/34 in the ssccor/year
and the record of its yield per clump are presented in tabIc 3.
Table 3
DEVrLOP ;T OF SY*'PTOW OF 'r2I2ilL 'DD 11'OSr1IC AND POTATO YI.''LD
Average Yield
$6. of plants per Clump
Location of Symptoms of Symptoms in
gathering disease in second year Total Producing Number of xeight 'f.
of potatoes first year yield Tubers in re.
Erevan Healthy Healthy 16
(tubers Plants Plants
obtained
from seeds
Leninakan Mosaic, r.rin- l!oeaic, 53
klin j; . *v., wrinkling
aierosie, dry- necrosis,
ing lvs; bare dwarf'ess
stems chlorosis,
drying;
bare clumps
12
7
137
100
39
4
34
25
Eehmiadzin Mosaic, wrin- Mosaic 13
klin of Iva, wrinkling
necrosis, dry- necrosis,
ing of Iva; dwarfness,
bare stems chlorosis,
drying,
bare clumps
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Kirakosian, A. V.
Thechatrian, G. A.
9 Transl. 105
In both forms diseased plants die soon, reducin, the yield consider-
ably. Injury caused by the disease is more severe from tubers &btained
at Echmiadzin than from those grown at Leninakan. In the third year the .
disease carried the ame symptoms but the plants dried out sooner and &:d
not produce any yield at all. Thus, aceordin to results obtained from our
tests of artificial inoculation andplanting of diseased tubers, it may 'be
assumed that this potato disease is typical of Mb wrinkled mosaic.
VIRUS LEAF ROLL
At the plot of the Institute of Technical crops at Echmiadsin a clump
of potatoes was discovered (1946) of the variety Lorkh, in appearance normal
and green, but with rolled leaves, especially upper, and dense foliage. Ar-
tificial inoculation of plants with the juice of this potato (and aphids)
revealed that the disease apparently belonged to necrotic mosaics. Results
are presented in tale 4
.
ARTIFICIAL INOCULATION `'WITH T J+JICt 07 DISEASED POTATO(LEAF ROLL) AND APHIDS
JUICE
PEACH APHID
Inoculated
Number of
Number of
Symptoms
Number of Number of Symptoms of
Plants
Plants
Infestations
of dis-
plants Knfesta- Disease
ease
tions
Control
Contro
Pepper
of Ive.
5 leaf necro-
sis, 2 plants
dried,
2 leaf necro-
sis
leaf necro-
sis
mane
crosis,
one plant
dried.
leaf ne- 2
otosia
Necrosis 5
none
lea? ne-
crosis;
sale &
later chlorQ
osic & green
spots on Iva.
Ions 2
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Kirakosian, A. V.
Khachatrian, G. A.
8 Transl. 105
As will be seen from table 4, necrosis and mosaic appear as a result
of artificial inoculation by juice and aphids. Repeated inoculation with
juice was made on peppers and tomatoes, as a result:, of which necrosis,
drying of lower leaves, mosaic and stunted growth were observed in peppers,
and on tomatoes ? stem necrosis, drying of petioles and defoliation.
According to its symptoms the disease may be regarded as necrotic mosaic.
The potatoes were evidently infested by one of the "T" viruses.
MOSAIC; NECROSIS, CH,LOROSIS.
In addition.to the above described diseases, we discovered several
variations in diseases of potatoes. Although they undoubtedly belong to
necrotic mosaics, their external symptoms are not alike. These diseases
were not submitted to artificial inoculation. The external symptoms, how-
ever, transmittance in the second and third years, as well as the consid-
erable loss in yield support the supposition. Tubers of diseased potatoes
of the variety I.vrkh were gathered chiefly at Echmiadginfrom the plot of
the Institute of Technical Crops and planted at Erivan. In table 5 the
symptoms of disease are described as gathered in the first fndrsecond
year; the average yield per clump is also indicated.
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Xirolros laa n, A. V. 9 ?ransi. 105
Khaceb a.tr am, 0. A.
'.SSI;'.ASF Oil "''Lk TE 0-,,VIN t PUNTING
'PERS O) Di 5F ?tk TS
8ymptaus of
Disee*to
Healthy
Disease in
2,P0 vvar
M031t and
necrosis o:a
se iarts
Prod_oir,,g caber of Weight
yi.aw.l.d tabsra a. _&o.
Dsarfnesae
i11 I've.
Light chlorra
via. ssecravis
l rFreaoae,
mosaic Chlor.
Oslo, ztecroeie
along vaeialrets
Mosaic and
necrosis
Dwarfness,
*cssiio, ",ofor ed
4 dense reli.aa ;ee
leaf roll
desse, s u.11
deformed 1v a.
mosaic n"ro.
Dwarfness.
leathery iTa.
Jlaxsaaerdtr to to .1e v, the i"irxt
so& are sess-h ,e each other in their
?s.t.rn.I ?y ptomss {d rt'?~aeaasa, d.rors ti.on, l.sr roll, and almost identical
r.ductZon i- yield). Leaf roll rss,i detorsaussd allege app*Sr in ther seovnd
Year* krt1ficial iasc cal$ticn of has
and touat**i bV tha peach
& hi.d revealed that thtat dissse, is transmitted by ine"ts and atpposrs *A
Potatoes in the fora of assns, o:: tomatoes as loaf roll 4knd dsfo_rand leaves.
Results of a srime.ntss or the folio,I two disease* ls"tn, ;juptomas
and aoc rots tr &oste rather sev re i,esJcsry and I.*** Jr yield
&I in"' i*tion Of Nie ti*n* luti.eosss. (tetsr*) with th.
Sv. a of .se diseased punt, affected by mosaic and iiL;ht srinklta. ; o,_ leave,
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Kirakosian, A.-V. 10
Hhaohatrian, 0. A. Transl. 105
the glutinose produced mosaic with severe necrosis of lower leaves, begin-
ning with the upper leaves, Which led to "wr rapid death of the plant. Simp
liar symptoms were observed on inoculated tomatoes. The tubers of the above
diseased plants, planted in~he third year, produced plants with the same
symptoms but no yield. The study of four diseases of potatoes, indicated
in table 5, leads to the belief that they are all the result of infection
by different genera (Stamre) of the "Y" virus, transmitted by juice and
aphids, wh,ic yield ons$iderably. In necrotic mosaics of diseased pata9
toes, ?XD virus was apparently present, in addition to "Yu virus. Com-
bined action of the two virusesstrengthens the disease.
DISE SES OF TIM TYPF 0? T?LI.r't'S"
LEAF ROLL OF POTATG"S' In the Echmiadzin region and farmrs of Leninakan
and Erivan a disease it frequently met resembling leaf roll. According to
authoritative data (1) the disease in~he sewn shows symptoms of lea-
thery leaves, delicate and generally chlorotic, occasionally becoming reddish
and violet colored because of the presence of anthocyanin in them. Leaf
lobes roll around the central vein, infection spreads upwards. The disease
is not transmitted by juice but by aphids and grafting.
Leaf roll of potatoes is recognized Is literature as one of the most
serious diseases. The disease discovered by us resembles the above described
disease, i.e. potato leaf roll.
In our test of artificial inoculations with the juice of diseased po-
tatoes negative results were obtained. Potato tubers from plants diseased
with.leaf roll were planted on the plot of the Experimental orchard of the
Agricultural Institute at 'crivan. Seed stock was obtained from ':chmiadain
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Xirakosian, A. 'V. 11 Transl. 105
Rhachatrian, G. A.
for this p urpose.
Data on the development of the disease in the second year and the av-
erage yield from one clump are presented in table 6.
Percentage of slants which produced yields and the volume of the lat-
ter were very low, testifying to the severity of this disease. In the third
year diseased tubers did not produce yield at all. The typical symptoms
of ria.scase and degree of injury make it evident that the above dteeaso is
potato. leaf roll.
LEAF POLL 4? LOWER LR&VES OF POTATOFr'
We stated in the beginning that in some regions in Armenia (Paartiou-
larly lowlands), potato leaf roll of lower leaves is rather frequent along
the principil vein and that considerable spread of necrosis prevails on
foliage. Tests in artificial inoculation of a diseased plant with juice
brought negative reai'lts.
Planting of potato tubers, however, obtained from diseased plants,
revealed that the disease is strengthened in the second year and reduces
the yield, as show in tactile 7.
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Hirakodian, A. V.
Khachatrian, G. A.
IUFUYENCr OF L AF ROLL UPO`T POT&TO HARV7 ST
Nos. Symptoms of Disease in Quantity of Average yield
diseases 2nd Year Plants per C1uas
Total roducing o. of Te ght f?
yield tubers in grs.
Healthy
Leaf roll,
chlorosis,
dwarfness,
leathery
texture
Leaf roll,
chlorosls,
necrosis
Mosaic, ne- 15
crosis on
some plants
d -arfness
chlorosis,
leaf curl,
undersized;
mosaic
Chlorosis,
If. curl,
pink antho-
o anin on
upper lvs.
Symptoms of Disease in
disease 2nd Tear
Healthy
mosaic and
necrosis of
some plant.
Leif roll dwarfness,
of lower Iva. chloronis,
necrosis If. curl,
necrosis
Quantity of Average yield
Plants per Clump
Total Producing No. of eight
yield tubers in ;re.
As seen above, the yield from plants affected by leaf roll is rel-
atively small coruparead to the control In the second year the disease ex-
hibits other symptoms. Closer study is required for the final determina-
tion of the virus and infective nature of the disease.
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Xiruh-o ,icr, A. V. 13 T'ranal. 185
Khachatriaan, G. A.
POTATO "It! In the past few years a potato disease beoaime widespread in
Armenia charsoterized by wilt, yellowln,, of entire plant, and drying, be-
ginning with lower leaves. Tubers of diseased plants appeared stunt3d.
This disease causes large losses in yield.
In order to determine its nature, a test was made by Inoculatin;; with
juice wilted and healthy potato plants, specimens of which were brou,ht
from Laninakan. Popper and tomato seedlings served as indicator plants.
The teat did not succeed. In showing the infectious nature of wilt. But
it testified oncemore to the presence of the latent "I" virus in potatoes
b*cause of the appearance of ring spot, leaf, stem and petiole necrosis, in
places s ttunted growth on peppers, and or tomatoes,leaf a.nd petiole necrosis
in slight degree. Studies made by K. B. Sukhcw and A. M. Vovka (4,6,e)
established, however, that potato wilt is of an infective "stolbur" nature>,
transmitted to healthy plants by certain species of oicaades and grafting.
On the basis of data furnished by these authors, we bean tests of grafting
under Erivan conditions. 13raaftings were made with petioles of wilted and
about to wilt potato plants on health lants. The inoculated potato ex-
hibited symptoms of milt, as seen or, ill. I.
On an inoculated (by grafting) tomato the disease produced sywcptcass
typical of etolbur. (111. 2) Thus studyof wilted and dried potatoes in
s
Erivan seem ,'o confirm the stolbur nature of the disease, although addiQ
tional experiments are required for final conclusions.
A Survey of potato plantings and study of virus diseases in Armenia
resulted in the following conclusions:
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Sire kosian, A. V. 14 Transl. 105
Khachttrian, G. A.
1, In different surveyed regions virus diseases of the type of mild
mosaic, necrotic mosaics, yellows, aucuba-mosaic, gothic, etc. are spread
among potatoes.
2. Tests with artificial inoculation and planting of diseased tubers
revealed the identity of wrinkled mosaic prevalent in Armenia with the e.aa&
disease described in literature. V any diseaeer, were identified bars;
which in their external symptoms differ slightly between themselves but
apparently belong to the type of necrotic nossica and are the result of
infection of potatoes by v-.rioas "Y" viruses.
3. Virus analysis of apparently healthy potato plants testifies to the
infectivity of healthy potatoes by "R" virus.
4. Yellows were established as leaf roll of potatoes, appearing with
typical sympt-csn of the latter disease, as described in literature. Plant-
ing of diseased tubers revealed that this disease is transmitted from year
to year and severely reduces potato yields, occasionally oarlsing its loss.
5. Leaf roll of lower leaves of potatoes with necrosis is apparently
also a disease transmitted through tubers, although for confirmation of
this statement additional, detailed study is required.
C. Potato wilt distributed in many regions of Armenia is not trans-
mitted by the juice of a diseased plant. Grafting of wilted and dried out
potato plants, discovered in Pr van, established nevertheless, their infeo-
tivee nature which resembles "tail; cBud" of tomatoes.
Institute of Phytopathology and Zoology
of Acadei y of. Science, Armenian SSR
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$irakosian, A. V.- 15 irsnsi. iva
Shacha.trian, G. A.
Bibliography:
V. L. Rythkov Q Virus diseases of plants, 1535
V. L. 2yzhkov - Principles of theory on virus diseases of
plants, 1944
V. L..Ryrbkov - Phytopathogenic viruses, 1946
K. Sukhov - ot. al. Big i d of So1acaceae, 1946
A. It. Vovk - Stolbur of potatoes, 1946
A. M. Vovk Virus of Stolbur, 1947
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KRQLODNYI, N.G.E.A. Timiriazev I sovremennye
predetavleniia o fitogorasonakh, [R.A. Timiriazev
and modern ideas on phytohormones] Moskva, 1946,
34 p. 464.36 K52K
Transl. 106: Growth Substances.
'translated from the Russian by ",Xxftx #*Xx R. Dembo.
The study of phytohormones is one of the youngest branches of contemporary
plant physiology. Twenty six years ago, the year of K.A. Timiriazev's death,
it experienced the last stages of the original collection of experimental data.
Based upon these data, a conception soon aroused of "chemical regulators" in
plant growth and development and a basic similarity has be di
en
scovered, from /0(0
physiological point of view, between these substances and the hormones of '-
animals. The most significant works in this field which served as the starting
point for further close studies on plant endocrinology are the works of DZR.
Leb, G. Gaberlandt, A. Peal' and others. They belong to the period of 1917-1921,
i.e., to the last years of Timiriazev'as life, when news concerning the newest
achievements of West European and Anne rican science scarcely reached our country
which has been cut off by a blockade from abroad. Therefore, it is not sur-
prising that in K.A. Timiriatev's works we do hot find any references to these
first achievements of the new branch in phytophysiology.
But the scientific ideas, especially ideas on a large scale, which in-
fluence considerably the development of any branch of science, never originate
spontaneously. Each of then has its own more or lees complicated and long
"Prehistory", the period of accumulating factual material and individual con-
clusions which are the necessary premises for the conception and development of
the new thought. The idea of hormonal regulation of living phenomena of the
plant organism also went through such "prehistory". Long before its final and
quite well-grounded formulation, various assumptions, more or less probable,
were expressed. These assumptions indicate the' fact that the scientific
thought under the pressure of facts by whimsical curves, but consistently, makes
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gholodnyi 2 ?rand. 106.
its way towards this new idea, vaguely trying to guess its ability of unifying,
elucidating and enriching the vast domain of various experimental data.
The beginning of this preliminary opoch could be attributed to the and of
the eighties of last century, when J. Sachs (1887) and Y. Beierink (1888) al-
most simultaneously and independently from each other expressed the thought of
the presence in plants of physiologically active substances with a regular
function. U. Beierink arrived close to the conception of phytohormones in their
present meaning. Proceeding from his studies on the development of "tsesidii"
(gall) which originate in plants under the, influence of cynipoids and other gall
forming insects, Beierink arrives at the conclusion that even in a normal mor-
phogenesis of a vegetating organism some specific substances should play an
essential role ?- "growing enzymes", according to his terminology - which are
the product of life activity of the protoplasm of the plant itself.
It is necessary to note, that analogical thoughts, and considerably earlier,
originated, possibly, from Ch. Darwin who attached great significance to the
chemical substances in plants as one of the factors of their normal and path-
ological morphogenesis. It is interesting to note that Darwin also arrived at
these thoughts by his observations with galls. ffe also planned experiments
(but, unfortunately, he did not realize them) on the artificial obtaining of
these formations in order to start this way the experimental study of irreg-
ularity law. In referring to these thoughts of Ch. Darwin, X. A. Timiriasev
indicates (Works, volume VII, page 562) that they manifest the "outstanding
perspicacity" of the great biologist.
This remark of Tmiriasev points out that K. A. referred favorably to the
first attempts of the experimental study of the influence of various chemical
agents, including substances produced by the plant itself, upon the formation
of vegetative organisms, It also might serve as an example for those numerous
and always interesting ideas in which Timiriazev gave a critical evaluation to
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Iholodnyi 3 Trensl. 106.
various directions of scientific thought and individual studies which prepared
the foundation for the development of the study of phytohormones. The analysis
of these ideas against the background of the contemporary stage of our knowledge
about hormonal substances in the plant organism is of great interest for the
history of science, and is the basic problem of Tini.riarev's Interpretation.
It is necessary to keep in mind that K. A. himself did not work experi.
mentally neither on the problems which are directly connected with the problem
of phytohormones, nor even on those problems which were preparing the ground for
their formulation. The absence of his own experiment could not, of course, be
replaced by any experiment of somebody else, and this circumstance, as we shall
soon notice, influenced many conceptions of Timiriarev in this domain. Some of
them are, undoubtedly, mistaken; others require corrections, But all of them
reflect in some way the peculiarities of his brilliant analytical mind, his
passionate, violent temperament, his intolerant adherence to principles when it
comes to defending the basic conceptions of that .scientific, strictly material-
istic and Darwinistic ideas which he gradually developed in bli his works. That
is why even the mistaken interpretations of this greatest scientist thinker often
manifested positive influence upon the development of our ecience,drawing to it
new young scientists and encouraging them to concentrate their attention upon
those problems which K.A. himself was unable to solve, because they were not a
part of the basic stream of his own experimental studies.
II
The last decade of the nineteenth century and the first decade of the
twentieth century were marked by a speedy and fertile development of endo-
crinology of animals and of man. X.A. Timiriaeev who followed during his entire
life-time the progress of scientific thought and the c widening of our knowledge
in all branches of Biology could not, of course, ignore such an important
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gholodnyi 4
achievement, as the study of inner secretion and of the physiological signifi-
canoe of hormones as the regulators of life phenomena of the organism. In
articles which summed up the latest achievements of science he often dwelt upon
the most important facts from this domain and expressed some ideas, for instance,
concerning the role which the endocrine glands were able to play in the evol-
ution of organisms (Works, vol. VII. p. 462-465 and others).
As a follower of Darwin, K. A., of course, shared Darwin's conviction in
the unity of the organic world, in the absence of principal quantitative
differences between animal and plant organisms. This is indicated in his chap-
ter before last, called "Plant and Animal", in "The Life of Plants'". Here Tim-
iriazev, after having analyzed the basic functions of typical representatives of
both domains of organized nature arrives at the conclusion that "the difference
between plants and animals is not qualitative, but quantitative; in both the
same processes occur, but in one domain predominates one type of processes, and
in the other - another type of processes" (Forks, v. IV, p. 296).
It was natural to spread this conclusion over the activity of the just dis-
covered, physiologically active, hormonal substances. If they are the permanent
part of every living organism, if almost every process in them depends, in some
degree, on some chemical regulators - the products of secretive activity of cells
and of tissues of the very organism, then the question arises: Tlou.ld it not be
possible to find similar phenomena in the domain of plants, do not plants possess
substances vrhich are similar according to their genesis and to the activity, to
the hormones of the animal organism?
There is no doubt that K. A. did discuss this problem and that he gave an
affirmative answer. We arrive at this conclusion based especially on one passage
in his lecture "The Historical Lethod in Biology" (;corks, v. VI, p. 174). Dis-
cussing the problem of the effect of the "reproductive property" - male sexual
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gholodnyi 5
calls - upon the maternal organism and pointing out the causes of origin of so-
called xenyl, whose nature became clear only after S.G. Favashin discovered a
double fertilization (the fusion of one male testicle with the testicle of the
egg; cell, and the other with the testicle of the embryonic pocket. K. A. writes:
"Still less clear are the influences of the reproducive property upon the more
remote parts of the maternal plant. Some scientists even reject them, but they
have no reason for it, taking into consideration all the experiments (for in-
stance those of Gil'debrand), especially since the discovery of hormones - sub-
stances which develop in organisms and which cause organic changes from a
distance.
This remark of K .A. Timiriasev is worth consideration from two points of
view. First, it indicates clearly that K.A. considered the possibility of the
exibtene of hormones in the plant organism. Second, it once again indicates
the scientific perspicacity of K.A. In this case he somehow guessed the origin
and development of one of the moat interesting branches of the contemporary
study of phytohormones. At the present time there exist a series of works
which indicate, that in floral plants during the pollination a certain amount of
hormones enter into the maternal organism. These hormones are formed by pollens
and pollen pipes, i.e., by formations which belong to the paternal organism and
that these substances influence considerably the growth and development of
several tissues and organs of the maternal plant.
G. Fitting, studying post-floral changes (which follow pollination) in
the flowers of orchids, indicated in 1909-l91C, that some of these transformations
are determined by the effect of the active substance which exists It, pollens and
which is also produced by pollen pipes during its growth. Here belong, for in-
stance, the postfloral growth of the ovary and stigma and the thickening of the
gynoval ("ginostexuii") i.e., the organ which was formed in the orchid by means
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j rolodnyi 6 Trans1. 106.
of fusion of the core with the stamen filament. This same factor affects the
transformation of the coloring of perioarp and, in many cases, the life cycle.
It is quite possible that all these phenomena are exptlhlned by the formation of
auximone - the most spread phytohormone in the vegetative world - from pollen
and from pollen pipes.
Later on, various authors discovered the presence of an active substance of
the auxinone type in the pollen of most varied plants.
It is true, in all described cases until now,the source for phytohormone is,
appareini:ly, not "the reproductive property" in the strict meaning of this word,
i.e., not the male sexual cell. But is it quite possible that even the latter
introduces into the egg cell and into the surrounding tissues of the maternal
organism physiologically active solutions which are able to influence their
growth, development and exchange of substances. The prdrblem of future studies -
is to examine more thoroughly all these phenomena and to elucidate their role in
the presesses connected with reproduction. The physiology of reproduction is a
domain which has not yet been studied by our contemporary phytophysiologists.
Here they are faced with a tremendous and most important task. The thought ex-
pressed by K.A. Timiriasev concerning the production by the male sexual cells of
hormonal substances capable of influencing not only the egg cell, but also the
cell elements of the maternal plant which surround it, will at the beginning, be
the guiding point for this work.
III
In the development of contemporary study about phytohormanes a very import-
ant role was played by the explorations consigned to orienting motions - tropisms -
of higher plants. The start for these studies was made by Darwin's work, "The
plant's ability to move", which was published in 1880. This was the last important
research of the great biologist. It considerably influenced further development
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-.._ ..., , r Trans l . 106.
in the physiology of motion and growth of the vegetating organism. But its
Significance has been underestimated or wrongly evaluated for a long time.
should dwell more circumstantially upon the causes for this circumstance, in
order to elucidate the ideas and critical remarks made by X. A. Timiriazev, in
regard to this work.
The Biology of the second half of the nineteenth century has been developing
during the victory of a new conception of nature, the historical and mechanical.
The historical principle was introduced mainly by the works of Ch. Darwin, the
mechanical conception reached much further, based upon the achievements, wkkk
ie4~ar~rx In other branches of natural sciences, especially in physics and
also in some branches of physiology, with his assistance. These basic features
in the development of biology during the indicated epoch were many times re-
ferred to by '.A. Timiriasev.
The role and the significance of the two mentioned principles in the
science of nineteenth century were, however, not similar. The historical method,
which has been so brilliantly displayed in the genial works of Darwin and which
.acquired immediately a wide recognition, was nevertheless a comparatively new,
slightly tested instrument in understanding nature, and its further expansion
often encountered on its road serious obstacles in the conservatism of biolo-
gical thought. On the other hand, the mechanical principle which had in the
past considerable raarits as the source of guiding ideas in its research of the
most variable phenomena of inorganic, and partly organic nature, disclosed an
obvious tendency towards the penetration into such domains of natural sciences
where its rights were quite disputable. And while the historical direction in the
Biology of the nineteenth century was a factor which was progressive in every
repect, the mechanical approach began to play/somewhat reactionary role as long
as it checked the further development of thin science and deviated it into the
wrong direction.
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Kholodnyi 8 Tonal, 106.
Thus was the role of the mechanical principle at the and of the nineteenth
century in the explanation of plant physiology to which Darwin consigned his
last work. The predominating conceptions in respect to the motion of plants did
not excel the frames of purely mechanical schemes. The dislocation of parts and
of organs of higher plants caused by the effects of light, heat, weight and of
other external factors was explained by the changes in growth and the tension of
tissues in the place of direct effect of these factors - based upon some physical
laws. The thought of the explorers in this line did not go further than the
primitive, mechanical conceptions and did not consider the facts which indicated
a more complex character of phenomena which occurred in the vegetating organism.
There .s no serious attempts to understand the nature of the strange "regul-
arity" of the observed motions, to Live it some kind of a scientific explanation.
Darwin approached the study of motion of the vegetative organism from an
entirely new point of view. For hid, in this domain, as well as in all others
pertaining to his special explorations, the leading point were two basic ideas
of his evolutionary study, namely: the idea of the natural genesis - based on
selection - of all manifestations of the adaptation of organisms to the envir-
onment and the idea of genetic relation between all the representatives of the
animal and vegetative world. These relations are caused by the common conditions
of their origin and are basically similar in their structure and physiological
processes. These two ideas fully determined the general direction of Darwin's
work in regard to the mobile capacity of pants. On one hand, Darwin tried to
explain the veeys of evolution of this capacity starting with its simplest mani-
festations common to all vegetative organisms and ending up with the most
specialised manifestations Which carry in them all the signs of adaptation re-
actione. On the other hand, Darwin aimed to prove, by means of physiological
analysis of the most varied movements of vegetative organisms, that in some cases
these movements, in their complexity, are not inferior to the movements of
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Zholodnyi
9 Tranal. 106.
lower animals and, consequently, could not be placed into the frames of those
simple, mechanical schemes which satisfied Darwin's predecessors and eontem
poraries - specialists on plant physiology.
These two problems were successfully solved by Darwin: the first - by means
of genetic, correlation between all the forms of motions with its complexity
whose wide spreading in the vegetative world has been determined by Darwin him-
self; the second - with the assistance of a series of fine experimental surreys
which disclosed the space differentiation of the sensitory and the motor functions
in various organs of many plants. Finally, a deep ecological analysis enabled
Darwin to elucidate in his work, as in his other research, the winding and
climbing plants, the certain adaptability of many motor reactions in many higher
plants under observation; and based upon this, to Live a satisfactory explanktion
of their regularity, so miraculous at the first glance.
The work of Darwin, in its general direction and in its specific con-
clusions, differ from the established opinions of the ma'prity of botanists, -
physiologists of the nineteenth century. Therefore it has been received un-
friendly. The head of the German school of phyto-physiologists,. !U. Sachs in
his "Lectures on Plant Physiology", published in the year of Darwin's death
(1882), in explaining why he never mentions the works of Darwin on plant move-
ments, writess "1 an sorry that the nano of Charles Darwin is written at the
title. The experiments which he describes are carried out without competence and
are poorly explained, and the good which is slightly mentioned in the book, is
not new". Sachs also gave a negative criticism to the orienting motion in the cir-
cled nutation.
Sachs limited himself to the open criticism of Darwin's work without trying
to explain to the reader how he explains the mistakes of the author. Another
great German physiologist - n1. $izner - appeared already in 1881 with a more
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Kbolodnyi 10 Trans 1. 106.
circumstantial criticism rich he tried to verify by his own experiments. Tin-
like Sachs, Vizner does not hide the ideological motives of his attitude to
the criticized work. For "sound natural science", according to his opinion,
the natural scientific explanation should coincide with the "mechanical", and
many puzzling phenomena in the m.ovenent of vegetative organisms could be sued
up to simple mechanical processes.
What was Timiriazev's attitude to Darwins research on plant movement? A
basic purely evolutionary position of these explorations stimulated in him a vital
admiration and approval. Ee discusses it circumstantially in the last chapter of
his book "Ch. Darwin and his teachings". X.A. gives a positive evaluation of
Darwin's idea on the origin of various types of motion frog the circle nutation.
According to his opinion, the question arises, whether the circle nutation could
be considered as an autonomous phenomenon (thus was Darwin's point of view) or
it is based upon the effect of a sum of exterior factors. Y.A. writes further that
"Darwin's unquestionable great merit is that he discovered many phenomena which
were not even suspected before". Which are the discoveries of Darwin to which
Timiriarev is referring, we shall learn frcm his other book - "'"he Life of
Plants" where we read the following (T orks, Y. IV, p. 212)t "The ideas of
botanists concerning the correlation bet:eeen the growth of the organs and ex.
ternal influences should become more complex after the outstanding, most
original explorations of Darwin. Ho proved that the place of the effect of the
external stituulator and the place where this effect is manifested may not co-
incide some time". Further, he discusses Darwin's experiments with beheaded roots
which cease to react upon the effect of gravity and with the sprouts of grain
which, after the darkening of the tops of their coleoptiles (feathers), loose
their capacity of turning towards light".
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Kholodnyi 11 Transl. 105.
Thus, the entire content of Darwin's work concerning the plant movement,
including those divisions which were re jested by German physiologists, has been
highly evaluated by K. A. Timiriazev. Nevertheless, this unconditional approval
waer mixed with the feeling of bitterness in regard to one unsuccessful thought
of De.rvrin or, as it would be more correct to put it,- Darwin's tendency of
underlining all those peculiarities of plant movements which indicate the im-
possibility of a simple, mechanized explanation, and which at the same time
enables us to compare the motor reactions of the vegetative and animal organisms.
'Where are the roots for this bitter feeling or dissatisfaction which dark-
ened the sincere admiration which K.A. had for Darwin's work concerning the
motor capacity of plants? We may indicate two sources which nourished this
feeling.
In "The Life of Plants", directly close to the passage which we just quoted,
in which Timiriazov evaluates highly the "brilliant and ori;inal" experiments of
Darwin with the roots and eoleo;Niles of grains, the author writes the following
(Works, v. IV, page 213): "These factors were sufficient to assume at the. edge
of the root, of the grain feather, the existence of some special sensitory
organs which transmit to the plant their impressions and cause their deformation."
Thus, according to Timiriazev's opinion, these experiments of tarwin with
the roots and coleoptiles served as the guiding point for that direction in
plant physiology which at the beginning of the twentieth century reached its
highest development, especially in Germany, where it was named "the physiology of
stimulus" (Eeizphysiologie). In the foreword to the English edition of "The
Life of Plants" (1912) K. A. Timiriazov, speaking of "this contemporary flood,
quite dangerous", of this new direction, indicates that it is acccrarod to tim brain, because
by rettoviug; It, certain deforcaatiat~a do not occur or do not occur drastically.
This metaphors (Which does not find any analogy in the aninal or%anism) Was
contradictory to that basic idea of Darwin which encouraged him to concentrate his
entire scientific activity upon plants, since in ther* he was able to roint out the
existence of selectivity without the presence of conscience". This "unhappy
s!etaphore", writes K. A. further, appealed to the Texan botanists. "A series of
German botanir,tew tried to develop the thought of Darwin concerniu& the root
conscience (underlined by N. Rh.); from here originated to study of sensitory
organs in plants arid, finally, of its soul".
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Rholodnyi is Transl. 106.
A little bit further (page 114) K. A. again returns to this questions
"botanists, ? he writes, - without any reason, try to find instead of the
strictly experimental method, some psychological parallels, absolutely un-
founded, empty guesses on "memory" as the basic property of the organized sub.
stance, the capacity of the plant to "study" and to act accordingly with the
acquired knowledge, on the growth of some organs from the "root brain"; such
example is not even mentioned with animals".
ezev
he
f
o - - . .tea ...
, t
wvaj, o
Darwin concerning the
motor capacity of plants, not only contained factual material, later utilized
by the phytopsyohologists for their purposes, but also gave them an ideological
support in the form of "a thought on the root conscience", which, of course,
could easily be developed as the thought on plant's soul.
In summing up all the ideas of X. A. Timiriazev, concerning Darwin's work
on plants' motor capacity, we see that K.A.,while considering the great
scientific value of the experimental data and basic conclusions of this work,
insisted at the same time upon the fact that this theory is based upon a mis-
taken thought which was the guiding point for the development of phyto-
psychology.
Then the question arises, how well founded is this "accusation" against
Darwin by his convinced follovier. A close study of Darwin's work concerning the
motor ability of plants leads us to conclusion that this accusation is based
upon a misunderstanding and that there are no bases to consider Darwin being
responsible for the mistakes of the phytopeychologists.
Really, let us analyze the final words in Darwin's book which, according
to Timiriazey's opinion, "had such a harmful influence upon many botanists"
and served as the guiding point for the development of the teaching of the soul
of plants. Here it is: "It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the root edge
which has the ability of directing the motions of the neighboring parts acts
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Kholodnyi 14
like the brain of the lower animals which is located in the front of the booty
which perceives the impressions from sensitory organs and which direct various
motions".
We see that not a word is here mentioned about the "root conscience". But,
may be, this thought was expressed by Darwin in some other part of his extensive
works? But our search would be in vain: nowhere and never did Darwin insist upon
the thought that the root or moms other part of the plant possesses "conscience."
It is hardly possible to read that thought "between the lines" in the concluding
words of his book. Studying them quietly and objectively, without any prejudice,
we will not find there anything, except the intention to prove that the movement
of plants according to their peculiarity of interior "mechanism", according to
the degree of differentiation and complexity of physiological phenomena con-
nected with them are not inferior to the motions of many loner animals that
possess a central nervous system in the form of a primitive brain. Such in-
tention is quite natural, if we recall that, according to Darwin's words (see
his autobiography and the letter to A. DeCandolle of iIay 28, 1880) he always
enjoyed "lifting the plant to a higher level of the organic ladder". Each new
fact which indicates such a possibility, according to Darwin, proves the con-
sanguinity of all living organisms, the basic similarity in their construction,
the unity of roots of the entire organized nature and, therefore, should assist
in the victory of Darwin's basic principles.
How did it happen that such an excellent student of Darwin's works, as
Timiriazev, who understood better than any other scientist the spirit. and the
essence of Darwin's teachings, made such a mistake by attributing to Darwin - in
a problem of greatest importance - a thought which the great teacher never even
expressed?
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Rholodnyi i5
Transl. 106.
In order to reply to this question, we must remember that the remark con-
cerning Darwin's "wrong thought", by which he attributed conscience to plants,
was expressed by Timiriazev at the pick of his argument against anti-Darwinists,
neo-vitalists and phytopsyehologists who often borrowed ideas from Darwin's book
for the benefit of their mistaken opinions. Darwin's "unlucky metaphors", as
?imiriazev calls it, - the comparison of the root edge with the brain of lower
animals - was for them a real find: The brain is considered the organ of
phychological activitys This seemed so convincing that Timiriazev himself shared
the point of view of his adversaries. .1eanwhile, as we shall see, he could easily
disarm them by referring to another of Darwin's remarks. This remark has direct
relation to those experiments with roots and coleoptiles, and proves irrefutably
that the thought of the great biologist was directed not towards the attempts
of explaining the movements of vegetative organs of the psychological plant
activity, but towards the purely materialistic ideas which later on received ex-
cellent confirmation in the works of a series of authors who continued this to-
search of Darwin already during our life time - in the twenties and thirttesof
this century.
Let us see, what was Darwin's' real point of view. His experiments with.
roots and with coleoptiles of cereals proved clearly that from the tops of these
organs "some kind of influence" is transferred into the zone of its growth. This
influence causes the organ to turn into some direction during the effect of var-
ious external factors. That is the nature of this influence? If Darwin would
turn to the trend of thought of phytopsychologists, he would pay attention to
analogies with the reflex of the nervous stimulation in antral organisms and,
maybe, to even more risky comparisons with the simplest psychophysiological pro-
cesses. We don't find in Darwin anything of this kind. In discussing the more
pronounced facts of the reflex of the "Influence" - in sprouts of canary seed -
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gholodnyi 16 wraps:.. tvo.
Phaleris canarieasis - Darwin indicates that "these results, obviously.y cause us
to assume the presence of some substance in the upper part (ooleop'tiles), upon
which light affects and which transfers its effect into the lower part".
tote: Ch. Darwin. The Power of Iovement in Plants, 1880, p. 486 (London).
Thus see that the miraculous Influence of the upper part of. colesoptiles
which is sensitive to light upon the lower zone of the growth of the same organ,
according to Darwin, could be explained quite simply - by the spreading from the
top of some substance. This brilliant guess found its oonfirmatis:i in . series
of experimental research after forty years. it became evident that the!1oo1e0ptile
edge secretes phytohormone - auxin, and its distribution in the vegetative
tissues affects the motor reaction - the bending of the organ Into some dir-'\
action. This discovery gave a mighty impetus in the development of the entire
contemporary phytoendocrinology.
Darwin expressed his assumption only in applying to the coloopti le Pha 1?
10
But is it possible to doubt that for other organs which he examined, including
roots, he would look for another explanation? The movements of all those organs
represent a full analogy with the movement which is observed in Phalal is sprouts.
it is evident that it is possible to ascribe to Darwin the tendency to
phytopsyohological thoughts only by ignoring (conscientiously and unconsoient-
iously) his real points of view, strictly materialistic which found its ex-
pression in the remark concerning the substance which regulates the effect of ex-
ternal factors from one part of the plant into another.
We could hardly suspect Timiriazev in a conscious distortion of Darwin*s
real points of view. T#.miriasev simply did not notice the thought of Darwin, so
occasionally mentioned, concerning the phenomena which occur in the coleoptile
during the phototropical stimulus. Any new thought has the necessary effect only
in that case if the ground has been prepared for its correct understanding.
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Kholodnyi 17 Transl. 106.
There was no such ground for the understanding and further development of Dar-
win's idea during his lift time nor during the succeeding decades. This is
verified by the fact that even those explorers who repeated Darwin's experiments
(Visner, fotert, Fitting and others) did not pay any attention to his brilliant
thought. It did not correspond to the "spirit of the timed; the end of the XXX
and the beginning of the centuries were the periods of flourishing of the
idealistic physiology of stimulus. The representatives of this flourishing of
the idealistic physiology of stimulus. The representatives of this direction
naturally sought and found in Darwin's work only the item which was contributing
to the development of their points of view. The "metaphors of the root, brain"
was helpful in their requirement and did not contribute at all to the ma er;ial-
istie idea concerning the substance which support the physiological Bonne pti:on
between various parts of the plants.
Nevertheless, neither the followers of the ideological physiology of \Iatim-
ulus which tried to explain the motor reaction of plants based upon the dads of \
nerve physiology of animals, nor the phytopsychologists were able to utilize
Darwi.n's "metaphors" in order to strengthen their teachings. It soon became known
that some parts of the central nervous system of animals have the functions of
endocrine glands. The brain appendix, or hypophyte, of vertebratesjproduces a
hormone which regulates the growth of animals and, consequently, according to
its physiological significance represents some remote analogy with the root edge
or with the coleoptile tip of cereals. Thus, Timiriazev'e argument which in-
dicates that in the animal world we do not know any examples of brain effect upon
the growth of an organism.
Referring to the problem of Timiriazev's dissatisfaction to Darwin's work
concerning the movement of plants we may say here that this feeling was nourished
by the incorrect idea on the significance of Darwin's few experiments and con-
clusions in the domain of plant physiology.
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iholodnyi 18 Tranel. 106.
Another reason for Timiriatev's duality towards Darwin's experiments over
the movements of plants is closely connected with that peculiarity of Timiriazevrs
scientific points of view. As the typical son of the nineteenth century which
Timiriatev, along with hol'tsman, called the century of Darwinism and of mech-
anical understanding of nature, Timiriazev himself was inclined to overestimate
the significance of the latter, the mechanical principle in the development of
biology and especially of plant physiology. This characteristic of K. A.
individuality
scientific dIMW t r explains to us that preference which he always gave to
physiological processes, at the expense of chemical methods and models. In his
own experimental research Tim:iriasev was first of all a physicist.
Note: "Physiology, - writes I.A. in his lectures "The Historical Method in Biol-
o g - is only the physics of living organisms" (Works, v.VI, p.41).
This characteristic of Timiriazev has been bluntly expressed in his attitude
to the physiology of the movements of the vegetative organism. Here he also was
inclined to the physical model of the surveyed phenomena. The perservergnce by
which he defended in this field any attempt of "mechanical explanation" of the
physiological processes was intensified by the realization that here the mat-
erialistic and Darwinistie ideas concerning the organic world are threatened.
According to X.A.'e opinion, the rejection of mechanical ideas in this domain of
plant physiology would support the vitalistic theories. In the foreword to his
"Life of Plants", (1912) of the English edition Timiriazov writes "I suspect
that many among my botanical colleagues will find some ideas of the seventh
chapter out of date, but I must sincerely admit that the reference to the sound
ideas of fait (Knight?) or DeCandolle, Diutroehe or ffofineister is desirable during
the spreading of Reisphysiolo~ tr ioh could become quite dangerous. I an con-
vinced - he says further - that the models similar to those suggested by
DeCandolle for the explanation of the phenomenon d heliotropism or by
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!holodnyi 19
fofineister for geotropism, of course, if applied to the growing requirements of
science, would renew the study of the mechanism of growth to the promising re-
search", (Works, v.IV, p.22-23). And in confirmation of this point of view K.A.
refers to the authority of the physicist G. Thompson who insisted that "even in
the higher scientific spheres" the mechanical models are a powerful instrument
for research.
This conviction which he borrowed from the physicists on the power and the
prospective of "mechanical models" was the reason by L.A. defended in his
chapter "Life of Plants", which discussed growth and tropism, actually in-
sisted upon the points of view which occupied a scientific position during the
first half and the middle of the nineteenth century. But at the same time he
was unable to realize that these old attempts of mechanical explanation of
tropisms is impossible to reconcile with the new data in this field found by
Darwin and by his followers. In order to overcome this inner contradiction, it
was necessary to reject the primitive schemes of llofineister, DeCandolle and
other pioneers in the physiology of movement of the vegetative organism. But,
as we already pointed out, rejection, according to Timiriazev, would mean loosing
the position to the followers of the idealistic Reizphysiologie. He was unable
to foresee that the science of the twentieth century will find a third road, that
the problem of tropisms would be solved neither by physics nor by the physio-
logy of stimulus, but by chemistry and by plant endocrinology, according to
Darwin's assumption about the exittence of auximone.
The realization of the impossibility of applying old mechanical schemes
to the growing requirements of science which was based on Darwin's discovery in
the field of tropisms was, from our point of view, the second source for
Timiriazev's dual attitude to these discoveries.
K. A. Timiriazev died just a few years before that drastic change in the
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gholodnyi 20 Tonal. 106
development of the physiology of growth and movement of the vegetative organism
which occurred around 1925. Then the question arises: low would K.A.'s attitude
be to this great event in the history of plant physiology, which evaluation
would he give to this new hormonal theory of tropisms and to the entire doctrine
of phytohormonea which within 15-20 years developed into an independent depart-
ment of phytophysiology and biochemistry with wide perspectives both in the
domain of theoretical problems and in the domain of practical applications.
We have-already seen with which kind of interest g.A. followed the develop-
ment of animal endocrinology and which hopes he connected with the possible
spreading of the doctrine about hormones upon the vegetative organism. The
first steps in plant physiology into this new direction, interesting data ob-
tained by Fitting, 0aberlandt, leb and others before 1920, did not receive his
attention and, possibly, were unknown to him. But we should not doubt that fur-
ther achievements in this young science - phytoendoorinology - which led to a
radical reconstruction of our conceptions concerning the mechanism of orienting
plant movements would stimulate in I.A. his usual enthusiasm and hot approval.
Really, the first and natural result of this reconstruction was the
cabling of Roizphysiologie, the physiology of stimulus, so hated by X.A. The
wide domain of phenomena - the entire doctrine on tropisms, from where the
physiologists of this direction drew the material for their speculations, re-
ceived an entirely new and strictly materialistic interpretation. Analogies
with psychophysiological processes in animals became now impossible, and the
oonplerx ideology and terminology of the previous physiology of tropisms be-
came absolutely unnecessary. Instead of attributing various forms of sensi-
tivity to the top of coleoptile or to the root edge, we now speak about the
production of auxin in these organs; instead of referring to means of moving
"irritability" or "stimulus" from the aensitory zone into the motor zone we
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'holodnyi 21 Transl. 106.
will examine the ways and means of the auxin spreading in the plant tissues, etc.
The real nature of the phenomenon which has been called "perception", or
"pertseptaii" became clear. It became evident that the external factors (light,
gravity and others) during their effect upon the vegetative organ causes in the
living tissues of the latter an electrical polarization. This electrical polar-
ization causes the change in the growing hormone into any direction, depending on
the direction of the light energy or the tracting power, etc. Changer in the
growth of some parts of the organ which are hidden in its motor "reaction" come
to the mechanism of auxin effect upon the growing cells. The speed of the growth
of these cells in some plants increases the concentration of this substance, in
others decreases.
This basic change in our conceptions about the nature of tropisms and the
growth of plants according to their tendencies corresponded to the general dir-
ection in the thought and scientific conception of K.A. Tixniriazev. He would find
satisfaction in concrete materialistic schemes and models which enable him to re-
duce complex phenomena of the living organism to more simple physico-chemical
processes. It is now, that the physiology of the growth and of tropisms finally
found its correct road bettowed upon us by the clawsice of natural sciences of
the nineteenth century with Darwin as the head. Timiriazev always aimed to that
road. Could we doubt that he would greet with great joy this historical event?
Darwin's research on the movement of plants were the first attempt to
approach some basic problems of phytophysiology by ideas and methods of the
evolutionary theory. An we have already seen, this attempt of the great biologist
to elucidate the origin and the development of the most varied movements of the
the
vegetative organism from/historical point of view received Timiriazev's high
evaluation.
During the succeeding decades, the evolutionary ideas slowly, but firmly
penetrated also in other dvisions of plant physiology. The evolutionary trend
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Trans 1. 106.
in the study of phytosynthesis and of plant breathing achieved high success.
Phytpendloronolouy which originated in Darwin's work on plant movene"nt cannot
stand/aside frcei this penetration of evolutionary, Darwinistic ideas into the
Rholodnyi 22
phye$oloiy of the vegetative organism. In Larxin's doctrine, it may find necessary
po ,haste in solvin contradictory problems of principle which spring up with the
growth of science which gradually embraces more problems. Science should make use
of this doctrine in selecting ways and methods in colving its problems.
It is possible and necessary to consider the
problem of the initiation of
;hormonal substances in the vegetative organism from the evolutionary point of
view. 7'e know that the chemical peculiarities of every living organism are caused
,by natural selection in the some manner as its morphological characteristics. In
our case, various organlcal compounds which originate in the erichange of substances
in email quantities are the material for the productive activity of selection.
Among then we may differentiate useful, harmful and indifferent for the organism.
The chemical nature of these compounds changes gradually depending upon external
and internal conditions. Natural selection, while being active against that back-
ground, Faust strengthen those changes in the processes of metabolism which are
followed by the production of useful physiologically active substances.
In considering from this point of view the initiation and the development of
sprouting substances, it is not bard to see the process of their gradual oomplicatioi
and perfection - u;; to the production of those chemical instruments which act
accurately and quickly, like auxin, heteroauxin, vitamins and various other
physiologically active compounds with regulatory function.
The problem of the causes for the wide spreading of auxin in the vegetative
world requires special attention. It is interesting to observe that a great amount
of other biologioal]y active substances which are formed in the calls and in the
tissues of plants, for instance, all known vitamins, are of great significance also
in the life of animals. Auxin does not belong here. The few data which exist in
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gholodnyi 23 Tranel. 106.
literature and which indicate that auxin regulates the early stages in the-de-
velopment of some vertebrates are seemingly erroneous. Other surveys which
deserve more confidence determined that this substance does not have any
physiological effect upon the growing cells of typical animals and it is not
formed in their body as the product of their own metabolism. Auxin, which could
be arrays found in the urine of the human and of herbivorous animals, penetrates
into their organism through the vegetative food and without being exposed to
changes, secretes through the kidneys. This is, seeriinws ly, the fate of hater-
auxin, which is secreted by the bacteria of intesting microflora and which does
not manifest any influence upon the physiological processes in the organism of
animals and of humans.
Thus auxin is a specifically vegetative substance with a regulatory
function which, is widely spread in higher plants. In some respects, auxin,
consequently, represents something analogous to chlorophyll, which is a specific
vegetative pit-ent with which it is connected in Ito genesis. How is it
possible to explain from evolutionary physiological point of view that ciroum-
etaree, that auxin acquired a great physiological significance only in the
world of higher plants, while the organism of animals is indifferent to it?
In order to reply to this question we should discuss the differences be-
tween the typical plants and animals. This topic often attracted Timiriasev's
attention. If we sums up briefly his ideas in this field and also what could be
found in other great biologists of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, we
arrive at the following:
The basic distinction between typical animals and plants "consists of the
fact that a plant, being connected with the substratum, aims to develop the
most possible surface in its continuity with the environment from which it ob-
tains food, while the animal, forced to move in search of food, on the contra",
aims to the maxinal decrease of his surface, to the decrease of the size of the
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Nholodnyi 24 Transl. 106.
body and to the formation of parts which contain organs important for survival".
Note: W. G. 1hclodnyi. nfarwinism and evolutionary physiology' Publ. Arm. filial
Academy of Sciences USSR, 1943, p. 42.
This basic distinction between the typical representatives of two branches
of organic nature, far divided from each other, determines their other morphol-
ogical and physiological peculiarities. As to the higher plants, the immobile
adherence to the substrate which does not permit them to move in space in tote
limits their movements by bending their parts and organs. These li*nited move-
ments acquire more significance,, since only with their assistance is the plant
able to distribute its parts in the environment most regularly, i.e., in a manner
to fulfill its life function. As it is known, these movements are divided into
turgor movements, or variation movements, and growing or nutation ones. The
first ones are observed in leaves which accomplished their growth and in some
parts of the flower. The second ones are spread more widely and are intrinsic to
all organs of higher plants which have the capacity of growing.
An important role in the life of higher plants are playing tropisms, i.e.,
the growing movements which direct their parts in a specific manner in relation
to important external factors - light, tractive power, humidity, heat, the con-
tent and concentration of nourishing substances, or of harmful chemical com-
pounds, etc. In the enviro. nt. The mechanism of these movements has been
clarified quite fully at the present time. As we already mentioned, they are
based upon the ability of living growing tissues of plants to react upon the
effect of physiological polarization, i.e., the emergence of some difference in
the potentials in the direction of the effect of the external factor. Auxin
possesses the capacity of transferring to the direction of the growing potential.
Accumulated in specific parts of the growing organ, directed by external power,
this substance causes here the acceleration and the retardation of growth
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Kholodnyi 25 Tran s l . 106.
depending upon the nature of the organ and upon the reached Mncentration. As
a result of this process, a bending originates which has any direction related
to the factor which acts outside.
Of all physiologically active substances, known, at the present time, which
are produced by the cells and the tissues of higher plants, auxin, It seems,
possesses in highest degree the ability of diffusing in the growing tissues in
the direction of the electrophysiological gradient. This explains the factor
why natural selection attributed to it the role of the Principal chemical reg-
ulator of growing phenomena in higher plants.
If use now turn to typical animals that possess the ability of free movement,
then we can easily see that, due to constant transposition of their body, the
electrophysiological polarization of their tissues under the effect of the en-
vironment, if It occurs, yet does not have the same significance as in plants.
In this connection auxin is unnecessary as a regulator of growth. Only the sitting
forms of lower animals (for instance hydroid polyps) which have, like plants, the
capacity for tropical bendings could serve as exceptions. It would be interesting
to examine the problem about the presence of auxin in these forma.
Thus, the primary significance of auxin in the growth and in the growth
movements of higher plants is closely connected with their evolution which is re-
lated to the peculiarities of their nourishnent and the absence of capacity to
free movement in the environment.
As we have already indicated, Timiriazev his of the opinion that "the diff-
erence between plant and animal--is not qualitative, but only quantitative"
(Works. v. IV, p.296). It is, therefore, impossible to overlook the fact that
upon higher stages of the organic ladder the quantitative differences become
qualitative. The basic difference of typical representatives of the animal and
vegetative world is, naturally, reflected upon their entire organization. For
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Kholodnyi 26 Trans 1. 106.
higher animals is characteristic "the higher grade of anatomical and physiological
differentiation...., the more refined and perfect specialisation of their in-
dividual parts, their organs, the presence of a series of complicated mechanisms
which assist in the speed and accuracy of the motor reactions". (N.G. Kholodnyi,
1, p.42). In the process of the evolution of animal forms "complicated'borrel-
ations between various parts of the organism caused the necessity in a perfect
"relation service" which occurs in animals with the assistance of hormones and
the nervous system. The presence of the latter, on the other hand, caused new
complications into the hormonal mechanism by enriching it with substances which
assist in the work of the brain and of the nerves. The same might be told about
the digestive organs, sexual reproduction, eta. In connection with the pro-
gressive changes of any of these oysters the entire mechanism of biologically
ao:ive compounds produced by the anii l itself developed and became more perfect".
"We observe in typical plants a different picture. The specialization of
functions of individual organs and of tissues is here expressed less conspicuous
than in animals. In reality, almost each living part of the plant at some degree
possesses all the qualities of the entire organism and under favorable conditions
is able to give it a start. The relation between various organs is also de-
veloped comparatively slight. According to the amount and the variety of the
organs the vegetative organism, even the most complicated, is always inferior to
the animal. Sone functions, for instance the nervous function, are absent or
could be disclosed only in the embryonic condition. Thus the structure of a
plant is characterized by loss differentiation, by the concentration of a larger
amount of vari--us morphological, physiological and biochemical potentials in
each organ, in each tissue and in each cell". N. G. Kholodnyi, Z.S. p.48-49.
These peculiar characteristics in the structure of a typical plant corres-
pond with the peculiarities of the complex of biologically active substances -
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F.holodbyi 27 T rane l . 106.
phy~tohormones. In comparison with the hormonal mechanism of aai.nale, this com-
plex ins inferior in its structure, and Its individual components are less
apecielised as to their functions, The best st6died phytohormone - auxin, which
at first was oor_sdered the f;rawrth hormone, but which regulates the growth of cells
during the stage of stretching, appeared to be the universal instrument of higher
plants which has the capacity not only to influence the growth of all organs, but
also on the division of cells, on the processes of morphogenesis and develosnent,
upon the exchange of substances, etc. This peculiarity of auxin which could be
called its physiological polyvalence has no analogies In than animal world.
In su.r".ing up the above concerning the hormones of aniUnals and of pknts, we
come to the conclusion that, if we like to consider the problems of phyto.
endocrinology from purely Darwinletic, evolutionary point of view, as Timiriarev
always advocated, them we have to keep in mind not only the characteristics of a
basic similarity between animals and plants but no less basic differentiations in
the structure and in the functions of typical represen:tatives of these two
branches of the organic world. hero arouses the necessity of being very cautious
in all those cases when, as a result of the first and superficial acquaintance
with some new group of hormonal phenomena of tho ve) ;etative organism, ve notice
an analogy between these phenomena and soi:'e physiological processes of higher
animals. Tin.iriatov often in connection with the initiation of the physiology
of stimulus in plants, of phytopsychology called our attention to the fact that
such analogies, comparisons, may be quite dangerous and might lead to undesirable
results, to ideologically and methodically inaccurate and unsound ideas in
biology.
unfortunately, the necessity of such a careful, dialectical and evolutionary
approach to the problems of plant endocrinology has not been considered by all
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iholodnyi 28 Trans 1. 106.
explorers who work in this field. In this domain originate various ideas which
represent a considerable and doubtless similarity with those aberrations of
biological thought which were criticized by Timiriazev so bluntly and correctly.
We are referring here to the tendency of many contemporary phytophysiologists to
attribute to higher plants the ability of forming and applying many and various,
in chemical sense, hormonal substances with a specialized function. The first
manifestation of such tendency was the idea of "tropohormones", i.e., specific
substances with the help of which various motor reactions of plants - heotropical,
phototrapical and others - are carried out. They assumed the existence of a
special substance for each motor form. This assumption was rejected when it
became clear that the basis for all tropisms is the acceleration and retarding
of growth caused by the same substance - auxin.
To this class of "plant anomaly" of contemporary phytoendocrinology we
should also add the restoration of the old Sachs idea of organ forming substances
which has been made fun of by Timiriazev,who found in this idea a basic similarity
with the ideas of the alchemists and physicians of the Middle Ages concerning
special "powers" present in medical and other substances and which determine their
effect upon the human organism (virtue dormitiva, virtus pur,ativa, etc.). The
sane "alchemical, aftertaste" is present in all rhizoealiri, caulocalin,uernalin,
antogene and formagene, which are mentioned in many works dedicated to the hormonal
phenomena of the vegetative organism.
K. A. Tiririazev often repulsed the attempts of our own and foreign vitaliets
to explain the movements of plants by their "instinctive tendencies" or by
similar causes. Thereby he indicated that such attempts indicate "a certain
mental laziness" and "readiness of lulling one's self with words" (Works, v.VI,
p.44). It seems that the adherents to hypotheses in specialized phytohormones
and in organ forming substances are not free from such shortcomings. Really, it
is easier to admit the existence of some "formagene" than to start on the
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Thol odnyi 29 'ran s l . 106.
complex road of physiological and biochemical analysis of the oossplieated complex
of internal cord it6ons which are necessary for the realization of some stage of
normal. morphogenesiz or for its change. in the development of science such pseudo
elucidations play, undoubtedly, a negative role. Fooling by their seeming sim-
plicity, they lull the thought of the explorer and divert his attention from the
problems which der;and a deep axid varied study.
I'or those who are sell acquainted with T niriazev's points of view, there
could be no difference in opinion in the question how would be E.A.'s attitude to
the flourishing of "physiological alclzenistry'2 which roes witness at the present
time. There is no doubt that it is not new in its essence and represents further
development of Sachs' idea.
But it is not enough to judge any phenomenon; it is necessary to find its
causes, to understand its origin. Tim.iriazev taught us, that in the development
of each science and of each branch in science there is its logic, that the
springing up of any scientific theory, the temporary supremacy of any trend is
always a result of a logical and dialectical process of the evolution of ideas
based upon the widening and deepening of our factual knowledge.
And if we try, fm,-, his roint of view, to approach that course of con-
temporary phytoor docrinolo y r+,ich we were discussing above, then it will be
easy to perceive that it originated as a direct result of outstanding progress
achieved by eheriistry in examining some natural and synthet"ieally obtained sub-
stances of a tremendous biological activity# here ve have before us a quite
common example of an a xtre^se infatuation by a certain idea, by a definite trend of
thought, which are at the first impression outstanding discoveries.
in our case, the discovery of auxin and its analogues gave the impetus to
the "scientific agitation", or rather, "golden fever" in science. The most
zealous "`;old hunters" hurried in making .many "reverts". And rocs should not doubt
that the majority of the latter will be reports on empty sands.
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Kholodnyi 3o
K. A. would observe another negative peculiarity of many contemporary
studies on hormonal phenomena of the vegetative organism 8 t narrow chemical
approach, the underestimation of the purely physical understanding of these
phenomena. It was Tfm.iriazev who expressed the thought that physiology is
first of all the physics of living substances (orks, T. VI, p. 41). And if
we look closer to the wide group of work dedicated to the phenomena of photo.
periodism, then we would be surprised by the absence of the physical thought in
this domain. But the living green plant is not only a complicated chemical
laboratory; it is also at the same time an extremely sensitive physical instru-
ment which responds to each external effect by more or less drastic changes in
its physical and consequently, physiological properties.
At the present time, much attention is given to the photoperiodical
stimulus which occurs in the plant. It is very possible that this phenomenon is
connected with the transfer of substances of the phytohormonte tyes from the
leaves to the vegetative stem tops. Yoe know already that the movement of the
phytohormone - auxin - in the vegetative organism depends upon the distribution
of electrical potentials, i.e., the pure physical condition of the organs and
of the tissues of the plant. But, when the spreading of the photoperiodical
stimulus is examined, we usually forget about the physical side of this
phenomenon. If our physiologists should follow Timiriazev's suggestion, than
their main task is to elucidate the problem from this very point of view.
V.
In January 1890 in a lecture on factors of organical evolution delivered
at the general meeting of the VIII convention of Russian natural scientists
and physicians, K. A. Timiriazev mentioned the origin of a now branch in
biology - the physiology of form or the experimental morphology of plants and
predicted that this just starting branch of science will reach its peak during
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Kholodnyi 31
Transl. 106.
ff
the twentieth century. This prophecy has been realized and tae works. of Fochting,
Lobel, Klebs and others laid ?a firm start to the experiment&l plant morphology.
K. A. highly evaluated Flebs' research which explained the possibility of
arbitrarily changing and regulating the processes of formation of forns and of
the entire life cycle of higher and lover plants. Py acting upon the developing
organism through some factors of the ectternal environment (light, temperature,
moisture, etc.), changing its intensity, quality, the length and the time of the
effect, or applying them at various combinations, it became possible to direct the
processes of form production, according to the intentions of the experimenter,
into any direction, retard or accelerate sexual repeeduction and even cause the
initiation of now formations and new fors which did not occur with the given
plants under regular conditions of its existence.
It is not hard to realize why Y .A. greeted so wholeheartedly the first
achievements of the young science: they were excellent confirmation of his basic
conviction that "at the last instance behind the sorphological facts should stand
the chemical and physical properties of the substance" (Works, v.VI, p.381).
hat great significance K.A. attributed to the experimental morphology could
be noticed from the fact that he placed it along with Darwinism: "Darwinism.. and
experimental norpholagy... - we read In the same speech - are two branches of
science a shich are of equal ri; hts and which sutually supplement each other. We
expect a complete ansvmr to our question concerning the relative role of factors
of organical evolution from these two branches. "( works , v.V, p.141')*
over fifty years have ,gone by, since Timiriazev mvote these lines. The
progress achieved during this time by the experimental morphology of plants is
great, but still it does not jutkify the hopes of Tirtiriazev as to this new
branch of biology. It is true, the 1irection which has been outlined by Klebs'
research received further fruitful development, especially in our country where
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Yholod nyf 32 ";'rans l . 106.
the foundation for stare analysis of the ontofenesis of higher plants has been
laid. But the study of the stage development, of its present condition does not
ccply with the requirements of X .A. to the future ffphysiology of form" of the
vegetative organism. Here the border which divides ecology from genuine
physiology has not been crossed. Under genuine physiology understand the one
which is based upon the knowledge of "chemical and physical properties of the
living organism" and changes which occur in that organism, during the process of
individual development.
One of the reasons for this stagnation which occurred in experimental
morphology of plants after the first outstanding achievements is the One-sided
approach to the problems connected with it. This narrowness is expressed, for
instance, in the prevalence of the interest to physical factors of morphogenesis -
at the expense of the chemical side of the phenomena - and second, we don't de-
vote sufficient attention to the internal environment of plants, while that very
environment and, mainly, its actives chemical components directly change those
qualities of the living organism upon which depend the morphological, physio-
logical and all other peculiarities of each organism. Already Darwin noticed
the great significance of internal chemical factors. Fe indicated that "great
and secret changes in the structure of the organivr_ could be a difinite result of
chemical changes in the nourishing juices or in the tissues". Oh. Darwin. The
variation of animals and plants under domestication, v. 11, p. 271, N.Y. 1899.
This very conclusion which, in applying to vegetative organisms, Darwin based
upon his observations of galls, led him to the idea about the possibility of
experimental study of transformation with the help of the effect upon the
organism by various chemical compounds.
The defiance to the chemical side of 'r.orphogenesis of higher plants is
explained partly by the fact that the basic mass of nourishing substances
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Kholodnyi 33
(plastic and enerjeti.e material) is little active in the sense of their influ-
ence upon the morphological qualities of plants. Therefore Darwin's thought was
directed towards a specific group of substances which possess the ability of
causing a considerable effect under slight concentrations, i.e., of the
physiologically active substances. Darwin knew only about active substances
secreted by insects. At the present time we possess wide information concerning
chemical regulators - phytohormones which are uroduced by the plants themselves.
We also are able to synthesize many and varied substances which resemble phyto-
hormones in their physiological effect upon the vegetative organism. Thus, we
possess much more material In solving the problem which, according to Timiriazev,
"tms initiated by Darwin with such outstanding perspicacity". And we may insist
that now is the tine to begin those surveys which were only outlined by Darwin.
The first experiments in this direction indicated that here, a new wide field
is open for the exacrimenter. This field promises a rich harvest in the sense
of widening out knowledge concerning the laws of changes in the vegetative
organism, of 'enetrating into the secrets of the mechanism of morphological
phenomena and of finding now methods in directing the form organization and the
development of h!L;ber plants. For the survey of the data obtained already in this
field, as for instance, oolohioin, we would have to write another article. In
order to avoid passing beyond our theme, let us diecuse here a .few examic-les
which pertain to the experiments with auxin and with, so called, e?nthctio grow-
ing substances which, according to their physiological qualities, is similar to
that typical representative of the group of phytohormores.
The first data -Which revealed the influence of auxin upon the structure of
plants were obtained by the author of this article in 1931, when he succeeded
in causing the formation of a considerable thickening in the apical part of the
tip of the growing root of corn, by introducing auxin in that part, and also to
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Nholodnyi 34 Transl. 106.
stimulate the initiation of side and supplerentery roots. Then followed a
series of work of other explorers sraon; , which our special attention should, be
given to the numerous experiments on the stimulus of root formation in grafting
various wood and bush varieties which gave us important results, as well as
the research of Laibakh and Wai (1936) on the experimental obtaining of
anomalies of organ formation within some higher plants. Acting upon the axil
buds of the grafted young plants with heteroauxin, the authors discovered in
the leaves which developed from these buds a series of deviations from the
normal morphogenesis. These deviations caused the si?aplification of the form
of the leaf, the growing of several leaves into one and also other changes.
Still more outstanding anomalies of the organgenesis were recently described
by the American explorers Chichkov and Tsiruserman (1942) who applied
"triidobenzoinyi" and phenoxin acids and their various derivatives. These
authors were able to cause blooming, where usually only vegetative buds
appeared, by applying the above mentioned substances.
in order to give to the reader a more concrete idea on the amount and the
characteristic of the trarnsfoniation in the morphology of the leaf which could
be obtained by means of the effect of physiologically active substances like
auxin upon the leaf sprouts, we are giving here a few schema from the work
of the author of this article with hie assistants which has been recently
published. N. 0. } holodnys , D. laroshenko, A. L. Takhtadzhan.
To experimental rorpholcsg
v. 29. Issue 4, 1944.
and teratology of leaves. botanical 1 agazine USSR*
on the scheme 1 is presented a leaf of a linden tree (Tilia cordata)
which developed upon a ter sprout which appeared at the base of the trunk of
the old tree when the top of this sprout obtained ,froze outside
of heterouuxin for some time. This leaf has the form of a funnel. Normally
such leaves never grow neither on Tilia cordata, nor on other linden species.
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pholodni.'i 3 V'Z i canal . 106.
on the scheme 2 we see a normal triple leaf of legume (bean?) (phaseolus
vult;aris); upon the sehor.:o 3 - abnormal pinnate leaf of the, came plant, with two
pairs of leaflets, which was formed from a leaf sprout upon the main spindle of
the plant whose top has bean covered with lanoline which contained heteroauxin.
From the moment of applying lanoline until the photographing and etching of this
leaf only 20 days passed by.
Sohe?ne 4 presents a leaf of beans which consists only of two leaflets,
whereby the right one, which is larger, was formed by the blending of the uneven
upper leaflet of the normal leaf and of one of the even lower leaflets. This
leaf has developed during, 50 days frog the axile bud which was covered with
lanolin containing alfa-naphtaeidic acid. In order to stimulate the development
of the axile buds the plant his been decapitated.
Finally, on scheme , we See abnormal leaf of the same plant which has
been developed also from exile bud covered with a paste which contained the
heterauxin solution. This experiment lasted S5 days. flare both even leaflets
almost completely blended with the leaflet of the uneven, and as a result a
simple ?e[att cannolate leaf was formed. It is interesting that this leaf reminds
the leaves of the bean sprout which appear immediately after the cotyledons.
Thus, we are able to cause in beans both the increase and the decrease of
the division of the leaf plate by applying the sale physiologically active
substances. A. very close analysis of the described oases Indicated that the in-
crease of differentiation results from the effect of more concentrated solutions
of greying substances upon the leaf sprouts which are advanced in their develop-
ment, with the direct contact of the latter with the paste. On the contrary, the
decrease in the differentiation of the leaf is caused by a pror)longated diffused
(general) contact of weak solutions of the some substances Into the leaf sprouts
during the very early stages of their development.
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:holodnyi 36 Trans 1. 106.
From the described experirents we may arrive at the conclusSon that under
normal conditi.cns the riorphogenesis of the leaf depends in some degree on the
concentration, distribution and duration of the effect of auxin and of other
phytohormones upon the tissue of the developing leaf sprout.
Timiriazev, folio ring Darw;ni, attributed great significance to the research
of the grafted, or vegetative, hybrids. TRecently, i4 connection with new ex-
periments in this field, zany examples of deviations frori the normal .Corns
structure, under the influence of foreign eitbstances which penetrate from the
leaves of one plant into the 6r,owth point of the other which belong to another
species, becrune knorwn. The fornatisre transformations which are observed during
these experints could not be explained by differences in the chemical nature of
the basic assimilators; for instc.r:ce>, carbohydrates and albyrers, since these sub-
the
stances are not active in/sense of their influence upon morphogenesi.s. The just
mentioned data concerning trans forrsauioris caused by the effect of the hormone
reechan3.ym in the form structure of leaves and of o t,
,,her plant organs enable us to
ascume that the mutual ihfluence of drafting and of wilding could be, in the first
place, sum red up to differences in the struoture of the natural complex of
phytohormones whz.eeh is cveeif i.c for any of the giants under experiment. This
problem was not: yet corsidered by physiologists and is waiting for its explorer.
In the same speech concerning the factors of organic evolution, indioating
nemerous exaoples of significant transformations in plant structure which could
be caused in its ontogenesis with the assistance of physical factors, K. A.
consider that the above is sufficient to justify the con-
dition that physiology already starts disclositn; the mystery of the foi: ation of
growth forms, that it learns bow to direct the formation of such forms" (Works, v.V.,
p.136) . "e see now that, a few years after the death of the author of these lines,
physiology made one core step in the, same direction, that it begins to reabh a now
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 i
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trltoiadnyl 37
Transl. log.
_ _ .....,, -4 4A%7Y V suj+tztesnz 01. the growing organism
by chemf.rc, re tt?at:orm tF:ess k~kteno ,e: a whose effect is more corapicuou than
the influence of physscaj factors. Chemistry 1 dE t now into the; more itx-
tixate proc*.e3+ s of the l ivrirc crmr nian, it pr+c iaos to disclose in the very near
future those "` re ti e.jt3 4rr,re t tr n4 for_ ,:aui cans" in the structure and content of
then livin organism w}. cr '~o}ks arwizz anc: .:~iriat a oorsi, e~-ed as the beeie
cause for all chain of M01-0101olical pi=omen a vrhich represent only they external
expreGa rtn of these iflt r?ra? ci. n,~e,. . enterlit, this now and aromist g road,
we should recall t#et it bi~ =me acceuelble to us only due to the tre ndous and
fruitful work of Ttarrrr1r, and t;:ett: I;is x+ost tKlert6d iustsian follower (disciple),
Timir'iazov, caller us ccsrpt.;t nt3,r to tthti:, road. '43fcsar fdeee of Bat-win and of
1"imiri.azev? - wgii Alen
September 6, 1951.
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M. Maksimovioh
In Selskokjosiaistvannaia entsiklopediia
[Agricultural?. oyclopedia1. vol. 3
Moskva, 1939. j
Translated in part by
$.B. Monson
PROBLEMS OF POTATO SEFD GR(XING (p.26-27)
Prior to the revolution seed growing work on potatoes was practically
nil. The individual cases of importations of-4agortations of potato
varieties from abroad by landowners' and kulak households were of a non-
systeaatio nature, and lacked records concerning the quality of the imported
variety and its suitability for esonoisic and soil conditions of the rasp
active regions. Mixtures of different varieties prevailed in peasant sowings.
Following the October revolution selective-seed growing work developed on
a much larger scale. In 1927 potatoes were included in the GOSSORTFOND
(Govt..Varietal Fund) and the subsequent distribution of the seed
material proceeded according to a plan of vh iah the principal aims were
the standardisation of potato varieties, the establishment of a rational
system of propagation, the delivery of seed varietal material into
collective and state farm fields, and the regular (systematic) replace-
meat of non-varietal potatoes with specific varieties.
The system of potato seed growing is based upon a three-unit
soheno. The "reproduction' of selective varieties of potatoes is taken
care of by the VNIIXB (ALL-Union Scientific-Researoh Institute of
Potatoes) and its zonal stations located in five areas of the USSR.
The material for the first reproduction is obtained every year from the
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Lakes imoviah, 11.
Problems of Potato Seed Growing.
varieties
selection departments of these institutions and represents the top, ested
in a variety Of conditions throughout the country. The entire yield of
the first "reproduction" Is transferred to the second "reproduction"
which Is taken care of at special send growing state ferns of the Narkomss m
of the USSR. Each Oblast has several of these state farms. The entire
yield of the seed growing state farms is next transferred into the system
of the third "reproduction" within the oblast seed growing collective
farms united under the Mrs (Machine Tractor Stations). The varieties of
potato tubers are further transferred from the third 'reproduction"
stage, by way of interchange,, for mass savings at collective and state
farms. At -present the Institute of Potato Economy and its sub-divisions
have issued tens of thousands of tons of valuable selected potato varie-
ties which have been transferred through the seed growing network to the
ooer ztercial sowings of collective and state Perms. Conditions for Intro
during changes in potato varieties have also been created under the
second Five-Year Plan.
All varietal seed growing sowings are under the special control of
the 051 (Government Seed Inspection) which gives its approval to the
selected potato variety for field growing (examination of root). The
approval establishes the varietal purity-and health of plants, and if
the varietal mixture and the number of diseased plants do not exceed the
norms established by the standards established for seed potatoes (OST 4630),
these sowings are given an approval certificate which testifies to their
quality and suitability for seeding purposes. In order to identify the
varieties of potatoes most suitable for the different regions of the
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2iaksimovioh..:#i.
Problems of Potato Seed Growing.
country, a geographical testing is performed of the most potential varie-
ties of potatoes (about 200 varieties at 120 diverse points of the Union),*
As a result of this work the best varieties were established, i.e. those
most suitable for wide propagation within the boundaries of the .ifs. On
the basis of these varietal tests in different regions, the VNIISA has
worked out the following schft* of varietal regionalizing of potatoes in
the USSR (Table 3). (See photostatic illustration of this table, attached.)
In connection with the moment of potatoes to the extreme north the
question was raised of propagating potatoes from seeds, since the trans-
portation of tubers to these regions is extremely difficult. Tests of
growing potatoes from seeds are undertaken on a large seals. in different
border areas of the USSR.- It is planned to grow potatoes from see 4s on a
plot of 1000 hectares in 1934.
End of article.
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Veselovekii, I. (Professor) D6
Potatoes in the Altai Territory
Sovkhoz. Proizvod. 6(2/3):$0.
Feb./Mar. 1946. 20 3065 Translated from the Russian
by S. N. Monson
In organizing seed growing of potatoes in any area of our country, the
ocol.of;ioal conditions of tho_gsrrt o b: rt a e aave_tra_be 1ways borne in~.
min_ Under these conditions potatoes are healthiest, i.e., free from die-
ease, degeneration, and from so-called virus diseases. Generally speaking,
moisture is a primary prerequisite for highest possible yield. Highest
yields of potatoes were obtained on irrigated (?) ("polivnykh") lands
(Arne rioa) .
111neral substances (potassium, phosphorus, sodium), as basio fortilisers
and additional feeding are best absorbed by the plant when moisture is
present. It is known that at a temperature of 29?C., the transfer of plastic
substance from leaves into the tuber is delayed and that at high temperatures
it stops altogether.
The Altai Territory is extremely varied climatically. Meteorological
data has established that the regions provided with the highest degree of
moisture are Oirotia (to 900 mm.) end Slisk (to 400 mm.). Kulundinakii
region has from 160-200 ism, of precipitation.
Oirotia is a high mountain region. The railroad network is but lightly
developed, and the introduction of potato culture consequently restricted,
particularly with respect to transport. In addition, potatoes freeze even
as late as the end of June in the high mountains of the region. Earliest /
varieties of potatoes have to be moved here to take advantage of the brief
vegetative frost-free period and prove productive under the circumstances.
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Voselovskii ... Potatoes
in the Altai ,. a rritory
Vernalization will equally be of considerable aid to the artificial
lengthening of the vegetative period, since it will permit the tuber to
begin its life course no lass than one month prior to planting and the
transplanting of potatoes ton days before the last front.
k region is particularly favorable for potato growing because
of Its high precipitation, fertile sails and regular relief. Among the beat
locations in the Biisk region are the fields distributed close to the swain
crater line of the river Obi. In the future it will be easy to move varieties
of potatoes dove this navigable river in exchange for oonrnon local varieties,
ording to data furnished by the nest-Siberian Vegetable I:xperi ont
Station and the Pushkin Agricultural Institute in the Paviovek region of
the Altai Territory, the best canker-resistant potato varieties are
BERLICHIU EN and of the earlier - COBBLER. Considerable attention should
be devoted to the introduction of carer-resistant potato varieties to
the tsltai Territory.
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Zaitseva, N. 1. (Y\
Starting Material for Potato Selection.
Selek. i Semen. 17(7):3l-S7. July 1950.
61.9Se5
Translated from the Russian by
S. N. Monson
The manifold and responsible tasks that confront us in potato selection
demand the widest study and utilization of starting material, not only of
cultivated but also wild potato forms. Our selectors have already succeeded
in obtaining new valuable potato varieties and seedlings by hybridizing culti-
vated varieties with wild and primitive species (institute of Potato Industry,
VIR, eta.). Bel= is given a description of some species of potatoes. which may
prove useful in selection work when dealing with starting material of diverse
species. The enormously rich data obtained from the collection of potato apecias
gathered by S. V. Bukasov and S. V. Yuzepchuk served as a basis for the above
According to the system introduced by Eukasov, the section Tuberarium, to
which potatoes belong, is subdivided into the following froupsa Cormersoniana,
Cuneolata, Tuberosa, Articola, Aceulia, Andreana, Conieibeocata, Lignicaulia,
Juglandifolia, Deem icsa, Longipedicellata, Cardiophylla, Bulbokastana, Oxycarpa,
Polyadenid, Pinnatisecta, Borealia.
Of greatest significance for selection are the groups: Tuberosa, Cemissa
and Acaulia. To cultivated species of Tuberose belong: S. tuberosum, S. andigenum
Jut. at Buk., S. pureja Jut. at Buk., S. Pybinii Jut. at Buk. and others. To the
wild species of Tuberosa belong: S. araco papa, S. leptostigma, S. molinee, and
others. S. leptostivna and S. molinae are closest to S. tuberosum.
,Among other groups of greatest significance are the species: S. demissum
Lindl, S. semidemissum Jut., S. punae, S. depexsum Sohreiteri, S. Jenesii Tor,
and several others.
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Zaitseva - 2 -
Vithin the limits of the group Tuberosa only S. tuberoscm forms tubers well
on a normal day. The remaining species of tuberosa, as well as the rest of the
species enumerated above, produce tubers under our conditions only in a short
day (8 to 10 hours), a circumstance closely connected with the history of their
origin.
Close to 3,000 selected European and North American varieties belong to the
species of S. tuberosum. Selected varieties possess many valuable economic
characteristics. In some instances their yields produce 128 tons per hectare
and their starch content amounts to 28 per cent and over. The production of inter-
species hybrids of high yields is therefore hardly possible without the participa-
tion of selected varieties.
Satisfactory results were obtained also with regard to tests on early matur-
ing, resistance to various diseases, canker in particular.
There are indications in literature that the varieties Chippeva, Katahdin
and i:!essaba are resistant to individual viruses, the variety Phytophthora-
Resistant and others to phytophthora, the varieties Lorkh and Wohltman to ring
rot. There are varieties which combine resistance to canker and phytophthora,
such as the hybrids Camerasu. To S. tuberosum belong also the large number of
diverse forms, imported by the members of the Expedition of the All-Union Insti-
tute Plant Industry (VIP) from Chile, South America. This collection, judging
from its description in literature and our oin observations possesses a group of
forms which are very close to selected varieties, such as f. roseum (close to
Early Rose), f. palmeta (Up-to-dato); corailla (Sossis(?) rouge). In their total
mass they are distinguished from selected varieties by the considerable variega-
tion of their tubers, lower yields, low contents of starch and poorer keeping
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quality. The yield per clump is somewhat smaller than in cultivated varieties,
although the yield of several forms reached 2.0 kg. per clump in some years.
Several forms of S. tuberosum from Chile possess very valuable qualities.
Thus, according to data provided by P. A. 8ovikov, Elegans latum, Villa royal,
8855 ohilotauum, indianum 881, caballera 8911, Liza 8901 withstand dry soil
and the influence of high temperatures.
Of 24 tested Chile specimens, 22 proved resistant to canker, among them
Chilotanum (8829, 8832, 8835), Viride, etc. When artificially infected with
ring rot and black lei; severe symptoms of infection ware observed.
S. andigenum Yuz et Bak., as does S. tuberosun, is represented by a large
diversity of species and forms (hundreds of varieties, according to S. M.
6ukaeov). Its characteristics distinguishing it from S. tuberosum consist in%
the stem usually lying during blooming, almost all leaves provided with axil
runners; internodee arc elongated; leaves erect, sparsely placed, their spines
almost straight, leaf lobes narrow. Peduncle is frequently widened into a
lightly fluted base of the calyx; the anthers ill developed, the majority of
forms produce berries; S. andigen
has good tuber formation on a short day but
several fors, an indicated above, form tubers without shade; stolons are mostly
long. The average yield per clump during a long day is approximately 80 g.
Individual forms, however, produce good yields, such as K-40, variety calvacia
(1886), variety longibaccatum (1433). The starch content in tubers of this
species is 8-24.6 per cent; the percentage of albumen varies from 1.4 (Mexican
chalcoence) and others to 5,0 per cent (variety lataeungense, etc.). As indicated
by G. Kovalenko and I. A. Veselovskii, crossings with S. andigenum produce in the
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progeny seedlings of excellent yields, starchy tubers; they clearly prove the
best components for purposes of obtaining high yields because of the ease with
mhich they cross with G. tuberosum. This species matures later than S. tuberosum,
is distinguished by considerably later sprouting,-budding and dying of the foliage,
and also has a much lengthier period of dormancy. The latter quality may prove
valuable in the selection of varieties which do not grow in hot weather (see
table).
Dying of Foliage from
day of planting
Sprouts
in days
Madding in days 115 days
150 days
Korenevo
Rostov
on Don
1orenevo
Rostov
on Don
orenevo
]Rostov
on icon
Tuberosum
(14 selected
varieties)
14.0
' 20.0
36.0
43.6
75% *
55%
Andigenum
(14 forms)
19.4
28.2
47.0
66.5
28.5
32.1
*This data _appiies only'tp two selected varieties.
The resistance to onn er is observed in the majority of tested forms of
S. digenum, ouoi as Tarmense v. latiue (8112), var. tenue (8121), ibag (8289),
etc. According to the data obtained from an analysis concerning 41 forms, only
two forms proved non-resistant, Lima and Liliacinoflorum.
S. DL*3ISSU 1 LI9DL is represented by many forms. Its characteristics are a
clump of rosette shape, a thin layer of downward lobes and a lightly pubescent
leaf with truncated end. The recept ?le is short; the lower part of the pedunolc
shorter than the upper; calyx smal. with abort sharpened lobes; corolla small,
blue-violet, unevenly colored, more so on the outside; anthers small, orange, on
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Zaitseva .. 5
long threads. Fruiting abundant, berries more frequently elongated.
Tubers white or white-blue, smooth, small, on very long stolons. Their
yield produces 3-60 Z. per clump; starch content 9 to 20 per cent; albumen
2.5 to 6 per cent. S. demissum Lindl is relatively resistant to frost.
lany forms are resistant to phytophthora; tlapechualcoense Buk. (024, 029,
022/01), xitlense (09), tilmoren (0249/056, 037, 0245/S-9, 0232/S-4).
Seedlings obtained from the above forma are also resistant in their progeny.
The forms xitlcnse (010, 063) and the glaxpexualcoense Duk. (014,
023) are resistant to phytophthora but their progeny succumbs to the dis-
eases There are forms resistant to phytophthora of which the progeny has
not been studied: tlaxpeohualcoense (022/8-6, 026, 030, 0222/012, 0223/S-5)
and demissum (0250/028, 0220/010, 0241/S-1, 0248/S-9, 0233/8-91). This
species is easily crossed with selected varieties and used for the production
of phytophthora- and frost-resistant hybrids. The Institute of Plant
Industry possesses many hybrids which when artificially infected over a
period of three years did not produce symptoms of the disease.
Aside from that, the species is resistant to the Colorado beetle,
not affected by wrinkled mosaic but is susceptible to mottling. When in-
fected artificially by black leg and ring rot symptoms of the disease were
observed.
S. SEMIDEVI8SUJ, JUZ. Tall clump, pipented stem; the morphological
characteristics of leaf resemble that of S. demissum. Receptacle, peduncle
and calyx strongly pubescent and pigmented, corolla dark blue-violet,
strongly pubescent on the outside; anthers orange, small, pistil protruding.
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Under conditions of a moderate zone this species does not produce berries but
at Pamir berries were obtained from it through cross pollination and crossings
with cultivated varieties. Tubers white with blue shading, large, peeling;
yield per clump 6 to 20 g.; starch content to 24 per cent, albumen 6.8 per
cent. The species is frost-resistant, not affected by phytophthora. Many
hybrids obtained from crossings with the variety Snysloveki (A. S. yilippov)
did not get infected.or were lightly infected by phytophthora. S. semidemissum
Jua. Is susceptible to mottling; when artificially infected with black leg
it proved resistant.
S. CUTTILODUH JUZ. LT DIM has a rosette-shaped clump, strongly pubescent
leaf with pronounced veining and very lightly serrated. Corolla large, blue-
violet; occasionally produces berries. Tubers white with blue spots and smooth
skin; yield per clump about 50 g.; starch content 14 to 24 per cent, albumen
3.7 per cent. Resistant to drought and frost. Tinder severe northern eondi-
tions produces frost-resistance hybrids in its progeny but in the Leningrad
oblast its frost resistance is not high. This species, according to Kovalenko,
produces from crossings hybrids of high starch content in its progeny which
cross well with cultivated varieties; non-resistant to phytopbthora and wrinkled
S. PUM JUZ. has a rosette-shaped clump, small-leaves, sparcely placed,
downward directed lobes with truncated ends. Peduncle colored, its lower
part very long, upper short; calyx deep, green with short, sharp tips; corolla
small, blue, with very short, strongly pubescent tips. Anthers yellow, small
on long threads; stigma very largo. Produces berries in abundance. Tubers
white, round, small. Species is most resistant to frost, standing temperatures
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Zaitseva ? 7 -
to 80. Crosses with difficulty but lately, aside fron the hybrid of Blagovidova,
the Institute of Potato Induotry'has obtained by the mentor method a group of
vegetative hybrids by utilizing the mentor of cultivated varieties which produce
seedlings that are resistant to frosts in the progeny.
Non-resistant to phytophthora and lightly affected by mottling.
The species S. A TIPOVTCIU2, according to 8ukasov, is resistant to phytoph-
thora under field conditions; according to the data provided by IKK8, the forms
of Antipovichii album coloratura (471/1214b) and others are severely affected by
phytophthora. In artificial infection with black leg and ring rot a large part
of tested forms is severely affected.
The form I 0-AMIPIPOVICHII (0272, 0276/018) did not show symptoms of infec-
tion by phytophthora when infected artificially but proved susceptible to mottling
and spider-web tick. 'i'orphologically this form is distinguished by its white
corolla and lobes of leaves with sharply extended tips. Berries drop easily.
Of poor keoping quality.
S. AT}iTOPOVICHII variety lartineoii is non-resistant to pbytophthora but
resistant to canker. S. L!OLINAP has a tall clump, vigorous, strongly leafed
with .pigmented stem. Leaves are very large, lightly serrated; lobes wide, wavy
margins, very long petioles; receptacle tall with light green peduncles, corolla
blue with wide white stripes, very large; anthers orange, very large; on long
yellow threads. Abundant bloom, occasionally form berries; tubers blue, smooth,
long; yield per clump 30 to 390 g., starch content 13 to 19 per cent, albumen
3.5 to 4.8 per cent. Species is resistant to drought and canker, non-resistant
to phytophthora, mottling and leaf roll. When artificially infected with black
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leg and ring rot was severely affected.
S. LEFT 0STICi'A has tall ;ride clump; stem pigmented; leaves very long,
strongly serrated; lobes narrow, sparsely placed; margins wavy; receptacle strongly
developed, occasionally has upper leaflets; buds green calyx has narrow sharp tips;
corolla white, not large, strongly stretched tips, occasionally double-petalled;
anther4 yellow, of regular shape; pistil very long; ovary round; forms berries;
tubers rose or whitem smooth, lone, many eyes; yield per oluirp 30-220 g.; starch
content 12 to 20.6 per cent; albumen 1.6 to 2.6 per cent; resistant to drought,
non-resistant to phytophthora, mottling and leaf roll. Men artificially in-
fected with black leg and ring rot in affected by them.
S. C0117!ERSOUTI TJUIN. has green stem of sharp pigmentation in the leaf axils.
Leaves lightly serrated, wide lobes on long stems. !nfloreeseence not forked,
receptacle tall, calyx'has short, sharp tips; corolla star-shaped, white with blue
star; anther threads are long; stigma long; berries long, flat. Tubers stark
white, smooth with numerous eyes; yield per clump 15 to 100 g.; starch content
13 to 19 per cent; albumen S.7 per cent; crosses with difficulty with selected
varieties; resistant to Colorado beetle; some forms resistant to frost and canker.
S. CTISWCAJflI'' JUZ. ST BUK. Stem green, brightly colored in azils; leaves
smell, light green, with strongly sharpened tips; wide end lobe, serrated; lobes
sparsely placed on long stems; corolla large, dark blue-violet; anthers small, on
thin threads; stigma large; fruiting has not been observed under our conditions;
at Pamir, however, has fruited, but the percentage of germinated seeds was small.
Tubers on short stolons variegated, light blue, colored eyes on surface; yield
per clump 20 to 60 g.; starch content 9 to 11 per cent; short dormancy period;
early maturing; affected by phytophthora and wrinkled mosaic.
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S. JrUPCZUKII JUZ. ET BTl7;. Clump rosette-shaped, peduncle of not clearly
defined joints; calyx reCular, small, corolla blue-violet, resembles u. demissum,
small anthers on thin threads; no berry formation; tubers small, yellow, oval,
smooth, colored eyes on surface; yield per clump 10 to 100 g.; starch content 8
to 16 per cent; crosses with difficulty with selected varieties; resistant to
frost.
S. A0LJCH03T10 A. Stew green, leafed, narrow ribs and sharp pigmentation
in axils; leaves large, long; lobes narrow on long steps with wavy margins; one
to two pairs of small lobes; receptacle tall, at place of junction of podunole
a ring of pigment; corolla white, star-shaped; anther threads very long; stigma
double-bladed; at Pamir this species formed berries; tubers oval, white-blue,
spotted; eyes not deep; yield per clump to 250 g.; starch content to 19 per cent;
albumen front 2 to 3 per cent; very poor keeping quality; resistant to drought
and Colorado beetle; non-resistant to phytophthora and diseases of degeneration;
affected by mottling; most resistant of all species to verticillium. Teen
artificially infected with black leg and ring rot shovmd no symptoms of these
diseases; very poor keeping quality.
S. PUREJA JTJZ. ET BUN. Tall clump, lying, strongly branched; pigmented
atom; leaf lobes narrow, small lobes round; Stem of leaf, receptacle and peduncle
pigmented; corolla of peculiar regular blue-violet coloring, tips pubescent inside;
calyx fluted. Anthers orange, threads very long and thin; berries form seldom by
self-pollination; tubers elongated, variegated coloring, from blue to white spots
to beet red, numerous eyes, deep and colored; yield per clump 20 to 100 g, on a
long day; starch content low, 7 to 12 per cent; albumen 3.2 to 5.3 per cent;
good keeping quality in majority of forms, but several forma showed losses of 16
per cent; early maturing; non-resistant to drought, frost, phytophthora; severely
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Zai tseva -10 -
affected by wrinkled mosaic; majority of fornne resistant to canker when
artificially infected with black leg and ring rot, the forms 8072 and 8096 did
not show symptoms of the diseases.
S. 5'TF1:4'TO:UZ! JE1Z.ET BIM. Stem thin, pigmented, small leaves, strongly
serrated with small, narrow, sparsely placed lobes on long atoms; corolla light
red-violet, calyx has long sharp tips; tubers bright red and blue, numerous
deep eyes; yield per clump varies from lr to 100 g.; starch content 8.3 to 20
per cent; albumen 2 to 4 per cent; fdountain hydrophyte. Resistance to canker
has not been sufficiently studied; severely affected by phytophthora, and
r
S. CALIF I:SE J4'Z. ET BU1. Stem croon; leaves have pronounced veining and
are lightly serrated; margins of leaf lobes regular; corolla white, with short
blunt tips, on peduncle a ring of pigent; anthers re;;ular, yellow, threads
short; produce" berries; tubers yellow with rod eyes; yield per clump 20 to
254 g.; starch content 10 to 11 per cent; albumen 1.4 to 2.0 per cent. No
indication of being affected by wrinkled mosaic; non-resistant to phytophthora;
very lightly affected by mottling and spider-web tick; when artificially in-
fected by ring rot and black leg proved affected under observation.
S. RYBINII JUE. FT BT?. 1ulti-stemmed clump; stem lightly pigmented;
leaves light green with characteristic veining; end lobe of leaf is considerably
larger than side lobes, lobes of first and second pairs run downward; receptacle
not tall, on peduncle ring of pigment; podunole and calyx colored; corolla
white, not large, with short, blunt tips; anthers of regular shape, yellow; bass
of anthers has sharp cut-out; ntemcfpistil straight; stigma lightly protruding;
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Zaitseva - 11 -
berries seldom formed; tubers white, round, small, have short period of dormancy;
yield per clump to 300 g.; starch content 13 to 15 per cent; albumen to 3.2 per
cent; poor keeping quality; non-resistant to drought, frost, phytophthora;
severely infected by ring rot in artificial infection. No wrinkled mosaic ob-
served, nor was infection of black leg noted when artificially infected; used
in the production of early varieties in the south.
S. BOYACEIISP. JUZ. ET BIIK. Stem weakly pigmented; leaf lobes round, sharp
veining, light serration; first pair of lobes runs downward; distinguished from
8. Rybinii (Bukasov) by larger serration of loaf, longer tips of calyx and red-
violet corolla; berries form seldom; tubers rose, smooth, large; yield per clump
averages 50 g.; starch content l5 per cent; albumen 0.5 to 2.8 percent; poor
keeping quality; early maturing species of brief dormancy; non-resistant to
frost, drought and phytophthora; affected by mottling.
S. ET.SSF;L BREt:t RIX JUL ET BU)S. Leaves have very small, sharp veining,
shiny, lightly serrated; corolla red-violet, evenly colored; bloom abundant;
tubers bright red or white with red spots; small, of smooth skin, numerous eyes;
yield per clump 70 g.; starch content 10 to 15 per cent; albumen 1.7 to 4 per
cent; early maturing; non-resistant to phytophthora, affected by mottling and
leaf roll; strongly affected by spider-web tick; when artificially infected by
ring rot and black log no symptoms observed.
S. rnw.AScVII JIZ. Tubers white, round, small; yield per clump about 10 g.;
starch content 14 per cent; forms berries; crosses with cultivated varieties; re-
sistant to frost; affected by mottling and leaf roll; supposed to be resistant
to canker and scab.
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8, JA TSII TOR. Stem green, sharp pi aentation in axils of leaves; leaves
small with downward running lobes; calyx has lore, sharp tips; corolla white,
star-shaped, blue on the outside; pistil very long (double the sire of anthers);
stigma needle-shaped, ovary elongated; authors of regular shape, yellow on long
threads; berries infrequent; tubers white, smooth, oval, small; yielr:, per clump
2 to 120 g.; starch content 12-16 per vent; albumen 4.2 per cent; species 1.s
resistant to canker and Colorado beetle; no sy=0toms of degeneration were observed;
when artificially Infected .th ring, rot and black log no sy rntoms observed; non-
resistant to phytophthora.
institute of Potato industry of
RSFSR
3-5-51
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Gera, A. P.
Potato Varieties for Penza Oblast.
Sad I Ogorod 1948(8):70-72. Aug. 1948. 80 Sa15
Translated from the Russian by
S. 11. Monson
In 19.39 the following potato varieties were regionalized for the pent&
Oblast on the basin of data obtained from the Anuohin Experiment Station, the
Petroveki Government Selection Station and the Grabovskii Distilling Platt.
They mere the basic varieties Lorkh, Early Pose, Snezhisks P?t= ii
Yubileiny (Jpbilee), Epicure, and the temporarily admissible varieties Wohltman
and Smyslovski. In 1945 approved plantings of varietal potatoes, both standard
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and permissible, occupied 2.320 hectares or 97 per cent of the plots devoted
to varietal potatoes of a total area of 2.390 hectares. Of these, Lorkh, Fart sr. A. albus Casp., etc. The hars dons by
this disease (of w atever form) consists in the change of consistency of
root which hardens. It has been also established that roots infest d
contain a high amount of harmful nitrogen. The disease is spread through
infested root-seed materiel, other root crops susc:eptib'l.s to the disease,
and also potato tubers. Damping off of beets also contribute to the
development of the disease, as do excessive moisture of the soil and alkaline
reaction of soil. Control masursst end initial soil treatment and
cultivating bitween rows-(to aid aeration); introduction into the soil of
potassium cyanamide