THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF ATOMIC ENERGY VOL. 9 NO. 3

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• Document Release Date: February 14, 2013
• Sequence Number: 3
• Publication Date: September 1, 1961
• Content Type: REPORT

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Volume 9, No. 3
September, 1961
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF.
N
CONSULTANTS BUREAU
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Geophysical An important new sert . es published in cooperation with the
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal'
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief )
B. V. Semenov
V. I. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian.Original dated September, -1960)
Vol. 9, No. 3
September, 1961
CONTENTS
RUSS.
PAGE PAGE
Instruments for Measuring the Pressure, Flow, and Level of Fused Alkali Metals.
P. L. Kirillov, V. D. Kolesnikov, V. A. Kuznetsov, and N. M. Turchin. ........... 685 173
Pulse Method of Measuring Neutron Age in Graphite. Z. Dlouzy ................... 694 182
High-Frequency Storage of a Beam in Cyclical Accelerators. A. N. Lebedev .......... 701 189
Relaxation of Elastic Stresses under the Action of Neutron Irradiation. S. T. Konobeevskii... 707 194
Principles of Classification of Industrial Uranium Ores. P. V. Pribytkov .:............ 715 201
The Use of Flotation in the Purification of Radioactive Effluents. S. A. Voznesenskii,
G. A. Sereda, L. I. Baskov, E. V. Tkachenko, and V. G. Bagretsov .............. 727 208
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
The y -Ray Spectrum of the TVR Reactor. N. A. Burgov, G. V. Danilyan, I. Ya. Korol'kov,
and F. Shterba .................... ......................... 733 214
Finding the Space-Energy Distribution of Neutrons from a Plane Source in an Infinite Medium.
A. R. Ptitsyn ................................................ . 738 216
A Simple Multichannel Pulse-Height Analyzer. V. F. Mikhailov ................... 742 217
Investigation of the Systems Al203-Sm203 and A1203-Gd2O3. S. G. Tresvyatskii,
V. I. Kushakovskii, and V. S. Belevantsev ............................. 744 219
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
All-Union Conference on the Assimilation of Radioactive Tracer Techniques and Nuclear
Radiation Applications in the National Economy of the USSR ................. 747 221
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes and Nuclear Radiations in Prospecting and Development of
Mineral Resources. F. A. Alekseev .................................. 748 222
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes and Nuclear Radiations in Metallurgy. P. L. Gruzin and
Yu..F. Babikova 750 223
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes in the Mining and Ore Processing Industry. M. L. Goi'din ... 753 225
The Use of Radioactive Isotopes and Nuclear Radiations in Construction Work.
A. I. Yakovlev ....................... . 755 227
The Use of Radioactive Isotopes in Light Industry. A. N. Slatinskii ............... . . 758 229
The Use of Radioactive Isotopes and Nuclear Radiations in Machine Design.
S. V. Rumyantsev ....... . . . ... . 761 231
Radioactive Isotopes and Nuclear Radiations in the Service of Agriculture.
V. M. Zezulinskii ....................................... .... 764 234
Radioactive Isotopes and Nuclear Radiations in the Food Processing Industry.
V. I. Rogachev ? ............................................. 767 235
The Use of Radioactive Isotopes and Nuclear Radiations in Medicine. F. M. Lyass . . .. . . . . . 771, 239
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Sources in Process Control. E. E. Kulish ................. 774' . 241
Annual subscription $ 75.00
? 1961 Consultants Bureau Enterprises,. Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York 11, N. Y.
Single issue
20.00
Note: The sale of photostatic copies of any portion of this copyright translation is expressly
Single article
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prohibited by the copyright owners.
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Brief Communications 775 242
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature............................ ..... ............. . .. 776 244
NOTE
The Table of Contents lists all material that appears in Atomnaya gnergiya. Those items that
originated in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brackets.
Whenever possible, the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given.
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INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE PRESSURE, FLOW,
AND LEVEL OF FUSED ALKALI METALS
P. L. Krillov, V. D. Kolesnikov, V. A. Kuznetsov,
and N. M,. Turchin
Translated from Atomnaya fnergiya, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 173-181, Sept., 1960
Original article submitted March 22, 1960
The article describes the design, principles of calculation,and operating experience for in-
struments for measuring the pressure, flow,and level of molten metals. The instruments intended
for these purposes are used in reactors with molten metal heat-transfer agents.
Investigations carried out by the authors of the article have shown that the most reliable
instruments, simple in design and fairly accurate for practical use,are the double-bellows manom-
eter with an intermediate separating liquid, magnetic flow meter with a permanent magnet,
and ultrashort- wave and potentiometric level meters.
In developing methods for using sodium and alloys of sodium with potassium as heat-transfer agents, one
of the first problems was to design instruments to measure the pressure, flow,and level of the molten metals.
Similar instruments developed for water and gases could not be used because,in the first place,these instruments
use materials which are subject to corrosion in these molten metals (brass, tine, etc.) and, in the second place,
because of the high melting point of the metal, which requires special devices to heat the detector of the in-
strument. The purity of the molten- metal is very important for the operation of these instruments. The oxides
contained in sodium and alloys of sodium with potassium collect in the cold parts of the loop of the instruments;
therefore long pipes cannot be used between the place where the pressure is read and the detector. Gas and
vacuum pipes, having their open ends over the hot surface of the metal, can be choked by condensed metal.
At the present time there is very little literature on these instruments. The most complete review of
them is in a manual on molten metals [1]. In [2] one chapter is devoted to instruments, Most of the methods
described in [1, 2] have not found sufficiently wide application in operation with molten metals due to the poor
degree of development and the low accuracy or because of the complexity and unreliability of these methods.
The present article describes the development and gives results for the operation of some instruments for instal-
lations in which molten alkali metals are used.
Manometers
One of the simplest methods of measuring the pressure of a molten metal is to connect an ordinary manom -
eter to a separating tank filled with an inert gas (Fig. 1). The disadvantages of this method are the necessity
for checking the level of the metal in the tank and the short life of the device due to the manometric type being
choked by condensed metal.
The pressure strain gage described in [2] is too complex for mass production and is not very reliable in
operation. The main faults in its operation are the change in properties of the gage wires and the weak fasten-
ing of the gages to the membrane.
The "Manometr" factory has designed an induction gage MMS-4 (Fig. 2). A membrane of special steel
is pressed between flanges. The bottom flange of the gage is welded directly to the tube of the loop. Due to
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Fig. 1. Diagram of the sep-
arating tank for measuring
pressure: 1) separating tank;
2) thermocouple; 3) level
indicator; 4) manometer.
Fig, 2. Membrane type pressure gage
with induction coils: 1) membrane; 2)
core; 3) induction coil; 4) rod; 5,6)
flanges; 7) connecting pipe for welding.
Fig. 3. Double-bellows manom-
eter.
the small distance from the main pipe this instrument
does not require special heating. These instruments
were used in loops with sodium at temperatures of up
to 450?C and pressures up to 10 atm. The weak spot in
the instrument is the membrane, which is not protected
from overloading and fails due to frequent water hammer
in the loop.
The double-bellows manometer (Fig. 3) is fairly
simple and reliable for experimental installations. All
components of the gage are made of 1Kh18N9T steel.
Under the pressure of metal entering the lower chamber 1,
the bellows is stretched and moves the rod 2. The move-
ment of the rod is transmitted to the bellows of the upper
chamber 3, filled with oil through a connecting pipe 4.
Compression of this bellows increases the pressure in the
upper chamber, which can be measured by an ordinary
manometer 5. The, latter should keep its working volume
unchanged, since otherwise there would be a large change
in the position of the bellows which would introduce
errors due to the rigidity of the bellows. The value of
this error is directly proportional to the ratio of the bel-
lows rigidity to. the area of its transverse cross section.
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10 A kg/cm
F' cm
Fig. 4. Change in calibration of the manometer
as a function of the ratio of bellows rigidity to
the area of its transverse cross section.
0 2 4 8 8 10
Readings of the test instrument, kg/cm2
Fig. 5. Calibration of double bellows manometers
for different rigidity of the bellows for the follow-
ing values of A/F (kg/cm3): 1) 10.7; 2) 3.6; 3)
1.25.
Three manometers with bellows of different rigidities
and different dimensions were tested in combination
with a specimen manometer,class 0.35. From the re-
sults of the tests a graph was plotted (Fig. 4) which
showed the displacement of the calibration of the in-
strument 6 in percentages for a pressure of 6 atm, de-
pending on the ratio of bellows rigidity to its area of
transverse cross section. It can be seen from the graph
that with a ratio A/F = 1.25 kg/cm3 the displacement
of the calibration is only 2.5%, which means that class
2.5' instruments can be used for technical purposes.
When designing these pressure gages special attention
should be paid to the temperature error of the instru-
ment. It is mainly due to two factors: in the first place,
expansion of the oil in the upper chamber and ,in the
second place.the different expansion of the rod and
coupling bolts. The first component of the temperature
error can be calculated from the formula
Opt = 2A T ' , (1) .
where A is the bellows rigidity (kg/cm); V is the vol-
ume of the upper chamber (cm3); 0 is the volumetric
coefficient of expansion of oil (1/?C); F is the. area of
transverse cross section of the bellows (cm2); 4t1 is the
difference in temperatures of the oil during operation
of the instrument and during filling of the chamber .(C.).
The second component of the temperature. error
is much less than the first and is calculated from the
formula .
AalAt.,
(2)
where a. is the linear coefficient of expansion of the rod
(1/?C); 1 is the length of.the rod (cm); Ott is the dif-:,
ference in temperatures of the rod and the connecting
bolts (?C).
The calculations and experiments show that it is
possible to make a design of this type which gives a
2.5-class gage. Typical calibrations of double-bellows
manometers are given in Fig. 5.
Attempts to use throttle valve flow meters with membrane induction differential manometers to measure
the flow of sodium were unsuccessful. The impulse piped of these differential manometers rapidly become
choked up with oxide during operation. Rotametric flow meters also failed rapidly due to the pipe with the
plunger choking up.
The magnetic flow meter was the simplest and most reliable. The principle of action of this instrument
is based on the measurement of the electromotive force which is induced during the movement of a molten
metal in a magnetic field. Figure 6 showsthe over-all view of this flow meter with a permanent magnet, de-
veloped for the main loop of the BR-5 nuclear reactor [3], cooled by liquid sodium.
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The electromotive force induced in the flow meter' is calculated from the equation
E - 0,1Bv dklk2k3,
where B is the induction between the poles of the magnet (gauss); v is the average speed of the metal in the pipe
(m/sec); dis the pipe diameter (m); kl is a coefficient which represents the shunting effect of the walls of the
pipe; k2 is a coefficient representing the limiting dimensions of the magnetic field; k3 is a coefficient represent-
ing the change in induction in the gap due to heating of the magnetic system
2D
-1 --- 1 d2 d2
{ D2~ pw C DZ J
k3 = i - am(t m- 20)
1-6,95.10-6 a (t m tb )
Where D is the outside diameterof the pipe; d is the inside diameter of the pipe; p 1, p w are the specific elec-
trical resistances of the molten metal and the walls of the pipe, respectively; ci is the temperature coefficient
for the change in induction; tm, tb are the temperatures of the poles of the magnet and base,respectively; a,
b are the lengths of the gap and armature,respectively.
Fig. 6. Magnetic flow meter for up to 200 m3/hr
of sodium.
The stability of the readings of the magnetic
flow meter is mainly determined by the quality of the
material of the magnet- its ability to retain its prop-
erties during a long period of time at high temperature.
We used magnico alloy. Figure 7 shows the tem-
perature dependence of the induction in the gap of a
magnet of this alloy from the data of two different in-
vestigations. The magnet was placed in a furnace so
that the temperature in all of its parts was the same.
Under working conditions the distribution of tempera-
ture throughout the magnet was uneven. At the poles,
which were placed near a pipe containing the molten
metals, the temperature of the magnet was higher.
Thus, with a temperature of the molten metal of 620?C,
the temperature on the surface of the pole facing the
pipe was 200-220?C and the temperature of the arma-
ture was 80?C. Since the average temperature of the
magnet was less than 200?C, the induction changed
very little and the coefficient k3 should be taken equal to unity. This was also confirmed by the calibration of
the flow meters (carried out at temperatures of 200 and 450?C) in which no temperature dependence was de-
tected.
Stabilization of operation of the magnets is very important. After assembling and magnetizing they were
demagnetized by 5-1010 and were heated at 300?C for 24 hr, after which 0.1 kg impacts on the magnet did not
cause any noticeable change in induction-
Observations were made on the change in calibration of all three flow meters (working with sodium) for
a year with an average sodium temperature of 400?C. The results of the observations showed that during the
first seven months the induction in the gap of the magnets decreased by 11c per month and in subsequent months
by 0.5t% and less.
When the liquid enters the magnetic field near its edges in a plane approximately perpendicular to the
field?currents are induced which distort the basic field of the magnet and lead to a reduction in the output signal.
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To allow for these edge effects Michel suggested the introduction of a coefficient k2, depending on the ratio of
the length of the pole shoe to the internal diameter of the pipe. Our experiments did not confirm the relation-
ship k2 = f (L/d); therefore,the influence of edge effects in a magnetic flow meter on its readings requires addi-
tional investigation.
In order to determine the effect of inaccuracy in welding the electrodes to the pipe, several pairs of elec-
trodes were welded around its periphery and on its generatrix (Fig. 8). The results of the measurements of the
electromotive force between the electrodes are as follows:
Electrodes
Difference in
potentials, my
1 - 1'
32.0
a - a'
34.5
a - 6'
33.5
a'- 6
34.0
6 - 6'
33.5
a'- 7
33.7
6' 7
33.0
2- 2'
34.5
3-3'
34.0
4- 4'
33.0
5- 5'
31.5
As shown by the results of the tests, on a 111 mm diameter pipe a displacement of the electrode by 10 mm
in the direction of movement of the metal does not change the readings of the instrument. Moving one of. the
electrodes along the periphery through 15? reduces the signal by less than 31o.
Fig. 7. Temperature dependence of the induction of magnico alloy.
Equation (3) only holds for symmetrical movement of the liquid. Local hydraulic resistances cause a dis-
turbance in the symmetry of the stream and can change the output signal in one direction or another, as shown
in [4]. In this work it was also shown that the flow meter should be placed at a distance of not less than 15
diameters of the pipefrom the local disturbance of the stream. We have observed that when the flow meter was
placed at a distance of seven diameters from a 90? bend of the pipe the signal, was reduced by 2651x.
In the initial period of operation of the magnetic flow meter,the output signal is weak due to the presence
of a contact electrical resistance and the absence of wetting on the internal surface of the pipe. With the pas-
sage of time and with increase in temperature the contact resistance of the sodium- stainless steel couple de-
creases and the readings of the- flow meter become stable. It can be seen from Fig. 9 that with increase in tem-
perature of the metal for an unchanged flow of heat-transfer agent in it,the readings of the two flow meters
change (El and E2). Therefore, before the start of measurements with the new instruments it is recommended
that the section of pipe with metal be heated for 1 hr up to a temperature of 300?C.
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Fig. 8. Diagram showing welding of electrodes to
the pipe.
through separating tanks. The measurements
- Figure 10 shows calibration characteristics of flow
meters designed for a flow Q of 10 and 200 ms/ hr of
sodium, constructed for the BR-5 reactor. The calibra-
tion of the first flow meter was carried out volumetric-
ally using a measuring tank with electrical contact
level indicators. The time for filling the tank was
measured with an electrical PV-52 stopwatch. The
induction in the gap of the magnet was 1800 gauss;
k2 = 0.865; k3 = 1. The flow meter for 200 m3/hr was
calibrated with a Venturi pipe using two differential
manometers of a different class of accuracy, connected
of induction in the gap of the magnet of this flow meter showed
its unevenness along the gap (Fig. 11). The calculation of the flow meter was carried out for the average in-
tegral induction
13= D S Bdl.
-d/2
With an average integral induction of 840 gauss its maximum value reached 950 gauss. It follows from Fig. 10
that the calculated characteristics of the flow meters coincide with the experimental characteristics if the values
of k2 and k3 are taken equal to unity.
t,?C
200
150
100
50
E,m
8
11 1 2 3 4 5 r, hr
Fig. 9. Changes in the readings of two magnetic flow
meters due to the presence of a contact electrical re-
sistance at the internal surface of the pipe.
The calibration of the magnetic flow meter can change due to precipitation of iron and nickel in the pipe
between the poles of the magnet. Figure 12 shows a photograph of a pipe of a 27 mm diameter magnetic flow
meter after 1000 hr of operation. Accumulations of, powder of ferromagnetic materials are clearly visible be-
tween the poles of the magnet. A reduction in the cross section led to an increase in the speed of the liquid
and increased the output signal by 12.5%n.
Operating experience on a large number of magnetic flow meters in loops using sodium and alloys of
sodium with potassium showed the high degree of reliability, satisfactory accuracy, and simplicity in servicing
of these flow meters. This means that magnetic flow meters can be recommended for use in industrial instal-
lations. As secondary instruments for the flow meters, satisfactory results have been obtained for the ordinary
laboratory-type potentiometers (PP and PPTN) and also switchboard potentiometers (EPV, EPP-09, PSR etc.).
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E,mv
20
+ a~
8 10 0
Q,m'3/hr
150 200
Q, m3/hr
Fig. 10. Calibration of magnetic flow meters. a) Flow of 10 ms/hr; b) a flow of 200 ms/ hr; o) t =160?C;
+ ) t = 245?C; A) t = 385?C.
Fig, 11. Distribution of induction in the gap of
the magnet.
Fig. 12. Deposit of powder of ferromag-
netic materials between the poles of the
of the magnet in a flow meter.
Level Gages
The simplest level indicator for a molten metal is a bar, insulated from and passing through the cover of
the tank containing the molten metal. The bar is sealed in by means of a gland. When the bar contacts the
metal surface it closes an electrical circuit and switches on an electrical lamp or ammeter. A serious fault of
this type of contact level gage is the short life of the insulator. Vapors of sodium or potassium condense on the
surface of the insulator,which is usually at a lower temperature than the metal in the tank,and the level gage
gradually fails.
Tests have been carried out on level gages based on the change in resistance of the electrical circuit with
change in the level of the metal. Increasing the level of the metal closed a part of the resistance submerged
in the tank. By measuring the resistance of the circuit one can determine the level of the metal. The circuit
of the instrument is fairly simple. The main.fault of this level gage is instability of the readings caused by a
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L----------J
L
Fig. 13. Circuit of potentiometer level gage.
EA
E
Fig. 14. Design of pick-
up for potentiometer level
gage.
film of molten metal which remains when the metal
is drained. The resistance of the contact depends to
a large extent on the contamination by the oxides of
sodium or alloy of sodium with potassium. These gages
can only operate when using metal freed from oxides.
A radioactive level gage gives a continuous con-
tactless measurement of the level. At the present
time Soviet factories are producing the UR-4 instru-
ments covering level changes up to 2 m and diameter
of capacity of up to 1.5 m. In this instrument compari-
sons are made of streams of Co" y -rays, passing above
and below the level of separation of gas and liquid.
This level gage can be successfully used in the labora-
tory and industrial installations. The drawbacks of the
instrument are the large measuring columns and the
fact that it cannot be used during operation with a
radioactive molten metal.
The ultrashort-wave level gage has no moving
parts in the detector. Its principle of action is in the
reflection of ultrashort electromagnetic waves from
the surface of the liquid and the formation of standing
waves in a coaxial cable. The detector of the instru-
ment is a continuation of the coaxial cable and is a
metal pipe lowered into the molten metal. In the
center of the pipe there is an insulated bar. The posi-
tion of minimum in the standing wave in the cable is
measured by the autocompensation method. This in-
strument can operate for a long time when the tem-
perature of the molten metal does not exceed 200-
250?C. At higher temperatures, due to condensation.
of sodium vapors on the insulator, normal operation of
the instrument is disrupted.
If a thin-walled metal tube is lowered into the
molten metal and a current is passed through it, the
drop in voltage at the section of the tube below the
level of the metal will be much less than in the section
above the level of metal. A follow-up system can be
developed which will automatically determine the
place of sharp change in the voltage gradient along the
tube. V. D. Kolesnikov suggested a level gage based
on this principle and called it a potentiometric level
gage. The detector of the level gage (Fig. 13) is a
thin-walled tube 1, fed with low-voltage alternating
current from a transformer 2. Within the tube of the
pickup and uniformly soldered along its length were
wires connecting the pickup with a tapped resistor
(rheochord) 3 of the secondary instrument. The distri-
bution of potentials on this rheochord will correspond to the distribution of potentials on the measuring tube.
The signal is taken by two sliders of a moving carriage 4. The rheochord and two identical resistances Rl and
R2 form a bridge circuit. With change in level of the molten metal there is a change in the voltage between
the points a and b (point b corresponds to the offtake, above the level of the molten metal), which causes an
unbalanced signal fed in the corresponding phase at;the output of amplifier 6. This makes the servomotor 5
move the carriage 4 along the rheochord 3 in the direction of decrease in unbalance. The detector (Fig. 14)
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is in the form of a thin-walled tube of stainless steel 1, inside which discs 2- are soldered at equal distances, and
also a bush 3. From the discs and bush,wires are taken out to the plug 6. The upper end of the tube 1 is soldered
to the adaptor 5, the height, of which is chosen so that the two upper sections of the tube 1 are always above the
level of the metal. The level gage is connected to the tank by means of the flange 4. The secondary instru-
ment for the level gage can be any automatic bridge or, potentiometer which permits a change in design of the
measuring part, consisting of a rheochord, two sliders on a moving carriage,and two constant resistances. The
rheochord has 1400 turns of manganin wire in enamel insulation with tappings every 200 turns. The linearity
of the instrument scale.is ensured by even distances between the sliders and between the tappings from the rheo-
chord.
Tests on the potentiometric level gage were made on a eutectic alloy of sodium and potassium at tem-
peratures of 200, 300,and 450?C. For test purposes a feeler was placed on the flange of the gage under test.
During the tests the relationships were obtained between the readings of the level gage and the readings of the
inspection feeler with change in the molten metal level. The stability of the readings was checked overa long
period of time at a ,given level. The tests showed that change in temperature over a wide range does not affect
the instrument readings. The content of oxygen in the alloy of sodium with potassium reached 0.1 weightlo,
also having no effect on the characteristics of the instrument. During prolonged operation with molten metal
containing a large quantity of oxides floating on the surface, the oxides adhere to the tube of the gage and may
cause incorrect readings.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Molten Metal Heat-Transfer Agents, edited by A. E. Sheindlina [Russian translation] (IL, Moscow, 1958).
2. S. S. Kutateladze et al., Molten Metal Heat-Transfer Agents [in Russian] (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1958).
3. A. I. Leipunskii, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Energy, Geneva, 1958 (United Nations, New York, 1960).
4. J. Shercliff, J. Scient. Instrum. 32, 11, 441 (1955).
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PULSE METHOD OF MEASURING NEUTRON AGE IN GRAPHITE*
Z. Diouzy
Institute of Nuclear Problems, Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences, Prague
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 182-188, Sept., 1960
Original article submitted December 12, 1959
Using a pulse source located within a prism, the age of thermal neutrons from the reactions
D-D and D-T in graphite was measured. From the time dependence of the thermal neutron den-
sity the author calculated the effective age of D7 D neutrons Teff = 355 ? 9 cm2, recalculated
for a graphite density equal to 1.6 g/cm3,
The slowing down of D-T neutrons in graphite can be approximately expressed with the
aid of two neutron groups: neutrons suffering but one inelastic collision when slowed down
(reff = 600 cm2), and neutrons suffering several inelastic collisions (reff = 240 cm2). In deter-
mining the age r the relative contributions of both groups were assumed equal to 0.65 and 0.25,
respectively. A third group is composed of neutrons slowed down only by means of elastic col-
lisions. These neutrons may be neglected in the first approximation, since their contribution is
small (about 0,1), while the increase is large.
Introduction
The mean-square distance of neutrons from the source in the slowing-down process plays an important
role in the analysis and construction of nuclear reactors. Since the spatial distribution of retarded neutrons is
determined by their symbolic age, measurements of the age and diffusion coefficient D would be of significant
value. -
In the design of reactors for measuring neutron age it is necessary in most instances to make use of a -cotl-
stant source, which is emitting fission neutrons, while the spatial distribution of the retarded neutrons must be
determined by means of resonance detectors (e.g., an indium detector having resonance at an energy of 1.44 ev).
In the analysis of a reactor with thermal neutrons it appears possible to obtain better results by making use of
the value of the age up to thermal energy. The age before thermal energy is clearly determined by measuring
the area of migration and calculating from this the square of the diffusion length. It can be measured if we
make an appreciable reduction in the effect of diffusion by 'poisoning' the medium with an absorbing substance;
Such a complex method introduces a certain indeterminateness into the measurement.
It should be borne in mind that the mean lifetime of neutrons in a uranium-graphite reactor (about 1000
psec) is not very great in comparison with the time required to slow them down and to establish an equilibrium
thermal velocity spectrum. A direct determination of the dependence of symbolic age on time is possible by
the method of a pulse source. The advantage of this method lies in the fact that it permits us to obtain detailed
information concerning the behavior of the neutrons during the interval starting with slowing down and up to
the point of steady-state thermal diffusion. Consequently, it becomes possible to observe the gradual transition
of thermal neutrons from retardation diffusion during a time interval of significant duration. The intent of the
present paper is thus to measure the values of the age and diffusion coefficient in a retarder by means of a pulse
neutron source placed in a ,prism [1]. The experiment was set up so provide for maximum approach to the ideal
case of a point source of manoenergetic neutrons in a medium extending infinitely in one direction.
* This work was carried out at the P. N. Lebedev Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
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Theory
In measuring the age of neutrons obtained from a pulse source, two methods can be used. One method
is described in M. where the age of neutrons in water is determined from the dependence of the initial thermal
neutron density on a- geometric factor characteristic of the retarder. The dimensions of the retarder were chosen
such that after sufficiently large times only the first harmonic of the neutron density distribution function would
be significant. The advantage of this method lies in the fact that it requires the application of comparatively-
small amounts of retarding substance. It cannot, however, give precise information on the diffusion of neutrons
in the Initial instants of time, since the presence of higher harmonics cloud the diffusion picture. Therefore,
as in the constant source method, this method makes it difficult to obtain information on the transition of slow-
ing down to the thermal diffusion process. Another method, which was used in [1). stipulates the application of
an infinitely long prism for the purpose of measurement. In the center of the prism is brought about a burst of
fast monoenergetic neutrons, which then are slowed down and diffuse inside the prism. This method was applied
in our measurements.
The prism was a rectangular parallelepiped with cross section boco. In order to ensure an infinite system
(along the x axis), it was necessary to make use of a prism whose length ao was at least four to six times greater
than the diffusion length L.
Applying the Fermi age theory, it is not too difficult to obtain the following expression for the density
of slow neutrons n(x, Y. z, t) created by the pulsed point source of fast monoenergetic neutrons:
n (.x, y, z, t) = coast 1 e a~ (t)
li(t)
(D (y, z, t) e T~, (1)
where Tc is the mean lifetime of the neutrons in the retarder as determined by absorption; -r(t) is the so-called
general neutron age.
The factor 4) (y, z, t) does not depend on the coordinate x. After measuring the neutron density at the
points (xi, y, z) and (x2, y, z) for a specified time t, we obtain the expression in [11 from Eq. (1) for the gen-
eralized age:
xz-xi
T (t) 41n n (x1, y, z, t)
n (x2, y, z, t)
. In the derivation of Eq. (2) no restrictions had to be imposed on the time. This expression remains valid
for any time, the only condition being applicability of the age equation.
The generalized age can be written in the form
t
z (t) = S D (t) dt.
0
If the neutrons enter into thermal equilibrium with the medium, the diffusion coefficient D(t) must arrive at a
constant value DT, and for large times the age may be written in the form
y (t) _ Teff + D,rt.
Consequently, the dependence of generalized age on time for large times becomes linear. Extrapolation of this
line to t = 0 gives the effective value of the age. Application of the effective age makes it possible to utilize
an ordinary approximation scheme, in which the slowing-down process is assumed instantaneous, and the diffu-
sion coefficient is equal to DT and does not depend on time.
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Description of the Apparatus
To measure the age and diffusion coefficient, a graphite prism was made up with the dimensions 330 x
x 120 x 70 cm (Fig. 1). The mean density of the graphite was 1.67 g/cm3.
The prism was placed in the center of the room; its axis was oriented horizontally. The distance from the
surface of the prism to the walls was greater than 180 cm, that from the floor was 100 cm. The prism was set
on metal and wood supports and was covered over with a layer of cadmium sheeting with a thickness of 1 mm,
for the purpose of eliminating any influence of thermal neutrons scattered outside the prism.
In the center of the prism was a neutron source, a zirconium-tritium or zirconium- deuterium target, on
which was aimed a deuteron beam. The deuterons were accelerated in a high-voltage ion tube at the Physics
Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR with a constant voltage of 240 kv. In order to get the neutron
source inside the prism, a vertical canal 40 cm long was made in the graphite, and into this was snugly fitted
the brass tube of the target (diameter 2.8 cm, wall thickness 0.8 mm). The target was situated between two
fluoroplast rings.
To obtain a modulated beam, a pulse voltage of 0.8-1,2 kv,5 ?sec in duration,and with a repetition rate
of 62-625 cps,was applied to the anode of a Penning-type ion source. The duration of the deuteron current into
the target. within the pulse amounted to about 8 ?sec.
Fig. 1. Geometry of the graphite prism: 1) neu-
tron source (target of the accelerator tube); 2)
position of counter used to measure thermal neu-
tron density; 3) monitors.
The deuteron beam was deflected in its path in
a magnetic field, making possible the application of
a pure beam of atomic ions for the reaction on the tar-
get. Here the mean ion current on a 10 mm target
was 1.5 ?a. Since the mean current on the target was
weak, water cooling was not necessary (the presence
of water would introduce an additional error into the
measurements), which permitted the small target di-
mensions to be retained. The neutron yield was meas-
ured by means of two boron counters (monitors) placed
in the graphite and a single proportional counter, which
recorded a particles from the D-T reaction.
In order to ensure good resolution and not to
greatly disrupt the homogeneity of the irradiated me-
dium, a special small-scale boron proportional counter
with a diameter of 10 mm and lengthof 100 mm, contained in an aluminum tube, was used. After introduction
of the counter into the graphite prism the density of one of the graphite bricks was reduced by 0.816. The dis-
tances from the target at which the neutron density was measured were equal to 15, 35, 55, 75, and 95 cm. The
counter was introduced into the. horizontal canals so that its axis would be perpendicular to the direction toward
the source. The canals in which a neutron counter was not placed were filled with graphite rods. The indeter-
minateness in position of the counter in the x and z coordinates was less than 0.1 cm, in they coordinate it was
about ? 0.2 cm.
The pulses from the counter were amplified by wideband amplifiers and were transmitted to a 100 channel
time analyzer developed by I. V. Shtranikh and L. A. Matalin-Slutskii, having a regulatable wide channel (1-
80 ?sec), where they time-analyzed delays relative to the neutron burst. The principal circuit of this arrange-
ment is similar to the one described in [1]. From a'quartz supply generator pulses were delivered to a divider,
then to the pulse-forming circuit. From here the identical pulses were sent out through two cathode followers
for regulating the neutron burst and triggering the analyzer.
Results of the Measurements
The age of D-D neutrons before thermal energy was calculated from Eq. (2). To do this,the dependence
of the thermal neutron density on time was calculated at equal distances from the fast neutron source. Since
the thermal neutron density is expressed by Eq. (1), the form of the curves depends on time and distance from
the source.
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r(t , cm2
1400 ti~S~,c 1 z't), cm2
1200 .C?'- os 500
1000
800
NO-10-5 cm 2 /sec
4,5
4,0
3,5
The time dependence of the age, calculated according
to Eq. (2) from the experimental data, is shown in Fig. 2.
The initial part of the curve r (t) is shown separately on a
larger scale on the right side in Fig. 2. From the figure
it is evident that the curve r(t) at first makes a steep as-
cent, then asymptotically approaches a straight line. From
the equation D = dr/dt it follows that the diffusion coef-
ficient falls off with time, approaching a, constant value.
This constant value is attained after approximately t =
0 1000 ?sec, where DT = (2.03 + 0.08) ? 105 cm2 ? sec-1
2,0
18
D, 2,03-f0-
400 f zeff
600
Fig. 2. Time dependence of the age of D-D neutrons. The
curve is seen to drop below the extrapolated straight line due
to an increase in diffusion coefficient D(t) for small times.
The age was measured at distances of 15, 35, and 55 cm from
the sources.
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 t, 11sec
Fig. 3. Time dependence of the diffu-
sion coefficient. D2(t) approaches D T
exponentially with a relaxation time
of tS = 195 ? 35 ?sec.
(the time dependence of the diffusion coefficient is shown
in Fig. 3). Recalculating it for graphite with a density of
1.6 g /cm3, we obtain DT = (2.12 + 0.08) ? 105 cm2 ? sec-1.
It is impossible to determine the diffusion coeffici-
ent from the curve of Fig. 2 with any great accuracy be-
cause the statistical error, which is small for small times,
increases very rapidly, and for 4 msec even it attains 5-
101o. Our results may therefore be assumed satisfactory.
Extrapolation of the age curves to t = 0 gives a value
of r eff = 325 ? 8 cm2, which corresponds to a value r eff =
= 355 ? 9 cm2 with a graphite density of 1.6 g/cm3. Measurement of the age of D-T neutrons is a more com-
plex process than for D-D neutrons. For small times the age curves (Fig. 4), calculated according to Eq. (2)
from measurements at various point pairs situated at nonidentical distances from the source, do not coincide
with one another. It is therefore not possible to describe uniquely the process of slowing down by means of age
alone. A more detailed analysis of the slowing down of D-T neutrons is given below.
Discussion of the Results of Measurements with D-D Neutrons
The processes of retardation and diffusion of neutrons may be conditionally separated into three intervals.
In the first interval corresponding to comparatively high neutron energies (i.e., to small slowing-down
times), slowing down occurs in the free nuclei. The mean logarithmic energy decrement for one collision does
not depend on the energy. In this energy interval and for retarders of not very low atomic weight, the age of
monoenergetic neutrons with an initial energy E0 which are slowed down to an energy E is determined by the
expression
w
X, (E) dE
S 3~(I-cos6) E
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(t),cm2
1200
1100
7000
900
800
700
500
500
400
4000 t, ?sec
Fig. 4. Time dependence of the age of D- T neutrons.
represents the results of measurements at distances of 15
and 35 cm from the source, standing in good agreement
with curve 1, which was calculated for these distances tak-
ing into account the two groups of neutrons with ages rl
and -r2; ? represents points and the analytic curve 2 for
distances of 15 and 95 cm; x for the points and analytic
curve 3 for distances of 75 and 95 cm.
where Xs is the mean free path, cos 9 is the mean cosine of the scattering angle in the laboratory system.
However, when the neutron temperature attains a value near the binding energy of the atoms in the crys-
talline lattice of the retarder (about 5kTo), it may be assumed that the neutrons have passed over into another
Interval. It is difficult to determine theoretically the influence of the binding energy of the atoms in the crys-
talline lattice of the retarder; but,if we remember that slowing down these atoms proceeds more slowly than the
slowing down of free atoms, the assumption may be made that in reality the age of the neutrons exceeds the
expected value [according to Eq. (4)], and pure diffusion of thermal neutrons sets in quite a bit later.
If we characterize the mean energy of neutrons not fully slowed down by the temperature T. then it may
be assumed [3] that dT/dt = - y (T - To), i.e., the rate of decay in temperature is proportional to the difference
between T and the temperature of the medium To. In this case the excess in temperature of the neutrons over
and above the temperature of the medium falls off exponentially as e'yt.. Here the diffusion coefficient tends
to DT, and the dependence of age on time becomes linear (third interval). The beginning of the curve in Fig. 2
yields the possibility of determining the coefficient y (see Fig, 3). since the square of the diffusion coefficient
is proportional to the instantaneous temperature of the neutrons (on the assumption that in the region from 1 ev
to thermal energies Xtr = const). From the experimental data it follows that the temperature of, the neutrons
T(t) approaches its equilibrium value exponentially with a relaxation time is = 1/y = 195? 35 ?sec, This result
agrees with the measurements made in [4, 5], where the process of the approach of the neutron temperature to
the equilibrium state was studied by passing neutrons through a silver filter.
In comparing our results with the experimental results obtained by the constant source method, the follow-
ing must be kept in mind. Data on the age of neutrons with an energy exceeding 0.1 ev, when this data is
gathered by means of various resonance detectors, must obey the dependence (4) which, if we represent it on
the time scale, will agree with the onset of the curve obtained.. But in determining the age of neutrons before
thermal energy is reached,the result of measuring [61 the migration area and afterward calculating the square
of the diffusion length turned out otherwise. The age thus measured is equal to the value that is obtained on
linear extrapolation of the corresponding part of the experimental curve for r (t) to zero time. In this way we
determine Teff- the true value of which for small times, obtained, for example, by measurements with reson-
ance detectors, lies below the extrapolated straight line.
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Consequently, T eff as found by measurement of the migration area, ought to be compared with the quant-
ity T eff as determined by the pulse method. It must be remembered, however, that extrapolation of T to t = 0
becomes unique only for the linear part of the time dependence of the age, i.e., for t > 1000 ?sec, when the
diffusion coefficient -is constant. Actually, in reactor physics a much smaller time plays the essential role, so
that the concept of TeffI strictly speaking, is not fully defined. Only measurements by the pulse method give
us the opportunity to follow the variation in true value of the age with time.
Measurement of the Age of D-T Neutrons
The value of the age of D-T neutrons we tried to calculate in the same manner as for the D-D neutrons.
It was noted above that for small times,calculation according to Eq. (2) does not yield a definite value for the
.age, in that the age curves are obtained differently depending on the distance from source at which the thermal
neutron density is measured. This is understandable, for the source of D-T neutrons emits 14.1 Mev neutrons
which can lose their energy not only as the result of elastic collisions, but of inelastic as well.
As we know, in slowing down 14.1 Mev neutrons in graphite three different processes can occur: 1) elastic
scattering C12 (n, n')Cs ; 2) inelastic scattering C6 (n, n')Cs m , Cs ., -. Cs + y ; 3) inelastic scattering Cs (n, n
3a. Both of the inelastic scattering processes strongly influence the magnitude of the age and complicate the
slowing-down process. The threshold of the process 2) lies in the energy region of 4.41 Mev [7], for the process
3) in the region of 7.7 Mev.
If we take into account the fact that in the slowing-down process not all of the neutrons undergo the same
number of inelastic processes,and the energy losses in the inelastic process 3) so far exceed the energy loss in
the inelastic process 2), then it becomes clear that for the exact description of the slowing-down of D-.T neu-
trons it is not possible to use only one age, rather it is necessary to consider at least two groups of neutrons,
assigning different ages to these.
In this case the density of thermal neutrons from the D-T source must obey the relation
2
a2
11 (.x J Z t) = const e L al e ,Z,ct (J, z, t) .+ 2 e it a),,g (J, Z., t), ,
where (D T' (y, z, t) are terms which do not depend on the coordinate x. It is evident that from Eq. (5) it is
impossible to obtain an expression similar to (3) for determining the age. It may be assumed that the age T1
determines the behavior of neutrons suffering but one inelastic collision in the course of slowing-down; then
the lower age r2 should,on the average.characterize the behavior of all the remaining singly inelastically
scattered neutrons. It is troublesome to segregate exactly into two such groups, but it is clear that at small
distances from the source the distribution of thermal neutrons in the initial period of time (up to 1000 psec)
must be determined primarily by the age r2, while at very large distances the age T1 plays the greater role.
This permits us to find approximate values for r1 and r2.
However, for a more precise determination of the ages T1 and T2 it is necessary to know the contribution
of the corresponding terms in (5), i.e., the ratio al(Prl(y,z)t/a241 r2(y,z)t. Since the terms ~Dr1(y,z,t) may be
assumed proportional to e- W2 T i, where W2 = r2 (1/If + 1/c2) (we take only the first term of the sum of har-
monics describing decay in the y and z directions), the main problem consists in determining at/a2 (b = bo +
+ 2.0.71'tr; c = co + 2.0.71 Xtr). We tried to determine the ratio al/a2 from the dependence of the effective
scattering cross sections of the processes 1), 2), 3) on the energy [8]. Since the dependence of these cross sec-
tions on energy and the inelastic scattering spectrum of the neutrons were not measured with sufficient accuracy,
the ratio a1/a2 can be determined with a relatively high error. If we make use of the approximate value at/a2 =
= 0.65/0.25 thus obtained, comparison of Eq. (5) and the measured age curves provides the opportunity for
approximately evaluating the value of the ages T1 and T2. The values rleff = 600 cm2 and T2eff = 240 cm2
thus found can only be treated as empirical constants. Qualitatively they correspond to the energies of the
groups of inelastically scattered neutrons that should appear upon scattering of 14.1 Mev neutrons in graphite
[ 9, 10].
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A more precise examination shows that, in addition to the two groups of neutrons with ages rr and r2,
another, third,term should be used in (5), this term describing a group of neutrons with age rs. This group should
determine the behavior of those neutrons which are slowed down only by elastic collisions. The age of these
neutrons is very great (r 3 - 900 cm2) and they are of no great significance, since their contribution comes to
only about 101o, and because of the large value of r3 the quantity 4 r g (y. z, t) is small. Therefore, it seemed
to us nearly sufficient to express the behavior of the neutrons in graphite from a D-T source by two ages.
In conclusion, the author expresses his gratitude to Corresponding Member of the Acad. of Sci. of the USSR
I. M. Frank for suggesting the research topic, for his steadfast interest in the work, and for valuable remarks dur-
ing the course of discussion.
1. I. M. Frank, Report of the FIAN SSSR [in Russian] (1955); Antonov et al., Proceedings of the First In-
ternational Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 1955, (United Nations,
New, York, 1956).
2. Romanna et al., Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy,
Geneva, 1955 (United Nations, New York, 1956).
3. G. Dardel, Trans. Roy. Inst. Technol. No. 75 (1954).
4. A. V. Antonov et al., Physics and Heat Technology of Reactors, supplement No. 1 to the journal
Atomnaya energiya [English translation] (Consultants Bureau, New York, 1959).
5. K. Beckurts, Nucl. Sci. and Eng. , No. 4 (1957).
6. Daggal and Martelli, Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Energy, Geneva, 1955 (United Nations, New York, 1956).
7. J. Anderson et al., Phys. Rev. 111, 572 (1958).
8. M. McGregor and R. Booth, Phys. Rev. 112, 486 (1958).
9. B. Whitemore, Phys. Rev. 92, 654 (1953).
10. E. Graves and L. Rosen, Phys. Rev.. 89, 343 (1953).
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HIGH-FREQUENCY STORAGE OF A BEAM
IN CYCLICAL ACCELERATORS*
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 189-193, Sept., 1960
Original article submitted February 10, 1960
In the theory of high-frequency storage of a beam in accelerators with a constant magnetic
field, it is important to take into account the disturbances of the already stored beam by succes-
sive cycles of acceleration. Such a disturbance leads, on the whole, to an increase in the energy
spread of the stored particles and to a change of their mean energy. The general formulation of
the problem and its solution for some special cases are presented in this article.
1. Equations of Motion
The change in energy of the particles is conveniently considered in the dimensionless variables
F (1.1)
_ 2nQ dE I q S2?12oeV I'~o
z eV Q(L')i 2n
where 11 (E) is the frequency of revolution of the particles of energy E; 1l' = d9/dE; q is the multiplicity; and
V Is the amplitude of the accelerating voltage. The subscript 0 refers to quantities corresponding to the storage
energy. We denote by cp the phase of the accelerating field of frequency w(t) in which the particle is traveling:
(p = 4Q - w (t). (1.2)
We assume that the energy of the particles in the stored beam differs little from the storage energy E?, i.e., it
is possible to make the linearization
Q (E) Q Qo'eV52o Z.
? -- 2nQ
Later on-it will be seen that this assumption holds for the great majority of particles. Furthermore, in the
neighborhood of the storage energy, let the frequency of the accelerating field change in accordance with a
linear law, increasing or decreasing with time.
Under the assumptions that have been made, the equations of motion have the simple form [1]
eH Q( . Z2
z=cos(p H= sin(p+ -TzCOS(ps;
_ Sta_ 8H do) 2n
() SZo I z - t COS (p3 = ~T ; COS (ps = dt (g12090'eV
? This work was performed in 1958.
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Here and in what follows we shall use as the independent variable the dimensionless time
T = Qt. (1.5)
The beginning of the time scale Is chosen is such a way that w (0) = quo.
It is seen from expressions (1.4) that the variables z and cp are canonically conjugate variables, which
permit us at once to draw some general conclusions on the behavior of the beam on the basis of Liouville's
theorem [1, 2]. In fact, as long as the frequency depends linearly on the time, there will exist on the phase
cylinder (z, cp) a region of closed phase trajectories (for I cos cps I < 1) traveling with a velocity equal to
cos cps. We denote the area of this stable region by S and assume that it is filled with accelerated particles of
mean density p. At the end of each storage cycle, the frequency rapidly returns to its initial value, so that
the particles remain close to the storage energy. According to Liouville's theorem, the mean density of the
stored beam in phase space cannot be greater than p , and therefore we obtain for its energy width the estimate
Sit
bnZ.> T't e
where n is the number of cycles of storage. Inequality (1.6) goes over into an equality only if the entire phase
space in the storage energy region is uniformly filled with particles of density p , or, as we shall express it, only
for a "dense arrangement" of the separatrices. A deviation from the equality is considered in the following
sections.
In what follows, we shall need the equation of the phase trajectories. From Eqs. (1.4) it follows that in
the canonical variables y = Ho/ I not z- rcos cps and cp we have
Y2 - 2 (sin (p - cp cos (ps) = const. (1.7)
2, Change in the Energy of Particles in One Storage Cycle
After one cycle of storage, all particles experience displacements of the z coordinates, where the value
of the displacement A depends on the final coordinate zf and on the phase 0 at which the particle should pass
the separatrix (at y= 0). At the point P the conditiongfl(z) = W(T) is fulfilled, after which the sign of ~ re-
verses, since c'(0) = 0.? It is readily noted that the quantity0 cannot take on any values in the interval 0- 27r.
This is demonstrated in the figure, where the rising separatrix and phase trajectories in the unstable region are
shown schematically. The region of values which can be taken on by 0 is shown shaded, and is bounded on one
side by the quantity 21r - cps, and on the other by the point cpt determined from the equation
sin IN - Ti cos tPs = - sin (Ps + tPs cos tPs. (2.1)
Using Eq. (1.7) we express the displacement of
the coordinate A as a function of the final phase of
and 0;
wf
- (' 2-'/2cosEd~
Q J [sin -sin V-(ir- P) COS +
cP i
Phase trajectories of stored beam particles.
+ 12112 cos ~ d~
[sin g-sin y~-(-) cosp,]'/E'
f
"Since for r = 0, the frequency can return to its initial value, not all particles pass through the phase 0.
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where the choice of the upper or lower value depends on whether or not the particle attains the phase 0. Since
at the initial instant the separatrix is far from the stored beam, the initial phase (pi in the lower limit of the
integral (2.2) can be replaced by - (for cos cps < 0, by +
In case the separatrix does not vanish when the storage energy is attained, but moves past the beam, ex-
pression (2.2) goes over into
o=o~=1~2 Cos ed%
[sin -sink- (-1p)cos '31/x
1
(Cos (P, < 0),
i.e., the quantity A turns out to be independent of z f.
We shall now find the probability that the phase trajectory moves past the separatrix at the phase /.?
For this, we shall consider the phase trajectories contained in the strip between two limiting trajectories passing
through singular points of the phase cylinder (indicated in the figure by thick lines). The vertical dimension
of this strip for large I (P I (at the beginning of the storage cycle) is
60z = 2tt cos q).3
z - t cos qa
Since the closed region of phase space for large I z - T cos ps I has practically no effect on the phase
trajectories in the neighborhood of the storage energy, it may be assumed that the density of the trajectories
is constant in the interval 6 0z, Therefore the probability that the phase trajectory passes through the interval
between.z and z + dz is
F (z) dz = dz
z
dz
- 2n
z-T. COS Ts
Cos Ws
It is readily noted, however, that some value of 0 corresponds to each point of the strip 6 0z; from relation (1.7)
we obtain
-r coscp,adz=I coscp,-CosVIdV.
(We note that for particles in the unstable region, it always follows that cos cps >< cos 0 for cos (P s >< 0),
From expressions (2.5) and (2.6) we find that the probability that a phase trajectory passes through point 0 is
different from zero in the interval ( q, 27r - cps) and
d cos (P, - cos
F (V) d 2n I Cos Ts
It is readily shown that this probability is normalized to' unity.
In what follows, we shall need the asymptotic expression for A at large values of 19f (..After simple cal-
culations, we obtain from Eq. (2.2) for cos cps >< 0
(2Ieos(p:,I]` 2 V '19f I
4O,) () [21 Cos q), 111/2 Il (i) ? _fl
depending on whether or not the particle passed through the phase 0.
? A similar treatment is given in [2].
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3. Equations for the Distribution Function for a Large Number of Storage Cycles
A general equation describing the variation of the distribution function is given by the difference equation
relating two successive cycles:
2n
P(z, n) = P(z - A, n -1)Fdp -aP(z, n-1)?(D (z).
0
In formula (3.1), the probability F(O) is given by expression (2.7), and 4)(z) describes the appearance of
new particles from the rising separatrices. If all the cycles are exactly the same, then (P(z) does not depend on
n. The quantity A should be expressed as a function of z and 0 (hereafter, we omit the subscripts). In the gen-
eral case of arbitrary z, this can, in principle, be done by expressing cp by means of Eq. (1.7) in terms of z and
cp and inserting the obtained value in Eq. (2.2). In some cases, one can simply use the asymptotic expressions
(2.8). This approach is justified by the fact that in practice it is necessary only that the spread does not exceed
some values much larger than unity.. In this connection, the behavior of the distribution function at small I z
is of no particular interest, and it is sufficient to know how the function P(z) behaves for I z I >> 1.
The quantity a in Eq. (3,1) describes the probability of beam losses during one cycle of acceleration due
to scattering on residual gas and other processes:
where T 0 is the mean lifetime of the beam, and T is the duration of one storage cycle.
The usual method of obtaining the Fokker-Plank differential equation from expression (3.1) is inexpedient
in the given case for a number of reasons. It will be seen later on that the basic features of the behavior of P(z)
can be obtained directly from Eq. (3.1).
4. Disturbance of the Beam by Traveling Separatrices
We shall first consider the behavior of the stored beam when the separatrices pass through the beam to-
ward infinity. It is physically obvious that the mean energy of the beam should then decrease with at the rate
S/21r T. In fact, each traveling separatrix decreases the area of the phase cylinder located under the beam by
the quantity S,equal to the mean energy of beam multiplied by 21r. When cos cps < 0, i.e., when the separa-
trix travels through the beam from top to bottom, it follows, for the same reason, that the mean energy of the
beam should increase.
The problem can be solved by means of Eq. (3.1), where, of course, we should set c1(z) = 0 and A _ A ,,.
The fact that the quantity A . does not depend on z considerably simplifies the problem and allows it to be
solved to the end.
Applying a Fourier transformation to Eq. (3.1), we obtain the solution in the form
P (z, n) _ c exp (i k z-n In [1-{-/ (X,)}} p (?) dk,
pQ)=2~ P
z, 0) elk-- dz,
We note that the spread S z - 1 corresponds approximately to the maximum amplitude of the phase oscilla-
tions.
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- PA-) F d*. (4.3)
The obtaining of numerical results from Eq. (4.1) requires cumbersome calculations. One can, however, draw
some conclusions as regards the asymptotic behavior of the. function P(z,n) for large n. To do this, we note
that the value of R( f) is always positive, and, generally speaking, of the order of unity. Calculatir}g the integral
(4.1) by the method of steepest descent, we obtain the asymptotic formula
P (z, n) N Noe-"
V 2nn (A.-AM)
exp -2 J
00 L 2n (A2 -0,)
(4.4)
where No is the total initial number of particles.
Hence, regardless of the initial distribution, the beam center at large n is displaced with a velocity Z /T.
The distribution then tends to a Gaussian one, where its dispersion increases in accordance with the law
D2 = (A0 - A,,) n.
Using formulas (2,2) and (2,7), we can show, by direct integration, that for cos cps >< 0, we have 0., _ T (S/2tr).
Thus the estimate made at the beginning of this section on the basis of Liouville's theorem is fully applicable
to the motion of the center of the beam. At the same time, the traveling separatrices "spread" the beam in
accordance with formula (4.5).
The obtained result permits one to estimate the disturbance of the stored beam caused by parasitic separa-
trices traveling through the beam in the case of multiple-cascade storage schemes, and also by separatrices
moving from top to bottom (in the case of an accelerator with a transition through the critical energy).
5. Energy Spread of the Stored Beam
We shall now consider the behavior of a beam approached from below by separatices filled with particles.
It is assumed that, upon reaching the energy E0, the separatrix vanishes and the particles inside the separatrix
infuse into the stored beam, after which the cycle is repeated.
We shall consider only the stationary state of the beam and not interest ourselves in the transient processes.
The initial equation is, of course.
2n
P(z)= P(z - A)Fdi-aP+ (z). (5.1)
0
As was mentioned in Sec. 3, the behavior of P(z) for large I z I is of greatest interest. Then, in Eq. (5,1), we
can set 1'(z) = 0, since, according to its physical sense, 4(z) drops to zero already for I z I 1. By using the
asymptotic formulas (2.8), for large positive z, we then obtain
P (z) =_ 0. (5.2)
The physical sense of this result is fully understandable if it is recalled that the separatrix approaches only the
storage energy,since the phase trajectories for z >> 1 are practically undisturbed and are close to the curve
z = const, This means that the energy of the particles does not change for large z, and since the source func-
tion is concentrated in the region of I z I .. 1, the particles cannot, in general, reach the region of large z. For
large negative values of z, past which the separatrices travel, the particles are in a different situation. In ana-
logy with the considerations in Sec. 4, one may expect that the particles will move downward with the velocity
0,"/T, and in the stationary state the lower boundary of the beam will have the value .?/a. This value is
also obtained if we employ Liouville's theorem and assume that the separatrices are "densely, arranged."
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We shall seek the solution for large negative z in the form
P (z) = const?e%1, (5.3)
where X > 0. Inser ting expression !5.3) into (5.1) and assuming that a 8,0 [1, 4].
Therefore, all further experiments were carried out at
a pH of formation of the precipitate greater than 8,0.
Naturally, Kf was then less than the maximum value.
It can be seen from the data of Fig, 4 that the
lower the concentration of precipitate in the suspen-
sion, the higher the value of Kf. This Is due to the
high moisture content of the hydroxide precipitated
from dilute solutions. The moisture content of the
precipitates after flotation is roughly the same; there-
fore Kf changes sharply with change in the concentra-
tion of precipitate in the suspension. Starting with a
concentration of 8 g/liter,further increase in the quant-
ity of ferric hydroxide does not lead to a reduction in
K f.
It was mentioned above that the addition of cer-
tain materials, for example, finely ground chalk or
marble, considerably accelerates the precipitation of
ferric hydroxide. A precipitate with lower water con-
tent is then obtained. The results of the experiments
(see Fig. 4) show that the addition of a small amount of calcium nitrate to the suspension increases Kf (curve 1).
This increase should be explained by the fact that at this concentration of Ca(N03)2.there is formation of CaCO3
precipitate due to the Co3- in the solution. The addition of a large amount of calcium nitrate does not lead to
an additional separation of calcium carbonate precipitate, and begins to act as a foreign electrolyte. Since in
this work we used water containing small amount of hardness salts and a large quantity of CO' 3ions, the addi-
tion of soda did not affect Kf (curve 2). It is probable that when working with hard waters containing small
amount of CO3- ions,the effect of soda and calcium nitrate will be the reverse.
The addition of Ca 2+ and CO3- ions of a definite concentration (in our experiments 10-50 mg per 100 mg
of Fe(OH)) also leads to an increase in Kf.
Figure 5 gives data showing the effect of various anions on the stability of the foam. These data agree
with results obtained by other workers [8, 10, 11]. The anions, having the capacity to foam solutions, stabilize
the foam. Among the anions which we studied, these properties are shown by Cl-, PO4 . and SiO3 . Special
mention should be made of the effect of Cl-, since it stabilizes the foam to a large extent. In the effluents.
it is therefore very undesirable to have large concentrations of Cl" and to use ferric chloride for coagulation.
During flotation, anions such as NO3 NO, S04" reduce the stability of the foam (after flotation the volume of foam
is sharply reduced). A similar effect on the foam stability is shown by the anions C03 , C 204-, Cr2O2 ; and Ac ,
although their effect is not as strong as N03 and SO4: The presence of these anions in effluents in quantities of
up to 2 g per 100 mg Fe(OH)3 does not change Kf. Furthermore, the presence of these anions accelerates the
reduction in volume of the gloated deposit, and consequently increases the output of the apparatus.
The experiments carried out on the flotation of ferric hydroxide precipitates on which various radioactive
elements had previously been sorbed (see Table 2) showed that during flotation there is no noticeable desorption
of radioactive elements. This indicates the very good reaction of radioactive elements with ferric hydroxide
and the formation, as shown by a number of workers [5, 6], of chemical compounds or solid solutions.
The results of the present work indicate that colloidal precipitates can be floated as well as crystalline
oxidized materials. For this purpose it is essential to select the correct material as the flotation reagent, it
might also be expected that the flotation capacity would be shown by other metal hydroxides (for example
aluminum) and also certain salts. In conclusion,it should be mentioned that the flotation of ferric hydroxide
precipitates obtained during the purification of radioactive effluents can become a promising method for re-
ducing the volume of precipitates,
Is.
2
3
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LITERATURE CITED
1. S. A. Voznesenskii et al., Proceedings on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Second International
Conference, Geneva; 1958; The Chemistry of Radioelements and Radiation Transformation [in
Russian] (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1959) p. 189;
2. R. Burns and M. Stedwell, Nucl. Eng. Sci. Conf. 3, 57-58, 11 (1957).
3. A. Wolman and A. Ghorman, J. Inst. Water Eng. 7, 4, 319 (1957).
4. V. V. Pushkarev, ZhNKh 1, 1, 170 (1956).
5. S. A. Vosnesenskii, V. V. Pushkarev, and V. F. Bagretsov, ZhNKh 3, 1, 235 (1958).
6. E. Horner and G. Sifrin, Eng. News Rec. 151, 6, 37 (1953).
7. Petrov Kerosene Product, GOST 463-453.
8. E. A. Filatova, Trudy Kharkov. politekhri. inst. No.8 (1956).
9. O. S. Bagdanov. Flotation (Problems in the Theory and Practice) [in Russian] (Metallurgizdat, Moscow,
1945).
10. W. Lockett, J. and Proc. Inst. Sewage Purific. No. 3, 225 (1956).
11. T. Nash, J. Appl. Chem. 7, 7, 392 (1957).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060003-5
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
THE y -RAY SPECTRUM OF THE TVR REACTOR
N. A. Burgov, G. V. Danilyan, I. Ya. Korol'kov,
and F. Shterba
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 214-215, Sept. , 1960
Original article submitted February 24, 1960
Using an 'elotron" type magnetic y spectrometer [1],measurements were made of the spectrum of y rays
leaving the radial channel of a TVR reactor [2]. Figure 1 shows the geometry of the experiment. In the active
zone 1 of the reactor,there is a special "pocket" to harden the neutron spectrum. Because of the pocket the
spectrum of the
Fig. 1. Geometry of experiment. 1) active zone; la)
uranium rod; 2) "pocket" and housing of reactor (alu-
minum); 3) stainless steel pipe; 4) graphite reflector;
5) concrete shield; 6) lead collimator; 7) neutron col-
limator and B4C filter; 8) neutron shield; 9) lead col-
limator; 10) water shield; 11) lead shield; 12) y
spectrometer.
nonattenuated y radiation of uranium 1a. The apparatus
spectrum less the background of random coinci-
dences, measured with a 1,251o resolution (for
Ey ? 2 Mev) is given in Fig. 2. Figure 3 shows
this spectrum with allowance for.the efficiency
of the instrument and the absorption of y quanta
in the neutron filter, reduced to the same ranges
of AH p . The relative intensity of the y lines
is plotted along the ordinate axis. For the un-
resolved part of the spectrum,v (E ) determines
the relative number of y quanta of given energy
per unit range of energy.
The results for the processing of the spec-
trum and the identification of the separate lines
are given in the table. The first column gives
the designation of the line used in Fig. 2, the
second column gives the values of energy for the
y line (the numbers in brackets indicate the error
in the last figures). The third column gives the
relative intensity of the y lines. The values of
energy and intensity of the y lines, which were
not determined sufficiently reliably, are given in
brackets. The error in determining the relative
intensity of a resolved line is about 10%.
The separate lines are identified from the data of [3] for the constructional elements of the reactor ,with
an allowance for the microscopic cross section and the absolute yield of -y quanta per capture. The last column
gives the elements radiating the given line and the designation of the line used in [3]. In those cases where
several elements may make a contribution to the y line, they are shown in the order of reducing contribution.
Forty of the 45 y lines within the limits of error of measurement can be ascribed to constructional elements
of the reactor. The contribution from iron to the intensity of the y line 33 cannot exceed 20%. The authors
of [4] observed a relatively intense y line with a close energy in the spectrum of aluminum, which was not
confirmed in [5]. According to the data of [6], the y line with an energy 4.062 ? 0.010 Mev and absolute in-
tensity 71a exists in the spectrum ofy rays of neutron capture in U238; this is not fully resolved and the
authors indicate the presence of a y line with a somewhat lower energy.
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I I I I
0 0
o h
Bc
f?
B
o -t
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r.v
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 E,, Mev
Fig. 3. Corrected apparatus spectrum of y rays of the TVR
reactor.
Consequently, y lines with energies of 4050 and 3987 Mev can be ascribed to UZ39. The evaluation of
absolute intensity does not contradict this assumption.
The bond energy of the last neutron in Lf39, determined on the basis of a study of the (d, p) reaction [7]
is 4.63 ? 0.15 Mev, which agrees very well with the value of energy for the y -line 25, equal to 4.640 f 0.015
Mev, The evaluation of the absolute intensity on the assumption that the radiator is 039 gives a value of 116
per capture. This does not contradict the data of [6] in which this line was not observed. As can be seen from
Fig. 3,a large part of the y -radiation spectrum of the reactor is not resolved and is apparently caused by y rays
of neutron capture in Uz35 and U233 and y rays of fission.
The integral intensities of the unresolved spectrum per unit of energy range (1 Mev) are as follows:
Ey . Mev
Sy (Ey) dEy , relative units
1-2
530
2-3
512
3-4
252
4-5
149
5-6
82
6-7
35
7-8
16
8-9
10
9-10
8
10-11
7
736
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Measured Spectrum of y . Rays of the TVR Reactor
Spectrum of reactor
S
pectrum of reactor
No.
Ey, Mev
Irel
Identification
No.
Lv, Mev
Irel
identification
1
9,334(5)
1,0
Fe, 1
24
4,670(15)
(4)
Al, 10
2
9,012(3)
4,7
Ni, 1
25
4,640(15)
(3)
-
3
8,919(15)
(1,2);
Cr, 2; Fe, 2
.26
.(4,57)
(1)
4
8,533(3)
2,5
Cr, 3; Ni, 2'
27
(4,46)
(3)
Al, 11
5
8,119(30)
(1)
Cr, 4; Ni,3,
28
(4,40)
(3)
Fe, 12
6
7,733(2)
28,0
Al, 1
29
4,325(15)
(2)
=
7
7,649(3)
22;6
Fe, 4
30
4,250(10)
(8)
Al, 12
8
7,275(5)
2,9
Fe, 5
31
4,202(15)
(3)
Fe, 13; Ni, 16
9
6,832(3)
1,9
Ni, 8
32
4,123(15)
(8)
Al, 13
10
6,760(30)
(1)
Al, 2
. 33
4,050(15)
(7)
U298 14]; Fe, 14;
AlM
11
6,404(30)
(1,7)
Fe, 6; Cr, 8
34
3,987(45)
(3)
U298 [4]
12
6,314(20)
(2)
Al, 3
35
3;887(14)
(5)
Al, 14
13
6,236(10)
5,4
D(n, y)T
36
3,839(14)
(5)
Fe, 15; Al, 15 (?)
14
6,095(15)
3,6
Al, 4; Cr, 9; Ni, 11
37
3,573(7)
6,5
Al, 16; Fe, 17
15
5,997(15)
4,9
Fe, 7; Cr, 10; Ni, 12
38
3,447(17)
(4)
Al, 17; Fe, 18
16
5,904(15)
." 4,7
Fe, 8; Al,. 5
39
3,029(6)
7;3
Al, 19; Cr, 17;
Ni, 20
17
5,796(30)
(0,9)
Ni, 13
40
2,953(10)
8,3
Al, 20
18
5,557(20)
(0,9)
Cr, 11; Fe, 9
41
2,205(3)
17
H(n, y)D
19
5,404(6)
2,8
Al, 6; Cr, 12
42
1,778(2)
43
A126. Si28
20
5,123(6)
3,4
Al, 7
43
1,594(10)
(10)
Fe, 27(?)
21
4,868(6)
4,1
Al, 8; Cr, 14
44
1,508(20)
(4)
Fe; 28(?)
22
4,788(30)
(1)
Fe, 11; Cr, 15
45
1,297(13)
(7)
Fe, 29(?)
23
/1,716(10)
6
Al, 9
Comparison of the obtained results with the data of [8] probably indicates the softening of the unresolved
spectrum of y rays as they pass through the graphite reflector of the IRT reactor, due to the repeated Compton
scattering.
In conclusion the authors would like to thank the operating personnel of the TVR reactor.
LITERATURE CITED
1. B. Dzhelepov. N. Zhukovskii, and Yu. Khol'pov. Izv. AN SSSR, set. fiz. 18, 5'.(1954).
2. A. 1. Alikhanov et al., Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Energy, Geneva, 1955 (United Nations, New York. 1956); V. V. Goncharov, S. A. Gavrilov, and G. N.
Karavaev, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Energy, Geneva, 1958 (United Nations, New York, 1960).
3. L. V. Groshev et al., X-Ray Spectra for the Radiation Capture of Thermal Neutrons [in Russian]
(Atomizdat, Moscow, 1958).
4. B. Kinsey, G. Bartholomew, and W. Walker, Phys. Rev. 83, 519 (1951).
5. L. V. Groshev et al.. Atomnaya energiya 3, 9, 187 (1957).?
6. P. Campion, J. Knowles, and G. Bartholomew, Can: J. Phys. 37, 377 (1959).
7. J. Harvey, Phys. Rev. 81, 353 (1951).
8. L. V. Groshev and A. M. Demidov, Atomnaya energiya 7, 3, 257 (1959).?
*Original Russian pagination. See C. B. translation.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060003-5
FINDING THE SPACE-ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OF NEUTRONS
FROM A PLANE SOURCE IN AN INFINITE MEDIUM
A. R. Ptitsyn
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 216-217, Sept., 1960
Original article submitted March '17, 1960
In [1] a method was developed for finding the density 0(x, u) and flux (p(x, u) of neutrons from the spatial
moments
~c co
4?n(u)= \ xn*(x,u).dx and. Wn(u)= xncp(x, u) dx
-11100 -00
of the functions 0 (x, u) and cp(x, u). It was shown that if the problem is symmetric relative to. the plane of the
source, then
'V (x, 0 e - -R Ixl Zi an (u) Un (~ I x 1);
n
(p (x, u) = V (yx) e-Y lxI ~i bn (u) V n (1+ I X 1),
_ 1)-
an= ~nv*2vY2v, nv= ((2v)l
bn.= T1nvP2v+,V2v -1, T!nv 2 (2v-l)1)1 Cn+l.
V=0
Un(x) and Vn(x) are polynomials defined by, the equations
U,, (- 1)n 8
(x) = 2nn~ C dx -1]
(n + j )! xj ;
j=0 1! (n-1)! 2%
Vn(x)=2(n-}-1) L ax
And the conjugate polynomials
n n
Un (x)= I tnvx2v + . Vn L+ (x)= 1J l ,1nvx2v+1
v=0 v=0
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e-IzIUn (x) Una (x) dx= ann~:
xe-I"lV, (x) Vn, (x) dx-8nn..
Since,in practice.a finite number of moments only can be found, it is necessary to be restricted by an
approximation, where the series in Eq. (1) contains a finite number of terms. In this case it is not possible to
ensure a specified accuracy.(at a given distance x0) for all values of the energy variable u, if we use parameters
8 and y that do not depend on u. One possible approach to finding 8 (u) and y (u) is proposed in the present
communication.
Since 0(x,u) is an even and cp(x,u) an odd function of x, for the function !U (x) only even moments will
have nonzero values, while for V,,(x) only odd.
Let us assume that N + 1 even moments of the function 0(x, u) are known. Then approximating the (N + 1)th
function 0(x, u) by the (N + 1)th term of the series (1) will yield
(N-l-i)(x, u)=Pe-~Ixl a,(u)U.@ I x0).
n=0
From the definition of spatial moment, N + 1 of the even moments of the function O (N +
value of 8 will coincide with the corresponding moments of the desired function ,b (x, u).
We now require that the function of the Nth approximation
N-i
.(N) (x, u) = Se-~ Ixi Y, an (u) U. @ I x l)
n=0
give the proper value for the (N + 1)th (even) moment; i.e.,
'2N) (N) = *2n (u),
from which follows an equation. for determining 8 (u). We want to write it in explicit form. Multiplying Eq. (7)
(N)
(~x)2N = T', 9NpUp Mr) , integrating it over all space, taking due account of Eq. (5), and equating '0'2N
p=0
according to Eq. (8) to .the exact value of 0 2N(u), we obtain
OD N-i N N-i
p2N*2N- e-Slxl.( I.a,U7(P xI)).CE 9NpUp@x) Yj an4Nn-
co n=0 p=0 n=0
Substituting. here the values of the coefficients an from (2), we find an Nth degree equation for 82(u)
N`- i
*2N (u) (N2)N L, AS,, (u) (R2)v,
v=0
n-i
AV (4)='P2N W 2
x, u) for any
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Values of the Neutron Spatial Distribution Function
-1g N (x)
X
from Eq. (13)
from [2]
0
1,10
1,05
1
1,08
1,06
2
1,10
1,09
4
1,21
1,24
5
1,31
1,34
10
2,11
2,10
15
3,03 . -
3,07
20
4,32
4,25
Of the N roots of this equation ,we select the required real positive root S o. The root 80(u) is then substituted
into the solution (6):
N
= Ro (u) a-f;o (u) 1XI Y a,, (u) U. [ Po(.u)IXI 1?
n=0
For y 2(u), which determines the neutron flux cp(x, u), as in Eq. (9), we obtain an Nth degree equation-
NI- ~~11f
W2N+1 (u) (y2)N= 1,~ By (u) (v2)v,
v-0
N\`-1
Bv(U)=T2v.Ft(u') Lj QNn1INv+
and pNn are coefficients of the expansion of x 2N + 1 into the polynomials V n(x):
N
x2N4-1 = Y, t?NT n"n+ (x).
n=0
In particular, when four (N + 1 = 4) spatial moments of the neutron density 'G(x, u) are known, Eq. (9) takes on
the form
*6 (u) (Y2)3-454)4 (u) (02)2 +540h2 (u) P2-720io (u)=0..
As an example of the application of the method described, we determine the density distribution of neutrons
in hydrogen from four moments, assuming the. range to be constant (X = 1), and compare the solution obtained
1) (x, u)= No (u) e-00(u) 1xI
E an (u) U. [Po (u) . 'x
n=O
with the exact solution of Wick [2], which was calculated for a value of the energy variable u 10.
Let us take the values of the moments from [3] for u = 0 and u = 10:
740
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*0(0)=1, i,2(0)=2!,'V4(0)=4!,1V6 (0)=6!, Vo(10)=1, V'2(10)=10,667,
4 *,(10)=65,578, bi *o (10)=278,44.
Then if u = 0. we have 0o (0) = 1, a0(0) al = a2 = as = 0, (x, 0) = i e l x l . It is easily seen that this
is the exact solution of the kinetic equation. If u = 10, then for 60 (10) and an(10), we obtain from Eqs. (2) and
(12) 60(10) = 0.351, a0 = 0.5, a1 = -.0.158, a2 = -0.318, as = -0.241. Substituting these values into Eq. (13),
we find 0 (x,10). A comparison of the results obtained with the solution of Wick is made in the table.
It is seen that four moments give an approximation of 0 (x, u) up to 20 times the mean free path.
1. L. Spencer and U. Fano, J. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 46, 446 (1951)..
2. G. Wick, Phys. Rev. 75, 738 (1949).
3. A. R. Ptitsyn, Collection: Neutron Physics [in Russian] (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1960) (in press).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060003-5
A SIMPLE MULTICHANNEL PULSE-HEIGHT ANALYZER
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 217-219, Sept., 1960
Original article submitted May 28, 1960
The great possibilities arising in connection with the use of pulse-height analyzers in experiments involv-
ing the study of the radiation spectra of radioactive substances are frequently not taken advantage of, owing to
the complexity of constructing analyzers in laboratory conditions. However, for the solution of many problems
whose scope is limited to the study of samples of weak activity, the analyzer circuit can be considerably simpli-
fied and made very stable.
Below, we shall discuss a circuit which, when connected to a recording potentiometer, gives good results.
Figure 1 shows the diagram of a circuit which shapes pulses of amplitude proportional to the amplitude of
an input pulse of given duration equal to the time interval between two operations of the printing device. It is
convenient to use with the analyzer a potentiometer of the EPP-09 type with a pen carriage and millivoltmeter
scale.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the pulse-shaping circuit.
A short pulse from the output of the amplifier is clipped by the diode discriminator Vt and fed to the con-
trol grid of the first cathode follower V2. At the output of this cathode follower, a pulse is formed proportional
in amplitude to the initial pulse, but with a longer trailing edge depending on the time constant RIC,. The
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3,0 second cathode follower V3 charges the 'memory? ,.1 1 u denser C 2 through a 6Kh2P diode (V4) to the height of
the pulse. The circuit output 1s obtained from the
11V 6Zh1P cathode follower, whose control grid draws prac-
tically no current. Owing to this arrangement, the
charge on the condenser C2 does not change, at least
2,2 not during the time necessary for the operation of the
^ 2,0 potentiometer printing mechanism (up to 12 sec).
1.8 From the cathode of V5 the pulse causes the tube
q 1,6
N
UA I I/ 1 11 1 1 1 II 11 1 The potentiometer R2 provides a negative bias
'41 1 memory condenser as .a result of the ac background
0,2 from the filament current of the tube.
0
1 I I I I" T I Potentiometer R3 is used as the zero adjustment
0,0 8 JO J2 J4 16 18 20 22
Channels of the potentiometer pen carriage. The paper record
chart can be divided into channels, as required. The
Fig. 2. Energy distribution curve for pulses from a deflection of the pen carriage to the right is propor-
particles from uranium isotopes. tional to the input pulse height.
The circuit has a linear amplitude characteristic
up to 100 volts at the input. The spread of a standard
pulse does not exceed 2 mm. The analyzer circuit is very stable for lengthy measurements; the zero line re-
mains practically in one place over several days. The difficulty in deciphering (visual reading of the points for
the channels) is compensated by the stable operation of the equipment and the clarity of the obtained data.
Figure 2 shows the channel (amplitude) distribution constructed by deciphering the record of pulses from a parti-
cles of uranium isotopes 034 and u238) obtained from a pulse ionization chamber.
The author expresses his sincere gratitude to E. M. Kolesnikov for aid in constructing the circuit.
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INVESTIGATION OF THE SYSTEMS A1203-Sm203
AND A1203-Gd203
S. G. Tresvyatskii, V. I. Kushakovskii,
and V. S. Belevantsev
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 2.19-220, Sept., 1960
Original article submitted March 24, 1960
The systems Al203-Sm2O3 and A1203-Gd2O3 have already been studied in preliminary fashion. For ex-
ample, in [1, 2] it was shown that in these systems the compounds SmA103 and GdAlO3, which have the perov-
skite structure, are formed. In [3] the probable fusibility diagrams of the indicated systems are given, the melt-
ing temperatures of the compounds formed in them are determined, experimental values are cited for the solidus
and liquidus temperatures in the interval 1700-1820?C. However, the solidus and liquidus temperature curves
in the interval 1820-2300?C are constructed provisorily in [3] and are plotted on broken-line diagrams, while
the melting temperature of the eutectic between Gd203 and GdA103 and its composition are not even prelimi-
narily evaluated.
The authors experimentally determined the solidus and liquidus temperatures in.the systems A1203 -
Sm203 and A12O3-Gd2O3 in the temperature interval 1700-2350?C by means of high-temperature thermal anal-
ysis, following the procedure of [4, 5]. Calibrated tungsten-molybdenum thermocouples were used: heating and
cooling curves were recorded with an electronic potentiometer. This made it possible to. construct the state
diagrams of these systems with a higher degree of accuracy and reliability than in [3].
For the initial materials we chose Sm2O3 and Gd203, containing more than 99.5% by weight of the base
component (the main impurities were other rare earth oxides), and A1203 of ChDA quality.
Chemical analysis showed that after thermoanalysis,the A12O3 in the alloys was less than in the correspond-
ing charge compositions of the mixtures. This difference increased with increasing A1203 in the charge com-
positions, but never exceeded 2-3 molecular percent in the region rich in A1203. In this connection, when de-
termining the solidus and liquidus temperatures no corrections were made for the evaporation of A1203 (because
of their insignificance).
It was established by thermal analysis that the eutectic from the A1203 side in the system A1203-Srn203
(Fig. 1) is melted at a temperature of 1770 ? 20?C and the system A1203-Gd2O3 (Fig. 2) at 17601 20?C. The
eutectic from the side of the rare earth oxide in the system A1203-Sm20s has a melting point of 1860 ? 20?C
and in the system Al203-Gd203 of 1930 ? 20?C. The compounds SmA1O3 and GdAlO3 are melted without de-
composing at practically the same temperature, equal to 2060 ? 20?C.
Investigations in reflected light of the microstructure of the alloys after thermoanalysis showed that in
alloys containing 0 - 20 mol. % of the rare earth oxide,the A1203 is initially crystallized, for 25 - 70 mol. %a
the compounds SmAlO3 or GdA1O3,correspondingly, and for 75- 100 mol. % Sm203 or Gd2O3.
On the basis of the studies of microstructure of the alloys,it may be assumed that their eutectics lie be-
tween compositions containing 20 and 25 mol. % rare earth oxide (low-melting eutectic), 70 and 75 mol. %
(high-melting eutectic).
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Fig. 1. Solidus and liquidus of the system A1203 -
Sm203.
Invariant Points in the Systems A1203-Sm2O3 and A12O3-Gd2O3 at Temperatures of 17009C and Above
Points
in
Figs.
1 and
2
Eutectic
Incongruent
melting
Eutectic
System A1203--Sm203
Al 2O;,-4-SmAl03
Sm A103
A12O3+GdA103
GdA103
Fig. 2. Solidus and liquidus of the system A1203-
G.9203.
Data of [3]
composition,
mol.~o
tempera-
ture, C
1720?20
19204-20
1.860?40
System A1203-Gd2O3
Eutectic 1740?20 80
Incongruent 1980?40 50
melting
Eutectic no data , no data
Data of present paper
composition,,
tempera-
ture, ?C
1770?20
2060?20
20 1760?20
50 2060?20
no ' 1930?20
data
77
50
77
50
The investigations of microstructure of specimens quenched from temperatures of 1700-1950?C revealed
that in specimens containing more than 1 viol. % of the rare earth oxide, as in the specimens containing less
than 99 mol. j o of the rare earth oxide, two phases are present, This indicates that in the systems A1203 -
Sm203 and A1203-Gd2O3,the oxides are not noticeably soluble in the solid state.
In the table are cited the invariant points in the systems Al2O3-Sm203 and Al2O3-Gd203, and these are
compared with the data of [3]. From the table it follows that our data at the points 1, 2, and 3 in the system
Al203-Sm203 coincide with the data of [3] regarding composition, but there is a discrepancy in the melting
points for the points.1 and 2. The values we determined for the temperatures at these points are higher by 50
and 140?C, respectively. In the system Al2O3-Gd2Os, a discrepancy is observed in the melting point for point 2.
The values we found are approximately 80?C higher in comparison with the data given in [3]. For point 3 of
this system,no data is given in [3] on either the composition or temperature. Our data for point 1 of the system
A1203-Gd203 is in satisfactory agreement with the data of [3] both in composition and in temperature.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060003-5
1.
M. Keith and R. Roy, Amer. Mineralogist 39, 1, 1 (1954).
2.
C. Curtis and J. Johnson, J. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 40, 1, 15 (1957).
3.
F. Aldred and A. White, Trans. Brit. Ceram. Soc. 58, 4, 199 (1959).
4.
P. P. Budnikov and S. G. Tresvyatskii, Ogneupory, No. 4, 167 (1955).
5.
S. G. Tresvyatskii, V. I. Kushakovskii, and V. S. Belevantsev, Ogneupory. No. 4, 180
(1960).
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NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON THE ASSIMILATION OF
RADIOACTIVE TRACER TECHNIQUES AND NUCLEAR
RADIATION APPLICATIONS IN THE NATIONAL
ECONOMY OF THE USSR
The All-Union Conference on the Assimilation of Radioactive Tracer Techniques and Nuclear Radiation
Applications in the National Economy of the USSR met in Riga, April 12 to 16, 1960, under the auspices of the
State Science and Technical Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. The State Committee of the
Council of Ministers of the USSR on uses of atomic. energy, the Academies of Sciences of the various republics
of the USSR, the State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR on Automation and Machine Design,
and the Council of Ministers of the Latvian SSR were co-sponsors.
The Conference was Inaugurated by J. V. Peive, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Latvian SSR.
Over 700 delegates were in attendance, these including representatives of the Council of Ministers of the
USSR and of the councils of ministers of the sister republics, chairman of state planning board, state committees,
Council of the National Economy, of factories and enterprises throughout the nation,. and of science research
institutes.
One-hundred and sixty-seven reports and communications were read. Panels were formed at the Conference
on prospecting and mining of minerals, metallurgy, mining and ore processing, construction and structural ma-
terials industry, light industry, machine design, radiation chemistry, chemical processing and petroleum process-
ing industries, agriculture, food industry, medicine, and instrumentation based on the use of radioactive sources.
Two plenary sessions were held, at which reports were presented on the status and perspectives of the assim-
ilation of radioactive techniques in the national economy (P. S. Savitskii, State Committee on Uses of Atomic
Energy attached to the Council of Ministers of the USSR), on experience accumulated in the adaptation of radio-
active tracer techniques in enterprises of the Latvian council of the national economy (G. I. Gaile, Latvian
council of the national economy), on the economics of radioactive isotope applications in industry (G. F. Mikheev,
Institute of Economics of the USSR Academy of Sciences), on the perspectives of the use of instruments using
radioactive sources for automating manufacturing processes in various branches of industry (V. S. Sokolov, State
Committee of the USSR Council of Ministers on Automation and Machine Design), on the perspectives of indus-
trial applications of radiation chemistry in the USSR and outside (V. L. Karplov, L. Ya. Karpov Physical Chemistry
Research Institute), on the status of and measures for enhancing safe working conditions where ionizing radiations
are being handled (P. I. Moiseitsev, Health Ministry of the USSR). on new industrial monitoring and measuring
instrumentation for work with radioactive isotopes (S. V. Mamikonyan, V. S. Zhirnov, State Committee of the
Council of Ministers of the USSR on Uses of Atomic Energy), and an informative report on the present order of
delivery and shipping of isotopes and on shielding techniques (I. I. Kolomytov, All-Union "Isotop? office).
The Riga Conference was the first large-scale gathering offering an exchange of experience on the assim-
ilation of tracer and nuclear radiation. techniques in the national economy. This also determined the composi-
tion of the participants of the Conference, the proceedings of which were contributed to predominantly by rep-
resentatives from factories, mills, and councils of national economy units. Reports by workers from research in-
stitutes and in-plant laboratories on work leading to and resulting in the assimilation of such techniques in in-
dustry were also heard.
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In the course of the Conference, the participants took advantage of the opportunity to become acquainted
with radioactive tracer applications in the industries of Riga.
Concrete measures for further expansion of the utilization of radioisotopes and nuclear radiations in Industry
were spelled out in the resolution adopted at the Conference. In particular, attention was focused on the improve-
ment of coordination of research work and on work geared toward assimilation of radioisotopes and radiations in
the national economy, on the intensification of scientific research work geared toward development of high pro-
ductive means of quality control and process control, expansion of the training of engineering and technician
cadres for research and engineering-drafting work on industrial uses of isotopes and radiations, as well as on the
operation of the related equipment.
Below, grouped under the proper headings, we survey the problems taken up in the various panel sessions.
The proceedings of the Conference will be published during 1960.
The Conference completed a program of intense and useful work and exchange of experience on the assim-
ilation of new and efficient techniques into mineral prospecting and exploration practice. The Conference also
heard extensive information submitted by representatives of research institutes, on new developments in this area
of work.
The reports delivered presented evidence that, as a result of the development of nuclear physics, atomic
industry, and measurement techniques, new geophysical methods in prospecting, exploration, and development
of mineral resources, based on the use of radioactive isotopes and nuclear radiations, have come to the fore and
have been firmly put into practice. The economic benefits resulting from the use of radioactive logging tech-
niques during 1959, at petroleum and coal fields alone, amounted to about 600 million rubles.
In the exploration of oil and gas fields, gamma logging and neutron-gamma logging methods are being
used to map rock strata and correlate borehole cross sections. The advantages of these techniques reside, as is
the case for other radiometric techniques when compared to electrical methods, in the possibility of studying
steel-cased boreholes.
Techniques of neutron-gamma logging, neutron-neutron logging, and induced activity have been success-
fully employed, under favorable conditions, in mapping the position of the oil-water contact surface in the proc-
ess of developing petroleum fields. In addition, the possibility of employing the method of induced activity to
monitor the flow of formation water was demonstrated.
Reports by representatives of the Tatar Council of the National Economy and of the Volga-Ural branch of
the All-Union Science Research Institute of Geophysics showed that neutron techniques are excellent tools for
monitoring the development of the nation's largest oil deposit, the Romashki field. Neutron techniques were
applied to the study of 229 oil wells in 1959.
The distribution of casing cement outside the casing string, following completion of oil wells, is being
monitored by gamma logging and gamma-gamma logging techniques.
Radioactive isotopes are being used in the exploration of petroleum and gas fields to determine the break
points of casing tubes, sites of water infiltration into cased holes, locating thief zones where drilling mud seeps
out of the well, monitoring the hydraulicking of oil beds. Most of these tasks resist solution by virtually all
other geophysical techniques, while the remainder are handled more readily, more precisely, more reliably, and
more economically by radiometry techniques.
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The depth of coal seams, their thickness, and their structure may be determined by combined gamma-
gamma logging and electrical logging in coal fields.
Coals of all stages of coal metamorphosis existing under varying geological conditions can be reliably
mapped by including gamma-gamma logging techniques in the repertory of logging research tools used to in-
vestigate coal fields. The sharply increasing efficiency of logging techniques has made it possible to formulate
rules for the use of logging data in calculating coal-in- place, and affords the possibility of greatly increasing
economic returns and quality of exploration work.
Gamma-gamma logging yields completely reliable results in tracing boron-bearing zones in borehole
cross sections, resulting in a sharp cut in the time required for sampling rock cuttings. Anomalies due to pres-
ence of water are eliminated by this technique, which provides a tentative estimate of the content of boron an-
hydride, within limits of 0.1-10.016.
Photoneutron logging is being employed with success in the exploration of beryllium deposits. Mapping
of ore zones in borehole sampling, with estimates of the quantitative beryllium content to within 0.01% accu-
racy. has become possible.
A highly interesting communication on the use of photoneutron logging for calculating beryllium reserves
must be noted.
Equipment for determining the content of boron and beryllium in samples has been developed and Is in
use, facilitating the processing of logging data and the reduction of the volume of chemical analyses required.
A method of selective gamma-gamma logging to delineate ore zones of relatively heavy elements (Fe,
Pb, W, Hg, etc.) to an accuracy of 0.2% has been tested and is in use. Use of this technique yields well-defined
anomalies for all conditional lead contents. Excellent agreement between selective gamma-gamma logging data
and results of sampling has been found for siderite ores.
Positive results were obtained in the adoption and assimilation on a production basis of neutron logging
and activation logging techniques applied to bauxite, manganese, and copper deposits.
The labeled-atom technique is being used in oil fields. In particular, an application has been found for
tritium as a monitor of water flow in oil seams, and in determining the hydrodynamic relations obtaining between
discrete oil strata.
At the Karabulak-Achikulak oil field, tritium has been successfully used to establish the hydrodynamic re-
lationship of two thick oil deposits lacking any direct communication, and the application was of great value in
finding out the best way of developing the entire oil reservoir.
An interesting report was made on methods and equipment for determining natural tritium. The high sensi-
tivity of natural tritium measurements made it possible to use this method for a broad range of applications going
beyond the solution of hydrogeological and hydrological tasks to the study of various geophysical media (motions
of atmospheric air masses, of water masses in oceans, etc.).
Opportunities for isotope and nuclear radiation applications are nowhere near exhausted by the techniques
known at present. For instance, highly promising results were obtained in 1959 by testing out pulsed neutron
techniques and borehole neutron generators. The use of neutron generators inside the borehole increased the
depth at which radiometry of the boreholes can be successfully pursued, thus assuring reliable monitoring of the
migration of water-oil and gas-fluid interfaces while the oil fields are being developed, including here the proc-
ess of removing salt from edgewater, and significantly widens the range of applications of neutron logging methods
in the exploration and development of mineral deposits.
An appreciable increase in the efficiency of radioactive logging used in studying the composition of rocks
and ore by elements is achieved, as has been demonstrated by some investigations, by gamma-ray spectrometry.
A new (x-ray) method has been developed for high-speed ultimate analysis of materials.
A high-efficiency neutron measuring equipment (the "Neitron" facility) has been designed for high-speed
ultimate analysis of boron, lithium, cadmium, and several other elements.
However, the report noted the fact that positive experience amassed in the assimilation of radiation and
tracer techniques in mineral prospecting practice has not been accompanied by anywhere near adequate
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exploitation of the possibilities inherent in radiometric techniques. The radiometric methods employed in oil
and gas fields have resulted in the successful solution of only a limited range of problems. Methods for sure de-
termination of porosity and petroleum saturation are yet to be worked out. In the exploration of ore deposits
and nonore minerals, methods of proved efficiency have yet to be integrated into standard practice.
In some coal fields where electrical logging methods are not sufficiently efficient, gamma-gamma logging
techniques have not.been included in the logging research program as yet. Work on analysis of the economic
efficiency of over-all geophysical research following the adoption of radiometric techniques is lagging.
The integration of the radiometric methods, whose efficiency has already been demonstrated, Into pros-
pecting, exploration, and development practice, and the full exploitation of the possibilities opened up by these
techniques constitute an unpostponable task of enormous significance for the entire national economy.
USES OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES AND NUGLEAR
RADIATIONS IN METALLURGY
Research and practical investigations in metallurgy where tracer and radiation applications are important
were begun during 1948-1949 in the USSR. The following general trends took shape: use of radioactive and
stable isotopes as tracers (labeled atoms), use of high-level radiation sources and of radioactive isotopes in proc-
ess monitoring and control.
Under actual production conditions, radioactive isotopes found their first application historically in the
Novaya Tula Metallurgical Plant and in the Kuznetsk Metallurgical Combine. At the present time, radioactive
isotopes are in use in many enterprises.
One of the principal tasks in the use of isotopes in pig iron production is the working out of new ways of
increasing the output of blast furnaces, and the solution of problems related to the automating of separate units.
Work is being pursued on radiometric methods for monitoring the flow of burden materials and monitoring hot
spots in the refractory lining of blast furnaces, on tracer techniques for monitoring coke density, agglomerate,
and level of furnace charge. The use of radioactive isotopes to determine the optimum conditions for'desul-
furization of pig iron by magnesium metal and by lime and clay slags has yielded positive results. Tracers are
also being used to solve some problems related to the study of the performance of blast-furnace tuyeres.
Experimental radiometric equipment for monitoring charge level in a blast furnace has been installed at
the Dzerzhinskii Plant. Test results showed the feasibility of utilizing this equipment in other metallurgical
plants. Similar equipment is being developed to determine the amount of ore dust removed from blast furnaces.
A proposal has been made to employ a servo technique to set up a continuous measurement and control loop.
The Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute and the Dzerzhinskii Plant have collaborated in elaborat-
ing and testing a procedure for control of burden materials. Existing methods of burden control are not capable
of facilitating rapid determinations of the size of individual lumps of burden materials directly prior to their
being charged into the furnace. The radiometric method of burden control makes it possible to continuously
monitor changes in density of the materials charged. Similar work is being approached at the Kuznetsk Metal-
lurgical Combine and in other plants.
The output of blast furnaces is to a considerable extent determined by the prior processing of iron ore
stock. An important link. in the preparatory process is control over the beneficiation of the iron ores and over
sintering of agglomerate. Experience in the use of radioactive isotopes during the pretreatment of iron ore
stock has also proved them efficient. A radiometer intended for determinations of agglomerate density has been
designed at the Kuznetsk Metallurgical Combine. Tests of this device in an agglomerate mill have shown that
it serves well for monitoring the ore sintering process which yields the agglomerate.
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Wear on furnace liners and mixers is being monitored at several factories by radioactive inserts and radio-
metric probes. by means of which the state of the lining, is being closely monitored even with the furnace in
operation. The Kuznetsk Metallurgical Combine, the Dzerzhinskii Plant, the "Azovstal' " Plant. the Makeev
Metallurgical Plant, and other enterprises are currently employing radiometric techniques to monitor wear on
the refractory brickwork of blast furnaces.
According to preliminary data supplied by the Dzerzhinskii Plant and the Institute of Economics of the
USSR Academy of Sciences, use of results on blast furnace investigations involving Isotope tracers has made it
possible to cut fuel costs and increase pig iron melts by about 80 thousand tons, corresponding to 2.5 millions
of rubles saved annually, in money terms. Tentative calculations indicate that the adoption of radiometric
techniques for monitoring sintering of agglomerate at the Kuznetsk Metallurgical Combine may yield annual
savings of about 2 million rubles. These investigations also contributed to the improvement of the design of
various blast furnace components and subassemblies. This applies in the first instance to the shafts and hearths
of blast furnaces (plants in the Kuznetsk Metallurgical Combine, the Manitogorsk Metallurgical Combine, the
Il'ich and Dzerzhinskii Plants). The economical efficiency which may be tapped by use of isotopes in blast
furnace production is difficult to estimate, since other research on improving the process is pursued simultane-
ously. Interesting data are available from the Dzerzhinskii Plant, from which we learn that the use of isotope
tracers in conjunction with other research resulted in a 2.5-31o increase in pig iron output, reduction of 3-3,51o
in fuel costs, and a 5-8% Increase in blast furnace life,
Radioactive Isotope tracers are being used to good advantage in many applications in the steelmaking in-
dustry, at present, to improve steelmaking technology.
At the Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Combine, tracer studies are being made of the slag-forming process,
the result being an optimization of the charging sequence for charging open-hearth furnaces. Similar work has
been conducted at the "Azovstal' " Plant and at the Stalino Metallurgical Plant,
The Isotope dilution technique has been used at the "Azovstal; " Stalino, and Zaporozhstal' Plants to de-
termine the rate of melting of scrap and the weight of molten steel in open-hearth furnaces during the melt. At
the Kuznetsk Metallurgical Combine, isotopes were used to determine the hydrodynamic characteristics of the
smelting bath, leading to new approaches in shortening the time of the melt, i.e., increasing by the same token
the output of steel in existing open-hearths by tens of thousands of tons without incurring additional expense.
At the Il'ich Plant, use of isotopes made possible a reduction of the dwell time of metal in casting molds, an
improvement which is directly linked to increased output in open-hearth workshops.
A study of the nature of nonmetallic inclusions by means of radioactive tracers was carried out at the
Kuznetsk and Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Combines, at the Serov Combine, at the Stalino Chelyabinsk, "Serp
i molt," "Dneprospetsstal'," "Elektrostal' " Plants, and in Institutes.
Radiometric techniques for monitoring weak on the refractory lining of open-hearth furnaces have been
developed at the Kuznetsk Metallurgical Combine, the Makeev Metallurgical Plant, and the "Azovstal'" Plant,
with a consequent reduction of 30-40 min in the time required for overhaul of open-hearth furnaces.
There is a great interest in the work carried out at the Kuznetsk Metallurgical Combine and the Stalino
Metallurgical Plant investigating the process of metal flow during rolling. These data are needed to arrive at
a rational calibration of rolling rods.
Radioactive isotopes of iron and lead are being used to work out a new technology in tinplating. The
results of this research are being used in the practical work of the Novaya Moskva and "Zaporozhstal' " Plants.
Science research institutes and metallurgical plants have elaborated a variety of radiometric instruments
with applications in metallurgy for the monitoring of variables and process control.
Laboratories of the Central Research Institute for Ferrous Metallurgy have produced instrumentation for
measuring the liquid-metal level in the crystallizers of continuous casting machines. Level gages are being
used at present in several factories. Cupola charging was automated at the Khartsyz tubing factory by employ-
ing radiometric level gages. The May First Mill at Kalinin is employing liquid-metal level controllers in crys-
tallizers, controlling the speed at which ingots are drawn. A similar control system was incorporated in a facility
of semicontinuous casting of cast-iron tubes at the Sinar tubing factory, and is being assembled at the Moghilev
Metallurgical Plant. The use of a liquid-metal level controller in the crystallizer of a continuous steelcasting
machine opens the way for completely automating the teeming process.
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A level gage has been developed at the Stalino Metallurgical Plant to determine the amount of dust trapped
in the dust catchers of blast furnaces. At the Makeev Metallurgical Plant, a radiometric annunciator device has
been put in use, monitoring the critical water level in the high-pressure scrubber, which has an important bear-
ing on the performance of blast furnaces where increased gas pressure is developed at the furnace mouth.
In many plants, applications for radiometric rolling thickness gages have been found. Several types of
thickness gages (with useful ranges from 0.003 to 10 mm) have been developed. The use of thickness gates to
monitor rolled-sheet thickness during cold-rolling results in improved quality control, reduction of waste scarp,
stepping up of rolling speed, and considerable savings in metal. Over-all savings in expenditures achieved by
the use of such thickness gages are quite appreciable. Tentative data relating to one 12-high rolling mill at the
Leningrad Steelrolling Plant report yearly savings of about 700 thousand rubles just by using the lower tolerance
in rolling. According to data from the Zaporoshstal' Plant, the use of thickness gages halved the amount of
scrap resulting from a simultaneous tightening of the tolerances on rolled metal. Use of a thickness gage for
hot rolled sheet of up to 45 mm thickness may mean considerable economy. A thickness gage for hot rolled
metal is now being put into production line service at the Izhor Factory.
In nonferrous metallurgy, radioactive isotopes are being used in working out new methods of quality control
and in studying the mechanics and kinetics of processes. At the South Ural Nickel Combine, a radiometric level
gage capable of monitoring the charge in a shaft furnace has been put into service, as well as 122 other radio-
metric level gages designed to automate charging of hoppers in a crushing and sintering mill. The alumina proc-
essing shop of the Volkhov Aluminum Mill is employing radioactive density gages to automate the process of
loading and unloading filter-thickeners in the leaching department. At the Dneprovsk Titanium and Magnesium
Mill, the pulp density in the titanium tetrachloride spraying cycle may be effectively measured by means of
radioactive isotope density gages. These devices have made it possible to effect contact-free control of labor-
ious processes, to continuously monitor and to maintain at set points various process variables, and to assure safe
working conditions for servicing personnel.
The use of radioactive isotope tracers has made it possible to develop and improve the technology of
several nonferrous and rare-earth metals of high purity. High-purity zinc production technology at the 'Ukrtsink'
Plant and high-purity tin technology at the Novosibirsk Tin Factory have been brought up to standard. Suggest-
ions have been advanced for improving, copper electrorefining technology and minimizing the carry over of
noble metals, improving electrowinning of zinc with high current efficiency and the required purification of
various zinc-electrolyte solutions, separation of rhenium and molybdenum for many metallurgical products.
The interaction between metal and electrolyte in aluminum electrolysis has been subjected to tracer research
techniques, by means of which the causes of lowered current efficiency in magnesium electrolysis (namely,
anodic dissolution of the cast-iron bath tank lining) was also resolved. Tracer methods combined with activa-
tion analysis resulted in an improvement of existing techniques and the working out of new techniques for de-
termining tiny trace impurities (of zinc, lead, antimony, tin, arsenic, phosphorus, germanium, thallium, indium,
cadmium, gallium, selenium, tellurium, nickel, cobalt, iron, silver, etc.) in pure metals.
The net result of much research conducted with the aid of radioactive tracers is the accumulation of
abundant material providing a firm basis for correct assessment of nonferrous metallurgy technological processes,
for monitoring variables associated with these processes, and for finding the way to practical improvements in
the processes.
Applications of radioactive isotopes and nuclear radiations in metallurgy are providing the national economy
with great economic benefits, and are providing the prerequisites for improvements in labor and productivity
conditions. Further assimilation of isotope tracer techniques and nuclear radiations by industry will require an
expansion and deepening of research geared to elaborating new techniques and principles in radiometric sensing
and control of technological processes.
This detailed discussion of the fundamental results of the adaptation of isotopes to metallurgical produc-
tion will contribute to the further expansion of research in this field.
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Research conducted in recent years in this field, in the USSR, may be broken down into instrumentation
research and development, and assimilation of the instrumentation into practice. This work was discussed in
the panel on the mining and ore processing industry.
The basic trends apparent in instrumentation research and development were pushed by the industry, which
felt the need for level sensors, pulp density gages and coal ash meters, devices for measuring burden moisture
and concentrate moisture. The success of automatic process control ventures depended on the development of
such devices. The specific features of the mining and ore processing industry required contactless sensors making
use of radioactive tracers and nuclear radiations.
A report by I. I. Savitskii, E. G. Litichevskii, and M. L. Gol'din touched on process control and automation
problems in mills of the South Ore Processing Combine at Krivoi Rog; the solutions of these problems retain their
generality for crushing and grading mills, beneficiation facilities, and sintering plants used in ferrous metallurgy.
A gamma-ray relay put into service by the Kharkov Plant, the KIP relay, provides reliable control over
the work handling capacity of loading buggies, slipping of conveyor belting, and the presence of ore on conveyor
belts. Much work was carried out on automatic loading of a parabolic-shape hopper of 40,000 tons ore volume,
which provided uniform feed of raw material to all bins it serviced, and automatic control of the unloading
trolley. Worth noting is the fact that an attempt to resolve this problem with the aid of contact sensors, capa-
citive pickups, and variable inductors failed because of abrasion effects and the high breaking strength imposed
by the ore falling from a 12 meter height into the bins.
K. F. Fadeev presented data on a trial run of gamma-ray relay devices at enterprises under the jurisdiction
of the Chelyabinsk Council of the National Economy. These devices were used to monitor the presence of coal
on conveyor belts, to expedite automation of dumpcar loading and unloading, for counting and recording the
number of cars unloaded, to automate loading of jaw crushers, and other processes.
A research program has been completed at the "Yuzhuralnikel' " Combine, in collaboration with workers
of the 'Tsvetmetavtomatika' (KB TsMA) nonferrous metallurgy drafting department. In a report delivered by
V. V. Sevost'yanov, I. M. Likhterov, and others. the operating principles and design features of multiposition
level gages were outlined. Because of the corrosive nature of the atmosphere, the environmental conditions
affecting instruments used in nonferrous metallurgy processing plants are worse than in ferrous metallurgy. KB
TsMA instruments of the gamma-ray relay type exhibit such high stability that the activity of the radiation
sources could be safely lowered with no concomitant penalty in accuracy.
Problems related to the performance reliability of electronic relay units under field conditions prevailing
in ore processing mills were dealt with in a report submitted by Ya. M. Ber, Kh, E. Gunne, V. A. Yanushkovskii,
and A. V. Chashchinov. The report cited operational experience gained with such an instrument, based on work
carried out at the Cherepovets metallurgical plant with KIP devices fabricated at the Tallinn Pilot Plant, and
designed to sense the level of metallurgical ore charge in hoppers. This report also provided data on a gamma-
ray relay sensor working into a magnetic amplifier. This device is suited for a broad variety of process-control
applications in mine pits, since it is designed to be explosion-proof. The undisputed reliability of the circuitry
and its long service life are offset to some extent by the limitation of a slow response (- 3 sec).
A report submitted by V. G. Segalin shed light on some over-all results of research conducted by the Mining
Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The paper discussed cases of monitoring the presence of the protect-
ive layer in the receiving bin of a ventilation shaft, control of stoppage in chutes and cars, counting of loading
cars and number of dumpcar lifts, automatic control of ventilation doors, etc. Much work, and interesting work
at that, has been pursued on automatic control of coal combines, with the aid of radiation detectors capable of
recording backscattered radiation whose intensity varies depending on the presence of gangue or coal.
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The adaptation of pulp density gages to production at the Mizurskii Beneficiation Mill was discussed in a
paper by E. Ya. Ovcharenko, V. I. Kotik. and others. One Interesting feature of pulp density measurement is,
aside from corrosive attack by the environment, the high specific weight of the solid component, the intrinsic
radioactivity of the pulp, and the large diameter (150 mm) of the pulp pipelines. Research work Initiated in
1957 has been successfully completed, and there are at present several instruments which have passed protracted
industrial field tests for precision and reliability in measurements. It was explained that when the solid constituent
of the pulp contains elements of high atomic number, the only suitable gamma-ray source is Co60. The effect of
using Cs137 would be the fluctuations in the mineralogical make-up of the ore would cause the radiation flux to
vary by several percent, which is inadmissible. A phosphor was picked as the radiation detector because of the
large diameter of the pulp pipelines, and the compensation method of measurements was resorted to in order to
minimize instrumental error deriving from instability of photomultiplier and electronic circuitry gain. Two
gamma emitters each of 80 mg-equ Ra activity execute. oscillatory motions. Each emitter is housed in a lead
enclosure with openings. The phosphor is therefore illuminated alternately by the basic. radiation flux traversing
the pulp, and by the standard flux passing through the compensation wedge. Tests of the device have shown that
their accuracy is 1.5% with a speed of response of 1 sec.
A second report on pulp density measurement was presented by A. K. Val'ter, I. N. Plaksin, and M. L.
Gol'din. The report contained a description of the design of a density gage and run-in tests of the device at
the YuzhnyiOre Processing Combine, the tests being spaced over the last three years. The device is designed
to be enclosed in a leaktight housing. The radiation detectors employed are ionization chambers with a multi-
layered lead-coated electrode surface. The chambers are not connected differentially, but by a bridge circuit,
so that they have a voltage of the same sign (+). This last fact greatly simplifies the electronic circuitry and
acts to minimize instrumental errors. Measurement of the ionization currents in both chambers are performed
by an electrometer circuit with the aid of a vibration transducer, operating at an industrial-use frequency and
alternately connecting the collecting electrodes to the control grid of a 2E2P tube. The radiation flux is com-
pensated by a wedge, and telemetering by ferrodynamic sensors. In this circuit, measurement of ionization
current is performed by a single electronic network with an ac amplifier. Tests under industrial field conditions
have shown that, at the 50 mg-equ Ra activity of a Cst37 source, and maximum density 2.1 g/cm3 of iron ore
pulp, the accuracy of the measurements is 0.61o. The device being mass-produced by the KIP Kharkov Plant
therefore falls in the 1.51o precision category. The time required for the indicating pointer to run the entire
length of the scale is 45 sec.
The report also presented some data on experiments specially designed to choose the optimum sampling
point for further monitoring of the pulp variables (in two-helix classifiers).
A. Z. Kulishenko shed light on research pursued in the field of radioactive sensor applications, where the
tracer devices send command signals to the actuating and control elements. Two fundamental variables of the
flotation process in the flotation cells of coal dressing plants, namely loading and rate of flow, were brought
under control and incorporated in an automatic control loop by means of these devices. Industrial piloting tests
of the process control loop worked out for the Yasinovka Mill in the Donbas region showed that the load on
flotation machines may be increased under such conditions concomitant with simplification of the flotation
process flow scheme, reducing operating costs in reprocessing of coal sludge, and cutting down on the number
of operating personnel required. Kulishenko also told of a device for measuring ash content in coal.
Of the various communications delivered, we might mention one by I. G. Zubilin on determination of
bulk weight of a coal charge. This report cited the testing procedure, effect of moisture and granulometric
make-up of the coal on the accuracy of the measurements.
One thread running through all the papers was the special attention reserved for problems of safety condi-
tions and economical efficiency of radioactive techniques in process control, monitoring, and automation.
An analysis of the reports submitted disclosed that a variety of gamma-ray relay devices and pulp density
gages have been developed and are currently in use in the mining and ore processing industry.
Assimilation of instrumentation and control loops based on the use of isotope tracers and radiations on an
industry-wide scale will require taking some organizational steps, the most prominent being the creation of a
network of central laboratories under the various councils of the national economy, backed up by special training
of the needed engineering and technical cadres in the institutes.
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THE USE OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES AND NUCLEAR
RADIATIONS IN CONSTRUCTION WORK
Increasingly numerous applications have been found in recent years for radioactive isotopes in the construc-
tion industry and the building materials industry, for research, quality control, and process control.
The RIU type radioactive level gages and gamma-relay devices of the URAP type are being used for auto-
matic monitoring and control of filling of hoppers, and the RIU-1 radioactive level gage has been applied to
monitoring the filling of ore hoppers and bins in asbestos processing mills.
Automatic monitoring and control of the density of two-phase slurries (pulp. grout, sludge, etc.) is carried
out by using PZhR-2 radioactive density gages, overflow gages of the "Slav" type, and gamma-ray soil-density
gages (the "gamma-gruntomer"). In particular, the density of dredged pulp is monitored by gamma-ray soil-
density gages capable of determining the content of earth in the pulp to 2ok accuracy. Gamma-ray soil-density
gages may also prove useful in achieving automatic control of dredge performance and dredging operations. The
dredges employed in the construction of the hydroelectric stations at Kakhovka. Gorky, and Stalingrad, and the
V. I. Lenin Volga hydroelectric station were equipped with gamma-ray soil-density gages.
The radioactive density gage PZhR-2 has been used to effect continuous monitoring of the consistency of
cement grout while cementing the foundations of hydraulic engineering installations. The same instrument has
been used to measure the concentration of asbestos-cement slurry at asbestos processing plants. Radioactive
density gages are being used to monitor the performance of cyclones (at processing plants) and to monitor the
process of asphalt oxidation.
Radioactive noncontacting weight measurement devices (BIV) are being utilized in the production of in-
sulating structural materials.
Gamma-ray flaw detection techniques are being brought to bear in monitoring the quality of weldment
seams in the piping of electric power stations, gas mains, gas and oil pipelines, reservoir mains, and other metal
products. Gamma-ray flaw detection is being applied to the quality control of weld seams in reinforced concrete
work on hydroelectric power plant sites, making it possible to detect internal defects in the welding of reinforce-
ment rods 30 mm in diameter and larger. The use of this technique in the construction of the Stalingrad hydro-
electric works resulted in savings of 200,000 rubles. Gamma-ray nondestructive testing is also being employed
in the quality control of prefabricated concrete members and centrifuge-spun reinforced-concrete supports for
electric high-tension transmission lines.
Techniques based on measurement of the intensity of absorbed or scattered gamma radiation or neutron
radiation as it intereacts with matter are being used in construction applications to measure various characteristics
of building materials and to monitor process variables.
Gamma-ray techniques have been found useful in determinations of the density of earth foundations, earth-
dams, embankments, and other structures.
Determinations of the density of subsurface earth were carried out in one instance either by gamma-ray
scanning of a volume of earth from two parallel borehole cuttings (with a Co60 or Cs137 gamma source lowered
into one hole and a radiation detector lowered into the other) or by driving a radiometric fork instrument into
the ground, one prong with a gamma source attached, the other prong with a radiation detector attached. The
accuracy achieved in measuring the weight of the earth by volume was within ? 2%, and the time required for
a single run of measurements was 2 to 3 min. Density determinations were conducted on surface layers of the
earth to a depth of one-half meter, by means of the radiometric forked probe. The use of jigs of special design
in drilling test boreholes affords the possibility of determining the density of soil to a depth of 1.5 meter by
gamma-ray penetration.
In another case, the density of earth was found by measuring the intensity of scattered gamma radiation
(gamma-gamma logging). The gamma source and detector used in this instance were placed one above the
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other in a probe, but separated by a lead screen to shield the detector from the direct radiation emanating from
the source. Five percent accuracy was achieved in measurements of soil density, and this degree of accuracy
was open to improvement by employing differential (spectrometric) radiation indicators. Determination of soil
density by gamma-gamma logging can be performed either at surface layers or at deep-hole levels.
Under laboratory conditions, the density of soil samples may be determined by irradiating probes without
disturbing their structure. Under field conditions, the moisture present in surface layers of soil samples can be
ascertained by running a gamma exposure of the ground layer having a constant degree of soil compaction.
Neutron-gamma logs and neutron-neutron logs are being run at various borehole depths to determine the
moisture tension of ground samples, The neutron logging techniques open the way to pinpointing the hydrogen
content of the soils contained in borehole cutting cross sections, and the amount of moisture present by volume
can be ascertained simultaneously,
Techniques based on recording the intensity of gamma absorption as gammas are passed through the speci-
men are useful in moisture determinations of concrete, gravel, sand, and other building materials. The error
incurred by such methods, e.g? moisture determinations of high-porosity concretes of 900-1100 kg/m3 weight
by volume, is held within 21a of the moisture by weight of the specimen.
Gamma-ray inspection is being put into use in many production applications involving determinations of
volumetric weight, moisture content, and homogeneity of concrete and reinforced-concrete components, and
monitoring of unit processes in the preparation and pouring of concrete mixes. The degree of compaction of a
freshly poured concrete mix may be determined with the aid of a radioactive density gage, providing a means
of monitoring the performance of vibrators used to tamp down the mix. Keeping track of the density of a batch
of concrete takes on particular importance when special concretes, e.g., heavy concretes used in the construc-
tion of biological shielding for nuclear reactors and rigid concrete placed in high-head waterworks structures,
are being used. Use of a radioactive density gage makes it possible to obtain precise data on, the composition
of a concrete mix during its preparation, and to monitor the homogeneity of batches of concrete as they are
released from the point of manufacture. During transportation and placing of the concrete, density gages are
useful in detecting uneven layering of the mix, and in solving other engineering problems.
Radioactive logging techniques are being employed in building work for engineering and geological re-
search on footings and foundations, in exploratory drilling operations (detection of water sources), and in quality
control in the consolidation of foundations.
Radioactive indicators are being used to determine the weight by volume of particle board. Samples of
particle board were impregnated to saturation with transformer oil for this purpose, with a radioactive tracer
(P32) added. By measuring the intensity of radiation from the specimens, their porosity was determined, and the
weight by volume of the particle board could be found by carrying out the indicated calculations. A comparison
of results obtained by this approach to the stereometric method for determining weight by volume of particle
board showed excellent agreement between the sets of data.
Radioactive isotopes are being used in many applications in still another field, in research on structural
materials and technological processes. Studies on the determination of the specific surface area of disperse-
phase materials (cement, sand, etc.) are being conducted by adsorbing radioactive tracer indicators from solu-
tion. The isotopes used as tracers include W185, Sr89, Ca45, Cs137, and Co60. Adsorption isotherms obtained as a
result show that rapid and accurate determinations of the specific surface area presented by cements and sands
are possible by this method. The radioactive tracer method is being put to use in research on cement hydration
processes. The investigation of the kinetics and mechanism of the hydration process affecting minerals present
in cement clinker is expedited by introducing the radioisotope Ca45 into the cement mortar. By varying the
activity of the mortar, the interaction between water and the clinker minerals, into whose crystal lattices the
isotope has been introduced, is brought under study. Research on changes in the structure and strength of cement
brick subjected to alternating cycles of freezing and thawing in a water-saturated state has been carried out by
determining the amount of adsorption of Sr89-labeled cement mortar. Measurements of mortar activity are re-
lied upon to determine the quantity of Sr89 adsorbed, and to get an idea of the amount of change in void ratio
and increase in strength of the test sample at the same time.
Investigations probing the properties of asphalt materials from several directions have been conducted by
means of Ca45 employed as a radioactive tracer. This method was used to study the processes of water flow
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through an asphalt film into stone and rock materials, as a function of the properties of the constituents of as-
phalt concrete. The method was also applied to a study of the nature of water infiltration into the bulk phase
of asphalt concrete, and the effect of surface-active additives on the properties of the asphalt concrete, to tests
of water permeability and water-resisting properties of the asphalt coating on prefab sandwiched slabs.
Radioactive tracer isotopes have been employed in investigations of diffusion processes accompanying the
interaction between refractories and foundry dust, slag, metal, etc. These Investigations have been conducted
to probe the performance conditions and ways of improving the fabrication of refractories. Fe59 and Ca45 are
among the more frequently used isotopes, introduced into the constituents of the refractories. Contamination of
steels by nonmetallic inclusions has been studied by the same method.
The study of sulfate corrosion of concrete by means of the S35 tracer isotope revealed the nature of the
penetration of the sulfate ion into cement brick as a function of various factors. The investigations resulted in
data on the effect of exposure of cement brick specimens to an aggressive environment, the effect of the cement-
water ratio, of the content of hydraulic admixtures and the fineness to which the cement is ground, on the pene-
tration and distribution of the sulfate ion into the bulk of the material. The same method was used to study the
effect of various aggressive media on cement brick.
Variations in the intensity of reflected gamma radiation were used in a study of the change in wall thick-
ness of steel pipes, as a result of corrosion wear and cavitation processes. A radioactive wall-thickness gage is
used in research along these lines.
The radioactive tracer method is in wide use in construction work, as a tool for investigating the processes
by which various materials, slurries, and fluids flow through matrix materials. A study of the rate of advance of
such material in a rotary furnace and in the coarse-grinding and fine-grinding chambers of a ball mill during the
process of firing and grinding of cement clinker was expedited by adding radioactive Fe59 to the original materials.
In the construction of the Stalingrad hydroelectric power plant, the radioactive isotope Cr51 was used as a tracer
to follow the flow of cement in cement chutes where the cement was impelled pneumatically'. The study of the
rate of travel of a concrete mass down steel piping was made with Co60 tracer. The isotope was introduced, in
the form of a piece of wire (activity 0.6-0.15 microcurie), into a hole drilled into the crushed rubble, and left
embedded therein. The rate of flow of the concrete mass is determined by the speed at which the tagged pieces
of crushed rock introduced into the concrete can be traced in their motion through the cement piping. The
same method was used, but with Bra' tracer, to determine the speed of water flow through the diversion water-
ways of one of the hydroelectric plants. For this purpose, the isotope was introduced into the water admitted into
the conduit, and the speed of water flow through the conduit was measured by the time at which activity was
detected at various test sections along the flowpath.
A study of the flow processes of pulp dredged by suction dredges Involved the use of radioactive tracers
in the dredged spoil. In pilot tests, the effect of the consistency and specific flowrate of the pulp on the integral
density of the spoil dredged up was successfully investigated by using Ta1s2 as labeling isotope. Exceedingly
laborious investigations were telescoped into a brief research program with the aid of this technique,
Tracer techniques have also been called upon in recent years to aid in the study of filtration processes and
flow dynamics of ground water. The isotopes used as tracers in these studies are i-is, P32, Co60, Rb86, Zr9s, 1131,
and Cslsa: Laboratory-scale tests have demonstrated that the radioactive tracer technique is in no way inferior
to the calorimetric method when used to study filtration problems, and in some cases proves to be more efficient.
Flow processes involving the displacement of fluids in a porous medium are also studied to advantage by the
tracer technique, under laboratory conditions. The different types of fluids used in the investigations were labeled
with isotopes having different energies (Il31 and Rb86), so that the process of intermixing between two fluids could
be studied by means of two-channel radiometric equipment. Under field conditions, the tracer technique has
been applied to the study of seepage of water through cofferdams, of the performance of water drainage networks,
throughput of deep-well pumps, and direction of flow of ground water, etc.
Gamma-ray detection techniques are used to study the flow of suspended detritus in a water channel, and
to determine the amount of material in suspension. The study of the concentration of debris in a water channel
is carried out by measuring the intensity of the scattered gamma radiation. The amount of debris suspended in
water samples is determined by transmission of gammas through the samples in laboratory analyses.
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Methods of automatic control, process control, and quality control based on the use of radioactive Isotopes
and nuclear radiations are being employed at present in various branches of light industry. The session of the
panel on light industry was devoted to a discussion of these problems.
It is common knowledge that an increase in the productivity of labor and machinery, as well as efficient
and economic consumption of raw and semifinished materials,in some light industry lines depend significantly
on rapid and continuous weight determinations of the material during the manufacturing process. This applies
to such commodities as paper, cardboard, plastics, fabric coatings, etc.
The Central Research Institute for the Cotton Industry (TsNIKhBI) developed a BIV noncontacting weight
checker in 1955. The device operates on the principle of measuring the absorption of beta radiation passing
through the material, with the aid of two ionization chambers included in a balanced circuit. The working
transducer and the compensation transducer comprising the device consist of radioactive sources and ionization
chambers. A movable metal blind coupled to the weight-indicating scale of the device is placed between the
radioactive source and the ionization chamber of the compensation transducer. The ionization currents in the
chambers are opposed, and the differential current is fed to the input of an electrometer amplifier. The ampli-
fier output current is fed to an indicating device graduated in units of deviation of the weight of the sample
material from set-point value, in g/m2. The measuring circuit of the device, made in console enclosure design,
is. mounted on a special bogie by means of which it can be moved across the material flowing by during the
weighing procedure.
The BIV line of weighers are a success in many light-industry plants. On the leatherette production line
at the Nogin linoleum and leatherette manufacturing works in Kuntsevo, BIV instruments are being used to de-
termine the amount of coloring applied to fabric, and have been incorporated into the fabric-treating equipment
for that purpose.
The introduction of BIV devices did away with the need for stopping the machinery to take samples, cutting
off specimens of material, weighing by an inspector, or converting the results of an analysis to square meters of
finished material.
According to calculations reported by the planning department of the factory, the use of BIV devices on
the production line has paid off in annual savings of about 100 thousand rubles.
Trial use of BIV instruments on a cardboard-making machine used to produce light roofing products (tar
paper, asphalt roofing, Ruberoid roof sheeting, parchment products) at the 'Kartontol' " Factory in Leningrad
also demonstrated the high efficiency and feasibility of the instruments.
One of the fundamental criteria in judging the quality of goods manufactured is the uniformity of weight
and thickness in a sheet of cardboard, and its capacity for impregnation by asphalt, which in turn is a determin-
ing factor in the service life of the material.
The BrV devices used at the "Kartontol' " monitor the thickness and weight of the continuously moving
line of cardboard sheet. The result of equipping all the plant machinery with these weight checkers has been
a reduction in the laboratory staff, elimination of inspectors, an increase in quality, higher labor productivity,
all of which adds up to about 250 thousand rubles a year in savings.
Putting BIV weighers on the production line at the Krasnogorodskaya papermaking machine shop of the
Leningrad District Council of the National Economy has been a successful venture; year-round performance
demonstrates high efficiency,
The use of BIVs in various branches of industrial production not only does away with any need to set up a
continuous monitoring scheme for the goods passing down the production line, but also opens up broad perspec-
tives for automated process control, since data on the weight or thickness of the material are converted to elec-
trical signals which can be employed in any associated control loop. Work on this line is already in progress.
The BIV devices are being mass-produced at the KIP Plant in Tallinn.
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The TsNIKhBI laboratories have developed an instrument for checking the unevenness of fabric on a fiber-
beating machine. When the weight of the uneven areas of fabric deviate sensibly from the technologically set
values, the instrument emits light signals. The measuring device in this instrument assembly consists of sources
of radioactive emission, two ionization chambers, and an automatic electronic potentiometer measuring the
difference in the currents of the two ion chambers, by the compensation method. The measurement is carried
out over the entire width of the fabric, and the transducer is placed between the calender rollers of the fiber
beater.
The All-Union Scientific Research Institute for the Printing Trades has developed a BTP-1 device, a beta
gage for measuring the thickness of metal plating. This instrument operates on the principle of measuring the
back-scattered beta radiation, and is designed to determine the thickness of platings applied to flat objects used
in the printing trades.
The BRP-1 consists of a removable measuring head with a mount and an electric measuring unit. The
measuring head is made in cylindrical form, with an annular radiation source placed in the lower face. The
radiation flux reflected from the measured object is recorded by a differential ion chamber.
At the Zhdanov First Master Printing House of the Moscow (municipal) Council of the National Economy,
the BRP-1 was used to monitor the thickness of chrome plating on the bimetallic forms of an offset press, and
aided in normalizing the processes of chrome-plating and etching of bimetallic forms, not to mention reduction
of scrap. Savings in the manufacture of plates and forms alone amounted to about 8 thousand rubles yearly for a
plant with a single chrome-plating bath,
The BTP-1 was also been put into production use at the "Krasnyi proletarii" printing house to provide
selective control of the process of nickel-plating type-metal stereotypes.
The Central Scientific Research Institute for the Footwear and Leather Industry has developed radioactive
thickness gages for raw and processed leather. These thickness gages make it possible to measure the average
thickness of skins over the 2 to 5,5 mm range without having to cut off a specimen. The instruments are based
on the principle of measuring the attenuation of beta emission from a Ce'44 source by the material. A similar
thickness gage may be successfully applied to sorting and grading of furs as they enter the processing plant.
A device capable of determining the density of the hair covering of fur skins, a radiometric densimeter,
has been designed by the Scientific Research Institute for the Fur Industry. Testing of the device at fur process-ing plants demonstrated the high degree of precision in measurements of the density of the hair covering of fur
skins, as compared to existing methods.
The Tallinn KIP factory, in collaboration with the Academy of Sciences of the Latvian SSR, has developed
a radioactive thickness meter known as URIT-1. The performance of this instrument is based on the phenomenon
of attenuation of the recorded radiation as it passes through the material being measured. Measurement of the
radiation is effected by means of a differential ion chamber. A null-indicating compensation method of meas-
urement is used in the device. The meter employs an automatic self-tuning circuit.
Besides measuring instruments and circuits, devices and circuitry based on relay engineering are finding
many and varied applications in light industry.
. A radioactive level gage, RRU, designed at the Research Institute for the Cotton Industry to monitor and
control the level of cloth in the steam, chambers of textile-finishing equipment, is being used in the textile
industry. Conventional methods are inadequate where the prevailing conditions are a steam environment, high
moisture in the surrounding area, and high ambient temperature, where measurement of the cloth level inside
the machinery is required.
The RRU device is a stationary type installation, which includes two radioactive gamma-ray sensors, two
radiation detectors in the form of STS-8 type self-quenching halogen detectors, an amplifier unit, a relay auto-
matic control unit, and a signal-light panel. A Cs137 preparation is employed as a radiation source.
At present,, the RRU device is in service in several textile plants in the Moscow, Kalinin, and Ivanovo
regions. Limited lots of the device are being manufactured by the "Tekstil'pribor" Plant attached to the Central
Research Institute for the Cotton Industry.
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Relay-based automatic control techniques have proved to be a highly efficient means of monitoring and
process control at the Dzintars perfumery and cosmetics works in Riga.
Selective sampling was the approach previously used to monitor overfilling and underfilling of tubes and
vials on the production line. This means that large batches of rubes had to be weighed and the rejects sorted
out by hand. Automatic tube-filling heads now include a radioactive RK-4 empty container checker. This
device consists of a standard BI-1 beta source. an RD-6 radioactive transducer, a URAP-ZD electronic relay unit,
and a BSK-1 counter and switcher assembly. The tube fill level is checked by passing betas through a cross
section near the crimped edge as the tubes pass down the line.
When a defective Item reaches the control point, the transducer senses intense radiation, and the elec-
tronic relay circuit actuates a relay which in turn energizes the electromagnet controlling a reject mechanism,
which ejects the defective tube into the discard box,
An automatic tube shearing machine continuously processes aluminum rubing stock. One of the operations
included in this cycle involves feeding a disk-shaped cutting tool to a steel die, into which the tubing stock is
inserted, to thread a screw track. Should the delivery of tubing stock be interrupted for any reason whatever,
the die surfaces woiild,be left exposed and the cutters would be damaged on coming into contact with them.
Radioactive limit switches consisting of radioactive sources of beta rays (T1204 sources), a radioactive transducer
RD-6, and a URAP-ZD electronic relay circuit were installed to prevent such an accident. Whenever interrup-
tions occur in the supply of tubing stock in the feed chute of the automatic shears, the electronic relay URAP-ZD
breaks the circuit of the magnetic starter controlling the electric power for the automatic shears. The efficiency
of this radioactive stop device, in economic terms, has meant savings of about 150 thousand rubles annually as
a result of using them on two automatic tube-shearing machines.
The Dzintars factory is also using a radioactive pressure regulator consisting of a manometer with a beta
source mounted on the indicating pointer, and RD-6 radioactive transducers on the scale. Ports are cut out on
the scale facing the transducers, to allow passage of radiation. The transducers are included in the circuit of a
two-channel electronic relay unit (URAP-2A) coupled to the magnetic starter of an electric, motor. The economic
advantage gained thereby amounts to about 46 thousand rubles annually.
A radioactive on-off level controller is being used with great success at the Dzintars Factory (on a turn-
table automatic pouring machine), as well as RD-6 radioactive transducers (for metering liquid constituents of
eau de cologne).
The Central Scientific Research Institute for the Silk Industry is engaged in research on the application of
radioactive isotopes to the neutralization, by ionization, of static electricity in the air. The electricity is a by-
product of artificial fiber processing.
The sources used for this purpose are Pu239 and PmU7. The use of a PtP39 source to neutralize electrostatic
chargeson acetate fiber, at the "Krasnaya Roza" Combine, has clearly demonstrated the efficiency of this
measure.
The use of a Pm47 beta-emitting source to remove electrostatic charges from acetate and viscose fibers
on the warper machines of the "Krasnaya Roza" textile combine, and on the spinning frames of the Naro-
Fominsk spinning and weaving mill brought in appreciable technological dividends.
In the weaving department of the Moscow Textile Institute, original work has been done on a study of
clothmaking during the weaving process, with the aid of radioactive isotopes as research tools. This work led
to the conclusion that normalized optimum parameters related to loom set-up (tension of warp and weft threads,
left-off and take-up. etc.) could be arrived at, thus aiding in maximizing loom output, improving fabric design
by reducing over-all weight, and improving the distribtion of threads in the weave repeat.
Some interesting research work is being conducted with the aid of radioactive isotopes in the lumber in-
dustry. For example, we may cite experimental investigations in some aspects of gamma-ray nondestructive
testing of wood species at the Rostov Civil Engineering Institute and at the Scientific Research Institute for
Machine Design Technology of the Rostov Council of the National Economy. The Moscow Forestry Institute is
studying a modification of wood brought about by grafting monomers and subsequent irradiation, as well as the
effect of gamma bombardment on several physical and mechanical properties of wood.
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Increasingly more versatile use is being made of radioactive techniques in the various branches of light
industry, and these techniques are becoming reliable allies of technologists and research workers.
THE USE OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES AND NUCLEAR
RADIATIONS IN MACHINE DESIGN
Radioisotopes and nuclear radiations are being used in industry for automatic process control and monitor-
ing, for quality control. of industrial commodities, in metallurgical and metal-physics research, in the foundry
industry, in welding, etc.
Automation of the leading branches of machine design depends on the scientific and engineering level of
development of the means available for instituting active control, among which process control instruments using
radioactive isotopes and nuclear radiations occupy a prominent and often the decisive place. At the present time,
many organizations in our country are engaged in scientific research programs aimed at the development of new
radioactive process control techniques.
The most frequent applications for radioactive isotopes in machine design involve nondestructive testing
of weld seams, castings, angle tolerances in machinery, whole assemblies, and defects in the performance of
existing machinery. Special laboratories have been outfitted for this purpose in most large machine building
factories.
The photographic-film method of gamma-ray nondestructive testing has been thoroughly incorporated into
the productive process in many factories. Imposing savings have been achieved in industrial economy by assim-
ilating radioactive techniques. For example, at the S. M. Kirov hoisting and hauling equipment factory in Lenin-
grad, the economic advantage accruing from the use of gamma-ray nondestructive testing amounts to 65 thousand
rubles annually. Savings at the Taganrog "Krasnyi kotel'shchik" (Red Boilermaker) factory were 260 thousand
rubles, at the Dnepropetrovsk metallurgical equipment manufacturing works, 686 thousand rubles, and so forth.
Nine types of sources with different degrees of hardness of gamma rays have been produced for gamma
radiography: the most frequently used sources are Co60, Irta, Csi37, Eut`2, Se7S, Tm170.
The gap currently existing between the output of radioactive sources and the corresponding facilities (with
respect.to energy and radiating power) for irradiating manufactured goods is a conspicuous one. The lag is felt
particularly in lightweight.small- sized, and portable gamma facilities specialized for various branches of industry
and construction work.
The photographic-film method of gamma radiography currently in use has relatively high sensitivity and
objectivity in its results, but is operated at a low rate of productivity, which restricts the possibility of success-
fully integrating it into process control procedures. Methods bearing promises of higher productivity are radio-
graphic tests using image converters, television techniques, ionization techniques, and xerography. However,
all of these methods are still in the laboratory stage.
The following questions of procedure and methodology were probed to expedite the use of radioactive iso-
topes in metal working, metallurgy, casting production, and welding engineering: methods involving the intro-
duction of radioisotopes into liquid, metal, into electrode coatings, and into electrode bodies; methods of quali-
tative and quantitative study of the distribution and redistribution of elements in metals and alloys by autoradio-
graphy; a method of analysis of metal and slag samples in terms of the simultaneous content of isotopes in these
two phases; a method for determining diffusion constants in metals and alloys at high heating rates by means of
isotopes.
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The isotopes of greatest interest for metal working and metallurgical researches are the following, suitable
for use in experimental work: C14, P32, Sill, S35. CL 1, NiJ9, Moss, Ca45, Ce141, Ce144, W185, as well as the tritium
isotope of hydrogen.
As a result of work carried out on the study of the distribution of elements in cast structural steels, and the
diffusion of elements during homogenization, the distribution of the principal elements in the macrostructures
and microstructures of steel as steel crystallizes was found. The effect of heat-treatment conditions on the ulti-
mate distribution of elements in steel was studied. Optimum heat-treatment conditions for castings manufactured
for special purposes were arrived at.
Research on the mechanism responsible for the formation of a structure leading to intercrystalline fracture
in steel and to a sharp deterioration in its strength characteristics, in cast or reheated steel, was conducted with
the aid of radioactive isotopes; these studies provided the basis for a method warning of any such serious defect
arising under production conditions, as a consequence of processing molten steel with special additives. The
effect of these additives is to simplify the heat-treatment conditions for high-strength alloy steel.
In order to elaborate an efficient technological process of steelmaking with the use of tungsten extracted
from tungsten-containing discard, the conditions governing separate oxidation of tungsten and phosphorus in the
main furnace were studied. The possibility of using tungsten recovered from such sources was demonstrated in
principle.
The technique of using radioisotopes to study the formation of impurities in castings is a highly promising
one. This technique provides a possibility of finding out the reasons for the formation of impurities, of evolving
methods for sharply reducing impurities and effecting a significant increase in the output of serviceable castings.
The processes observed to take place during modification of cast iron have been studied with the aid of radio-
active isotopes of calcium, cerium, and sulfur as tracers. The effect of cerium, zirconium, vanadium, and
titanium additives on the distribution of sulfur and the composition of sulfides in chrome-molybdenum-nickel
steel were studied. This has made it possible to shed light on the nature of sulfur compounds forming in response
to melt conditions, to the chemical composition of steel, and other factors. The effect of separate components
on the plastic and elastic properties of steel, particularly on the nature of temper embrittlemenet, has also been
studied by those means, and the conditions relating to the formation of the most desirable sulfur compounds were
found.
The processes of crystallization and distribution of impurities in the ingot have been studied with the aid
of radioactive isotopes C14, Si31, and S35, in working out a technology of continuous steel casting at new indus-
trial plants in the Perm and Gorky Councils of the National Economy. The research has resulted in an optimized
crystallizer design.
Extremely interesting results were obtained in radiographic examination of the distribution of hydrogen
in alloys with the aid of tritium, a radioactive isotope of hydrogen.
At the Metallurgy Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, work has been carried out to establish the
relationship between microscale inhomogeneities in alloy and the cooling rate of light alloys in casting, the
extent of deformation in pressworking, heating conditions in homogenization. Ca45 and Fe59 radioactive tracer
indicators were used to develop new refractory alloys.
One of the principal tasks encountered in welding is that of establishing the extent of participation of the
base metal, electrode wire and flux in the alloying of a seam by different elements and saturation of the seam
by harmful contaminants. By introducing the elements to be tested into the base metal, wire, or electrode coat-
ing, the amount of a particular element entering the weld seam from any given source was studied. It was found
that 9 to 14% of the sulfur found in a seam in hand welding comes from the sulfur contained in the electrode
covering. The base metal accounts for from 1.5 to 351o of the sulfur in the seam, and the electrode rod accounts
for from 51 to 721o. These relationships are severely altered by changes in current during welding.
The mechanism of hydrogen diffusion in austenitic seams was studied radiographically, and the reasons
for resoftening of the weld zone.
The radioactive tracer technique also opens up new possibilities for improving welding technology. The
reasons for the formation of hot cracks in austenitic weldments were established with the aid of the radioisotopes
mentioned above. The reasons for local fracture in the weld seams of high-pressure steam lines made from
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EI-257 steel were studied. It was found that one of the reasons for the appearance of cracks in a weld is the
sharp enrichment of the interface zone between the oriented metal and the base metal by various elements.
An increase in the resistance to wear of machine parts and tool parts is one of the basic tasks to be met
in machine design. The performance and technological servicing of mechanisms and machinery was optimized
by means of isotope techniques, with minimization of time and means, and isotopes also made it possible to hit
upon the most wear-resistant pairs of materials, to evaluate the design decided upon, the quality of lubrication
and fuel, etc.
Scientific research institutes have developed several techniques of bench-stand and production tests for
wear on parts of internal-combustion engines, gear transmission boxes, the wear-resistant properties of different
greases and lubricants, the wear on cutting tools.
The experience accumulated in incorporating techniques for keeping track of wear on parts into regular
procedure has demonstrated the effectiveness of radioactive isotopes in that task, at the Vladimir and Altai
tractor factories. At the Vladimir factory, for example, the wear suffered by parts in the cylinder and piston
section in the case of a new air-cooled engine being run-in under winter conditions was reduced to one fourth
(on the outer cylinder surface). The total service lifetime of the cylinder and piston section of the engine was
increased by about 5010. Performance tests at the factory's field station showed that 5 hours are adequate to
find out all the necessary data to establish the tempo of wear concerned.
Radioactive isotopes were a help in investigating fouling of piston rings at the Khar'kov tractor works, and
were used to arrive at rational oil changing schedules. The new and lengthened oil changing schedules, already
put into practice, had the result of not only increasing savings in means and diesel oil, but also of lengthening
engine lifetime by. minimizing wear on parts.
As a result of investigations of the mechanism responsible for the effects and properties of oil additives,
carried out by the All-Union Scientific Research Institute for Oil and Gas Refining and Artificial Fuels Produc-
tion, the new additive VNIINP-360 for greases used in locomotive diesel engines has been developed and is al-
ready in mass production. Laboratory investigations carried out by the Central Research Institute of the Ministry
of Roads, Highways, and Communications have contributed to the improvement of the wear-resistant properties
of axle greases.
A procedure developed for high-speed testing of motor oils has enabled the All-Union Mechanization
Institute to present recommendations on the service life of crankcase oil in the engines of DT-54 tractors. The
annual savings resulting from observance of these recommendations amount to 25 thousand tons of diesel oil and
32.5 million rubles in the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic alone.
Applications for radioisotopes in metal cutting operations include obtaining data on the cutting properties
of tool materials, determining the workability of structural materials and rational cutting conditions, the proper
choice of cooling and lubricant fluids, the elaboration and correction of rules for cutting conditions, the com-
pilation of initial data needed in the designing of metal-cutting lathes, etc.
The use of radioactive isotopes makes possible a rapid measurement procedure of the amount of products
of wear on tool material, without interrupting the cutting operation. Compared to micrometer techniques, the
radioactive technique means shorter inspection time, less waste in metals and other material means, by a factor
greater than 50, and with it increased accuracy, stability, and reliability in the results of measurements of wear
products. Easy conversion of linear data on instrument wear to recording data on wear products in terms of weight
or volume measurements can be had by means of isotope techniques.
The main trend in the use of radioisotopes in machine design, the area in which economic advantage comes
out most clearly, is that of gamma radiography of castings and weldments.
The lengthy experience acquired in the use of gamma radiography techniques at industrial enterprises en-
abled the Moscow Bauman Institute of Advanced Technical Training and the Economics Institute of the USSR
Academy of Sciences to carry out a study program of work at almost 100 machinery manufacturing plants, and
to produce figures on the economic gains accruing from the institution of those techniques. Gamma radiography
paid off economically in the reduction of defective manufactured items and improvement of product quality,
detection of flaws in good time to correct them, process control in welding and casting operations, and the sub-
stitution of gamma radiography for other more expensive quality control techniques. Gamma radiography has
reduced weld seam defects by three to eight times on the average, according to an analysis of reports and complaints.
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Seven thousand rubles were saved in one year at the Dnepropetrovsk metallurgical equipment factory
simply by the detection of flaws in good time and the reduction of scrap which would have resulted from those
flaws; by eliminating the costs associated with reprocessing of defective items, and the 150 thousand rubles saved
annually at both the "Russkii dizel' " diesel engine works and the ?Krasnyi kotel'shchik" boiler works. Expendi-
tures on quality control of castings and weldments in steel of 30-40 mm thickness were reduced by 15-20c% by
instituting x-ray and gamma-ray flaw detection methods. An average of 50 thousand radiographic plates means
savings of about 100 thousand rubles at each enterprise. Total economic impact brought about by the instituting
of gamma radiography at enterprises all over the nation may be evaluated, in the light of 1958-1959 data, at
200-250 million rubles annually.
More and more applications for radioactive isotopes are cropping up in various types of instruments used
for process control.
The results of the use of radioactive isotopes to monitor the thickness of rolled strip and the thickness of
lead platingon tin have been successful automatic process monitoring, reduction In costs of raw materials and
semifinished materials, reduction of scrap, increased productivity, and an increase in net output without alter-
ing the productive capacity of the enterprise concerned.
The economic advantage resulting from the integration of radiation type controllers regulating the thick
ness of lead plating on tin into production practices could, in terms of the amount of lead economized (718 rubles
per ton of tin plate used), in terms of laboratory personnel freed for other tasks, reduction in the amount of sub-
sidiary materials consumed, etc., amount to 80-90 million rubles annually, should the entire machinery and
metalworking industry be completely equipped with these control devices.
Replacement of contacting control instruments by noncontacting devices (i.e., radioactive devices) brought
about a reduction of three to four times in scrap and a 10% increase in the productivity of rolling mills (an ana-
lysis of the performance of over 10 steel rolling plants). The economies resulting from adoption of a single isotope-
based controller for thickness of rolled sheet amounted to approximately 500-550 thousand rubles annually.
The use of a beta relay device as an interlock device on automatic transfer machines at the Riga electrical
machinery factory brought about savings of 15 thousand rubles in instrumentation on a single machine, while
savings in labor costs came to 1.2 million rubles a year.
In each case where a new device or new control technique Is to be considered for adaptation to production
procedures, the engineering and economic justification of the feasibility of isotope devices and techniques as
against conventional means must be clearly established.
RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES AND NUCLEAR RADIATIONS
IN THE SERVICE OF AGRICULTURE
V. M. Zezulinskii
.The use of radioactive isotopes in agriculture began with the study of the interaction of plants, soils, and
fertilizers to develop a rational approach to fertilization procedures.
The achievements of the isotope techniques include finding the best topography for fertilizer applications,
and periods for introducing phosphorus-containing mineral. fertilizers to supply plants with the elements of mineral
nutrients in all stages of vegetation. The effect of various constituents of organic and mineral mixtures on phos-
phorus uptake of plants was also found through these techniques.
Radioactive phosphorus played the deciding role in justifying spray dressing of plants as an agricultural
practice. It was proved by tracer methods that phosphorus sprayed on cotton plant leaves was assimilated by the
plant in short order, and was absorbed in large quantities at such growing points as young leaves and fruit pri-
.mordia. spray dressing of the cotton plant during its ripening stage contributes'to higher yield and better-quality
fibers. The spray application technique for feeding plants has come into its own as an agronomical- practice in
Uzbekistan, Tadzhikistan, and other cotton-planting regions of the USSR.
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Radioactive labels not only aided in correctly accounting for the high efficiency attained in the use of
granulated fertilizer, but also in determining the optimized grain size for the various types of fertilizers, crops,
and soils. On the basis of data compiled from field work, a proposal was advanced to change the standards of
the granulated superphosphates manufactured by the chemical processing industry, A. V. Sokolov employed a
radioactive tracer in developing a procedure for directly determining the extent to which phosphorus fertilizers
are utilized by plants, and as a result showed that despite the generally prevailing assumption to the contrary,
no rapid binding of the applied phosphates occurs in the soil, so that systematic fertilization with phosphate
manures over a many-year period results in an excess of phosphates, in an "overphosphatization" of the soil.
Additional phosphate manuring of soils beyond their point of saturation with respect to phosphates will not pay,
off in bigger harvests.
The widespread use of Sokolov's tracer techniques in the practical. work of experimental agronomical
stations to determine the reserves of assimilated phosphates and the utilization factor of phosphate fertilizers
may provide state farms (sovkhozes) and collective farms (kolkhozes) with the necessary justification for sowing
crops on soils where greatest economic benefit should be expected from systematic manuring.
According to data cited by B. A. Neynylov, the use of Sokolov's approach in the Vladivostok region made
it possible to improve the phosphate fertilizing procedures on the fields of a local rice-growing sovkhoz, and to
bring in an increased crop topping one million rubles worth of rice from a tilled area of 1400 hectares,
However, the data obtained by scientists are not being given sufficient publicity and have been accessible
to the interested practical workers in agricultural production only to a limited extent.
Another area of promising practical interest where the isotope technique might be of service in justifying
the use of particular agronomical methods capable of yielding increased production. with no exorbitant expense
is the maximum mobilization of the plastic substances in the green parts of plants to developing a crop by spray-
ing plants with chemicals. According to data furnished by the institute of Potato Farming, preharvest spraying
of potato plant leaves with a solution of copper sulfate pays off in a crop increase reaching 50?centners per hec-
tare (for a crop usually totaling 200 centners per hectare),"
It is commonly known that prompt defoliation of cotton plant leaves prior to machine harvesting requires
the use of chemicals and defoliants. The use of radiophosphorus at the Central Asia Cotton Farming Institute re-
vealed which defoliant causes the greatest outflow of nutrients from the shed leaves into the cotton bolls. In
particular, in the case of natural slow drying of the leaf, 251a of the phosphorus applied to the leaf migrates to
the glumes and bolls of the plant, compared to 19% when calcium cyanide is used as defoliant, and only 3-6%
when magnesium chlorate is used. It is to be assumed that the proper choice of defoliating chemical should
yield large economic returns in the shortest time.
Another trend has been shaping up in this field in recent years: the use of tagged atoms in the practical
selection and breeding of crop plants. Radiophosphorus has been used to develop a procedure for the early diag-
nosis of frost-resistance in winter wheat strains by effecting relative changes in the rate of phosphorus uptake by
wheat shoots. A certain correlation has been established between the frost-resistance of a given variety and the
rate of Pn uptake. The method of differential uptake of radiophosphorus has proved suitable for determining
early ripening in the cotton plant, as well as in cucumbers, during the stage when the first true leaves come out.
A question which has long been in the fore, namely the possibility of making practical use of gamma
irradiation of seeds of farming crops prior to sowing them, in order to increase crop yield, was brought up again
during the conference.
Various research agronomists had arrived at contradictory results, but the existence of such a stimulating
effect was not repudiated, on the whole, A. M. Kuzin and his associates proposed a method for farming practice
in which gamma irradiation of seeds of agricultural crops took place prior to sowing the seeds, beginning with
vegetable crops (carrots, radishes, tomatoes, and cabbages), and using doses from 300 r to 3000 r, which will
raise the yield of these crops by 15-30%. According to calculations made by the Economics Institute of the
USSR Academy of Sciences, irradiation of 25% of the seeds sown (for the crops mentioned) will mean an addi-
tional 200 million rubles worth of annual crop yield.
? Centner = 100 kg, hectare = 2471 acres (Translator's note).
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Another important trend in the use of radiations in agriculture is the use of ionizing radiations to accel-
erate hereditary changes in farming plants, with the idea of encouraging new and useful properties. A panel on
this topic heard material submitted on the successful raising a radiation mutants of winter wheat (the wheat -
couch grass hybrid No. 186) of agricultural and economical interest. This particular mutant exhibits the advantage
of short firm chaff, large ears. resistance to smut and to powdery mildew.
To cope with crop pests, chemical pesticides are being used in many instances. Until recently, a method
with sufficient sensitivity to enable agronomists to estimate trace quantities of toxic substances remaining in
foodstuffs after plants and animals have been treated with toxic chemicals has been sorely lacking. Work with
the C14 isotope has now proven that even tiny traces of highly toxic substances cannot be neglected with impunity.
Specimens have been detected in milk over 4.5 months after their application to the food source. After gaining
access to the animal's organism via milk, the toxic chemicals are deposited for a protracted period, primarily
in fatty tissues, but also in brain tissue, spinal tissue, and in the brain marrow.
A report was made at the panel on a tracer technique elaborated to trace the effectiveness of processing
farming crops with toxic chemicals, by finding the ratio of sample radioactivity (radioactivity in the leaves of
stalks and peduncles) to the activity of a unit volume of the sprayed solution. Testing of this technique under
field conditions demonstrated its applicability for arriving at the optimum technical and economical parameters
describing the performance of various types of spraying equipment.
Work carried on at the Tomilin hatcheries by their experts in collaboration with the Institute of Genetics
of the USSR Academy of Sciences demonstrated the possibility of using minute doses of gamma radiation (0.001-
2.0 r) during the incubation period for chicks to stimulate the growth of chick embryos (resulting in a 3.5% in-
crease. in chicks raised) and improving the egg production of pullets (by 12%a) irradiated. during embryogenesis.
This increase In the viability of chicks and egg-laying capacities of hens may yield enormous economic returns
in practice.
In the area of land reclamation and mechanization of agriculture, attention should be given to reports on
a study of the migration of labeled ground water through the soil; these papers contributed to justifying the need
for a new and less expensive method of drainage operations on heavy clay loams. The method envisages sparse
drainage work combined with surface agricultural-land improvement measures, and the returns anticipated are
about 2 million rubles annually in savings. A report was presented on research and development work on radio-
metric devices capable of shortening the.time required for carrying out various observations or measurements by
as much as ten times. In particular, a gamma-ray turbidimeter was designed to determine the concentration of
debris in suspension or dragged to the bottom of flowing streams. By comparison to the conventionally employed
techniques, this device is capable of measurements lasting 2-5 min rather than the usual 5-12 hrs. Also worthy
of mention is the designing of a neutron moisture meter which is capable of carrying out absolute measurements
of soil moisture, in grams water per cubic centimeter, in a matter of minutes. Gamma-ray humidity gages for
soil humidity measurements and a gamma-ray device for determining water resources present in a snow cover
were also designed on the same principle of absorption and scattering of gammas. These instruments are begin-
ning to make their way into routine work in scientific and experimental institutions. About 60 such gamma-ray
humidity gages will be in use in 1960. The devices enumerated will increase labor productivity, and widespread
use of such instrumentation in production will be rewarded by yearly economies totaling not less than 2-3.5
million rubles.
Yu. N. Artem'ev and R. A. Srapenyants have evolved a simple and precise method for determining the
time to fouling of piston rings while the parts are in service on a tractor engine. The procedure has proved
feasible for rapid laboratory-on-wheels evaluations of the performance qualities of various brands of diesel oils,
and was also used to advantage in optimizing the time for changing oil in tractor crankcases. On the basis of
field and laboratory tests, it has been established empirically that service life and reliability in performance
may be had, in the case of the DT-54 tractor diesel, by changing the crankcase oil not once every 120 to 180 hr
as stipulated in the standard operators' rules up to now, but once every 360 hr of engine operation.
Isotope methods have been used to study the features of the flow of grain kernels through the shakers in
grading machines, leading to optimized conditions for separating seeds with respect to specific weight in a dry
medium by means of a flow of air and oscillatory motions of the shakers. The data obtained facilitate the design
of machinery for grading seeds strictly in terms of specific weight. Planting of sorted seeds means, as commonly
known, a crop yield increased by 20-251c.
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According to incomplete and scanty calculations, using the tracer and radiations data to good advantage
in agricultural applications will be rewarded by annual savings of the order of 450 million rubles,
RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES AND NUCLEAR RADIATIONS
IN THE FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY
V. 1. Rogachev
The main trends evident in applications of radioactive isotopes and nuclear radiations in the food process-
ing industry are the following:
1) the use of high-level ionizing radiations for processing foodstuffs to increase storage life, cope with
insect pests, alter the properties of the raw material being processed, etc.;
2) the use of radioactive isotopes (labeled atoms) in analyzing technological processes and equipment to
develop new designs and techniques;
3) the use of radioactive isotopes in automatic process control and monitoring devices,
The use of high-level ionizing radiations, a problem of great complexity in the food industry, is related
to the solution of problems not solely of a technological character (choice of required dosage and means of
irradiation, development of techniques for preirradiation processing of the products, and deciding on the best
conditions for storage of irradiated items, etc.), but also questions'relating to the nontoxicity and palatability
of irradiated foods.
At the present date, a large fund of data has been accumulated on the absence of induced radioactivity
in foodstuffs subjected to radiation up to a level of 5-12 Mev, as well as the absence of toxic and carcinogenic
factors. At the same time, it has been ascertained that certain food factors of importance to the human organism
(ascorbic acid. thiamine, tocopherol) are degraded by irradiation treatment. These factors, it may be noted in
passing, suffer the same fate in heat-processing-of foods. Another consequence which cannot be ignored is the
appearance of taste and smell effects in some treated foods which are not characteristic of nonirradiated foods of
the same type.
The intensity of these changes, due to complex oxidation and reduction processes, depends on the chemical
composition of the foods and on the size of the irradiation dose received. For example, when meat is exposed to
a dose of 1.5-2 million rads, a specific and peculiar odor results; this odor disappears upon cooking. When the
dose is reduced to 500 thousand rads, the odor is not given off. On the other hand, the effect of stepping up the
dose to 4-5 megarads is a sharp change in the organoleptic properties and chemical composition (degradation
of vitamins, oxidative processes, etc.).
When foods of plant origin are radiation-processed, no strange tastes or odors result as a rule, but some
softening of tissues are observed (this softening effect is much less intense than that resulting from heating).
The use of various pretreatment techniques (vacuum treatment, quick-freezing, acceptor additives, etc.)
may diminish the intensity of those changes which are by-products of radiation.
When foods are irradiated, the changes owing to enzymes, which are completely inactivated only when
the radiation dosage is 10-15 megarads, must be taken into account. When the enzyme system present in food
products is a very active one, additional measures must be taken to inactivate the enzymes (mild heating, proper
storage temperature, use of enzyme inhibitors, etc.).
One aim to be pursued in radiation processing of foods is,therefore,minimization of the radiation dosage,
not only from the engineering costs standpoint, but also with a view to improving the quality of the resultant
products. The lower the radiation dosage, the better the probability of the process being adopted in commercial
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practice. From these considerations. we may infer that the following fields of ionizing radiation applications
stand closest to fruition from a practical industry standpoint; control of potato sprouting, ridding foodstuffs of
insect infestation, and lengthening the storage lifetime of readily spoilable foods.
As has been shown by research conducted at the institute of Biochemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences,
the sprouting of potatoes as the tubers emerge from the dormant state is related to the synthesis of nucleic acids
at the growing points. This synthesis is drastically slowed down by irradiation. For example, potato tubers irra-
diated with a dose of 10 thousand roentgens do not sprout for a 14 month period in storage underground with no
artificial cooling. Calculations indicate that irradiation of the potatoes at 5-10 thousand rad doses in combina-
tion with other methods should have the effect of lengthening potato storage life to a year and a half.
The Ministry of Health of the USSR has announced a decision to license the release of potatoes. irradiated
with doses up to 10,000 r as edible material. A pilot tuber-irradiating plant will be set up in the near future;
a Co60 source will total activity of 50 thousand gram equivalents of Ra will be used at the pilot plant. A total
output of 20-25 thousand tons of processed potatoes over the potato season is expected.
According to data released by the Institute of Economics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the savings
projected from the use of radiation-processed potatoes will total 15 million rubles.
Numerous experiments have proven that irradiation at 10-50 kilorad doses will assure genetic sterilization
of insect pests and at the same time prevent spoilage of grain, groats, dried vegetables and fruit, and food con-
centrated during storage. Experiments performed by the Nutrition Institute of the USSR Academy of Medical
Sciences have demonstrated that grain irradiated with a dose of 30,000 r differs in no way with respect to nutri-
tive qualities from nonirradiated grain.
Preparatory experimentation on a scale approximating production conditions will be required before radia-
tion sterilization and eradication of food pests will achieve full status. The groundwork is being laid by the
All-Union Grain Research Institute, which started work with a special-design high-level cobalt gamma facility
(100,000 gram-equivalents of RA) in 1960.
Among the reasons for spoilage of food, microorganisms occupy a prominent place, being capable of
greatly altering the chemical composition and properties of foods through their metabolic activities.
Ionizing radiations inhibit multiplication of spoilage microorganisms and suppress their other vital func-
tions either entirely or partially, depending on the applied dosage. A detailed study of the effect of ionizing
radiations on the physiological, morphological, and miscellaneous properties of microorganisms has been com-
pleted at the Institute of Microbiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The size of the dose required to kill
microorganisms is a function of the species, strain, external conditions, and other factors. Doses of 1.5-2
megarads are required to inactivate the large number of,bacteria present in foodstuffs. There are however more
stable and viable . microorganisms which require doses up to 5 megarads to bring about their complete destruc-
tion. Such high dosages cause fargoing changes in the chemical composition and taste properties of many foods,
especially dairy products.
Cells of the same strain of spoilage microorganisms have been found experimentally to differ in radio-
tolerance. Only a small percentage of cells of a particular strain exhibit radioresistance well above average.
Most of the microorganisms perish at comparatively low doses (50-500 kilorads) which are not harmful to the
foods being processed. If radiation doses lethal to over 90' of the microbial cells present are used, the storage
life can be lengthened three to eight times, as has been demonstrated by studies at the Central Research Institute
for the Vegetable Canning and Drying Industry. without harmfully affecting the nutritive properties of the foods.
One rather complicated problem is the use of irradiation to completely sterilize food products. The most
promising approaches appear to be combined methods for dealing with microorganisms (mild heating, treat-
ment with antibiotics, etc.).
A study tackling all sides of this problem related to radiation processing of food products is being under-
taken in the USSR in line with the erection of two experimental irradiation facilities. One of them is designed
to use a radioactive source charged with Co60, total activity 220 thousand gram-equivalents of Ra, dose rate to
2500 r/sec. The other installation is a 5 million electron-volt linear accelerator capable of producing radiation
with a dose rate to 100,000 r/sec,
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At the All-Union Research Institute for the Brewing Industry, a program of research involving the use of
tracer compounds is underway, to investigate yeast metabolism under alcoholic fermentation conditions. One
result of the research was the successful telescoping of the secondary fermentation stage into the primary fer-
mentation stage; the stage associated with oxidation-reduction transformations was accelerated by using fer-
mentation-promoting preparations. CO2 under a pressure of 3-5 excessive atm. was used to saturate the atmos -
phere; rapid filtration through separators was used for clarification. A new technological process based on a
tracer-compound study of fermentation and secondary fermentation processes led to a shortening of fermentation
time from eight to two days. The new technological advance has been incorporated into industrial practices.
Investigations of other processes important in alcoholic fermentation have been conducted by the Central
Research Institute for the Alcohol Industry. A study of the nutritive value of various media for microorganisms
showed that normal yeast activity is sustained by keeping a content of dry material ranging from 15? (according
to a saccharometer reading) to higher values in the grain mash. Mashes of this composition also require a cer-
tain amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, and vitamins. When such mashes are resorted to, there is no longer any
need to add green malt to reduce the rate at which cereals are used up.
At the Moscow Technological Institute of the Meat and Dairy institute, a study was conducted on the struc-
ture of cream butter produced in various ways (churning or continuous flow), using a test solution of Cam-labeled
calcium chloride. In addition, the process by which table salt diffuses into a cheese mass was studied, as well
as calcium adsorption on casein during rennet curdling, and the dependence of adsorption of calcium on the
acidity of the milk. On the basis of a study of the cheese melting process (salts with labeled atoms were used
for the melt), it was found that the interaction between salt anions and cheese protein involves adsorption.
The All-Union Research Institute for the Meat industry has carried out a research program using tracer
atoms to probe into the characteristics of the meat salting process, and to find out what degradative changes
take place in meat processes as smoked sausage is being prepared. The findings were that the method of salting
the meat simultaneously with immersion of the sausages into the brine slurry enjoys certain advantages over dry
salting followed by exposure to air, since no degradation of proteins ensues in the first instance, and the effective
components of the smoking medium consequently penetrate more readily into the bulk of the sausage. This
speeds up the process of producing high-quality smoked sausage.
Tracer atom research of importance to fisheries was sponsored by the All-Union Research Institute of the
Fishing Industry and Oceanography. The investigations showed that an excess content of calcium ions and a
low content of magnesium ions in fish is accompanied by lowered metabolism and stunted growth. An increase
in the concentration of magnesium salts contributes to the growth of the fish. The data obtained support a
recommendation to fisheries to introduce magnesium salts into carp fisheries of above-average water hardness,
to bring the magnesium/ calcium ratio to 1: 4. The important role of cobalt in fish metabolism was laid bare,
and it was recommended to add 0.7-0.8 mg ordinary cobalt per 1 kg of weight per day of feed administered to
pond-grown fish. This addition to the feed mix improves fish growth and enhances the viability of the stock.
Fish fry raised on this diet produced a yield six times greater, under patently unfavorable wintering conditions,
than a test stock grown on cobalt-free feed.
Experiments performed by the All-Union Research Institute of Pond and Inland Fisheries showed that addi-
tion to trace dosages of cobalt to the daily feed ration administered to commercial carp increases the mean
weight per fish by 14% and results in a 25-271c in the over-all fish crop. Assuming that no more than half the
pond fisheries in the USSR were to use cobalt feed additives, the added returns would total 75 million rubles
by 1965.
Some tracer research was conducted at the All-Union Grain Research Institute to solve problems of interest
to the flour-milling and feed-mix industries. The practice of adding vitamins to flour, and vitamins, antibiotics
and various metal salts to cattle feed mix has been gaining constant ground during the past few years. Since the
amount of these additives remains within thousandths of a percent of the amount of end-product, the uniformity
of the distribution of these additives into the bulk substrate depends heavily on the mixer design. An assessment
of the degree of homogeneity achieved by the mixing is possible,however,only by using radioactive isotope
tracers. Experiments were carried out on five mixing equipments, two types of which were recommended for
industrial use as a result of the tests, and flour mills and feed-mix plants will be outfitted with this machinery
in the immediate future. Optimized mixing parameters and conditions were also brought to light.
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Research soon to be undertaken will deal with absorption and distribution of water in wheat grains, under
various sets of temperature and humidity conditions. The solution of this problem is of enormous importance in
improving procedures for preparing grain prior to milling.
Radioactive tracers were used in an investigation of some of the parameters of grain flow in grading mach-
ines (at the Moscow Institute of Mechanization and Electrification of Agriculture) and in an upright groats husker
and polisher (All-Union Grain Research Institute).
The use of control and measuring devices based on radioisotopes. One of the main difficulties encountered
in attempts to automate operations at mills and feed-mix plants is the absence of any reliable means for remote
monitoring of the filling level of hoppers and silos. The level gages currently in use (membrane, pressure gages,
variable-capacitance gages) work only in direct contact with the material, a disadvantage that entails contamina-
tion of the sensing instrument, spurious readings, and rapid deterioration of the instruments. Furthermore, most
level gages now in use give readings of the level positions only in place on the walls of bins or silos.
These drawbacks highlight the feasibility of using gamma-ray level gages in flour and cereal plants; the
gamma devices are available in four-control-position design (two control points at the bottom of the bin, two
at the top), and the instrument operating time need not exceed 5 sec. Moreover, the radiation source and radia-
tion detector must be as small as possible to as possible to allow easy positioning inside the silo towers, and the
devices must,consequently, have a low operating threshold. Considering the enormous size of silo installations
and the heavy dust load on the air in rooms adjacent to silo chambers, it is imperative to have an operating elec-
tronic-relay unit placed at a distance of 150 meters from the primary sensors,
The All-Union Grain Research Institute has developed a special four-channel gamma level gage, the GU-2,
meeting the above requirements. The radiation source is implanted in the wall of the silo, the radiation being
calculated to fall simultaneously on four sensors, so that the required number of radiation sources may be reduced
by four times,
The laboratories of this institute have developed a method of noncontacting measurement of the clearance
between working wollers, in terms of the intensity of radiation passing through the clearance, replacing the meth-
od of finding the clearance between rollers by passing lead plates between them and measuring their thickness.
The experiments have shown that the instrument readings are a linear function of the clearance. When a beta
source (Sr90) is used, it is possible to determine the clearances to 0,05 mm within microns.
Mass-produced RPRU-4 devices are being used to monitor alcohol level in large vats (400-100 gallons) of
the brandy and alcohol bottling departments of alcohol and vodka distilleries. The determination of level need
be carried out at only two points (first tentatively, second for control action) in the top half of the vat.
This approach may be supplemented by a constantly operating go-no go control for batch determination of
alcohol level in tank cars, providing a fairly accurate indication of the amount of alcohol present. ARIU-9 device
may be used in this case, with a tube containing a radioactive float suspended inside the tank car.
At the Saratov Grease and Fats Works, a UR-6 device has been enlisted to monitor and control product level
in autoclaves during hydrogenation of fatty materials. At the Krasnodar Grease and Fats Works, a UR-4 level gage
is being used to monitor and control the level of the fatty material in a still used for vacuum distillation of gly-
cerine.
In the sugar industry gamma-ray relay units may be used. to determine the level to which bins are loaded
with sugar beets. Since the bin loading process is accompanied by intense vibration and impact effects, con-
tacting level gages of the conventional type become easily damaged, so that noncontacting devices are obviously
a necessity.
Among other possible applications for gamma relays, we may note their use (this refers to the RPS-11 in
particular) as counters on a production line. In some cases, automatic testing of the functioning of bottle-filling
procedures is feasible by using the RBP-1. For monitoring and process control in the preparation of multicom-
ponent mixtures, the RSDA-1 automatic installations now available may be used in many instances, since they
can be set to meter liquid flow to a specified level with an accuracy within ? 1.5-2 mm.
Radioactive density gages (working to ? 0.51o) may be used in the brewery industry to determine the density
of the wort pumped into the fermentation room, and also to give density readings of filtered beer.
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The Institute of Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Latvian SSR has developed an on-off density
controller to monitor and control the preparation of various liquid mixtures. The controller is based on a con-
ventional area flow meter whose position is sensed by a noncontacting radioactive relay unit. This density
monitor was used in the process control loop of a single-tower vacuum-distillation plant for concentrating gly-
cerine sweet water. The use of a radioactive level gage and temperature controller developed by specialists
at the Riga Fats and Oils Combine and the Institute of Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Latvian SSR
is being contemplated as a possible component in the same process control loop. Closing this control loop will
step up the productivity of the entire. distillation plant by 40%, reduce steam costs by 3%, cut electric power
and water by 2316, and lower glycerine losses by 0.0116. The total yearly savings for a single vacuum distilla-
tion plant amount to 64 thousand rubles.
The All-Union Research Industry for the Dairy Industry made good use of a PZhR-2 device on an experi-
mental automated vacuum-distillation plant to close an automatic monitoring and control loop for handling dry
materials in the production of sweetened condensed milk. Temperature fluctuations oft 2%6 do not cause any
appreciable error in dry-material readings.
An Interesting application of gamma-ray relays in the confectionery industry is an automated loop for
the manufacture of waffle mix worked out by specialists of the 17 of June Confectionery Plant in Riga, in col-
laboration with research workers of the Institute of Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Latvian SSR, The
principal component in the process loop is a radioactive automatic mixing and metering RSDA-2 device.
Summarizing, we may safely state that the food processing industry offers a wide range of applications for
radioactive isotopes and nuclear radiations. Furthermore, clarity is still lacking in several instances as to the
feasibility and economic advantage in using these devices. Feasibility is to be judged in terms of 1) completing
complex research on the irradiation of foods at high-level radiation facilities; 2) expanding the area of labeled-
atom research, where it is incumbent upon the research institutes of special branches of the food industry to
develop the required equipment and labeled organic compounds (proteins, fats, vitamins, etc.) to be incorporated
into test foods; 3) developing automatic process control loops using devices based on radioactive isotopes. New
isotope devices meeting precision specifications and other requirements of the food industry are also needed to
monitor various technological processes. The preparation of experimental devices and short-run production
facilities will require an expanded production program for. these specialties.
The Riga Conference was a sharp contrast to all previous meetings on the problem of radioactive isotope
applications in medicine because of its emphasis on practical applications for radioactive isotopes and nuclear
radiations in medical clinical practice.
The report at the Conference is that great opportunities are open in our country for significantly expand-
ing the areas of application of radioactive isotopes in medical practice in the years to come, and for providing
public health institutions with the latest means in medical radiological techniques.
Radiological physicists have an important place awaiting them in the further development of medical
radiology. Because of the rapid pace of development of complex radiological equipment, health physicists
will have to be everyday consultants to physicians specializing in radiological therapy, both in the develop-
ment of radiotherapy treatment and in the unending search and clinical use of new methods of radio diagnos-
tics. The fruitfulness of such joint work was demonstrated in the reports "Autogammaradiography and Automatic
Scanning in Isotope Determinations of Spinal Tumor Localization" (0. G. Arakelov, N. A. Gabelova, F. M. Lyass,
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E. G. Martusov) and 'Multichannel Radiography and Its Clinical Applications' (G. M. Frank, N. A. Gabelova,
F. M. Lyass, G. A. Malov). Instruments designed and built at the institute of Biophysics of the USSR Academy
of Sciences: a gamma-sensitive isotope scanner and an eight-channel radiography equipment - smoothed the
way for utilizing radioisotopes in clinical practice to determine spinal-chord tumor localization and to probe
intricate processes in hemodynamics. The reporters noted that radiotracer methods in diagnostics has a new
range of applications opened up to them by the development of specialized equipment, and that the high sen-
sitivity of isotope instruments will mean a possibility of lowering the amount of radioactive preparations intro-
duced into the organism.
V. A. Belyakov, V. A. Volkov, E. G. Gulyaeva, K. D. Kalantarov, I. I. Shvyrkova submitted a report en-
titled "On the Development of a Dosimeter Device for Recording Beta Activity within Body Cavities, in Early
Local Cancer Diagnosis." A scintillation detector which they designed records beta radiation and determines
any focus of increased activity in response to ingestion of traces of P32 by the patient, and is useful in clinical
diagnosis of cancer of the uterine cervix.
D. L. Rozin demonstrated the possibility of using radiophosphorus in diagnosis of metastases of cancer of the
mammary glands into bone tissue. Working on a large group of patients, he traced bremsstrahlung above the
tumor sites, since the tumor takes up P32 in greater quantities than does unaffected tissue.
Among the reports dealing with diagnostic isotope applications, we cite "An Autoradiographic Method in
Hematological Studies,' submitted by G. I. Kozinets, N. M. Fertukova, M. G. Shitikova. This method can be
used to determine the period of growth of cells of the spinal chord, or the adaptability of transfused blood cells,
a valuable diagnostic test in some blood disorders.
. ' N. G. Nikulin reported on results of using 1131 to determine thyroid function in arteriosclerosis as in various
phases of rheumatism.
A report by V. A. Petrov and M. M. Palladieva on.the use of isodose templates and special charts in clini-
cal dosimetry was heard by the participants with great interest. The method he proposed, determining doses in
depth by overlaying the template on schematic charts of anatomical cross sections of the human body, enable
the physician to take proper account of the amount of energy exerted both on the irradiated organ and on the
surrounding healthy tissue.
Radiotherapy problems were discussed in some papers. A. V. Kozlova devoted her report to a radiosurgical
technique for treating malignant neoplasms in which radioactive preparations are inserted into the incision during
the operation. The advantage of this therapeutic technique is that irradiation can be limited to a certain volume
of tissues in the required dosage and for optimized exposure times. The results cited by the reporter on therapy
of patients with malignant neoplasms show great promise in the clinical application of this method both in early
and late stages of the disease.
Experience in the therapy of malignant tumors by radiocobalt treatment, at the Gertzen State Oncology
Institute, and by radiocesium, radioiodine, and radiogold. was detailed by M. A. Volkova. The material ac-
cumulated at the Gertzen Institute showed the advantages of telegammatherapy over conventional x-ray therapy
in treating malignancies of the lungs, digestive tract, female urogenital region, etc. Experience in treatment of
cancer of the digestive tract (180 patients predominantly in the third stage of the illness) by multiport and rotat-
ing-beam irradiation therapy combined with applications introduced within the digestive tract (40 cases) con-
vinced Z. F. Lopatnikova to recommend this approach for practical therapeutic use.
A paper by E. I. Ivanitska, "The Role of Radiation Therapy Following Removal of Cancer of the Uterine
Cervix, and in the Treatment of Post-Operative Relapses," dealt with clinical applications of various techniques
in radiotherapy and oncology. Covering the same topic were the papers "Experience in Treatment of Metastases
of Melanoma by Artificial Radioactive Isotopes,' by L. L. Likhovetska, "Experience in the Treatment of Wide-
spread Forms of Thyroid Malignant Tumors with Radioiodine," by L. I. Lushina, 'Therapy of Thyroid Cancer
Metastases with Radioiodine," by V. K. Modestov, "The Methods and Clinical Observations in Treatment of
Inoperable Brain Tumors with Granular Radioactive Gold" by A. A. Volkov. The investigations showed that
despite the definite results scored, treatment of malignant neoplasm cases remains one of the major unsolved
problems. The widespread use of combined methods of treatment, particularly during the early stages of the
disorder, has significantly increased the percentage of long-term recoveries in many forms of malignant neo-
plasms.
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The use of radioisotopes in dermatology was discussed in reports submitted by A. V. Braitsev, A. S. Bezz-
abotnov, P. M. Zalkan, T. I. Naruzhnyi. B. M. Lebedev, L. I. Sych, and E. A. Ievleva, "The Therapeutic Value
of Radioactive Isotopes in the Treatment of Some Dermatoses," and A. Ya. Prokopchuk, "Experience in the Use
of Radiophosphorus, Radiostrontium. Radiothallium, Radioindium, Radioarsenic, and Radlocesium Isotopes In the
Dermatological Clinic."
In connection with the therapeutic applications of radiophosphorus in Opthalmological Practice (E. D.
Dubovyi, S. F. Kal'fa), the effectiveness of utilizing the applicator technique in treating serious inflammatory
malfunctions of the cornea and sclera were shown.
In a paper by L. M. Rozanova and S. E. Tukachinskii, "Some General Results of the Use of Radioactive
Phosphorus in the Treatment of Essential Polycythemia," a method for treating essential polycythemia consisting
of massive phlebotomies and Implants of radiophosphorus was outlined; this method provides a way of establish-
ing the long-term therapeutic effect resulting from introduction of 6-7 microcuries of P32, delaying the develop-
ment of chronic myelosis, and eliminating the hazard of serious complications (leukemia, aplastic anemia).
A report delivered by G. P. Nazarishvili, L. G. Parsiya, G. Sh. Zedgenidze entitled "Experience in the Use
of Radioactive Isotopes in Clinical Medicine" confirmed the fact that the most effective therapy technique for
leukemias and polycythemia is a combination of x-ray therapy and radiophosphorus implants. The reports also
recounted their experience in using radioisotopes to treat and diagnose other ailments.
The assimilation of new clinical techniques embodying the use of radioactive isotopes depends to a sub-
stantial extent on the job of supplying radiological departments of public health institutions with the necessary
tools and accessories. M. F. Vyrzhikovskaya and G. M. Krivchenkov told of experimental surgical equipment
and accessories being designed and fabricated at the Scientific Research Institute for Experimental Surgical
Equipment and Tools, for work in radiological clinics. The participants were presented with a set for using
radioactive needles, a set for inserting radioactive grains into hollow elastic fibers, a propulsion pistol for im-
planting radioactive grains in tissue, and a set of shielded injection syringes for injecting solutions of radio-
active isotopes.
A report by A. Ya. Berlovskii, "Mechanization of Radiological Operations in the Clinic," was devoted to
an attempt to rationalize the process of preparing radioactive applicators without extracting them from the
system of shielded devices, an approach which allows for a pronounced reduction in the irradiation level to
which servicing personnel are observed.
The question of preparatory measures for the organization and equipping of the departmental dosimetric
service of the USSR Ministry of Public Health was dealt with by V. A. Petrov in his report. A structuring of the
departmental dosimetry service based on a center with first- and second-echelon dosimetry stations was proposed.
A team of research workers at the Leningrad Institute of Radiation Hygiene (A. V. Gorin, V. A. Grossman,
A. V. Dranchinskii. B. V. Ekimov, B. N. Raevskii, L. R. Romanov, E, P. Storozhenko, Yu. P. Fedorov, G. M.
Shavrin, V. P. Shamov) presented a description of a mobile radiometric express-analysis laboratory using tran-
sistorized equipment mounted on a UAZ-450A rolling laboratory truck.
M. M. Mikhailov and B. M. Abakumov, in a paper entitled "Dosimeters for Ionizing Radiation Based on
DC Semiconductor Transducers" reported the design of semiconductor transducers built to replace the defective
batteries now used in the DK-3 and DK-0.2 dosimeters.
In a survey paper, G. A. Zadgenidze and E. P. Vorob'eva pointed out, in a statement adopted by the panel,
that radioactive techniques constitute a powerful tool for treatment of cases, that modem methods of radiation
therapy make it possible to give effective relief to patients with malignant neoplastic conditions. However, in
both diagnosis and therapy, the use of radioactive isotopes is largely restricted to the large leading health in-
stitutions in our country, and has not yet made its way into massive use in ordinary hospitals. Insufficiencies
are evident in the development and fabrication of modern radiological equipment. The participants at the
Conference proposed that the Ministry of Public Health of the USSR make a careful and thorough study of the
proceedings of the Conference, with a view toward elaborating concrete measures for further development of
work in the field of medical radiology.
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The appearance on the scene of artificial radioactive isotopes and radiation detectors offering a wide
range of characteristics has paved the way for the development of new process control methods and instruments
serving different branches of industry.
The varieties of nucleonic instrumentation now in use and undergoing development in the process industries
include noncontacting radioactive thickness gages, density gages, tank level gages, radiographic machines, and
many other devices contributing to the solution of a broad range of technological and research problems.
Many of the devices are in assembly line production: the Kaluga pyrometric instruments plant is putting
out the RIU-1 level indicator, the UR-6A and UR-7 level gages, the PZhR-2 density gage, the MIR-3A pressure
gage, and many others; the Tallinn KIP factory manufactures the ITU-495, ITU-496, and GT-150 thickness
gages, the BIV weight measuring cell, the P-4 wall thickness gage, RSP-11 product item counters, etc.; the
Kharkov.KIP Plant manufactures electronic relays; the Moscow "Mosrentgen" high-voltage equipment plant
produces gamma facilities for radiographic flaw detection, etc.
Hand in hand with the development of instruments, there is a continual advance in the development and
improvement of manufacturing technology of various radioactive isotope sources for the above instruments and
similar devices.
Because of the great variety in possible applications of radioactive sources and the widely differing on-
stream environments, special attention is given in the design stage to elimination of safety hazards and any
possible contamination of surrounding objects and dwellings.
It has also been necessary to take into account stringent industrial specifications. These include the possi-
bility of the source being used in air and fluid environments at temperatures ranging from several tens.of degrees
below zero to 200-300?C, and where. the medium may- be an aggressive one, while the source may be subjected
to considerable impact and vibration loads. Sources of betas and particularly of alphas must be very thin layers
of an active substance firmly bound to a substrate and isolated by shielding material so that, on the other hand,
maximum yield of particles will be obtained with minimum bremsstrahlung, and on the other hand, so that the
purity of the source surface will be maintained. Thanks to the efforts of scientists, designers, and technologists,
most of these problems have been successfully resolved.
The techniques of fabricating sources fall into three variants:
1) the use of active material in the form of wires, rods, etc. These include for the most part gamma
sources of zinc, cobalt, and silver wire, also of cobalt rods pile-irradiated. Taking into account the greater
propensity of radioactive materials to oxidation, only sources of low activity levels not exceeding several tenths
or hundredths of milligram-equivalents of radium can be made in that form. In some cases (notably Tf 04). the
active material is encapsulated in aluminum foil. Nevertheless, a certain amount of caution must be exercised
in handling such sources, and it is well to have them completely isolated from the remaining parts of the in-
strument;
2) the use of encapsulated radioactive materials. This technique is resorted to mostly in fabricating
medium-level and high-level gamma sources. The radioactive material is enclosed in either single or double
capsules with carefully crimped lids (Co", Tm170, Cs134, Ir1 , etc.) or sealed in glass (Zn65) or metal capsules
(CS137. CS134).
3) preparation of surfaces by depositing an active layer on various substrates. This method is employed
primarily in preparing sources from materials containing Sr90 and Pm147 isotopes, plutonium, and other materials.
Active layers are electroplated-on or enameled.
Reliable and well recommended alpha, beta, and bremsstrahlung sources can be produced via these methods.
To prevent mechanical injurty to the active layer. and also to produce bremsstrahlung where needed, the sources
are placed in special containers in some instances.
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At the present time, there are over 200 different types of radiation sources in mass production, represent-
ing 14 radioactive isotopes; these do not include the large number of radiation sources being produced on an
experimental basis. Such a proliferation of sources in itself calls for some attempt at classification in order to
standardize the sources being made available, and to facilitate a judicious selection of a source for any given
application.
A moderate number of principles governing the nature of the interaction between nuclear radiations and
the material of the test object underly the operation of all radioactive devices used in process control. Pro-
minent among these basic principles are the attenuation of radiation on passing through matter, reflection of
radiation from the boundaries of the media, and the ionizing power of the radiation emitted. It is obvious that
all of these principles must also be considered in any standardization procedure.
In looking over the gamma-ray sources, one notes that their resultant spectrum may differ in. some cases
from the spectrum of the corresponding isotope (because of bremsstrahlung) and from the radiation associated
with internal conversion, electron capture, and position annihilation. For example, the mean energy of the
resultant spectrum of Tm170 sources is 80-200 kev (depending on the type of source) instead of the value of 84
kev taken from tabulated data; the mean energy of a Zn65 source is 0.35 Mev, instead of the tabular value 1.1
Mev, etc.
Eul5, Se75, Ce144, and Zn65 sources must therefore be included among the soft emitters. These sources may
be recommended for flaw detection of light alloys and metals, and thin layers of heavy metals, as well as for
use in process control instruments based on recording reflected radiation from materials of low atomic number.
The other sources mentioned are more fitted to such applications as flaw detection in thicker layers of ferrous
metals.
A similar approach may be used in the choice of beta emitters for these or other applications. In review-
ing the characteristics of beta-emitting sources available in large quantity at the present time, we might single
out two groups of emitters:
1) "pure" beta emitters (Pm'47, T1204, Sr90 on plates and disks, and Ce'44 on disks) which are suitable for
removing electrostatic charges in product item counters, coating thickness meters, etc.;
2) sources with intense bremsstrahlung (Ce144 on plates of Ru106 and Sr90 in BI-type sources) which are suit-
able for use in devices based on the passage of radiation through matter.
The further development of nucleonic instrumentation depends on the successful solution of design and
research problems associated with further improvements in existing devices and sources, and with new advances
in the field.
The sessions of this panel section. contributed to drawing up a tentative balance sheet of the progress reg-
istered to date, and highlighted the main avenues of further development in this field of instrument design.
USSR, The IV All-Union Conference on High-Energy Physics and Elementary Physics met at Erevan during
June,1960. Representatives of physics research institutions of the Academies of the USSR, Georgia, Kazakhstan,
and Armenia took part in the deliberations, along with representatives of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Studies
and the Physics and Engineering Institutes of Leningrad .and Kharkov.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
NEW LITERATURE
Books and Symposia
Yadernaya geofizika [Nuclear Geophysics]. A symposium of articles on the uses of radioactive isotopes
and radiations in petroleum geology. Edited, by F. A. Alekseev. Moscow, State Fuel Industry Press (Gostoptek-
hizdat), 1959. 372 pages, 12 rubles, 90 kopeks.
The book outlines materials on applications of radioisotopes and radiations in petroleum geology. Radio-
metric equipment for recording neutrons and gammas is described, and attention is given to the results of research
using simulated rock strata, the basics of the induced-activity technique as applied to the analysis of borehole
cuttings, etc.
Results from the use of the neutron method for quantitative determination of the porosity of a stratum are
cited, and the use of this method and the induced-activity method to locate the oil-water interface in an oil
pool are described.
The main problems encountered in studying radiometric logging measurements in oil wells are discussed.
A new radiometric method for exploring oil fields, based on measurements of ground surface radioactivity in
petroliferous areas, is described,
T. Kahan, M. Gauzy. Reactor Physics and Design, Translated from the French. Moscow, Atomizdat, 1960,
392 pages, 19 rubles, 40 kopeks.
This Russian translation is of the first volume of a three-volume treatise on nuclear engineering. The
fundamentals of nuclear physics, radioactivity and the properties of nuclear radiations, nuclear fission processes,
and chain reactions are among the subjects treated. Reactor steady-state theory and reactor dynamics are dis-
cussed. A description is given of methods for carrying out calculations for homogeneous and heterogeneous
reactors. The text is illustrated with numerical examples and performance characteristics of existing reactor
installations.
The book is written for students in the corresponding departments, and for engineering and technical workers
in nuclear industry.
Promyshlennaya radiografiya [Industrial Radiography]. Translated from the English. Edited by A. S. Shtan',
V. I. Sinitsyn. Moscow, Atomizdat, 1960. 330 pages, 14 rubles, 30 kopeks.
Applications of radioactive isotopes and nuclear radiations in various branches of industry, primarily in the
metal working industry, are discussed. A description of various methods of nondestructive testing follows.
The book is written for engineering and technical workers in industry and for students in the field concerned,
V. I. Gerasimovskii. Mestorozhdeniya urana zarubezhnykh stran [Uranium Deposits Outside the USSR]. Mos-
cow. published by the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1959. 144 pages, 4 rubles, 20 kopeks..
This book constitutes a short survey of foreign literature on uranium minerals and their principal deposits
in foreign countries. It contains an account of numerous. uranium minerals, their chemical composition, prop-.
erties, and formation conditions. Deposits featuring large reserves of high-grade uranium-bearing ores and
small payable deposits of industrial interest are described.
Atom ABC. [in German] Published by W. D. Muller. Dusseldorf, Econ-Verlag, 322 pages.
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This item is a defining dictionary which explains in popular style many concepts encountered in the areas
of nuclear physics, reactor engineering, and other fields offering applications for nucleonics: medicine, biology,
agriculture, industry, etc. The book outlines the basic characteristics of research and test reactors, and gives an
interpretation of the special terms, abbreviations, and definitions frequently encountered in the technical litera-
ture.
The dictionary was written for a broad readership interested,in problems involving the use of atomic energy.
It will also be found highly useful by specialists reading technical literature in German, as well as. by translators
and editors.
1. NUCLEAR POWER PHYSICS
Neutron and reactor physics. Physics of Hot Plasmas and Thermonuclear
Reactions. Physics of the Acceleration of Charged Particles
Vestnik akad, nauk SSSR No. 4 (1960)
Tsien, San-Tsiang, p. 121-24. Development of nuclear research in the Chinese Peoples Republic.
Dokl. akad. nauk Armyan. SSSR 29, No. 5 (1959)
S. A. Kheifets, pp. 211-13. A method for creating stability of vertical motion in an accelerator with
magnetic field increasing radially.
S. M. Khzardzhan, pp. 215-221. Contribution to the theory of nonlinear plasma oscillations in a constant
externally applied magnetic field.
Dokl, akad. nauk SSSR 131, No. 5 (1960)
S. R. Kholev. D. S. Poltavchenko, pp. 1060-63. Acceleration of a discharge plasma and production of
intense shock waves in a chamber with coaxial electrodes.
Dokl. akad. nauk SSSR 131. No. 6 (1960)
A. Kh, Breger et al., pp. 1308-11. Absorption of gamma radiation from a point source in macroscopic
systems
Zhur, eksptl. i teoret. fiz. 38, No. 5 (1960)
B. A. Bogachov et al., pp. 1374-80. Kinetic energy of U238-photofission fragments.
M. D. Gabovich et al., pp. 1430-33. Detection of ion oscillations in a plasma.
G. N. Lovchikova, pp. 1434-5. Angular distribution of elastically scattered neutrons.
N. G. Koval'skii et al., pp. 1439-1445. Investigation of fast electrons in pulsed power discharges.
Yu. N. Barabanenkov, pp. 1512-14. Coulomb scattering of charges in a strong magnetic field.
V. V. Komarov. A. M. Popova, pp. 1559-63. Investigation of neutron spectra from the decay reaction of
a deuteron acted upon by protons.
K. N. Stepanov, V. I. Pakhomov, pp. 1564-168. On synchrotron radiation in a confined plasma.
V. P. Silin, pp. 1577-83. On the electromagnetic properties of a relativistic plasma.
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A. V. Gurevich, pp. 1597-1607. Contribution to the problem of the number of accelerated particles in an
ionized gas in response to various acceleration mechanisms.
A. A. Zaitsev, M. Ya. Vasil'eva, pp. 1639-40. On the relation between oscillations and charged-particle
loss in a low-pressure cylindrical plasma immersed in a longitudinal magnetic field.
I. F. Kvartskhava et al., pp. 1641-43. Instability of an induction pinch.
Izvestlya akad. nauk Armyan. SSR, serlya fiz,-matem, nauk 12, No. 5 (1959)
S. A. Kheifets, pp. 105-113. Excitation of phase oscillations of particles in an electron synchrotron by
magnetic field noise, frequency noise, and accelerating-field voltage noise.
Izvestiya akad, nauk SSSR, seriya fiz, 24, No. 3 (1960)
B. S. Dzhelepov et al., pp. 258-260. Alphas from U233.
Izvestiya vyssh. ucheb. zaved. Radiofizika. 3, No, 1 (1960)
V. V. Zheleznyanov, pp. 57-66. On the instability of a magnetoactive plasma relative to high-frequency
electromagnetic disturbances. I.
B. N. Gershman, pp. 146-48. On the group velocity of plasma waves In the presence of a magnetic field.
Izvestiya vyssh. ucheb. zaved. Fizika No. 1 (1960)
V. G. Stepanov et al., pp. 104-114. Motion of a plasma in a flowing magnetic field,
V. N. Eponeshnikov et al., pp. 139-144. Dynamics of the effective sector angle in accelerators with
rectilinear sections.
I. M. Ternov, V. S. Tumanov, pp. 155-162. Contribution to the problem of the flow of polarized electrons
in a magnetic field.
V. N. Keesenikh, pp. 234-5. Coherent scattering in a plasma.
A. A. Vorob'ev, I. M. Ternov, pp. 236-241. International conference on high-energy particle accelerators
and nuclear physics instrumentation, at Geneva, September 14-18, 1959.
V. N. Titov, pp. 241-243. Conference on electron accelerators.
Pribory i tekhnika 'eksperimenta No. 2 (1960)
Yu. G. Abov, pp. 3-14. Theory of neutron crystal monochromators,
G. A. Zeitlenok et al., pp. 16-20. A high-voltage power supply for the rotating plates of the ion-beam
injection system for the 10 Gev proton synchrotron.
I. M. Samoilov, pp. 21-23. Injector for electron accelerators.
K. A. Petrzhak, R. V. Sedletskil, pp. 34-37. Counters for measuring weak activities.
T. I. Dmitrievskaya et al., pp. 38-40. Use of end-window counters to measure low-level beta radiation.
G. Ya. Pikus, pp. 104-106. Mass spectrometer with a high-vaccum mass analyzer.
N. N. Krasnov, pp. 148-150. A high-frequency cyclotron-type ion source.
Priroda 40, No. 5 (1960)
G. A. Kursanov, pp. 3-7. V. I. Lenin and the dialectics of the physical world.
Uspekhi fiz, nauk 70, No. 4 (1960)
G. M. Strakhovskii, N. V. Kravtsov, Strong magnetic fields.
Arkiv f s, 16. No. 5 (1960)
K. Singwi, pp. 385-411. The theory of diffusion cooling of neutrons in a solid moderator of finite di-
mensions.
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Nucl. Energy 14, No. 145 (1960)
F. Paulsen, pp. 267-68. Investigations in the area of thermonuclear fusion, carried out by Euratom.
- - pp. 269-71. A neutron diffraction facility.
Nucl. Instrum. and Methods 7, No. 1 (1960)
W. Parker et al., pp. 22-36. Some methods in the preparation of radioactive materials for use in beta
spectroscopy.
N. Mitrofanov, J. Van Loef, pp. 63-66. Detection of neutron and photon induced fusion by ZnS (Ag) mixed
with uranium and thorium compounds.
H. Newson, R. Williamson, pp. 67-72. High-resolution neutron spectroscopy.
G. Henneberke, pp. 89-98. Electron accelerator in a pressurized tank from 3 ma beam current at 1,5 My
direct voltage.
Nucl. Instrum. and Methods 7, No. 2 (1960)
R. Burman, A. Vavin, pp. 101-112. A multipurpose magnetic particle analyzer.
A. Deruytter, pp. 145-52. A 4ir -fission detector.
E. Burke, L. Lowe, pp. 193-196. Derivation of thermal-neutron spectra from transmission data.
J. Butler, pp. 201-203. Neutron-absorbing bricks made from CaB6.
Nucl. Sci. and Engng. 7, No. 4 (1960)
E. Gross, J. Marable, pp. 281-91. Static and dynamic multiplication factors, and their relation to the
inhour equation.
T. Teichmann, pp. 292-94. Slowing down of neutrons.
W. Conkie, pp. 295-303. Velocity-dependent neutron transport theory.
W. Hafele, L. Dresner, pp. 304-12. Theory of the 'softening" (diffusion cooling) of neutron spectra, for
neutrons diffusing in homogeneous and heterogeneous media.
H. Russell, pp. 323-24. Isolation of carrier-free Mn54 and hz5 from cyclotron targets.
P. Baker et al., pp. 325-26. Cyclotron targets using enriched stable isotopes.
F. Green, J. Martin, pp. 387-91. Maximizing production of radioisotopes in a cyclotron.
P. Aline et al., pp. 392-94. On the fast effect in beryllium.
Nucleonics 18, No. 6 (1960)
M. Thompson, pp. 133-40. How focusing collisions affect radiation damage.
Nukleonik 2, No. 3 (1960)
A. Ozemre, pp. 100-105. Investigation of neutron beams created by introducing speed neutrons into a
homogeneous breeding medium.
A. Kraut, pp. 105-128. Results of physical research on nuclear fission.
Nukleonika V, No. 1-2 (1960), Supplement 1
H. Niewodniczanski, J. Zakrzewski. Poland's first 'big cyclotron."
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Nuclear reactor theory and calculations. Reactor design. Performance
of nuclear reactors and nuclear power stations.
Inzhener.-fiz. zhur. 3. No. 4 (1960)
V. S. Ermakov, pp. 127-31.. Nonstationary temperature field in reactor fuel elements.
Inzhener. fiz, zhur. 3. No. 5 (1960)
0. I. Yaroshevich, pp. 81-85. Study of heat-transfer processes in fuel elements by hydraulic analog
simulation.
V. S. Ermakov. pp. 115-18. Contribution to the question of a nonstationary temperature field in reactor
fuel elements.
Tekhnol. sudostroeniya 1 (1960)
- - - - - - - pp. 39-41. Building and launching of the icebreaker "Lenin."
A. K. Volkov, pp. 69-76. Contribution to the problem of steel weldments in atomic reactor design.
(Survey of foreign literature).
V. P. Bogdanov. G. F. Kalashnikov, pp. 73-76. Nuclear-powdered shipbuilding economics. (Survey of
the foreign literature).
Atomkernenergie V. No. 5 (1960)
H. Benzler, pp. 165-172. Reversal of coolant fuel in gas-cooled reactors.
Atomwirtschaft V. No. 5 (1960)
W. Finke. pp. 204-208. Contribution to the problem of nuclear fuel costs.
J.. Armor et al., pp. 209-216. The 'Latina," Italy's first.nuclear electric power station.
Energia Nucleare 7, No. 5 (1960)
E. Torielli et al., pp. 333-41. Electronic analog for control of gas blowers in the Latina power station.
E. Diana et al., pp. 342-49. Calculating Nis formation in a 'Latina" type reactor, by the Monte Carlo
method.
Jaderna Energie VI, No. 6 (1960)
K. Barabas, pp. 188-191. On the economic feasibility of nuclear electric power stations.
V. Rypar, pp. 192-99. Corrosion problems in C02-cooled power reactors.
Nucl. Energy 14, No. 145 (1960)
- - - - - - - - pp. 257-59. The PM-2A portable reactor designed for performance under Greenland arctic
conditions.
C. Whelchel, C. Robbins, pp. 263-66. Use of rarefactions in nuclear power reactors.
Nucl. Engng. 5, No. 49 (1960)
B. Elthan, M. Cowper, pp. 243-44. Automatic shielding for a gas-cooled reactor.
A. Gray, pp. 245-48. Measurement of neutron flux at high temperatures.
- - - - - - pp. 264-65. Design of the Danish gas-cooled. "Beta' reactor.
- - - -- - pp. 266-67. The American program for development of civilian nuclear reactors.
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Nucl. Power 5, No. 50 (1960)
P. Bolt, pp. 97-99. Steam parameters for shipborne organic-moderated reactors.
-- - pp. 116-17. Cleaning up heat-exchanger components.
R. Carstairs, M. Taylor. pp. 120-22. Behavior of a reactor radial eigenfunction.
Nuc1. Sci. and Engng. 7, No. 4 (1960)
F. Hammitt. pp. 327-35. Problem of gaseous fission products in a circulating-fuel reactor.
K. Mochizuki, pp. 336-44. Analysis of neutron flux spatial oscillations resulting from'.xenon buildup in
large power reactors.
D. Kottwitz, pp. 345-54. Thermal neutron spectrum in a medium with a temperature discontinuity.
G. Fischer, pp. 355-62. Measurements of neutron power spectrum in unmoderated assemblies.
H. Hummel, D. Meneghetti, pp. 363-68. Diffusion of intermediate-spectrum neutrons through a thick
resonance absorber. -
B. Finn, pp. 369-76. Relation between reactivity changes, buckling, and periods of a heavy-water reactor.
J. Newgard. M. Levoy, pp. 377-386. Nuclear rocket design.
Nucleonics 18. No. 6 (1960)
N. Palladino, H. Davis, pp. 85-116. Engineering design and power reactors in the USA.
E. Sowa, pp. 122-24. First TREAT results: meltdown tests of EBR-2 fuel.
Nukleonik 2. No. 3 (1960)
J. Engel, R. SchrSder, pp. 88-90. Reactivity measurements in the Berlin BER reactor.
H. Markl, pp. 90-100. Power and xenon concentration instability in a large heat power reactor.
Nukleonika IV, No. 6 (1959)
R. Pomerski, pp. 639-53. Perspectives for the development of nuclear power and possible changes In the
cost of electric power generation.
Nukleonika V. No. 1-2 (1960)
E. Aleksandrowicz, pp. 1-21. The annual period of reactor performance, for the VVR-S type reactor in
Poland (in Russian).
W. Frankowski, pp. 23-26. A facility for measuring burnup of fuel elements, without affecting the cladding.
Nuclear geology and primary ore technology. Nuclear metallurgy and
secondary processing technology. Chemistry of nuclear materials.
Vestnik akad, nauk SSSR XXX, No. 5 (1960)
M. I. Yanovskii, G. A. Gaziev, pp. 27-31. A radiochromatograph for gases and liquids.
Geologiya rudnykh mestorozhdenii No. 2 (1960)
A. D. Kablukov, G. I. Vertepov, pp. 20-31. Scattering halos of elements near uraniferous ore bodies.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060003-5
Geokhimiya No. 3 (1960)
E. S. Makarov et al., pp. 193-213. Crystal structure of uraninites and pitchblende.
G. B. Naumov, 0. F. Mironova, pp. 241-246. Oxidation-reduction equilibrium in the uranium-iron system
in a carbonate medium, and its significance in geochemistry.
Doklady akad. nauk SSSR 132. No. 2 (1960)
S. I. Danilevich, pp. 443-46. On the reliability of monazite ages determined by the uranium method.
Zhur. anal. khim. 15, No. 2 (1960)
V. F.,Grigor'ev et al., pp. 184-190. Analytical chemistry of uranium. Bulletin No. 1. On the luminescent
method of uranium determination.
Zhur, neorgan. khim. 5. No. 5 (1960)
L. P.-Sokhina, A. D. Gel'man, pp. 1013-15. On the decomposition of oxalate complexes with plutonium
bombarded by alpha radiation.
V. B. Shevchenko et al., pp. 1095-99. On a mechanism for the extraction of uranium VI from HC1 solu-
tions using tributyl phosphate.
Zapisy vsesoyuz. mineralog. obsh-va part 89, No. 2 (1960)
A. A. Chernikov et al., pp. 180-86. A uranium-bearing wulfenite.
Atomwirtschaft V. No. 5 (196Gf'
H. Ziehr, pp. 223-30. Helicopters in uranium prospecting.
Econ. Geol. 55, No. 3 (1960)
L. Hilpert, R. Moench, pp. 429-464. Uranium deposits in the south San Juan basin, New Mexico.
Energia Nucleare 7. No. 5 (1960)
E. Germagnoli. S. Granata, pp. 309-22. The behavior of vacancies in the lattice of pure metals.
L. Damiani et al., pp. 323-32. A pulsed liquid-extraction column. Part 1. Description and column
performance.
E. Cerrai, F. Gazzarrini, pp. 358-360. Spectrophotometry of thorium and thoron in the presence of zir-
conium.
JadernA Energie No. 6 (1960)
V. Zajic, pp. 200-201. Specific heat and thermal conductivity of U305 powder.
Nucl. Energy 14, No. 145 (1960)
--- pp. 272-74. Fluorine compounds and nuclear energy. Part I. Production and applications of hydro-
gen fluoride.
- - - pp. 276-82. Isotope production at Amersham.
Nucl. Engng. 5. No. 49 (1960)
G. Hanna et al., pp. 258-60. Beryllium processing in the laboratories of the Lucas Heights research center
(Sydney, Australia).
- - - pp. 261-63. Grenoble conference on plutonium metallurgy.
Nucl. Power 5, No. 50 (1960)
K. Saddington. pp. 92-96. Regeneration of fuel from civilian nuclear reactors.
E. Braithwaite, pp. 118-120. Colloidal graphitic lubricants.
A. Accary, P. Blum, pp. 122-23. Production and properties of uranium carbide.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060003-5
Nucleonics 18, No. 6 (1960)
R. Flanders et al., pp. 126-27. Use of ammonium bifluoride as an etchant for Zircalloy.
Nukleonik 2, No. 3 (1960)
G. Eulitz, pp. 85-87.. Separation of Pb. Ca. Sr, Ba, and Ra in a cation-exchange resin.
Nukleonika IV. No. 6 (1969)
W. Trzebiatowski et al., pp. 591-598. Reduction of uranium (N) fluoride with molten. aluminum in
fused salts.
I. Zlotowski. M. Zielifiski, pp. 599-610. On some relationships between the mechanism of the
COgas 1205 CO2 gas reaction and the kinetic isotope effect for. C14.
S. Zmyslowska, pp. 625-38. Use of a scintillation gamma spectrometer for the simultaneous determina-
tion of uranium, thorium, and potassium in rock and soil samples.
- - - pp. 665-681. VI congress of the Polish Chemical Society.
Nukleonika V, Nos. 1-2 (1960)
I. Zlotowski, M. Zielifiski, pp. 27-31. The isotope effect in the pyrolysis of C14H3000Na.
S. Minc. T. Bryl, pp. 33-45. Effect of light on the absorption spectrum of solutions of uranyl nitrate in
tributyl phosphate.
S. Minc, W. Rafalski, pp. 47-53. Production of thorium metal by electrolysis from fused salts;
W. Korpak, K. Majchrzak, pp. 55-62. Uranium sorption from carbonate solutions, on the SM-x5 anion-
exchange resin.
W. Korpak, Cz. Deptuia, pp. 63-71. The tri-n-butyl phosphate - solvent - HNO3 - H2O System-
W., Kolos, pp. 73-80. Reactivity of several ionized hydrocarbons.
N. NUCLEAR RADIATION SHIELDING
Radiobiology and health physics. Shielding theory and shielding
techniques. Instrumentation
Gigiena I sanitariya No. 4 (1960)
G. I. Bondarev, pp. 92-96. Foodstuffs irradiated by ionizing radiations, and their suitability for human
consumption.
Izmerit. tekhnika No. 3 (1960)
B. Z. Votlokhin, pp. 38-39. Miniature radiometer with electric generator.
Inzhener.-fiz. zhur. 3, No. 4 (1960)
V. I. Kukhtevich et al., pp. 125-26. Dose characteristics of ionization chambers and scintillation crys-
tals of large dimensions.
Med. radiologiya 5. No. 3 (1960)
V. S. Bubnov et al., pp. 61-64. Use of potassium bromide crystals in gamma dosimetry.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060003-5
A. V. Terman, pp. 78-79. Use of radioactive tracers in health studies.
Priroda 49, No. 5 (1960)
L. P. Breslavets. Z. F. Mileshko, pp. 50-53. Shielding of plants from ionizing radiations.
Atomkernenergie V, No. 5 (1960)
U. Hagen, H. Langendorff, pp.'173-181. On the use of the "rem" unit of measurement in dosimetry.
D. Dunkel. pp. 183-87. On the use of ion-exchange resins to extract radioactive fission products from
atmospheric fallout material.
Atomwirtschaft V. No. 5 (1960)
J. Seetzen, pp. 230-33. Nuclear reactor shielding.
H. Graf. pp. 235-38. International warning signs and symbols used in nuclear power operations.
Energia Nucleare 7, No. 5 (1960)
A. DeMatteis, P. Giacobbe, pp. 350-357. Use of the Monte Carlo method to study the physical charac-
teristics of neutron detectors.
Industr. Health 21, No. 3 (1960)
C. Dunham, pp. 287-291. Ionizing radiations and industrial hygiene.
Jaderna Energie VI, No. 6 (1960)
Y. Hercik, pp. 181-83. Biological action of radioactive carbon.
J. Cerovsky, E. Malagek, pp. 184-187. Burial of contaminated laboratory equipment.
J. Walter Pollution Control Feder. 32, No. 2 (1960)
E. Tsivoglou et al., 262-87. Monitoring and radioactive contamination of the Animas River.
J. Walter Pollution Control Feder. 32, No. 5 (1960)
H. Krieger et al., pp. 495-504. Laboratory experiments on separation of fission products from nuclear
fuel waste.
Nucl. Engng. 5, No. 49 (1960)
P. Barratt, pp. 251-254. Ionizing radiations and the design of electronic equipment.
P. Cavanagh, pp. 255-57. Direct-writing recorders for recording nuclear radiation pulses.
Nucl. Power 5, No. 50 (1960)
D. Taylor, pp. 110-114. Dosimetry instruments. 3.
-- n. 117. A new aluminum-base material for thermal neutron shielding.
Nucleonics 18, No. 6 (1960)
M. Campbell, pp. 118-19. Remote-controlled phase-separation bulb for radioactive sample analyses.
Nucleonika. IV. No. 6 (1959)
T. Owczarski, pp. 655-63. Reliability of coincidence circuit arrangements in nuclear reactor scram
systems,..
Research XIII, No. 6 (1960)
P. White, S. Smith, pp. 228-233. Removal of radioactive particles from air.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060003-5
V. RADIOACTIVE AND STABLE ISOTOPES
Tracer techniques. Use of radioactive radiations. Direct conversion
of nuclear power to electric power
Doklady akad. nauk SSSR 131, No. 6 (1960)
A. N. Nesmeyanov, De Dyk Man, pp. 1383-85. Measurement of vapor pressure of solid chromium by the
radioisotope method.
Izmerit. tekhnika No. 5 (1960)
M. I. Korsunskii et al., pp. 50-52. Use of radioisotopes to measure steam content.
Kauchuk. i rezina No. 4 (1960)
A. Kh. Breger et al., pp. 17-22. Comparative estimate of the efficiency of various radiation sources for
radiation vulcanization.
Narod. khoz. Kazakhstana No. 4 (1960)
R. Kaipov. pp. 85-87. Radioactive isotopes in the national economy of Kazakhstan.
Atomkernenergle V, No. 5 (1960)
H. Martin, pp. 187-201. Survey of recent Soviet research on the uses of radioactive isotopes.
Atomwirtschaft V, No. 5 (1960).
L. Wiesner, pp. 216-18. Use of nuclear physics techniques in oil prospecting and oil field exploitation.
Nucl. Power 5, No. 50 (1960)
B. Lindley, pp. 100-103. Direct conversion techniques.
Nucl. Sci. and Engng. 7. No. 4 (1960)
J. Gumbleton et al., pp. 313-319. Use of Fe59 to determine transient piston-ring wear in automotive
engines.
F. Green, A. Somerville, pp. 320-322. Continuous count of gammas from hot radioactive liquids.
Nucleonics 18, No. 6 (1960)
C. Hill et al., pp. 130-33. Use of gamma absorption to measure barite content in a special lubricant.
D. Kniebes et al., pp. 142-47. Use of A41 to measure natural-gas flow.
Nukleonika IV, No. 6 (1959)
R. Broszkiewicz, pp. 611-24. Radioactive isotope applications in Poland during 1958.
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 2 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060003-5
o'utstandi'.ng new S?'ovi - et journals
KINETICS
'AND -
CATALYSI'S
1 .
The first authoritative journal specifically designed for those
This significant journal contains papers 'on all of the most
important aspects of theoretical' and, practical structural
chemistry, with an emphasis given to new physical methods
'and techniques. Review articles on special subjects in the
field will cover 'published work not readily available in
English. - -
The development of new techniques for- investigating the
structure of matter and the nature of the chemical bond has
been no less rapid-and spectacular in the USSR than in the
West; the Soviet approach tothe many problems of structural ' -
interested (directly or indirectly) in kinetics and catalysis.
Tl is journal will carry original theoretical and experimental
papers on the kinetics of chemical transformations in gases,
solutions and solid phases; the study of intermediate active
particles (radicals, ,ions); combustion; ?the mechanism of
homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis; the -scientific
grounds of catalyst selection; important practical catalytic
processes; the elTect'of substance - and heat-transfer proc-
esses on the kinetics of chemical transformations; methods
of calculating and modelling contact apparatus.
Reviews summarizing recent achievements in the highly im-
portant fields of catalysis and kinetics"of chemical trans-
formations will be printed, as well as reports on the proceed-
ings of congresses, conferences and conventions. In addition
to papers originating in the Soviet. Union, KINETICS AND
CATALYSIS will contain research of leading scientists from
abroad.
Contents of the first issue include:
Molecular Structure and Reactivity in Catalysis. A. A. Balandin
The Role of the Electron Factor in Catalysis. S. Z. Roginskii
The Principles of the Electron Theory,of Catalysis on Semiconductors:
F. F. Vol'kenshtein
,The Use of.Electron Paramagnetic Resonance in Chemistry.
V. V. Voevodskii
chemistry cannot fail to stimulate and enrich Western work
in this field. Of special value to all chemists; physicists, geo-
chemists, and biologists whose work is intimately linked with
problems of the molecular structure of matter.
Contents of the first issue include:
Electron-Diffraction Investigation of the Structure of Nitric Acid and
Anhydride Molecules in Vapors. P.-A. Akishin, L. V. Vilkov and,
V. Ya. Rosolovskii
Effects of Ions on the Structure of Water. I. G. Mikhailov and Yu P.
Syrnikov -
Proton Relaxation in Aqueous Solutions of Diamagnetic Salts: I. Solu-
tions of Nitrates of Group II Elements. V. M. Vdovenko and -V, A.
Shcherbakov
Oscillation Frequencies of Water Molecules in the First Coordination
Layer of Ion in Aqueous Solutions. O. Ya. Samilov
Second Chapter of Silicate Crystallochemistry. N. V. Belov
Structure of Epididymite NaBeSi3O,OH. A New Form of Infinite Silicon
-Oxygen Chain (band) [Si6O1s]. E. A. Podedimskaya and N. V.'
Belov '
Phases Formed in the System Chiomium-Boron in the ,Boron-Rich's
Region. V. A. Epel'liaum, N. G. Sevast'yanov, M. A. Gurevich
and G. S. Zhdanov '
Crystal Structure of the Ternary Phase in the' Systems Mo(W)-
Fe(C'O,Ni)-Si. E. 1. GladysheVskii and Yu. B. Kyz'ma '
Complex Compounds with Multiple Bonds in the Inner Sphere.
G. B. Bokii
Quantitive Evaluation of the Maxima of Three-Dimensional?Paterson
Functions. V. V. llyykhin and S. V. Borisov
Application of Infrared Spectroscopy to Study of Structure of Silicates.
1. Reflection Spectra of Crystalline Sodium Silicates in Region of
7.5.15N,. V. A. Flo nskaya and R. S. Pechenkina
Use of Electron Paramagnetic Resonance for Investigating the Molec.
ular Structure of Coals. N. N. Tikhomirova, 1. V. Nikolaeva and
V. V: Voevodskii
New-Magnetic Properties of Mat:romolecular Compounds with Coli-
jugated Double Bonds. L. A. Blyumenfel'd, A. A. Slinkin and
A. E. Kalmanson .
The Study of Chain and Molecular Reactions 'of Intermediate Sub-
stances in Oxidation of n-Decane. Z. K. Maiius, I: P. Skibida,
N. M. Emanuel' and V. N. Yakovleva
The Mechanism of Oxidative Catalysis by metal 0)(ides. Y. A. goiter
The Mechanism of Hydrogen-Isotope Exchange on Platinum Films.
G. K. Boreskov and A. A. Vasilevich
Nature of the Change of Heat and Activation Energy of Adsorption with
Increasing Filling Up of the Surface. N. P. Keier
Catalytic Function of Metal Ions in a Homogeneous'Medium.
L: 'A: Nikolaev -
Determination of Adsorption Coefficient by Kinetic Method. I. Adsorp-
tion Coefficient of Water, Ether'and Ethylene on Alumina.
K. V. Topchieva and B. V. Romanovskii '
The'Chemical Activity of Intermediate Products in Form of Hydrocar-
bon Surface Radicals in Heterogeneous Catalysis with Carbon
Monoxide and Olefins. Ya. T. Eidus
Contact Catalytic Oxidation of Organic Compounds in the Liquid Phase
on Noble Metals. I.,Oxidation of the Monophenyl Ether'of Ethyl-
eneglycol to Phenoxyacetic Acid. I. I. Joffe, Yu. T. Nikolaev and
M. S. Brodskii
Annual Subscription: $150.00 Annual Subscription: $80.00 ti
Six issues per, year - approx. 1050 pages per volume Six issues per year - approx,750 pages per volume
Publication in the USSR began with the' May-June 1960 issues. Therefore, the 1960 volume
will contain four issues. The first of these will b,e available in translation,in April 1961.
JOURNAL OF
STRUCTURAL
,
CHEMISTRY
CONSULTANTS BUREAU 227 W. 17 ST., NEW YORK 11, N. Y.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060003-5
RESEARCH by Soviet EXPERTS
SPECTRA .AND- ANA..LYSIS
by A. A. Kharke.vich '
The first handbook directed toward acousticians and others work-
ing in those fields which require the analysis of oscillations-
ultrasonics, electronics, shock and vibration 'engineering. This
volume is devoted to the analysis of spectral concepts as they are
applied to oscillations in acoustics and electronic engineering, and
to a discussion of the methods of spectral analysis. - Contents in-
clude KOTEL'NIKOV'S theorem for bounded spectra, the spec-
tra and analysis of random processes, and (in connection with the
latter) the statistical compression of spectra.
cloth 236 pages, 0.75
ULTRASONICS AND ITS
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
by 0. 1. Babikov .
This work is concerned with ultrasonic control methods which are
applied in industry, and. also with the ' action of high-intensity
ultrasonic oscillations on various technological processes. -\Con-
siderable attention is devoted to ultrasonic pulse methods of flaw
detection and physicochemical research. It is an invaluable aid
to scientific researchers, engineers, and technicians working in
fields which ,.make ' use of ultrasonic methods industrially, as well
as being a -convenient- reference for a broad category of readers
who might wish to become acquainted with the current state of
ultrasonic instrumentation.
cloth
$9.75
265 pages
Tables of contents upon request
CONSULTANTS BUREAU
227 West 17th Street * NewYorkll,N.Y. o U.S.A.
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