PRINCIPLES OF HYDROGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R002000020001-2
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 286
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: May 16, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: March 24, 1958
• Content Type: REPORT

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PA1 T14
ts'FC- ROGRAs UC 11'r ERPRrst'AT1QhT op RI r R) LAKES Ff )M A7 "T 'Piro
" pter V. General Remarks on the Hydrographic Interpretation of Aerial
Photographs
22. The tasks of hydrographic interpretation
23. Detail of ?niormatian obtained fruit aerial phctogr"- bs and
selection of scales for aerial surveys for hydrograPhic
interprfitation
24. General sequence of operations in inuerpretine aerial aurvoy
materials for hydrographie purposes
Chapter VI. Interpretation of River Valleys
25. General information concerning ids ntifyinE features of river
valleys
99
121
26 Interpretation of valleys rndor conditions of :ountainous
rdlief
2?; Interpretation of valleys 'fit."' Hilly ralief
2 3 Iaterp :station of valleys under ilatla~d conditions
29. Interprets' ion of valleys in the presence of a flatland
forested relief
39. Interpretation of wotttii.ands
31, C+n piex ideantifyifl features of different types of va33e;
Chapter VII : Interpretation of Riverbeds
32. General information concerning riverbed interprctati an
33: D tercaifing the contours of rivers and lakes
3!.t; interpretatii on of river ed forr ations
35. Identifying; botton soils
36; Determining the presence of vegetation in a rivvxted
37. Interpretation of river banks
38. Determining the direction of current
Chapter VIII. Interpretation of T'd- Otecbnical StrncturOs
39. principal identifying features of ridges
40. interpretation of Bans, locks,, ar , haydrotechical installations
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155
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Chapter IX. Interpretation from Aerial Photographs of the General Character 158
of the Surface of a Basin, Soils, Ve~ctation, and Local Orienting
Features (Road Systems)
4.; General introduction
1i2. Interpreting relief and the toundari es of a basin/?/
13. Soil interpretation
hIs. Interpretation of vegetation
h5. Interpretation of roads
16. interpretation of snou cog
Chapter 1. Measurements of Elements of Water Objects from Aerial Photographs
47. General lnforiation
The use of aerial photographs for measuring the lengths of
rivers and the area of watersheds
49. lieasuring the width of a river from aerial photographs
O. fetermining depths from. aerial photographs
51. Measurement of height of banks
52. Determining the rate of float
53. Determining the Rate of Flow
PART I
MWGRAPHIG R4T - ?PRE':,"A` 10-"N OF S iAf S RO I AERIAL P1 R API s
176
Chapter XI. Fundamentals of Sera p interpretation 189
,Wig
54. General Information
55. Fundamentals of typological intarpr"t,ation of aerial photo-
graphs of mm-
Chapter XII. Method of Interpretation of Swamps and Their llydrographic 196
56. Principal identifying features of swaips
5 77. Identifying features of the hydrograpbic notwork in swamps
58. Methods and technigws of interpreting aerial photographs
ofsu
Bibliography
Appendix. Photographs and explanation
206
217
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PRINCIPLES OF HiIHOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION OF AERIAL PFINOGRAPHS
Osnoyy-gidrograficheskogo
desbifrirovaniya _aerofotoanimkov
Leningrad, 1956s Pages 3-202
plus Table of Contents
FOREWORD
D. M. Rudritskiy etal.
The modern period in hydrology is characterized by a consid~Nrable
increase in the use of new .eohniquas and new. methods of research. \ These
are primarily associated with an increase in the requirements confronting
hydrology due to the rapidly e xpanding national economy.
Among the new methods Mat importance has recently been attached to
the use of aerial methods (in particular, aerial photography) in hydro-
logical investigations.
The State Hydrological Institute has performed a number of investi-
gations toward clarifying the possibilities for wide use of aerial survey
materials for descriptive hydrographic works, for determining the descent
of snow cover, and for clarifying certain special problems (for example,
obtaining by periodic photographs the characteristics of sea swells,
evaluating the intensity of erosion of the banks of large reservoirs,
plotting the previous positions of a riverbed, etc.).
As result of these studies the Main Administration of Hydrometeoro-
logical service decided to make wide use of existing aerial photographic
materials in hydrographic operations.
Familiarization with the principles of aerial photography in the
wide circles of hydrologists should expand the w ea of its application in
hydrological investigations.
This book is intended as a practical aid for engineer hydrologists
using aerial photographs in hydrological operations. In addition, special
aerial photographs of water objects may be made or aerial phtographs al-
ready in existence may be used, which photographs may have been made for
purposes other than hydrological.
In the first place (that is, when the hydrologist is confronted with
the problem of organizing aerial photographic operations) it is necessary
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that he be clearly aware of the possibilities presented by aerial photography
in order to put it to proper and full use and also to be able to turn free-
ly to the materials of aerial photography in order to derive from them hy-
drological conclusions.
Ins the second case (the use of existing aerial photographic materials),
the hydrologist must devote special attention to obtaining hydrological
data from aerial photographs and may not enter into the problems of a--
cution of photographic operations in flight. These circumstances oblige
us to devote a separate part to the principles of aerial photography,
which comprises the first part of the book.
This part is not intended to present sufficient information to permit
the hydrologist to perform independently all the aerial photographic opera-
tions, since he will not be confronted with such problems. At the same
time this part cannot be liriited to an exposition of the most general facts,
since in this case it would not be possible to achieve a thorough and tech-
nically literate organization of aerial photographic operations.
? The use of aerial photographs for the purpose of synthesizing the
features of hydrological objects calls for quantitative as well as quali-
tative data. For this purpose it is necessary to know the principles of
photogrammetry and stereophotogrammetry, even if the vnrk is performed on
the simplest stereoscopic instruments. In a number of cases in using aerial
photographs for special hydrological problems it may be necessary to use
complex stereoscopic instruments. This must be performed by stereophoto-
grammetric specialists in special laboratories.
Finally, this part presents general information concerning problems
discussed in the second and third parts of the book, which parts are de-
voted to problems of special hydrological interpretation. In this way
repetition is avoided. Thus, this part contains: general information
7y`,{
concerning the basic features of the interpretation of photographs and
methods of measurement from aerial photographs.
The second part of the book is devoted principally to a description
of the procedures and methods for using aerial photographs to obtain the
data required for the characteristics of rivers and lakes.
Procedural elaborations of problems of application of aerial photo-
g aphs in hydrological *investigations as performed at GGI state Hydrological
-2 -
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The preparation of a practical textbook-on hydrographic interpretation
Institut 7' fizrecent years indicate that one of the chief obstacles to the
hydrological application of aerial photographs and its utmost development
in the unsatisfactory state of procedure in hydrological interpretation.
Present.procedure in hydrographic interpretation is characterized as
followss
1. In most cases the identifying features of hydrological objects
described in the literature are given marginally as limited and incidental
material; they do not take into consideration the variety of natural con-
ditions determining the nature of the obscuration of one or another element
and, consequently, of the peculiarities of its image on which the accuracy
of its reading and measurement depend.
2. For an entire series of elements of hydrological objects (even of
such elements as the width of a river) no evaluative methods have been
developed and certain methods of interpretation and measurement, especially
those based on indirect evidence are performed without sufficient consider-
ation of the hydrological regularities and relationships which might sub-
stantially facilitate and increase the preciseness of the determination of
the dimensions under investigation.
3. The optimum scales and conditions of photography, which aye the
principal criteria in evaluating the possibility of obtaining the most
valuable information from aerial photographs, in the works of different
authors are only a qualitative evaluation based on extremely general and
theoretical judgements and not on objective data concerning the accuracy
of the interpretation and measurements. Hence the recommendations on these
problems encountered in the literature reduce merely to the requirement of
increasing he scale of aerial photographs and improving their photographic
quality. The features of the image of one or another element and the
change in character of this element according to the nature of the natural
obscuration have not been sufficiently investigated.
With such a state prevailing in the methods of hydrographic interpreta-
tion it is difficult to judge to what extent the already existing materials
of aerial photography may be used for hydrological purposes. For the same
reason it is difficult to make a clear formulation of the requirements
confronting aerial photography performed. for special hydrological purposes.
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is a complex and, to a considerable degree, a research task the solution
of which requires aerial and terrestial survey work of an experimental
nature, the presentation of an entire aeries of theoretical and laboratory
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investigations both on problems of measurement interpretation and in the
field of hydrology, and as *11 as the extensive introduction of existing
aerial photographic materials with their terrestial foundation. It is ap-
parent that such a task requires special facilities and a period of time
on the order of several years.
Considering the urgent need for a practical handbook on hydrographic
,interpretation of serial photographs, it may be prepared only on the basis-
of a minimum program utilizing existing developments in interpretation
procedures and the presentation of special treatments of the principal re-
lated problems of hydrographic interpretation of bulk materials of aerial
photography.
All this material has been subjected to a critical processing and
checking by repeated interpretation performed by different persons experi-
enced in field studies. Particular attention has bees devoted to the
characteristics which must be obtained in hydrographic works performed
'within the system of the GUGMS 1iain Administration of Hydrometerorological
Servic(.,- Among the subjects receiving special treatment are the investi
gation of the affect of a secondary medium on the accuracy of the inter-
pretation of depths~.as performed by A. A. Pugin and A. K. Solodovnikova,
the further development of the method of indirect calculation of river depths
as performed by I. I. Yakunin, a study of the accuracy of determining the
overhang of river banks over the surface of water as performed by S. T.
Pin'kovWkiy. The book includes only the basic conclusions concerning the
practical application of these developments.
The third part of the book is devoted to interpretation of aerial
photographs of swamps.
Matters pertaining to the hydrographic interpretation of swamps -were
discussed in a separate section for a number of reasons. The use of aerial
photographs of swamps has already found wide and varied application. The
interpretation of aerial photographs of swamps is performed not only for
topographical purposes but also for limited, special purposes (for example,
for the survey of peat deposits,, revealing swamps of agricultural importance,
etc.).
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For each of these purposes the procedure for interpreting these photographs
has its special and extensive literature.
The typological interpretation of swamps as developed by Soviet swamp
specialists in recent years has been formulated by K. Ye. Ivanov and Ye. A.
Romanov. They have developed a procedure for interpretation of the sur-
face and subsurface filtration waters of streams in swamps which permits
greater expansion of the field of application of aerial photographs in hy-
drographic investigations and descriptions of swamps.
Interpretation of swamps is discussed in a separate division due to
considerations of the greater convenience for the use of the information
on interpretation of swamps by swamp interpretation specialists.
In all cases of study of aerial photographs stereoscopic examination
is recommended. In addition there is a detailed exposition of the procedure
for visual or semi-instrumental study of aerial photographs used as an
emergency r asure in the absence of the proper equipment under field con-
ditions or in using aerial photographs which are. not suitable for stereoscopic
examination (photomaps, photographic diagrams, photographs with inadequate
overlap).
The book employs aerial photographs as illustrations. In using them
the principal material consisted of photographs from 0GI, aerogeodetic
enterprises., the Lenaviaotryad Trust for forest aviation, etc.
Ground photography of swamps and the surface hydrographic system in
stomps was performed by Ye. A. Romanov in systematic hydrographic studies
of swamps by the use of aerial photographic materials.
In the'body of the text references are made to the appended illustrations.
In some cases, in order not to increase the size of the book, the same photo-
graph serves for illustration of different elements. The aerial photographs
in the appendix are provided with descriptions containing an explanation
of the interpretation of the element illustrated by the given photograph.
The proposed book may be used for hydrographic interpretation of photo-
graphs both of aerial photographs of limited area (usually small-scale) and
of special large-scale photographs made under various natural conditions.
It did not seem possible to discuss in this book all the details of the
features of various terrains under the conditions of difficulty of assembly
and analysis of materials within a short period of time. For ex-01T.-ley it
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was not possible to give illustrations for the interpretation of the
phenomena of permafrost, certain desert characteristics, features of local
constructions of hydrotechnical installations, etc. However, by using the
basic instructions for the procedure of interpretation given in the present
book, a hydrologist well acquainted with local conditions, without any
particular difficulty may add to the handbook new specimen photographs
and additional features of interpretation.
The first part of the book, "Basic Information On Aerial Photography
land Procedures For Interpretation of Aerial Photographs," was prepared by
D. M. Kudritskiy, Candidate in Technical Scienm.s.
The second part, "Hydrographic Interpretation of Aerial Photographs
of Rivers and Lakes," was prepared by I. V. Popov, Candidate in Geographical
Sciences.
The third part, "Hydrographic Interpretation of Swamps from Aerial
Photographs," was prepared by Ye. A. Romanov, Junior Scientific Associate.
Preparation of additional remarks on identifying features and test
interpretation was performed chiefly by V. S. Gershberg, Junior Scientific
Associate, and on Chapter 8, "Interpretation of Hydrotechnical Installations,"
by S. I. Pin'kovskiy, Junior Scientific Associate.
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 PART 1010
BASIC INFORMATION ON AE?LtL PHOTOGRAPHY A14D H ODS OF I.1ITRPPETATION OF AERIAL
PHOT-)GRAP"-iS
CHAPTER 1
AERIAL P HvTOORAPIIY
Sectioh l - General Information
Aerial photography is the process of photographing the earth's surface
from an aircraft or other flying device for the purpose of obtaining qual-
itative and quantitative characteristics of this surface from aerial photo-
graphs.
Aerial photography as a method of investigation of the earth's surface
is used in the most varied fields of science and engineering: in topography,
geology, the lumber industry, in transport surveys, for the purpose of ground
constructions, in hydraulic investigations, etc. The aerial photography
finds widest application in topography; here it has become the principal method
for compiling topographic charts not only on small scales but also large
scales.
The materials of aerial photography may be used:
(a) for obtaining the qualitative characteristics of the photographed
surface as a whole and of individual objects located on i.t;
(b) for purposev of measurement; that is, in obtaining quantitative
characteristics of the photographed locality and of individual objects and
expressing them in the form of.planes, profiles, and numerical values.
Section 2. Geometrical Foundations of Aerial Photography and General Con is for
The Solution of Photogrametric Problems
In the photographic process the light rays reflected by different points
of the object are collected by the lens of the camera and create an Image on
the light-sensitive layer of the plate or film. The optical qualities of
lenses in modern aerial cameras permit obtaining sufficiently detailed central
projections of the terrain. The latter possesses metric properties; that is,
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it perrni.ts measurement and by various transformations may be converted Into
a vertical (orthogonal) projection of the photographed locality (Figure 1).
Reproduction of the shape and dimensions of the cb i ect from its images
on negative or positive prints for the purpose of obtaining a sketch or a steric
image of the object or of the model is a subsequent task to be solved by photo-
gramnietry.
the I,, e of the horizontal portion of a flat terrain obtained with the
optical axis of the aerial camera in the vertical position is represented as
a contour sketch of this locality suitable for measurements.
The scale of this plane is expressed by the relation
I ab= ac * be fk-
AB A 7C
where m is the denominator of the numerical scale of the photograph, fk is
the focal length of the camera, Ii is the height at which the photograph is
made, ab, ac, bc,are line segments on the photographs and AB, AC, BC are their
corresponding distances on the photographed terrain.
Photographic images of the relief of a terrain are distorted; the -greater
the distortions, the greater the relative deviation of points in the terrain
(Figure 2). Hence the scale of the Air-age does not remain constant even if
the photograph is obtained with the optical axis of the camera in the vertical
position; it varies from point to point, remaining identical only for points
of the same elevation,, that is, for points located on the same contour.
Distortion of the scale occurs even more sharply in photographs obtained
with a tilted position of the optical axis of the camera (see Section 1i).
T}rus, there exist two causes for the difference of an aerial photo-
gr,ph (as a central. projection) from a plane (an orthogonal projection): (a)
the relief of the terrains and (b) the non-horizontality of the photograph
itself. In order to eliminate these defects and to use the.metrical properties
of photographs for the purpose of obtaining the quantitative characteristics
of a locality and to express them in the form of a plane in contour lines
and profiles.. photogranmetry has at its disposal procedures and apparatus
worked out in great detail.
In order to eliminate he'lack of horizontality of the photograph, the
bunches of light rays causing the image on the light-sensitive layer of the
plate are reproduced by me:-ns of an appropriate projector. By placing the
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screen of the projector in the proper positions it is possible to convert
(transform) the image on the negative and thereby to eliminate the effect
of tilt of the optical axis of the camers and to obtain it or. the desired
scale. However, in such transformation the reproduced imore retains the
inherent errors of relief.
Elimination of the errors due to relief is achieved either by transforming
the photograph in parts corresponding to different elevations, or by reproducing
a three-dimensional model of the locality,
In the latter case it is necessary to have two overlapping photographs
of this locality obtained from different points in space --. the ends of a
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certain base. In aerial photography this base is a sedtion of the path
traveled by the aircraft during the interval of time between two exposur es.
In order to obtain a distortion - free model it is necessary: (1) by
using appropriate projectors, to restore the bunches of light rays causing
the image on the light-sensitive layer; and (2) to orient the restored rays
in space.
For solution of the first problem it is necessary to know the values
determining the position of the center of the projection relative to the photo.
t
graph; or the elements of interior orientation of the photographs; for solution
of the second problem it is necessary to know the position of each photograph
at the moment it was exposed, or the elements of e cteri c orientations
The elements of interior orientation include the focal length, fk, and
the position of the principal point, f1, of the photograph -- the base of the
perpendicular from the center of the projection to the plane of the photograph,
The position of the principal point is determined by the coordinates xo and yo
within the coordinate system of the photograph (Figure 3a).
The elements of exterior orientation (Figure 3b) include: X0, YO., and ZO
coordinates of the center of the projection; co - the directional angle of
the optical axis; -- the angle of deflection of the optical axis from the
vertical; and x -,- the angle of rotation of the photograph about the optical
In photograrametric processing of aerial photographs the angular elements
of exterior orientation are the longitudinal and transverse angles of tilt
as well as the angle of rotation of the photograph about the optical
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Thus, each photograph has six elements of exterior orientation. In order
to obtain a spatial model of the terrain from two overlapping photographs
it is necessary and sufficient that within the zone of overlap of these photo-
graphs at aix previously chosen identical points the light beams formed within
them, known as the congruent rays, Intersect.
The process of placing photographs in that position at which they were
made and at which only may there be achieved intersection of congruent rays
is known as relative orientation of photographs.
The model obtained by relative orientation of the photographs may be
reduced to a given scale and oriented in space. For this purpose it is necessary
that on the models there be identified not less than three points having geodetic
coordinator (X,Y, and ii) not lying in a straight line. ny changing the scale
of the model (varying the distance between projectors and their height), by
rotating and tilting the model, the control points may be brought to the
previously given position in the plane and at the proper height. Thereby the
entire model becomes in effect an image of the photographed surface.
The process of reducing the model to the assigned scale and adjusting
it relative to the horizontal plane is known as exterior or absolute orientation
of the model.. Thereby the reproduced. model is placed in the correct position
in space to obtain the quantitative (numerical) characteristics of tyre photo-
graphed surface and to compile a topographic map.
To obtain a general idea of the photographed portion of the earthts surface
and a description of its properties we may limit ourselves to the process of
relative orientation of the photographs, without obtaining a precise likeness
of the model and tolerating unavoidable distortions.
The above described sc1eme of optical reproduction of the model of a
photographed surface is one of the methods of photogramrietric processing of
the materials of aerial photography. There are other methods of processing
described in the special literature, The final results in all cases of photo-
grammetri c processing of aerial photographs is the ordinary topographic map
or the numerical characteristics of the elements of the landscape.
Section 3. Photographic Equipment
The initial material of aerial photography is the aerial negative.
In order to obtain negatives intended for purposes of measurement; use
10
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is made of the so-called topographic aerial cameras (AFA).
Any cameras, including non-professional cameras., without any changes
whatsoevnr in their construction, may be used to record the qualitative state
of an object of investigation and to fix the processes occurring in it.
The equipment used for aerial photo;=rapby may be divided into three
groups;
(1) automatic cameras, fastened by one or another method to the aircraft
and remotely controlled;
(2) semi-automatic hand cameras;
(3) non-professional cameras.
Automatic cameras: designed to obtain both individual and series photo-
graphs, are complex, fully autor.~atie optical mechanical assemblies. They
may be actuated by current from a storage battery or front the aircraft's own
power system,; in most cases the latter method is used,.
A modern comers (:figure 4) consists of the following basic parts; (a) the
camera proper with a lens,, a shutter, and a regulating mechanism; (b) magazines,
with r echanisms for winding, metering, and Flattening the film; (c) the control
devrice; (d) the electric motors; (o) the camera mounts.
The camera proper is a rectangular metal housing in the upper part of
with, within the focal plane., there is fastened a frame with four notched
fiducial marks fixing the position of the principal point (center) on the
photograph. In the lower part of the camera there is mounted tightly (sometimes
on a removable cone) a lens with a shutter.
According to the angle of the image and the focal distax;ce, the lenses
as well as the aerial cameras are divided into three groups:
(1) narrow-angle, long-focus -w- with an image angle of 2?c1:5 degrees
at a focal length fk as 200-1200 rte;
(2) normal -- with an image angle of K45-75 degrees at a focal length
fk : 150-200 mm;
(3) wide-angle, short-focus, having an image angle of 2,I 75-14? degrees
at a fool length of fS : 150-55 ma.
Designating-d as the diagonal of the photograph, aerial cameras may also
be divided into long-focus (if fie is greater than d), normal (if fk equals d)
and sort-focus (if ;-Ek is smaller than d).
In the lenses of modern aerial cameras the relative aperture (ratio of
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a wt a~T+ r?wyxr5 s~-~`. ': t `~,aN~~?:t>LC _Nty:? z>z:?.?.- -'t'.~'.:z': -
the diameter of the input aperture to the focal length of the objective-) is
i:6$-1:6.3.
The lens of the AFA possesses a high resolving power (the number of lines
freely distinguished on a portion of the focal plane with a length of 1ria).
,In modern lenses it reaches 40 lines in the center of the field with a drop
toward the edges of the image. A particularly noticeable drop in the resolii-ng
power toward the edges of the image (down to 7.3 lines) is observed in iide-
angle lames. The lenses of aerial cameras are focussed at infinity and are
rigidly fa s'Vened in this position.
In the complex optical system which is used in an aerial survey lens trtro
centers are distinguished, the front and rear nodal points. The dis+pnce from
the rear nodal point to the plane of the photograph :ray be equal to the principal
focal length of the lens. This distance, k orrn as the focal length of the
camera, as weU as the position of the principal point on the photograph, being
the elements of interior orientation of the photograph, must remain constant.
?~y
.any aerial cameras are provided with different recording devices, the
indications of which are photographed on each aerial photograph (Figure 5).
The presence of all this data su1stantially facilitates consideration
of the conditions in which each photograph is obtained.
Cameras designed for photogratric purposes are provided with between-
the-lens shutters permitting shutter speeds of 1J50.-1/300 sec. In dameras
designed to obtain photographs of an illustrative nature] other tyres of
shutters are'also used, for example, focal-plane shutters which permit higher
shutter speeds.
Release of the shutter, achieved with the aid of the regulating mechanism
of the cif occurs within time Intervals fixed at the control instrument;
the latter is adjusted according, to the flight speed and the required over-
lap of photographs.
The complex mechanism of the magazine provides for winding, metering,
and flattening of the film placed within it. The most frequently used aerial
cameras are those with photo sizes of 18 x 18, 24 x 24s and 30 x 30 cm. This
film is prepared in the form of rolls 30 to 60 m in length and placed on special
spools, this being calculated to produce 150-200 photographs. The standardized
dimensions of the magazines per tat replacing theme in f3i- ht.
Thorough fattening of the film at the noment of exposure is a necessary
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condition in using aerial photographs for measuring purposes.
Flattening of the film is achieved by means of a pressure plate in the
magazine, which at the moment of exposure presses the film against the platen.,
In addition, air is forced into the camera (in some AFA's air is evacuated
from the magazine) and the film is pressed against the platenthereby flattening
the film over the entird field of the photograph. Special attachments are
provided to control flattening of the film in the ARA camera.
The operation of all mechanisms of the AFA is Insured by two electric
motors mounted in one housing. The first motor drives the camera mechanism
and the second drives the air tube which forces air into the camera.
The command device or panel for control of the entire assembly serves
to connect and disconnect the assembly., to adjust the interval between exposures=
to signal for the winding of the film, and for counting the number of exposures.
The control device is usually placed in the pilot's cabin.
The camera is installed on a special mount provided with shock absorbers
to absorb the vibrations which would otherwise affect the sharpness of image;
it also serves for leveling of the camera according to a spirit-level located
on the top of the magazine. The camera mount is provided with an attachment
for rotation of to camera in order to correct for drift of the aircraft with
the wind.
During fliL?ht an aerial photographer sits behind the camera and is in
contact with the pilot by means of an intercommunication system.
Figure 6 shows the A-1-A-33/20 aerial camera produced in three models in
4
the Soviet Union (focal lengths 20, 50,9 and 71 cm). Technical data for the
AFA-33/20 are as follows.
Lens, "Orion" 14t; focal length approxi m6 vely 200 mm; angular field
92 degrees; relative aperture 1:6.3 with a fixed diaphram; a central, between-
the-lens shuttdr; shutter speed 1/50, 1/100, and 1/200 see; light ix7.ter7r-
yellow,. prang, and red.
The film is perforated. The photograph size is 30 x 30 cm; film width
is 32 cm,, length up to 60 m; number of photographs 190-195 with intervals of~
10-15 mm; flattening of the film is achieved by forcing Air into the camera;
on the photograph there are obtained images of the AFA number, focal lengths
frame- counter,, and circular level.
Operation of mechanisms. She assembly is filly automatic, fed a direct
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current of 6 amperes and a voltage of 2l: volts; power consumed during opera-
tion.* up to 200 watts, control of operation is rite from a control device.
Dimensions and weight of assembly with cameraa_mount. Width 62 cm, length
81 cm, heS. t 57 ca. Plight weight from 56 to 72.5 kg; weight of entire cssembly
in p ckin>z (in three boxes) appro telY 200 kg.
Camera operation . . . is not affected by tenperatare van ations within
the range from 20 to .20 degrees. upon connection of the electric heater,
operation of all the mechanisms is insured even to lower temaerr-tures, to -50,
0 degrees.
Table 1 gives the data for certain Soviet and foreign automatic cameras
in practical use in Soviet aerial photographic operations.
The effort to embrace a wider area in the photograph (that Is, to increase
the ttproductivitYtt of the camerrx) has found its solution in the creation of
short-focus lenses.
Short-focus, wide-angle, aerial lenses insure vertical aerial photographs
with wide coverage. These lenses have been made by Soviet photogra1--netrists.
The latest achievement in this fields, is the R-2b lens (by V. S. Rodin et al.),*
having a focal length of 55 m with an angular field of 2/' 136 degrees.
In 1936 V. I. Senenov developed n, completely new type of aerial survey,
I= 406
achieved by the so-called slot Lshchelevoy/ camera and from which this method
of photographic survey obtained the designation of slot survey.
The principle of surveying with a slot camera consists in the continuous
photographing of a strip of terrain on a moving film which is pro jectjed by
the lens through a narrow slot in the focal plane of the camera perpendicular
to the line of flight (Figure 7). hus, there is obtained on the film a continuous
image of the strip of terrain over which the aircraft has flown,, and hence
in contact printing from this film there may be obtained a direct photograph
of the entire flight*
There are relatively few models of hand-field, semi..-automatic serial
cameras. They are not -widely used and serve chiefly to obtain single perspective
photographs at the choice of the observer. The photograph Is taken by hand
over the side of open, aircraft or throu:?bi special hatches or ports on closed
aircraft.
The band-held AFA-27-T serial =- esa (Figure 8) weighs 12 kg. Its
characteristics are: an ttlndn.startt lens with a focal length of L;0 cm, a
\+~-?ljCT41+`~1}TS a~f~~+~T~f.~n~T'~f: '!i: .a0.?;a_~ _. ` ~i~?vT'r=~J
~1 >y:i:7p. Y~n
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relative aperture of 4.5 and image dimensions of 13 x 18 cm.
of considerable interest- is the design of the TIM-7 X 9 camera (fie 9)
in which a considerable decrease in ,,eight and dimensions of the camera is
achieved due to a decrease in the focal length (12.5 cm)? The definition of
the photographs and the possibility of a substantial increase in shutter speed
during photography is insured by aperture-ratio optics (a relative aperture
of 1:2): The small size of the photographs (7 x 9)s permitting their use for
purposes of illustrations may be increased on a special enlarger by 2.5 times
(that is, up to dimensions of 15 $ 21i' cm).
Modern hand-held aerial cameras are loaded with roll fih i permitting
35 to 50 photographs. Winding of the films and cocking and releasing of the
shutter are achieved by hand in the same manner as in the ME 6amera and its
nKdela1 In the rest of its design this camera does not differ from designs
of large automatic aerial cameras (of course, those which are considerably
simplified).
The magazines of hand-held aerial cameras are tightly fixed to the camera.
For flattening of the film at the moment of exposure it is pressed against
a glass plate located in the focal plane of the camera.. The lens is focussed at
infinity and is firmly fixed in this position..
Various cameras of non-profensiana1 quality may be used to record visual
observations-. The most convenient of these are cameras of the FM type.
Section fit. Tvpes of Seri 1 Pto
According to the positioncf the optical axis of the camera at the r meat
of exposure, horizontal, verticals and oblique (perspective) photographs are
obtained.
A horizontal photograph is one which corresponds to the perpendiculor
position of the optical axis of the aerial camera. At the present state of
the techniques of aerial flight and photographic equipments it is not pos.:ible
to obtain strictly horizontal photographs.
A vertical photograph is one obtained at a position close to the vertical
position of the optical axis (Figure lO.A) on the condition that accidental devia--
tions of the photograph from the perpendicular do not exceed 3 degrees: In
the process of photogrrm etrj:C processing (transformation):eertical photographs
may be converted to horizontal photographs.
!~~;.~ 7~~ ~tl yJ;n~?`? :ip'-'~ts~itir`rM;-.+n'a''~: Q:~i17r::'~~~~~_ _ zs.ay
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Oblique (perspective) photographs are obtained with a fixed tilted position
of the optical axis of the aerial camera (Figure 10-B).
In accordance with this, from the position of the optical axis of the
aerial camera in flight there are determined also the principal varieties of
aerial surveys: vertical, oblique, and vertical-oblique surveys.
Any of the existing single-lens aerial cameras, ?.iven an appropriately
constructed camera mount and attendance in flight, may serve for the various
types of surveys.
As was previously mentioned, any of the automatic aerial cameras may be
used both for single and series photographs. In accordance with this, we
distinguish single-photo, route, and mosaic aerial surveys.
The single photo aerial survey is based upon individual photographs
made according to a predesignated plan or at the choice of the aerial photo-
grapher while in flight. Ilost often it is performed with hand-held semi..
automatic cameras,
(In order to obtain a clear photograph during handheld operation it
is necessary to avoid vibration of the camera and to avoid the undesirable
effec u of the backwash of the airstream on the camera. A large role is also
played by the ability of the aerial photographer to make use of the conditions
of the field of vision, which in certain types of aircraft is extremely limited.
(In the absence of a special camera mount vibration must be absorbed
or changed by bracing of the arms, hence during photography the camera must
not be in contact with vibrating portions of the aircraft.)
Route aerial survey is a sequential photography of a narrow-strip of
terrain (for instances of river valleys) performed with an automatic earn-era
on a straight-line, interrupted, or curved route (Figures 3-1 and 12~#
Continuity of the route in the survey is insured by a previously assigned
linear overlap of consecutive photographs calculated according to the formula.
100(0.6 = b0a
where h is the greatest difference in elevation within the limits of the photo-
graphed portion, and Fit is the height of photography above the mean level of
the photographed locality.
In practice the obtained overlap of the consecutive aerial photographs
is determined from the formula
P% 100#
Y
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 RAI
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Ca ?~
where I,y, is the dimension of the photograph in the direction of flight in
centimeters, P is the overlapped portion of the photograph in that some
y
direction in centimeters.
The route survey is widely used in the most varied forms of investigation:)
of natural resources. It may be used also for cartographic purposes, but under
the condition that the route of observation is in a straight line. In connection
with difficulties arising In the photogrsrmletric processing of curved routes, and
also due to the substantial reduction in the accuracy in the results in topographo-
geodetic work, interrupted routes are used only as the exception, for example,
in surveying a seacoast; curved routes are not acceptable.
The route survey is usually carried out as a vertical survey., but under given
conditions may also be vertical-oblique and oblique for the purpose of increasing
effectiveness of the survey aircraft.
Mosaic aerial surveys are used in photographing large areas. They are carried
out in the form of straight, overlapping routes (Figure 13) oriented in a longitu-
dinal direction.
The lateral overlapping photographs of adjacent routes is calculated according
to the formula
A mosaic aerial photo survey performed for the purpose of obtaining a
topographic chart is executed within the limits of a tranpeziumof the future chart.
This survey is usually executed as a mosaic survey, but as with the route survey it
may be a vertical-oblique or oblique; under our conditions the latter forms do
not find wide application.
According to the scale we distinguish: large-scale surveys (1:10,000 and
larger), -surveys of medium-scale (1:10,000-1:30,000)x small-scale surveys (1:30,000-
1:80,000).
In topographic-geodetic operations using aerial photography for the pur-
bf ' 100 (0.3 + h ) !`'30%.
HT
In order to determine the actual overlap use is made of the formula
g
% Px 100,
where L, is the size of the photograph across the direction of flight in
centimeters and PP is the part of the photograph overlapping in this same
direction in centimeters.
pose of compiling maps we distinguish survey scales and representative scales.
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 xg
a
The latter is the scale of the map for compilation of Which the aerial survey
was performed. Between survey and presentative scales there exists a rela-
tion considering the conditions or 4he survey, the character of the region of
operations, and the required accuracy of the image of relief; the latter is
insured by an appropriately selected procedure of survey and processing and
also by the proper number of geodetic control marks (Table 2).
The formula for the scale (Section 2) as a function of the height of photo-
graphy H and the focal length fl, may be considered correct only or vertical
photographs. For oblique photographs the scale formula considers also the
angle of tilt of the optical axis from the perpendicular and is considerably
complicated (Section=?), hence the possibUity of classification .according
to scale for perspective (oblique) photographs is e '.inated.
According to the.finetl d of sequential nhotcgraumetri c processing, and
partly also according to the method of using the materials of aerial survey,
we distinguish the following types: contour, combined-contour, and stereo-
photogramrcetric (elevation-=stere0Scopic) surveys.
The contour survey .is uaed to obtain site (contour) plans of a locality
by replacing it with an ordinary vertical photograph along a certain route
over a definite area. The tasks of contour aerial survey are sometimes lisra.ted
to obtaining photographic plans (fotoskhema) (simple or 'ietailed). The latter
may with some success replace not only the visual but also the instrumental
survey of a locality as performed in the preliminary surveys for thydrographic
investigations.
The combined contour survey is a combination of two methods of obtaining
a topographic map: the photogran tri.c and the topographogeodetic. The
contour portion of the map (the "fotoplan") is obtained by office methods
from aerial. photographs and the relief is obtained directly at the locality
by one of the methods of plane geodetic sur-4ey. In arld3 tion, a s the vertical
base for survey of the relief use may be made of "fotoplanst` or even of indivi-
dual photographs,-the use of which eliminates the necessity for a vertical
tie-in of most points; the latter is replaced by simple control of points by
comparing the photographic record '4ith the terrain.
The combined contour aerial photo survey finds wide use in descriptive
navigational hydrographic operations in-which even non-transformed photographs
(contact prints) aressuccessfully used for tying in measuring operations to
the local orienting points giving rise to the image on the photographs.
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The stereophotogrammetric (elevation-stereoscopic) aerial photo survey
(Figure ii4) or, in its modern and fullest definition, the aerial surveyr has
as its task the reproduction and measurement of an optical model of the photo-
graphed surface from aerial photographs for the purposes of obtaining a topo-
graphic map of this surface or its quantitative characteristics (without depic-
tion of the obtained results in the form of graphic records).
Contenmorary aerial photogrammetry has at its ddsposal apparatus and methods
of processing of materials which permit limiting ground geodetic operations to
a minimum, being satisfied by the smallest number of geodetic control marks
necessary to produce a model on the given scale and to orient it in space.
Due to the fact that the task of the topographic aerial photographic survey
is to obtain equally precise characteristics for all elements of the landscape,
the materials of these photographs may be used as a basis for the most varied
(including hydrographic) investigations under the condition that the scale of
the survey,. the quality of "the photographic image, as yell as the time of the
--
survey (in some cases the latter circumstance may play a decisive role) corre-
spond to the purposes of the investigations being conducted. The materials of
topographic aerial surveys, as mass materials (by which a considerable part of
the territory of the Soviet Union has been mapped and which insure a reliable
geodetic foundation) are used in the most varied investigations of natural
resources both as a topographic base and as a means of obtaining information
concerning the objects under study and the surrounding environment.
Having agreed to consider the topographic aerial survey as a universal
survey, every other aerial survey (hydrographic, forestry, geological, etc)
may be considered as a specialized survey suited for the solution of special
problems confronting the given investigation. This consists first of all in
the choice of conditions of the survey, which conditions insure obtaining the
fullest information concerning the objects or elements of the landscape of
interest to one or another investigator (in--certain cases this possibility is
insured atthe cost. of a deterioration in the. quality of the photographic image
of the remaining object).
A second peculiarity of the specialized aerial surveys is the individual
approach to their organization and to the problem of the accuracy of results.
It is also chosen on the basis of the problems confronting the given investi-
ti-on.:ii distinction from the universal aerial svrvey (which as a method of
ga
K ri~.tt~ _
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F i~
F compilation of topographic maps meet the requirements for geodetic accuracy as
established for maps of a given scale) in the production of specialized aerial
surveys there are a number of extremely varied approaches to determining the
accuracy of measurement. Very often -44 accuracy of nuasurements from aerial
photographs and from a model is consiiered in connection with the accuracy of
the investigations underway and the results expected from them; hence the gener-
ally adopted concept of geodetic accuracy as a function of the scale of the map
is replaced with the idea of "operational accuracy," arising from the problems
confronting one or another investigation. Between these concepts it is not
possible to find a strict correspondence. In certain cases the requirements
for operational accuracy may be higher than for the accuracy of the geodetic.
Thus, for example, photographs intended for special riverbed studies (in par-
ticular, for determining the depths of streams) must meet higher requirements
than photographs intended for ordinary cartographic operations.
In the application of aerial surveys in hydrographic investigations it is
necessary to distinguish:
Photographic observations periodic or systematic aerial survey of the
object of investigation for the purposes of explaining and calculating the
changes occurring, in it, for example, the aerial survey of ice formations,
floods, melting snow, i eberg,, riverbed formations, etc.
Photographic investigations --- the aerial survey of one and the same object
on different scales and under different conditions with tote, use,-of sf:4rarouswappor..
tions of the spectrum for the purpose of clarifying the optimum conditions for
obtaining a clear image of the object of investigation on aerial photographs,
establishing its basic properties, disclosing the natural and artificial identi-
fying characteristics, etc.
Photographic observations and investigations are used chiefly in detailed
hydrographic investigations and are used as one of the means for obtaining the
regime characteristics of water objects and studying the seasonal changes in
when.
In the initial hydrographic investigations for obtaining the necessary infor-
mation concerning a water object or a group of them. there are perfoxmed various
specialized aerial surveys. Execution of the latter is. undertaken in the case
where for any reason it does not appear possible to use the materials of
existing topographic aerial surveys.
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Section 5. Information on The Technological Process of The Photographic
Aerial vey
In the complex process of the photographic aerial survey used for measur-
ing purposes we -distir ish four distinct but closely interrelated processes
performed in a given sequence: aerial survey, photographic, photogra.mmotric,
and geodetic. In addition, the interpretation of aerial photographs is
considered as an independent operation in aerial photographic surveys. The
latter is treated (see Chapter IV) as a definite scientific investigative
process having as its task the explanation by means of photographs of one or
another object or element of a landacape and obtaining detailed characteristics
of them,
The processes comprising the aerial survey acquire specific features and
importance within the overall volume of operations according to the tasks con-
fronting the survey. For example, geodetic operations may be minimized or
completely -omitted where the aerial survey is undertaken for the purpose of
obtaining illustrative material or as a method of recording the changing prop-
erties of one or another object. This circumstance imposes definite limitations
on the photogranmetric process; the ensuing photo rarmetric construction, com-
pletely lacking a geodetic base, will permit obtaining only approximate auanti.-
to tive characteristics. At the saran: time, with such specialization in the aerial
photographic survey there is a considerable increase in the role of the photo-
graphic process, since for solution of the task confronting one or another
investigatory the aerial survey calls for an especially clear, easily photo-
graphic image of the object up-der study., and this in turn gives certain specific
properties to the process of the aerial survey (the type and scale of the photo-
graphic survey, the type of aerial camera, and the aircraft, the conditions and
time of survey, etc).
All the peculiarities of the technological process of the aerial photographic
survey find their reflection in the technical plan of the survey, which plan is
drawn up for each individual case.
1. The Aerial Survey Pidcess
The task' of the aerial survey process (the principal process of the aerial
photographic survey) i s. photographing the earth's surface according to definite
rules, observation of which guarantees the possibility of using the materials
of the aerial photograp MargeY ~ idtt the thoroug es.~ r
--b~ required by the purpose
of the survey.
21
g
KIR~
:a
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The principal requirements confronting the results of aerial survey opera-
Lions are as follows:
(a) obtaining a clear photographic image of sharp contrast with the proper
transmission of color shading of the elements of the landscape;
(V-): observing the given route and scale of the survey in complete, uninter-
rupted coverage of the area under survey;
(c) observing the assigned position of the optical axis of the aerial camera.
There are no aircraft especially designed for aerial photography. Ordinary
transport aircraft of the most varied characteristics are used for'aericl photo-
graphic surveys. Some of these differences (for example, speed) cause a whole
series of difficulties not only in obtaining the initial materials (the negatives)
but also in processing them.
The execution of aerial photographic survey operations is possible only under
specific meteorological and atmospheric-optical conditions which go under the
general term of aerial survey weather. These conditions are: clear, cloudless
sky and the absence of haze (atmospheric haze, dust, smoke, city haze, etc). A
choice of these conditions usually presents considerable difficulties due to the
fact that the number of clear days in the year is usually extremely small; in
spring and summer$ when aerial survey operations are carried out, the number of
survey days within the various latitudes ranges from 30 to 60.
Under certain conditions aerial photography may be performed even in the
of clouds (including solid clouds) but with the stifula tion tluit r_ La wher
presence
the cloud nor its shadow shall fall within the field of view of the lens, other-
urlse the resulting photographs will be useless.
(a). Characteristics of Aerial Photograptgy ?
Aerial photography has a whole series of special characteristics;, the princi-
pal of these is as follows: -
(1) the survey is made with an aerial camera the optical axis of which is
continually displaced relative to the ground with considerable velocity.
(2) Between the lens of the aerial camera and the survey object there is a
considerable depth of atmosphere, which is a turbid medium and extremely hetero-
geneous in its composition, which composition varies with tire.
The first of these characteristics necessitates adjustment for rapid expo-
sures of the light-sensitive layer, and the second of these characteristics calls
for prolonged exposures. In order to satisfy both requirements and to obtain
thereby photographs which e. suitable for future use it is necessary to have at
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one's disposal the greatest possible selection of aerial survey facilities and
photographic materials. The possibilities in this respect are somewhat limited,
hence the deciding factor in the success of aerial. photography is the proper
selection and use of the conditions of photography as wee. as allowance for them
in processing the materials.
Due to the high-speed forward movement of the aerial camera in flight, and
edpec~ally also because the problem of stabilization of the optical axis of the
camera during the survey has still not been solved, during exposure all points
corlsttituting the image of local objects on the light-sensitive layer are displaced
by a certain value S known as the image shift (Figure l'). This value, depending
on the flight altitude H, the focal length of the camera f1{, the flight speed W,
and exposure E, is determined from the formula..S = fy WE.
With reference to the accuracy of the photogravmetri c measurements,, image
shifts exceeding 0.014 ma are considered excessive for aerial photographs intended
for measuring purposes. In photographs used for illustration or to obtain the
qualitative characteristics of the objects under investigation permissible image
shifts may be considerably greater; how=ever, if this shift exceeds 0.10i::nim, then
it becomes visible even to the naked eye and the image itself lacks sharpness
and is blurred. Such photographs are considered useless.
Assigning the values S = 0.011 mm, fk = 100 nun, h = 3,000 m, and S- 1/50 sec,
we Imow that the flight speed of the aircraft used for the aerial photographic
survey must not exceed 60 m/sec or 216 km/hr.
Such a requirement for the aircraft, established on the basis of a survey
scale of 1:30,000, may be considered optimal.
The use of aircraft at high speeds is not eli.-ainated; houreve', in this case,
especially in surveys at low altitudes, there is necessary a consilerable decrease
in the duration of the exposure, which is limited:
(1) by the design characteristics of the shutters of photogramnietric aerial
cameras., which permit a reduction in 'shutter speed only to 1/300 sec;
(2) the light sensitivity of the photographic materials;
(3) the conditions of aerial photography, which must be adjusted for increased
durations of exposure in comparis? LAjith the calculated durations on the basis of
the above f'ortmla.
2-3
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(b) Conditiona of Aerial. PholoprapbY
The duration of exposure necessary to obtain the clearest and most
informative details of the photographic image on-the light-sensitive
layer of the film depends upon an entire series of factors; chief among
these are:
(1) the illumination of the survey object; (2) the reflectivity of the
survey object; (3) the optical qualities of the aerial camera; (4) the
light-sensitivity of the emulsion layer of the film.
The illumination of the earth's surface depends on the elevation of
the sun above the horizon; it continually changes and often in the most
random manner. On their way to the earth's surface the rays of the sun,
in passing through the turbid atmosphere, undergo attenuation; this
attenuation increases as the elevation of the sun decreases. In addition-,
these rays undergo scattering. The greatest scattering occurs with rays
comprising the short-wave portion of the spectrum: the violet, blue, and
indigo portions, forming the so-called haze?.
Depending, upon the presence of vapor, haze, dust, and other foreign
matter, the transparency of the air may vary considerable over the courses
of a relatively short period of time, and the value and character of
illumination intensity-.,ill vary accordingly.
Light rays falling upon the surface of the earth are to a con-
siderable degree n r.3 absorbed by it. The average reflection of light
by the objects of aerial photography during the sumner amounts on the
average to 20 percent, wherein moist surfaces reflect less than half
the amount of light reflected by dry surfaces (Table 3). This also
explains the difference in tone of their imges on aerial photographs.
Reflection of light from open ,wader' varies from 2 to 70 percent,
depending on the angle of incidence of the sun's rays and on the state
of the surface of the water.
Before entering the lens of the aerial camera, the light rays re-
flected by the object of photography again pass through a certain layer of
the atmosphere the height of which depends on the altitude of flight and
is subjected thereby to a partial absorption and scattering which eb efly
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affects the rays in the short-wave portion of the spectrum.
In the passage of a light beam through the lens of the aerial
camera there also occurs absorption and scattering of light rays amounting
to 30 percent of the total incident rays at the objective; this figure varies
for the different lenses. Along with the "useful" rays of the long-wave
portion of the spectrum constituting the photographic image, there also
falls on the light,-sensitive layer in considerable quantity rays of the
short-wave portion of the spectrums, scattered within the depth of the
atmosphere forming the air haze.
These rays, acting uniformyv on the light-sensitive layer, cause general
fogging of the entire image, making it illegible.
The most effective method for eliminating or reducing the harm-Sul
effects of atmospheric haze is the use of colored light filters placed
over the lens of the camera, and, in addition, the use of special types of
film. The light filters used in aerial photography absorb the rays of the
short-wave portion of the spectrum reflected and scattered by the atmosphere
and, by thus decreasing the effect of atmospheric haze, increase the contrast
By selecting a combination of film type and light filter and by using
the appropriate photo-lab processing of the exposed files, it is possible
to achieve a considerable increase in the contrast of the negatives.
In the system of measures for combating the effect of atmospheric haze
a very important role is also played by the choice of time for aerial
photo-,raphy. It has been established that the most favorable time for a
survey is in the morning hours, the periods after summer rains, and the
periods of the stable winter anticycline.
Due to the fact that with the sun at elevations less than 20 degrees
aerial photographs with extreme image contracts are obtained., and long
deep shadows of local objects render interpretation difficult, it is re-
cornded that the aerial photographic survey be begun not earlier than
two hours after sunrise and concluded not later than three hours before
sunset. It must also be pointed out that with the sun at elevations greater
than 20 degrees there occurs a constancy of the spectral component of solar
radiation over the entire visiable portion of the spectrum.
of the photographic image.
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v.C dew,.
This circumstance is of mat importance in conducting in conducting
an aerial photographic survvey, permitting the use of one and the sane
combination of film with a light filter in the course of the entire survey
day. This, however, is possible only in the event that the choice of one
or another combination of film with light filter, aside from considerations
of combatting the effect of atmospheric haze, is not intended to solve a
another special problem -- obtaining the greatest image contrast of one or
another previosly chosen element of the terrain on the basis of a preliminary
calculation of+its spectral characteristic. Such possibility also exists;.
in the practice of aerial photography it is known as "spectrozonal survey"
and is intended to reveal artificial or natural "color concealment's of the
objects of photography (doe above, Photographic investigations).
The non-uniform effect of coloration of local objects on the light-
sensitive layer of the film is expressed in the differing den-:ity of the
negative upon development. Conversion of the color shades into different
tones (from white to black on a monochromatic photograph) depends on the
selectivity of the light-sensitive layer (its spectral sensitivity).
By the introduction of special coloring agents kno n as sensitizers
into the photographic et lsions the e uulsions acquire special sensitivity
to certain rays of the spectram, which appear especially strong with the
use of an appropriate light filter, and in addition, with a speci M
chosen proportion of chemical ingredients and regime of processing.
With a great variety ?ten the color of local objects it is difficult to
select such a combination of film and filter as will, without excluding
local objects and elenents of the terrain,, insure the necessary image
contrast of the negative. Large or small exaggeration of the tone of inages
on a ncpochrorfatic photograph is unavoidable., This peculiarity of monochromatic
photography also lies at tie-asR s of the spectrozonal method of photography.
In essence it consists in the fact that to reveal one or another object
or element of the terrain its photographic image is built up at the same in
different portions of the spectrum; in other words, the object under stud
is photographed by several, cameras at the same time on different types
26
rk
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of film with the use of appropriate filters*
comparing the photograph obtained in this manner it is possible to
.vy
disclose the details which are variously recorded on the different types Of
film and thereby to insure the fullest study of one or another object (
(Fi ure 16). In spectrozonal investigations both the Yisable invisible
portion of the spectrum are used with success.
In Performing aerial Photographic surveys over l=arge areas useA is made
of generalized spectral characteristics of the terrain and, according to
their contorts various combinations of film and filters are used.
(c) F s filters azcd Their Use
The film used in aerial photographic surveys have a celluloid base
and is produced in roll form for use on standard spools.
The light-sesisi.tive layer consists of a layer of gelatin (0.01-0. 2 V
thick) contain' ng a suspension of uniformly distributed silver bro.-;:- -de
a
crystals which are sensitive to lig1t and with a small admixture of silver
iodide.
The photographic qualities of the light-sensitive layer are characterized
by the following indexes: (1) total and effective (with filter) sensitivity;
(2) spectral sensitivity; (3) contrast; (Is) latitude; (5) fog; (6) and;re-
solving power.
As has already been mentioned, the specific features of aerial photography
make it necessary to strive for reduced shutter speeds, the use of which even
under favorable atmospheric-9ptical conditions is possible only on the con-
dition that the film possesses a high overall light-sensitivity. A film
which is to be used under unfavorable conditions of ilumination, and in
conducting a s u r v e y from l o w a l t i t u d e s ( w h e n especially tt - exposures
are required) rrast have the highest sensitivity. -
The use of falters is accompanied by a decrease in shutter-speed by
a factor of 1.5 to 4 according to the characteristics of the filter and the
light-sensitive layer used. The inadequate effective sensitivity of aerial
film when used :=ath a light filter makes it impossible to obtain a photographic
14
27
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ie under unfavorablo.,~onditions of photograph.
The spectral sensitit.ity of the film must correspond to the conditions
of the survey and in chosen on the basis of the spectral characteristic of
the object of the photographic survey. in photographing vegetative cover
the predominate color is yellow-green; in photographing open terrain greens
orange, and red predominate; and in photographing -water surfaces indigo and
blue predominate. On the basis of the "mean" landscape it mist be required
that film used for aerial. photographic purposes be, sensitive to the yellow-
greon and orange portions of the spectrum.
The contrast "ter the film (the I ganna") is Qcpre'ssod by the clearness
with which the aerial negative shoes the most insignificant difference of
intensity of illumination of individual portions of the image of the survey
object. In, aerial photography use is made of high-contrast film ("gars"
not less than l.!) characterized by a considerable increase in the density
of the n ga rive with a small increase in expos?era.
Determination of the exposure (the product of the duration of action
of light or the shutter speed and the brightness of individual portions
of the terrain) depends upon an entire series of factors.
L n order to determi tie the exposure necessary to obtain the normal
photographic image it is necessary to know: (1) the brightness of the
object of survey at a given moment; (2) the at- pheric-optical conditions;
(3) the coloration of the earth's cover; (li) the optical characteristic of
the aerial camera; (5) the characteristic of tho ca rs shutter; (6) the
effective sensitivity of the film.
Due to the fact that not all of the abovementioned factors may be
calculated with sui'l'i,cient accuracy (despite the existence of a whole
series of tables and special devices for determining exposure) in the
solution of this problem, especially in surveying irregular terrain,
there are often obtained and me be considered unavoidable underexposures
and overexposures :aa thin the ? ire{ is of one and the saw ((even though not
very long) flight route. Sizap]y stated., within the Units of one and the
same photograph different racy be considered as
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obtained under different exposures, depending on the brightness of these
portions.
If the light-sensitive layer has sufficient latitude (that is, the
ability to correctly reproduce the ratio of drightnesses of the survey
ob.',ect) then, without any special loss, for the quality of the photograph
we nay permit certain dep.>rtures from the correct shutter speed both in
the direction Sf underexposure and of overexposure. This condition must
be net by all light-sensitive layers used in aerial photography; their
latitudes must not be less than 1:8.
The tendency.for aerial photographic film to fog appears over the
course of a certain period of time which is relatively uniform for each
type of emulsion. This period of tirr is known as the warranty period,
i n the course of which the film Y nanintains its quality. r ar ;t.ost types of
film the warranty period under normal conditions of storage is 4-6 months.
The tendency toward fogging is noted chiefly in the layers with the highest
sensitivity.
The fog density, which may be observed by examining a specimen of
unexposed processed film in the light, must not exceed the given standard.
The light-sensitive layers Md@d for aerial photography must also have
a high resolving power which permits distinguishing on the negatives the
smallest details of the survey objects; this is especially important in,
those cases where the aerial photographic survey is used for measurement
purposes.
The resolving power of the light-sensitive Layers must not be less
than alines per rm.. I.nsiir:UiC that the requirements not only for visual
but also for iaastrunental interpretation of the aerial photographs will
be met.
The convenience of using one or another combination of a certain type
of film with light filter depends on the conditions of aerial photography.
Consideration is here given to the following factors:
(a) conditions of illumination (intensity and svectral component of
light);
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(b) presence of Y: its origin and intensity;
(v) distance from the object to the photograph;
(d) characteristic peculiarities of the object to be photographed
(its coloration and reflectivity).
At the present tUte the notion picture industry produces the follow-
ing, types of f iln.
U'rthochroii,atic film -- sensitive to violet, blue, and.indigo, as
well as to yellow.-green rays of the spectrun. It ray be used with ex-
cellent illumination,, in the presence of fairly noticeable-haze or in its
complete absence, to obtain vertical photographs, with yellow or dark
ye31o.: light filter (Figure 1?)
Isopanchrovatic film -- sensitive to all rays f rom violet to the
red portion of the spectra;. In addition to increased sensitivity to
rays of the violet portion of the spectrum (,,;ni ch increase is ordinary
for all lit-sensitive layers), the film has increased sensitivity to
the rays of the yellow portion. It 5-s used with good illumination and
weak hoze, with yellow and bright orange filters (nee kz?ure. l7`:
Panchror tic s'ilm --- sensitive to rays of the visible portion
of the spectrum and posseses increased sensitivity to the orange-red rays;
it is tr,Jed in the presence of poor illumination and solid clouds. Sorge
types of this fifr., have a generally high sensitivity, permit photographing
after the sun has set. The high sensitivity of panchromatic film to red
rays of the spectrum pernita photography in the presence of considerable
haze when used with orange and red light filters (se? Figure 17).
Infrachromatic film - sensitive to all portien-9 of the vi sable
spectrum and, in additions to the invisible, infra-red rays next in
length to the visible red rays; it is not sensitive to green This
film is used under poor conditions of v .' bi ity, with orange or red (the
so-called corrective filters) filters, which, having a high radius of
curvature, displace tine focal plane of the lens in infra-red photographs
the focal plane -1r, somewhat farther away from the lens than in photographs
in the visible ,portion of the spectrum (see Figure 17)..
The characteristic of filters used for aerial photo ;raphy are given in
The filter factor, uses
marked on the rim of the filter, indicates
the number of tines by which the shutter speed z rust be increased as con-
pared 1-Ath exposure without the use of the filter.
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Aerial photography is always perforred -ith the use of a fi lter,
except in those cases where its use will be known to cause underexposed
negatives
In interpreting aerial. photographs it is necessary to knov what rays
were used to obtain the photogron! -Oc iriawe.
This considerably facilitates
interpretation, hence the records of photographic flights contain detailed
information concerning the conditions of photography and data concerning
the combination of file: and light filter used in performing the photography.
Along uri.th the flight i records, the exposed film is turned over to the
~hoto raph laboratory for processing (developing, faxing, washing and dry-
ing) which is perforred with special devices., manual or automatic, de-
pending on the value of aerial photographic BuxveJ soperations.
2. The Photographic Process
It is the task of the photographic process to che~-dcally record the
light rays hich, entering the leis of the aerial ca= in its movement
over the earth's surface, create within its fecal plane a series of inages
of this terrain. The results of this recording are expressed in the form
of negatives, contact prints, and various reprodictions.
Both in the negative process and in the positive process of photography
the task of converting the "latent" image -i^to a visible (developed) image
and fixing it in a state which is not sensitive to light (fixing) is
solved by nears of special solutions compounded after a detailed prescript-
;.on and used under precisely controlled conditions.
By changing the ratio of reagents in solutions and, the concentration
of the latter it is possible to accelerate or retard the process of development,
to obtain iTages with greater contrasts and better detail., to equalize the
shortcomings caused by improperly determined exposure, ite under the
conditions of a properly chosen cycle of development.
The use of one or another developing solution and the choice of a
developing cycle i or the filr-i precedes the preliminary tests (development
of samples) based on consideration of the conditions of photograpYyr, the
characteristics of the film, as well as the purposes and types of further
use of the materials of the aerial photographic survey.
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The average developing tire for a fully-petered /polnor:etrazhniy/file
(30 by 6,000 cry) is 15-20 minutes with a developer temperature of 18-20
degrees.
After washing the developed film (which is necessary in order to re-
move the residue of the developing solution) it is necessary to fix the
film in an appropriate solution, in which the-silver bromide not subject
to the action of light is converted into a compound soluble in water and
with subsequent washing is rer:oved, while the layer itself acquires great
stability.
The final washing and dzy3ng of the film corbpletes the process for
obtaining the source materials of the aerial survey -- the aerial negatives.
The total tine required for the negative process (without drying of the film)
amounts to appropinately two hours.
The aerial negatives roust meet the following requirements :
(a) a clear ire ;e of the photographed object with detailed re-
pre ntation' of the sn.a icat features in --mr u.tones;
(b) adequate and approximately identical image density over the entire
(c) the absence of defects in the form on breai s, scratches, fogging,
spots.;, blurs, and other defects which in obtaining; the i^ sge on contact
prints may ca4ajeste use of the photographs or lead to errors in interpretat-
ion.
Despite the e s istence of thoroughly elaborated procedure for the
laboratory processing, of film, it, is e 7
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Fpr prei.ininary planning of operations for tying-in of photcgr aplis it
is assumed that the number of tied-in contour points (control marks (opoznalyJ)
on each trapezium must be:
(a) in obtaining reconnaissance strips (fotopiany~ on a scale of 1:50,000
from a flight on a scale of 1:25,000 from 6 to 10 cont r points,
(b) in obtaining reconnaissance strips on a scale of 1:25,000 from a
flight on a scale of 1:17,000 -.- from 5 to 8 contour points.
In the practice of complex surveys, when the sane photographs are used
for different purposes (including for tying-in measuring operations re-
placing mapping) geodetic operations in the tying-in of contour points
are usually performed with consideration of the requirements of special
investigations.
In certain cases the tying-;in of photographs is conveniently done after
river -measurements (in order to insure the plane and elevational tying-in
of local objects and artificial constructions used as orienting points in per-
forming the measurements and other special in vestigations). In other
cases the tying-in of photographs is conveniently performed at the SUM
time special investigations which include the geodetic survey.
The specific features of the aerial photographs c survey which is to he
used for different special investigations find their reflection also in the
geodetic process. For exaample, in hydrological investigations the surface
of the object of investigation (a river or a lake) may be considered as the
initial elevation base or as an essential addition to the grid of elevation
control points necessary for reproduction of the model. This possibility
must quite often be used in surveys of rivers performed along curved or
broken routes when,, in the presence of previously known unfavorable
survey conditions, there arises the need for a considerable increase
in the number of control points in order to insure the given accuracy
of measurements. At the same, especially in investigations of extremely
wide rivers, tt.ere arises the needdfdzrra considerable increase in
geodetic ground operations, because the use of photogranmetric methods
of joining arici of control points in such cases often proves impossible j
38
'~~.:.~:.?~-
I. '~ 2 t Y::':`'i:1:; ..:..:Cf:.i l.r_/:Y~:. ,'G.~r:_ +. 2.?I#-2.4 ~i~. Wit?'' i~`ri
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(due to the fact that on the image of the water surface, in tha absence
of islands it is difficult to select control points for photot7e4.angulatloZ) ?
The volume and staff of geodetic operations, based on the materials
of the aeria? photographic survey, to a considerable degree depend on the
features of the object of the investigations and on tho tasks confronting
them.
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~p7
f. =
. RIIICIt LES 0 I':iQT RAIC . Y
Section 6. Terrinolo
w a
The geometric foundations of photogrammetry proceed from the theox;r
of perspective., the elements of which in their application to the aerial
photographic survey have a special terminology. This terminology is most
conveniently exam i.3ned by way of example from an aerial photograph obtained
with considerable tilt of the optical axis of the camera.
figure 20 shows the relations between the elements of n oblique
(perspective) photograph and the horizontal terrain.
The center of the projection S is the center of the lens (more exactly,
the front nodal point of the leas of the aerial camera).
The picture plane ? is the plane of the negative on which (by photograhic
means) the coordinate marks are fixed, -ohich marks are located in the
nniddle on each of its sides.
The principal r y ~ is the principal axis of the lens of the aerial
camera, perpendicular;-to the plane of the negative.
The principal 'poi nt of the picture, or the principal point of the
photograph, 0 is the intersection of the principal optical axis with the
plane of the negatives; on the photograph it is de. I i ncd by the i ntersectin
of the straight lines joining opposite coordinate marks.
The base plane or oyb ject plane T is the moan level surface of the
earth or the surface of plane E.
The principal vertical plane W is the vertical passing through the
principal optical axis.
The principal vertical VV is the intersection of the plane of the
principal vertical with the plane of the negative.
The horizon line hjhi is the intersection of the plane of the negative
with the horizontal plane passing through the center of the projection.
The principal horizontal hh in the intersection Of the plane of the
negative with the horizontal plane passing through the principal point of
the photograph.
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measured along the principal optical axis from the rear nodalppoint of
the lens to the focal plane (the plane of the negative).
The horizontral is the intersection of the plane of the negative with
the horizontal plane passing through an arbitrary point on the negative.
The perspective axis is the intersection of the picture plane with
the object plane.
The survey height H is the distance from the center of the projection
to the object plane measured along a perpendicular line.
The principal distance OS ? 4 is the focal :eng of the camera
The nadir point n is the point of-intersection of the plane of the
negative with a perpendicular line passing through the center of the
projection S.
The principal point of convergence Io is the point of intersection
of the principal vertical VV with the line of the horizon.
The point of zero distortions c is the point of intersection of the
bisectrix of the angle of the principal vertical.
The angle of tilt the angle lying between the main optical
axis and the perpendicular.
The angle of siring x is the angle at the principal point of the
photograph created by the principal vertical with the direction Y of the
photograph.
The azibth (the directional angle) is the angle comprised by the
projection of the principal vertical and the direction of the meridian.
From figure 20 we may make the following direct determinations of
the positions of the principal points of -perspective (including the
vertical) photograph:
the principal point of convergence
0I_ ;. fcot
the nadir point
on _, ftan ,.,
the point of zero distortion
oc fktan
The distance from the point of zero distortion c to the principal point
41
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FFxx
of convergence
cl =S1 wfk
0 0 sin
The distance from the perspective axis TT to the principal point of
convergence is
IV = 11
o sin
The statemente of projective goometry used for analysis of the aerial
photograph and in its use for measuring purposes are formulated in the
following manner.
1. For a series of parallel straight lines lying in the object plane
and parallel lines in the diroction of photography, the point of convergence
10 lies at :ho intersection of the line of the horizon h1hi with the princi-
pal vertical 1s (Figure 21) and is known as the principal point of convergence.
2. For a series of parallel straight lines not parallel to the direction
of the line of photography, the point of convergence Ii lies on a line of the
horizon hihi, being; the 1,aometric location of the point of convergence of paral-
lel straight lines lying in the object plane (Figure 22.)
3. For a series of parallel straight lines perpendicular tot-Ale, object
plane, the point of convergence is the nadir point n (Figure 23.)
Section 7. Aerial Photograph Scale, Image Distortion on Aerial Photographs,_
Their Useful Area
The relation between the elements of L he image on the photograph and
the corresponding elements on the torrai.r is ^ a pressed, a as stated in
Section- 2, in the fora of a scale. The, latter is a value which is constant
for the entire Die-hure plane (a horizontal photograph of flat terrain) and is
deteruii ned from the fomula.
nz I6 ,
For oblique photographs, as well as vertical ( ' 0), the iaa e
scale is variable.
The scale of the aerial photograph along- any contour line is
fk(cos
.42
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The scrlc along the contour lino passing through the nadir point is
1IIfk 1
,' u cos
The scale along the contour line passing through the principal point
of the photograph is
1 = fk cos
r. rr
The scale along the line of the true horizon hihi passing through the
principal point of convergence 10 is
f
1 = I` (Cos
rn It
fk Cos sin ) _ (0)
fk sin
whence it follows that at the line of the trio horizon any sognont becomes
a point.
The scale along the line of zero distortions is
1=fk
n il
The last formula points out an unusual property of the contour line
passing through the point of zero distortions on an oblique photograph:
on its and only on it., the image scale is the same as on a horizontal
photograph. This scale on an oblique photograph is known as the principal
scale and t he contour line passing through the point of zero distortions is
known as the line of principal scale or the line of zero distortion.
The scale for a segment located on the principal vertical is variable
and differs for each point taken on this segment.
Below we present a brief characterization of the distortions usual.l
observed on an aerial photograph.
(a) Distortions of angles on an oblique photograph. There are ttmo
causes for distortions of angles on oblique photographs: (1) tilt of the
optical axis of the camera and (2) the relief of the terrain.
Only those angles formed by lines originating at points of zero
distortion (Figure 2h) remain undistorted; for then
tan 0 = tan 0'o
An',les at the nadir point of an oblique photograph are always less
than their corresponding angles on the terrain (Figure 25); for thew
tan 0 = tan 00 cos
Angles at the principal point of an oblique photograph are larger
than their corresponding angles on the terrain (Figure 26); for them
_4 3
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tan 0 = tan 0 0
r', -? vr4 L-*1.,s :7~" ~: M .. ''3.'- i :..'.t`v::;.:iy
a::rP~it':r:l'r :C-~ji~i. a~ ..: 'sY'~C.?.".. "a''1:~.''?...w"~:P~,:.
cos
} aximiim distort-10-115 of angles f 0...rd 1b J the pr neipal vertical and
a given line are with 45 degrees and ? 135 degrees.
Distortion of angles at the principal axis of a vertical photograph
of level terrain does not exceed 2-3 minutes.
Under the conditions of a clearly expressed relief the distortion of
angles is determined by the abruptness of this relief.
(b) Displacement of points on the aerial photograph caused by tilt
of the optical axis of the camera. Under the influence of the tilt of
the optical axis of the aerial camera. relative to the perpendicular all
segments of the photograph change Choir length and direction, and points
are displaced relative to the position which they are likely to occupy on
a horizontal photograph with 0 dcC -re es.
Displacement of points caused by tilt of the optical. axis is directed
either toward the point of zero distortion or away fro;.1 it.
For practical calculations the value of dlsplaceent of the points
may be taken as
r2an,
f
where r is the distance between the observed point and the point of zero
distortion, a = 0.03 for vertical photographs, in is tr:o denominator of
the numerical scale of the Photograph, and fk is then focal length of the
cane ra,
(c) Distortion of image on the aerial photograph due to 161-:t effect
of relief. On the photograph of a hilly terrain the i cages of points l~.av--
in,, certain deviations above the average level surface are displaced:, either
in the direction of the nadir point n (lowering) or away from it (raising).
Segments aao and bbo (Fig ire 27) expresses t:3e displacement of the images
of points A and 13 on an aerial photograph.
From the sketch it is seen that
h=rhand3 =aaa=rh
Pk it
The error in the image of a point as caused by the influence of the
relief of the terrain is directly proportional to the deviation of this
point from the mean lev-e01 surface, the distance of the point frrcm the
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principal point of the photographs and is inversely proportional to the
height of photograp$Y.
Distortion due to relief is a feature distinguishing the crv crs.
projection (in which terrain plans are compiled) from the central pro-
jection (in which aerial photographs are made). It is. not possible to
avoid errors due to relief; they nay only be decreased by increasing
the focal length and the height of photography, as follows from the f orm-
ula.
Additional angular distortion which results du,., to displacement of
points on the aerial photograph due to the influence of relief is appar-
ent' if , over the extent of one km of terrain the difference in elevation
of individual points exceeds t 30 m. If the vertex of the angles to be
measured is the point of zero distortions, then, as was mentioned above,
these angles will be undistorted. This important property of the point
of zero distortions lies at the basis of phototriangulation (see below).
On vertical aerial photographs the point of zero distortion in
practice is taken to coincide with the principal point of the photograph.
(d) Scale difference of adjacent aerial photographs as caused by
a change in the flight altitude. Flight altitude in aerial photography
along a given route is maintained with an accuracy of t 15 m, and between
flight routes i 30 m. Variations in the height of photography are re-
flected in a difference in position of identical points on adjacent photo-
graphs and is expressed as a lack of coincidence of contours for one and
the same lmge
betting r represent the distance between the principal point of a
photograph and an observed points the error due to difference in scale
at the juncture of two overlapping aerial photographs may be calculated
from the formula
i R rdB
dH 'S_
Linear displacement of the points of an images caused by change in
the height of photography, is directed toward the principal point of the
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_
eFii?_ ~
,:'s; ?i? ;"+.`.~P,. , . 'rk:;`'i+::i?ki"'`?r~.3,-'~,n:"s.'s.'ae`-~t`~~ aj?ti'~~d.;.?
The Useful Area of An Aerial Photograph
Analysis of the above formulae leads to the conclusion that distortion
of the photographic image is greatest in the peripheral portions. Assuming
that in general these distortions do not exceed a certain previously assigned
value, on the photograph, it is possible to mark off the so-called useful area
within the limits of which measurement may be performed.
The radius of this area may be determined from any formula taking into
account the combined influence of the above-mentioned errors, for examples
according to the Klimov formula
In this formula hm is the maximum deviation over the average plane, 1/m
is the average scale of the photograph, . is the assigned accuracy of mea-
surement in mm.
In practice, the useful area is not taken to be circular but a rectangle,
the sides of which are lines extending through the center of the actual over.
lap of adjacent photographs.
Sect. The Transformation of Aerial Photographs
Direct calculation of distortions and obtaining precise qualitative char-
acteristics of the different elements of a landscape from vertical aerial
photographs (contact prints) are somewhat complex and, what is more, an ex-
tremely- difficult and labor-consuming task. Hence it is convenient to con-
vert the aerial photograph as a whole (or in parts) to a horizontal photograph
in order that on it, as on a plan, any measurements may be performed. Such
conversion is known as transformation of serial photographs. It usually en-
tails reducing all aerial photographs of a given flight route to one, pre.
assigned scale convenient for use. This work is performed on special instru-
ments known as transforming printers (Figure 28 and 29) in which there is re-
produced and then fixed on an appropriately placed screen the tie-in of pro-
jecting rays (Figure 30).
In order to place the screen in the required position it is necessary
to have not less than four control points on the photograph. These points
by one or another method must be applied to the screen and through each of
them there must pass the corresponding projecting rays from the light beams,
reproduced by means of the projector of the transforming printer. After this,
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there is fastened to the screen a sheet of printing paper and on it is printed
the converted image of the locality, free of distortions which might arise due
to perspective.
Here it is especially necessary to enPhasize that in transforming aerial
photographs distortion due to relief and a change in flight altitude are not
eliminated. They may only be reduced to a certain xnininwm. Thus in trans-
forming photographs of hilly terrain and in large-scale aerial photographic
survey transformation must be performed for elevated areas and thereby it will
be possible to observe the scale of the photographic image over the entire
area of the photograph.
Determination of control points necessary for transformation is performed
either by geodetic or photogrammetric means. The first method is used only in
compiling plans an a very large scale in the form of a continuous tie-in of
aerial photographs to a specially developed geodetic grid. In all other cases,
the number of control points necessary for transformation of the photographs
is determined photogrammmetrically, by a method of phototriangulation based on
a sparse grid of geodetically determined and identified points (control marks)
on the aerial photographs. A phototriwngul.ation series for a certain flight
path is constructed graphically by means of intersections and resections rela-
tive to the initial directions, which are the directions between the principal
or central points of adjacent photographs. In this wsy constancy of the ori-
enting points of photographs within the limits of the flight path is achieved.
The principal method of development of phototriangulation is the construction
of a single-route., rhombic series,, which is evolved both from the negatives
and from contact prints (Figure 31).
Narking by means of a templet the principal or central. points on the neg-
atives or prints, they are subsequently used to plot at these points angles
,which are practically equal (see above) according to the angles of the terrain,
and whence the images of central points on adjacent photographs are located
and marked off. Thus, the initial directions are obtained and from them the
photographic base of the survey scale. Thereby, by means of the intersections,
as in the plane-table survey, it is possible to determine the positions (1)
of the tie points (1')s (2) the transformation points (T), and (3) the grid
control points (B) (Figure 33). The tie points are chosen in pairs in the
zone of triple overlap; the transformation points, according to which the
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transformation of photographs is subsequently performed, are brought approx-
imately to the points of intersection of lines passing through the center of
longitudinal and transverse overlapping (that is, tt per each photograph).
After marking the points with pin pricks (or at the same time) the so-called
"radial" tracings are prepared. Placing the aerial photograph on a sheet of
tracing paper, all the marked points are repricked on it and then encircled
in pencil and lines drawn in their directions (radials) from the principal
(central) points.
By placing a pair of adjacent tracing sheets together along the initial
directions, it is possible to obtain on any scale a grid of points determining
the relative base. Placing a third sheet next to the pair, it is moved along
the initial direction 2-3 so that the radials at tie-points P2 and P2+ pass
through the intersection of the same radials on the preceding photographs.
In this manner there is determined (tied-in) the position of the third photo-
graph, and together with it a new pair of tie points, etc.
As a rule, phototriangulation is performed on an arbitra,. scale and
hence the plotted series mist be copied on a strip of tracing paper of ap-
propriate size and reduced to the required scale. This work is performed
by optical-mechanical means on a special device known as a photo reducer.
This is a large and accurate projector in which the sheet of tracing paper
with the Applied phototriangulation grid is placed and illuminated. On the
screen of the reducer there is a plane table with the control points marked
on it. Upon achieving satisfactory coincidence of the projected control
points with the control points on the plane table, a hard, sharp pencil is
used to mark the position of the central and transforming points. With this
the process of concentration of the vertical control grid by means of tri-
angulation is concluded. In transforming the photographs, as was stated
above, relief is taken into account, hence the transformed points must ob-
tain the corresponding displacement on the plane table base.
After transformation, photographs are obtained which are practically
free of distortion. From these it is possible to assemble either uncon.
trolled mosaics (fotoplan) or controlled mosaics (fotoskhem). For this
purpose it is necessary to remove the overlapping portions of photographs
marked by reduced image quality. This work, just as in compiling the mosaic
of the useful area on a plans-table base, is exceedingly painstaking. Each
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' .:7 '_ ` ."r?' '2 :,~.~`~ .d_ S'-Kr?+- F1.7'V ?lr'~ S- '.:+eaR=t?1 -t
photograph on the plane table is placed according to control marks which are
cut into the photograph by means of a special punch and, in addition, are
made to coincide with the adjacent photographs by contour. In this position
each photograph is glued to the base. Then on the resulting mosaic the frames
of a map or plan of the appropriate scale are struck off and the rest of the
rough delineation is performed.
The resulting uncontrolled mosaic (fotoplan) is referred to as "clear."
In this form it is of greatest value for the investigator of natural resources,
since in expressing the results of the interpretation by topographic or other
symbols the image of the terrain is shaded and cohesive. The interpreted
"fotoplann is an ordinary topographic map on which the photographic image is
removed by one or another maw.
Section 9. Use of Aerial Photographs As A Topographic Base.
The possibility of using aerial photographs as a topographic base is fully
insured by the method in rich they are obtained (a strict central projection)
and by the subsequent procedure of'processing (conversion of the central pro-
jection into an orthogonal projection). Transformed by one or another method
within the limits of their useful area.. the aerial photographs are plans of
the photographed terrain; with them it is possible to perform any measure.
m+ents as are performed from ordinary plans.
The radius of useful area on the transformed photograph is calculated
from the formula
r
where the value is chosen on the basis of the assigned accuracy of measure-
ments.
(a) Determining the Scale of the Aerial Photos -h
The scale of the transformed aerial photograph may be ascertained from
the record data. If such data are lacking,then it is necessary to compare
the photograph with the maps or better, with the terrain.
In order to determine the scale of an aerial photograph from a map it
is necessary to locate two identical points on the photograph and the map
(Figure 33) and to measure the distances between them. The numerical scale
of the photographs determined as the ratio of the distance between the two
points on the photograph to the distance between them are the same points
on the terrain, is expressed by the formula
in
up_
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Me 15. X 100.*000-- It ODU
mere ; is the distance between the points on the photograph (in mm), 7.,
is the distance between the points on the map (in mm), mk is the denominator
of the numerical scale of the map.
%hv distances are measured with a beam compass with an accuracy of tenths
of a millimeter.
Lvmple. The distance between two bridges on a river c - 151.0 mmi, on
the map with a scale of 1:100,000 the same distance is equal to 15.1 mm. The
scale of the photograph is
In the absence of a large-scale map or in the event of difficulties as-
sociated with establishing identical points on the photograph and the map,
this same problem may be solved by comparing the dimensions of any object
with its actual dimensions. In this case use is made of the formula
..1 - c s
rr L
where ;`c is the size of the image on the photograph (in mm), h is the actual
size of the object on the terrain (in mm).
This formula is also used for determining the scale of a photograph in
direct comparison with the terrain. In this case it is necessary to note
that in order to determine the scale of the photograph it is necessary to
choose such objects as have a clear image and linear dimensions of not less
than 2-3 mn.
Example. It is known that the distance between telegraph poles on the
terrain is 514 m. On the photograph this distance proved to be 18 mm.
The scale of the aerial photograph is
1 - 18 1
I 5 +,000 3,000
The above formulas and rules are used also for determining the scale of
non-transformed (plane) aerial photographs. However, in the given case, due
to unavoidable distortions, such determinations are approximate in nature and
contain not o ly errors in the identification of points and the measurement
of the chosen segments, but also errors due to tilt of the optical axis of the
camera, etc., of which more will be said later.
Determination of the scale on non-transformed aerial photographs is per-
formed within the limits of their useful area with not less than two pairs
of pointa, with mutually perpendicular directions, and from all the scale
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determination there is derived the mean arithmetical value.
The calculations are made by use of the previously mentioned formula
(Section 3) for the mean or navigation scale
the data for which are derived from calculation according to the aerial photo-
graphic survey.
(b) orientation Of Aerial Photographs.
Orientation of aerial photographs throughout the points of the compass
may be performed by the following methods: (1) from a map; (2) from local
objects; and (3) from shadows.
i. Orientation of aerial photographs according to a map. Establishing
two identical points on the map and on the photographs, we join than by straight
lines (Figure 33). Then we determine the value of the directional angle of the
line ab on the map and we plot it on the photograph by means of intersections
or a protractor. The drawn direction on the photograph is the direction of
the axis of plane rectangular coordinates, from which it is possible to obtain
the direction both of the true and the magnetic meridian passing through point
A. on the terrain and on the photograph.
2. Orienting the aerial photograph according to local objects does not
differ essentially from the orientation of ordinary maps. Comparing the
photograph with. the locality and using a compass, the aerial photograph may
be oriented relative to the point of the compass an in an ordinary topographic
3. Orienting; the aerial photograph according to shadows. This method
of orientation is a specific method for aerial photographs. It may be used
in most cases wh?re photography is performed in clear weather and if the
time of photography is known (hours and minutes). Images of shadows on aerial
photographs obtained at noon (1300 hours, mean local time) are directed to the
north;-on photographs made before-noon the images of shadows are directtdto
the northwest; and after noon, to the northeast. Knowing the angular velocity
of rotation of the earth (3600:2h - 15 degrees per hour) and the time of photo-
graphy, from the shadows of local objects on aerial photographs it is possible
to determine the direction of the true meridian. This is done in the following
manner. On the photograph there is drawn the direction of the shadow (Figure 3l)
and then, by means of a protractor, the angle is laid off (its value depending
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on the time of photography). If the survey was performed before noon, then the
time of photography is subtracted from 13; if the survey was performed after
noon, then 13 is subtracted from the time of photography. the resulting value
is multiplied by the angular velocity of rotation of the earth (15 degrees
per hour) and in this manner the required angle is obtained. This angle is
laid off along the shadow in the appropriate direction: from the right side
of the shadow if the photography was performed before noon, and from the left
side if it was performed after noon.
The same problem, without additional calculations, is solved by means of
the Banrkovskiy device (Figure 35) -- a celluloid disc graduated in hours of
photography (every 15 minutes) and the directions of-the cardinal points of
the compass.
This disc is placed with the center at the edge of a shadow on the aerial
photograph in such a way that the latter passes through the time markings for
photography. After this the north-south direction is drawn on the aerial
photograph along this line. In order to avoid errors of 180? it must be as-
certained that in placing the disc on the photograph the indicating arrows
on the time scale coincide with the direction of the shadow.
Section 10. Procedural Instructions For Using Single Aerial Photographs
The camera records the image of the terrain in that form in which it would
be seen by one eye. Hence, in attempting to obtain the most correct presenta-
tion of the image printed on a single aerial photograph, it must be examined
monooularly (that is, with one eye). In this case and on the condition that
between the eye of the observer and the photograph the proper distance is
preserved, it is possible to obtain a most correct presentation of the photo-
graphed terrain, including also to some degree its relief.
In order to maintain the correct perspective the photograph must be viewed
with one eye at a distance approximately equal to the focal length of the aerial
camera, with the aid of a magnifying glass. `,hen even a single aerial photo-
graph gives a certain impression of relief and depth, whereby the shadows and
other oblique features intensify the impression of reef, facilitating study
of the aerial photograph.
The distance of greatest visibility for the normal human eye is approx-
imately 25 cm, hence photographs obtained with a normal lens (fk = 200--250 mm)
may and must be examined at this distance. It is to be noticed that photographs
obtained with long-focus cameras do not lose relief in binocular examination.
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In examining with both eyes a single photograph obtained with a normal
camera a relief image is not obtained, for in this case there is absent the
necessary distinction of images of one and the same object which, being re-
ceived by each of the eyes, permits a sense of vision to recreate a relief
image of the observed object. It will be further observed that simultaneous
examination by both eyes of two photographs of one sld the same object, ob-
tained from a certain base, will permit reproduction of a stereoscopic model
of this object. This method of examination of overlapping photographs, based
on the natural properties of optical equipment, is referred to as stereoscopic,
just as our vision is stereoscopic. Thus, having a single photograph, it is
necessary to examine it with one eyes, wheth?r the right or the left eye, since
in this respect even a stereoscopic camera possesses no selectivity.
In studying aerial photographs it mast be kept in mind that on any topo-
graphic map, along with the scale symbols accurately duplicating the outline of
local objects in the plain view, wide use is also made of non-scale (in the
literal sense of the word) symbols. On an aerial photograph, in distinction
fr= a topographic map, all images of local objects are to scale.. Depending
upon the conditions of photography, .one or another object on the aerial photo-
graph may not obtain n an image or -A-1. be hard to distinguish from its sur-
roundings. This is especially true of objects having small dimensions in
the plan vies; as well as of objects which are camouflaged by one or another
method, blending with the overall background of the locality.
In examining aerial phatogac-Phs with the aid of ordinary magnifying
glasses or measuringllenses, or in overall magnification of the image it
is possible to improve the legibility of the photograph somewhat and to
distinguish on it relatively small details. However, it is necessary to keep
in mind that in overall enlargement of photographs by more than two and a
half times there may occur a noticeable shift of image, this being an unavoid-
able consequence of movement of the aerial camera at the moment of exposure
(Section '5, Paragraph 1-a). Further ma&mification of the photograph trill.
serve only for a general survey of the photographed object and to obtain its
qualitative characteristics
In establishing a certain limit or useful magnification of an aerial
photograph (K ) it is possible to determine the maximum scale of the survey,
permitting measurement of objects with a knoiai linear extension.
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For a vertical aerial photograph the formula for the maximum scale is
derived in the following form:
1. =n
i H
Kmaic
It follows from the formula that if the survey is performed on a scale
of 1:25,000, linear segment n (having an actual length of N ~_ ) on an
aerial photograph examined through a magnii)ring glass with a magnification.
one tni l l i rester (that is, for such objects
of -2-. :;tinas; - nn7l haue a length of-'
a scab of 1:25,000 may be cofisidered as the limit). The described method
establishing-the limit of a scale is not exhaustive, since it only considers
the metric properties of the photograph. The problem of determining the op-
timum and maximum scales for aerial photographs used for bydrographie purposes
is examined in greater detail later (Section 23).
In order to obtain a complete idea of the entire object under investi-
gation and to establish its relations with its surroundings, individual aerial
photographs are joined into a photodiagram (fotoskhema) in the form of an
overlay assefably (mosaic) glued to az y rigid base (pasteboard). The dlsaen-
sions of the individual photodiagram must not exceed 60 by 90 cm (that is,
the ordinary drawing sheet), otherwise the photodiagrom'a usefulness as a
summary tool will be limited.
It must be pointed out that irregular tones of the individual prints,
caused by errors in the positive photographic process, somewhat complicates
interpretation of the photographed image and the photodiagram has an untidy
appearance,
iIence, in those cases when it is intended to compile a photodiagrann or
photoplan (fotopaan), it is possible and permissible to exaggerate somewhat
the tone of the photographic image in preparing contact and transformed
prints; however, in those cases where the use of single aerial photographs
is intended, it is much preferred to use so-called "normal" prints; they
are made according to previously selected standards for each object.
For an investigator using an aerial photographic survey as a method of
study, aerial photographs prior to photogramaetric processing are of can.
interest than contact prints, since in transforming the
aerial photogrmhs and reproductions the legibility of the aerial photographs
is considerably decreased and they usually lose the freshness of the original.
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Hence not only in field investigations but also in hydrographic laboratory
investigations it is recommended that contact prints be used, the more so
since most information which is needed for the characteristics of a water
object may avoid the distortions present in vertical photographs.
The legibility of contact prints depends to a considerable degree on the
type of photographic paper and its sensitometrie characteristics. These papers
are specially selected for the positive process 4th a consideration of the
quality of the negatives. Vastly greater legibility is obtained with prints
made on glossy or mirror-gloss paper, hence it is also used for contact print-
ing. Matt paper and semi-matt paper are used for making prints intended for
work in the field or-for those operations in which it is necessary to make
pencilled notations on the photographs.
Photographic paper having low resolving power in comparison with the
aerial negative (10 lines per nra) conceals individual small details and some-
times, especially in the hands of inexperienced photographic laboratory workers,
may not express all the detail and light shadings fixed on the aerial negative.
Hence, in individual cases, for detailed study of an object it is necessa to
use the aerial negative.
Section 11.~ Dvices Used in Monocular Stu of Aerial Photographs .
The study of aerial photographs begins with a general examination of the
photograph in which the basic outlines of the photographed terrain and its
elements are represented. In this examination the use of devices of any sort
is not required. For more detailed study of aerial photographs accompanied
by a description of the object under investigation, and for examination and
measurement of fine details of a photograph it is necessary to use special
devices.
For a general familiarization with the results of the aerial photographic
survey before contact printing, for a detailed study of individual aerial photo-.
graphs, and also, in extreme cases, when the conditions of operation do not
permit Ming for contact prints, for examination of the film a special de.
vice is used - a light table (Figure 36) - provided with attachments for
movement of the film in roll form or a spool. This device is designed to
operate both with natural and artificial illumination.
For study of details and also for examination of small-scale aerial photo-
graphs optical devices are used: both simple magn yjng glasses and measuring
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Ions, m d panoramic mirrors; and for especially precise measurements, more
,complex devices.
The magnifying glass (the simplest of optical devices used for the study
of photographs) consists of one or several lenses placed in a special mount.
For monocular study of aerial photographs so-called "panoramic" glasses
,we especially useful (Figure 37). They have a large field of view (diameter
10-15 cm) with low magnification and are fastened on a special support. Some
of the relief of images may be viewed with these devices.
For examination of fine detail and small-scale aerial photographs a set
of glasses (Figure 38) is used at a magnification of 4-6 times.
Some glasses are fastened in a special mount having an external thread-
ing which permits displacement of the glass within a special support and may
be held in a given position when adjusted for sharpness. Such glasses are
usually convenient for use ii th aerial photographs.
For measurement of fine details measuring microscopes (magnifications
of 8-10) are used. These are analytical magnifiers with a scale marked off
in divisions of 0.1 mm within the field of view.
Included under the heading of magnifying devices is the panoramic mir-
ror (Figure 39), having a fixed radius of curvature. The aerial photograph
which is to be examined is fastened on a movable support within this device
and is located within the focal plane of a mirror. The panoramic mirror,
giving a magnified image of the photograph, imparts to it a certain impres-
sion of relief; the latter may be intensified if the photograph is tilted
slightly during examintion.
For a enmparison of tones in a single photograph or in different photo-
graphs, which has often been of extreme ?mporta~ce in detecting local objects
and deriving their characteristics, it is necessary to measure the density
of the negative.
Microphotometers are used for measurement of the density of aerial
negatives, permitting derivation of density characteristics either at in-
dividual points or, by means of recording instrumants, in the form of curves
on script records. Integration of the data of these measurements and explan-
ation of the causes for a change in density at one or another part of the
image is the task of instrumental interpretation (Part II), in wtdch a change
in density is considered as an objective indicator of a change in properties
of the object under investigation. In particular, this indicator is used
for determining the depth of a river (Figure 140).
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Terence of arc (Figure 41) 11
CHAPTER III
REPRODUCTION AND MEASUREMENT OF AN OPTICAL MGDEL OF A TERRAIN FROM OVERLAPPING
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
(STEREOPHOTOW-RA?4 ETR%)
Section 12. General Information
The theory and practice of reproduction and subsequent measurement of
a spacial model of a photographed surface is based on a singular property
of our visual apparatus -- stereoscopic vision due to which the visual ap-
paratus has additional facilities for perceiving and evaluating spacial forms
of local objects and their location within the limits of its field of view.
The essence of stereoscopic vision consists in the following.
Images 14 and 141 of one and the same point M of a terrain hieh is in-
tersected from different ends of an optical base b are perceived different-
ly by each eye. The perception of space is obtained from the difference
in muscular offorts in the combination of visual impressions. This dif-
ference is due to asymmetry' of images on the retina of the eyes or physio-
logical parallax.
Possessing a sharpness of vision of
p? e is located between the sketched
circles. un the tp'.i.r d, imaginary, image the sketched figures must seem
to be located at different heights (give t impression of depth) .
The stereoscopic effect is more casil obtained if the optical ra;:s
are, as it were, isolated b r a hand applied to the nose or by a plate.
This ilea has found its formulation in the fo l,i of special instruments
known as stereoscopes.
Thera are. simple stereoscopes,, mirror sterc-cscopes, and Erns-mirror
stereoscopes. Stereoscopes provided with attaci-rnents for measuring special
models are known as topographic stereoscopes.
The simple stereoscope is an. H-shaped stand 25 cm high. Or. the upper
shelf of the stand there are two cut-outs for the eyes and a notch for the
r_ese, and on the lower shelf are plac. -ari..~..+- ~.IY. ~.-t .fir..
(b) concerning the soil of the watershed -- the limits of dis-
tribution of the principal soil varieties (clayey, sandy, gravelly, con-
-glonerate, story, peatj);
Vic) concerning the iregetative cover in the area of the watershed -~
its character according to principal groupings (forests shrubs, brush:
meadows, fields, pastures, swamps the nature of displacement over the
areas the nature of each group (the visible compositionp predominant rock
formations, age, density).
In addition to obtaining the above information, the following tasks
may be solved by interpretation of aerial photographs:
(1) Compilation from the aerial photographs of a cartographic base
for navigation or pilotage maps with the interpreted details of the
locality applied to them.
(2) Compilation of diagrammatic maps `;dirt-ekhemsw of the spatial
distribution of hydrologic phenomena; for example, maps of floods, the
course of freezing along the length of a river, the accumulation and
movement of thaw or rain waters, selenium-bearing flows, the distribution
of snow cover in an area, etc.
(3) Establishing the relationships between the hydrological factors
and other factors of the geographic environment on the basis of an ana2yeis
of their relative periodicities. Solution of this problem is achieved
chiefly due to great detail of the images of various natural elements and
the selectivity presented by aerial photographs.
(b)?Determi.ning the direction of the development of various hydro-
logical phenomena. As an example of such investigations we may considers
the study from a series of sequential photographs of the changes in relief
of the bottom of watersheds or reservoirs, the study of the process of
erosion of banks under the action of waves or landslides, study of the
regulatities in the formation of snow cover or its movement in the period
of spotty cover of a landscape etc.
The list of problems'hich may be solved in interpreting aerial photo-
graphs for hydrological purposes has not been exhausted. Many possibilities
for the use of an aerial photographic survey will undoubtedly present
th lvas in the future, which will prove to be of a wider practical use
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in employing the materials of the aerial survey for hydrological invest.
igations.
Section 23. Detail of Information Obtained from Aerial Photographs and
? ection of Scales for Aerial Surveys for HvdrographjcInterpretation
The possibility of obtaining from aerial photographs detailed quan-
titative and qualitative characteristics of rivers and lakes depends upon
the scale of the aerial photograph chosen for these purposes and on the n
natural features determining the character of concealment of various elemente:.
We may distinguish optimuu and extreme scales for aerial surveys
used for hydrological interpretation,
ay optimum scale is meant the scale permitting-obtaining from the
aerial photographs accurate, detailed information in the shortest time.
The extreme scale is the smallest scale permitting obtaining informa-
tion concerning hydrological elements of the water objects in the form
of generalized qualitative characteristics.
Thus, the optimum scale permits performing qualitative interpretation
and detailed measurements from aerial photographs, but the extreme scale
serves only for purposes of selection and permits obtaining only a general
quantitative characteristic for the various hydrological elements.
The principal features of the optimum scale of aerial photograph con-
sist in the following:
(1) The optimum scale of a survey is established according to the
type and purpose of interpretation.
The use of an aerial photograph for measurement purposes, as a rule,
requires larger scales and in interpreting for descriptive purposes. In
this as in other cases the scale of the photograph will depend also on the
accuracy required by the task which must be solved by the information to
be obtained from the aerial. photographs. 14oreover, in a. number of cases
smaller scales will be preferred to large scales due to the fact that the
sell scales provide a great selectivity of terrain.
(2) The optim m scale survey depends on the size of the objects to be
interpreted. The larger the object, the smaller the survey scale may be
in order to obtain the maJority of its characteristics.
(3) The optimum scale of a survey depends upon the features of the
Sri reta.ioI;
interpretation of the given element. For example, different forms of
104
J\:i ~CwiTk??: ~'r~ ~. > .:` .. ,i . .. .. ... . .. . .. .. .: ;i:.rr~ -..I:y.a.:.. 1F (,Er =''!_-,,:.;:e.
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.~ ~.~"?.Yd'a.r ~: kw-_,e'~s". _xis.'4~.'.'~'..'.t.~.~i~'i~i:12.~~'....~J'as f>:~ .
natural concealment of hydrological elements (shorelines, bank overhangs,
etc) by vegetations shadows from local objects, snore ices etc# cause a
lack of coincidence in graphic accuracy of measurements perm tted by the
given scale as compared with their operational accuracy. In these cases
it is convenient to use larger scales, as this will provide greater
graphic accuracy.
Consequently, the general assumption that the greatest accuracy of
interpretation from aerial photographs is obtained from the ).argest survey
scales proves incorrect in a number of cases.
The above conclusions load to the necessity in a number of cases of
using photographs of different scales for the interpretation of different
elements.
Considering that the same detail of information concerning different
hydrological elements is not always required, it is often possible, $e?
pending on the assignment and the study prograns to use an overall optimn
survey scale. If this is difficult, then we must designate certain stages
of the operation which are to be performed on the basis of the aerial Sys
and the other stages to be achieved by conventional ground operations; that
is, we resort to the combined method of obtaining the information.
General considerations of the opt mum survey scales required for
performing lydrographic operations reduced to the following.
A sufficiently detailed interpretation of large items of relief is
possible in stereoscopic study of photographs on a scale of 1:25#000 -
lsitO#000# depending upon the nature of the relief, its continuity, and
its concealment. A survey scale of 1:25,000 is desirable for a level or
undulating reliefs a scale of 1:40,000 and smaller may be used for a
hilly relief. The use of photographs on a scale of 1:10,000 somewhat
complicates the general characteristic of a relief due to necessity of
mounting large maps. For the interpretation of individual shapes of
relief the most suitable photographs are on a scale of 1:10#000 - 1:159000.
Interpretation of the microrelief usually requires scales greater than
1:10,000.
The survey scale from which we may obtain the most complete informa-
tion concerning a river valley depends upon the size of the valley. The
general characteristicd of the valley may be obtained from photographs on
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Y1
the same scale as was used in interpreting the relief.
In order to obtain the most detailed characteristics of the slopes of
valleys of lowland rivers with a valley width of 1.2 kilorrmeters, photographs
with a scale of 1:10,000 - 1:15,000 are required. With a valley width
greater than two kilometers sufficiently detailed data may be obtained
with photographs with scales of 1:25, 000 - 1:30,000.
The sides of hills and deep cuts (,hell expressed) of valleys math
the some upper width (1.-2 kilometers) may be interpreted from materials
of smaller scales -- 1:25,000 and even 1:10,00o.
Quantitative interpretation of bottomlands is possible on photographs.
of the same scales as were employed in interpreting the slopes of valleys.
Heasuremeirt interpretation of mi crorelief of bottomlands and the height of
river banks calls for large scales -- preferably 1:5,000.
With the larger -c-ales there is a sharp decrease in the selectivity
of information concerning the bottomland and, while the accuracy of
measurement of individual details of its surface structure is increased,
the disclosure of general regularities in the relative location of indiv-
idual elements of the microrelief will be somewhat more difficult. In
these cases photographic reduction of the assembled charts is recommended.
For greatest accuracy in plotting the profile of a valley in accord-
ance with the above observations it is necessary to use photographs on a
scale of 1;5,000 - 1:10,000 in which it is possible to detect microrel?ef
of the bottomland. However, if the lower part of the profile is obtained
by geodetic mans., then plotting of the remainder,, where the slopes are
well expressed, may be performed from photographs on a scale of 1.:25,000
and 1:1:0,000.
In order to obtain the characteristic of a riverbed it is necessary
to have information concerning its various e1onents with a varying degree
of detail. Hencep selection of one optimum scale for all interpretation of
the elements of a riverbed is difficult.
Information concerning the outlines of a riverbed in the plan view or
concerning the presence of flowing lakes may be obtained from photographs
of any scale. Choice of the survey scale at which it is possible to
obtain detailed characteristics of riverbed dimensions, various riverbed
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formations, the condition of the riverbed (obstructions, etc.), the
bottom of the bed, and the height of the banks is determined chiefly by
the nize of tho river itself.
The principal characteristics of the riverbed (that is, the width,
depth, and height of the banks) must be taken as the ,rrincipal criteric
for evaluating the suitability of photographs of a given scale f oar in-
terpretation of the riverbed.
The accuracy of determination. of the width of a river fran an
aerial photograph depends upon the accuracy in determining the shore-
line. The latter is determined not only by;;;the scale of the photograph
and the quality of the photograph image, but also by the nature of the
conjuncture of two surfaces (the surface of the water and the bans), the
junction of which gives the shoreline.
Speciaal experimental operations performed in dealing with problems Cr
interpretation have shown that the accuracy in determining the shoreline
within the scale limits of 1:2,000 to 1:15,000 is in practice determined
by the natural conditions of its concealment. Absolute errors in deter-
mining the shoreline for the most favorable conditions (the combination
of a dark water surface and a steep bank) average 1.4 meters, and for the
least favorable (a riverbed overgrown with aquatic plants) averages up
to 3.2 meters. Consequently., for each type of ccncealment of the shore-
line there will be a corresponding opt:irnm survey scale. It varies fran
1: 3,000 to 1:15,000 depending upon the type of concealment. Thus, in
the ca e of an apparent predominance of any type of shoreline concealment
on the section of the river under study, the scales of the aerial survey
must be chosen on the basis of this type of concealment. For the selec-
tion of this scale the chart shown in Figure 64 n be used.
However, on lowlwand rivers there is usually observed an alternation
of shorelines with different types of concealmnt, whereas on the opposite
banks the latter do not eoinc.de o Hence, it is convenient in these cases
to consider the opts scale to bo 1:11,000 -- 1:12,000: then the average
accuracy of determining the shoreline is approximately 2.2 meters.
ieasz,weinent of the width of a river from aerial photographs is con-
veniently performed only in those cases where the error in determining the
shoreline does not exceed the graphic accuracy of the measurements on the
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photograph of the given scale.
Thus, from aorial photographs frith a scale of 1:2,O00-1:15 000
is convon_i.ent to conduct measurements of river shaving a width of bed
from 20 meters and g eeater. In this case the error in determining the
shoreline is less than 10% of the width of the river.
i3 or scales a nller than 1:159000 the error in caeter :i ning the
shoreline, depending upon the conditions of its concealment. is cone-
'
siderably overlapped by the graphic accuracy of measurcient on the
riven scalo and hence the possibility of identifying a river of given
on the =t-raphic. area of the scale. Hence,, con-
.-length will depend only
sidering the maximum graphic accuracy of measurement to be 0,2 ram, on
=photographs with a scale of 1:259000 with an accuracy up to 10&. we
may- measure rivers , th widths from 50m and on photographs w th a
scab of 1:40,000 rivers with a width of 80 m and greater.
Interpretation. of Berth is based on two peinci x:.l operation? ---
deternining the character of the relief of the bottom from an aerial
anc~ measuring }rrc n5 or another method the deviations of
photograph
the characteristic points of i? s undulation.
Thus, detex pining the option scale in interpretation of depths
requires an appraisal of the possibility of obtaining both distances
and deviations. of points from on e-,.erial prhotograrh.
On an average we ray assume that for hydrographic purposes the
smaLest survey scale recmitting qualitative determination of the shape
of elements of a riverbed is 1:10:000.
The det,-Al of elements of riverbed formations iiiich may be exm-
ined on a photograph with a scale of 1:10,000:-given conditions ren-
orally iermitting examination of the under rater relief (see Section 35),
derends on tae size of the river. Fear rivers with a width of 20 to
100 m on this scale we may see only the rt lative location of water and
sandbars. With river widths exceeding 80--100 tm we may distingui sh the
microrelief of the surface of vtarious riverbed formation=s (sand deposits
at sandbars, etc.). This is well illustrated in photographs 23 and 33
(see appendix)! showing the form of relief at the bottom of the same sec-
tion of river on photographs of different s L, s.
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On photographs with a scale of 1:250000 under the same conditions it
is possible to determine the location of stretches of water and sandbars
only for rivers with a width of the order of 50-60 meters and greater,
but it is not possible to examine the microrelief of the bottom of these
rivera,-ud'ii. for rivers of considerab2a width (greater than 200.250
meters) we may accurately define the principal parts of sandbars (crests,
troughs, etc).
Optimum survey scales for stereophotogrammetric determination of
depths (given an image of the underwater relief), as determined from ex-
perience in measurements, are 1:3,000-1s5,000. In this case the typical
accuracy in determining depths is approadmately 10 cm. C photographs with
a scale of 1:10,000 the accuracy in determining the deviations is apprcac-
imately sae meter. Survey scales omaller than 1:10,000 are suitable
only for the most general appraisals of distribntL4:n and the sequence
of depth values on large rivers.
The question of the optimum scale for stereoscopic determination of
the height of banks can be solved by analogy with the requirements which
are presented in determining the deviations of points on the terrain. This
is explained by the fact that in the given case the concealment of the water
surface, on which all the readings depend,, has a marked effect on the
accuracy of interpretation.
As investigations have shown, for determining the height of banks
on the order of 2-5 m on lowland rivers with well-expressed bottcaland
the optimum survey scale is 1:3,000. For rivers with nonflooding bottcn-
lands, in cases where the river banks are the slopes of the valley with a
height on the order of 10-15 meters and more, for measurement of their
deviations above the shoreline sufficiently accurate use may be made of
photographs of all scales up to 1:20,000.
Thus, as follows from the above discussion, for measurement inter-
pretation of the principal elements of a riverbed (width, depth, and
height of banks) as a rule, it is necessary to use large scale photographs:
(larger than 1:10,000) with the exception of the width of the river, for
determination of which it is permissible to use photographs with sander
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scales.
Hence ind$atrial surveys performed on scales of 1:25*000-1:40,000
and smaller are as a rule suitable only for qualitative interpretation
of the beds of large rivers. However, even in this case the detail with
which these data are obtained somewhat exceeds that which is possible in
their determination from a map or a plan of any scale and even in pre-
liminary ground survey.
Data for the optimum scales necessary for hydrological interpretation,
obtained on the basis of the above considerations as well as from ex-
perience in interpretations, are given in Table 8. In this table, in
addition to the optimum scales, we present the data for the smallest
scales which will pelt obtaining information concerning hydrological
elements from aerial photographs.
Using the data of this table and considering the specific task of
investigation, we may select the overall optimum survey scale which will
to the greatest degree meet the requirements of the assigned problem. For
examples, for the purpose of caimpiling a description of rivers according to
the program of the "Instructions* L7, the optimum survey scales are
1:10,000-1:15,000. By using aerial photographs of these scales we may
compile a completely useful description of the watershed of the river vender
investigation, the terrain line next to the valley, the valleys and the
riverbed with quantitative characteristics for all their elements with
the exception of the data for the river depth, rate of flow, and the
characteristic of the ;water regime. In order to obtain the missing in-
formation in this case it is necessary to cond,t field investigations.
Adequate data may also be obtained by using photographs with a scale
of 1:25,000.1:30, 000 for lowland rivers and 1z40,000..1:50,000 for mountain
rivers. However, in this case quantitative determination of a number of
characteristics (height of the banks of the river, bottomlands,- individual
terraces) is not possible, as well as the measurement of the width of
rivers less than.50 m, etc. In this case the volume of field determinations
must be increased.
The impossibility of obtaining the number of hydrological charaeteris.-
tics from aerial photographs must not be taken as sufficient reason to
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neglect the materials of aerial surveys.
Even diseontinuolZ information obtained from aerial photographs in a
number of cases may contribute a great deal of information and be of ccm-
aiderable values since they afford the possibility of obtaining detailed
quantitative characteristics of the elements closely associated with this
phenomenon. For example,, by inserting into formulas for hydromorphological
relationships data concerning the actual -widths of a river as obtained
from aerial photographss, it is possible to increase the accuracy of depth
and flow calculations (Section 51, Paragraph 2). Detailed study of the
relief of a watershed surface,, the. vegetation,, the microrel ief of Uttcm-
lands,, the possibility of plotting transverse profiles of a valley for any
direction -- all these permit exceptionally valuable material for analysis
of flow conditions: including inclined runoffs the nature of the descent
and establishing the snow cover,, the controllability of the riverbed, the
floodability of the valley bottom, etc.
a significant result be obtainede
materials of aerial survey with the execution of ground investigations may"
combination of aerial survey operations or the use of already existing
supplements and facilitates the latter. Only on the basis of a skillful
graphic investigations does not replace ground operations,,, but sutbstential3y
survey materials in a number of hydrological ands in particular,, hydro-
Thus,, it is especially necessary to emphasize that the use of aerial
alzation-of ground operations,, contributing to their usefulnesse
operations with inforration obtained from aerial photographs permits ratiiw'
Finally, the possibility of replacing a number of laborious ground
Sct; on 21, General Seauence o
ions in Into
terialg for Rrdro.FraphiC Purpose
In the interpretation of aerial photographs for hydrographic purposes
it is necessary to distinguish: the interpretation of materials of mass-
produced aerial photographs made for the compilation of topographic maps
or other mps not intended for hydrological purposes, and the interpret-
ation of special surreys performed for hydrological purposes.
In the first place the composition of information and the sequence of
.? ~ ~> U i_:,i;:3r ~.re to a c ;a G'cT`~ble
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 r. . ~.t : turs'y ~. art - r.- , " :,1_ !; < ? ?.:;'e a _? -
~wr1A~eK-`us ;'i.,.., i:'.~~li~i, :~':~.. - - - r
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of banks. Whereupon,, though knowing only the approximate heights of increases
in avatar level.; we may judge the n obability of flooding and the width
of the flood area (see below). In monocular examination of photographs for
determining the character of relief at the bottom of a valley it is necessary
to use indirect features, as indicated in Section 29 -- to study the graininess
of the forest image and its corresponding changes of relief and the variety
of trees. However, this is possible only with sharp variation in the
height of terraces in the valley.
The key to identification of bottomland scranapiness is the presence on
the image of its surface spots or streaks of a light-grey tone (brighter
than the general tone of the botto2nland). With the characteristic blurred
graininess of the pa t u:r.-U (see Chapter XI).
The next stage of operations is that in which we obtain detailed charac.-
teristies of the bottcmland.
It is first necessary to determine the boundaries of the bottoml.and
in order to obtain data concerning its widt1
Information concerning the width of the bottomland may be obtained
directly from aerial photographs and by plotting (Section 17) a transverse
profile of the bottom of the valley and applying thereupon high inter
marks. In a number of cases it is necessary to combine both of these
methods.
For clearly expressed and well developed valleys the boundaries of the
bottomland may be approximately established as the line dividing areas with
a uniform grey tone corresponding to the bottom of the valley and areas
having on the aerial photograph the appearance of a variegated mcsaie end
corresponding to the slopes of the valley ( see Section 32, Photograph 20-24).
With clearly expressed ('displacement fenan the boundary of the bottom-
land may be taken to be the line outlingportions with such fans.
In some cases the boundary of the bottomland may be traced from the
vestiges of the high vater levels. During floods, at approximately the same
width (the width of the bottomland and steep slopes of the valley car the
bottomland with a wen-expressed lateral gradient) along their boundaries.,
as a result of undercutting, there is often formed a small shoulder (Phot9-
graph I5): tbe,, slope of which is often detected and traced as a bright band.
1.3.6.
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Sometiti s the oth e of t >c: flood is cle-. rlt trz=d in the fore of a laight
line caused by the water and the strip of rrsidue of vegetation, debris, etc.
deposited in the form of an irregular band. It must by kept in mind that
with sharp variations in the height of the high water, this line often only
roughly indicates a border of the valley, since it may not correspond to
the line of max; rn flood level.
In many cases the edge of the bottomland may be taken to be the edge
of the plowed portions in the river valley. These portions are usually
located beyond the zone of flooding. However, in populated points the bottor,-
land may be under truckgarden cultivation. In this case the plc;':ed portions
are snail and form a variegated mosaic (Photograph 13) . In m cases
determination of the edge of the bottoxn:+_aund facilitates study of the char-
acter of the distribution of railroad systems, levees, and other hydro-
technical installatiors.in roads usually proceed beyon' the limits of
the valley bottc-a subject to flooding and where they enter the bottom land
they pass along levee4 and er.ibankments. In this case the edge of the levee
on a slope or within the limits of the valley bottom will at least corres-
pond to the edge of the normal flood area of the rivers. Levees are often
used on a river to protect a part of the bottanlan and thereby serve as
indications of flood boundaries.
The width of flood area .5 matiy be estimated from the boundary determinations
of a bottamla.nd. In order to establish the frequency of flooding it is
necessary to dete mind the high, average, and low levels. This is achieved
with the greatest accuracy yy stereoscopic measurement of the height of the
banks of the riverbed and plotting and. the basis of these measurements a
transverse profile of the valley (Section 52). its has been shoran, in this
case the height of increases in the level obtained from the data of water
measurement observations is compared with the heights of the banks. For
determination of increases in level we may also proceed on the basis of span
measurements of bridges and other 1*-drotecbnical installations (see Section 40).
The high level position of the bottomlend may be approximately AeWITR&P9
E,3fUu:asqMe srtA b8~ttjNd3 high
~lcdz5tiie~ntue3sir`g
and aoldox flooded (Ihotogr4ph 15). The presence of sharply expressed
137
-;a
U
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displacement fans ciith a developed network of strews, braided channels,
and bottcrlar.d ponds provides the basis for assuming a low elevation of
the the bottamLand and frequent flooding (Photograph 16). This is also Lu-
dicatod by the presence of sveppy surfaces in the bottoml.vnd.
A detailed study of the microreliof of the bottomland permits in
isolated cases evaluating the poriod3.city of flooding and the elimination
of flood waters -- stereoscopic examination of the bctton2l nd surface of
the banks with determination of the height of bauke and crests as well as
of the relative depth of individual hollows in the bottorland permits deter-
mining the scqucnce of flooding of t rdividua.3. portions of the bottomi..and
or of the sequence, of their of Lr1innticn of water during the recessions of
wring floods.
In addition, a study of the microrelief permits certain conclusions
concerning the Yrjdro wriccfeatures of the stream in a given portion., noting
the probable distribution of velocities during flooding,, and evaluating the
:intensity of riverbed processes.
The displacement fan is formed due to the displacement of the riverbed.
The more intensive the meandering the greater the czuvva tune of the bands.
The degree of curvature and the frequency of binds comprising the iizzg;c of
the..displacement fan m indicate the intensity of rLve?rbcd processes. A
multiple pattern of displacement fans under stable soil conditions charac-
terizes variability of action of the atre,.amoon the banks along the river.
The microrelief of a bottonlend under unstable soil conditions, with the
.,oil poorly retained. by vegetation, rry penmit evaluating the coincidence
of direction of flow of the river and the flow of the river w; th the bottcm?-
land flooded during the epi ng flood. Finally, it is necessary to mention
that the direction of the current (Section 39) may be determined from the
arrangement of the displacement of the current (Section 39) may be deter-
mined from the arrangement of the displacement fan.
The above information confirms the fact that a study of the pattern
of the displacement fan permits paleobydroggraibic analysis (tat Is, tracing
the history of development of the riverbed by plotting its previous position
from the bands of the fan). The displacement farms, repeating the outlines
of the present riverbed are usuafy located below the fans of the upper
pattern. This permits, at least qualitatively,- distinguishing during in-
9 n of even a mosaic or e, single photograph, portions of the
13
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;..fir.,' ~___
bottomland with different depths of flooding and different ;round Crater
levels relative to its surface (this problem is examined in greater detail
in the article by I. V. Popov /74/).
'r.`Y?,.e^r anti
A combination of various identifying features, as mentioned in the pre-
vious sections, permits establishing the type of a valley directly from
the external appearance of its i mage .
A complex identifying feature,,, permitting determination of t::e pronent-e
of a valley within the limits of an aerial photograph, tracing its ridges,
slopes, and bottom, is the characteristic structure of the pattern of the
slopes- in the bottom of the valley, which is due to the fact that river
valleys to a greater degree than other relief formations., are associated
with the interaction of water and soils, as a result of which there are
created extremely unusual sculptured surface forms in the form of erosion
trenches, gullet's, and ravines on the slopes, displacement fans in the bottom
land, etc. Due to this feature, on the photograph it is easy to distinguish
the slopes of the valley from the surface of the adjacent terrain and frrcfn
the bottom of the valley even on the basis of the general character of the
image.
Thus, from both banks of the river it is usually possible to trace three
bands of terrain with a different image pattern.
The first band from the riverbed corresponds to the i a.ge of the botttm-
land. Its general appearance is characterized by uniform image tone if the
bottoml :nd is level, and crescent-shaped radials of Uri gh t and dark bands
in the case of the presence of crests and depressions between them (a dis-
placement fan).
In the presence of steep slopes, the second band from the river, corres-
ponding to the slopes of the valley, is characterized by the greatest varie-
gation and mosaic structure. It is caused by the presence of outcroppings
of rock, often with a characteristic striped pattern and by a network of
erosion trenches, gullies, and ravines fanning out into the river valley.
They are almost, arrays clearly visible on photographs due to the contrast
between their darkened and hr ightened slopes. The images of flat slopes are
often characterized by large striped patterns. Parallel stripes in this case
correspond to the different levels of terra;
5 a.s .
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(2) U-shaped (undeveloped) valleys (Phbtograph 20). Their features
The third band from the rivers with a distinctive structural pattern,
is a feature of the surface of the terrain adjacent to the river. The
structure of this bad depends on the general relief of terrain removed from
the direct influence of the currents of the river. This band is characterized
by the larger forms of relief and consequently also by the smallest
variation in pattern,
in the presence of fields and with flat slopes of the valley such
contrast in t1 "pattern of the slopes and the adjacent terrain does not
usually occur and in this case, as has been mentioned., in order to locate
the ridges of the valley without a stereoscope it is necessary to study the
character of the )'arrangement of the fields relative to one another (see
Section 27),. With steep slopes location of the ridges of the valley facil.i-
tates the study of the formations characteristic for the valley slopes:
ravines, gullies, outcroppings, etc. In this case it must be kept in mind
that the ridge cannot extend along the upper parts of ravines and gullies;
it usually lies inithe vicinity of the expanded, water-discharge portions.
We present below a summary of the identifying features of different
types of I;valleys.
(l,);Crevasses (fissures), canyons, gorges. They are easily detected
on photographs from their shadows. A hindrance to interpretation lies in
r
th ',usually long shadows from the high and abrupt slopes, sometimes prre-
vvn ing c xamination of the bottom of the valley (Photograph 20).
(a) the variegated and sharply expressed mosaic of the pattern of the
oii\ an ac3r3.? 1 photograph are ;
slopes as caused Iran abundance of outcroppings and sculptured forms;
(b) tie weak development of bottomlands, which are easily recognized
from the characteristic pattern of their,jsurface (see Section 31);
(c) the presence of lateral torracas and formations in the riverbed
in the form. of waterfalls and large raps (Photograph 20).
(3) A. trough-shaped valley (a glacial trough). It reveals on photographs
a wide bottom with a narrow band (with clear borders) with the characteristic
variegated mosaic pattern for slopes as I$ell. as the presence of a ;ride
(4) Trapezoidal valleys. They axe'Similar to the bin-shaped valley.
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The particular identifying feature is the weakly expressed band with the
mosaic structure characteristic of slopes. This band is broader than in
the bin-shaped valley but somewhat narrower than in the V-shaped valley and
in the glacial trough (photograph 23).
For reliable interpretation of this form of valleys stereoscopic
examination of photographs is recommended.
(5) The unexpressed valley. In the absence of clearly exaressed dis-
continuity of he transverse profile of the valleys the principal feature
for identifying its type is the tone of the surface as caused by the vege-
tation. The latter,, in accordance with the conditions of drainage (moisture)s
creates within the limits of the valley and its slopes definite zones which
differ in tone and facilitates distinguishing the irregularities of relief.
(6) The dry valley. The identifying features of day valleys differ
but little from those of river valleys. The principal identifying features :f
are t1 shadows the tone (determined by the character of the surface cover
of the slopes and the bottom of the dry valley),, and the structure of the
slope pattern.
(7) Ravines are always easily identified on photographs from the con-
teas ;ox light and dark. A hindrance to interpretation is the presence of
a long shadow, preventing examination of the details of slopes in the bottom
of ravines. With incorrect placement of the photograph relative to the
lights the ravines often appear as convex formations (an inverse effect)
(Photograph 24).
For more reliable detez-inination Hof the type of valley it is necessary
to plot its transverse profile ? n characteristic directions. These profiles
may also serve as illustrations aup:plemanting the description of the rivers.
In addition to the transverse profiles, the heights and steepness of slopes
for a number of principal directions may be determined in order to provide
the most basic quantitative appraisal of them. The methods of determining
these characteristics of slopes and plotting the transverse profiles are
described in Chapter IV.
Detailed characteristics of the relief of slopes in the bottom of the
valleys there intersections and dissections., the presence of terraces,, land-
s3.ides s talus p and cave ins s as well as alluvial fans and data concerning
their dimensions are determined on the basis of identifying features as given
in Sections 26--29. Swamps vegetation, soils, and the road network of slopes
and the valley bottom are also determined from features described in the
appropriate sections.
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CHAPi,. VII
?~dz'EFcI TA I01d (I PM-- "
,tion concernimr, Riverbed Tnnterprotation
Section General Inform
riverbed interpretation consists of theme
As was shown In Section 24,
principal stages.
The first of these stages consist of deterriini.ng the contours of the
riverbed. his rimes it possible to obtain information concerning the
its crookedness
of t c- riverbed in the Plan view: brrnChing,
the presence of islands, flowing lames, etc.
The second eta ;e is that in 1,hich information i$ obtained conccrzniug
the various riverbed for:rstions' their ap -ea_r '!co and ty ic, the distribution, i
ix
character of their relative location, the spscint; and structtre, the
periodicity with respect to the vertical outlines of the riverbed, the
jrpe of bands, etc.
v The third state consists in dotarma n3ng the quantitative ch-wader ie- =cs-
of the riverbed and of its in-j3-vi dtUal elements (that is,,. measurement inter--;
pretstion) .
iotoL=~raph;
A number of riverbed ch acteristics is read from aerial pi
on tho basis of di rec u identifying features (the riverbed outline in the
haractdr of
plan vioiz, the presence of certei n riverbed form .ti ens, the c-
Howev
ti^ banks t installations on the river, etc, } er, many river'. d chur-
aet ial photographs only on th? sis of 1.r~-
eristies are oh'raired from aer
direct features (information concerning bottom soils, defths~ rates of
flow, direction of flow, ate. ).
Numerical. enaracteriat?cs of m ny elements read directly on the aerial
~ tee.-scale mwp. Ho~,ever,
photo~~ aph m be obtained also fro an ordinary lar~
ori.stwcs obtained from indirect
some of thorn as "-sell as a number of ch~.ract
features, may be quantitatively ek-pressed gray or. the basis of special
photogr am, ifletrie and stereop?lotogramzaetric methods of measurement.
Sn the ensuing sections we pTesent the description of the rincip l
identifying features of t e most important characteristics of the riverbed.
Information concerning stereophotograr runic and photometric methods of
nee., uring is given in an independent chap,,er in Zlhich 3.-e sot forth the spacial
features of applicatIL'n of these methods in order to obtain. the riverbed
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4 3,Y~L
characteristics. The principles for performing t!2e;.s operations
in Chapter IV and in item f5,17 in the bibliography.
Scetic~n3l.,,. at la the Contours of Rivers rid Lo :cs
discus ~, c1
The general outlines of riverbeds are aL`pst always easily detected
due to the difference in illumination of banks -bvcn on chotographs of the
smallest scale. ?
Hence, with incorrect placement of the photograph relative to the
light source a riverbed often appears as a conve, twisted embankment
(Photograph 25), but is easily distinguished from other objects on the
terrain by its characteristic crookedness.
Thus, an important identifying feature of a a *verb d is the nature of
its crookedness /meandoringf. The crookodnees of 1werbods is usually not
repeated over different sections, whereas for art icial structures (roads,
canals) it is customary to observe =oratlvr r or geom. tric curves. Fence:
the curves formed
by a rivor may not be, confused with the outline of any
other object seen on the photograph.
1'
Indirect identifying features for a riverbed a {e suitability for the
depressed portions of relief (waterfalls, valleys), ~he presence of
structures peculiar to rivers, ridges, dams), etc.
If on the photograph there is seen an open uate r surface, then it
may easily be recognized from the uniformity of the tooie, the re ulat. or
oft'-e= completely structureless outline of its imagre, of (with transparency
of the water) from the characteristic smooth outline of 'images of the relief
cyf the bottom.
A water surface concealed by aquatic vegetation is identified chiefly
from the structure of the outline, but a frozen surface ; is identified from
l
the uniformity of the surface and the clearly visible shadow; of the banks
(Phhotoaraph 11) .
According to the tone of the water surface, the following distinctions
are made, an open water surface (summer photographs) may have a different
image tone on the photograph, depending on the conditions of the survey and
processing of the negative (or positive), the color of the wa.te , its
transparency,, depth, bottom soils, condition of the water surface, and
cloudiness. Howtever, distinctions in tone (namely, in the uniformity of
density of tone or the gradualness of transition from {lark to bright tones)
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are so characteristic that an image of open water surface is unmistakably
identified.
A black tone for the surface of the water occurs on photographic
prints in the following cases:
(1) with the sun at a high elevation at the moment of photography,
as performed with the vertical position of the optical axis of the aerial
camera (Photograph 21,.) ;
(2) With large depths of reservoir;
(3) w th a dark color from the bottom of the reservoir;
(4) with concealment of the eater surface b., shadows falling from the
banks, from vegetation on them (photographs 20 and 25) or from clouds.
Shadows from clouds usually have irregular outlines (Photograph 4), and cover
not only the surface of the water but also part of the shore.
In all these cases we assume the presence of considerable transparency
of waterand a quiet state of the -rater surface.
Bright tones are obtained:
(1) In the presence of flashes on the surface of the water (agitation,
with the sun at a low of elevation at the time of photography, tilting of
the optical axis of the aerial camera), even it is transparent (Photograph 2_6).
Flashes during agitation of the water surface due to movement of waves are
arranged in rows broken at the leading edge (Photograph 27);
(2) In bright bottom soils with shallow water; in this case we observe
a smooth transition of tones from dark to bright and can examine the relief
of the bottom (Photograph 32);
(3) With eonsidez .ble muddiness of the stream (mountain rivers, flat~...and
rivers during flooding); the general character of the tone in this case is
distinguished by uniformity (Photographs 28 and 29);
(4) 1;ith concealment of the ,rater surface by aquatic vegetation; in
this case the characteristic structure of the image is that of isolated
circular spots or groups of grains depending on the scale of the survey
('Photograph 17);
(5) The white tone of the image of exposed -,,rater, sometimes encountered
on photographs, is usually a defect in the survey and indicates that at
the moment of the photograph the rays of the sun reflected from the surface
of the water, entered the lens of the aerial camera. This is easily est-
ablished by comparison of two adjacent photographs. If the white spot appears
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only one one of them, then its occurrence can only be attr i btXted to
reflection of the sun's rays. The pretence of a white spot on both photo-
graphs indicates other causes for its appearance. In a few cases the tone
of the image of the tirater surface is caused by the reflection of clouds;
this is indicated by the characteristic structure of the pattern, in the
form of curling vapor (Photograph 4).
A water surface concealing a solid ice cover cannot, of course, be
seen through on photographs. In this case the presence of a river or a
lake is indicated only by the identifying features used for interpretation
of relief, anmely the shadows of banks and the level character of the surface
lying between them. If the ice cover is concealed byysnmw, the tone of its
image does not differ from that of snow cover on a terrain adjacent to a
river. Exposed lice cover in an area of snow appears on a photograph in
dark tones, whence -on large-scale photographs there is usually seen an
irregularity in the structure of the ice, patches of snow, often in the
form of ridges, fissures, etc. (Photographs 11, 12).
In some terrains (wooded or steppe) a riverbed may appear to be con-
tinuously inclosed by the tops of trees or examined or 2y in a stereoscope
(Photograph 30). In steppe terrain a narrow>>band of forest (with its
characteristic sinuousness) is in itself an indication of the presence of
a riverbed since vegetation in such areas is usually adapted to riverbeds
and streams (Photograph 30).
In a heavily forested terrain a riverbed, even when fully surrounded
by tree tops, may still be detected from the presence in the midst of the
forest of the characteristic twisted band of dark tone accompanying the
usual riverbed. This band is formed by the tops of trees growing close to
the river which are the richest in coloring and largest. In addition, the
presence of a river may be determined from the difference in elevation of
the forest canopy in the vicinity of the riverbed and on the shoulders of
the valley if the river valley is clearly expressed (see Section 29, Photo-
graph 31)?
Section 35i, Interpretation of Riverbed Formations
Riverbed formations are. detected on aerial photographs on the basis
of both direct features (the image of the elements themselves on Photographs)
and from a number of indirect features. The possibility of obtaining this
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information depends on the natural peculiarities of the object under
investigation and to a rat degree on the conditions of photography and
its processing.
We h vve discussed the causes for the different tone of images of
water gym a photograph. It is clear that the relief of the bottom
and the different forinationo in a riverbed will. be directly oven only in
case the try ter is sufficiently transparent, the riverbed consists of bright
soil, and the surface of trite water does not reflect t he suns rays. The
only exceptions are certain rirztriau formations in the form of allu4"ial
fans , not fully covered by the water, satad.bars, an shoals, waterfalls, and
rapids. The latter are responsible for a considerable change in the
character of the pattern of the water surface and may ii.suafl.y be quite
easily interpreted according to this feature.
The indirect features permi ttin ; deter n xng the presence of one or.
another formation in a riverbed are based on well-known, largely qualitative
relationships between the outlines of a riverbed in the plan view and in
the profile, the relations between them and the character of the relief of
banks, bottom soils, the aquatic and riparian vegetation, and also on the
suitability for the particular features of the riverbed under the local
conditions -- chiefly the roaCt. isztersectin then, footpaths, and various
artlfi. .mot? rut s?
plow we rresont descriptions of the direct and ir.direct features of
various. elements of a riverbed and. of riverbed formations. it nit ho
pointed out that the direct features may be used only i n a transparent layer
of water.
(1) Those points of a riverbed with the b ightest bottom tones are
sandbanks. ,Sandbars are indicated by tone of irregular density, ranging
from light to dark grey. The brightest points correspond to the lowest
depth, the darkest points correspond to the greatest depth. On large-cafe
photographs it is often possible to exam- ne and identify the p its of a
db:lni;. -- the ridge, the bottoms and even the regularities in the bottom
surface caused by currents and agitation (Photographs 15, 32, 33),
Acx ording to the nature of the relative location of the ridges of the
sandbank and the shoreline, we may easily ddtex ire its -type (normal, and
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oblique sandbank spit, at al.).
(2) Those portions with the densest dark tone of surface uz"x-"'T
correspond to the t?raver reac4ea (I io?o?Aph 32). In determining the location
of reaches and sandbanks on the photograph it is necessary to check the
relative location of these with respect to the bends of the riverbed
(Farfa's rule).
(3) The darkest portions of the image of a water surface correspond
to the water channel. In determining the location of a channel it is
necessary that it be matched with the. locations of the water reaches and
sandbanks (Photograph 32).
(4) Flat, shallows, shoals, sandbars, and beaches are identified by
direct features (that is, as in nature, directly, according to the character
of the location of the corresponding bright tones in the riverbed). In
those cases where these formations are covered, even if by a shallow layer
of grater, on the photographs there is always clearly seen their microrel.ief,
resembling in external appearance the photograph of a rippled water surface
(small sand ridges formed as the result of movement of water over their
surface). Sometimes beneath the water there is seen a narrow white band
formed by a shelf created by the river during a period in which the water
level remains at a given height.
The exposed surface of these formations is almost always distinguished
by the brighter tone and the usually struct-Lweless apr,ear;anee of the outline.
Only under the stereoscope is it possible in this case to see the irregularities
of relief. The brightest tones are usually on sandy soil, the darkest tones
are usually on clayey soil. In wide shoals and beaches sometimes against
the generally bright tone, even in examining the photograph with the naked
eye, there are a- ,parent small, usually circular figures, patches. This is
the grassy vegetation which grows on their surface during a prolonged period
of low level during which this surface remains exposed. for a considerable
length of time. Sometimes on such formation there are visible small, dark
narrow bands. They are formed by the shadows of small shelves arising during
prolonged maintenance of a given level and its subsequent reduction.
(5) Rapids are usually easily recognized by the white bands of different
dimenzions extending over the surface of the water, wherein fr an these paw hes
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there are usually two well-exp essed, expanding white bands extending
over the di reat3 on of the flow (Photograph 34). Both the patches euzd the
bands are formed by foaming water as it flows at a great rate over local
obstacles -- racks, boulders, etc. (discussed in greater detail in Section 53).
Small un dorwator shelves twill sometimes be evident by the shadow cast by
the shelf oven if it is located at a considerable dopth.
(6) Waterfalls are also often clearly seen on a photograph. They'
appear either in the form of a white band running perpendicular to the
riverbed and formed by the reflection of the falling water (Photograph 34),
or in the form of a dark band formed by the shadow from the shelf of the
waterfall (Photograph 20). Since the -waterfalls occur chiefly on mountain
rivers, the water surface of which usually' has a light gay tone on the
photograph, both the white and the black band corresponding to a watarfal.l
is clearly seen. From the photographs we may easily determine not only the
location of the but also the up} er and lower waters thereof r and
by stereoscopic means we .lay examine large scale photographs to determine
the drop of the t:aterfalls.
If a waterfall appears as a white band, then Its upper portion is
usually clearly delineated atgairo3t the r enoral tone of the surface of the
t ,ter above the taterfall, while the lower portion forms a ring of white
patches or isolated white bands of foaming water. If the waterfall appears
as a dark band at right angles to the flew of the river (Photograph 20),
then,.s::in the previous c .se, the upper edge of c;:u shadow is usually
clear and the lower ed ? is Irregular and recedes downstream (Photograph 20).
So tetirnes the age of a waterfall may resemble the image of a spillway
dawn. However, while the waterfall is differently oriented with respect to
the riverbed and has an irregular outline at its crest, the dam is distinguished
by its alts t s strictly regular outline and its usually porp?ndieular
orientation rel at.ive to the homes.
Section 36. Identifying Bottom Soils
Bottom soil is identified on the basis of identifying features described
in Section 44. In the interpretation of soils the principal . procedure Is
is b=ased on evaluation of the tonality of the image of the botom as adjusted
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 for a series of indirect terrain features (according to the nature of the
structure of the banks of the riverbed, sections at the mouth, the voge--
tation on the banks and in the bottom: and, etc.). If the bottom of the
riverbed cannot be examined, then it is necessary to employ one of the
abov&rentiof_ed indirect features on the basis of all the information;trbIch
is obtained in interpreting the soils of a terrain adjacent to a river.
As a supplement to the above (direct and indirect) features for identi-
fication of soils we my introduce the following indirect features. With
a sandy riverbed the tome of the ire ge of the -water surface, as has been
mentioned, is distinguished ly bright. tones, the density of which depends
chiefly on the dopth. With clayey or muddy soils the relief of the bottom,
even with extremely shslioa water in the bank portions, is almost not de-
tectable and the tone of the i ma e of tie water sum face is u lly gray'.
The g `ay tone of the ;: .er may also be due to other causes (for example,
a high content of detritus in the ,?.,ater).
A rocckly bottom on flatland rivers gives black tones for the images
of the water surface oven at shallow depths with considerable transparency.
In those cases where we may assume that the ester layer is of considerable
depth, identification of a rockly bottom is extremely difficult; however
on photographs of the largest scale it is possible 'Co examine the sh=adow
from large rocks udder water. If the rocks extend beyond the surface of
the water., then the general rockly character of the bottom is determined
without difficulty.
Section-37-w- DeteMinizF! the Trrsence
of Ver~etaa ion in a Riverbed
Information concern -Ing growth of vegetation in a riverbed is usually
obt9 -=-red from a photograph without }articular difficulty.
The presence of vegetation in a riverbed is determined from the char-
acteristic structure of the outline and the bright tone in comparison with
the dark image of the water surface usually obtained in these cases (a muddy
dark bottom).
The outs. ine of the ima of aquatic vegetation usually has a fine-grained
structure, 'Ltherei n there are clearly vi sib'! e the. ti rious sizes of r-atches
with circular outlines. The outer boundary of the bands of aquatic vegetation
(directed toward the r .ver) is usually not clear and has an extremely irregular
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outline (Photograph 17).
Underwater vegetation, as a rule, has the darker tone, vegetation above
the water has the brighter tone. The presence of large patches in the
latter case is clearly distinguished. From these features it is often
possible to establish the edge of underwater vegetation as well as that
above water. In those cases where the overgrowth of a reservoir occurs by
the invasion of aquatic, swampy vegetation from the banks, among the bright
grainy patches there arc detectod small irregular outlines of almost black
patches corresponding to the areas without such vegetation. They sometims
form a rather complex mosaic resembling lace.
In order to check the resulting information concerning the overgrctwtth
of the riverbed it is necessary to consider the general character of the
riverbed and the banks so that we may establish the extent of the typical
correspondence of the located points of vegetation on the photograph to the
conditions of their growth. For ex +mple, aquatic vegetation growing above
the water, among which we may include lill.ies and water!i lies, are usually
widely found in mills, small lakes, and in the vicinity of swampy banks, etc.
Section 38. Interpretation of River Banks
In order to obtain characteristics for river banks it is necessary to
determine their height, slope, soil, vegeta.tion, and stability.
The most complete quantitative characteristics of banks may be obtained
only by stereoscopic examination and measurement. This is usually from any
direction on a river, whereby with a considerably greater accuracy than
from any topographic map, on which the image of the banks is always quite
sketc'Iy.
.
For a discussion of the methods of storeophotograaetric measurement
of the he-i cht of banks see Section 52.
When it is not possible to conduct stereophotogzemmetrie measurement
of the banks of a riverbed (small scales or extremely small rivers with mildly
sloped b? ks), their characteristics may be obtained by using various indirect
features, permitting evaluation of the character of the river banks. The
most thorough qualitative determination of the height of banks may be ob-
tained by evaluating the character of the bottomland. As was mentioned in
Section 31, it is sometimes possible to evaluate the degree of flooding of
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a bottomland from an aerial photograph and, in studying the microrelief of
this bottomland, to proceed to a qualitative evaluation of the banks.
By the use of an aerial photograph the height of the banks may also
be approximately determined by comparing it with the height of knot-m objects
located on them (shy u~r bs, trees, buildings, etc.). The steepness of the
slopes of banks may be qualitatively determined by the presence of shadows,
by the extent of their vegetative cover, by the nature of the outline of
the surface of the slopes, by the soils composing the bank, by the width
of the visible portion of the slope.
The identifying features of steep banks may be:
(a) the presence of a clearly expressed shoulder (the shadow of the
banks);
(b) erosion of the bank, in the absence of shoals, and sandy stretches
of considerable ;width;
(c) the presence of horizontal stratification on the image of the slope,
with small intervals between individual layers;
(d) the presence of shrubs and trees located close to the shoreline;
(e) the predominance of dense soils in the riverbed and on the bottom-
lands the narrower the visible portion of the bank slope, the steeper the
slope.
For steeply slanting slopes the characteristic features are an absence
of shadotiws, the absence at the shoreline of scrub and tree vegetation, the
predominance of friable or porous soils in the. riverbed and the bottomland,
swampiness of the banks, and indistinctly expressed shoreline (except the
case where it is covered with a shadow from the bank).
The soils, vegetation, and, especially, the turf condition of the banks
are ascertained from identifying features for the corresponding elements
of the terrain (see Sections 44 and 45).
It bust be pointed out that the banks consisting of sandstone have a
brighter image, tone and the clayey soils have a gray tone, often with a
striped pattern structure. Banks composed of rock formations are distinguished
by the complex structure of the relief of the slopes due to the presence of
fissures, crevasses, trenches, etc. The more the exposed slope is subject
to moisture, the darker the tone of its image. Turfed slopes, on the other
hand, are seen on the photograph as areas which-increase in brightness in
proportion to the moisture content.
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The stability of bks may be judged from the character of their soils,
from the character of the shoreline, and portions of tributaries, alleys,
and ravines of intersecting banks in the vicinity of estuaries.
An important factor for evaluating the stability of the banks of a
riverbed is the study of the character of the microreliof of the bottom
(displacement fans). The less stable the soils of the bottomland of the
riverbed, the more numerous the banks and the more complex their pattern
(see Section 31).
In the presence of wooded growth, the stability of banks may also be
judged from the condition and the character of the growth. For example,
on undercut banks in a forested terrain it is often seen that trees have
fallen into the river.
Section 39. Determininii the Direction of Current
The direction of a river current is determined from aerial photographs
on the bass of numerous indirect features. These are: the character of
""`the relative positions of rivers and their tributaries; the shape of river-
bed formations; the character of the arrangement of : ydrotechnical structures
and navigation facilities on rivers; the character of the image of the water
surface. In addition, a conclusion as to the direction of a current of a
river must, as a rule, proceed not from one of the abovementioned features
but from a number of them.
(1) The character of the inflow of tributaries has particular significance
in determining the direction of a current, especially for small rivers which
appear on the aerial photograph as narrow bands. The direction of the current
is determined from the angle at which the tributary enters the river. As
a rule, the tributaries of a river enter at a sharp angle, the vertex of
which points down stream.
(2) The shape of riverbed formations permits determining the d;rectinn
of the current from the following features.
The peaks of ',wends in the shoreline are, as a rule, directed downstream
(Photograph 32).
Islands rotated in the middle of a riverbed usually have an elongated
pear-shaped outline in which the pointed portion of the island is always
turned downstream. Often its extension is a sandy shoal, but in a number
of cases such a sandbar is washed out and sedimentation occurs in the upper
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portion of the island. Thus, it is not feasible to base preliminary observations
of the shape of an island on the presence of a sandbar along. This same
share is apparent in the outlines of flats, that is., sandbanks located in
the middle of a riverbed.
Sandbars with a pointed tip are also always located downstream (Photo-
graph 16b). Dead end back-waters are directed against the current (Photo-
graph 17).
1ith a transparent river bottom the bent ridges forming the usual micko-
relief of shoal and sandbar surfaces have the convex side directed upstream.
The edges of shoals and sandbars arc directed upstream on the convex
side; their downstream, edges are sharply outlined (subterraced), and their
upstream sides are indistinct (Photographs 32, 33)?
The arrangement of displacement fans also facilitates determining the
direction of current. Usually the broad part of the fan extends into the
stream (Photograph 16b).
(3) Location of ice-guards and other hydrotechnical structures is a
reliable feature for determining the current.
The ice-guards (at abutments or in the form of individual groups of
piles) at bridges are always cloarly seen on photographs and are located
on the upstream side (Photographs 27, 36).
Pontoon (floating) bridges bend downstream. There are also floating
log-catchers and other floating devices.
Retaining dikes are located at . sharp angle to the current, that is,
the ends of the dike head into the stream (Photograph 19).
Boats and barges moored at river landings point downstream.
The gates of river locks are pointed toward the current (Photograph 38b).
The clearly expressed outline of a dam faces upstream (Photograph 38b).
(4) The direction of the current is determined from the image of a water
surface in the following manner.
White bands formed by the water as it foams in flowing around obstacles
or in passing through narrows are extended downstream and are most clearly
visible at the obstacles. In flowing around the obstacles the water forms
two bands gradually diminishing downstream and often having the form of diverging
ur_~~.~o=
parabolas. Thug, the pear of such parabolas lie upstream.
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 In the ,blending of to streams of different turbidity the iiye of the
water surface below their fusion often has the fora of ti- o difforont]y
colored strcros with the most sharply ex xressed difference uZ tones -
iately below the fusion and with gradual matching of tho tone of the water
dot--nstrean (lhot~gaph 29).
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 CHAPTER VIII
IM PRETATIOR OF F!DROTECIINICAL STRUCTURES
Section 1O? Principal Identifying Features of Bridges
Interpretation of bydrotechnical structures is of interest not only in
itself but also in that it provides information of a hydrological nature.
For example, stereoscopic. measurement of the height of bridge spans gives
indirect indications of the probable height of flood levels; the location
of individual details, as was mentioned in Section 39, permits judging the
direction of the current, etc.,
The principal direct identifying features of bridges are the shape of
the image of the outline of the shadow of the bridge. The road network is
an indirect but wholly reliable feature.
The presence and location of a bridge is clearly established on photo-
graphs of all scales. The principal feature determining the location of a
bridge is the roads leading to it and the narrow, often bright band (the
deck of the bridge) joining them across the river, a ravine, or other ob-
stacle. From its regular outline (in the form of a rectangle) in the
plan view of a bridge is easily distinguished without a stereoscope
(Photograph 27).
The deck of a bridge (on dirt roads or highways and sometimes on
railroad bridges) is usually narrower than the roads leading to it (roads
on the approaches to a bridge are often widened) and has an extremely
sharp outline. Thus, the image of a bridge on an aerial photograph re-
sembles the symbol by which bridges are represented on a topographic
map (Photographs 27, 36).
The type and construction of bridges are easily determined from the
shape of the shadow cast by the bridge and often permits observing even
the details of construction (Photograph 36).
On large-scale photographs construction details of a bridge, espe-
cially with magnification and stereoscopic examination, may be determined
directly: the visible parts of piers and abutments, crossbeams, girders,
etc. (Photograph 36).
The material of the bridge may be determined from indirect features
by taking into consideration its type and construction. These indirect
features of the tone of the image, features of construction, dimensions
of the bridge, etc. (Photograph 37).
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Reinforced-concrete bridges are distinguished by great width, regular
and distinct outlines, and a light-gray tone. Only when the deck of the
bridge is covered with asphalt is its image dark. It must be pointed out
that, other conditions being equal, the deck of the bridge is usually
brighter in tone than the roadways leading to it.
Steel bridges are always easily identified from the dark tone of the
image and the shadows from girders.
Wooden bridges as well as reinforced-concrete bridges usually have a
light gray tone and it is difficult to distinguish the material of the
bridge in this case.
On large-scale photographs, with careful stereoscopic examination
and, with adequate magnification, the concrete is sometimes distinguished
from wood by its smoother and brighter surface.
The image of wooden structures always gives a somewhat rough and
darker surface. Thus, the tone of the image in this case is not a re-
liable identifying feature and the principal identifying feature is the
shape of the outline of the bridge. Usually the outlines of wooden
bridges are irregular and the edges of crossbeams and other compliments
of wooden structures are visible; hence, in a careful study of a photo-
graph wooden bridges are easily distinguished from all others.
The upper dimensions of a bridge are easily determined by direct
measurement. The height of the bridge above the surface of the water may
be determined stereoscopically with an average accuracy of 0.1 to 1 meter
depending on the scale of the photograph.
Section 41. Interpretation of Lams Locks, and Hydrotechnical Installations
For all hydrotechnical installations on a river (dams, locks, bank
reinforcements, riverbed retaining structures, special installations of
irrigation systems -- lock regulators, aqueducts, etc.), in compiling a
hydrographic description information is gathered concerning the location,
materials, dimensions, and features of construction of the hydrotechnical
installations. In addition, the following information for individual in-
stallations is assembled;
For dams -- the purpose (water retaining, raising the level of water),
a hydroelectric power station, the possibility of travel over the top of
the dam, and concerning a reservoir (the nature of the banks, the dimen-
sions, the volume of the overflow pri sm) ;
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 For locks -- the depth of the water at the lower gate and the traffic
capacity (the time required for the passage of a single ship through the
locks);
For bank reinforcements -- the approaches to the banks;
For special installations of irrigation systems -- the flow capacity
(greatest discharge in m3/sec).
An aerial photograph permits obtaining almost all the basic informa-
tion required for a hydrographic description with the exception of data
concerning details of concealed structures (for sample, the type of valves)
and information associated with the operation of structures.
A necessary condition for obtaining information of the greatest possible
value concerning hydrotechnical installations is the interpreter's prelimi-
nary knowledge concerning the types and constructions of a given type of
installation. With such information at hand, an interpreter, according to
the relative: location of individual installations, can without particular
difficulty determine all the basic data concerning an installation as read
directly on the photograph.
The sequence of operations: determine the location of the installa-
tion, establish its appearance and type, distinguish the details of con-
struction and material, perform measurements; then, on the basis of this
data and the indirect features, make a logical conclusion concerning the
character and type of installation. In using large scale photographs it
is desirable to outline the installation with a pencil.
As in the case with bridges, the principal identifying features of
hydrotechnical installations are the outline of the image, the s;iadow,
and the tone of the image. In addition.., in order to anmier a number of
questions it is necessary to resort to indirect features, chiefly for
determining the purposes of the installation. Thus, in interpreting
hydrotechnical installations use may be made of the same procedure as
was used in interpreting bridges.
The images of various hydrotechnical installations with explanatory
texts for their interpretation are given in -Photographs 37-4O.
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:~_y w. -e_.~_ +.y. :J. _ "?r':.+'~ .,,~ ?.;Y S'rae.~''E!'-: .,~ "" ,yyr,:,':?~''~~,ty'
a x _.Y ? ? - ~:a:ri ..,..rA"?a..A:;1}:;~: ~.'!-_=..c:..~:i a'~::.w:~i:d'.. Yn l~;?t?:?_
CHAPTER IX
b ~4 YA~ '{:- j:y
INTERPRETATION FROM AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE OE! Z. AL CHARACTER OF TflE SURFACE
OF A WATERS ED, SOILS, VEGETATION, AND LOCAL ORIENTING FEATURES (ROAD ENF71 MS)
Section 1s2. General Introduction
The interpretation of relief, soils, vegetation, and the road system:
is one of the most important orienting features within the limits of the
entire watershed area of a river and cannot be considered as one of the
hydrological problems; however, obtaining information concerning these ele-
ments with one or another degree of detail is necessary in comparing hydro-
graphic de,scriptions.
Obtaining data concerning the nature of the relief, soils, and vege-
tation of a river watershed is necessary also in the solution of many
special hydrological problems (for example, in determining the conditions
of surface runoff, establishing the degree of forestation of the basin,
studying the regularity of the descent of snow cover, etc.). This chapter
presents the principal methods of interpreting the above terrain elements.
Section 43. Interpreting Relief and the Boundaries of a Basin
(1) Determining the General Character of the Relief of a Basin
For the hydrographic description it is necessary to obtain data
principally concerning the large forms of relief.
All this information may be obtained from aerial photographs with a
greater degree of thoroumbness than from a topographic map and even from
the materials of a field reconnaisance. An exception is the obtaining of
height markings,whichh are determined approximately in the form of relative
heights of single points (hills, individual peaks, etc.) above others
(a river, a lowland, etc.). The task of interpreting mesa- and micro-
relief pertains to the study of river valleys and bottomlands.
The principal identifying features by which relief is interpreted on
aerial photographs are discussed in the description of interpretation of river
valleys (Sections 25-32).
As an additional instruction it must be pointed out that one of the
most important indirect features in the interpretation of relief is the
structure of the hydrographic net. On the basis of the study of its out-
line from figures it is often possible to determine the morphology of a
surface. For example, considerable twisting of riverbeds is usually
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t.4'?.:) b- arc t: ~;:
characteristic of a lowland terrain. The, presence of water streams which
are parallel to one another over considerable distances permits concluding
the presence of a general slope of the surface in the same direction as
that in whicw the water streams flow. The presence of a series of parallel
water divides and the trunk system of the hydrographic net characterize a
rolling lowland. Convergence of the hydrographic net to one center, usually
toward a lake or a m,:amp, indicates a concave lowland surface.
For the;ie same purposes a study of the location of populated points
and road systems may be used (Section 28).
(2) Determining the Boundaries of a Watershed
In the presence of a well-developed hydrographic network determination
of the boundaries of a watershed from aerial photographs is performed with
greater accuracy than from large-scale maps. This is possible due to the
fact that on aerial photographs it is possible to detect even the smallest
streams (brooks) and sometimes the smallest ravines and trenches formed in
the runoff of thaw and rain waters and to examine under a stereoscope ir-
regularities of the surface not detected on maps.
Especially valuable information may be obtained by using- aerial photo-
graphs for determining watersheds under the conditions of a flat, .~t?.**ampy
relief. With an aerial photograph it is possible to achieve great accuracy
in determining the lines of surface flow on mossy, convex swamps. in
addition, it fixes the image of the lines of streams flowing over the
surface of the swamp (flowing swamp) due to the fact that at such points
the richest and densest vegetation grows.
The interpretation of flowing swamps and hydrographic network of
swamps is discussed in greater detail in Chapter XII.
In lowland areas in the presence of open, unforested stretches the
water divides are determined with less accuracy than in swampy areas.
However., due to the close relationship between vegetation and moisture con-
ditions, and, consequently, with the microrelief of the line of water
divides, even in this case they may be fairly accurately defined (%. oto-
graph 41) b using the identifying features discussed in sections 28 and 31.
Correlative relations between forest vegetation and relief as deter-
mined by the difference in moisture of soil on elevated and depressed
portions also permit noting the line of water divides under the condi-
tions of a lo*,wland, forested relief (Section 45).
sti ~'~r
*43t
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:~: .t." ~~:.:.~,' ?:t'~:.ei 4..r`.4 etr. ~...: Yr?r~. :k:,.-" e``~~yt:':'?"-_ i.~ia ad~a~.`r_
In and steppe regions on aerial photographs made during the summer
(that is, during the period when the vegetation withers and consequently
has a uniform color) lines of water divides are more weakly expressed.
Yet, even under these conditions the traces of temporary streams flowing
during the snow thaws may be detected from the residue carried by them,
forming the typical striped outline of bright tones, or from the dark
bands of vegetation typical of depressions in the terrain (the more moist
portions) which may be detected chiefly due to the great density of vege-
tation at these points.
Finally, under the conditions of exposed soils in semi-aria and arid
areas the fine network of small streams formed during the rainy period is
detected on the aerial photograph with sufficient clarity if the soils are
not extremely loose and are not subject to,intensive erosion (Photograph 12).
Thus, by means of qualitative interpretation the lines of water divides
may be detected even in those cases where their stereophotogram~gotric deter-
mination becomes difficult or impossible due to a lack of clearly expressed
relief and the presence of only inconsiderable deviations.
Section ?4}a . Soil Interpretation
Interpretation of soils from aerial photographs is only approximate;
however, under certain conditions, with careful study of a photograph and
extensive use of indirect features, data concerning the soils may be ob-
tained with sufficient accuracy for preliminary hydrogr aphic survey opera-
tions. In addition, the aerial photographic survey permits embracing
large areas which cannot be overlooked in preliminary surveys.
In the interpretation of soils use is made of direct features (the tone
and pattern of the image) as well as, for the most part, indirect features
and correlative relationships.
(1) Tone of Tmage
The tone of the image is determined largely by the color of the soil;
consequently, from this feature the soil may be determined only for soils
which are devoid of vegetative cover.
Soil colorations are usually caused by a combination of colors:
black (humus) soils,='red(caused by compounds of ferric hydroxide), and
white (caused by the presence of kaolin, silicon dioxide, or compounds of
aluminum hydroxide). According to the proportion of these compounds the
photographic image of exposed soils is in most cases of a bright tone and
1_GO
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..q.~ ;~-~ . ~a... ::=: :i .. et,aA`?ei+.l:e~.:.~.54E`i rK.. sr_ .:^;: .. -
._ _,a__, - 7~~3:Y.-,_: 1!u:.~a. _-...~;.-Y v.,t=,?ir~.:)-tr. ~w e.k.::.r?:.~:~a.r- '!-s .'~. ~i.,'w'rr '.t _ _. _: t:~ -s ?~.~'. ._ `. ,
only the black soils and. red soils show dark grey tones. Sand, silt, lime-
stones, etc. give the brightest, almost white tone (Photograph 32)? Gravelly
soils and conglomerates give a white tone with a characteristic speckled
pattern on large-scale photographs. Clayey soils give greyish tones
(Photograph 2h).
The density of the tone of soil images on a photograph depends not only
on its composition but also on the moisture content. The more moist the
soil, the darker its tone. Hence, in interpretation allowance must be made
for the degree of moisture of the soil (according to the time of the photog-
raphy the effect of depressed forms of relief on the color of the soil, the
proximity to the swarms, rivers, and lakes, the possible outflows of ground
waters, etc.). In addition, the density of the tone of soil images on
aerial photographs depends on a number of other factors: the conditions
of illumination, the quality of the photographic film, laboratory pro-
cedures, etc. (fence, the tone of the image is often an unstable and un-
reliable feature.
(2) The Image Pattern
The image of gravelly soils and conglomerates, as has been mentioned,
has a characteristically speckled pattern.
The presence at an outcropping (escarpment, cliff) of horizontal
bands of different tones indicates the presence of close-packed rock forma-
tions (Photograph 24).
A variegated pattern of nonturfed sections (a sequence of bright and
dark spots) corresponds to surfaces with rocky deposits and exposed rocky
soils (Photograph 1).
(3) Indirect Features
The principal indirect feature is the character of the forms of relief
and vegetation.
From the character of the relief vie may establish the following varie-
ties of soils.
Dunes and barkhans are characteristic only for loose, sandy soils
(Photographs 43, 1I).
Vertical walls, deep narrow ravines and jagged ridges of washouts are
formed in compact sandstones and loess.
Cliffs consisting of slopes with convex formations and smooth outlines
are found in areas with clayey soils (Photograph 21).
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The presence of rubble at the foot of a cliff is an indication of rock
formations.
Isolated craters and closed depressions, if they are not located iii
river bottomlands (karst terrain) indicates the presence of limestone and
marls.
The large exposed piles of detritus often encountered at the mouths
of tributaries (streams and gullies) are evidence of the scattering of non-
cemented soil (sands, gravelly rubble, etc.).
The presence of steep banks without reinforcement at artificial
structures (dikes, open cuts, canals, highways and railroads, etc.) is an
indication of the stability of the soils.
If there is evidence of plowing right up to a steep bank, this also
is an indication of the stability of the soils.
(1k) Correlation Series
As a rule, soils are associated with particular types of vegetation,
which may permit approximating the characteristics of the predominating
soils. For example:
Pine groves indicate the presence of sandy soils;
Spruce and fir occur chiefly on clayey and loamy soils, the spruce
usually being located on swampy lowland sectors;
Osier usually grows on sandy and wet loamy soils;
Meadow vegetation occupies the greater part of alluvial sands, sandy
loamy or loamy-peat soils. Additional features are discussed in Section 29,
Table 9.
Section l5. Interpretation of Vegetation
For the purposes of hydrographic investigation there are usually
necessary:
(1) A short characteristic of the vegetation according to its prin-
cipal groupings: forest, shrub, meadow, steppe, swamp;
(2) The characteristic location of vegetation in the basin area under
study;
(3) A short characteristic of each grouping, to wit:
for forests --- tree species, the predominating rock types, the height
of trees, the diameter of trunks or the age (young, mature);
for shrubs -- the predominating rocks, the height and density
(sparse, dense);
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'.Y
for meadows -- dry, swamped, with a variety of grasses, with grama
grass, with reed grass, the presence and nature of location of shrubs;
for steppes -- with a variety of grasses, with feather grass, etc.;
for swamps - mossy, grassy, forested; the composition of vegetation --
grassy, shrubbed, with scrub forest, wooded;
in clearings and burned off areas it is necessary to ascertain the
characteristics of the new vegetation.
The use of the materials of an aerial photographic survey in order to
obtain information concerning vegetation is widely used, for example, in the
timber industry, where data concerning stands of timber is obtained from
photographs in considerably greater detail than required in hydrographic
investigations. Thus, for general hydrographic purposes it may be considered
that the materials obtained from an aerial photographic survey are wholly
adequate.
The principal features for interpreting vegetation of photographs are
the structure of the pattern, the tone, and the shadow, and to a considerable
degree the outline of the image (for cultivated forests, plantings, and
farmlands).
The graininess of the pattern, always clearly expressed, is deter-
mined by the image of. the tree tops and easily permits identifying sectors
and areas covered with trees and shrubs; shadows from a forest or individual
trees and shrubs make the areas even more evident (Photograph 30).
For grassy vegetation the principal feature is the tone, while the
character of the pattern plays a -minor role. For-swamps and farmland
both these features are of importance and a substantial role is played by
the outline (configuration) of the image.
Thus, it is not difficult to distinguish forested and unforested areas.
According to the character of the pattern (graininess) the tone of the
surface of the shadows determine the principal characteristics which permit
evaluating the composition of rocks. These features are given in Table 10,
which is usually used in forest interpretation and in predicting the inter-
pretatioin of fully mature stands of trees.
Most of the features listed in Table 10 are detected with the unaided
eye, but certain of them (items 4,?,7,'-' 8) are detected only by the stereo-
scopic examination of photographs. As a rule, vegetation and many other
elements of terrain are more easily and more rapidly identified under a
stereoscope than. with the unaided eye.
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 .'+i`.~ :, ::w'+?".ei'.Saaii~-~,.?'~~.i:=k:..^~%'-.ay.~.==9t:S''.`iJ..'..r:e'YS'.F - ?r'r"ygl:`C:~.f iy~S:~:~a':.i:+w ~'t~'~~:5; *.~ ~: x.'., _ A!,
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Oak stands (Photograph 33), The structure of the pattern of an
oak forest differs from the forests of other species in the great
diameter of the grains; their general appearrnco is that of quilted flakes
or clumps with small grey spaces between them (the greater part of the
treetop is illuminated).
The treetops overlap and the canopy of the forest is almost opaque;
under the stereoscope the asymmetry of the treetops is clearly seen.
Image of coniferous and deciduous forests at different times of the
year. In photographs taken during the winter coniferous forests have a
sharply contrasting image on the generally bright background, being
distinguished by a dense dark tone due to the clumps of snow clinging
to the branches of trees. The graininess of the pattern is often more
clearly evident than on summer photographs (Photograph 46).
The image of a deciduous forest on winter and spring photographs
is distinguished by the extremely unique structure of the pattern in
the form of streaks formed by the shadow of the bared treetops with a
parailel arrangement of the shadows of their trunks (Photograph 13).
In the fall the deciduous forests have a generally bright tone of
image (Photograph 47).
Photographs of coniferous trees made in the spring differ but little
from those taken at rather times of the year.
Burned areas, cleared areas, windfalls. These areas, seen in many
forests, are clearly distinguished on photographs from the irregular,
clearly visible outlines and bright tone of the image.
Usually on burned areas there are isolated. trees, standing without
particular orderj, and curtains of young trees standing out sharply against
the generally bright background. Dense stands of dead trees usually
appear on the photograph as white spots and give weak grey shadows. A
dead tree at the center of a photograph appears as a point, at the edges
of the photograph it appears as a streak.
Windfall sections are also distinguished by broken outlines within
the limits of which there are usually clearly visible streaks (slanting
in one direction from the tree trunks).
Cleared areas, as with burned areas, have a bright tone and are
characterized by the regularity of outlines. Those trees which are left
standing (seedlings) and the curtains of young forests are clearly seen.
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Sometimes there are visible the evidences of lumbering operations (unhauled
logs, piles of timber) in the form of white streaks. Cleared areas with
all the trees felled are distinguished by their regular out.2-Ines.
General identifying features of scrub forests. The principal identi-
fying features of scrub forests, as for tall forests, are the structure of
the pattern (graininess), the tone, and the outline.
Structure of the pattern of areas occupied by scrub growth is charac-
terized by fine graininess, sometimes somewhat blurred, and the even tone
of the image. In virtue of these two features, on large-scale photographs
(larger than 1:10,00015,000) it is relatively easy to distinguish scrub
growth from nature and even young trees. For the latter, even over small
areas, there is always the characteristic different tonality caused by
mixture with the principal species of other trees. Scrub growths are
always more uniform in composition and hence the tone of their images is
distinguished by evenness.
The outline of areas occupied by scrub growth is almost always circular.
It forest has less circular, often straight, outlines.
The types of scrub growths (species) are determined from a number of
direct, complex, and indirect features.
Among the direct features are: the shape of the grains, the tone,
the outline, and transparency of the individual crowns. The arrangement
of scrub growths serves as complex and indirect identifying features.
Willow scrubs. The principal feature for identifying willow scrubs
is their grouping within the arrangement of grains, creating a bearded
pattern of the surface occupied by titiis type of scrub, since the willows
are usually arranged in curtains (Photograph 32).
Bright tones also are characteristic of willows, the circular out-
lines of the crowns and the considerable transparency of which are clearly
seen in stereoscopic examination.
The indirect features of willows are the location of the scrub growths
on alluvial islands, high sandbars and shoals, on lowland bottoms and along
river banks.
Alder scrubs are characterized by the finely grained structure of even
bright tones, w thout noticeable curtaining (the bearded pattern (Photograph
33).- The tone of the images is brighter than inareas occupied by willows,
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since the crowns of the alder are usually closely packed and their illumi-
nated portions usually predominate over the shadowed portions. The trans-
parency of the crowns is less than in willows. Sometimes, the alder scrubs
are mixed with willows, when the difference in tone and structure of the
pattern is clearly seen.
As regards location, alder scrubs are usually adapted to the slopes of
valleys, high bottomlands, ravines leading into rivers, and slopes.
Mixed birch and alder scrub is identified by the variety in tone of
grains (the alder is bright, the birch is dark) and as concerns location
are usually adapted to burned areas and cleared areas.
Meadow grasses are characterized on the photographs by a structure-
loss pattern, a smooth transition of tones, and circular outlines of the
meadow sections (Hiotographs j, 6, 19).
These features are well. expressed, and a meadow is easily distinguished
from other farmlands, which also have clearly expressed image features. In
addition, one of the distinguishing features of meadows is their location,
that Is, their tendency to occur in definite types of mesorelief (bottom-
lands, terraces, etc.).
The tone of the image of an unmoved meadow depends chiefly on the
znoipture content of the soils, the type of vegetation, the time of the
year, and ranges from almost white to a gray tone.
With an even distribution of moisture over the surface the tone of
the image of a meadow is also distinguished by a uniform or weakly vary-
ing spottiness (mottling).
With clearly expressed irregularities of the surface there is always
easily distinguished a difference in the tone of the image of the meadow.
Depressed portions have a dark tone, elevated portions have a bright tone.
A brightness of tone may also be caused by blooming of plant growth
(see Section 28, Photograph 6).
Fields with maturing grasses are shown on a photographic print with
even '::righter tones than a meadow and have a characteristic image pattern
in the form of a weakly striped, generally uniform tone (Photograph 14).
Fields with mature grasses (yellow color) give even brighter, almost white,
tones. The outlines of fields, as a rule, are regular. The boundaries
are clearly visible in the foam of thin white lines, and the old boundaries
and plowed under trenches are still in evidence. Plowlands are distinguished
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by regular outlines but a darker tone than fields (Photograph I). The
striped pattern, caused by the presence of furrows, is preserved and is
often more sharply expressed than in fields. Clearly visible is the
difference in tone between adjacent sections, which is explained by the
different plowing periods. The recently plowed, more moist sections appear
darker, the dry sections appear bright.
Section 46. Interpretation of Roads
In the h3ydrogrraphic interpretation of aerial photographs roads are
necessary as local orienting features and they are important in the planning
of field operations. They must also be interpreted in using hydrotechnical
installations on roads for the calculation of runoff. The road network
facilitates interpretation of the relief of a basin and evaluating the
likelihood of -flooding of bottomlands, exc.
Roads are shown. on:,aerial photographs in the form of thin bands of
differing tone; in the sui'tier they are often quite bright, but owing to
interferences the roads Fes`':? sometimes dark (darker than the surface of the
surrounding terrain), and in the winter, with the presence of snow cover,
as a rule, they are dark.
The principal features for identification of road types are the fazes
of the image (the clarity of outlines, the character and degree of
crookedness), and the presence of installations.
The straighter the outline of the roadbed, the higher the clasp of
road; the more crooked the roadbed and the smaller radius of curvature, the
lower the class of road. The different degrees in crookedness are observed
also in mountain terrains, but in such terrain everything., including roads,
is distinguished by considerable curvature and is particularly subject to
irregularities of relief.
Darkening of the tone over individual sections with irregular can-
figuration of dark spots indicates interruption of the surface of the road
and the presence of hollows.
Righways with generally straight outlines have :
sharp outlines of roadbed (Photograph 40);
a radius of curvature maintained within a definite range and a width
of about 6-7 meters;
They are usually intercepted at many points with sideroads and dirt
roads, often entering thew at a sharp angle;
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Ordinary highways with drainage ditches and trenches are usually suite
visible and are distinguished in tone from the roadbeds. For asphalt roads
they appear brighter and for eobblestoned roads darker;
The presence of isolated piles of ballast along the road is character-
istic;
In distinction from roads of low class, along highways there usually
pass telegraph lines, which are detected from the shadows of poles located
at regular intervals.
The type of road covering is determined in the following manner:
asphalted and tarred highways are distinguished by the dark tone of the
roadway in the summer and winter and only a heavily traveled highway during
the dry period of the year is characterized by a certain brightness of tone
due to the polished surface of the roadbed.
Gravel roads and cobbled pavements during the suer are distinguished
by bright tones.
Improved dirt roads are distinguished from highways by greater crooked-
ness. Their tone during the dry period of the summer is always bright.
During the winter it is dark. Drainage ditches parallel all the roads and
hence the width of the roadbed is rather constant.
Dirt (side) roads are distinguished by considerable crookedness,
irregular width, the presence of widenings and branchin?s (sideroads, de-
tours). Such widenings on the photographs often appear as junctions and
are an indirect indication of a poor condition of the road (Photographs 27
and 34). Drainage ditches are lacking. 're tone of the image of a side-
road depends on the composition of the ground and may vary over the length
of a road, while on improved roads it is considerably more uniform and is
preserved over a considerable extent. Only on a very heavily traveled
dirt road is the tone brighter than on exposed, soils in the adjacent ter-
rain (with the exception of sands). After a rain the tone of the image of
a road is darker than during a dry period.
Field roads are identified by their location. They pass along the
edges of plowed lands and other farmlands. Beginning at a populated point
or close to it, such a road often ends in a field and not at the populated
point and does not proceed to other roads.
Footpaths. Even after the single transit of a human being over grass
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or the snow cover his traces are visible on aerial photographs, in the summer
in the form of a fine white line, in the winter in the form of a gray line.
The passage of automobiles or tractors leave traces visible on a large-scale
(larger than 1:10,000) photograph in the form of two parallel bright lines
(Photograph 17). The footpaths over a terrain often form a dense network.
Railroad lines are easily identified on aerial photographs of all scales.
Their identifying features are:
regularity of outlines;
smooth and large radiuses of curvature;
constancy of the width of the roadbed over great distances (single-
track approximately six meters, double-track ten meters);
the presence of railroad booths located at regular intervals;
station buildings and station structures.
Large railroad junctions
usually include a passenger station, a freight station, a car yard, a sort-
ing station, a freight-loading station, a water tower, a locomotive depot
and a turntable close to it, railroad shops, storages, warehouses, loading
platforms, a populated locality, viaducts, etc.;
the presence of large cuts and high embanIments;
snow-shield plantings;
the presence of rolling stock.
The tone of the image of the railroad bed is usually darker- than roads
without rails (Photographs 27 and 39).
On aerial photographs with scales larger than 1:7,000 the rails are
clearly seen. They appear as thin, dark, parallel strands (on photographs
with a scale of 1:7,000 the distance between rails for a wide-gunge rail-
road is 0.22 millimeters, and on a scale of 1:5)000 the distance is 0.30
millimeters). On photographs of smaller scales the railroad line appears
as a thin bright strand.
From aerial photographs we may determine the number of roads and the
type of guage (wide-guage, narrow-guage). The type of guage for large
scales (larger than 1:7,000) is determined directly by measuring the width
of the track (for narrow-guage track it usually is 0.6-1 meter). For
small scales the type of track is determined chiefly from indirect features:
from the size of installations on the line, the overall width of the road-
bed (for narrow-guar: a track, approximately 3 meters) and the sharpness of
bends, down-grades, and up-grades. A wide-guage railroad is distinguished
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173,
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from a narrow-guage railroad by the smoother bends and the turns of elongated
profile.
Section 147. Interpretation of Snow Cover
Aerial photographs may during the snow cover period permit evaluation
of the extent of the cover in a basin with a high degree of accuracy. This
is especially essential_.c?uring the period of so-called mottled landscape,
that is, the period of spotty snow cover. Daring this period evaluation of
of the extent of snow cover over a terrain during ground snow measurements
is especially difficult due to the extensive interruption of the snow cover
by the exposed areas of ground at the beginning of this period or patches
of snow at the end of a period.
On open spaces the exposed areas of ground are always clearly dis-
tinguished in the midst of the snow. The difference in the size of snow
patches may vary considerably even within the limits of a small area
(Photograph 13), which considerably complicates the calculation of the
overall percentage of snow cover.
In a forested terrain with coniferous trees the snow cover beneath
the canopy of the forest is perceived only by stereoscopic examination of
photographs. With deciduous forests (Photograph 13) the snow cover on
the forested portions is quite clearly seen. The surface of the snow in
this case appears to be marked by a network of shadows from the bare trunks
of the trees and hence the general pattern of the snow cover is character-
istically streaked.
As is seen from Photographs 10 and 11, with a thin snow cover aerial
photographs in individual cases may permit determining the thickness of
this cover at least in qualitative degrees (high, average, and low). For
example, an examination of Photograph 10 will permit determining the height
of the snow cover as being small, on the order of 5-15 centimeters. This
is indicated by the possibof examining the smalle3t t details of the
micro-relief (for example, individual ridges in the fields, depressions,
and gullies). The appearance of the snow cover on Photograph 12 indicates
its great thickness.
Under mountain conditions determination of the thickness of a snow
cover is possible on the basis of a comparison of the same profiles on a
terrain plotted by stereophotogrammetric means from summer and winter photo-
graphs. The quantitative characteristics of the -thickness of snow cover
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may be obtained in practice only in this case, if the thickness of the snow
cover is at least several meters and the scale of the survey is large
(1:3,000-15,000), since the accuracy of plotting of such a profile is
inadequate. Thus, with a scale of 1:3,030 the error in determining the
deviations ranges from +0.20 to 0.70 meters, and with a scale of 1:10,000
from +0.60 to 2.2 meters (Section 52).
Since an aerial photographic survey is performed under winter con-
ditions only as the exception, it is not possible to depend on the use of
prepared photographs. Hence, for a study of the snow cover in a basin it
is necessary to perform special surveys. In this case it is necessary to
consider that at the present state of the art of interpretation of snow cover
from aerial photographs we may in practice evaluate only the extent of the
terrain covered by it: Nor can we overlook the difficulty encountered in
precise determination of the areas covered by snow during the period of
mottled landscape (planimetric measurement, the method of the grid sheet
or weighing for large areas). However, by means of systematic aerial photo-
graphic surveys accompanied by parallel ground observation we may, quite
clearly, solve a whole series of problems associated with the study of snow
cover. In particular, we have in mind the investigation on the basis of
systematic aerial, photographic surveys of the effect of the relief and the
character of the surface on which the snow lies and the process of forming
snowy cover and its melting, a study of the cycle of accumulation of thaw
waters which is especially important for steppe regions, checking the re-
liability of the data of ground measurements of snow with a view to deter-
mining the percentage of snow cover.
It follows from the above remarks that special aerial photographic
surveys of snow cover must be performed for small basins or over given
routes and these operations must not be considered as network operations
but as exploratory operations.
The parallel execution of ground measurements of maow?r and aerial
photographic operations will in the final result permit establishing defi-
nite correlative relations between the physical properties of snow and the
peculiarities of the process of freeing a terrain of snow cover and, in all
probability, to establish the relations between the physical properties and
the microrelief of its surface.
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CHAPTER X
MEASURD04TS OF ELEMENTS OF WATER OBJECTS b`P.O}1 AERIAL PI1OGRAP13S
Section 48. General Information
This division of the book discusses the basic principles and methods
of performing measurements of the individual elements of water objects
from aerial photographs. The methods of determining quantitative character-
istics of water objects from aerial photographs may be divided into four
basic groups.
(1) The direct measurement of images on a single print with the aid
of the same simple instruments as are used in measurements on a topographic
map. In this case the aerial photograph is used as an ordinary topographic
map or plan.
(2) Methods based on the use of the stereo-effect. They require the
presence of a stereo pair and special stereophotogramaetric instruments and
are used in determining deviations of points on the terrain and for obtain-
ing other quantitative characteristics associated with determinations of
the height or volume of objects.
(3) The photometric method of measurements, used in measuring the
depths of water objects. It is based on establishing the variations in
the image density of a water surface with depth and the use of this property
of the tone of the image as a standard.
(4) The use of indirect calculations on the basis of data definitely
established from an aerial photograph by one of the abovementioned methods.
As general remarks on the applicability and potential use of-the above
methods for hydrological investigations we may make the following Statements.
The measurement of linear dimensions from aerial photographs has a
considerable advantage in the completeness of data as compared with a topo-
graphic map of any scale, since the latter, even at large scales, always is
schematic and generalized in representing the image of the object.
The scale correspondence of the image of objects in nature fully com-
pensates for such shortcomings of an untransformed photograph as distortion
of the optical model (Chapter III).
The applicability of stereophotograr!etric methods of measurements is
limited by a number of conditions. Thus, riverbed depth determinations
are limited to those cases where the bottom of the river is transparent
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?~rgJ.u~
_y.y`wa
0
throughout the depth of the water and its relief is visible and the scale
.of the photograph does not exceed 1:5,000-1:10,000 (Section 23). The accu-
racy of determining deviations in the shoulders of the banks of a riverbed
over the water surface depends not only on the quality and the scale of
the photograph ?but also to a considerable degree on the nature of the con-
cealment of the riverbed surface, for the latter facilitates or hinders the
application of the sighting mark in measurement with the aid of parallactic
rules or the measuring mark on other stereo measuring instruments (Section 17).
Concerning the photometric method of determining river depths it must
be pointed out that, since the tone of the image of a water surface on aerial
photographs depends an numerous variable and hence random factors, in practice
the applicability of interpretation of depth by this method is extremely
limited.
Indirect methods of obtaining the quantitative characteristics of a
riverbed and a stream have the widest prospects for development. Their
application localizes the shortcomings of an aerial survey (for example,
distortion of the optical model, the impossibility of examining relief over
many portions of the bottom, etc.).
However, the state of these methods at present is still such that we
can only determine a relatively restricted group of characteristics (for
example, only the averaged characteristics of sectors and data only for
individual characteristic directions).
Section 19. The Use of Aerial Photographs for Measuring the Lengths of
Rivers and the Area of Watersheds
The lengths of rivers and the areas of watersheds are determined from
aerial photographs by the same methods and instrwnents as were used for
these purposes on topographic maps. However, in this case the aerial photo-
graph has considerable advantages over the topographic map. It permits
disclosing many details and features of the measured object and thereby to
avoid errors arising due to generalisation of images, as is characteristic
of the topographic map.
In zeasurin the lengths of rivers it is necessary to transform photo
graphs.- In order to distinguish the characteristic sectors it is most con-
venient to use a photomosaic /-fotoplan_7, a photodiagram /-fotoskhema 7, or
at least an overlap assembly. The measurements themselves must be performed
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on a photoraasaic. For more precise determination of the initial and termi-
nal points of measurements or for study of complex sections it may be
necessary to use individual stereopairs in order to obtain information of
greatest detail.
Identification of outlets and tributaries (especially the tributar-
ies of large rivers) is often extremely difficult not only on maps but
also on the terrain. In this respect an aerial photograph has considerable
advantages, increasing the detail of the image as compared with a topo-
graphic map and improving the selectivity as compared with ground surveys.
In order to measure the length of a river it is necessary to determine
the channel line or the median line of the riverbed (depending on the posed
problem), market, then to begin a measurement of the length.
In those cases where the bottom of t'_he riverbed is clearly seen, de-
termining the line of the channel, as has been mentioned, presents no par-
ticular problem. If the relief of the bottom is not visible, then in order
to determine the line of the channel it is necessary to resort to indirect
features (according to the overall meandering of the riverbed, determining
it from the character of the banks, etc.) and to determine its position
more precisely in comparison with the line of the channel as drawn on large
scale navigation maps. With the possibility of measuring the wridth of a
river along any line of direction, we may also make a precise trace of the
median line of the river.
In order to avoid spoiling photographs in performing measurements with
calipers (in accordance with the instructions for measuring the lengths of
rivers) it is desirable to mark the line of the channel as noted on the
aerial photographs on a tracing paper and to perform the measurements
therefrom.
Photog'aphs may also be used to obtain precise information concerning
the meandering characteristics of the river. The aerial photograph permits
careful division of the meanders and a reliable separation of the oro-
graphic meanders (of the valley), the hydrographic meanders (of the river-
bed), and the meanders of the channel.
The latter is important for calculations of depths from hydromorpho-
logical relationships (see Section Si), for navigational characteristics of
the river, etc.
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The use of aerial photographs for measurements of the areas of a water-
shed permits accurate definition of the line of a water divide in those
cases where to perform such a determination on a topographic nap would be
difficult (in swampy terrain,-in the presence of bifurcations, etc.). This
is possible due to the fact that the aerial photograph permits tracing the
structure of the microrolief, the lines of streams of water in the swamp
(marsh) as indicated by dark bands, to determine the direction of water
flows, etc.
In order to measure the area of basins it is necessary to have a
mosaic at hand. However, in the absence of photomosaics /rfotoplan Tor
diatrams,rskhema 7, the compilation of an overlap assembly or the borders
of the watershed will suffice. The measurements will then be performed
from an ordinary large-scale map (1:50,000-1:100,000) with refinement of
the boundary measurements of the basin from aerial photographs.
Determination of the boundaries of a basin, especially of those sec-
tions where they are not clearly expressed, requires,, as a rule, the use
of a stereoscope and, consequently, in addition to the photomosaic, it is
necessary to have a series of contact prints at hand.
Section 50. Measuring the Width of a River from Aerial Photographs
Measurement of the -width of a river may be performed only in those
cases where the image of the riverbed on the photograph has a width of not
less than 2-3 ma., for in these cases the graphic error of measurement
averages +0.2 mm.,, which is not greater than 10 percent of the overall
width of the river.
Thus, measurements with such accuracy are possible on photographs
with scales greater than 1:15,000 for rivers with a width greater than
20-30 meters, with a scale of 1:25,000 for rivers with awidth greater
than 50 meters, and with a scale of 1:10,000 for rivers with a width
greater than 80 meters.
Measurements of the width of the river may be formed in any line of
direction, that is, as often as desired.
In addition to the general rules for selecting measurement directions
(given in the "Instructions for fydrographic Investigations of Rivers' %
in choosing the characteristic directions it is first necessary to evalu-
ate the distribution of the concealment of the shorelines over the length
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considerable deciduous forest cover. This is easily established from the
characteristic streaked pattern caused by the shadows of the trees without
their leaves; they conceal the shadows from the convext forms of relief.
However,.on the forested portion one may still examine the surface of the
snow cover and determine the extent of the terrain covered thereby.
Photograph 14. Scale 1:30,000. Snow patches at the end of the thaw-
ing period. The snow lies in ravines and trenches and clearly emphasizes
their outlines. On the river the ice is flowing. Its dispersion over the
surface of the water conceals the line of the stream.
Photograph 15. Scale 1:10,000. The image of a high bottomland not
subject to annual flooding. The bottomland is distinguished by the gen-
erally uniform gray tone of the surface. The borders of the bottomland
are easily determined from the shelf proceeding along the boundaries of
the forest and in-the lower half of the photograph from the boundary of
the populated point and the farmlands. The split channel is clearly
visible.
The elevation of the bottomland may be judged from the following
features:
(1) the banks of the riverbed are clearly expressed and stand out
on the photograph; by comparison of the height of local objects the banks
may be seen to be high (compare, for example, the bank in the right hand
portion of the photograph with the height of the stacks of hay and build-
ings);
(2) the uniform tone of the surface of the image of the bottomland
indicates its slight dissection and, consequently, is an indication of the
fact that the bottomland is not subject to annual flooding and the river-
bed itself is subject to a very little displacement;
(3) fields with stacks of hay are located on the bottomland. This
also indicates that the bottomland is at a high elevation and is not sub-
ject to flooding over its entire width each year.
Photograph 16a. Scale 1:10,000. The displacement fan of a riverbed.
The photograph shows a section of a flat land river with numerous displace-
ment fans. Attention is called to the differing orientation of the fans
relative to the recent riverbed. The fans immediately adjacent to the
river repeat the outlines of the recent riverbed and only occasionally do
not correspond with it on the sections of the interrupted loop. The fans
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beyond the riverbed do not correspond either with the recent riverbed or
with the possible direction of the water flow during the flood. This in-
dicates that theyare the result of a displacement of the riverbed within
the bottomland in the period represented by the recent riverbed. It is
also possible to detect on the photograph the displacements formed by the
rivers`'"rand tributaries intersecting the bottomland. Such fans are char-
acterized by smaller dimensions and greater density in the alternation of
ridges and depressions between them.
photograph 16b. Scale 1:5,000. Riverbed displacement fans in a river
bend. The alternation of ridges and depressions forming the fans is clearly
traced on the photograph. The conformity between the outlines of the fan
and the riverbed is clearly seen.
Photograph 17, right. Scale 1:3,500. K - 21.0. A low bottomland
with overgrown braided channels. The low bottomland is subject to annual
flooding and is occupied by meadows. The microrelief is barely distinguish-
able. The mown rows of hay and the hay stacks (1) are clearly visible as
are the tracks of trucks (2 thin parallel bright lines, ) (2) the channels
and braided channel lakes are seen on the photograph to be grown over with
aqueous vegetation.
From the clearly expressed patchiness of the pattern and the bright
tone of the surface of the braided channels and the creeks we may conclude
that they are considerably covered with above water vegetation.
Photograph 18. Scale 1:11,700. A narrow bottomland clearly visible
against the background of a wide, plowed valley of box-shape form. The
bottomland is located within the limits of a very flat bottom of a ter-
raced box-shaped valley which is clearly visible under the stereoscope.
The bottomland is detected from the unusual gray tone characteristic of a
uniformly and well moistened surface.
The fields seen on the photograph also permit clear distinction be-
tween the steep slope of the flatland surface of the terrain adjacent to
it. They are located perpendicular to the riverbed and proceed up to the
foot of the slope but do not continue up the slope. This indicates the
steepness of the slope. (1).
The bottom of the valley is high, not subject to flooding, which is
indicated by the plowed portions, the road network, the individual struc-
tures and the populated point within the limits of the valley. The river
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the bottom of the valley and forms a narrow, double-ended bottom-
identified on the photograph by the uniform gray tone (meadow)
cuts into land which is
along both banks of the riverbed.
The aph clearly shows the traces of "military erosion" in the
photograph
form of trenches and numerous craters from mine and shell explosions.
The type of valley (box-shaped) is determined from the presence of
noticeable (even to the naked eye) extremely abrupt locations of,
clearly are clearly
steep slopes and a wide flat bottom. The shoulders of the valley
d; the slopes are forested and the forest covers the structure of
expresse ,
the pattern of the slopes, however, they-are. still easily traced in the form
anderin dark bands passing along the open flatland bottom of the val-
of me !~
le and the open, also flatland, surface of the adjacent terrain.
Y
In the stereoscopic examination BE the photographs the height of the
slopes is determined roughly to be 18-20 meters, the grade 40-45 degrees.
The network of roads is dense and proceeds in all directions with
perpendicular intersections and clearly emphasizes the lowlands nature of
the terrain.
Photograph 19. Scale 1:15;000. Part of a bottomland isolated from
river by levees, with traces of flooding. The space between the princi-
a lo~~ed
a dried and partially p
pal riverbed and the channel is occupied by
omland. From the river and the channel the bottomiand is separated by
bott
of the bottomland between
levees. The drainage canals are seen. The part
hoes
the levees is hovered with water, which is easily indicated by the amorp ,
structure of the pattern, by the dark tone and white flashes on its
diffuse art of the
surface (1). Flooding has occurred as a result of a break in p
he traces of which are seen along the levy in the form of white spots
levy, t
along the bank of the main river.
Photograph 20, right. Scale 1:15,000. K - 26.1. (1) a V-shaped valley.
11 is clearly visible on the photograph due to the presence of sharply
The va ~ oto-
ressed shadows. The height of the slopes of the valley shown on the ph
e~
ah reaches 3pp-400 meters at some points, and the grade is 30-40 degrees.
~'
On the right-hand slope (right-hand portion of~the photograph) there
are clearly seen the ravines and furrows which sometimes are traced right
up to the riverbed.
On the left-hand slope (left-hand portion of the photograph) we see
the characteristic pattern of the surface of a valley slope as caused by
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clearly distinguished in the lower water.
rocky bank. Hence we do not see the white bands of foam which are usually
fall. The lower water of the falls is covered by the shadow from the high,
clearly seen a white band at right angles to the river concealing the water-
In the given case the shadow covers the falling water and usually there is
identified by means of the wide dark band passing across the river (1).
water falls. The waterfall located in the middle of the photograph is
(2) A waterfall concealed by the shadow from a shelf from which the
very dense and sometimes permit examining the surface of the slope.
must be pointed out that the shadows on the slopes of the valley are not
slopes caused by the exposures and the presence of sculptural forms. It
its pattern is sharply distinguished from the characteristic pattern of
rock). The terrain is large-hilly, cultivated (small rectangles), and
seen in the alternation of seams of hard crystal rock with more porous
the horizontal stratification of exposed rocks (it is particularly clearly
The terrain adjacent to the river valley has a large hilly smoothed
discernible in virtue of the thinning of vegetation along them.
The shoulder of the valley and the arms of the glacial trough are
alternating with bright bands representing small erosion channels.
in bands perpendicular to the axis of the water-collecting depression and
actor of the location of vegetation (scrub). The scrub growth is located
of the valley and its boundaries may be determined chiefly from the char-
Photograph 21.
Scale 130,000. A trough-shaped valley (glacial
trough). Due to the absence of contrast of tones on its slopes, the shape
clearly visible. The shoulder of the slope has smoothed outlines and is
shading than the shallow slopes); the surface of the shallow slopes is
foot. The slope is irregularly shadowed (the steeper slopes have darker
the upper part of the slope and terminate in the expanding area at its
relatively weakly intersected by small erosion channels. They begin in
^xhe right-hand slope of the valley is well forested and turfed and
of the valley and slopes with erosion channels and outcroppings.
between the structure of the pattern of the adjacent terrain and the bottom
is clearly visible on the photograph due to the clearly e%-pressed difference
shape. The valley is located in the middle of a large-hilly terrain. It
Photograph 22, right. Scale 1:15,000. K = 23.0. A valley of box-
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Sw .k,. _~l Sy.Ci
lightly turfed and hence is distinguished by a bright tone. The upper
boundary of light and shadow (at the shoulder of the slope) is not sharp
due to the smoothness of its outlines. Its lower boundary has a jagged
outline, which is caused by the shadow of trees growing on the slope.
The shadow often conceals sections of railroad lines. The network of
ravines on the slopes clearly shows the direction of the slope.
The left-hand slope of the valley is lighted. Its shoulder is clearly
expressed due to the abruptness and the exposure of the upper portion of
the slope and the ciultivation of the surface of the adjacent terrain. The
abrupt, exposed portions alternate with flatter slopes with turf (a uniform
grey tone of surface).
- Ir-ster"e so copic examinations the steepness of the slopes proves to be
20-40 degrees, the height 170-180 meters. Along the foot of the slope there
passes a railroad line with a tunnel approximately 300 meters long. The
bottom of the valley is plowed. The presence of fields, a populated point,
and isolated buildings indicates the high location of the valley bottom
(not subject to flooding). The riverbed is deeply cut into the bottom of
the valley.
Photograph 23. Scale 1:10,000. Trapezoidal valley. The type of
valley is clearly determined from the clearly visible bottomland and the
well expressed terrace just above the bottomland (1). The surface of the
terrace is flat, plowed, and sharply distinguished from the pattern of the
surface of the bottomland, on which displacement fans of the riverbed and
the overgrown braided channel are seen.
Photograph 2h. -"_-Scale 1:15,000. (1) The image of gullies on a valley
slope. The photograph clearly shows the gullies intersecting the slope of
the valley. They are easily recognized from the contour of the illuminated
and darkened slopes and the varie temosaic p ern- of the latter. With
incorrect placement of the photograph relative to the light source the
gullies appear to be'ridges.
(2) The image of clayey soils. The photograph shows a river valley
with a broad, one-sided bottomland and a sharp slope almost completely
exposed.
Despite the bright tone of the exposed portions of the bank slopes,
from the characteristic striped pattern as well as from the location of
structures close to the shoulders of the steep slopes and the steepness
228
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of the latter (25 degrees), their soils are identified as dense, clayey,
or loamy soils. The predominance of bright tones indicate that we may most
surely expect variations in the loamy soils. In the riverbed the sandy
shoals are not exposed and the piles of detritus are small. All this is
additional proof of the predominance of clayey soils. In addition, the
smooth convex outlines of slopes of gullies also indicate the presence of
clays.
The exposed plowlands located near buildings on the high bank have a
dark tone, on the basis of which we may assume the predominance of chernozems.
(3) Image of a water surface with great depth and with the sun at a
high elevation. The surface of the water is almost black, without semitones,
which indicates great depth of water.
Photograph 25. Scale 1:10,000. Riverbed. The riverbed is traced in
great detail as an element of relief, notwithstanding the fact that the
terrain is almost unintemptedly forested and the trees conceal the relief
of the bottomland and the slopes of the valley.
The shadow indicates the shelf of the bank as well as the vegetation
growing on it. The illuminated bankzst&ndd out in contrast to the sandy
zaplesky, reflected by the white tone.,
In addition to-the main riverbed and tributaries on the photograph we
see a considerable number of braided channels. Many of them are dry and
have a sandy bottom. The light is coming from above. With incorrect place-
ment of the photograph relative to the light source many braided channels
and portions of the riverbed appear as convex relief formations in the form
of embankments.
Attention is called to the lack of repetition in the meandering at the
various sections.
Photograph 26. Scale 1:8,400. Image of a calm water surface with
flashes. The flashes are clearly seen at the surface of the lake (left
photo). Proof that the white tones are caused by flashes and are not a
reflection of clouds or shoal waters is found in the fact that in the
adjacent, overlapping territory the photograph (right-hand photograph)
these are not seen; in addition, the structure of the pattern does not
resemble the curling vapors which characterize the image of a cloud re-
flected in the water.
229
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Photograph 27. Scale 1:10,000. Image of a water surface under agita-
tion. Due to the flashes the image of even small waves is clearly empha-
sized (see the surface of the water at the issue of the tributary over which
the railroad bridge passes). The white lines corresponding to the flashes
are broken at the front and somewhat curved.
On the surface of the main river and its tributary below the bridge we
clearly see the image of the agitation (ripples) which are especially apparent
due to the flashes on the surface of the water. The absence of agitation
above the railroad bridge and the bridge over the dirt road and at the lee-
ward bank of the main river, as well as the character of the agitation on
the main river and the tributary, permits determining the direction of wind
(at a slight angle to the line of the left border of the photograph).
Photograph 28. Scale 1:9,000. Image of muddy and clear water. The
photograph shows quite clearly the muddy mountain stream, having an almost
white tone for the surface of the water entering the lake, and the lake
having a high transparency and considerable depth; the latter is indicated
by the dark, almost black tones of the image. The dispersion of the river
waters entering the lake is clearly seen.
Photograph 29. Scale 1:9,000. Confluence of streams of different
turbidity. The streams with high turbidity are shown by the bright tones.
The river with clear water has a dark tone. The absence of considerable
illumination of the tone of the surface of the water below the confluence
indicates that the turbid water predominates.
Photograph 30. Scale 1:10,000. (1) Concealment of a riverbed by
woody growth. In the central part of the photograph in the midst of the
open terrain occupied by the plow lands and fields there flows a small
meandering stream, the bed of which is fully concealed by the tops of
trees growing on its banks. They form a wavy line, emphasizing the gen-
eral outline of the riverbed. The considerable waviness of this line,
not repeated in adjacent sections, indicates that these trees are not
growing along a channel or ravine but along the banks of a riverbed.
(2). Open and forested sections. The forested sections are clearly
distinguished due to the graininess of their pattern, which is caused by
the image of the treetops. It is not difficult to distinguish the bound-
aries of the open and forested sections..
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Photograph 31. Scale 1:10,000. (1) The image of a riverbed in a
heavily forested terrain. The beds of small rivers in this case are almost
invisible, but they are detected chiefly from the graininess of the pattern,
which is coarser along the river and finer away from the river. The large
grains form a wavy band along the river. The presence of large treetops is:-
explained, both by the sparseness of the trees close to the river and by the
better drainage conditions. The trees along the riverbed become so sparse
that in the space between them the surface of the water, shadowed by the
trees, can be seen.
(2) Spruce-fir stands mixed with birch. The predominance of spruce
and fir in the forest canopy is indicated by the sharply expressed, uniform,
fine-grained structure of the pattern. On the photograph we clearly see
the difference in intensity of the bright tone of the protruding treetops
and the shaded spaces between them. Illuminated portions of the treetops
are smaller than the shaded spaces. The predominance of shaded spaces gives
the photograph a darts grey tone. Spruce and fir trees range in height from
18 to 20 meters. Birch trees abound among the spruce and fir. Illuminated
portions of the birch tops are greater than in the spruce and fir. The
shape of the birch top is distinguished by the elongated (oval) form with
softer contours. In addition they often grow in groups, and in stereo-
scopic examination they appear above the canopy of the spruce-fir stand.
Thus, the forest cover shown on the photograph is marked by a considerable
variation in the height of trees due to the presence of different types of
trees at different stages of growth. The average age of trees is 50-60
years, which is established from the height of the stand and the diameter
of the treetops (see Table 11). The young trees consist of spruce and
fir. The ground beneath the forest canopy is not visible.
The relief of the terrain is slightly rolling, the soil is loamy,
which may be determined from the correlative series (Section 29).
Photograph 32, right. Scale 1:10,000. I - 19.2. Image of the relief
of a large river bed (width approximately 500 meters) on large-scale photo-
graphs. Due to the bright (sandy) soils of the bottom and the transparent
water, the relief and, in some places, the microrelief of the bottom are
seen. A change in the tonality in this case corresponds to a change in
depth. The almost white tone of the image corresponds to the surfaces of
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(), Sparse oak grove. It is located on a high sandy bottomland.
The topslof the oak trees are usually distinguished on the photograph
from th tr form. They resemble gray balls of cotton, they are often
asymmetrical, which is caused by the prevailing direction of wind (2).
The diameters of the oak tops are two or three times greater than that
of pine trees and the image is distinguished by its darker color. Between
the treetops and the shadows there are almost no breaks. The shadow from
the oak trees clearly gives the shape of the top in profile. In the oak
stand we find dead trees, which are distinguished by the shadows of branches
without leaves.
Photograph. 31, left. Scale 1:5.,000- Waterfalls and rapids.. The
photograph shows a V-shaped symmetrical valley with steep slopes in the
upper portion and a river flowing along them, the riverbed being char-
acterized by the presence of small waterfalls and the profusion of the
forest canopy.
The direction of the sun's rays at the time of the photograph coin-
cide with the direction of the axis of the valley, hence both of its slopes
are almost identically illuminated.
Despite the widening of the valley its V-shape-is not destroyed. The
upper portions of the slopes of the valley are steep. Along the right bank
the steep portion of the slope is wholly illuminated and-is shown on the
photograph as a bright band with a complex speckled pattern formed by
trenches and watershouts. The lower portion of the slope is forested and
only slightly broken up by ravines and gullies.
The band of the steep bank appears also on the left slope. It is
partially shadowed, indicating that the slope is somewhat concave. In
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the following features on the photograph not covered by water: pobochnya,
i
shoals, ar(d flats changing into islands overgroi-m with willow. The dark
tone corresponds to points with the greatest depth. By careful examination
of the image of the bottom we may distinguish its microrelief in the form
of small, regularly alternating sandy ridges.
Photgraph 33. Scale 1:5,000. (1) Image of the relief of the bottom.
The photograph clearly shows a sandbar and the microrelief of the bottom.
We mayyp,'en distinguish individual sandy ridges.
'r(2)1 The photograph also illustrates the image of alder shrubs (1)
4F ??
fr`locatec 6 the surface of a high bottomland and along the river banks.
 at bands are distinguished by contrast and emphasize
s
both cases the ;prig ,
on the surface of
the difference in the structural pattern of the slopes
the terrain adjacent to the valley.
Within the limits of the photograph we find on the river (from left
formed not only
to right): rapids (1), identified from the white patches.
b the foaming water but also by the image of the large rocks protruding
y
a waterfall (2) is clearly seen in the
above the surface of the water; p onion
form of a white band, sharply contoured along the edge of the upper p
and less clearly seen in the lower portion. Downstream we find a section
of which there is a dam (3)? it appears
full of rapids, at the beginning
in the form of a white band with sharply contoured borders. Further down-
stream there is another such dam We
Photograph 35. Scale 11:10,000. I;etermining the location of sandbars
from indirect features. The bottom of the river is hardly visible. The
sandbar on this is easily identified from the ford passing along it.
Photograph 36. Scale 1:10,000. (1) Railroad bridges. Two rail-
The
road bridges are located in sequence but at a different height.
difference in height of location of the bridges is & fficult to estab-
lish with the unaided eye. In stereoscopic examination of the photographs
it is clearly seen. The upper bridge has four spans. The metal girders
are parabolic, as is clearly seen from the shadows. The abutments and
three piers are set in rubble masonry. The sloping of the piers on the
? upstream
upstream side serves as an iceguard. On the right-hand bank,
from the causeway, there is a jetty of earth preventing the railroad fill
from being washed away during the ice flow and flooding.
The lower bridge some 35 meters away from the first bridge, is a com-
bined overwater and overland bridge with eight spans. The two center spans
spans are metal arch girders.
consist of parabolic girders, the remaining
The piers are of rubble masonry. The Ord pier from the left bank is
located on a small island.
(2) A two track railroad. The road is clearly identified by the
presence of fills, cuts, and installations. It has separate parallel fills
over which the tracks pass at a different elevation. The fills and. cuts
are identified on the photograph by means of shadows. The tone of the
railroad is darker than that of dirt roads.
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..w
Photograph 37. Scale 1:10,000. The image of highway bridges. In
the center of the photograph we clearly see two bridges side by-'side (1).
One of them was destroyed, and a new wooden bridge was constructed next to
it. The guard rail is distinguishable and the crossbeams out the supports
can be seen: The central span permits passage of ships, which can be con-
cluded from the presence of protective devices (pawls) for the passage of
,ships. The dimensions of the bridge: 25 meters long, 10 meters wide and
the height of the lowest span structure above the water is approximately
5 meters. The girders of the demolished bridge are clearly visible, and
we may judge the construction of the bride from the image thereof.
The photograph also shows several other bridges, both in use and de-
stroyed: For example, there is clearly visible a combined railroad and
highway bridge (in the upper left-hand corner of the photograph). Its
dimensions: height above water 8 meters, length 55 meters, width 30 meters.
Photograph 38a. Scale 1:10,000. A barrage dam with a single span
watergate. The dam (in the right-hand portion of the photograph and in
the bend of the river, (1) is easily identified on the photograph, first,
from the reservoir created by it (compare the width of the river above
and below the dam) and from the presence of white patches or bands in
the lower water formed by the foaming water passing over the watergate.
The linear dimensions and height of the darn are easily determined by
direct measurement under the stereoscope. The bright tones of the image
indicate that the dam is of- reinforced concrete. It must be pointed out
that the image of the dam is distinguished from the images of the bridges
in this photograph by its great variety of tone.
Photograph 38b. Scale 1:10,000. A barrage dam with sectional Water-
gate and sluice. Owing to the white bands of water the upper (dark) and
lower (with bands) waters are clearly distinguished. We also see the rec-
tangular abutments and their bright tones, which is characteristic of con-
crete. The service bridge passing along the top of the dam can be seen.
Next to the dart is a single-chamber sluice with clearly distinguished
double-u-ing gates turned at an angle to the stream and the controlling regulating
installations in front of the entrance gates and below the lower gates,
serving to insure safe passage of ships. They are distinguished by white,
regular lines and appear as stockades on a pile foundation (pawls).
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shows a backwater in a natural creek. There are many ships in the backwater
age structures, dwellings, landings, piers, dikes, etc. The photograph
backwaters are usually clearly interpreted from the presence of ships, stor-
canals, and creeks; artificial backwaters are sometimes constructed. The
are near by. Backwater installations are often made from the arms of rivers,
The backwaters are usually located within the confines of river ports which
Photograph t10. Scale 1:10,000. (1) A backwater for docking of ships.
which are usually quite visible.
The photograph shows a general view of the river port with landings,
artificial backwaters for the docking of ships, storage buildings, and
approaches.
lations comprising them (canals, quays, storage buildings, approaches, etc.),
recognized on aerial photographs from the location and the complex instal-
Photograph 39. Scale 1:10,000. A river port. River ports are easily
ing landings (platforms).
(2) Highway. The photograph clearly shows a highway with distinct
outlines and dirt with extremely indistinct outlines. Judging from the
bright tones, the highway is made of crushed stone or cobblestones. The
latter is indicated by the absence of pieces of crushed stone, which
usually accompany a crushed stone highway.
(3) The image of an exposed (nonturfed) soil. and of arable lands on
--haws the mooring installations in the form of stockades on piers and float-
The mooring installations are clearly identified from the photographs
by the distinct contours in the presence of approaches. The photograph
Below the backwater is located a pontoon bridge with a destroyed vascule.
and on the banks we see barges under construction, storage structures, and
approaches.
A dredging pump (1) is in operation at the entrance to the backwater.
On the river we clearly see the individual ships and rafts towed by them.
the bright tones correspond to ploughed lands (fallow). The bright patches;;
a distinct tone. The dark tones correspond to fields with vegetation, and
Farmlands, clearly visible in the central part of the photograph, have
portions of roads is clearly traced by the same bright tone as on the shoals.
the bright white bands of sandy shoals; the exposed soil on the deteriorated
a plain. Along the banks of a meandering, typical flatland river we see
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of irregular outline among the cloud fields correspond to points with sparse
vegetation and exposed soils. Their banded pattern (furrows formed by plow-
ing) and the absence of regular outlines are clearly seen. The most illumi-
nated portion appears as a band between the dirt road (highway) and the
river along the slope of the terrace (the furrows run along the slope). In
the bottomland we see small white patches of irregular outline. They are
also caused by exposed soils on convex irregularities of the surface of
the bottomland. This is clearly confirmed by their small dimensions and
the irregular and heavily dissected contours.
Photograph 141. Scale 1:10,000. The image of a riv'arbed network of
temporary streams under humid conditions. The photograph clearly shows
the network of temporary streams which come into existence during the snow
melting. It is visible despite the photograph was made during the summer.
In this case the network is detected chiefly due to the vegetation, which
is exceptionally well-developed in the riverbeds of this system. The con-
fines of the basin area can be traced quite clearly. The terrain shown on
this photograph is characteristic of well moistened regions.
Photograph 42. Scale 1:25,000. The image of a riverbed network of
temporary streams under and conditions. The traces of the stream network
occurring during rainfalls is shown in the form of a network of thin lines
of dark color. They are visible due to the contrast between the illumi-
nated and darkened portions of the riverbed of this network. We may clearly
trace the individual catchments on the photograph.
Photograph 43. Scale 1:15,000. Heaped drift sands. Clearly visible
on the heaps, which immediately permit us to ascertain that the soils of
the terrain are loose. The lower parts of the slopes of the heaps are
partly overgrown with saliniferous shrubs. The orientation of the mounds
is not strict, which indicates the absence of a definite prevailing wind
direction.
The exposed drift sand shown on the photograph is of a light grey
tone with fine waviness caused by-the presence of sand ridges formed by
the wind.
The white patches on the photograph are the beds of dry lakes covered
by salt deposits,
Under the stereoscope we clearly see all the irregularities of the sur-
face, caused by movement of the exposed sand under the action of the wind.
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Photograph 44. Scale 1:15,000. Barkhans. The photograph shows the
curved exposed sand ridges elongated in the direction of the prevailing
winds. The depressions between them are partially overgrown with sali-
niferous shrubs. The exposed sands, as always, have a light grey tone.
Photograph 45? Scale 1:10,000. Difference in height of forest can-
opy caused by intersection of relief. Stereoscopic examination clearly
reveals the hilly relief causing the difference in height of the forest
canopy. The variety and graininess of the pattern is associated with the
difference in trees species. The fine grained structure corresponds to
spruce-fir growth. The individual large grains which can be distinguished
on the photographs are the tops of high trees of the birch and aspen.
Photograph 46. Scale 1:7,500-1%8,000? fixed forest in winter.
Streakiness is characteristic of the sections occupied by deciduous trees.
The sections with a clear predominance of coniferous trees have a dark
tone and a distinct graininess of pattern. The snow cover is clearly
seen beneath the deciduous growth.
Photograph 4?. Scale 1:7,500-1:8,000. A mixed forest in autumn.
The bright tones are characteristic of deciduous trees. The yellow leaves
appear to be almost white on the photograph and stand out in contrast
against the background of the dark coniferous trees.
Photograph 48. Scale 1:15,000. A forest swamp with a mixture of
birch and pine. The pattern has a fine-grained structure which clearly
distinguishes it from the pattern of the large-grained structure of the
surrounding forested dry valley. The borders of the swamp in the lower
part of the photograph are more distinct than in the upperpart where the
swamp is bordered by a small forest, the pattern of which also has a
fine-grained structure. The trees in the swamp are 4-6 meters high, the
reforestation site classification is V. The density of treetops is
o.5-0.6.
Photograph 49, Scale 1:15,000. The grass swamp with varying degree
of flooding. The smooth dark-grey background of the swamp stands out
clearly on the photograph in the midst of the pattern of grainy structure
of the surrounding forest over the dry valley. Attention is called to
the differing tonality of the swamp photograph. All other conditions
being equal, the darker the shading the greater the volume of water
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4, ?r_+.P-rn ~PH~?6Ca'1"^i'K r',.? SS~:: "':y; ~YrY.'J'~ C~'ht' J- C..l,:: ~>rp-,~~
-'~ti r'~~"t~+.'?.zw,+5r:"?J r.'a.1xeF'.r?-e'.:a'lS~.:n
present in the swamp sections and vice versa (the bright patches on the
photograph are moss sections., the darker patches are reed grass sections).
Photograph-50. Scale 1:25,OOO. Network of drainage ditches in a
moss swamp. The canals are clearly visible on the photograph in the form
of dark straight lines. The grainy structure of the pattern around them
indicates that the shoulders of the canals are forested. On the left
(from top to bottom) there runs the main canal. Entering it at a sharp
angle are the parallel collectJ.ng ditches located at intervals of 250
meters.
Photograph 51. Scale 1:25,000. Peat mining in a moss swamp with a
ridge bog complex. In the upper part of the photograph we see dense,
straight., parallel, dark lines -- the open cuts of peat mining filled with
water (1). To the sides we see rectangular areas formed by the drainage
ditches -- drying plots. On the brightest plots we notice dark spots --
piles of peat. In the lower portion of the photograph there is a con-
centric streaked pattern -- the ridge bog complex (2). The dark bands
are ridges with pine growth, the bright bands are bogs (cottongrass and
sphagnum). The groups of black spots of circular and elongated shape are
micro pounds.
.Photograph 52. Scale 1:25,000. Peat mining in a. forested grass-
moss swamp. In the center of the photograph the black straight lines (1)
indicate the open strips from which the peat has been removed and are
now filled Frith water; the bright lines between them are the intervals of
unextracted peat. To the right and left of the open strips are the dry-
ing plots; the darkest portions (2) have the wet peat, the brightest
portions with the black spots (3) represent the dry peat gathered in
piles. At the bottom of the photograph the bright straight line (h) is
a road passing through the swamp. The borders of the swamp at the edge
of the dry valley are weakly expressed.
Photograph 53. Scale 1:25,000. A pine forest swamp with a grass-
moss center. The swamp is forested with pine (1) 3-4 meters high, the
density of treetops is 0.h-0.5. At the center of the swamp, in the area
with the grass-moss cover (2), there are groups of dwarf pine with a
height of 1.5-2.0 meters (weakly expressed by dark patches against the
light grey background)...
238
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h
The borders of the swamp are-well-expressed except for a small rec-
tangular portion which has been cleared.
Photograph 54. Scale 1:25,000. Reed grass swamp in a river bottom-
land (with evidences of hay mowing). Against the grey background of the
photograph of the swamp we clearly see the black meandering band of the
river (1). In places the river-flow has been straightened by means of a
canal. Along the banks of. the river there is an overgrowth of willow
scrub (2).
The difference in toiality of the photograph indicates the varying
degree of water volume oft' the swamp. Clearly visible are the drainage
ih
ditches in the swamp (tolthe right of the river and below) and plowed
1
sections (to the right ~nd above), which are clearly distinguished by
the generally bright background and straight boundaries. Throughout
the swamp there are h~a ricks which appear on the photograph in the
form of white spots ( ).
Photograph 55. kcale 1:10,000. A grass swamp with moss-grass mar-
gins. The dark, almost black, broad band passing through the center of
the photograph is anI ;abundantly watered horsetail-trefoil marsh (1).
Through the sparse grass of the marsh we see the open water surface
which gives this poi ion of the photograph an almost Flack color. The
white patches again 11t the dark background are moss and reed-grass saddles
(2). The more elevated portions on the periphery of the swamp,-which
have a light grey ne on the photograph, are sphagnum and cotton grass
it
sections (3).
Photograph :;Is, Scale 1:25,000. A sharply convex moss bog with a.
forested semicircle on the slope. A characteristic feature of a sharply
I
convex moss bog the forested sloped semicircle (2) (a sphagnum-scrub
f
pine forest) which stands out sharply against the general gray back-
ground of the ph I tograph of the swamp as a semicircle of dark color with
a grainy structure of pattern. Toward the center of the forested semi-
circle we notice weakly expressed concentric bands -- a ridge-bog complex
(1). In this cafe on the ridges of the sphagnum swamp is '& sphagnum swamp
forested with dw rf pine. In the boggy soils the soild.with little moisture
have a cottongr s sphagnum swamp and those with considerable moisture have
S
a scheuchzeria sphagnum swamp. On the depressed slope of the swamp before
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the forested semicircle we clearly perceive the concentrations of ridge-
pond marshes (5). Close to the periphery of the photograph there is a
wide bright band -- a cotton grass sphagnum swamp (3). The grainy pattern
on the photograph along the borders of the swamp is an indication of for-
estation.
Photograph 57. Scale 1:25,000. A moderately convex moss bog with a
ridge-bog complex. Attention is called to the fact that the ridge-bog
complex occupies the principal area of the swamp and is well-expressed on
the photograph (the concentric striped pattern). The forested circle is
lacking. Along the periphery of the swamp (the bright band) we find a
cottongrass sphagnum swamp and areas with dwarf pine 1.5-2.0 meters high.
The thin black lines crossing the photograph are the edges of the
contact prints from which the photograph was assembled.
Photograph 58. Scale 1:25,000. The central portion of a plano-
convex moss bog with a ridge-lake complex. The depressed central portion
of the swamp is occupied by the characteristic ridge-lake complex (1).
Ponds of secondary formation (on the photograph the black irregularly
shaped patches) alternate with unforested flat ridges (bright bands).
On the slope of the swamp a ridge-moss bog complex (2) is growing, where
the forested ridges appear as black bands with a grainy structure, while
the boggy soil areas appear as bright bands. The large black circular
patches distinguish the lakes of primary origin (3). From one of the lakes
there flows a stream with forested banks (4).
Photograph 59. Scale 1:25,000. A swamp of concave shape with a
ridge bog complex (Karelian type of swamp). On the photograph it is clearly
seen that the swamp is located within elongated lacustrine basins among
the elevations ("sel'g"). The ridges and boggy areas of the ridge bog
complex are oriented perpendicular to the longitudinal slope of the swamp.
The ridges are forested and against the generally bright background of the
swamp -nppear as dark bands with a grainy structure.
Photograph 60. Scale 1:15,000.. Grass-moss swamp with varying degree
of water content in river valleys. Attention is called to the extremely
unusual ribbonlike. appearance of the swamp formed in the dissected valley
of the river system in the midst of a vast forest mass.. The riverbed in
the lower portion of the valley is easily traces= in the upper portion it
is swamped..
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Photograph 61. Scale 1:15,.000. A fan-shaped grass and moss swamp
with concave surface and a ridge bog marsh (the Pechorskiy type of swamp).
The characteristic feature of the pattern in this case is that the dark
gray strokes (the filtration streams) are directed from the periphery to
the longitudinal axis of the swamp and merge, which indicate the convex
shape of the surface in the presence of a generally longitudinal slope to
the swamp. The dark bands with the striped pattern are the ridge bog
-marsh. The ridges and boggy soils are at right angles to the longitudinal
slope of the swamp.
The dotted lines on the overlay indicate the direction of the fil-
tration stream in the swamp; the solid lines show the boundaries of the
swamp and the mineral islands.
Photograph 62. Scale 1:25,000. Part of a moss swamp with a ridge-
bog complex. The photograph shows a series of elements of the surface
hydrographic network. Takes of primary (1) and secondary (2) formation
as well as the artificial drainage network (3, 4, 5), are easily dis-
tinguished by their arrangement. The dirt road (7), in distinction from
the ditches, is identified on the photograph by the smooth turns and the
white color of the line.
Overlay A gives the typological map of the swamp shown on the photo-
graph and overlay B gives the network of flow lines of filtration waters.
Photograph 63. Scale 1:25,,000. Micro-ponds of secondary formation
in a swamp system with a ridge-bog complex. The microponds are clearly
expressed on the photograph in the form of black circular patches of
elongated shape which are locatediin various groupings. One of them is
irregularly scattered over the flat slope of the convex mass -- slope
microponds (1); the compact groups of the others are stretched out over
a semicircle along the same horizontal line of the swamp -- contact micro-
ponds (2). The latter were formed upon the contact of two convex swamp
Photograph 64. scale 1:25,000. A river with an overgrown bed flow-
ing through a grass-moss swamp. The river, with an almost fully overgrown
bed, is distinguished on the photograph by the dark, meandering band against
the smooth gray background of the reed grass and moss swamp. The dark gray
band is interrupted in some places by black spots -- the water-retaining
portions of the open (without overgrowth) riverbed.
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 Photograph 65. Scale 1:25,000. A river having its origin in marshes
at the base of convex moss bogs of a swamp system. The photograph shows
part of a complex swamp system consisting of a series of convex moss bogs
with a ridge-bog complex. The dark band distinguishes the through marsh,
which is located in the runoff basin which is located among the prominences
of the swamp's system and serves as the origin of a river.
On the photograph, in addition to the through marsh (1) and the river
(2), we see a ridge-pond marsh (3), contact microponds (4), a lake of pri-
mary origin (5), and a mineral island (6).
Photograph 66. Scale 1:15,000. A ridge bog marsh and a lake over-
grown with floating vegetation in a moss forest swamp. The ridge-bog
marsh (1) extends along the borders of the swamp on the right hand side
of the photograph. The wide dark bands are heavily watered bogs with
sparse grass-cover of sceuchzeria and i'ocheretnika.'j They alternate with
narrow bright bands, representing the unforested ridges. The orientation
of the ridges in the upper and lower portion of the photograph differs,
which indicates the presence of a filtration flow in different directions.
The pattern of the ridge bog marsh differs considerably from the fine-
grained pattern of the forested portions of the swamp and the large-grained
pattern of the forest in the dry valley surrounding the swamp.
The lake appears on the photograph of the swamp in the form of a black
patch and in this case is bordered on all sides by a white hachured band
representing the floating vegetation (2). On the left and right hand sides
of the lake the floating mass is of considerable size and it is apparent
that the mass on the right is older, since here the ridges begin to take
shape. A small stream flows from the river, the bed of which is concealed
on the photograph by the treetops (3).
Photograph 67. Scale 1:25,000. A ridge-bog marsh in a moss swamp
with a ridge-bog complex. Against the general background of the moss
swamp with a ridge-bog complex we distinguish darker, thick bands; this
is the considerably more heavily watered portion of the swamp occupied by
ridge-bog marsh (1). Within the limits of the ridge-bog marsh the boggy
soils are extremely well developed and attain widths of 50-70 meters in
distinction from the narrow boggy soils of the ridge-bog complex (2).
Photograph 68. kale 1:15.,000. Ridge-pond marsh (from which a river
flows) in the midst of a moss swamp. In distinction from the previous
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ridge-bog marshes (Photographs 66, 67) the ridge-pond marsh has ponds with
exposed water surface. Hance, the ponds have an almost black tone on the
photograph and the ridge-pond marsh is positively identified.
Photograph 69. Scale 1:25,000. Marshes leading from a group of min-
eral islands in a slope swamp with ridge-bog and ridge-pond complexes. A
distinctive feature of the swamp is the well expressed marshes beyond the
mineral islands, which marshes appear as shall, elongated, dark patches (1).
These marshes run in the general direction of the slope of the surface and
thereby indicate the direction of flow of filtration waters fro-a the swamp.
At the center of the swamp are the ridge-bog (2) and ridge-pond (3) com-
plexes.
Photograph 70. Scale 1:25,000. mergence marshes and slope microponds
in a convex moss -swamp. The eiiergence of water occurs from beneath the con-
vexities of the moss swamp on the more condensed contours of the peat de-
posit and are clearly seen on the photograph (1). In the upper left hand
corner of the photograph are scattered small black spots (2); these are
slope microponds. The banks of the lake in the swamp are well forested
(having a grainy pattern).
Photograph 71. Scale 1:25,000. Through :marshes in a ,mess-grass
swamp. These marshes are quite clearly seen on the photograph due to
their elongated shape running in the direction of the runoff and the
dark tone of the photograph. During the dry period portions of the
through swamp are more moist than the surrounding portions of the swamp,
and in the spring and autumn the water often flaws here on the surface.
The direction of runoff is shown on the overlay paper; the dotted line
represents the filtration waters and the solid line the surface waters.
Photograph 72. Scale 1:25,000. A swamp system consisting of two
moderately convex moss swamps with a ridge-bog complex. In examining the
photograph we see that the swamp is in fact a system of swamps. The pres-
ence of two previously isolated swamp masses is seen from the unusual ar range-
ment of mineral islands in the form of a.sandbar, which clearly emphasizes the
two distinct basins of the swamps. The ridge-bog complex is well developed
and occupies almost the entire area of each swamp mass, which is character-
istic for moderately conrvex moss sw-lamps.
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PHOTO CAPTIONS
Photograph 1.
Photograph 2.
Photograph 3,
Photograph 4.
Photograph 5.
Photograph 6.
Scale 1:409000. River valleys under conditions of mountain
relief. 1, mountain top; 2, river valley.
Scale 1:30,000. River valleys with smoothed mountain relief.
1, mountain top.
left. Scale 1:25,000. River valleys under hilly relief con-
ditions. 1, forested section; 2, river valleys.
Scale 1:30,000. Concealment of relief by plowed fields. 1,
hilltop.
Scale 1:10,000. The river valley in flatland terrain. 1,
braided channel almost dry and overgrown with vegetation.
Scale 1:10,000. Concealment of the slopes of a valley and
the bottoirland by blooming grassy vegetation. 1, plowed land;
2, exposed sands among pine forest; 3, swamped portions; 14,
blooming meadow in bottomland.
Scale 1:10,000. Concealment of the slopes of a river valley
by pine forest under flatland conditions. 1, birch forest;
2, young pine forest.
Photograph 7*
left. Scale 1:10,000. Concealment of a valley and the bottom-
Photograph 9.
land by forests of spruce and fir mixed with aspen (1)?
Image of a terrain on an aerial photograph made during summer
Photograph 10.
(compare with photograph 10).
Image of terrain on an aerial photograph made. during winter
(compare with photograph 9)..
Photograph 11.
Scale 1:12,1:00.
Legibility of microrelief with snow cover.
Photograph 12.
Scale 1x5,000.
Concealment of relief by thick snow cover.
Photograph 13.
Scale 1:5sO00.
Appearance of a terrain losing, its snow cover.
Photograph 114.
Scale 1:30,000.
Snow patches at the and of the thawing period.
Photograph 15.
Scale 1:10,000.
Image of a high bottomland not subject to
annual flooding.
photographe
Scale 1:100,000 /sic/. The displacement fan of a river bed.
Photograph 1.6b: Scale 1:5,000. Riverbed displacement fans on a large-scale
Photograph 16a.
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 .;-,h ovorgro;m braided
Photograph 17. - Scale 1:3?500. A low bottomlaxx? v.4
chanzael.a. 1, hay ricks; 2, automobile tracks.
Photograph 18. Scale 1:lh,700. A botto :end clearly seen against the back-
ground of a plowed valley bottom of box-shaped fotrt. 1, ridge
of valley.
Photograph i 9. Scale 1:15,000. Part of a bottociland isolated from a river
by levees$ with traces of flooding (1).
Photograph 20, right. Scale 1:l ,000. V..shaped vale. 1,' waterfall.
Photograph 21. Scale 1:30,000. A trough shaped valley (glacial trough).
Photograph 22, left. Scale 1:15,000. A box-shaped valley.
Photograph 23.
Scale 1:10,000.
botto:~^O.end.
Trapezoidal valley. 1, terrace located above
Photograph 24.
Scale 2:15,000.
Mrage of gul.leys on a valley slope, clayey
soi. s,sd water surface.
Photograph 25.
Scale 1:10,000.
Riverbed.
Photograph 26. Scale 1:8,,4-00. Imago of a calm water surface Tw.th flashes
(a) and without flashes (b).
Photograph 27. Scale 1:10,000. Image of a water surface under agitation.
Photograph 28. Scale 1:9,x? Image of muddy and clear grater.
Photograph 29. Scale 1:9,000. Confluences of streams of different turbidity.
Photograph 30. Scale 1:15,000. Concealment of a riverbed by woody growth.
Photo graph 31. Scale 1:10,000. Image of a riverbed in a heavily forested
terrain (spruce-fir stand with i ture3 of birch).
Photograph 32, right. Scale 1:10,0'00. Image of the relief of a large river-bed on large-scale photographs.
Photograph 33, Scale 1: ,Q00. Image of the relief of the bottom of a small
river. 1, alder scrub; 2, oak grove.
Photograph 3h, loft. Scale 1: 5,000. Waterfalls and rapids. 1, rapids; 2,
P otograph 35?
wraterfall; 3, h, dwa-S.
Scale 1:10,000. Determining the location of sandbars from
indirect features.
Photograph 36.
Scale 1:10,000.
Railroad bridges.
Photograph 37.
Scale 1:10,000.
High W, bridges.-I,, an old, destroyed bridge
and a new bridge.
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Photograph 38. Scale 1:10,000. (a) Barrage dam (1) with single span water-
gate; (b) barrage dam with sectional watergate and sluice.
Photograph 39. Scale 1:10,000. River port.
Photograph 40. Scale 1:10,000. Backttater for docking of ships. 1, dredging
pump; 2, highway; 3, dirt road.
Photograph 1i. Scale 1:10,000. Image of a riverbed network oftemporary
streams under humid conditions.
Photograph 42. Scale 1:25,000. Image of a riverbed network of temporary
streams under and conditions.
Photograph 43. Scale 1:15,000. Heaped drift sands.
Photograph 1s2.t. Seale 1:15,000. Barkhans.
Photograph 45. Scale 1:10,000. Difference in height of forest canopy caused
by intersection of relief.
Photograph 46. Scale 1:7,500-1:8,000. Mixed forest in winter.
Photograph 47. Scale 1:7,500-1=8,000. The same forest section as shown on
Photograph 46 but photographed during the autumn.
Photograph U.
Scale 1:15,000.
pine.
Forest swamp with a mixture of birch and
Photograph 49.
Scale 1:15,000.
volume.
Grass swamp with varying degrees of water
Photograph 50.
Scale 1:25,000.
Network of drainage ditches in a moss swamp.
Photograph 51.
Scale 1:25,000.
Peat mining (1) in a moss swamp with ridge-
bog complex (2).
-
Photograph 52.
Scale 1:25,000.
Peat mining in a forested grass-moss swamp.
1, open strips; 2, drying plots; 3, peat in piles; 4, road.
Photograph 53.
Scale 1:25,000.
center (2).
A pine forest swamp (1) with grans-moss
Photograph 52.,,
Scale 1:25,000.
Reed grass swamp in a river bottomland (with
evidences of hay mowing)* 1, river with straightened bed; 2,
willow scrub along riverbed; 3, hay ricks.
Photograph 55. Scale 1:10,000. Grass swamp with moss-grass margins. 1,
horsetail-trefoil marsh; 2, reed grass and moss'saddles (white
patches); 3, sphagnum and cottongrass sections.
24G
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Photogrraph 56. Scale l:25:000. A sharply convex moss bog with forested
semicircle on the slope. 1, ridge-bog complex; 2, forested
slope semicircle (pins forest with sphagnum and scrub);
3, cottorgrass and sphagnum swamp sections; 14, forested moss-
grass border (sphagnum swa ~.p with scrub and pine growth);
5, ridge-pond bogs.
Photograph 57.
Scale 1:25,000.
complex.
3ioderately convex moss bog with a ridge-bog
Photograph 58.
Scale 1:25,000.
Central portion of a planoconvex moss-bog
with a ridge-lake complex. 1, ridge-lake complex; 2, ridge-
bog complex; 3, lake (of primary origin); 14, river with
overgrowth.
Photograph 59. Scale 1:25,000. Swamp of concave shape with a iced bog com-
plex (Karelian type of swamp).
Photograph 60. Scale 1:15,000. Grass-moss swamp with varying degree of
water content in river valleys.
Photograph 61. Scale 1:15,000. A fan-shaped grow and moss swamp with concave
surface and a ridge-bog:.marsh (Pechorskiy type of swamp).
/Overlay/ Dotted lines sh w the direction of the filtration
stream in the -swamp.
Photograph u2. Scale 1:25,000. Part of a moss swamp with a ridge-bog corn-
plex. 1, lake- of primary origin; 2, lake of secondary origin;
3, network of plots of drainage ditches; 4, collection ditches;
5, main canal; 6, mineral island; 7, road. Overlay A. typo-
logical map of swamp shown on the photograph (for symbols see
Figure 71). Overlay 3, network of flow lines of filtration
waters.
Photograph 63. Scale 1:25,000. } croponds of secondary formation in a swamp
system with a ridge-bog complex. 1, slope microponds; 2, con-
tact microponds.
Photograph 614. Scale 1:25,000. River with bed overgrown with vegetation,
flowing through a grass-moss swamp.
Photograph 65. Scale 1:25,000. River originating in marshes at the base of
convex moss bogs of a swamp system. 1, through marsh; 2, river;
3, ridge-pond marsh; 14, contact microponds; 5, lake of primary
origin; 6, mineral island.
247
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Photograph t6. Scale 1:1 ,000. Ridge-bog marsh (1) and lake overgrown
with floating vegetation (2), in a forestod moss seta.^sp;
river, bed of which is concealed by tree growth (3).
Photograph 67. Scale 1:25:.000. Ridge-bog marsh (1) in a moan swamp with
a ridge-Log complex (2).
photograph 68. Scale 1:15,000. Ridge-pond marsh (from which a river rs)
in the midst of a moss estiamp.
Photograph 69. Scale 1:25,000. Marshes leading from a group of mineral
islands (1) in a slope swamp with ridge.-bog (2) and ridge-
pond (3) compiles.
Photograph 70. Scale 1:25,000. Emergence marsh (1) and slope microponds
(2) in a convex moss swamp.
Photograph 71. Scale 1:25,000. Through marshes in a moss.-grass awzp,
(overlay) systeta of flow lines of filtration (dotted lines)
and surface (solid lines) craters.
Photograph 72. Scale 1:25,000. Swamp system consisting of two moderately
convex moss swamps with a ridge.- :og coutple .
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FIGURES
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3. a, elements of interior orientation of aerial photographs; by
elements of exterior orientation of aerial photographs
Figure 4. Diagram of an aerial camera. I, camera; II, control device.
1, lens; 2, shutter; 3, housing; lt, control section; 5, maga-
zine; 6, pilot lamp; 7, photo counter; 8, switch; 9, intervalo-
meter; 10, trip lever; 11, drive mechanism; 12, distributing
section; 13, light filter
Figure 5. 1, aerial photograph (actual size 18. x 24 cm); 2, 3', photographs
of the horizon; !z, clock; (end 'of tape) 5, circular level; 6,
focal length of the camera, date and height of photography; 7,
sequence number of photograph
Figure 6. Overall view of AFA 33/20
Figure 7. `Arin-slot aerial camera AShch-AFA-2 (V. 1. Semenov)
Figure 8. Hand-held aerial camera AFA - 27 - T
Figure 9. Hand-held aerial camera NIKK-7 X 9
Figure 10. Diagram of vertical (a) and oblique (b) aerial photographs.
1, optical aids; 2, plane of photograph
Figure 11. Diagram of a route aerial survey
Figure 12. Flight diagrams for a route aerial photographic survey, a, general
diagra ; b, with flat loop; c, with sharp turn
Figure 13. Diagram of mosaic aerial survey
Figure 14. Diagram of stereophotograrmetric (elevation-stereoscopic) aerial
photograph
Figure 15.
Figure 16. Comparison of aerial photographs obtained with different types
of film (after S. S. Gilev). a, isopanchrome; by panchromatic;
c, infranchromatic film
2.49
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Figure 17.
Figure 18. Overlap assembly
71-
Figure 19. Methods of cutting photographs in compiling a mosaic
Figure 20.
Figure 210
Figure 22.
Figure 23.
Figure 2Zt,.
Figure 25.
Figure 26.
Figure 27.
Figure 28. Large transforming printer
Figure-30. Diagram of transformation. a, on the. photograph; b, on the tram
Figure 29. Small transforming printer-
forming printer
Figure 31. Diagram of route phototriangulation
Figure 32. Scheme of development of phototriangulation
Figure 33. Orientation of aerial photographs from a map a, map; b, photograph
Figure 34. Orientation. of aerial photogaphe from shadows
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Figure 35 Ban'kovskiy device.
Figure 36. Light table -
Figure 37. Panoramic lens
Figure 38. Set of magnifying glasses for interpretation
Figure 39. Panoramic mirror
Figure 10. Transverse profile of riverbed
Figure 11..
Figure 12. Stereoscopic test pattern
Figure 43. Diagram of simple stereoscope
Figure 141.
Figure 15. LZ lens-mirror stereoscope
Figure 46. Orientation of stereo pairs from the initial direction
Figure 17. (From the book by A. Dobrovol'skiy and S. Alekeandrov.) a, stereo-
scopy; b, paeudoscopy; c and d, plane image
Figure 18.
Figure 149..
Figure 50.
Figure 51.
Figure 52. Stereocomparator. as, general vi. eta; b, diagr i of i nstrsment
Figure 53. Stereocomrparator. a, general view; b, 'dram of binocular micro-
scope of 1the stereocomparator
Figure 51 . Topograpba.c stereoscope TSD,3
Figure 55.. Stereopantometer of F. V. Drobyshev. x as, sketch; b, general view
Figure 56. Parallax bar
Figure 57. D-6 stereoscope
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Figure 64. Graph of ppt.mum scales for aerial photographic surveys of water
objects.. 1, maximum erio a in measuring distance from maps and
pis; 2, probable errors in measuring distances from aerialyphoto-
graphs; 3, mean arithmetical errors in measuring distances from
aerial photographs; 3, mean sciare errors in measuring distancos
from aerial photographs.
Figure 65. Pond-bog complexes
Figure 66. Ridge,-bog complex (ridges of sphagnwmp.scrub growth forested with
pine; moss-bog with spha um-cotton
~ grass and sphagnum-scheuchzeria
growth)
Figure 67. Reed grass and birch swamp (transitional type)
Figure 68. Scrub and pine swamp (upland type)
Figure 69.. Reed grass swamp (lowland type)
Figure 70. Classification of elements of surface hydrographic networks in
swamps (figure 70 on next page)
Figure 71. Typological map of a syste of swamp masses compiled as the result
of interpretation of aerial photographs. 1, reed grass and sphagnum
swamps; 2, cotton grass and sphagnum swamps; 3: scrub and cottdih-;.,
grass sphagnum swamp with sparse piste growth; 13, scrub and pine
sphagnum swamp; 5, scrub and pine forest; ? 6, sphagnum swamp with
cottongrass and birch with a mixture of pine; 7, ridge-bog complex
(ridges forested with pine); 8, horsetail-trefoil-cottongrase
(transitional) marshes; 9, scheuchzeria marshes (emergencies)
Figure 71a. Diagram of flow lines for surface filtration waters with a
location of the hydrographic network in swamps. 10, flow lines
of filtration waters; 11, flow-lines in sections with periodic
surface flows; 12, microponds; 13, rivers and streams; 113, mineral
islands
253
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TA1 LE 1
Focal
length,
COUntrY Canera PuraosG GIS
USSR AFA-13 Vertical 30
AFA-33 Photo- 20
AFA-37 graPhy 7
Gerii anv
R X-S'2 Vertical 21
and
Oblique
Ti-MK-Sit Vertical 21
p\T(20)30 Vertical 20
R?IK-~Rlo Vertical 10
USA K-17B Vertical 15.3
dote. :i is the'7 flight altitude
Photo '
Size, 110. of
Chi photos
18x18 150
For vertical phofio?;raph
tridth of I area covered
path Uyr tioto
0.60 It 0.3612
a 3
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TABLE 3
REFLECTIVITY OF CERTAIN OBJECTS OF AERIAL PEOTOGRAPHX
Object
(after Ye. L. Krinov f52
Reflected Object Reflected
Li.
Light.
Exposed chalky
surface
Yellow fields
Forest
Grass cover
90
20
15-20
20-30
Light soils 20-30
Dark soils 10-15
Dry loam 15
f:'.oist loam 7
Designation
TABLE k
Emulsion speed
GOM IZOS
Filter co3
q~r
BOA"
ioan 32anchrome
3nfrachrome
I ZhS-16
_
light yellow
.
x.72-480
1.5 1.5
1.5.
:I Zh.S-18
dark'yellox
500-518
1210 1.5
1.5.
III OS-12
light orange
51;2-560
3.0 2.0
2.0
IV 08-14
dark orange
570-585
4.0 2.0
2.0
TABLE 5
NUMBER OF GEODETIC CONTROL POINTS ACCORDING TO SURVEY SCALE
Methods
Scale
'Anis
a h3
2:10,000
Average of one point ber area
14 km2
. 7 I m2
1:25,000
35 km2
20 km2
1: 50,,000
; .1,20 km2
75 km2
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T!' LE 2
-w a L `3 1i?1DER VARIOUS CO;:D1TIONS
Required
Scale of acc,tracy of Northern,
Cartography rel';ef, `? uninhabitnd
1:1O,GOO and larger
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Geodetic base cornditio:Is
limited adequate COMO.Uu Ulu
Barely accessible, Cultivated,
concealed denser
naiuntai noun Uo ulated _
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TAELE3
REFLECTIVITY OF CERTAIN OBJECTS OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
(after Ye.
L. F,rinov.5)
Object
Reflected
Object
-Reflected
Light,
Light,
Exposed chalky
surface
90
Light soils
20-30
Yellow fields
20
Dark soils
10-15
Forest
15-20
Dry loam
15
Grass cover
20-30
moist. loam
7
Designation
0'AZ
~
I
Zhs-16
II
ZbS-18
III
OS-12
IV
OS-14
Filter color
light yellow
dark yellow
light orange
dark orange
TABLE 4.
Emulsion speed
R~g~gg isor, an
panebrom.,_e
infrachrome
472-480
1.5
1.5
1.5
500-518
2220
1.5
1.5
542-560
3.0
2.0
2.0
570-585
4.0
2.0
2.0
TABLE 5
TWINS-ER OF GEODETIC CONTROL POINTS ACCORDING TO SURVEY SCALE
Methods -
- -
Scale
' Ana is
a hic
2:20,000
Average of one point per area
]4 km2
.7km2
]:25,000
35 km2
20 km2
1:50,000
;120 km2
75 km2
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/05/16: CIA-RDP81-01043R002000020001-2
i'A -m x., 6
w ?r .~ OF fare~5 1' r ~^ T;'J 7"'~L?tf-47 C
.SPED _ r.ac v~ JO'.T}~NA r 0.: S'i?i jr. j S' 9.11 r1?id=T..S
A a l.fl..~e.. 7-e..u ' Y' ?
Ster eopa r 84-85 II = 2000n; L= 12li3rn, ? 1: 10, 000
Point No,
bank
10 left
9 left
8 loft
7 left
6 left
5 left
4 left
3 left
2 left
1 left
1 r4rht
2 rig}it
3 ri it
14 right
6 rii,hy
91
t3 i sthnce
I3eadi: s tI = K b p bctweon
92 P= Cav. d p I:=:i+~16.1 /rri pai:lts, m
b
10.86 10.86 10.46 2.1) 34.5 120
0 river
0 river
._ J
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TABLE 7
SPEOD EU OF JOUIRUAL FOR CALOULATIC IS
Steroopair 61-62 H - 2000 ri, B = 120Cm, 1 = 1:10,000
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Point No.,
bank
91
C2
p-gav.
,d I p
j 4P
G p
tt }Iolilf p
K =II-16.7 ra/rm-
b
Distance
bot:?:een
points, ri
3 left
9.142
9.42
9.l2
4-0.70
X0.12
0.82
13.69
30
2 left
9.36
9.38
9.37
+0.65
-fO.06
0.71
11.86
30
1 loft
8.70
8.714
8.72
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
100 river
1 ri` ht
2 right
3 right
 ,;,d,+ ---?4_~~. -??,x :.._ -: -- --r~ ?rr?- - ?- -- ----_--- - - - - - -?-? ----------- -
?+t;#,'~i;:4~i'?~.r3~~/','~+:.i... PYid'.:~; ~:.i,+?x~ ;~(i...i.ir: "t i;i~..J'k':' ^i r'C. t~,~ rr^?`?~?`J.t?~`~~:r ?,4.~` _J
~r .y, . ; .1. s wrd r :,h!YaJ . l ` kr .4., .~y~ ??' .1,n.L:`'+`,
i.&.'r at. _~~.:.~r _ _.''w_ ~'.?t. :.i ~.. .rr
TABLE S
1+
DATA FOR SMALLEST AND OPTI?,iUM SCALES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS FOR HYDROLOGICAL INTERPRETATION
Hydrological elements d#t interpretation and their composition
f7
I. River valleys (lacustrine basins)
Type of valley, its outline in plan view r
all sca
les
Height, steepness, shape, dissection of slopes, vegetation and soils in form of characteristics
#32 eneralised by sections:
2 a for flatland conditions with vall width greater than 2 km 1
,000-1:3 0,000
1:25
1:1 ,OQQ
Sri wi less 2
-the
.
1:15.000
110,000
2 (b ),for mountainous conditions
1 0,000
??~, Q 0
same for isolated stretches or small sectors, with the addition of precise quantitative character- I
ss
s i e
1.10,00 -1: ,000 1
1:1 ,000
Number of terraces, their heights, steepness of sections, surface slopes (longitudinal, transverse),,
width, extent of surface dissection, vegetation in the form of generalized data for characteristic
sections.
1:,g,AQ0Q- : 0,000
,
l:l ,000
Same for individual directions or short sections with the introduction of precise qualitative
characteristics arsd fi ea
12
10$000-111
0
,0 0
Width of bottomland, its position relative to the riverbed in the plan view, character of the
surface, extent of dissection, vegetation:
e fl "t d and t
gi2ns
11:2 ,000-1:0,000
1:10,000
(b) under mountainous conditions
1:403,M
25,000
Height of bottomland above level of water in riverbed in the form of qualitative characteristics
(high, low, vaverme)
1:25,000- :0,000
1:15,000
SM In u t tiv eLgacterigligg
1:10V002-11159
El'ah WS; S4 timer, 1
1:12,000
1. .000
Presence of landslides talus scree heaps of detritus
1:2 000-1:0000
1 lO 000-1 0
Presence. o ound-a ter discharges in valle
:1 ,0
.1: ,000
Swaeminesa of sl es and valley b ttom in qualitative degrees
0.000
11:25,0000
Same with derivation of precise contours of swa e.Md of the different microrelief
1:10,000
11:5P000
25,E
Smallest Optimum
scale scale
T27 /-27
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 L 17
T1. Riverbeds (lacustrine basins)
1xtent of meandering and branching of riverbed in the form of generalized data for sections
Information concerning the presence of riverbed formations (reaches, jandbanks, chutes, waterfalls,
rapids, flats, shoals, sandbars, shallows, beaches) I
Determination of vertical outlines of details of riverbed formations. tequiros photographs with
river bottom visible through water:
(a) for rivers with widths from 20 to 80 m.
; br for rivers with widths greater than 60 - 100 m.
c) for rivers with widths of 200 300 in.
Measurement of river widths with accuracy within 10 p orcent with width of :
20 in. and greater
0 in. and greater
Determination of river depths by stereophotogra?metric means requires an m affe of bottoo relief
with an accuracy of:
uu to 10 cm
uoto1m
Qualitative determination of height and steepness of banks and their character ,hi.~h, to;q, etch
Measurement of height and steepness of banks from, inlividha1 lines with the plotting of nrofiles
for steep banks with heights of:
up to5m
-10 in
27
all scales
1: 5, 0'10
1:10.,2()o
1:25, 000
1:2 :000
.%n nnn i:i~ nnn
1:2,000
ifvwv
1:12,000
11 m and Preater
1:20 000
Determination; of bottom ground in the fore: of generalized characteristics
for sections _
1:2
0
_ +i
rl:~^0(30
Same for i6adiLig lines
50,
Qualitative determination of turbidity of water
all scales
Obstruction of riverbed and extent o!' vegetation ii. the form of charac4eristi~-
s for sections
ice structures in rivers
rivers up to 20 m wide
wider than 20 m
Determination of dimensions of elements of inaividua ice s,ructu se with river ,-idtbs of:
20 in ands ater
50 m and greater
260
1:1212 3: ,000
1:E. 000.
I.in nnn
1: x,000
010
:
92_ '03
lar-er tha- 1:10,000
_
1:?57.0?`.10 ~ ? :lt--2000
15 fif
1
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/05/16: CIA-RDP81-01043R002000020001-2 r.~
i i,~Li'. 8 (continued)
III. Hydrotechnical installations
P
` _ all scales
I : lci}0
1-11~ IM 1.2 coo
/-31
T,rpe and construction of installations
IV. Obtaining data for the characteristics of a watershed
Type of relief, predominant forms, their individual a pearance, the relative location of carious
forms of relief:
flatland relief
Mountainous relief
Terrain elevations, precise
Same for microrelief
1: 2q.,0Ot)
quan-ita~,ive nlarimetri.c characteristics of :racror^1ie an-1 ; snrel.Y~i'~~+ Z:10,~?!l _
Character of distribution within watershed of principal groupings of vegetation or farmlan?s
(forest, burned areas, scrub growth; meadows, fields, hiowlands. s,-amps)
Species composition, predominant types
1:25.000 1 l: 5,000
under mountainous conditions 1:1;O,000 ! 1:10,COO
tige, density
Predominant soils of watershed:
under flatland conditions
!Boundaries of soil types
Planimetric determination of extent of snow cover during period of irregular cover
261
1:2x,000
1:x,000
larrer 'ran 1:10,000
all sco:.les
1:20,n00
1:10.000 .______
l:1rn-oo
lamer t.hhn 1:10, 000
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 Vegetation,
predominnynt
TABLE 9
CORRELATION; SERIES OF CERTAIN MIW`7 A?E ELE ITS OF TM FLATLAND - Tt IGA ZONE
(After Gavemen (lb))
t -thology,
Predominant
aa3.ls
Spruce - fir forest
Eluvial - deluvial
deposits of the Kazan-
akiy formation. Loamy,
conglomerates.
Smoothed forms with moderate slopes, developed on water divides- 'hue to the morai
e hone
r
n
d
en
uunseyeietation. orosson scourine, is, almost undetectable
^^ r r
Isolated areas, terrace re rants an valley slopes
e
lying hyp,omotricall
betwee
f
y
,
n mora,
n
and alluvial de osita,
A stretch of piled ridges and isolated create approximately 6-10 m above the level of
aphagnuii nrramps, extending along the course of rivers; isolated sandy crests and entire
Mounded lowland with height variations of ;0.40 m; sculptured forms of relief predominate.
Valley system well developed, especially in conglomerates.
2132
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Designation
of features
(1)
1. General tone
of image of tree
stands
DETERMINING SPECIES 0' !NIXED, M4tTURE STANDS CFA' R REST ON PHOTOGRAnEIS h'ITU SCAT S 0' 1:1K,000 AND 1:25,000
(After G. G. Savoylovich /739 7)
Scale of
photograph
(2)
Spruce and Fir
(3)
1:15,000 Dark grey and darkest of all
species listed in table
1:25,000
2. Shape of tre e~
1:15,000 1
top
Conical, sometimes with trun-
cated tip.
Tapering, needle-skipped, often
3. Difference inj 1:15,0001 In most cases sharp: illuninat-
tone of illumin- ed portions of top light grey;
ated and shaded shaded portions dark grey, ofte
portions of top. : blending with dark grey inter-
spaces.
Illuniated and shaded portions
of top distinguished with
difficulty.
identifying Features
Pine Birch
th) (q)
Aspen
(6)
Grey in the lower reforestation Grey; brighter than spruce-fir Light grey, lightest of all
site classifications and, with stands and somewhat darker species listed in table.
an interrupted forest canopy, than aspen.
light grey. Always of brighter
tone than the spruce-fir stands.
Simple spheroidal
Not sharp, gradual transition of
illuminated portion into shaded
portion; top clearly distin?ui,+i
Oval and spheroidal, sim?)le.
In over-mature growth (90 yra
old and over) spheroidal and
com' lex Wi'h piled surface.
Simple snh-roidal.
Simple spheroidal: 90 yrs. and'
over -- simple spheroidal with
niled surface.
Single spheroidal.
Not sharp, illuminated portion gradually blendi.rr into
shaded portion or quite irdi.stin--uishable.
Difference in tone of illunirat-
ed portions of top less distinct.
Difference in `one o' illuTM.inatea and shaded - ortions of too
less distinc ana -ir'fic-il` to d.istinT,ish.
"I
263 + , f
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 .?: . Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/05/16 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002000020001-2 ~,,,w,.ti ,,v? ..,.;?r
y .,~ ,y;,... . ~.- _ ..- ,. ... -- . .. .-.. .. . ?a. d,,.._x.~. ant.,-.... ~..tl.,.....d, r ~ ,..
.:;"a.. ...-.r .. .. i. ._.. ,-- "., . .... .._ ., ':'rr~
..?Fs.J:'V:'4:;sk';~kh.,x.;t",~`~:.Mw 4~~:si'w,. .~'~, :, +tL~=:~!, :, ...-. .. .s....-.-.~ ... ., ..,., _ .,, _ .. ~. ~ .., ~. ..... .~> ..? .-~ '":!:? :.a:a ?., .., -.
`
(1)
(2)
Difference in
1:15,0(
canopy.
1:25,
Character of dis?
1:15, 00 3
m,tribution;of tree-
ops-w-i.thin a sec.-
grouped.)
ariations in th
relative diameter of
cipa1 stand canopy.
-71 4., i.xtent of tree-
top in depth.
1:25,0(10 same
Very large, with closed canopy
difference in height is smooth,
ed out. Canopy uneven.
Same features, but less clear
expressed and distinguished
with difficulty.
Uniform or irregular. No drh,r
;9acteristic curtains or groups
of treetops. Windfall glades
and openina?s encountered.
TABL, 10 (continued)
(3)
1:15,0qO Varies over wide range -- up 1l
1:25,0
i times and above, with in
crease in density the variati'
decreases.
0 Varies over wide range up to
-4 times.
a
1:15,01 0 Treetops long, extent noted
t h
lf th
t
e
V 0 ereoscop~
a
depth and below.
1:2510 00 Same, but extentP l?e^s .clear
distinguished.
Insignificant. Canopy quite eve
y 5are features, but less clearly
expressed and distinguished
with dif ficulty.
Uniform. No characteristic cu_
our
d
tains or groups observe
, nor
windfall glades and openings. i
o Varies over ill range.
''reetops short, with medium and
low density of canopy, treetops
can be seen through to a small
depth. Treetops appear to be
susoended in air.
stly grouped (scrub). Willi 11ostly scrub with dense
o
and canopy quite even.
dense canop?: '-he croups areI
not always discernible.
;'rowth
dries o--or small ranee in Varies ovrr extremely small
ma`ure sands :ith dense ca - rarge.
on"?. In o-er-zrature sf an"'s
with rdker, canopy .ariation
conk era:~1e.
'is
Treetops short, but somewhat Treetops short, visibility to
lonr,er than those of pine. ill dr -th only in openings
Visibility in openings to aj or with hnoker. canopy.
s^all depth.
Sarne, but extent less clearly
distinguished. Treetops appear to
be suspect d in the lower refores-
tation site classifications. {
4
Inconsiderable. Canopy quit e Almost lacking. Canopy most
even. '"ith broken canopy even of all species.
difference in heis?ht observgd
between c-rouns of treetops.{
Same foafures, but less clearly expressed. and distinguished
*.4i zh conside"abledi?ficultT .
Same, but extent less clear3,
d3.tsting ui shed.
Same;::but..exten` less clearly
distinguished.
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 (1)
8.'Visibility Through
canopy and -Liribility
of .troe stand In
depth. Transparency
of .-treetops.
'Character or sha-
bxeak'w and it
'e,continous stands.
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", ,...~.- _-ao.r , ,.,;y; ~~i .+wapr",,yy ,a~tf?r r,?i;i?';;8 -PV ?:a i,Y- "'~ 'C:J"ra ; ".. -..: _
. ,~.. r~-a.d?. i xt~:;~:,{, h.. ~.a_a;j",~3ra,i,,~6~~`X~.~ k.~?;,-.F:~~~i~";.@;~'?ii.~;,ci;
TM i 10 (continued)
1:15,000 Spruce stand appears as a dense
Ishadow beneath canopy, creating
the impression of a dark (shay)
forest. Ground seen in rare
cases. Treetops dense, nor,-
Itr ansparent.
1:25,000 ~3,ai e features but less clearly
/expressed and distinguished
with difficulty.
1:15,000 Dense shadow in the shape of a
narrow, elon;ated triangle.
1:25,000 'same
(5)
Canopy of principal stand in absence
of secondary layer and high density
permit s passage of much direct rPu-
flight, creating the impression o' a
bright forest. Well illumAnated
treetops are semi-ransnarent.
Same feature-,., but less clearly
express-d and distinguished with
ClifficuIt:r.
IShadow less dense, than that of
spruce, resembling an elongated
semicircle (protracted -oval).
21_'5
Vi.si')il i.ty through sanely
insL,nifican' due to poor iso-
lation and ^on'r-~~s~arercv :)f
tree{ops. Visibility throlirh
tree scan' to rieptr - n
fr 'r' nr~, ani tri+h hrn'rr~, ra,?nry;?
Same features bui lose clearly
ith ciirf'iculty.
Shadow denser than that of
pine, resembling an elon-
ga' ed semicircle or ellips-
oid.
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(f)
Visibility through canopy in -
d
significant the to poor J.so- ?
l +ior a.,d no ransparr?n2y
of treetops. Visibi3.i'v
through tree stand to death
orl~{ it ooeninc." and w th
broker canows.
ex-ressed and distir?uished
~Shadoar as dense as that of
ipi ne, resembling a slightly
elongated semicircle.
 r? . ~...v.. ,,*J,.i ? :C.? Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/05/16: CIA-RDP81-01043R002000020001-2
.. ;&;CtiS; ,~. 1 'w _. ..r {r;. - -; n +. ?w. .?cn,+:: o ? - 4( : is .
i :In _s .G.'..~t"A v : t '7?; !?L~'? ?r ..-x,r , 'tr.X : 5 ;~ r ^ -4 .:K ..??~
... a.r-. ~.~,! ~?::'~: :?5. { .^6Vr .9 'r ,i ):iy^, , ~,,n ?'l, a'?C?; ~': oy~ ^?bt . 'v. r.-..."~'~'i'i~." i
.N4,? -r.~.~,'~'.. .`iy. ~+1~ .Y:. ..d ~.~'~~ .r1,. iY: tix `r F,q:~~ A'f(YI `i~~:ie...{v ill :?ay 15, d1 ~~~
+kWh4`R 4{,,,2.1?r. r?LJ t~i;~. E5 ^ y'^.^. :'"~
ASP=' + C. ? "" ~: ri "' ~1~,;~ .~ ~ {i~~.
.?s.t~ .. ':K i.'.l?~'~ 1 J f'r~2~~{7 `}.4ij .^~.. "..% 1:~Si~."~'.
TABLE 11
FEikTURES FOR DETERMINING AGE OF STANDS ON PHOiCGR::r'!S d1~TH SCALES Or 1:15,000 AND 1:25,000
(After G. G. Samoylovich C1 )
Age of stands
Features of Interpretation
HA1ative stereoscopic
Seed propogations
Shoot propagations
Treetop sizes
Shape of treetop
height of mixture }"~?
absolute
relative
(1
(2)
(3)
(h)
(5)
(G);,,
truce-fir stands, scale 1:15,0000
'
II-III (30-50 years)
II-Ill (15-25 years)
small (approx.
approx. o.25 rtm) nsir'nificant variations
'ndist'in-lsishablo, excen+
Mixture of a"oen an] birch l;
age class III to which the
in amp class ITI conslc'er-w~,:
shape of the treeton is
ably t?sflcr than spruce. 'In"
.onical.
a;;e classes I and II (10?3,O J:
veers) the mixture is r;ener%
ally indist'inrruishable.
1V-V (70-90 years)
1V-V (35-45 years)
medium (a;zDrox. o.6 mm)
variations up to 2-3 fimos
onical
mix-lure o'' a:r^en ani birch~,:
consic'erably +aller than
spruce
VI and, above (110
VI and above (55
large (approx. 1.0 rain)
variations up to !, times
onical
mixture of aspen and birch' !q
years and above)
years are. above)
or rare or less height thaiq
spruce
I-ill (10-50 years)
I-III (5-25 years)
indistinguishable
indistinguishable
scale 1:25.0^0
indistinguishable
ndistineuishable
I3-V (70-90 years)
IV-V (35-L;5 years)
small (0.25 mm)
small variations
tapered
mixture of birch and aspen-',
consir'erably 'aller than,
spruce
VI and above (110
VI and above (55
Medium (approx. 0. nrn)
variations up to 2-3 times
-~aoered
mixture or birch and, asaen'r;'
years and above)
years and above)
of same or less height hap
spruce ?? .
2CG
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 (1)
I-Ill (10-50 years)
inate (approx..rn) -
msdiwr treetops predo.m-
iratc (approx. , M')''
(5)
indistrguishable in age indistinguishable
clas,es I and Iii, UnLi-
form in are class III
(sic).
%tariations relativel;'
small, less in dense
canopy
variati ors rely+i':e?
small
indistinF+uishable
deciduous stands, scale 1:15,030
treetop sizes indistinn.ish- .ndist,inguishable up-to
able up to age citass 111 ige class III, uniform
1l~an age Class I I i _
267
inlistin +3isha-'lo
h rot l'al in the Shane of
small rains
(r)
Mixture indistin uishable
srt?ern-' 4al, in the sha^e n&
rains o rn'v ium
onieal, with share ~ransi-
ion from illuminated ,,or-
,.ior of treetops to :;ha=led
nrtion
.araholic, i-rith gralual trar.-
sitinn from illumjnatr3 -
pro-''S or to shaded ; or}ion
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(2)
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T!!3L'c1, 11 (continue/)
(3) (i )
Pine stands, scale 1:1x,000
I-Ill (5-25 years) indistinguishable, except
age class III which reaches
0.25 n. m.
I-Ill (5-25 Years) i.rdistin,;uishahle
.IV-V (35-0 years) small treetops predom-
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T?BL , 11 (continued)
birch and aspen sta.rds, scale 1:15,000
vard.ations inairm= caiz+
ndistinguishable indist;im-uishable
mall treetops
VI-viii (55-75 years) edium treetops
,'above (13o IVII and above (65 years /lamp
large variations, on the
order of 1:3 and greater
irL1istir.'ui sl^able
in shape of o,..,
all he
Spherical '1'a? ns
spheroidal
oo; ;?propakations are forest growths arising on cleared antes z thiC a
n z case, the roes develop as shoots from stub, s. in seed prooa:?a+;onr he forest
evel.pps from shed dispersed by trees of the principal forest growth.
288
,,!y >.la ...;-. ..n,._ utfi':~..4:n't' ?;ti?".r;,. Sr", rr"'?Ji'f.,i.i p" ~l~~t,+,,; V i
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j and ovals
!6)
rrixhire indl stznrr~i.sl-able
spruce r'ixture not as tall
as birch aria asr-er
variations considerable 1sim^1o s,:.heroid spruce mixture no? as tall
only with canopy of 1ou as birch and asses
density (up to 0 6)
considerable variation complex. spheroid with
spruce :mxture as tall as or
I
lirxrlen stands, scale 1:15,000
in. -11,11-e 1" s ?a11 --rains
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TABLE. 12
? CIIARACTa:i1.ISTIC OF ACGURZY OF IIS U, J"I'. KIN TIO~: O" St?OPET-INa
AS A F1UCTION OF TI: CHAR1 TAR OF ITS CONCEALMENT FOR SC%FS Or, 1:2,000 - 1.1.5,e03
f
Absolute error of measurement (- m). vdth_.- sabsenueni guarantee of afi-eararce of error
Types of concealment of shoreline .0 2r.
Wic' tones- of image of sur- large depths or muddy bottom ).5 0.8
face l of water and banks and stable, moderately slop-
ing banks
.Bright ;,tones of image of water surface and hanks (shoals, sandy
steep, exposed banks casting no
shadows on water
large depth or muddy bottom and P.6 10.9
Dense aqueous vegetation and
open turfed banks
D-5
Doti aqueous vegetation and
banks covered with scrub growth
).6
1.2
1.6
3.0
1.9 13. i
L
CO
13.3
.0
1.6
:7 99.9
5.0
: t%0
_....- 1--
14.9 16.5 7.7
5,.1 16.7
1
8.L
7r
9.Q
ui. L' :` i...`i.~.~ - +. '+'~awr ?f.+~~~. yYy'y xj.! ,rj
'~ rr.tr. aa5,e._..P~ 4?~. :4^ ~` q:'+-rn
t : "~:~ wu ' 1 y ,?r .?~ Y ..M .nr. f~j
?6 4 w- :v k?w ,p,y. r, i b..' iT', L:)a.{;w*v~ - .:b .a ~~~: :f."si.nFX:'e ?. { 1:
w6 rk "([, 5. 'Tt,.= iwfj?",..,. ,`A ,r:r ~.. :'t o~?/:?"~ ry., a ?'' ..M?i::? 7fi .1 .J
f;t' , :r -~xa _?I~, ~~;.~r 4 ?;r. ;,t.~; ~ I~. '.~: ?r... ~~r;.?-.,;s.: .r'~C . r 1 . ~~, ~~ `~t: `= ~:;`;r . ~:~?r~~. ~6 ~ _~'~'.'~,r.
~~.rk;. j~j, ~~14~n~.) ; :;ti?- `i ,.?.yr : +'i-' }:r~A.;w..,y~a;'.'.:;1.~ ~,?; ~s`' M1:i;" w?~, ? +': i- R ~.1~"hS^. `~..'-r~. '~+:,.y. f?.:w'?
,fi~tt ~. ~ '~ ~, [r?.Y7;,S"~,~'. ~, u ..fie", w . ,..n.,,t+!.,. a~. .. 'Tjr,~7'" 1~,0
.,....,.~'~i`~'}7;,w?.r,:r?~'~W:I;YWFa _I.E;.?:sv;a+..riw a,t. ,_. .....w... ...+.aw. ..,.r?:'i....._..... .r. r-.::
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TABLE 13
GENERAL INTERPRETATION FEATURES OF SWA1PPS
Interpretation features
(1)
Grainy pattern
Striped pattern (dark bands
regularly alternating with
light, bande)
Tonality
Isolated, sharply contoured
sections with a large-grained
patter}
Distinct swamp.borders
Indistinct swampnborders
Significance of features
1. Direct Identifying Features
Forestation: forest swamps and forested swamps. The denser
and larger the graininess, the denser and taller the forest
in the swe (Photo Z
idge-bog and ridge=pond complexes (alternation of ridges
and bogs or ridges and ponds) (Photo, 51).
Varying degrees of flooding. Other conditions being equal,
the darker the section the greater the flooding (Photo 4-9).
r ineral islands in the swamp, overgrown with trees (Photo
2).
Remarks
-- (3)
Size and shape of graininess of pattern of barious
species of trees are distinguishable (Table 14).
Various combinations of the striped pattern are
Horsetail marshes are darker than reed-grass marshes;
reed-grass marshes are darker than cotton-grass
marshes,
diearly distinguished in the midst of swamps as a
istinct shape.
rass, grass-moss, and moss swamps bordered by forested and
he borders, as a rule, are irregular and closely
orest dry valle s Photo 49).
outline the swamps.
Grass and grass-moss swamps bordered by swamped meadow;
moss
ground survey is required for precise delineation
swamps are bordered by plowlands and clearings; forest
of swamp borders.
swamps are bordered by swamped forest (Photo-52),
II. Features Arising from tan's Economic Activity
Level portions with distinctive
pattern arranged in a definite
system and bounded by dark
straight lines
Swamps sections with peat-cutting activity; open pits, drying the various methods of extracting peat give the
plots, etc., (Photos 51'and 52). swamps distinctive patterns.
270
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TABLE 13 (continued)
Dark or black straight lines
(systems of lines)
Straight, bright narrow bands
against a gray beck ad -
Straight or gently twisting,
bright, narrow bonds
prainage ditches filled with water (Photo 50).
Forest cuts (Photo 53)
lauseways, roads, paths, trails in snow (Photos 52, 62).
Bright areas with regular bor- orest cuts -- locations of forest clearings in swamps.
dens,among dark sections with
arain3r pattern
Bright spots on a dark back- ay ricks in grass swamps (Photo 54).
ground
271
(3)
The well-drained portions along ditches are often
overgrown with trees (having a grainy structure on
the photograph).
Indistinguishable in sparsely forested swamps
Quite clearly distinguished, on large-scale photo-
graphs. In stereoscopic examination the bands
appeared to be depressed,
Seen in forest swamps and in forested sections of
moss swamps.
Seen in sections along ponds and streams, sometimes
on the edges of moss swamps.
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TABLE lis
INTERPRETATION FEATURES AND BRIEF GHMPND CHARACTERISTICS ;F SWPi1'IPS
of swamp
(1)
1. Forest swamps
1. Deciduous
swamps
Interpretation features of aerial Brief ground characteristic of vegetation
;photographs
(2)
Photograph of dark-grey and light-grey
tone with characteristic fine-grained
pattern. Principal feature of the
forest swamp is the fine graininess of
of pattern compared. with the pattern
of surrounding forests in dry valleys.
Swamps covered with deciduous growth
appear somewhat brighter than coni-
ferous swamps.-
Tone of photograph light grey; pastern
fine-grained. Projection of treetops
bright, indistinct; intervals between
treetops are dark and irregular in
shape. In stereoscopic examination
groups of trees of different height
appear to stand out in relief (Photo
W.
(a) Willow 1Tone of photograph grey; pattern not
expressed (even under stereoscope).
Interpreted from indirect features
(Photo 54 (2)).
(b) Alder swamp Graininess of pattern considerably
finer than in deciduous forests in
dry valleys.
(3)
Swamps covered with solid,dense growth of
coniferous or deciduous trees are in re-
forestation site class V and V-a, in well
drained portions of *am::s -- si.+e classi-
fication. !V?
Tree species include birch: in river
bottomlands there are willows and black
alder. Tree. height is extremely varied.
In tree-scrub cover willows 1.5-2 m tall
predominate: profuse growth of reed grass.
In northern Tegions of UJSSR considerable
mixture of dwarf birch is encountered.
In alder mramps the black alder is 10-11: in
tall, sometimes mixed with birch, pore
rarely spruce. Grasses vary: on high hill-
ocks near tree trunks there are various
forest grasses; between hillocks there are
reed grasses with a mixture of various
large swamp grasses. Moss cover is
sup-!ressed or absent.
2(2
Geomorobological condition and sources of
water-mineral supply
(11)
Seen in the form of small, isolated swamps
in water divides, in bottomlands of rivers,
and in depressions near terraces, and border
large masses of various types under various
conditions of water-mineral feed.
Seen in depressions near terraces, in river
bottomlands, often bordering grass swamps,
under ground-feed conditions with strongly
mineralized waters.
Seer, almost exclusively in river bottomlands
or along the borders of swamps in the presence ,P.
of warmth from ground waters.
I
~een in depressions near terraces or along the
rders of large swarms in the presence of
o
outflows of Frounri water or alluvial water feed.
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 (1)
(c) Birch
(b) Pine
TI. Grass swamps
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TABLE 14 (continued)
(2) (3)
Difficult to distinguish birch swamps from 11n birch swamps the tree cover consists of
alder swamps on photographs, even on large- ir?.hes B-10 in tall, sometimes with a mix-
scale photograph with . stereoscopic examir,a- ure of pine and spruce. Grasses: reed
tion. rass, grama grass with small mixture of
Pious other grasses. Moss cover is
ppressed (in poor water-mineral supply
h main mosses develo,.
one of photograph dark grey: fine-grained
attern (Photo 53). .
one of photograph dark grey (darkest of all
tree species). Pattern fine-grained, hetero-
eneous, due to variation in height of tree
tand. Light and shade composed of dark grey
(treetops) and dark, almost black (shadows
between treetops); difference between them
harply expressed. Considerable variation in
ze of treetops clearly discerned in stereo-
co is examination.
I
of photograph grey, darker than of birch
wamp and brighter than spruce s;,amp. Patt-
rn fine-grained, homogeneous. Transition
rom brighter tone of projections of treetops
o darkened intervals gradual. Shape of pro-
ections of treetops oval, no variety in size
s clearly seen in stereoscope.
oniferous species:
Mmes larch.
spruce, pine, some-
een ;n the form of small swamps or borderin
owland marsh swamps. Parely seen in river
ottomlands and in these cases are flooded b
h waters. ila+er-mineral feed
iodic hi
g
er
occurs it the +ransiti oral phase from ground;:;,
eed to atmospheric Feed.
~~A+ar_, neral sung' by rround or atmospheric;
a_, n in tal Pin it narrow bands along the borders of to `
s
d
u?: _
! gras
ith s ail mixture (in..;secorciary growLn i an
d rarely jr isolated
f black alder and birch. Grass growth is f river valleys, an
s' s o" low of abundirA
aon
1
sually hillocked reed grass. Between bill- swamps, under corn
.
_..a ...,4-e,. and anrPACe rn-off.
,rasses: water arum, spiraea, marsh trefoil.
joss cover is poorly developed.
Tree stand consists of pine 8-12 m tall;
with nearby moving ground water there is
a mixture of birch. Swamp scrub predomin-
ates in grass cover: cassandra, wild rose-
mary, whortleberry. )foss cover is well
developed consisting of sphagnum moss with
small m* A.-ore of hypnum moss (on pror'in-
ence s) . ------.-
one of photograph darn grey, pattern smooth.
no graininess). Heavily watered sections
sti nguished as darker (almosi black) patches
goring a r-osaic pattern (Photos 49, 51e, 55).
Surface of swamp covered with grassy vege-
tation of reed grasses or grama. Grasses
LwLith small mixture of various grasses.
krioss co'-er lacking or poorly developed.
.. `dry.
Seen in the form of small, isolated swamps:
in sandy soils. 'More often located in is
ands among large moss swamps, on well drained
`'
e
`
ed;,
ter f
Wa
slopes, and near water receivers.
onsists of scanty ground and atmospheric .
Later s.
Typical of boltomlands, es'uaries, and
iacust-rime Ienressians, given +he warming
nfluence of ground =Ya+ers and periodic
'loodirnv in srrir_a.
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TABLE fl (continued)
(1)
(2)
Tone of photograph varies from dark grey to black
with dark grey predominating. In connection with
heavy watering of sections and irregular density
of grass cover,, a mosaic patchiness is noticed.
The brighter patches (with dense grass or less
watering) alternate with darker, almost-black
patches (with broken grass cover through which
the surface of the water is seen (Photo 55 (1)).
1. Horsetail
swamp
2; Cane swamp
Appears on photograph as light grey, almost
white bands near ponds or streams. In Western
Siberia occupies vast areas and extends far from
streams. in these cases, against the general
backgrounds there are usually distinguished
diffuse black patches with indistinct outlines -
sections with open water surface.
Tone of photograph dark grey, homogeneous
(somewhat lighter than horsetail swamp and darker
than cane swamp). Then hay is mowed in the swamp
against the general background of the photographs
bright circular spots (hay ricks) are seen Photo
54).
(3)
(t)
Grass stand consists almost wholly of iSeen in small areas as elongated narrow
overgrowth of muddy horsetail, same+imes I(!s+rtpe along the peri?hery of swamps, some-
r.
Gnnr.sA mir!'.nra n'f raM orris- I.rhn7. taarma_ri by nnncentrated (often ferrug-
linous) waters or around lakes overgrown with C
vegetation and having flat banks.
Grass stand is homogeneous consisting li''ourd i^C?rarest_ste^oe and steppe Hones and
tail and reed grass. In flats the cane ,Dnieper. Kuban', Volga ("cane flats") and
, 'here they border upland
reaches heights of Z-5 m. jin Western Sibera >,
0 "
~, .Z G ?
(r amyi1 are I) xnc' are :known as "?ayrm,scb.
Cane. swains are fed by spring flood .raters
1(in f'la- s they are often f loode:1 for prolonged7;?'
Grass cover consist- of reed grass with
small mixture of various grasses.
Depending on conditions o' moisture and
mineral supply, the reed grass species
differ. Moss cover is poorly developed.
Seen it river bottomlands, meadows, or narrow.
;;
bands borderint, upland or transitional swamps
They occupy rather large areas in the Poles'ye?1~
and in the lacustrine depressions of the
Il'mensk and Chudsko Pskov depressions. As a
rule, these s:waroyps have a steady ground feed
to periodic river flooding or
and are subjecl-
F'looiina by delu 1al waters.
Note: Sometimes against the general background of photographs of grass swamps 'there is noticed a fine vcraininess, which indicated the presence
of trees and scrub growth.- The tree species are birch and black alder; in river bottorlands and valleys as well as in lacustrine
depressions willow is most often encountered.
274
3. Reed grass
swamp
Pit
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TABLE 14 (continued)
III. Grass-moss
Tone of photograph grey, more or less horo-
Grass cover consists of reed grass or cottor
post often encountered along the borders of
s
d
t
t
d
swamps
geneous, somewhat lighter than preceding
grass, sometimes with large mixture of swamp
a
-
mo
wa
er an
complex moss swamps: groun
types (except cane swamp) (Photo o).
scrubs. Moss cover is well developed, con-
',here feed.
sisting of bypnumor sphagnum mosses.
1. Moss and
one of photograph grey with white patches
Grass stand consists of reed grass (Carex
Encount.are-1 jr well warmed borders of complex
reed grass swamp
(lightly watered, moss covered, flat
lasiocarpa, Carex limosa, Carex rostrata).
':cross swamps and in river valleys.
:elevations). Among other types, this type
Moss cover solid, consisting of sphagnum
of swamp can be distinguished only by
mosses (sphagnum obtusum, sphagnum sub-
indirect features (Photo 60).
secundu;n, sphagnum anrrustifoliu4, sphagnum
recurvum).
Moss and
2
almost wli te, in
Tone of photograph light
Cotton grass (Eriophorum vag~natum) pre-
Ia bands, suited for well drained borders of
.
cotton:igraps
,
a complex with other types is charpl;yy its-
dominates in grass stand with small mixture
moss swamps, found under conditions of water
swamp
tinguished (Photos 56
57).
of swamp scrub. Moss cover dense, consist-
feed with lightly mineralized ground waters.
,
ing of sphagnum mosses (Sphagnum magellani-
Isolated masses rarely formed.
cum, sphagnum angustif olium, in Kareliya
Sphagnum panillosum).
?. 3. Moss and
Against light-grey background the dark-
In the grass stand, along with co}ton grass,
Same
scrub swamp
grey latticed pattern is clearly out-
swampsscrub predominates (Cassandra, "pod-
lined in stereoscopic examination. As a
bel," wild rosemary). Moss cover is dense
rule, these sections have a distinctly
consisting of sphagnum mosses. Almost
snarse graininess -- due to treetops.
always encounter sparse stands o;' dwarf nine.
-
(1)
Note: Often against the general background of a photograph of grass-moss swamp. There is observed a grainy pattern which indica~es forestation of the
swamp. Among tree species encountered in reed grass swamps in birch with small mixture of pine, in cotton grass swamps and scrub swamps only
pine (in Siberia, larch) is encountered. -r---- -
IV. Moss swamps
with ridge bog
complex.
The principal feature of swamps of this
type is the meandering streaked pattern.
The stripes are concentric or parallel.
Dark bands with grainy pattern (forested
ridges) alternate with bright bards (bogs).
In those cases where the bogs are heavily
watered, they appear on the photographs as
In association with the dissected micro-
relief the vegetation is complex in charac-
ter. On the elongated ridges (25-50 cm high)
swamp scrub with 'a mixture of cotton grass
predominates; the ridges are often forested
with pine. 1-loss cover is dense consisting
o- sphagnum maCellanicum). In the depres-
dark or black bands (depending on the isions between ridges: cotton grass grows in
extent of flooding), while the ridges are boggy soils and scheuchzeria in heavily
275
moss swavjs with ridge-bog complex have convex Y'
or concave surface. Depending on shape of Sur-
face, the ;rater-mineral reed of these swamps is
distinguished. They occuov vast areas in the
northern and central carts of the Soviet Union '.s
ana are the prirci^al rla reserve of the U,SSit.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/05/16: CIA-RDP81-01043R002000020001-2
 (l)
IV. ?joss swamps
with ridge-bog
complex
1. Swamps
with convex sur-
face
(a) Sharply
convex moss swamps
(b) ojoder-
ately convex toss
swamps
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/05/16: CIA-RDP81-01043R002000020001-2
(2)
Leh brighter. Heavily watered bogs are
sually located -near the periphery and are
ever forested, hence the dark bands of
heir imartes do not have a grainy pattern.
Dharacteristic feature of the photograph
'.s the doncentric striped pattern associ-
ated d with the convex shape of the surface.
leakly expressed striped pattern (ridgc-
:iog complex) in central part of photograph
with grainy pattern (forested slope sera-
circle). Marginal portions of photograph
light grey (cotton grass sections) or :lark
grey (reed grass sections) (Photo 56).
birch.
,learly expressed concentric striped pa+-
tern occupies principal part of photograph
of swamp and only along border is there a
Clearly defined light (rarely dark) grey
ard. forested circle (or setnicirrle) with
;rainy pattern on photograph is, as a rule,
baent (Photo 57).
TABLE 111 (continued.)
(.)
I watered soils (frith patches of "oeheretrik").
114oss cover loose consistinf7 of sphagnum
mosses (sphagnum balticum, sphagnum iusenii,
(sphagnum cuspidatum, et al.).
Elongated ridges covered with a dense cover of
sphagnum moss (sphagnum fuscum, sphagnum magel-
lani-cum) with broken cover of swamp scrub ("pod-
bel," Cassandra, wild rosemary) and cotton grass.
In boggy soils the moss -over is loose and con-
sists of sphagnum moss (sphagnum balticum, spha?=
num Dusenil) with interrupted grass stm d of
scheuchzeri.a or cotton grass.
In central portion of mass, a weakly devel-ped
ridge-bog complex. On the ridges -- scrub and
sphagnum swamp, with sparse growth of dwarf
pines . In bogs -- cotton Crass and sphagnum
.amp. On the slope of the s,~rar p i,:?~~s 'Mere is
a forested semicircle -- wine swamp h.4h spha -
rum mnaspandL scriab Rlo ~h.-?`tree.;hrir",l s -l2
in. Sections adjacent to dry valley are, as a
rime, occupied by cotton grass or reed r-rass
groupinf,,s (dependizr on the character o" wa'er-
in:.) They are s hat imc ' f ores`ed with nine or
Swa^tps of this type are widespread in forest
(zone ce European USSR and in Western Siberia, ,7
fcons tituting the major part of the moss swam?,s"
:and complex -a ips. Encountered as isolated
sses and as large swamp systems with area.
of several tens of thousands of hectares.
'later-rineral feed consists of meager atmos-
tnhoric supply alon.- borders of swamps the
effect of ground waters is sometimes seen.
4ncountered as isolated masses or as part of
large swam' sys' ems. Swa-ns of atmospheric
feed, with less noisture in central portion
and more heavily watered 'borders (due to
deltvial or .round 4aters).
'iain areas of mass occu-led by ridge-bon co^;?ie,. Rncoun+ered in isolated ss:a rcasses, but,
which is characterized by heavily dissected rrdcr- mord o,ter erterin~. into the comoositior of
relief. Elevations have the shape of narrow complex, large s:,amp systems. S?-amps of
ridges between which lie boggy areas. UidFas are atmospheric fee % Ridges moderately moist,
occupied chiefly by sphagnum and scrub groupings bogs heavrily watered. in lower portions of
(sometimes with large mixture of cotton grass) slopes +he water in bogs sands on the sur-
and forested with pine, though they are sometimes face or the moss cover or fors micro-ponds
treeless. Bogs occupied by sphagnum mosses with an open mirror of water.
(with loose sod) with sparse grass stand of
scheuchzeria or, in less catered bogs, of co+ton
grass. (In ;{areliya bogs are often encountered
276
Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/05/16: CIA-RDP81-01043R002000020001-2
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