ANTARCTICA SECTION 22 OCEANOGRAPHY AND COASTS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 133
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: December 18, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: December 2, 1957
• Content Type: REPORT

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CONFIDENTIAL
CHAPTER II
NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY
ANTARCTICA
SECTION 22
OCEANOGRAPHY AND COASTS
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Washington, D. C.
NIS 69
4
Ics
3.)
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IICONFIDENTIAL,
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,
WARNING
This document contains information affecting the national defense of
the United States, within the meaning of Title 18, Sections 793 and 794,
of the U. S. Code, as amended. Its transmission or revelation of its
contents to or receipt by an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
GPO-DSSO--5579
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Date) 2 December 1957
MEMORANDUM FOR: All Recipients of NIS Publications
SUBJECT: Corrections to NIS 69 (Antarctica)
Section 22 (Coasts and Landing Beaches)
1. All recipients of the NIS are requested to make the following
changes in NIS 69 (Antarctica) Section 22 (Coasts and Landing Beaches),
dated January 1956:
Page 22-13, left column
Line 20 from bottom, for "about 90%" read "about 70% to
80%"
Line 19 from bottom, for "between 55? and 60?S." read "at
about 550S."
Line 14 from bottom, for "and at 50?S." read "and more than
60% of the time at 50?S."
Page 22-13, right column
Lines 12 through 15 from top, delete "A belt" through "is
intended" and substitute:_ "The belt of maximum occurrence of
rough-to-high seas appears to have moved northward during
this season. In general, isolines to the south of this area
have been drawn to conform to this pattern."
Line 17 from bottom, for "is" read "continues"
Line 16 from bottom, for "of the Area" read "in winter"
and delete "or autumn"
Lines 15 and 14 from bottom, delete the lines
Line 12 from bottom, delete "at all longitudes"
Page 22-14, left column
Delete lines 6 through 9 from top and substitute.: "In the
South Pacific the belt of rough-to-high seas has moved southward
and has frequencies of abOut 60% along its major (east - west)
axis."
Line 11 from top, for "80%" read "70%"
Line 12 from top, for "520" read "500"
2. The enclosed revisions of Figures 22-62 through 22-65 replace
those contained in the published Section.
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NAVY - JANUARY 1956 N I S 6 9
TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR SECTION 22
PONFIDENTIAL
A. General
1. Summary
Page
22 - 1
22- 1
2. Maps and charts
22
- 3
3. Landing places
22
- 3
4. Glossary
22
- 3
B. Oceanography
22
- 4
1. General
22
- 4
2. Tides
22
- 4
a. General
22
- 4
b. Tidal currents
22
- 7
3. General circulation
22
- 9
a. Surface circulation
22
- 9
CONFIDENTIAL
(1) General
22- 9
(2) East Wind Drift
22
- 9
(3) West Wind Drift
22
- 10
b. Subsurface circulation
22
- 11
(1) General
22
- 11
(2) Antarctic Surface Water
22
- 11
(3) Deep Warm Water
22
- 11
(4) Antarctic Bottom Water
22
- 12
4. Sea and swell
22
- 12
a. General
22
- 12
b. Open water distribution by season
22
- 13
(1) Summer
22
- 13
(2) Autumn
22
- 13
(3) Winter
22
- 13
(4) Spring
22
- 14
c. South of the ice limits
22
- 14
d. Local effects
22
- 14
5. Sea water characteristics
22- 14
a. Physical properties
22
- 14
(1) Introduction .
22
- 14
(2) Temperature
22
- 16
(3) Salinity
22
- 21
(4) Density
22
- 27
(5) Electrical conductivity
22
- 31
(6) Buoyancy
22
- 31
(7) Color and transparency
22
- 31
b. Ice
22
- 40
(1) General
22
- 40
(2) Pack ice
22
- 40
(3) Icebergs
22
- 44
(4) Accessibility of coast
22
- 44
c. Sound conditions
22
- 45
(1) Sonar
22
- 45
(a) General
22
- 45
(b) Area 69
22
- 45
1) General
22
- 45
2) Layer depth
22
- 47
3) Echo ranging
22
- 48
(2) Solar
22
- 50
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CONFIDENTIAL
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY NAVY?JANUARY 1956
Page
6. Geology 22 - 51
a. Structure 22 - 51
b. Bathymetry 22 - 51
c. Bottom sediments 22 - 54
d. Geophysics 22 - 55
? (1) Gravity 22 - 55
(2) Seismicity 22 - 55
(3) Magnetism 22 - 58
7. Marine biology V 22 - 60
a. Attachment fouling 22 - 60
(1) General 22 - 60
(2) Geographic variation V 22 - 60
(a) Subantarctic region 22 - 60
(b) Antarctic region 22 - 62
b. Borers 22 - 62
c. Algae 22 - 62
(1) , General 22 -62
(2) Geographic distribution 22 - 62
(a) Subantarctic region V 22 - 62
(b) Antarctic region V V 22 - 62
(3) Plankton 22 - 62
(4) Seagrasses V V 22 - 62
d. Bioluminescence (Phosphorescence) 22 - 62
(1) General
22-62
(2) Geographic distribution
22
- 63
(3) Seasonal variation
22
- 64
e. Dangerous marine animals
22
- 65
f. Human survival in water V
22
- 65
g. Sonic marine animals
22
- 65
(1) Sonic fishes
22
- 65
(2) Sonic mammals
22
- 65
h. Deep scattering layer
22
- 66
(1) General
22
- 66
(2) Geographic occurrence ?
22
- 66
C. Coastal Sector 1: Palmer Peninsula, South Orkney Islands, and South
Shetla,nd Islands
22
- 67
1. General
22
- 67
2. Coast and landing places
22
- 67
D. Coastal Sector 2: Western entrance of Carroll Inlet to Cape Colbeck,
including Peter I Island
22
- 75
1. General
22
-75
2. Coast and landing places
22
- 75
E. Coastal Sector 3: Ross Sea Area from Cape Colbeck to Cape Adare .
22
- 77
1. General
22
- 77
2. Coast and landing places
22
- 77
F. Coastal Sector 4: Cape Adare to Cape Adams ?22
-,81
1. General
22-81
2. Coast and landing places
22
- 82
G. List of sources
22
- 88
PAGE 22-ii
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NAVY-JANUARY 1956
Fig. 22-1
Fig. 22-2
Fig. 22-3
Fig. 22-4
Chart
Chart
Chart
Diag.
NIS 69
LIST OF FIGURES
Type of tide
Cotidal chart
Tide ranges
Tide curves
CONFIDENTIAL
Page
22 - '5
22 - 6
22 - 7
22- 8
Fig. 22-5
Chart
Tidal currents
22 - 9
Fig. 22-6
Chart
General surface circulation
22 - 10
Fig. 22-7
Diag.
Current speed with depth
22 - 11
Fig. 22-8
Diag.
Subsurface circulation
22 - 12
Fig. 22-9
Chart
Mean position of the Antarctic Conver-
gence and the Antarctic Divergence; lo-
cations of vertical sections
22 - 15
. Fig. 22-10
Chart
Average surface temperature, August
22 - 18'
Fig. 22-11
Chart
Average surface temperature, November
22 - 19
Fig. 22-12
Chart
Average surface temperature, February
22 - 20
Fig. 22-13
Chart
Average alrface temperature, May
22 - 21
Fig. 22-14
Chart
Deviation from the mean temperature by
latitude, summer
22 - 22
Fig. 22-15
Chart
Deviation from the mean temperature
along lines equidistant from the conti-
nent, summer
22 - 23
Fig. 22-16
Chart
Average surface salinity, August
22 -'24
Fig. 22-17
Chart
Average surface salinity, February
22 - 25
Fig. 22-18
Chart
Average surface density, August
22 - 26
Fig. 22-19
Chart
Average surface density, February
22 - 27
Fig. 22-20
Chart
Average surface electrical conductivity,
August
22 -28
Fig. 22-21
Chart
Average surface electrical conductivity,
February
22 - 29
Fig. 22-22
Diags.
Composite vertical section, Atlantic Ocean,
winter
22 - 32
Fig. 22-23
Diags.
Composite vertical section, Atlantic Ocean,
summer
22 - 33
Fig. 22-24
Diags.
Composite vertical section, Indian Ocean,
winter
22 - 34
Fig. 22-25
Diags.
Composite vertical section, Indian Ocean,
summer
22 - 35
Fig. 22-26
Diags.
Composite vertical section, Pacific Ocean,
winter
'22 - 36
Fig. 22-27
Diags.
Composite vertical section, Pacific Ocean,
summer
22 - 37
Fig. 22-28
Diags.
Representative vertical section, Weddell
22 - 38
Sea
Fig. 22-29
Diag.
Representative vertical section, Ross Sea
22 - 39
Fig. 22-30
,
Fig. 22-31
Chart
Chart
Accessibility of Antarctic coasts; extreme
iceberg limit ,
Mean limits of pack ice, April ? August
.22 - 41
22 - 42
Fig. 22-32
Chart
Mean limits of pack ice, September --
22 - 43
March
Fig. 22-33
Diags.
Sound refraction patterns
22 - 46
Fig. 22-34
Chart
Average layer depth, summer
22 - 47
Fig. 22-35
Chart
Echo ranging conditions, summer
22 - 48
Fig. 22-36
Chart
Maximum surface echo ranges on s'ubma-
rine with 25.5-kilocycle sonar .(QHB?)
22 - 49
Fig. 22-37
Chart
Structural trends
22 - 52
Fig. 22-38
Chart
Observed gravity
22 - 55
'
CONFIDENTIAL
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CONFIDENTIAL MILITARY GEOGRAPHY NAVY-JANUARY 1956
Page
Fig. 22-39
Chart
Free air gravity anomalies
22 - 56
Fig. 22-40
Chart
Earthquake epicenters
22 - 57
Fig. 22-41
Chart
Volcanoes
22 - 58
Fig. 22-42
Table
Active volcanoes
22 - 59
Fig. 22-43
Chart
Magnetic anomalies
22 - 60
Fig. 22-44
Chart
Southern auroral zone
22 - 61
Fig. 22-45
Table
Magnetic ranges, southern auroral zone
22 - 61
Fig. 22-46
Chart
Marine algae
22 - 63
Fig. 22-47
Chart
Bioluminescence
22 - 64
Fig. 22-48
Chart
Tracks and station Where DSL has been
22 - 66
Observed
Fig. 22-49A
Aerial
Coastal Sector I. liception follows page 22 - 94
Island
Fig. 22-49B
Aerial
Coastal Sector 1. Marguerite Bay ,
do
Fig. 22-50A
Aerial
Coastal Sector 2. Northern extremity of
do
Peter I Island
Fig. 22-50B
Aerial
Coastal Sector 3. Kainan Bay. Landing
place (27)
do
Fig. 22-51A
Aerial
Coastal Sector 3. Kainan Bay. Landing
place (27)
do
Fig. 22-51B
Aerial
Coastal Sector 3. Kainan Bay. Landing
place (27)
do
Fig. 22-52A
Aerial
Coastal Sector 3. Bay of Whales. Land-
ing place (38)
do
Fig. 22-52B
Aerial
Coastal Sector 3. Bay of Whales. Land-
ing place (28)
do
Fig. 22-53A
Photo
Coastal Sector 3. West of Bay of Whales
do
Fig. 22-53B
Aerial
Coastal Sector 3. Ross Island at Cape
do
Evans. Landing place (32)
Fig. 22-54A
Aerial
Coastal Sector 3. McMurdo Sound
do
Fig. 22-54B
Photo
Coastal Sector 3. Franklin Island
do
Fig. 22-54C
Aerial
Coastal Sector 4. Coastal area near Cape
do
Folger
Fig. 22-55A
Photo
Coastal Sector 4. Ice-free coastal area at
landing place (54)
do
Fig. 22-55B
Aerial
Coastal Sector 4. Vestiold Hills. Land-
ing place (63)
do
Fig. 22-56A
Aerial
Coastal Sector 4. SOrsdal Glacier tongue
do
Fig. 22-56B
Aerial
Coastal Sector 4. Larsemann Hills
do
Fig. 22-57A
Aerial
Coastal Sector 4. Byrd Bay. Landing
place (75)
do
Fig. 22-57B
Aerial
Coastal Sector 4. Byrd Bay. Landing
place (75)
do
Fig. 22-58A
Aerial
Atka Bay. Landing place (76)
do
Fig. 22-58B
Photo
Ross Sea. Pack ice
do
Fig. 22-59A
Photo
Ross Sea area. Pancake ice
do
Fig. 22-59B
Aerial
Ross Sea. Scattered sea ice and brash
do
Fig. 22-60A
Aerial
Atka Bay. Tabular bergs
do
Fig. 22-60B
Aerial
McMurdo Sound. Sea ice
do
Fig. 22-61A
Photo
Western Ross Sea. Pack ice
do
Fig. 22-61B
Photo
McMurdo Sound area. Large berg
do
Fig. 22-62
Chart
State of sea, summer
do
Fig: 22-63
Chart
State of sea, autumn
do
Fig. 22-64
Chart
State of sea, winter
do
Fig. 22-65
Chart.
State of sea, spring
do
Fig. 22-66
Chart
Swell, summer
do
Fig. 22-67
Chart
Swell, autumn
do
PAGE 22-iv
CONFIDENTIAL
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NAVY - JANUARY 1956
NIS 69
CONFIDENTIAL
Follows page
Fig. 22-68
Chart
Swell, winter
22 - 94
Fig. 22-69
Chart
Swell, spring
do
Fig. 22-70
Diags.
Average depth of the sound channel, sum-
mer, and vertical sections of sound ve-
locity
do
Fig. 22-71
Chart
Major bathymetric features
do
Fig. 22-72
Chart
l3athymetry
do
Fig. 22-73
Chart
Bottom sediments
do
Fig. 22-74
Charts
Occurrence of whales, November - March
do
Fig. 22-75
Chart
Location map for oceanography
do
Fig. 22-76
Map
Landing places
do
CONFIDENTIAL
This Section was prepared for the NIS by the
Office of Naval Intelligence with the Navy Hydro-
graphic Office contributing the data on oceano-
graphic conditions.
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?
NAVY ? JANUARY 1956
A. General
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
22. Oceanography and Coasts
1. Summary
The continent of Antarctica, almost twice the
size of the United States, is unlike other continents
in that it is separated from surrounding land
masses by miles of open sea. The nearest land
mass, South America, lies about 560 n. miles*
away. Antarctica lies about 1,700 n. miles from
Australia and 2,100 n. miles from Africa. The in-
tervening sea areas are often rough, windy, and
cold. The coasts of Antarctica, which total about
14,000 miles in length, are in general inhospitable.
Nevertheless, at least 61 Antarctic expeditions have
landed on at least 81 different landing places on
and near the Antarctic continent (FIGURE 22-76).
Most of the landings were made on or near the
Palmer Peninsula south of South America, and
in the Ross Sea area south of New Zealand, the two
most approachable areas of Antarctica. With the
exception of the landings effected by the U.S.S.
Atka expedition of 1954-55, the landings made
after 1950 are not covered in this Section; several
photographs from "Operation DEEPFREEZE,"
which were received during publication of this
Section, have been included.
The approaches to Antarctica are usually ob-
structed by a broad belt of pack ice" that lies
as far as 1,000 n. miles offshore. In general, the
belt extends northward to about 65?S. in the Pacific
Ocean and eastern part of the Indian Ocean, and
northward to about 56?S. in the Atlantic Ocean
and western part of the Indian Ocean. During the
summer months the belt of pack ice retreats south-
ward and is usually backed by a broad belt of
open water, but in some areas the pack disap-
pears. In the southward approach to the belt of
open water it has been found that during the
summer the belt of pack ice to the north may be
traversed or by-passed more easily along certain
meridians. These favorable avenues of approach
are along the Greenwich meridian, between the
70?E. and 90?E. meridians, and along the 180?
meridian. The approach from the north to the
* In text, distances are in statute miles unless nauti-
cal miles is specifically indicated by "n.," as "14 n.
miles."
** Selected ice terms used in this Section are defined
in Subsection A, 4.
CONFIDENTIAL
CONFIDENTIAL
west coast of the Palmer Peninsula also is seldom
obstructed by pack ice during the summer months.
In addition to the previously mentioned belt of
pack ice and the belt of open water to the south,
many coasts are immediately bordered by ice that
may extend several hundred miles seaward but
usually extends perhaps 20 to 80 n. miles offshore.
Most of this is pack ice, though some areas may
consist of shelf ice and glacier ice tongues. The
ease with which the pack ice may be penetrated by
an icebreaker varies from time to time and from
place to place. The occurrence and density of
pack ice along coastal areas and in sea areas ex-
hibit varying degrees of annual regularity. Some
areas are consistently encumbered year after year,
and other areas are only occasionally encumbered.
Near the mainland the pack ice usually grades into
sea ice, which often can be landed upon. Also,
near the mainland it is not uncommon to find
broad leads of open water. In most waters around
Antarctica, depths are comparatively great. Aside
from the ice, the chief navigational danger lies in
the possibility of running aground on uncharted
rocks in the vicinity of islands and islets. Most
of these areas are poorly charted and depths differ
greatly within short distances.
The uncertainty of pack-ice conditions off many
coasts prevents definite evaluation of landing pos-
sibilities. Also, with the advent of more power-
ful icebreakers, coasts that formerly were consid-
ered to be unapproachable may soon be accessible.
The weather of Antarctica is a highly variable,
though most formidable, obstacle to landings.
Some areas are subject to prolonged periods of
violent winds and sudden blizzards that reduce
visibility to zero. A phenomenon restricted to
polar areas is the cloudy-bright "white-day" or
"white-out," a weather condition in which no ob-
ject casts a shadow, the horizon becomes indistin-
guishable, and only very dark objects can be seen.
Some stretches of the coast of Antarctica have
in the past been unapproachable throughout the
year on account of the dense pack ice. Such areas
include most of the south and west coasts of the
Weddell Sea, which lies east of the Palmer Penin-
sula. Other unapproachable coasts are the coast
between the Palmer Peninsula and the Ross Sea,
most of the coast between 152?E. and 170?E., the
coast between about 115?E. and 139?E., and be-
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CONFIDENTIAL N I S 6 9 NAVY - JANUARY 1956
tween about 30?E. and 50?E. Some stretches of
coast are almost always approachable during the
summer. These areas include the west coast of
the Palmer Peninsula, the South Orkney and
South Shetland Islands, and the Ross Sea area.
Many stretches of the remaining coast of Ant-
arctica lying east of the Weddell Sea and west of
the Ross Sea can usually be approached during the
summer. These areas include the coast between
140?E. and 143?E., between 89?E. and 95?E., and
most of the coast between 58?E. and 81?E., as well
as the ice cliffs bordering New Schwabenland
astride the Greenwich meridian.
Tides are diurnal (one high water and one low
water each day) in the southern Atlantic and Pa-
cific Ocean areas, but are mixed (two unequal high
waters and/or two unequal low waters each tidal
day) in the southern Indian Ocean area. In gen-
eral, tidal currents tend to flood in a counter-
clockwise direction around the continent and- ebb
in the reverse direction. South of about 65?S.,
waves are usually from the northeast and winds
are generally from the east and northeast, result-
ing in a, current setting to the southwest. North
of 65?S., high waves that generally progress east-
ward occur during all seasons and the prevailing
westerly winds produce a surface current that sets
to the east or northeast.
Most coasts of Antarctica are covered by great
depths of snow and ice that extend seaward beyond
the shoreline and terminate in vertical ice cliffs
approaching 200 feet in height. Where the sheet
of snow and ice extends many miles out to sea it is
called shelf ice. Along the coasts where the ice
cliff stands nearly on the shoreline, cliffs or head-
lands of bare rock interrupt the vertical ice cliff.
On the back side of the headlands, or where the
ice edge has retreated inland, the edge of the
ice sheet commonly terminates against a low ridge
or bank of rocks and rock fragments called a mo-
raine. In some of the Antarctic areas such as the
South Orkney Islands, the South Shetland Islands,
part of the Palmer Peninsula, and the west coast
of the Ross Sea, hills and mountains are free of
snow and ice during the summer except for glaciers.
Most low shores, however, are still guarded during
the summer by vertical ice cliffs, and only the
steepest shores are usually free of snow and ice.
Antarctic terrain that is free of snow and ice is
composed of bedrock, eithei bare or covered by
morainal material, and is essentially devoid of soil
and vegetation.
On Antarctica, beaches as normally defined in
the SECTION 22 of the NIS are rare. Landings in
this Area are usually made on sea ice, on shelf ice,
or on shores of morainal material or bedrock. The
simplest and most common landing is made di-
rectly from ship to sea ice, with the ship tying up
PAGE 22-2
alongside the sea ice, which forms a natural ice
wharf standing perhaps 2 to 4 or more feet above
sea level. The chief disadvantage of a sea-ice
landing is that a firm and safe base still has
not been achieved and there may be pressure
ridges, open leads, tidal cracks, or vertical ice
cliffs between the landing place and the objec-
tive. Landing can also be made directly on shelf
ice, which stands many feet higher than sea ice,
provided the vessel can penetrate to the shelf.
The major difficulty in making a boat landing on
an island or on the mainland is the steep slope of
most shores, which makes egress from the landing
site difficult and prevents secure beaching of the
boat. Also, all heavy cargo must be lightered
ashore. A comparatively recent innovation in
landing on Antarctica has been the utilization of
both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters.
Information on landings in the Antarctic area
was derived mainly from the List of Expeditions
prepared in 1955 by the Board on Geographic
Names. This list, which is complete through ex-
peditions originating in 1950, is incorporated in the
Antarctica gazetteer published in 1956. Additional
sources of information were the official reports of i
the U.S. Navy "Operation WINDMILL" of 1947-481
and the expedition of the icebreaker U.S.S. Atka in
1954-55. The chief sources of information on the
coasts and hydrography in the Antarctic area were
the USHO charts available in December 1955,
and the USHO Sailing Directions for Antarctica,
1943, H.O. Pub. No. 138, corrected through July 30,
1955. Other sources included Roscoe's "Contribu-
tions to the Study of Antarctic Surface Features by
Photogeographic Methods," and a report on the
Scott Expedition of 1910-13, which included helpful
maps and survey notes.
In general, the maps and charts of Antarctica are
lacking in -detail, and the portrayal of the coastal
configuration is highly generalized. Some local
areas, however, are almost completely uncharted,
whereas others are charted in great detail. On ac-
count of the wide differences in chart coverage and
the small scale of the landing place map (FIGURE
22-76) , all distances, coordinates, and elevations
given in the text were taken from what were con-
sidered to be the most reliable sources, and may
be slightly at variance with the landing place map.
In this Section, oceanographic coverage extends
north to 50?S. latitude and coast and landing places
coverage extends north to 60?S. latitude. The ad-
ditional coverage for oceanography is to include
consideration of the Antarctic Convergence Zone.
To facilitate describing the coasts the Area is
divided into four coastal sectors which are num-
bered counterclockwise around the continent.
Coastal Sector 1 consists of the Palmer Peninsula
and nearby islands, the South Orkney Islands, and
CONFIDENTIAL
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NAVY ? JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
the South Shetland Islands. Coastal Sector 2 con-
sists of the coast between the Palmer Peninsula and
the Ross Sea, including Peter I Island to the north.
Coastal Sector 3 consists of the coasts of the Ross
Sea. Coastal Sector 4, by far the largest coastal
sector, extends counterclockwise from the Ross Sea
to the base of the Palmer Peninsula. The coastal
description of each sector proceeds in a counter-
clockwise direction.
2. Maps and Charts
The base for the landing place map (FIGURE 22-
76) is USHO Chart 2562. Other USHO charts, the
new 6000 series, cover Antarctica at a scale of
1:1,500,000 except for the coast between about 35?E.
and 165?E. The charts covering the gap are at
present under preparation and will be available
soon.
Complete coverage of Antarctica is available in
British Admiralty charts. Many of these are at a
small scale and out of date; others, however, are
at larger scales and afford very good coverage. The
U.S. Hydrographic Office has reproduced a number
of Norwegian charts, at a scale Of 1:250,000, that
were compiled from air photos and are now part
of the USHO 16321 series. Similarly, a few large-
scale Argentine charts have been reproduced as the
USHO 16430 series. Other coverage consists of the
three U.S. Department of Interior 1:1,000,000 pro-
visional charts of the Wilkes Land, the so-called
Blodgett series; and four French nautical charts
and four topographic maps of the Adelie Coast.
Other charts are those made by the American Geo-
graphical Society at a scale of 1:3,000,000; the Ger-
man charts of the Kosack series at a scale of
1:4,000,000; and the World Aeronautical Charts at
scales of 1:1,000,000, 1:3,000,000, and 1:5,000,000,
each series covering the entire coast of Antarctica.
3. Landing places
Because of the unpredictability of the ice condi-
tions near or on most coasts of the Antarctic area,
and the lack of information, no attempt has been
made to select, evaluate, or fully describe landing
places. As an alternative the site of each landing
made by Antarctic expeditions through 1950 and
the expedition of the U.S.S. Atka in 1954-55 is
shown on a landing place map (FIGURE 22-76) .
The landing places indicated on the map include
landings made from ship to shore by boat or air-
craft, and landings made from ship to sea or bay
ice and thence to the shore on foot or by vehicle.
Also included are landings made by aircraft from
ice close by the ship to the ice close by an island
or the mainland and thence on foot or by vehicle
to the shore. Not considered as landing places are
points reached by cross-country movement or by
aircraft from other landing places. The fact that
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a landing has been made in an area is indicative of
the favorable conditions that may prevail there.
Common features of nearly all Antarctic landings
have been the relative difficulty and small scale of
each operation.
4. Glossary
The following ice terms have been used in describ-
ing the coasts and oceanography of Antarctica:
TERM MEANING
bay ice young, flat ice of sufficient thick-
ness to impede navigation. In
the Antarctic this term also has
been used at times for heavy
landfloes.
berg iceberg.
bergy bit a medium-sized fragment of gla-
cier ice, heavy floe, or hum-
mocky pack ice, washed clear of
snow and floating or aground.
A typical bergy bit is about the
size of a small cottage.
brash small fragments of sea ice less
than 6 feet in diameter.
calving the breaking away of a mass of
? ice from an iceberg, glacier, or
shelf ice formation.
continental ice . . ice which inundates a large land
? mass; the surface contours of
the land are not revealed on the
upper surface of the ice.
crevasse a fissure or rift in glacier, shelf
ice, or land ice formation due
to temperature _changes or mo-
? tion of the ice.
fast ice' all types of ice, either broken or
unbroken, attached to the shore,
beached, stranded in shoal
water, or attached to the bot-
tom of shoal areas.
floe term used for referring to frag-
ments of ice with no speCified
size intended.
glacier berg an iceberg usually bluish or green-
ish in color, smaller than a
tabular iceberg, with little or
no snow cover and often con-
taining many crevasses.'
glacier a flow of land ice from an area of
accumulation.
growler a small fragment of ice awash,
smaller than a bergy bit, usually
of glacial origin, and generally
greenish in color.
highland ice a comparatively thin but continu-
ous ice sheet overlying any flat
or undulating land surface and
conforming to a considerable
extent to the irregularities of
the land upon which it rests.
iceberg a mass of land ice that has broken
away from its parent formation
on the coast, and either floats
in the sea or is stranded on a
shoal.
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
TERM MEANING
ice cliff the cliff-like front of a glacier or
of shelf ice where it meets the
sea.
icepack any large area of floating ice
driven closely together.
ice shelf a thick formation with level sur-
face extending seaward from
the land to which it is attached.
land ice any ice formed on land masses,
as' an icecap or glacier.
lead a long, narrow, but navigable
water passage in pack ice.
moraine a ridge of rock debris deposited
by a glacier.
nunatak an isolated hill or mountain of
bare rock rising above the sur-
rounding ice sheet.
pack ice any large area of floating ice
driven closely together.
pack icepack or pack ice.
pancake pieces of newly formed ice usu-
ally between 1 and 6 feet in
diameter ' with raised *rims and
circular appearance.
piedmont ice an ice sheet formed by the coales-
cence of ice spreading out from
two or more wall-sided or val-
ley glaciers over a compara-
tively level plain at the base of
the mountain slopes down
which the glaciers descend.
pressure ice sea ice having the surface rough-
ened by the action of wind, cur-
rent, tide, and temperature
changes. Pressure ice refers to
a disturbed growth and develop-
ment.
pressure ridge pressure ice in the form of a ridge.
ramp an accumulation of snow that
forms an inclined plane between
land or land ice elements and
sea ice or shelf ice.
sludge an accumulation of small pieces
of soft ice mixed with slush; has
a slight hardness.
sea ice ice formed by the freezing of sea
water.
shelf ice a thick formation with level sur-
face extending seaward from
the land to which it is attached.
tabular berg a mass of ice calved from shelf
ice,' with a flat upper, surface
and with at least the upper por?-?
tion formed from stratified snow
or more or less loose, granular
ice in transition from snow to
glacier ice; color changes with
weathering, from original daz-
zling white to blue.
tide crack a crack in sea ice, usually paral-
lel to the shore, caused by the
rising and falling tide.
PAGE 22-4
B. Oceanography
1. General
NAVY?JANUARY 1956
This subsection includes oceanography for off-
shore and nearshore waters and geology for sub-
marine areas and the entire continent of Antarc-
tica. Since most of the nearshore region of NIS 69
is covered by ice, the oceanographic topics are
primarily concerned with the offshore ice-free
regions. In order to include discussion of the
Antarctic Convergence Zone, which is a natural
oceanographic boundary for the waters of this
Area, the northern limit of the subsection is ex-
tended to approximately 50?S. latitude, which em-
braces the southern tip of Smith America and
many of the oceanic islands and island groups not
included in other Sections of this NIS.
The polar continent is roughly circular and al-
most entirely covered by a mantle of ice. Beaches
and landing sites are sparse and the coast is char-
acterized by frequent and almost vertical ice cliffs.
Surrounding the continent and extending far sea-
ward is an immense field of pack ice, which re-
stricts access to the continent to the brief summer
period.
In the open water region north of the pack the
prevailing winds influence the direction and magni-
tude of the surface currents and waves. The major
belt of winds is the westerlies, which generally lie
north of about 65?S. In this belt rough-to-high
sea ,and swell is common the year round; direction
of both waves and currents is from the west.
South of the prevailing westerlies waves and cur-
rents are primarily from the east under the influ-
ence of the Polar easterlies.
2. Tides
a. GENERAL ? Tidal observations on the Ant-
arctic continent are not sufficient to provide an
adequate description of the tides along most of
the coast. The information illustrated on FIG-
URES 22-1, 22-2, and 22-3 is based primarily on
data from the stations shown on the tide range
chart (FIGURE 22-3), along with additional data
from the islands and land areas to the north. As
new data become available in the future, changes
in these charts may be necessary.
Both mixed tides (two markedly unequal high
waters and/or two markedly unequal low waters
each tidal day) and diurnal tides (one high water
and one low water each tidal day) occur along the
Antarctic coastline (FIGURE 22-1). Tide curves
for each of these types of tide are illustrated in
FIGURE 22-4.
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?
NAVY ?JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
CONFIDENTIAL
FIGURE 22-1. TYPE OF TIDE
In the vicinity of Ross Island (14),* the tide is
diurnal or nearly so for the entire month, while
off Adelie Coast (5) and Palmer Peninsula the tide
is completely diurnal only near the time of maxi-
mum north or south lunar declination and quad-
rature. On the Adelie Coast the inequality is in
the high water, whereas off Palmer Peninsula the
inequality is in both the high and low waters.
North of about 65?S., the tide becomes mixed with
the inequality in the low water. Northward from
the South Shetland and South Orkney Islands to
* Italic numbers in parentheses following place names
refer to locations shown on FIGURE 22-75.
CONFIDENTIAL
South Georgia, the tide gradually changes from
mixed to nearly semidiurnal, as it also does in the
regions around Heard and Macquarie Islands.
Westward of about 138?E., the tide is mixed with
the inequality in the high water, probably becom-
ing diurnal again somewhere between 700 and 10?E.
The progression of the high water of the, prin-
cipal lunar semidiurnal tide (M2) is presented in
the cotidal chart (FIGURE 22-2) . Numerals repre-
sent the sequence of progression, time of high water
of the partial (M,) tide, and the approximate time
of observable high water in all but the diurnal re-
gions. Two nodal points of amphidromic systems
are within the limits of this Area. The first, in a
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CONFIDENTIAL '
NIS 69
NAVY?JANUARY 1956
130?W 20W 110?W 100W 90? EST 8aw 7V EO? 50?W
sou
? 1CA
140?
0
/ 11 12
10
il.
..
40.
150?
4
-------?,
-----.....?.."
9
70? ..-t
30?
w
160.
4PPNN 10
/ --
r,
N ,
9 ------
e---- s

10
o
4111111111\
s
o
1700,
w
V
-.44IN
0
12
?10?
------,
,

9
111
w
I
170?
1111Whi
,,,a,..7.,Levito,at a,
,A-
1)1
Sri
T AR C TIC A
?
a \
a
a
2
,
o
Ale
11I -10?
1 1
VW
-
41 t9 ,
.....
s
s. 1
a
)/
3 2
.
150?
LAS A
.?
*
140?
E
130?E 120?E 110?E 100?E 90? EAST WE 70. 60?E 50?E
FIGURE 22-2. COTIDAL CHART. Numerals indicate time of high water of the principal lunar semidiurnal tide (M2) in solar
hours after upper and lower lunar transit of the Greenwich meridian at full and change of the moon.
clockwise amphidromic system, is at about 17?E.
The second is a degenerate nodal point, somewhere
to the south of Ross Island. This partially ac-
counts for the strong diurnal tide in that region.
Tide ranges are shown in FIGURE 22-3. The
largest ranges in the mixed and semidiurnal tide
regions normally will occur near the time of new
and full moon. In the diurnal portions, ranges
usually will be largest near the time of maximum
north or.. south declination of the moon. Insofar
as tide ranges in the open ocean are unknown, the
corange lines on FIGURE 22-3 indicate probable
ranges.
PAGE 22-6
It has been observed in the Arctic that a solid
cover of stationary ice will materially alter tidal
phenomena. With complete ice coverage, espe-
cially shorefast ice, high water has been retarded
nearly 4 hours, and the range of the tide decreased
4 to 5 times. However, along the edge of shelf ice
there will be no apparent tide since the ice shelf is
a floating mass that rises and falls with the tides.
This situation has been noted at Queen Maud Land
and along the Ross Ice Shelf.
Fluctuations of water level ascribed to winds may
be of particular importance in certain regions of
the Antarctic. For example, high water marks
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?
?
?
NAVY?JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
CONFIDENTIAL
131rw izo.w lio?ve IOT W STWEST I 86 70?W 66W TRW
140?
LEGEND
SR ?SPRING RANGES
TR ?TROPIC RANGES
TIDE RANGES IN THE OPEN OCEAN ARE
UNKNOWN. DASHED LINES INDICATE
PROBABLE RANGES.
?
/
/
/ I..
. 1
/
3
60? 1
soon ....E.,.?
/j
4,..? 9
81
? 0 -.At.
.,?. ., .oir
-.?...--,65 111
40?
150?
/
/
\ / PCRT
5
LEN' RE CHANNEL
IPORT LoCKROY IF TR 4.8 i
KIN' ED ? D COVE
1 TR 4.5 ---, PUERTO MEL? IOR
R 2.5
/PORT CHARCOT4
/ R 4.1 TR 4 :
PORT 'OSTER
CIRC. CISION 1,4 ....._ R 5.0
/. TR 5 fatt,tcrn.,..? HOPE TH HARB
3V
ISO?
W
.4
\ I ARGENTINE IS ANDS ,....? ,ar. t
'TR 5.4 4r401,""' SNO HIL61'_\/ NO
\ Airrre?. t R7.9
T 42 t..- ? '4RA ,1
1 / \ / b SCOTIA BAY
I SR 5.0
I -..?,? .
- t?\-,- 5
4 ? NAN N ISLAND 4
...r ' ?
gi-, I No? 's , ?
_ .. /1110! KO HARBOR
r/ IR 5.7/
, AR ,
:1 o TONI TO LAND
/ P.
SR 2.7
L
?
1
170*
1ST
N.
\
\ \
Sr \
/
,
. : A I A NE
/ i 0
7 .. .---'
r, 4
q f
P)-,. , ?
..1, /It t,'7,-
70? so. I
.9/
/
I
' "V /
oi. t%
..."
/
I
/
SR
IV
170.16
\/
1
/MACQUARIE ISL
...???/
ND
CAPE EVANS /I
TR 3.0 i 1
, /4
.t ,,,.
CPE ARMITAGE
0. TR 3.1
/ . A N T A R C T I C A
I v>"--------CAPE R? ?S
,.., 2.7
T . 4. CAP DENISE ES'
criCr .60
o
o
.? /
/
/
.,
.., ,
..---' \
/ / /
if---------/---4
/ i
,
I60?
SR 2/4
/
.......
\
, CAPE AARG IE
,. POIN E GE LOGI
R CHER X
: ? TR 4,
4 N D .
.
i
11*a 4
1 ,,i
1
''',......."
111"
1ST
GAUSS
,
\ _ TR/3.3
.
r
Tr
NAMES ON THE CHART ARE THOSE GIVEN IN
TIDE TABLES. NAMES DIFFERING FROM THE
BGN APPROVED FORM ARE LISTED BELOW:
1
\
60
11
TIDE TABLE." 13.011,
BAHIA LSLA NENY? NENY BAY
GAUSS STATION NOT APPROVED
NANSEN ISLAND NOT APPROVED
POINTE GEOLOGIE NOT APPROVED
PUERTO MELCHIOR MELCHIOR HARBOR
ROCHER X?? ROCK X
? ARGENTINE TIDE TABLES. ?? NOT FROM
1
I
HEARD ISLAN.
SR 2.3
I 3
- / - 4
Kr
TIDE TABLES, SEE SOURCE 72.
./
IIVE 100?E STEAST SEE IRE 60.6 STE
'
FIGURE 22-3. TIDE RANGES (FEET) , 1955
12 to 14 feet above normal high water have been
reported in the South Shetland Islands. However,
for most of Antarctica the strongest winds are the
offshore winds which tend to lower the water level
rather than raise it.
Tidal predictions for some of the stations shown
on FIGURE 22-3 can be obtained either from the U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey publications Tide
Tables, East Coast, North and South America and
Tide Tables, Central and Western Pacific Ocean
and Indian Ocean, or the British Admiralty pub-
lication The Admiralty Tide and Tidal Stream
Tables, Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
CONFIDENTIAL
b. TIDAL CURRENTS ? Tidal currents are the
horizontal components of water movement ascribed
to the influence of astronomical tide-producing
forces. The duration of the tidal current in a par-
ticular direction normally depends upon the rela-
tive magnitude of the diurnal and semidiurnal com-
ponent of the tide. This relation changes from
place to place, as well as with change of phase and
declination of the moon. When diurnal compo-
nents predominate, the current may be expected
to run in either direction (flood or ebb) for about
12 hours. When the tides are seinidiurnal, the
flood and ebb currents will each set for periods of
about 6 hours. When the tide is mixed, the tidal
PAGE 4G
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
7
5
Lu 4
Lu
Ll-3
2
PORT
FOSTER
1
MAXIMUM DECLINATION
/..---
/ /
-MSL
/
/
/
/
\
\
I
/
\
\..
i
,
MINIMUM
DECLINATION
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
HOURS
18
20 22
24
7
6
5
L.L1 4
Lu
LL 3
2
00
MARGUERITE
1 1
BAY
MINIMUM DECLINATION
AND
NEW
OR
FULL
MOON
\
N
/
..."''
N
N
N
/
/
MAXIMUM
DECLINATION
AND
QUADRATURE
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
HOURS
16
18
20 22
24
FIGURE 22-4. TIDE CURVES FOR ANTARCTIC STATIONS
current is characterized by a conspicuous differ-
ence in duration and velocity between the two floods
or two ebbs.
Tidal current data for the Antarctic are prac-
tically nonexistent except for a few scattered ob-
servations for the Palmer Peninsula region, the
Ross Sea region, and at the offshore islands. Else-
where, tidal currents (FIGURE 22-5) are derived
from the hypothetical progression of the semidi-
urnal and diurnal components of the tide. As a
general rule, tidal currents tend to flood in the di-
rection of the tidal progression, with speeds vary-
ing in proportion to the tidal range. In nearshore
areas tidal currents set toward the land, entering
bays and inlets; in constricted passages they may
be of considerable importance. In the open water
of this Area tidal currents are generally weak and
rotary, and merely accelerate or reduce the prevail-
ing current speeds.
In general, tidal currents tend to flood in a
counterclockwise direction, following the trend of
the coast around the Antarctic continent, and ebb
in the reverse direction. The direction of flow is
diverted in the larger bights, such as the Ross and
Weddell Seas, and locally by bays and seaward ice
projections. For example, on the eastern side of
Palmer Peninsula in the vicinity of Lockyer Island
PAGE 22-8
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
(44) the tidal currents have been observed to flood
strongly to the south and ebb to the north. At
Paradise Harbor (28) on the western side of Palmer
Peninsula, tidal currents have been observed to
flood to the north-northeast with a maximum speed
of approximately 0.6 knot at midtide level and ebb
to the south-southwest with speeds of approxi-
mately 0.4 knot.
In the vicinity of the South Shetland Islands,
generally one flood and one ebb occur every 24
hours. However, owing to the mixed type of tide,
tidal currents are very irregular. Winds may also
have a marked effect upon the tidal currents, not
only by affecting the period and velocity but also
by raising the tides beyond normal levels. In
moderate weather, tidal currents probably run
eastward and westward within about 6 miles from
land. Outside this distance the current has been
found to run with the wind at a rate of 1 knot.
In the northern entrance to Yankee Harbor (32),
tidal currents sometimes may attain a velocity of
5 or 6 knots. At Clothier Harbor (30), Robert
Island (31), the current outside has been observed
to start to run to the west at three-quarters flood
in the harbor.
In the South Orkney Islands swift currents and
tide rips have been observed in the straits and nar-
row channels. Large numbers of icebergs carried
through the straits and channels by the tidal cur-
rents often restrict navigation. Reports indicate
a current of 4.0 knots during flood tide in the
narrow channel between Spine Islet (40) and Cor-
onation Island (42), and a strong current has been
observed between Spine Islet and Larsen Islands
(41). In Washington (38) and Lewthwaite (39)
Straits, east of Coronation Island, a current of
about 3.5 knots has been observed.
In the vicinity of Coulman Island (10) in the
Ross Sea the tidal currents appear to run north
and south, 12 hours each way, the north-setting
current being the stronger. Heavy drift ice usually
is found in the channel between Coulman Island
and Cape Jones (9) because of tidal currents and
the prevailing southeasterly winds. Between Beau-
fort Island (13) and Cape Bird (12) a strong cur-
rent sets westward, which at times reaches a veloc-
ity of 3.0 knots. Normally the strength of this
current, but not its direction, is affected by the
tides. Tidal currents greatly influence the break-
out of the fast ice in McMurdo Sound (11).
Tidal current observations off the Antarctic ice
barrier in the vicinity of Norsel Bay (46) show
current averages of less than 0.1 knot setting to-
ward the west-southwest; that is, the current is
directed approximately parallel to the main direc-
tion of the coastline. -
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NAVY - JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
CONFIDENTIAL
130?W ? 120?W 110?W 100?W 90?WEST 80?W 70?W 60?W 50?
140?
W
LEGEND
--... FLOOD CURRENT (EBB CURRENT SETS IN REVERSE
\ DIRECTION.)
11, f.tICA
Iltr
W
?
150?
\
\
. \
----""--........,...?,
/

7 ...?
160?
?.?_,...._.
\
.,...`) ....
\
\ 4
:
0-
(4"?"' ??
..
,'?'2
/
170?
W
?EO
r
s.*?1 80.
IS

'. Oilt i IT"
_ MSS /Cf SO. flf
70? i< go. (77 '
0 ....
A !...y.
.... I"- s
I.-Z
..770*
\ .
in)
la
180.
170?

I
1
I. ' ' , c
, . .
....:/- A N T A R C T I C A
. /
o \
(
2
'
U.
10?
16Cf
\
. e 4..
5
.
,,,
150?
L...
.
?
if
'
r
fr
. 130?E 120?E . 110?E 100?E 90?EAST 80?E 70?E 60?E 50?E
FIGURE 22-5. TIDAL CURRENTS
3. General circulation
a. SURFACE CIRCULATION
(1) General? The major currents in this
Area are the West Wind Drift and the East Wind
Drift, which lie in regions dominated by westerly
and easterly winds, respectively. Between these
two drifts lies the Antarctic Divergence. The West
Wind Drift is circumpolar, but the East Wind
Drift is interrupted by the Palmer Peninsula, where
it is deflected northward into the region of west-
erly winds. Local deviations from generalized cur-
rent directions and speeds shown on FIGURE 22-6
CONFIDENTIAL
should be expected, since there is relatively little
detailed information on the currents of this Area.
(2) East Wind Drift ? This current results
from the dominantly easterly winds (Polar easter-
lies) that blow, around the periphery of the Ant-
arctic continent. Originating from the Antarctic
Divergence, a zone of upwelling which marks the
boundary between the prevailing easterly winds
and prevailing westerly winds, the East Wind Drift
sets generally southwestward and terminates in a
zone of sinking which surrounds most of the Ant-
-arctic continent. However, it is entirely possible
that during summer melt water from ice on the
PAGE 22-4.50)(1
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
NAVY ? JANUARY 1956
130?W 120.55. 110.5v 1001110 90?WEST g0W 70.07 60?W 50.10
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------7---.7 --11 ? -071?. -- \?'.6/;?-..k. ..\7? ,...?.:,...,,,,,
/ ?
1 A
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1 NI i\ ,/_,\' .. _
r.,,,, i / ,-;---
4 I / ' A r\ .1 5 - ,' ' '
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7
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LEGEND
NUMBERS INDICATE CURRENT
SPEED IN KNOTS
i. ?,-,.4., --Nic?cL, IAA \
-
- -, \ A?????? .0
-
A? \
\ \
so?
4 __.
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DATA ADEQUATE
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k it 1 4
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313.75 1 L.k:
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?
cc
La
111
34.60
?
150 x
x
34.70
34.70
r**34 5 ',
I
-
?
?
1-
200 EL,
0
250
300
1 IOW
66*S
SALINITY (PARTS PER THOUSAND)
70*S 77*S
DEPTH (FEET)
0 0 0 0
) 0 0 0 0 C
27.25 27.25 J
27.50 ...............
......./.---)
?
50
27.75
?
?
in-.
100 ix
w
1-
........................?.................____.............._____:____
w
27.80
27.90
i / 7-18i00
?150
?
?
m
x
1-
lIl
g
250
300
I OW
66?S
DENSITY (DENSITY OF 1.02800 REPRESENTED AS 28.00)
70*S 77'''S
0
? N - Cu
O LI1 0 0 0
O 0 0 0 0
DEPTH (METERS)
200
?
?
1--?
L.LI
----------.-----------------***..------,
400
SF
......?....?......?......?..------
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'-------..'.............--------......'....."""."
.
fh 600
? ?
o
----,.............._
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800
1000
---/
=____.-------------------...<
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.__,
?
RELATIVE BUOYANCY
LOCATION OF SECTION
60.w
A
LEGEND
BUOYANCY ISOLINES DENOTE CHANGES IN BALLAST BETWEEN THE
SURFACE AND ANY PARTICULAR DEPTH. ISOLINES ARE NUMBERED
IN THOUSANDS OF POUNDS OF BALLAST FOR A SUBMARINE OF
? 2400 TONS SUBMERGED DISPLACEMENT AND A COMPRESSIBILITY
OF 1400 POUNDS PER 100 FT. NEGATIVE VALUES INDICATE THAT
43
4>
/
THE DENSITY HAS LESS EFFECT ON BUOYANCY THAN DOES COM-
PRESSIBILITY.
120?E
CONFIDENTIAL
FIGURE 22-29._ REPRESENTATIVE VERTICAL SECTION IN THE Ross SEA
PAGE 22750X1
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
b. ICE
(1) General ?Probably the greatest single
factor influencing any operation in the Antarctic
is the pack ice (FIGURE 22-58B) . During winter it
completely surrounds the continent, forming an
almost impassable barrier that extends on the
average as far north as 56?S. in the Atlantic sector
and to approximately 65?S. in the Pacific sector.
Pack ice may be defined as any large area of float-
ing ice driven closely together. It may include ice
formed in the open sea, remnants of fast ice formed
near the coastline of the continent, and seaborne
detritus of land ice derived from the continent and
the islands. The important characteristic of Ant-
arctic pack ice which distinguishes it from that
of the Arctic is the extreme heterogeneity of any
particular field of pack: in one locality the ice may
range from huge bergs and floes, many miles long
and broad, to the ice crystals produced by super-
cooling of the sea. In the Arctic, in contrast, the
pack of a particular field of ice is more generally
homogeneous, consisting of only one type.
The pack-ice edge varies latitudinally with sea-
son. It seldom exists as a straight east - west line,
but follows a rather tortuous course with embay-
ments and promontories extending for many miles
into and out of the pack. Owing to the prevailing
southeasterly winds, the pack has a definite drift
toward the north and west. As a consequence of
the westerly movement, a great piling up of pack
ice occurs in the western part of the Weddell-Sea.
This westward drift likewise will cause a consider-
able piling up of ice on the eastern sides of ice
tongues projecting from the continent.
Another distinct feature of the ice in the Area is
the tabular bergs (FIGURES 22-60A and 22-61B) .
Formed by the calving of portions of shelf ice,
these generally are immense pieces of ice which
may be as long as 100 miles and as high as 200 feet
above the waterline. The ice shelves from which
these bergs are derived are in themselves an out-
standing feature of the Antarctic area (FIGURE
22-58A) ; these great ice masses, sometimes many
hundreds of miles in extent (for example, the Ross
Ice Shelf) , present sheer walls of ice which bar
access to the continent from the sea.
In general, ice conditions in the waters sur-
rounding Antarctica at any particular point are
almost impossible to predict. For example, at the
entrance to the Ross Sea, the summer band of
pack ice with open water to the south may fluctuate
in width from year to year from as much as 400
miles to as little as 1 mile. Glacier tongues and
bays reported over many years of Antarctic ex-
ploration have completely disappeared. For ex-
ample, the Bay of Whales (16), long reported by
expeditions into the Ross Sea sector (FIGURE
PAGE 22-40
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
22-52A) , was found to have disappeared by summer
1955, its whole west side having broken off, carry-
ing with it a portion of Little America IV.
(2) Pack ice ?Mean limits of the pack ice
by months are shown in FIGURES 22-31 and 22-32.
These limits are based on observations from whal-
ing vessels, voyages of the research ship H.M.S.
Discovery, and numerous other expeditions to Ant-
arctica. Because these are only mean limits, the
charts should be used with caution since the actual
position of the northernmost edge of the pack
varies from year to year. It should also be noted
that portions of these lines represent interpolations,
particularly for winter, when data are very limited.
Open water areas south of the mean limits are not
shown, since these vary greatly. Many of the ob-
servations of the pack ice were made while skirting
the pack, no entrance being attempted.
(a) ADVANCE OF THE ICE EDGE ? Freezing
begins in late March or early April and progresses
very rapidly through June (FIGURE 22-31) . The
ice edge moves northward, reaching its maximum
extent in September and October. This northward
advance is attributable to two factors, one south
of the main body of pack and the other at its north-
ern edge. First, the pack is being fed constantly
from the reservoir of land-ice formations and sheets
of fast ice formed in place; this contribution of ice
moves into and with the main body of pack to the
north and west. Second, in addition to the ac-
cession from the south and the subsequent move-
ment of the pack, the ice edge advances through
freezing of the open sea to the north.
The initial indication of freezing of the sea is the
formation of ice crystals in the form of thin plates
of ice lying horizontally on the surface of the water.
These increase in number until the sea is covered
by a slush of a thick, soupy consistency. The
slush generally does not exceed a thickness of 12
inches and causes the sea to assume a grayish or
leaden color. Under these conditions, a ship may
experience clogging of intakes through accumula-
tion of this type of ice. If the sea remains 'per-
fectly calm, a smooth sheet of ice is formed (FIG-
URE 22-GOB). If the sea is affected by swell At the
time of freezing, the ice sheet is sufficiently plastic
to give with the undulations. However, as the ice
sheet thickens it becomes more and more brittle
until finally the whole mass may be broken up.
The resulting pieces are rocked by the swell and
in their constant collision with each other assume
the form of pancake ice (FIGURE 22-59A) . Some
of these smaller pieces may unite to form larger
floes, which in turn acquire the pancake appear-
ance. If the ice remains in place, the water freezes
between the pancakes, and a continuous ice sheet
is formed.
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?
?
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
CONFIDENTIAL
40r
RELIABILITY DIAGRAM
E-EXCELLENT F-FAIR
G-GOOD P-POOR
VIIM. MU?
nCOAST OCCASIONALLY ACCESSIBLE TO
UNREINFORCED SURFACE VESSELS IN SUMMER
COAST GENERALLY ACCESSIBLE TO
UNREINFORCED SURFACE VESSELS IN SUMMER
COAST INACCESSIBLE TO UNREINFORCED
SURFACE VESSELS IN SUMMER
EXTREME LIMIT OF ICEBERGS
130?E 127E
IIPE
100?E
50? EAST
701
6VE STE
FIGURE 22-30. ACCESSIBILITY OF ANTARCTIC COASTS; EXTREME LIMIT OF ICEBERGS
The pack is being augmented constantly by the
addition of precipitation in the form of snow and
hoar frost. New ice also forms along the edges
of cracks and pools.
The nature of the ice edge in winter varies with
local winds and seas. Four conditions may exist:
1) With periods of calm, ice crystals or sludge will
be found to the north of the heavier pancake ice,
though not normally north of the 29.3? F. isotherm;
2) when there is a strong and persistent southerly
wind, new ice probably will form in the calm water
in the lee of the heavier ice; 3) in winds with a
northerly component, new ice does not form readily
CONFIDENTIAL
and much of the newly formed ice crystals, sludge,
and pancake on the fringe of the main body will
melt, causing an apparent retreat of the ice edge;
4) with wind blowing directly from the west, the
scum of ice crystals may disappear, but the sludge
ice will persist to the north of the pack in a mod-
erately wide belt.
At its maximum extent in September ? October,'
the ice edge lies farthest from the continent in the
Atlantic and western Indian sectors. It is prob-
ably closest to the continent in the vicinity of the
Palmer Peninsula and in the eastern Indian Ocean
sector.
PAGE 22-4150)(1
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
1 V
150?
160?
170?
313?
170.
160?
150.
140.
I3W I2OW 10
lW VW ST
7V W
OW
50?W
dY
W
IV
IV
4V
?
Vlir
62e
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a
1
44
,k--,-----1g
/
?''cro,.i.,------- -
'4.____.----" ' ' A " ?
t)
T?
?
7
7
4,
400
/
,
11111110
uGUST
\ pta ' MAI

i
.?, id.
it
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P?PII?t.?
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.11.
.051 ICE 5,4111
sy (iV
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1
ANT ARC,T.ICA.
,s, t".4?4444,
70. ,...,,,
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il
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130. E 120. E 11VE
163? E 93? EAST 80?E
70. 1
601
APRIL THROUGH AUGUST
FIGURE 22-31. MEAN LIMITS OF PACK ICE, APRIL THROUGH AUGUST
(b) RETREAT OF THE ICE EDGE ? The ice
edge begins its retreat southward in November
(FIGURE 22-32). There appears to be little melting
between November and December except in the re-
gion east of the Weddell Sea, where the current
causes a tonguelike extension of pack ice toward
the east. In this region a vessel approaching Ant-
arctica along the Greenwich meridian in December
of an average year may encounter a broad belt of
pack ice from about 550 to about 61?S., reach
open water south of this, and then at about 65?S.
encounter pack which extends to the continent.
The greatest recession of the pack ice occurs from
December to January. Little melting occurs be-
PAGE 22-42
tween February and March. The tongue of ice
from the Weddell Sea probably never disappears
completely, in summer, although its extent is di-
minished considerably. The pack ice is at its min-
imum in March and lies close to the continent ex-
cept in the Weddell Sea and the region from 80?W.
to 180?.
The mean position of the ice edge as shown on
the charts does not necessarily imply that the en-
tire portion from the limit line to the continent is
completely icebound, because open water often is
found south of the pack limit in summer and pos-
sibly in winter. For example, most of the Ross
Sea is open in February ? March, the amount of
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?
?
?
NAVY ? JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
CONFIDENTIAL
130?W 120?W 110?W 100? W 93?WEST ET W 70?W 60? . 50W
140? r
sou

aa
aV .
.
/
?CI ?3 \
, Cl'eC-%0?1
w-........,...........,,,,,
- /
?
eireoralir-? ?
/
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-
\ 4,,45k
00' p,,c6
\ SO .\ 011 5 I..
N
X \ S?il'"
16V N ,),,
W .1
s
_ /
k ) 8,
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_ ' ..,,
/itt 13 \ ..---'
/ ikli. " .C-
01
.-
o
20.
W
' 170.
?
5V
--ir
3.--(--1-----------11'ii
cr cr
jzo.ZZ
,
-----...?..??..4:-.? 4
-.-
rcrikt
.1,:e0,), wi,*,
,',(?;;;;',7'is -
67', , , ;toss Kr Pla,
er V Icy.$_ 80
1---
,,,,,,,,II:11111
,..-- o --,',,,
-
-----'---?
1,
J10.
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_
50
ivc,l?
.
1t3.
170.
I1,0?
TV
EL 0
7,
.._?;Cs''f1ac---7? 1 ?tj
\ ? ' ' c7:VOre \
S 5 o
NT ARCTIC
t
/ S /
/ N .
/
4
t
/
te?04'fiY
A
?
\ \
\
\
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a
? Z
-...
-

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0,
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Z
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ci
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141
03
Z
41
a
IV
3EV
I?.?I?,
J A
1
t-IAR1
(OE
Ire
NCVEMBER
SEPTEMBER
.
/
\
-OCTOBER \
to?
130? E 120?E I IV E 100? E. 90? EAST EVE 70. E 60?E 50?E
I
FIGURE 22-32: MEAN LIMITS OF PACK ICE, SEPTEMBER THROUGH MARCH
open portion depending on the width of the belt of
pack ice lying at the entrance. Melting of the
pack ice in the Ross Sea sector is probably very
rapid, one observation having the disappearance
of about 250 miles of pack in a little over 3 weeks.
In contrast, however, the Weddell Sea is probably
never completely ice free in summer, owing to the
backing up of the westwardly drifting ice. In the
Pacific sector there is generally little retreat of the
pack, practically the entire area from Cape Col-
beck (20) to the Bellingshausen Sea (25) being
impenetrable because of the consolidated pack.
South of about 71?S., the Bellingshausen Sea is
probably never free of ice.
CONFIDENTIAL
(C) SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS OF THE PACK ?
The pack usually does not grade from . isolated
streams of ice to close pack. Such conditions may
be found, but ordinarily the ice is first seen as a
solid white line on the horizon, soon barring fur-
ther progress. As evident from the discussion pre-
ceding, conditions and ice types found at the ice
edge vary from season to season and with the lo-
cality. In spring and summer small floes and
brash commonly are met, although much larger
floes are to be found a short distance within the
pack beyond the action of swell (FIGURES 22-59B
and 22-61A). In autumn and winter the outer
fringe of the pack often consists of ice scum or
PAGE 22-450X1
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
crystals grading into pancake ice and more sub-
stantial floes. Thickness of the ice varies in dif-
ferent localities. Floes which have drifted from
the Weddell Sea tend to be hummocked, over-
ridden, and very thick. In parts of the Pacific sec-
tor, where it appears that the ice may grow in place
for considerable periods, immensely thick toes are
to be found.
Several features of the pack which are of opera-
tional significance may be cited. Antarctic pack
ice generally is covered with more snow than that
of the Arctic. This snow provides a cushioning
effect, tending at times to hold a ship when the
thickness of the ice does not warrant it. In 1955
the U. S. S. Atka found that there were times when
because of heavy snow on top of the ice it was
brought to a standstill in ice 4 to 6 feet thick which
otherwise would not have hindered an icebreaker
to any great extent. As long as a ship remains
underway it is fairly easy, to penetrate this ice,
but once it stops the snow adheres to the sides.
Antarctic ice appears to be less buoyant than
that of the Arctic. It will submerge to a greater
depth and remain submerged for a slightly longer
time before rising to the surface. This longer
submergence time conceivably could cause dam-
age to screws by sudden emergence of ice after
it has been broken by the ship.
Navigating in the pack along most of the coast
of Antarctica is potentially dangerous, since sud-
den changes in wind can lead to complications.
The greatest danger from pack exists in an en-
closed space. For example, a narrow strait or
deep bay into which the wind blows directly is the
worst of all locations. The regions to windward of
prominent points in the coastline can be equally
dangerous, since a sudden change or increase of
wind may cause a ship to be carried into shore or
beset in a matter of minutes.
Pack ice which extends more than 3 feet below
the surface is undercut at the waterline, some-
times as much as 5 feet in the thicker floes. The
U. S. S. Sennett found that when operating in this
type of ice the stern of a submarine should be
trimmed down so that the propeller guards are at
least a foot and a half below the surface of the
water. This protects the propellers from damage
by pushing the pack clear. The Sennett also noted
that when it passed through a lead in a pressure
ridge, it had to be kept under way at all times,
because once it became dead in the water the ice
closed in quickly and rode up over the tank tops
forcing the submarine down.
(3) Icebergs ? The maximum northward
extent of icebergs is shown in FIGURE 22-30. Bergs
are present nearly everywhere in the Antarctic,
both within the pack and in open waters north
and south of the pack belt. They are detected
PAGE 22744
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
easily by sonar and radar and therefore are not as
serious a threat as they once were.
Navigating in open water where icebergs are
present poses very few problems, since with sonar
and radar warning they can be avoided. In the
pack, however, they are potentially dangerous.
Since they may extend to considerable depth and
move with the subsurface current, it is not un-
common to see them drifting contrary to the move-
ment of the pack, in which they can build up con-
siderable pressure. Occasionally, icebergs give the
illusion of contrary movement because they move
more slowly than the pack, which surges past
them.
Probably the most dangerous features of ice-
bergs are the submarine rams, or spurs, which lie
below the waterline. These are formed in tabular
and glacial bergs alike. Not only is there danger
in striking one of these rams while navigating
close to a berg, but the rams are subject to calving
and may be buoyed up to the surface, producing
a serious hazard even for large vessels.
Open lanes to leeward of a berg are a common
phenomenon in the pack. Sea and swell also are
effectively reduced in the open water to the lee
of bergs. They should offer, therefore, an ex-
cellent location to effect transfer of materiel from
one ship to another. However, some danger does
exist. A sudden change in wind will alter the
direction of movement of the surface water and
ice, closing up the previously open lanes. In open
water the greatest danger exists from the calving
of portions of the bergs as well as of their rams;
therefore, they should be given wide berth.
(4) Accessibility of coast ?FIGURE 22-30
gives some idea of those waters of Antarctida which
are usually navigable and the parts of the coast
which are most likely to be inaccessible to unre-
inforced surface vessels. The least accessible por-
tions of the coast are in the sectors from approxi-
mately 74?W. to 155?W. and the western shore of
the Weddell Sea. The portion from 115?E. to
-139?E. is probably inaccessible owing to the con-
centration of glaciers in the region. In these areas
it is doubtful if a complete breakup ever occurs.
In some places the coast is almost always ac-
cessible in summer. The best known of these are
the western and a small portion of the eastern
coasts of the Palmer Peninsula, and almost all of
the coast in the Ross Sea sector. This does not
mean that there is ice-free water all the way to
this coast; for example, entrance to the Ross Sea
near the 180? meridian may require traversing
from 1 mile to 400 miles of pack ice.
Practically everywhere near the coast of Ant-
arctica some pack ice may be expected in all sea-
sons. The outer limit of the area where pack ice is
found only part of the year (FIGURE 22-30) coin-
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?
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
,MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
cides with the September ? October mean limit
of pack ice as shown on FIGURE 22-32. Even
though some regions are shown as being accessible
only occasionally in summer the coast is not neces-
sarily icebound. If the pack can be traversed,
it may be found that the waters in some of the
coastal bays and around some of the islands will
be open.
Because ice conditions in Antarctica are so var-
iable from year to year, it is difficult to choose
sites that would be suitable as bases of operations.
In a survey conducted by the U.S. Navy in the sum-
mer season of 1954-1955, several sites were sur-
veyed as possible bases for the 1957-1958 Interna-
tional Geophysical Year. Three sites were sug-
gested: Kainan Bay (18) in the Ross Sea, Atka Bay
(47) , and Admiral Richard E. Byrd Bay (48) on
the Princess Martha Coast (45). These were found
to be suitable in most respects, and a detailed ac-
count of conditions in these bays will be found in
Commander Service Squadron Four Report of U.S.
Navy Antarctic Expedition, 1954-55, conducted by
the U. S. S. Atka (AGB-3) . Locations surveyed,
but not found suitable, were Discovery Inlet (15),
Okuma Bay (19), Sulzberger Bay (21), and Nor-
sel Bay (46).
Bases located on shelf ice normally cannot be
considered permanent, owing to periodic break-
offs of large portions of the shelf. For example,
on the Ross Ice Shelf a large segment of Little
America IV was removed by pressure or calving,
and Little Americas II and III were placed adja-
cent to open water. The Bay of Whales (16),
known for over a century and a shore base for
five expeditions, has been subject to similar change.
Past observations indicated that the western shore
of the bay moved northward while the eastern side
had a relative westward movement, resulting in a
progressive narrowing of the entrance. During
Operation HIGHJUMP in the summer season 1946-
1947, the bay mouth was approximately 400 yards
wide (FIGURE 22-52A) ; a year later the mouth had
narrowed to less than 200 yards. At the time of
the 1955 visit of the U.S.S. Atka a considerable
breakoff of the west shelf ice changed the bay
completely, making it almost unrecognizable.
C. SOUND CONDITIONS
(1) Sonar
(a) GENERAL - The expression "sonar
conditions" is used in this subsection to describe
the probable effectiveness of sonar based on ocean-
ographic factors which influence underwater sound
transmission. The factors include the variations
of temperature, 'salinity, and pressure with depth,
the depth of the mixed (isothermal) layer, and
ambient noise. With the exception of ambient
CONFIDENTIAL
CONFIDENTIAL
noise, these factors limit the horizontal range of the
sound beam by refraction. Temperature and pres-
sure are of greatest importance to calculations of
sound velocities in the open ocean where salinity
variations are comparatively small, and close ap-
proximations of ranges can be made from a knowl-
edge of temperature alone for ordinary, submarine
operating depths.
FIGURE 22-33 illustrates, by means of idealized
sound ray diagrams, the refraction associated with
the two temperature structures most common to
Antarctic waters in summer. Pattern NOP is char-
acterized by an isothermal layer above a negative
gradient with a temperature reversal at depth.
As the sound beam approaches the colder water,
some of the rays are refracted upward and remain
within the isothermal layer, while those greater
than a critical angle are refracted initially
through the thermocline, but when the tempera-
ture gradient becomes positive these downward
rays are refracted upward. Thus, to the depth
of the bottom of the positive gradient, the water
is completely insonified (permeated with sound) .
Pattern MIKE is characterized by an isothermal
layer above a negative gradient with no reversal
at depth. Here the rays refracted downward
through the thermocline never return to the sur-
face, and a shadow zone is formed from which very
weak or no echoes will return.
The environmental factors contributing to sonar
effectiveness are expressed singly or collectively
as percentages of ideal conditions. Ideal condi-
tions are assumed to exist when: 1) the layer
depth (depth of the isothermal layer) is At least
450 feet; 2) the temperature difference between
the surface and 30 feet does not exceed 0.1? F.;
and 3) the wind force is no greater than Beaufort 1.
(b) AREA 69
1) General ? The analysis of sonar con-
ditions in Antarctic waters has been limited largely
to summer, since the paucity of data precludes
more than a cursory treatment of other seasons.
Summer conditions may vary considerably, in some
years being best developed in late January and
rapidly deteriorating in early March, in other
years extending into late March after attaining
highest development in middle to late February.
Because of this annual variability, data for 'only
January and February have been used to evaluate
average summer conditions. Listening range
charts for this Area are not presented, due to in-
sufficient data.
The ice limits superimposed on the sonar charts
cover only those nearshore waters which usually
are inaccessible. It should be noted that mean
pack-ice limits for the summer months extend
much farther north.
PAGE 22-4t_
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
20?
0
50
1-2
:0LU 500
200
,E 250
w 300
C' 350
400
450
30?
TEMPERATURE (?F)
40?
50?
60?
70.
GO?
- 1
I
MAXIMUM ECHO RANGES
PERISCOPE DEPTH RANGE >2000 YARDS
0
NOP (NEGATIVE OVER
TEMPERATURE (?F)
o2 0? 40. 50? GY 70? 80?
50 ?
II.- 100
LAJ 150 ?
200 ?
I
I- 250 ?
CI.
w 300 ,
? 350 ?
400 ?
450 I
I 1 I I 1 1 I 1
1111111111-
000 2000
RANGE (YARDS)
POSITIVE GRADIENT)
3000 4000
MAXIMUM ECHO RANGES
PERISCOPE DEPTH RANGE >2000 YARDS
7".11111111=r NO II No 11'
k
/
STRONG ECHOES
MOO
MIKE (MIXED WATER)
SHADOW ,ZONE
2000 3000
RANGE (YARDS)
ESTIMATED PERISCOPE DEPTH RANGE
WHEN THE PATTERN
IS:
THE PERISCOPE DEPTH RANGE IS:
NOP
1
EQUAL TO THE SURFACE RANGE
MIKE
2/3 TO 3/4 THE SURFACE RANGE
4000
FIGURE 22-33. SOUND REFRACTION PATTERNS ASSOCIATED WITH TYPICAL ANTARCTIC
TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS
- The thermal structures most eommon to the Area
in summer are typified by the two -patterns illus-
trated in FIGURE 22-33. A positive temperature
gradient. (NOP pattern) at depths varying from
150 to 1,000 feet is indigenous to that part of the
Area between the Antarctic Convergence and the
Antarctic Divergence (see FIGURE 22-9) . South
of the divergence, MIKE pattern is found. The
.seasonal thermocline, restricted to depths aver-
aging only about 100 feet, prevails throughout most
of the Area. Exceptions are parts of the Weddell,
'Bellingshausen, and -Ross Seas, where isothermal
layers to more than 450 feet persist throughout
the year.
Owing- to the comparatively warmer water at
depth surrounding Antarctica, upward refraction is
the predominant characteristic of sound propaga-
tion in these waters. In regions of melting ice,
a secondary positive gradient between 50 and 100
feet further enhances upward refraction. Where
a positive gradient occurs at shallow depths, sur-
face ranges Will be shortened and, conjointly with
sea States greater than 1, reverberation bursts may
seriously obstruct target recognition.
In addition to. shallow positive temperature gra-
dients, very- sharp salinity gradients, both vertical
and /horizontal, associated with ice-melt regions ef-
fectively decrease surface ranges.
PAGE 22-46
Despite the poor reliability of sonar predictions
in the regions dominated by ice, operational use of
sonar for navigation appears both feasible and
highly desirable. Operation HIGHJUMP reported
sonar superior to radar during periods of low vis-
ibility. ,Bergy bits and growlers were contacted
with 100% recognition at ranges from 500 to 1,800
yards with supersonic sonar, and icebergs at 4,000
yards. Ranges of such magnitude, however, can-
not be obtained on submarines or even on larger
surface ships, as their target strength is apprecia-
bly less than that of large ice objects. FIGURE 22-36
gives maximum echo ranges for high-frequency
sonar on submarines surfaced or at periscope depth.
Ranges on ice targets may be as much as 300%
greater, dependent on size. The range chart is
intended to supplement the presentation of per-
cent probability of ideal echo ranging conditions
(FIGURE 22-35) for operational use, and is con-
sidered more accurate wherever ice may prevail.
In computing the given ranges, sea state was dis-
regarded, since seas are effectively damped by ice;
the parameters considered were layer depth, target
strength, water temperature, spherical spreading,
and the average figure of merit for destroyers at
15 knots equipped with QHB.
Ambient noise is very low in ice areas where
seas are minimal. Although the noise level in-
creases farther north, it is generally of secondary
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?
?
NAVY-JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
CONFIDENTIAL
RELIABILITY DIAGRAM
E-EXCELLENT F-FAIR
G-GOOD P-POOR
DEPTHS IN FEET
? AREAS USUALLY INACCESSIBLE
FE:7,3 EXTREMELY HEAVY PACK ICE
INDICATES INTERVAL OF MORE
I-1-1-1-1 THAN 50 FEET
137t IZIPE
Dr( ICCI?E
90?EAST SPE
70?
FIGURE 22-34. AVERAGE LAYER DEPTH (FEET) , SUMMER
importance to sonar operations in summer, when
the depth of the mixed 'layer is the limiting factor.
However, winds of force 8 to 12 occur between 5%
and 10% of the time, and during storms. echo
ranging is restricted primarily by high noise and
quenching. The high incidence of sonic mammals
(whales and seals) in the Area may occasion false
echoes. A distinct doppler associated with whales
serves to distinguish? them from ice targets. How-
ever, good echoes, persistent and without. doppler,
are produced by blow wakes, which also can cause
complete quenching if proximal. Whale concen-
trations are greatest between 40?W. and 100?E.
in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and north of
CONFIDENTIAL
SUMMER
Cape Adare (7) between 170?E. and 180? in the
Pacific. Their southerly limits vary with the edge
of the pack ice. Killer whales haunt the fringes
of the pack where seals are numerous, particularly
in the Weddell Sea. .
2) Layer Depth ? South of 60?S., the
depth of the mixed layer in summer seldom exceeds
150 feet, and there are large regions where the layer
is less than 100 feet deep (FIGURE 22-34)..These
regions of least layer depth are apparently stable
features of the Area.. They occur where the ther-
mocline has been strengthened by cold outflow
from the continental shelf sinking beneath com-
paratively warmer water to the north, thus con-
PAGE 22-4750X1
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CONFIDENTIAt
NIS 69
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
RELIABILITY DIAGRAM
A-EXCELLENT F-FAIR
G-GOOD P-POOR
S.
AREAS USUALLY INACCESSIBLE
EXTREMELY HEAVY PACK ICE
wiwINOICATES INTERVAL OF, MORE
THAN 10%
110?A 10rE
STEAST ALPE
lYE EYE
FIGURE 22-35. PERCENT PROBABILITY OF IDEAL ECHO RANGING CONDITIONS, SUMMER
fining the effects of insolation to a shallow layer.
Accordingly, slightly warmer surface water should
be- associated with least layer depths. (The con-
tour interval masks this relationship on the surface
temperature chart, FIGURE 22-12.) The areas of
shallowest layers also coincide almost exactly with
the regions of greatest storm intensity. In the
western part of the Ross Sea, and in the Weddell
and Bellingshausen Seas, isothermal water extends
to more than 450 feet at all times.
First evidences of the seasonal thermocline nor-
mally appear in November or December, when layer
depths of 20 to 40 feet are common; with continued
surface heating in summer, the thermal 'gradient
PAGE 22-48
SUMMFR
becomes stronger. In mid-March or as late as
mid-April, increasingly strong winds together with
waning sunlight weaken the thermocline, and the
layer deepens to about 300 to 350 feet. In winter,
no negative temperature gradient is present at any
depth less than 450 feet? south of the Antarctic
Convergence.
3) Echo Ranging ? FIGURE 22-35 gives
the percent probability of ideal echo ranging con-
ditioni'for the Area in summer. The depth of the
mixed layer is the primary factor limiting ranges.
However, in the northwestern Weddell Sea and.the
central Ross Sea, semipermanent lows are of great
importance: The prevailing easterlies are pre-
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?
NAVY ? JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
CONFIDENTIAL
RELIABILITY DIAGRAM
E-EXCELLENT F-FAIR
G-GOOD P-POOR
AREAS USUALLY INACCESSIBLE
EXTREMELY HEAVY PACK ICE
INDICATES INTERVAL OF MORE
LU-U-I THAN 200 YARDS
- - 100-FATHOM CONTOUR
IO
120?C
IIOE
E
9VEAST EOE
ME frE
SUMMER
FIGURE 22-36. MAXIMUM SURFACE ECHO RANGES (YARDS) ON SUBMARINE WITH 25.5-KILOCYCLE SONAR (QHBa)
dominantly light to moderate in summer, and al-
though local gravity winds cause storms of great
intensity, their effects seldom extend beyond 15
miles to sea.
Conditions average about 30% ideal in the
greater part of the Area, being slightly better than
average in the Indian Ocean and poorer in the
Pacific. Very sharp transitions from poor to ex-
cellent echo ranging conditions occur in the Wed-
dell and Bellingshausen Seas, and in a large coastal
region extending from Little America (17) to Cape
Dart (22) . In MacKenzie Bay (2) and the Davis
Sea (3), conditions are poorer but average about
50% ideal or better. Where conditions are least
CONFIDENTIAL
favorable (less than 20% ideal) , as in the north-
western Weddell Sea and the cential Ross Sea, the
semipermanent lows limit improvement.
Echo ranging conditions probably are best in
November, when the layer is still deep and the fre-
quency of high winds averages around 5%, 'lowest
for the year. Observations from the region south
of South Georgia and the Ross Sea support this
inference, but data are not sufficient to present
full areal charts for the month. By late April,
despite isothermal layers to 350 feet or more, echo
ranging will be hampered considerably by quench-
ing and ambient noise, since the percentage of
winds of force 8 to 12 approaches an annual maxi-
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
mum, and low sea states in open water are in-
frequent. So little of the Area is ice free in winter
that echo ranging has not been considered for that
season. It is expected, however, that the average.
percent probabilities of ideal echo ranging condi-
tions will be slightly better in all other seasons than
in summer, although it is doubtful that they exceed
40% of ideal in the Area as a whole.
(2) So far ?The region south of the Ant-
arctic Convergence is characterized by a shallow
sound channel which is the result of the summer
thermocline. Autumn cooling and high winds de-
stroy the thermocline; accordingly, no sound chan-
nel exists during the greater part of the year.
No deep sound channel is found south of the
convergence. The shallow seasonal channel in the
Area may be continuous with the permanent deep
sound channel to the north, depending on the
structural variability- of the convergence itself.
Continuity is more probable in the Atlantic Ocean
where the northward slope of the convergence is
generally more gentle than in the Pacific or Indian
Oceans where the slope is steeper. Because a con-
tinuous channel is provisional, FIGURE 22-70 in-
cludes only the depths of the seasonal channel
south of the convergence and the southern limits
of the permanent channel where known.
In general, the channel shoals from a depth of
about 400 feet south of the convergence to about
150 feet near the Antarctic continent, the axial
velocity decreasing from approximately 4,770 feet
per second at the convergence to about 4,715
ft./sec. near the continent. Very close to shore,
and in the Ross and Weddell Seas, the , channel
axis deepens slightly and the minimum velocity
increases to 4,725 ft./sec. Channel depth and
axial velocity are directly related: shallowest
depths and least velocities occur together, as do
greatest depths and highest velocities. The depth
of the sound channel in summer together with
the positions of the vertical? sections of sound
velocity is shown in FIGURE 22-70.
Minor but definite longitudinal variation occurs
in the depth and velocity of the sound channel in
this Area. The variation depends primarily upon
the quantity of colder or warmer water, relative to
the mean, present in or introduced into the locale
under consideration.
For example, the effect of cold Weddell Sea
Water on the velocity structure of the Atlantic
Ocean south of the convergence during summer is
shown by vertical section A of FIGURE 22-70. The
maximum channel depth (350 feet) and axial
velocity (4,746 ft./sec.) are found at the northern-
most station of this section, while at 61?S., the
channel shoals rapidly to 200 feet and velocity
decreases to a minimum of 4,712 ft./sec., owing to
PAGE 22-50
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
the introduction of Weddell Sea Water. South of
this latitude, the velocity increases somewhat, to
4,717 ft./sec. near the continent.
In contrast to this cold-water section, vertical
section B, also south of the convergence but in the
Indian Ocean, shows the effect of warmer water
on the channel structure. From north to south,
the sound channel depth varies from 600 to '300
feet, while the axial velocity decreases from 4,768
to 4,717 ft./sec., never attaining the minimum of
the cold water section.
Where the convergence closely approaches: the
Antarctic continent, the resultant effect on chan-
nel depth and axial velocity can be inferred from
the South Pacific ? Ross Sea vertical section (C) .
North of the convergence, channel depths of the
order of 1,000 feet are found, with axial velocities
greater than 4,800 ft./sec., while to the south the
channel depth is 200 feet and the axial velocity
4,738 ft./sec. Stations on either side of the con-
vergence indicate a transitional channel structure
with an average depth of 300 feet and velocity of
4,755 ft./sec. Both depth and velocity diminish
southward to 150 feet and 4,720 ft./sec., respec-
tively, at the seaward limit of the Ross Sea. In
the Ross Sea, the channel deepens to 250 feet and
velocity increases to a constant value of 4,725
ft./sec. A parallel situation exists in the Weddell
Sea.
The effects associated with the convergence are
also apparent in the Drake Passage ? Bellings-
hausen Sea vertical section (D) . North of the con-
vergence in Drake Passage, a 400-foot sound chan-
nel with velocities greater than 4,800 ft./sec. is
found. To the south are the typical channel
depths of 300 to 150 feet and velocities from 4,727
to 4,720 ft./sec., decreasing southward. Travers-
ing the convergence the channel averages 350 feet
in depth with ?an axial velocity of about 4,775
ft./sec.
FIGURE 22-70, supplementing vertical section C,
shows detailed velocity structure in the 'Ross Sea.
The complexity of the structure reflects the in-
trusion at depth of the warmer water transported
by the East Wind Drift. Entering the Ross Sea
along its eastern coast, this warmer water is as-
similated rapidly, as is indicated by the decrease
in velocity from 4,757 to 4,732 ft./sec. at 600 feet.
High-salinity pockets at depth further complicate
the picture. The combined effects of the seasonal
thermocline, warm water intrusion, and high salin-
ities result in a conglomeration of sound channels,
ordinarily disconnected and highly transitional.
In general, velocities south of the convergence
average 50 ft./sec. less than velocities to the north.
This anomalous situation will be important to depth
determinations by echo sounders, which are cali-
brated for an average sound velocity of 4,800 ft./sec.
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NAVY JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
The seasonal thermocline, and consequently the
sound channel, are destroyed by cooling of the sur-
face water and mixing by high winds early in
autumn. Following this, and throughout most of
the year, the greater part of the Area is covered
by sea ice, so that no thermocline or channel de-
velops until the ice breakup and initial warming in
late spring.
6. Geology
a. STRUCTURE ? The outline of the Antarctic
*continent is roughly defined by the Antarctic Circle.
Other than the deep indentations of the Ross and
Weddell Seas, the only break in a nearly circular
Outline is the Palmer Peninsula, which trends into
a submarine and insular ridge extending as the
Scotia Arc toward South America.
The Antarctic has both a radial and a peripheral
arrangement of marine structural features, as will
be seen from FIGURE 22-71. Surrounding the con-
tinent is a peripheral zone of deep oceanic basins,
and beyond this, 300 to 960 miles north of the
Antarctic continent, midway between it and the
other continents of the Southern Hemisphere, there
is a ring of suboceanic ridges and rises. In con-
trast to these is the almost meridional orientation
of structures such as Macquarie Rise and the
Palmer Peninsula.
A significant feature of the Antarctic continent
is its great elevation: its average height above sea
level is 6,000 feet, compared with 2,000 feet for
the average height of all other continents. In this
respect the two polar regions of the earth are in
direct contrast. Within the Arctic Circle there is
a relatively thin, permanently frozen sheet of sea
ice overlying a deep oceanic basin that exceeds
2,000 fathoms in depth, whereas within the Ant-
arctic Circle there is a land mass capped by an
immense steep-sided ice plateau estimated at 8,000
to 10,000 feet in elevation.
The continent is divided roughly into eastern
and western portions by a depression extending
between the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea. Very
little is known about the rocks underlying the
ice in the interior of the great ice plateau of the
eastern section, but it is thought that they may
consist essentially of horizontal rocks overlying a
pre-Cambrian complex. The plateau is bordered,
on the periphery between 20?W. and 110?E., by
a series of mountain ranges with peaks as high
as 14,000 feet. The coastal area between 110?E.
and 155?E. has peaks to 6,000 feet in height, and
there is a mountainous area of unknown elevation
in the region 72?S. to 78?S. and 110?E. to 140?E.
The greatest mountain range in eastern Ant-
arctica extends southward from Cape Adare (7)
along the western side of the Ross Sea, passes to
the northwest of the South Pole in the 180? to
CONFIDENTIAL
CONFIDENTIAL
90?W. quadrant, and is thought then to continue
toward the Weddell Sea. This great range has
been carved from a horst, 1,500 miles long and
more than 100 miles wide, composed of a series
of block-fault mountain's (FIGURE 22-37) . These
mountains prevent the ice from spilling over into
the depressed areas separating the eastern and
western portions of Antarctica. At right angles to
its main trend, however, the horst is cut by small
grabens which afford exits for a small portion of
the ice of the plateau. For the most part, this
horst is composed of flat-lying sedimentary rocks
which have been intruded by igneous materials.
Volcanoes are associated with the horst faults.
The_ depression extending from the Ross Sea to
the Weddell Sea has been described as a graben
or a downwarped area. It is still conjectural as
to how much of this region lies below sea level,
but it is generally conceded that the Ross and the
Weddell Seas are not joined by a strait dividing
Antarctica into two subcontinents.
The western sector of Antarctica and the ad-
jacent Scotia Arc contain two principal structural
zones: the Cordilleran Belt and the Platform Belt.
The Cordilleran or Alpide Fold Belt comprises
Scotia Ridge and the west side of the Palmer
Peninsula, and probably extends into Marie Byrd
Land. This belt is composed of a multiple chain
of folds consisting of Mesozoic and Paleozoic geo-
synclinal sediments intruded by extensive gran-
odiorite and gabbro rocks. Recent volcanbes are
associated with this belt.
The Platform Belt, which comprises the east side
of the Palmer Peninsula and probably extends to
Marie Byrd Land, contains late Mesozoic and Ter-
tiary sediments which are slightly folded, but
locally faulted and cut by plateau basalts of Ter-
tiary Age. No active or Recent volcanoes are found
in this belt. -
Generally, it is accepted that the islands of the
Scotia Arc and the Palmer Peninsula are related
structurally to the Andes. However the relation-
ship between the structures of Antarctica and those
of New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia is con-
j ectural.
b. BATHYMETRY
(1) General ?The nearly circular Ant-
arctic continent is bounded by peripheral and radial
features (FIGURE 22-71) . The basins are periph-
eral in nature and are separated by radial sub-
marine ridges and rises that point like connecting
links toward the other continents. Beyond the
ring of deep-sea basins, there is a second peripheral
ring of rises.
(2) Continental and island shelves ?The
continental shelf around Antarctica is the deepest
in the world, the break in slope occurring at depths
PAGE 22-E50X1
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
NAVY ? JANUARY 1956
130?W 120?W 110'W 100?W 94/WEST 80?W 70?W 133?W .50"W
140.
\
,O.r;...
?-?,14,.
,.
. ....
.....
40?
w
--..... /
\
\
\ \ /150?
S'.'../. 1
./ 4,..c.. ?
I, tk
70?
\
30.
al
N
\
?
.? ?
- -1 '"""fl -""fl'
4.4?.4',,,,
7.
?''''
, ? .....--
- E-7
ISO?
V
__170?
,,, ......., VP
..,706.5,,,t
g
.
a
I70.
i
?
iii,'"iiiigle?
0111;15? A'NTARCTICA Z
,..
'4
0 .N
? o
4. sr
10?
E
IGO?
VIII e
t
e
.4.
150?'
?
LEGEND
IF:71 HORST .
I I GRABEN OR DOWNFOLD
-- ?TREND OF THE SCOTIA
1 40?
1.
ARC-PALMER FOLD
-- AXES OF FOLDS AND/OR
TRENRANGESDS OF MOUNTAIN
FAULTS
\
40.
E
\ /
120'E 110?E 100?E STEAST BEN 70?E 40?E 50?E
FIGURE 22-37. STRUCTURAL TRENDS
between 230 and 280 fathoms (FIGURE 22-72) . The
shelf varies in width from less than 20 to about
300 miles. It appears to be widest in the Ross Sea
and the Weddell Sea regions and narrowest off
certain parts of eastern Antarctica. Two broad
embayments, the Ross Sea and Weddell Sea, are not
deep gulfs but shelf seas which indent the coast
700 miles and 300 miles, respectively, from the outer
edge of the continental shelf. Toward its outer
edge, the shelf rises locally in a series of elongate
terminal moraines which appear frequently and
seem to outline the former maximum extension of
the icecap. These mounds on the sea floor fre-
quently are farther than '100 miles from the real
PAGE 22-52
land front and are hundreds of feet high. Basins
appear in various places on the shelf; some of
these reach depths exceeding 600 fathoms. These
depressions, if actual and not due to faulty sound-
ings, probably are a result of glaciation.
The oceanic island shelves are generally, very
narrow, with the shelf edge located at 100 fathoms
or less. South Georgia and the South Orkney
Islands are exceptions, with the shelf edge at ap-'
proximately 145 fathoms and 200 fathoms or more,
respectively. The reason for this difference is not
evident, although the South Orkney Islands appear
to follow the deep trend set by the continental shelf
along the Palmer Peninsula. '
CONFIDENTIAL
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?
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NAVY - JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
In contrast to the deep shelf of the Antarctic
continent, the shelf edge along the southern tip
of South America lies near 100 fathoms or slightly
shoaler. Off eastern South America, it is wide and
quite irregular, particularly in the vicinity of the
Falkland Islands, where it is more than 400 miles
wide. At Isla de los Estados (33) it narrows to less
than 10 miles, broadens westward to 60 miles, and
again narrows northward along the west coast.
of the continent. This west coast is a highly
glaciated region with a very narrow and irregular
shelf, which is cut into short segments by deep
fiords, some of which are almost 1,000 fathoms deep.
Discussion of the bathymetric characteristics of
other portions of the Antarctic periphery will be
found in NIS 104-VII, 106-111, 106-11, and 105-XII.
(3) Continental and island slopes ? Profiles
of the continental slope of Antarctica show it to be
relatively smooth and gentle, particularly in the
Indian Ocean portion. Here it has a concave form
with gradients ranging from 2? near the top to
about I/4? at the bottom where the slope fades
into the abyssal sea floor 150 miles from the con-
tinent. Some irregularities occur even here, with
indications of an occasional submarine canyon and
seamount or seaknoll. In other sectors of the con-
tinental slope around Antarctica, numerous sea-
mounts and indications of submarine canyons are
to be found. West of South America the gradient
averages about 6?, but the slope is quite irregular.
East of South America the continental slope is
quite steep but is broken by a double ridge that
extends east from the southern tip of the continent.
The island slopes are generally much steeper
than the continental slopes in this Area. West of
the South Sandwich Islands the gradient is about
8? to the 1,500-fathom curve; there it becomes much
more gentle. On the east and north sides of these
islands, the slope descends into the South Sand-
wich Trench with a gradient of about 6? to the
2,000-fathom curve, where it steepens to about 9?
and continues to the bottom of the trench. A
small terrace occurs at about 1,000 fathoms on this
slope, but it is not evident to the south and west of
the islands. The island slopes are quite regular
and unbroken except for the canyons off South
Georgia.
(4) Submarine canyons ?The submarine
canyons off the coast of Antarctica have not been
identified or delineated accurately. Their very
existence is subject to speculation. The indica-
tions of these features may be due to difficulties
encountered in navigating and piloting through
broken ?ice fields and along unsurveyed coasts
where numerous course changes are required. If
canyons are actually present, they may display
either the V-shaped cross section typical of sub-
CONFIDENTIAL
CONFIDENTIAL
marine canyons, or the U-shaped cross section
typical of glaciated fiords. In the latter type there
may be shoaling at the outer limits because of
terminal moraine deposits which mark the sea-
ward limit of the glacier. George VI Sound (26)
is considered to be a structurally controlled sub-
marine canyon. Indications of several submarine
canyons may be found off the west and south
coasts of South America. The only submarine
?
canyons known to exist off the islands of the Area
are on the north and south sides of South Georgia.
(5) Seamounts and seaknolls ? Seamounts
and seaknolls are found abundantly throughout
the Area; they appear to be most common along
the crests of the ridges and rises (FIGURE 22-71) .
A lesser number are found on the continental slope
and scattered throughout the various basins.
Banzare, Gribb, Iselin, Barth, and Maud Sea-
mounts all lie upon the radial structures that
extend from the continent; Spiess Seamount is
on the outer peripheral ring of rises surrounding
the continent. The Pacific - Antarctic Ridge
("Easter Island Cordillera") has a great num-
ber of seamounts and seaknolls concentrated just
north and east of Balleny Basin. Another con-
centration of these features is found on the rise
extending into the Pacific - Antarctic Basin ("Bel-
lingshausen Basin") from Antarctica in the vicin-
ity of the Amundsen Sea (23) . The seamounts
shown in the basins commonly occur along ex- '
tensions of ridges and rises or upon a slight rise
of the ocean floor.
(6) Ridges, rises, and plateaus ? The ridges
and rises in the Area tend to form two intersecting
patterns: the first is a radial pattern pointing
from Antarctica in a northerly direction; the sec-
ond is a peripheral pattern at a distance varying
from 300 to 900 miles from the continent. The
best-defined ridge in the Area is the Scotia Ridge
(FIGURE 22-71) . This arcuate ridge which is
steep, high, and sharp extends eastward from the
tip of South America through Burdwood Plateau,
Shag Rocks (35), South Georgia, and Clerke
Rocks (36) to the South Sandwich Islands. Here
the ridge turns south along the islands, then west-
ward through the South Orkney and South Shet-
land Islands to the Palmer Peninsula. Burdwood
Plateau, near the South American terminus of this
complex sigmoid ridge, is shoaler than 100 fathoms
for a distance of over 200 miles. In this vicinity
and eastward to Shag Rocks the arc appears to
be double, being divided by a broad trough. The
northern ridge of the arc includes the Falkland
Islands and extends eastward to a point about
100 miles due north of Shag Rocks. The southern
ridge includes Burdwood Plateau and extends the
length of the arc.
.50X1
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
The Central Indian Rise continues south of
the ridge through Bangore and Gribb Seamounts
and provides a deep sill between the basins on
either side. It is surmounted by the Kerguelen -
Gaussberg Ridge, which does not extend south
to Antarctica. Macquarie Rise, extending south
from Australia, is also surmounted by a ridge
(South Tasmanian Ridge) that does not reach
Antarctica. The narrowest rise in the Area is the
Southwestern Auckland Rise, which extends south
from the New Zealand Plateau. Also extending
south from this plateau is the Campbell Rise, which
terminates in Emerald Basin. The Pacific-Ant-
arctic Ridge as contoured on FIGURE 22-71 appears
to be rather simple in this Area, probably because
of the sparseness of available data. It is appar-
ently a system of submarine mountain ranges
comparable to some of the large cordilleras on
the continents. Soundings reveal a flat bottom
on either side with no indication of a foredeep,
and a general absence of concave sides. About
80 miles north of the ridge an unsubstantiated
escarpment has been reported; this feature rises
from a depth of nearly 3,000 fathoms to a sharp
peak at 1,180 fathoms and has the appearance
of a north-facing tilted fault block. The fault
face has a straight profile with a declivity of 63?.
The gentler south slope also is straight, but with
a gradient of only 11?. This asymmetrical scarp
appears to have a foredeep.
Slight, almost imperceptible rises separate the
Pacific - Antarctic Basin from West Scotia Basin,
and West Scotia Basin from East Scotia Basin.
Although on FIGURES 22-71 and 22-72 South Geor-
gia Rise appears to be a part of the Atlantic-Indian
Rise, actually these are two separate features
which merge near Spiess Seamount in a vast
uplift of the ocean floor which involves several
other ridges and rises north of the Area. The
South Madagascar Ridge is an ill-defined ridge
which, if accurately contoured, is a borderline
feature bearing resemblance to both ridge and
rise, but lack of data makes it impossible-to resolve
the various possibilities of its structural appear-
ance. A submarine spur extending north from
Riiser-Larsen Peninsula (1) has been reported
to be an escarpment of considerable magnitude
extending 300 miles from Antarctica. The escarp-
ment has a 44? gradient on the east side, dropping
from 1,100 fathoms to at least 2,700 fathoms with
a suggestion of a minor foredeep.
(7) Trenches and troughs ? The only
trench in this Area is the South Sandwich Trench,
which is also the only trench in the South Atlantic
Ocean. This trench lies parallel to that portion
of the Scotia Ridge which is .in the vicinity of
the South Sandwich Islands. Arcuate in form,
it has a recorded depth of 4,518 fathoms. It is
PAGE 22-54
NAVY-JANUARY 1956
part of the cordilleran belt which is thought to
extend from the Andes of South America through
the Scotia Ridge to Antarctica. The southern
extent of the trench is questionable because of
the paucity of data. The northern limit appears
to lie on the slope of the South Georgia Rise,
but it may be related genetically to the wide and
relatively shoal trough lying between the north-
ern and southern ridges of the Scotia Ridge. A
small terrace on the landward side occurs at about
1,000 fathoms on this slope, but it is not repeated
on the seaward side of the trench.
A number of glacial troughs are found on the
west coast of South America. These troughs ex-
tend into the numerous fiords along the coast,
and depths in excess of 600 fathoms are to be
found far inland. The submarine canyons pre-
viously mentioned on the coast of Antarctica may
be similar to these features.
(8) Basins ? Profiles taken with echo
sounders aboard ships crossing the peripheral
basins show them to be relatively smooth and
featureless. However, the continuity of the basins
is interrupted by ridges and rises as well as by
a number of seamounts. The basins as shown
MI FIGURE 22-71 are elongated in an east - west
direction, forming an almost continuous ring
around Antarctica. Many of the sills separating
the basins are insignificant in relief and, in some
cases, poorly defined. The major basins such as
the Southwestern Pacific, Bellingshausen, Atlan-
tic - Indian Antarctic (or "Valdivia") , and Indian -
Antarctic Basins have been sounded very sparsely,
but the average depth appears to be just over 2,500
fathoms. In only a few places do the depths reach
3,000 fathoms.
A number of small basins are found on the con-
tinental shelf of Antarctica. These basins have a
small lateral extent, but attain depths which ex-
ceed 600 fathoms.
C. BOTTOM SEDIMENTS - FIGURE 22-73 illus-
trates the bottom sediment pattern in the sampled
portions of the Antarctic region. In general, near-
shore information is extremely limited, being con-
fined principally to locations visited by explora-
tory and scientific expeditions. Much of the data
has been obtained by ships caught in the pack
ice. Areas of easy accessibility, such as the Palmer
Peninsula and the sector southward from New
Zealand, have been given the most attention.
Approximately 50% of the bottom sediment data
shown on FIGURE 22-73 were extracted from re-
ports of scientific expeditions which explored small
restricted regions. The remainder of the data was
obtained from nautical charts. More detailed
information is available but cannot be shown
on a chart of this scale.
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NAVY - JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
CONFIDENTIAL
140.
150.
160.
I7V
180.
17CP
150?
I r
I10W 120 110.15' 100?W
90. WEST
80W
70W
0* 50.
7
20'
IV
,
Ie.
v?
-
41).
E ?
?
5060
---....
0 .
.
.1.'"1:kvfer>?...---
I. '',?ro,,,,
-3?....-.-
\
,
,
ci
?
50
.,,
_
.
4,
r...,
/1---------,.....,,
A
'
. .6. ,.....A
ITL '?'
1,,..0....i.
.000
.i 6o
2.:
4?? 00
9.Te0
? .
X'
1iiiSiiiii
.t-
J706 nft60
1
'
50.
.3-"?0-,a
,451.0'.t..... M.
.6100''''711'?
? . /
t
...
...,
a
.ie i ,i. 1 ,1 N
..4PA, 1 9'.
,,,, 7 I ? ; 4Idir,f / I .
. . ./.
?0.0NT
4.
...._
.
7 0 .
i
'6
Is
1.
,
o
TIC?
NI
N
AR'C
....------e
''"I:
.,, ,,?,
r,
?
:a,q,.
/,-", , ,./.
. 4.?/,/,/ -,,?,
? 0,
?
? , ,
---.....:--,-,....-.?__
- , ...e / r ,
9 .- ? 8 e cs'A
.
? 6?
,
'."':?,
....
\
i ?
?
.
, ,,
OBSERVED GRAVITY
50-MILLIGAL INTERVAL .
DASHED LINES INDICATE SPARSE DATA
130.E 12CP E HO. E . . 100E
90. EAST
, 80.
5 70? E
. 60* E - WE
FIGURE 22-38. OBSERVED GRAVITY
Dredge samples taken in the Weddell and Scotia
Seas indicate that bottom sediments in this sector
may contain a higher sand and gravel fraction
than is shown on FIGURE 22-73. This may be true
in other sectors as well.
Data obtained from detailed charts of specific
localities indicate that large rock areas exist in
most of the nearshore and shallow water sectors.
d. GEOPHYSICS
(1) Gravity ?Gravity data for the Area
are very sparse. The contours shown (FIGURES
22-38 and 22-39) from Auckland Island to the
Adelie Coast (5) are based on values interpolated
CONFIDENTIAL
from a single line of six observations. Except foi
the region off South America, data are insuffi-
cient to interpret the gravity field. No attempt
is made to correlate available data ? with the
geology. .
(2) Seismicity
(a) EARTHQUAKES ? FIGURE 22-40 shows
the locations of the epicenters of 186 recorded
shocks as given in Source 54, and 14 additional"
shocks listed in Source 154. The scale of this
figure is such that a symbO1 may represent more
than one epicenter.
PAGE 22-5E50X1
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
NAVY ?JANUARY 1956
130W 120. W
110?W
.
100? W
90. WEST
OW
70?W
60?W 50?W
?1;f0 ? 4+25
i?yttlit2h44
NV
.
4CA
/
-50
s
'31
0
Ai
3ir
W
cor.mr11V-?
/
:?
..
.
'Fr
i
s
\
__,

s
4
;
?
'
170?
. .,
m
4
La
180.
7V
80? I
OA ?
50?
0.
0
N
1
. '
1
-...T
?
,.
/L
,
? ?
,;:.,
,
o
'NT
AR,C
TIC A
170?
. .
'
r
)(\''''O',0
/
0
42 K 1
70. _
%
150?
WA
FREE AIR GRAVITY ANOMALIES
25-MILLIGAL INTERVAL
DASHED LINES INDICATE SPARSE DATA
14 V
...,_
1
/
130?E 120?E -
I IV E
100?E
SO? EAST
80E
. nr(
'
WC 50?E
FIGURE 22-39. FREE AIR GRAVITY ANOMALIES
The scarcity of known epicenters on the Ant-
arctic continent may be due to a lack of adequate
recording stations rather than to the infrequency
of seismic activity. While this scarcity of reported
activity may indicate that the expected shocks
in the continental area would be of low magni-
tude, it should be. noted that a low-magnitude
earthquake occurring at shallow depths (0-60
kilometers) may be more destructive in the
vicinity of the epicenter than a stronger but deeper
shock. All the shocks in the Area listed in Source
54 occurred at shallow depths, -with the exception
PAGE 22-56
of 5 shocks in the vicinity of the South Sandwich
Islands.
The following tabulation shows earthquake dis-
tribution by class for the 4 quadrants of the Area.
This list probably contains the majority of Class
A, B, and C shocks which have occurred in the
Area during the period covered (1904-1952). It
does not reflect all of the innumerable minor
unreported shocks (Class D and lower) which
undoubtedly have occurred in the Area during
this period.
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?
NAVY?JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
CONFIDENTIAL
14V
w
150.
w
IS.
ISV
UO?
19r
. ...,
RV
I 30. W
12FW II V W
10V W 90. WEST Dry; TOW 60. W
SOW
40.

10?
o?
r
60.
0 .
oo a
o
0
.
o 0
al
I
70
I
i
..r i
,Pnti,1,-4
."(,,,,,)?
sr V
.
MON
AlAtt.
6" `?? o
o 0
0 0
o
o,
0
.3
0,
00o
i 0
o
4,10
' o4 '? 2- - - -fi''......' ''''''.', ,
i k.....%,
< C..i..k"
.. 704 .
000
.0
0
? 0
0 0
50
70.
?
.
4--..? `
\ J
-. ,..` -')
?H?G?'"/
Ve.
w ,. .1:4,"?,,,
' ' - -
Ir
1
.
24 1T-A R C T I CA
..
e
o
t?
o
0
0
?
o
00
p,
%20:
046
?
0
0
0
0
o?
0
o
0'0
0 00
...i ,.., ? ft.ic2. '
, R , , . .
?........-..-----
0
00
0
0
o
/7)
4
i, 0
? a \
l?
* .
.2
..,
o
. NIP
0
p'
o
0
0
0
0?
0 0
0
' 0
o
LEGEND
SYMBOL INDICATES LOCATION AND DEPTH OF EPICENTER AND
STRONGEST SHOCK THAT OCCURRED THERE.
_EPICENTER AND DEPTH CLASS MAGNITUDE' DESTRUCTION
(0-60 Km.) (70-300 Km.)
6 6 A 7.75 and above Major earthquake
0 0 B 7.0 to 7.7 Lower limit of
major earthquake
0 0 C 6.0 to 6.9 Destruction over .a
restricted area
0 . 0 1) 5.3 to 5.9 Locally destructive
0 SHOCKS FOR WHICH NO DATA ARE AVAILABLE AS TO
CLASS OR DEPTH
? Logarithm of the maximum trace amplitude (expressed in thousandths of a
millimeter) which would be registered on a standard seismometer at a
distance of 100 kilometers from the epicenter.
Brf .
igrf IIVE
100q 50 5057 80* E ME 6VE
50. E
QUADRANT
A
B
CLASS
C D
90?E. to 180?
2
6
58
18
90?W. to 180?
0
2
16
0
0? to 90?W.
1
23
43
0
0? to 90?E. .
1
0
15
1
Total
4
31
132
19
FIGURE 22-40. EARTHQUAKE EPICENTERS
Unknown
TOTAL
4
88
2
20
7
74
1
18
14
200
(b) VOLCANISM ? Thirteen active vol-
canoes have been reported within the Area (FIG-
URE 22-41) . Of these, 9 are situated along the
Scotia Arc and associated structural features. Of
those remaining, 3 are situated in the Balleny
Islands and 1 on Ross Island (14).
CONFIDENTIAL.
With the exception of Mount Erebus (FIGURE
22-42) , which appears to be in a constant state
of activity, no definite predictions can be given
as to the probable nature or date of future activity
of any of the volcanoes in the Antarctic. However,
records of volcanic activity in other portions of
the world indicate that the eruption of any of
the quiescent volcanoes is possible. While a steam
eruption would be of little importance, an ash
fall may affect military operations because of its
abrasive nature and effect on visibility. Further,
since the ash from some volcanoes contains rela-
tively high percentages of magnetic minerals, an
PAGE 22-5'50X1
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
NAVY ? JANUARY 1956
?,
150?
170'
1E0
160'
150
AS
i V
130'W 120?W 110'W 100'W 90? EST
80'W 70?W
60?W
50?
4r
W

W
20'
r
r
e
0
LEGEND
ACTIVE VOLCANOES
INACTIVE OR EXTINCT VOLCANOES
NUMBERED VOLCANOES ARE
DESCRIBED IN FIGURE 22-42
?
--;L
I C
.
n-,s
..43...? ip..
...... ? / . 9
?s ";04,--t.
44
' 410k
I. '' 0 11
/ I A /4 ........
/
... ? ,...
EV II I
cpc9?.13
12
V
5?.
.
?
4
7
. a .
..>>>------ ?
k
,v . i;ok,'.7 -
Ir S
V
C T
IA
3
2
pr,
)
4
i.
s ' !!..? ..1"-- . . A r..! T A R
'k
Iil.0
4.
A .
.. i
A ...---------j
.)
\
.
0
N
? ,
?t'
.....
8.
70',
?
.._,
177'E 127'E 110?E ? 100?E 90? EAST
80?E 70?E
60?E
50?E .
FIGURE 22-41. VOLCANOES
ash fall may change the magnetic characteristics
of the bottom sediments; such changes could in-
fluence magnetic sweep effectiveness and/or, the
magnetic characteristics of mines placed on the
bottom.
(c) TSUNAMIS ? Although no tsunamis
(seismic sea waves) have been recorded at Ant-
arctica, phenomena of this type probably occur
from time to time; however, no predictions of their
magnitude can be given. Tsunamis generated by
distant earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are
most likely to occur along the Pacific coast; those
generated by local earthquakes and/or volcanic,
eruptions are most likely to occur in the vicinity
PAGE 22-58
of the Palmer Peninsula, the Scotia Arc, the Wed-
dell and Ross Seas, and eastern Wilkes Land.
Tsunamis have been recorded in. the Antarctic
periphery in regions such as the southern tips of
Africa and South America and in the vicinity
of Australia and Tasmania.
(3) Magnetism
(a) LOCAL MAGNETIC ANOMALIES ? With
the exception of a single aeromagnetic survey and
observations at two points, no detailed informa-
tion is available on the local anomalies of the
magnetic field on the Antarctic continent. Pos-
sible high vertical or horizontal magnetic anoma-
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?
NAVY-JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
FIGURE 22-42. REPORTED VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
CONFIDENTIAL
LOCATION
ON
FIGURE
22-41
NA ME
LATITUDE
LONGITUDE
'
REMARKS
1
Freeman Peak*
66?25'S.
162?23'E.
Reported active by Balleny in 1839, has not been verified.
2
Buckle Island
66?48'S.
163?15'E.
Balleny reported smoke from two craters 1839. The Southern Cross
- reported smoke 1899. No activity reported by the Discovery 1904,
or Discovery II 1936 and 1939.
3
Sturge Island
67?24'S.
164?15'E.
Activity reported, but date and observer unknown. No activity noted
by the Discovery in 1904.
4
Mount Erebus
77?35'S.
167?10'E.
Almost continuous activity. Steam clouds, which rose 3,000 feet above
summit, and fire at night noted in 1908 on 18, 21, 25, 30 June; 6, 15,
16, 17, 19, 27 July; 1, 25 August; 18 September. Ash and pumice
reported 1912.
5
Sjovold Mountain*..
69?12'S.
72?50'W.
Thick black smoke reported by the Bouvet III 1931. No steam or
smoke noted by the Thorsh,aven 1935.
6
New Island*
65?12'S.
72?12'W.
Reported by Lutterfeld 1877. Existence highly doubtful.
7
Monte Burney
52?18'S.
73?24'W.
Reported active 1910; no data available as to type of activity.
8
Mount Pond
62?56'S.
60?34'W.
No date. Glacier contains layers of ash. Active fumaroles along the
beach at Whalers Bay.
9
Bridgeman Island...
62?04'S.
56?40'W.
Eruptions reported in 1.821 and 1839. Charcot landed 1909 and found
evidence of recent activity.
10
Christensen Nuna-
tak.
65?06'S.
59?34'W.
Reported active by Larsen 1893. Nordenskjold found crater extinct
in 1902.
11
12
Lindenberg Island...
,
Mount Darnley
64?55'S.
59?03'S.
59?42'W.
26?30'W.
Larsen 1.893 reported thick black smoke. The ice melted for a con-
siderable distance around the island. Ejected stones were observed
on the ice. No activity noted by Nordenskjold in 1902. Sulfur flow
reported in 1908.
Lava flow reported 1936.
13
Zavodovski Island...
56?20'S.
27?34'W.
Sulfur flow reported 1908.
* Location and name not verified by U.S. Board on Geographic Names.
lies (FIGURE 22-43) have been inferred from the
magnetic character of the rocks near and on the
surface. Local magnetic anomalies are of some
military importance; for example, they are used
in the setting of dip needle mines, and as a means
for submarine evasion of the Magnetic Airborne
Detector.
The known geology of the Palmer Peninsula and
the islands about it indicate igneous rock; hence,
magnetic anomalies of 1,000 to 3,000 gammas
probably occur.
Near Little America, a sharp total-force magnetic
anomaly of about 1,000 gammas was found at
79?35'S., 169?50'W. by aeromagnetic survey. Near
Ross Island (14) at 77?51'01"S., 166?36'42"E., a
horizontal anomaly of over 2,500 gammas was
recorded during a magnetic survey by the British
Discovery Expedition. -
The Auckland Islands area contains several mag-
netic anomalies. At 50?44'30"S., 166?08'24"E.
there is a negative vertical anomaly of more than
1,000 gammas. At 50?48'30"S., 166?00'48"E. there
is a large anomaly in declination of about 10?:
the declination in this Auckland area is normally
about 18?E. but the compass at this location reads
about 7?50'E. Such a change from the normal
declination would require a magnetic force per-
CONFIDENTIAL
pendicular to the magnetic meridian of about, -
1,500 gammas.
(b) SHORT-DURATION MAGNETIC FLUCTUA-
TIONS 7-- Large magnetic time variations usually
Occur within and at the ,boundaries of the auroral
zone. In such areas it is not unusual for magnetic
time changes with rates as high as 1 to 2 gammas
per second to occur. To show the regions over
which such rates can be expected to occur, the
zones of high auroral activity are illustrated in
FIGURE 22-44. Quantitative data of short dura-
tion fluctuations in this Area are rare. The few
rapid-run magnetograrns available for the Ant-
arctic are of too short a time period to evaluate
statistically.
(C) MAGNETIC CHANGES OF LONGER DURA-
TIONS - FIGURE 22-45 shows tabularly magnetic
changes of longer duration for the auroral zones
delimited in FIGURE 22-44. The numbers in the
body of the table show the number of days, weeks,
.months, etc., which are expected to .elapse before
the daily, weekly, monthly, etc., range of the
component considered will exceed a certain mag-
nitude. For example, for the H. component (rep-
resenting horizontal intensity) the number 12 at
the intersection of the day row and the 1,000 col-
umn .shows that 12 days are expected to elapse
before the daily range of the H component will
exceed 1,000 gammas.
PAGE 22-59 50X1
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
NAVY ? JANUARY 1956
130?W . 12VW 110?W . 100?W 90?WEST 730?W 70v ' saw 50?W
? II/C?
140?
LEGEND
n' /17 t:, Fr A5S0 ()..1K E2L Yo 0700 GELHars ANOMALIES
IN l S 11K E LeT0 EXHIBIT ANOMALIES

A . ,
.WItpo503,000GAvAS
40.
? KNOWN ANOMALIES
150.
W
?
- /)
70?
01
w
- ....,
P'? ,, .
= \
g
-? ?1`111111:14
y, s
il
q
0000
170?
e
-
-.i
allilillilt
IV ,
000 GAMMAS
TOTAL INTENSITY
. 4.. 11?1,111 ?
. .????
f V
---1 --
2500 GAMMAS
HORIZONTAL INTENSITY
\- ,i 1., ? ..,^
--O.'
_. 1.2"
180.
----c ,,, 60. ,
'
're
/PI-
50.
ii,V/;(
i.. . / 71
-I
1 '
" " a AN
.
TAR.CTICA
.n
z
w
.
2
0?
170.
"../
1000 GAMMAS
VERTICAL INTENSITY
JR
,
it,
7
0
1500 GAMMAS
DECLINATION
\
?
c0 ,
r
s
70.
7
15D?
1.? ?
a
1
145.
2600 GAMMAS
VERTICAL INTENSITY
r
ki?
IIPP'' \
?
? 135.E 127E 115.E IV E 90? EAST 60?( 70'E WE 5VE ?
FIGURE 22-43. MAGNETIC ANOMALIES
7. Marine biology
a. ATTACHMENT FOULING
(1) General ?Fouling is the attachment
and growth of sessile marine algae and invertebrate
animals upon underwater ordnance and equipment.
On ships' hulls this attachment can result in loss
of speed and increased fuel consumption. It also
may interfere with the normal operation of under-
water ordnance such as antisubmarine nets, mines,
and sonic devices.
, Collections by various Antarctic expeditions point
to a generally abundant and varied invertebrate
fauna; however, little if any work has been done on
PAGE 22-60
growth rates and periods of reproduction in rela-
tion to various ecological factors of the Area. The
only known specific fouling study was conducted
for a one-year period at Heard Island. Algae, some
of which may contribute to fouling, are discussed in
topic 7, c.
(2) Geographic variation ?The Area may
be divided roughly into two regions, the subant-
arctic and the Antarctic, where some differences in
fouling characteristics are noted.
(a) SUBANTARCIIC REGION ? This region
includes the portion of South America and the
islands between 40? and 60?S., with the exception
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?
?
'NAVY ? JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
CONFIDENTIAL
FIGURE 22-44. SOUTHERN AURORAL ZONE
?
FIGURE 22-45. MAGNETIC RANGES IN THE SOUTHERN AURORAL ZONE
TIME PERIOD
Magnitude (gammas)
Magnitude (gammas)
Magnitude (gammas)
200
500
1000
1500
200
500
1000
1500
200
500
1000
1500
Day
1
12
1
350
1
20
Week
2
17
4
1-month
1
30
1
3-month
1
30
15
200
6
6-month
1
8
2
Year
3
1
* Values in the graph i idicate expected average nui Ther of tine periods elapsing before ranges in horizontal intensity (H), Mag-
netic declination (D) and vertical intensity (Z) will exceed the magnitudes indicated.
CONFIDENTIAL
?
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CONFIDENTIAL
'NIS 69
of the South Sandwich Islands. The degree of
fouling in parts of this region has been estimated
in other NIS's as generally slight, although it may
range to moderate in many localities. In the study
at Heard Island, only algae attached to the test
panels. A number of organisms, nevertheless, are
expected to be prominent in the fouling complex,
and are present generally throughout the region.
Mussels, algae, barnacles, tubeworms, hydroids,
sponges, bryozoans, and tunicates may attach in
that order of abundance. In the cold waters of
this region the period of attachment probably is
limited to one to three of the warmest months,
February, March, and April. Where ice abrasion
occurs, fouling cannot develop on exposed surfaces.
(b) ANTARCTIC REGION ? Ice abrasion is
probably the most important factor affecting foul-
ing in this region. Where ice abrasion is absent or
rare, fouling develops on suitable surfaces. Attach-
ment probably occurs during the warmest part of
the summer season, but growth of the attached
organisms is believed to be slow. The following
organisms may be expected to be present in de-
scending order of abundance: bryozoans, sponges,
algae, sea anemones, tunicates, hydroids, barnacles,
and tubeworms.
b. BORERS ? Gribbles (Limnoria), the most
destructive of crustacean borers, are represented
in the Area by a single known species Limnoria
antarctica. This species is fairly common in such
places as South Georgia, but no evidence of boring
has ben recorded. Borer activity is expedted in
some of the northern extremes of the Area, but no
records are available.
C. ALGAE
(1) General? Large brown algae com-
monly called kelp occur in the Area. At least five
species are of such large size or occur in such
abundance that they are considered important to
military operations (FIGURE 22-46) . Macrocystis,
the largest alga in the Area, commonly grows to
depths of 150 feet in small to enormous fringing or
offshore beds. The floating portions of these.
plants form dense entangled masses on the water
surface which may be impassable to small propeller-
driven craft. Durvillea is a massive plant of wave-
exposed shores. Its thick leathery blade may be
broad or split into several strap-shaped sections.
Lessonia, a treelike forth, may have a trunklike
stem (stipe) as thick as a human thigh. It grows
chiefly below the lowest tide level, where groves
of these plants resemble submarine forests. Phyl-
logigas is an inhabitant of the sublittoral zone to
depths of over 100 feet. Desmarestia, another sub-
littoral alga, covers many bottom areas with dense
growths. Many other algae contribute to the
littoral and sublittoral flora.
PAGE 22-62
NAVY ? JANUARY 1956
The last three forms, when growing abundantly
in their habitat, may interfere with wire drags and
mechanical minesweep gear. Beds of the algae
also may offer some concealment to minefields and
may interfere with the placement and operation of
listening devices.
(2) Geographic distribution
(a) SUBANTARCTIC 'REGION ? The greatest
abundance of algae in the Area exists along the
subantarctic coasts. Luxuriant growths of four
of the large brown algae exist along the southern
coasts of South America, and about the Falkland
Islands. The subantarctic islands have generally
abundant marine floras, although ice action has a
limiting effect around some of the islands.
(b) ANTARCTIC REGION ? Only one large
kelp (Phyllogigas) is known from this region. On
rock, cobble, or sand and shell bottoms, it grows
within its depth range wherever ice abrasion is
absent or rare. Under optimum conditions, it oc-
curs in dense stands. This alga has been reported
specifically from such widely separated localities
as the South Orkney Islands, Palmer Peninsula,
McMurdo Sound (11), and Commonwealth Bay (6).
Its distribution probably is circumpolar. Desmare-
stia is usually abundant in all suitable localities,
usually extending to greater depths than Phyl-
logigas.
(3) Plankton? Several worldwide reports
concerning blockage of ship intake lines by high
concentrations of plankton are recorded. In the
vicinity of Peter I Island (24 ) and in the Ross Sea
region, the high concentration of diatoms and
copepods caused the evaporators of the U.S.S. Atka
to become clogged with a thick coating. This con-
dition resulted in faulty operation of the evapora-
tors, requiring frequent cleaning.
(4) Sea grasses ?True seagrasses, such as
Zostera, do not grow in the Area.
d. BIOLUMINESCENCE (PHOSPHORESCENCE)
(1) General? Antarctic waters are particu-
larly rich in nutritive salts which well up into the
cold surface layer enabling an abundance of plank-
tonic organisms to flourish. The principal bio-
luminescent animals included in this luxuriant
plankton are those which produce a discrete spark-
ing type of light, such as euphausiids, copepods,
and ostracods. The euphausiids, or krill as they
are known to the whalers, are the main source of
food for whales and often occur in tremendous
shoals numbering billions of individuals.
Two other types of bioluminescent displays may
be seen in this Area: the diffuse ball-like glows of
jellyfish and tunicates, and the brilliant sheetlike
luminescence caused by large shoals of protozoans.
The first type often takes the form of separate
CONFIDENTIAL
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?
NAVY?JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
CONFIDENTIAL
130?W . 120?W 110?W 100?W 90?WEST 60?W 70"W 60'W 50'W
140?
i9niiii W* te.
'k, 'k,' )? '
,
, . fi'A
I
Fin-
/A7
v) .
A 4
,1 '
1
I i
i\
\\
.
'.41!. ? '
c....!..4,
."4, ,,.;,, ?????
\ .. - ?? ???
---."
4,
MACROCYSTIS '
P.
-- / \
N.
TO 180 FEET LONG
,
?
10?
\ /
1
V
LESSONIA
A , ors17.10 \ I
..),
TO 10 FEET LONG
16cr
W
---..
1
/
.4'1". 1
-
1 ' .-
?-?
/
- - - ,. , (
, fi ?
: /
. /
c '1
1 /
W
1,1,0?
?.?....?
DU RV1 L LEA
.....
IIP
r;... '
TO 30 FEET LONG
? 0
If
? ' N'tc..?.... .
V
OP

_ ,,, 1 ROSS IC!, 5:111).
70. to go. 71:E,,,y,_ OP SP
',.'
--f121' ,i'76.
????". ...... 1 , 11') l' A -1
,,, ,
I
?
(0).
170?
AN TXR C TICA''....?.','.2 i
.
7. I
. /
0
?
r
/
?
q?
,
? - 7
1 ,
.
/
PHYLLOGIGAS
N
TO 30 FEET LONG
1ST
i
...... ......
140?
LINES REPRESENT OCCURRENCE ALONG
r/...a ?-..'
?DESMAREST
\
,
A
EV
. ----.--'1,.._
COASTS ONLY, NOT SEAWARD (-)NATION
Y...'
TO 6 FEET LONG.? _
? ?
130?E 120?E ' 110?E 100?E 93.
\ , ? .
\ /
EAST ' 80t Opt OPE - SPE
FIGURE 22-46. DISTRIBUTION OF KELP AND OTHER LARGE ALGAE
flashes of light which glow brightly for a few
seconds and fade out. However, if jellyfish or
tunicates are sufficiently concentrated, a sizable
area may be suffused by their luminescence. The
sheetlike displays produced by protozoans may ex-
tend for several miles along the sea surface.
These phenomena are the result of some physical,
chemical, or mechanical stimulus, such as surface
wave action, internal waves, general turbulence,
precipitation, salinity and temperature. changes,
and movements of vessels and marine animals.
However, bioluminescent displays of military im-
portance would require large concentrations of
luminous organisms.
CONFIDENTIAL
(2) Geographic distribution ?The distri-
bution of bioluminescent organisms is indicated
in FIGURE 22-47. They are generally, abundant
south of the Antarctic Convergence, with the 'ex-
ception of the eastern part of the Bellingshausen
Sea (25), off the Palmer Peninsula, and about the
South Shetland and South Orkney Islands. The
zone of maximum abundance shown in FIGURE
22-47 roughly follows ?the Antarctic Divergence
where upwelling of nutrient-laden water renders
conditions especially favorable for the growth and
reproduction of plankton. The southern boundary
of this zone is the pack-ice edge. ?The rich Weddell
Sea water is carried northward into the Scotia Sea,
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
LEGEND
MAXIMUM ABUNDANCE OF 'BIOLUMINESCENT ORGANISMS
HIGH, INCIDENCE OF BIOLUMINESCENT, ORGANISMS
MODERATE TO LOW NUMBERS .OF BIOLUMINESCENT OR
OBSERVATIONS OF BIOLUMINESCENCE
70.1 60?E
FIGURE 22-47. DISTRIBUTION AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF BIOLUMINESCENT ORGANISMS AND RECORDS OF BIOLUMINESCENT DISPLAYS
thus accounting for the dense plankton populations
of the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands
whaling grounds.
Bioluminescent displays are expected to be most
common in the waters known to support large popu-
lations of Plankton as shown in FIGURE 22-47; how-
ever, local conditions may promote the rapid in-
erease of plankton anywhere in the Area. The
fact that it is a common phenomenon in these
southern waters is brought out in FIGURE 22-47 by
the relatively large number of positive observations
reported by the few expeditions that have recorded
such data.
PAGE 22,64
(3) Seasonal variation ? Summer, particu-
larly late in the season (February-March) , is the
time of greatest organic activity in Antarctic
waters. In mid-November, a marked increase in
plankton occurs south of the Antarctic Con-
vergence to the pack ice. Pelagic life continues
to flourish until it reaches a maximum in late
February or early March, the center of abundance
moving south with the receding pack ice. Studies
on the principal species of krill show that these
luminescent crustaceans tend to Concentrate along
the edge of the ,pack.
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NAVY - JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
Many bioluminescent organisms are present at
the surface in reduced numbers through the winter,
but most of the plankton descends to depths during
the coldest months.
e. DANGEROUS MARINE ANIMALS ? Dangerous
marine animals in this Area are confined mainly
to jellyfishes and killer whales. Jellyfishes, the
only dangerous invertebrates in these southern
waters, occur as far south as the icepack. Among
the Antarctic coelenterates are certain members of
the family Cyaneidae which are jellyfishes well
known for the virulence of their sting. They
usually are found in relatively shoal water.
Killer whales are undoubtedly the most danger-
ous., animals in this Area. These fierce mammals
hunt in small packs preying on other warm-blooded
animals in the sea. They have been observed at-
tacking seals on ice floes by crashing against the
under side of the floe to dump the seal into the
water. A photographer with an early Antarctic
expedition was attacked in this manner by a small
group of killers. They came up under the ice on
which he was standing, breaking it into fragments.
He barely escaped death by leaping onto firmer
ice. Killer whales roam these waters all year, being
most numerous along the edge of the icepack and
about the southern islands.
f. HUMAN SURVIVAL IN WATER ? Owing to low
surface water temperatures, survival time of im-
mersed individuals in this Area is relatively short.
Where water temperature ranges from 350 to 40? F.
survival is less than 90 minutes and in less than
35? F. water, survival time is less than 45 minutes.
These times are those which may be expected by
individuals dressed in ordinary shipboard clothing
and kept afloat by life jackets. Actual field experi-
ments and laboratory tests have shown that
struggling or swimming in cold water will increase
survival time much more than merely clinging to
wreckage or floating passively on life belts.
g. SONIC MARINE ANIMALS
(1) Sonic fishes ?None of the true Ant-
arctic fishes, which include the nototheniids and
a few other families, is known to possess sonic
qualities. Therefore, no fish noise is expected
south of the Antarctic Convergence.
Limited interference caused by sonic fishes may
be encountered in summer off the tip of South
America and about the Falkland Islands. Here are
found a few pelagic fishes with sound-producing
characteristics, namely, herring, jacks, and some
bottom fishes belonging to the cod and scorpionfish
families.
(2) Sonic mammals ? Whales, porpoises,
and seals are common within the Area, and all are
potential noise sources. Whale migration and
movement habits are usually presented in the NIS;
CONFIDENTIAL
CONFIDENTIAL
however, in this Section areawise monthly distribu-
tion of the commercial species is the main presenta-
tion. In general, this presentation is based on
recorded movements of blue whales (Balaenoptera
musculus), fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus),
humpback whales (Megaptera nodosa), sei whales
(Balaenoptera borealis), and sperm whales (Phys-
eter catodon). In addition, right whales (Balaena
australis), bottlenosed whales (Hyperoodon plani-
Irons) , and little piked whales (Balaenoptera acuto-
rostrata) occasionally are considered in the sta-
tistics.
The vast majority of the whales are present d ar-
ing November through March. The few whales
which remain in the Area during the remainder of
the year are found in direct relation to the position
of the pack-ice edge. Whales here are circumpolar
in distribution, depending largely on the occurrence
of krill (Euphausiids). In FIGURE 22-74, the aver-
age monthly population densities are presented
in the artificial areal breakdown of the Interna-
tional Whaling Commission as limited by 50?S. lati-
tude and the average monthly pack-ice position.
Occurrence is presented both in numbers of whales
expected during any specific month per 10,000
square nautical miles and as the number of square
nautical miles per whale. Average densities range
from 8 to 90 whales per 10,000 square nautical miles '
or one whale per 111 to 1,250 square nautical miles.
Area I (70?W. to 160?W.) was closed to whaling
for several recent years. Consequently, the only
data are from the strip sampling of the U.S.S.
Canisteo (1946-47) . These data show an average
concentration of one whale per 34 square nautical
miles of open water outside the pack, and trips
into pack-ice leads showed one whale per 13 square
nautical miles of open water. Only fin and little
piked whales were considered in these data; there-
fore, they cannot be compared directly to the sta-
tistics of the catch.
Whale movement during the summer months is
concentrated- in lateral dispersal within 50 latitude
adjacent to the pack ice. No set pattern has been
discerned as yet for these dispersal movements.
Approximately 22 species of lesser whales and
porpoises have been recorded from the NIS 69 Area.
When considered as a group, these animals are dis-
tributed circumpolarly. The killer whale (Orcinus
orca) is the most important of these, ranging along
the pack around Antarctica where it feeds on other
porpoises, seals, and penguins.
Seals are circumpolar in relation to pack and
fast ice in the Antarctic proper; however, they are
not found in great concentrations. Weddell seals
(Leptonychotes weddelli) are essentially animals of
fast ice, utilizing breathing holes in the ice. They
are also found in small numbers on many islands
of the Area. The rare Ross seal (Ommatophoca
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69 .
rossi), the leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), and
the crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophagus) are
animals of the pack ice. These are also found on
? many of the islands of the Area.
The elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) is found
principally within the subantarctic regions of the
Area, particularly South Geofgia where the popu-
lation is over 250,000. Elephant seals have also
been reported along the northern fringe islands of
Antarctica.
h. DEEP SCATTERING LAYER
(1) General?The term "deep scattering
layer" (DSL) has been given to the phenomenon of
a horizontally stratified sound scattering layer in
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
the sea. ? The distinguishing characteristic of the
layer is a diurnal vertical migration, usually of
100 fathoms or greater, descending during the
morning and ascending during twilight hours.
Generally, it is believed that the scattering is caused
by living organisms such as plankton, squid, or
fish. The layer trace as recorded on fathometers
often has been misinterpreted as representing true
bottom depth, and the term "phantom bottom"
has been applied.
(2) Geographic occurrence? DSL observa-
tions in the Area are available from four ships.
The tracks and a' single station where the layer
was observed, together with the prevailing daytime
depths of the layer, are illustrated in FIGURE 22-48.
',.,g?nn.....?...g r
I3TW l20W 110?W 100?W 90? EST 90?W 70?W 60?W 50?W
I Cr
? RICA
.24
H.
\
IT
I W
.
T KA 19
u6 ...---?
........"--,......... U.S.S. ATKA (FEB. 195
? 0 ? 200
5 ...sot] "4.?-? 1
30?
W
MO?
r , i
- A
A IFEB.I? 55)
?BLE LAYER
170?
0.3 ? /9... 4,,s...
?
'
_
' --
...:
N. .
`...
-
..,---------------.1 0 .????
-11 4
711`.. (
???,..-
^44l ,?, ..?-------- r /
? ??? ..,
J
?
not Mit60
10.
170?
160?
''?;:
..,......
,,s09-49"
(:)
()
P ?
P
DISCOVERY
MULTIPLE
27, 41 6,
4.
,A014 ?
GO'
.../
U.S.S. ATK2A7
.
\
TI EC. 50)
CHOES ...."
AND 68
f -
C
04 -
' 1?
1 t
J.AN. 19 55)----77g
,...-? -1,97-
P .?........---- N T AR
),...
,
/ 4
\
. .
......,
C TIC
lir
lip
.
-...... v.,
.2
/
V/
.../ /
A
V
/
E
2EV
?
US REND 0 (JAN.I947
.?.. 2 25 ........?
.-... ?... .-- "-""..
....-
60.
LEGEND
? ? INDICATIONS OF DSL RARE OR
ENTIRELY ABSENT
U.S.S. HENDERSON 447) -.........---.
CONTINUOUS OR ALMOST CONTINUOUS
NO?
E
? ?
COMMANDANT C/A T 1JAN.19 9)
Ilk 0
-.--
..?
--. DAYTIME DEVELOPMENT OF DSL
NUMBERS INDICATE PREVAILING
DAYTIME DEPTH OF DSL IN FATHOMS
? STATION LOCATION
4
E
130?E 2541 110?E 1 254 . 90? EAST 85E 75E 454 SO? E
PAGE 22-66
FIGURE 22-48. TRACKS AND STATION WHERE DSL HAS BEEN OBSERVED
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?
?
NAVY-JANUARY 1956 MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
The southernmost observations of DSL were
made by the U.S.S. Henderson and were the only
ones reported by any ship navigating through or
immediately adjacent to the icepack. It may be
especially significant that the layer was neither
recorded nor heard on the echo sounder of the
U.S.S. Atka during its navigation around western
Antarctica. Discrepancies exist regarding the
latitudes at which the layer reportedly disappeared
in the Antarctic region. Termination of the layer
at about 56?S. (about 7? north of the Antarctic
Convergence at that time) was recorded aboard
the Atka. The Henderson recorded the temporary
termination of the DSL when crossing the Antarctic
Convergence (about 62?S.) , whereas the Comman-
dant Charcot did not lose the layer trace until the
limit of drifting pack ice was reached (about 64?S.) ,
almost 10? to the south of the convergence at that
time. Reappearance of the layer was recorded at
about 61?S. by the Commandant Charcot and at
about 62?S. by the Atka when leaving Antarctic
waters.
Some correlation was noted between the depths
of the multiple echoes detected by the R.R.S. Dis-
covery -II and temperature layering as shown by
bathythermograph traces. This ship also used
lower frequency sound than the other ships (10
kilocycles instead of 18 or 24 kilocycles) . The
possibility exists, therefore, that the sources of
the echoes were of a different nature from those
causing the deep scattering layer detected by the
other ships.
All known DSL observations in this Area have
been made during the months December through
March, since no ships reporting or recording the
layer have navigated in Antarctic waters during
the other months. On the basis of available ob-
servational data, it is believed that detection of
the deep scattering layer reasonably may be ex-
pected in the circumpolar waters to approximately
60?S. during the period December through March,
and possibly may occur there during the remainder
of the year. In higher latitudes, it may be expected
to be rare or entirely absent.
C. Coastal Sector 1: Palmer Peninsula, South
Orkney Islands, and South Shetland Islands
60?S. to 75?S.; 44?W. to 79?W. (FIGURE 22-76;
USHO Chart 6639; B.A. Chart 1775)
1. General
Coastal Sector 1 includes the Palmer Peninsula,
South Orkney Islands, South Shetland Islands, and
other islands off the coasts of the peninsula. The
northern end of the Palmer Peninsula, which is
the most northerly extremity of Antarctica, lies
approximately 560 n. miles south of South Amer-
ica. The peninsula is about 950 miles long and
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CONFIDENTIAL
is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on
the north by Drake Passage, and on the east by
the Weddell Sea. The South Orkney Islands lie
approximately 360 n. miles northeast of the penin-
sula, and the South Shetland Islands lie about
60 n. miles north of the northeast part of the
peninsula. Disregarding small coastal irregulari-
ties, the coasts of Coastal Sector 1 total about
4,000 miles in length.
Most of the west coast of the Palmer Peninsula
is relatively ice free during at least a part of the
summer; however, approaches to this coast are
channelized by the many off-lying islands, islets,
rocks, and shoals. Similar ice conditions prevail
in the approaches to the South Orkney Islands
and the South Shetland Islands during most of
the summer months. Except at the northeast
end the east coast of the Palmer Peninsula is un-
approachable on account of the dense pack ice
of the Weddell Sea. The greater part of the east
coast of the Palmer Peninsula, except for stretches
at the northeast and south ends, are rimmed by
shelf ice.
The islands and mainland in this coastal sector
are for the most part quite mountainous, particu-
larly along the northwest and west coasts of the
peninsula, and on the South Orkney and South
Shetland Islands, where rocky promontories, nuna-
taks, and mountain peaks protrude through a
mantle of snow and ice. During the summer
months the enveloping ice melts back along
portions of these coasts, exposing rocky cliffs and
in some places stretches of pebble beach.
The Palmer Peninsula is one of the most readily
accessible parts of the Antarctic mainland. The
peninsula and the off-lying islands, particularly
the South Shetland and South Orkney Islands,
were the sites of some of the earliest landings.
Bays within the coastal sector have been used
as layover stations by whalers and sealers for
many years, and several of the bays have been
the sites of regularly maintained supply caches.
Numerous landings have been made within this
coastal sector and several permanent and semi-
permanent camps for exploratory and scientific
purposes have been maintained here in recent
years.
2. Coast and landing places
From Cape Adams to Cape Knowles the coast
trends approximately 400 miles northward. Heavy
pack, broken by a few open water leads, fronts
this mountain-dominated stretch of coast. Scat-
tered peaks behind the southern portion of the
coast around the Nantucket Inlet reach maximum
elevations of about 7,000 feet. Th entrance to the
inlet is more or less ice free, whereas the bay itself
is choked with ice.
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NIS 69
Wright Inlet, which extends into the piedmont
about 30 miles north of Nantucket Inlet, contains
numerous patches of open water.. At the head
of this bay a 5,000-foot-high rock mass, Mount
Tricorn, rises above the surrounding terrain and
presents a distinctive appearance with its snow-
free, nearly vertical rock faces. Between Wright
Inlet and New Bedford Inlet, a distance of about
30 miles, the piedmont gradually rises to the in-
terior mountains. New Bedford Inlet, which is
about 10 n. miles wide at its entrance, is filled with
crevassed ice and fringed with cuffed shores that
are formed by the vertical, ice-free faces of the
piedmont. These cliffs are broken only by a series
of glaciers descending steeply from the high,
rugged, interior mountains. The head of the
inlet is marked by a snow-covered mountain that
is rocky on its eastern or bay side.
Between New Bedford Inlet and Violante Inlet,
the next indentation to the north, mountain
masses are isolated and scattered. Several glaciers
descend from the high interior. Inside the mouth
of Violante Inlet is the small, snow-covered Pullen
Island, which is cliffy along its northern coast
and gently sloping along its southern coast. A
very steep glacier marks the head of the large
bay, and the walls of the bay rise to low, ice-cov-
ered peaks.
The embayed, cape-studded coast continues
northward to Hilton Inlet, of which Cape Knowles
is the northern entrance point. Low, snow-cov-
ered Cape Darlington forms the southern entrance
point. The bay is headed by the wide Gruening
Glacier, which descends between steep, often bare,
rock walls.
From Cape Knowles to Cape Agassiz the coast
trends north-northwestward for about 350 miles.
The irregularly indented, 180-mile-long stretch of
coastline between Cape Knowles and the southern
tip of Hearst Island is accessible through several
leads in the sea ice, but from Hearst Island to
Cape Agassiz the coast is fronted by the Larsen Ice
Shelf. The coast between Cape Knowles and Cape
Boggs is indented by a succession of inlets and, in
general, consists of cliffed headlands and vertical,
often snow-free, rock walls. Coastal islands in
this area are described as "high, snow-covered
mounds." The Cape Knowles ? Cape Boggs por-
tion of coast is dominated by Mount Andrew
Jackson, which attains a height of 13,750 feet
and towers above the high interior plateau. ?A
coastal range of lesser elevations lies between
Mount Andrew Jackson and the coastline.
Lehrke Inlet, the northern entrance point of
which is Cape Boggs, appears to be the only one
of the Richard Black Coast bays bordered by any
appreciable coastal lowland areas, and here the
PAGE 22-68
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
lowlands are enclosed by steep icefalls along the
edges of the massive coastal ridges.
Cape Boggs, a precipitous headland, marks the
seaward edge of the high, rugged Eternity Moun-
tains, which are reported to rise about 6,000 feet
above a 6,500-foot-high plateau farther inland.
The northern side of the peninsula ending in Cape
Boggs forms the southern shore of Smith Inlet,
a large bay at the head of which is a steep glacier.
High coastal cliffs extend around the bay to Cape
Collier, the northern entrance point of Smith Inlet.
The mainland north of Cape Collier is terraced
but presents a fairly even skyline. Along this
portion of coast there are not as many rock out-
crops as elsewhere on the Cape Knowles ? Cape
Agassiz stretch of coast. Hearst Island, which
lies within the southern limits of the Larsen Ice
Shelf, is approximately 42 miles long from north
to south. The eastern coast of the island is
fronted by heavy sea ice with pressure ridges and
several icebergs, and the western or landward
coast is bounded by the ice shelf. Hearst Island
is snow-covered and crevassed; no bare rock is
visible. Behind the ice shelf the mainland coast
west of Hearst Island and northward to Cape
Agassiz is rugged, with cuffed headlands separat-
ing broad, steep glaciers. Bare rock is visible on
many of the vertical fault walls and cliff faces.
From Cape Agassiz to Cape Longing the coast
is approximately 350 miles long along the seaward
edge of the Larsen Ice Shelf. Except for the
southern shore of the peninsula ending in Cape
Longing, the mainland coast is completely fronted
by this massive ice shelf, which extends seaward
for 10 to 100 n. miles. The Weddell Sea, which
fronts the ice shelf, is beset almost constantly by
heavy pack ice that constitutes an extreme navi-
gational hazard and makes approach to the edge
of the shelf very difficult. The absence of sound-
ings in this portion of the Weddell Sea evidences
the inability of vessels to thus far penetrate these
icefilled waters.
The edge of the ice shelf itself presents another
problem. Changing from year to year in location,
height, and configuration and even showing a con-
siderable variation from season to season, its loca-
tion and description is at best an approximation.
The face of the shelf along the southern and cen-
tral_ portions of the coast is considerably higher
than it is along the northern portion. The central
part of the Larsen Ice Shelf is heavily crevassed,
and along its seaward edge, which sometimes
reaches heights of 100 to 200 feet, it is marked
by overhanging cliffs and deep indentations. The
shelf increases perceptibly in elevation shoreward.
The northern part of the Larsen Ice Shelf slopes
downward toward its northern end.
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NAVY-JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY CONFIDENTIAL
All of the islands between Cape Agassiz and
Cape Longing lie inside the edge of the ice shelf,
thus promoting considerable disagreement as to
their extent and even to their existence. Several
small nunataks are reported, particularly near
the mainland coast'. Jason Island, which lies off
the center of the Cape Agassiz - Cape Longing
stretch of coast, is reportedly snow free in its
lower parts. The island's eastern extremity, Cape
Framnes, is a bold, conspicuous promontory that
extends beyond the edge of the shelf at times.
Robertson Island, a dome-shaped, snow-covered
island about 35 n. miles south-southwest of Cape
Longing, has an extinct volcano at its northern
end. Lindenberg Island, a high, dark, and much
smaller, island about 8 n. miles northward, is re-
ported to be an extinct volcano. The Seal Nuna-
taks, a chain of about 11 snow-free islets of vol-
canic origin, extend west-northwestward from
Robertson Island.
Between Cape Agassiz and Cape Northrop, about
80 miles northwestward, the mainland coast is
indented by Mobiloil Inlet and a number of smaller
inlets. Mobiloil Inlet, located well within the Lar-
sen Ise Shelf, is dominated by a myriad of glaciers
converging at the head of the inlet at Hub Nuna-
tak, and the complex is known as The Traffic
Circle.
Between Cape Northrop and Mill Inlet, about
35 coastline miles to the northeast, the coast is
dominated by a series of steeply sloping, snow-
capped peaks and ridges. The glacier in Mill Inlet
is about 8 miles wide at its mouth and extends
inland a considerable distance between the rock
walls of a valley.
From Mill Inlet northeastward the coast is bor-
dered by a series of peaks and ridges with almost
perpendicular cliffs. The northern and eastern
slopes are snow free while the separating valleys
are filled with ice.
The Richthofen Valley, about 80 miles north-
east of Mill Inlet, is a glacier-filled depression that
is about 7 miles wide at its mouth and extends
inland some 15 miles between steep rock walls.
The southern portion of the 75-mile-long Oscar II
Coast, extending northeastward from the valley,
is indented by several inlets separated by rugged
promontories. Behind this stretch of coast the
steepgedges of the interior plateau are broken in
places by steep glaciers. North of the glaciers the
coastline is indented by a series of long, deep em-
bayments bordered by steep rock peninsulas.
The Nordenskjold Coast, which constitutes the
northern part of the coast between Cape Agassiz
and Cape Longing, is a high, ice-covered plateau
with a steeply sloping seaward fringe. A number
of glaciers descend onto the ice shelf that fronts
CONFIDENTIAL
the southwestern part of this coast. Deep fiords
extend several miles inland along the rest of the
coast, which is dominated by Cape Sobral, a partly
snow-free promontory that appears to be an island
from the air, and by Cape Longing, 12 miles
away across Larsen Inlet.
From Cape Longing to Cape Dubouzet the coast
trends northeastward for 150 miles. Several large
islands front most of the mainland coast, which
is covered by an almost continuous ice sheet and
fronted by ice cliffs and nearly always frozen
coastal channels. Approaches are blocked by the
icepack throughout most of the year. From No-
vember through February the icepack is broken,
but the approaches are imperilled by heavy float-
ing ice.
Anchorage is reported available in 6 fathoms over
good holding ground about 100 yards off the north-
west coast of Snow Hill Island, which lies east
of Cape Longing. Anchorage is also reported off
the southeast coast of the same island about 1 n.
mile offshore in 16 fathoms over good holding
ground. A third anchorage is reported in a bay
off the northwest coast of Joinville Island, the
largest island off the tip of the Palmer Peninsula.
The James Ross Island group is separated from
the mainland by the Prince Gustav Channel,
which has never been observed to be ?ice free.
James Ross Island, the largest of the group, is
essentially an ice-covered, table-topped island dom-
inated by the large, conical Mount Haddington
(6,561 feet) . The coast of the island is indented
by bights and is fronted by vertical cliffs and ice-
falls interrupted by glaciers that are 1 to 2 mires
in width and terminate in ice cliffs. The Naze,
a low sandy cape, marks the northeast tip of
the island and extends to within 3 n. miles of the
rocky, precipitous Vega Island. Vega Island
reaches a maximum height of 2,180 feet. Sidney
Herbert Sound, which separates James Ross Island
from Vega Island, has never been navigated be-
cause of the ice conditions and the numerous rocks
and islets.
Snow Hill Island is separated from James Ross
Island to the northwest by Admiralty Sound, a
deep but almost always ice-blocked channel. On
the northwest coast of the northeastern projec-
tion of Snow Hill Island there is a low shore on
which landings have been made (landing place (1) ) .
The Swedes under Nordenskjold landed in 1901
and were rescued in 1903 by the Argentinians. An
American expedition under Ellsworth also made a
landing here during 1934-1935. The southeast
coast of the projection consists of an ice cliff 4 to
20 feet high. The island's interior icecap rises to
a huge level plain which has been utilized as an
aircraft landing area.
PAGE 22-650X1
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CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
Seymour Island, about 1 n. mile northeast of
Snow Hill Island, is reported to be entirely snow
free. The island is, in general, fringed by low per-
pendicular cliffs, but many slopes are gradual
enough to provide landing places, particularly on
the southeast coast. A small island about 3 n. miles
to the north has a beach along its north coast.
Andersson Island and Jonassen Island, about
20 n. miles northeast of Vega Island, are separated
from the James Ross Island group by Erebus and
Terror Gulf. This gulf, noted for variable cur-
rents and heavy ice conditions, contains depths
of 100 to 200 fathoms. Andersson Island and
Jonassen Island are flat topped, and the icecaps
of the islands fall in gentle slopes to ice cliffs at
the sea. The eastern extremity of Andersson
Island.evidences volcanic origin in a lofty precipice
composed of an irregular mass of volcanic tuff
rising perpendicularly from the sea. A narrow
channel, Fridtjof Sound, separates these islands
from the mainland and has been safely navigated
even when Antarctic' Sound, the -channel farther
north between the mainland and the Joinville
Island group, was observed to be blocked by heavy
pack ice.
Paulet Island, the southernmost and smallest
of the Joinville Island group, is located about
16 n. miles due east of Andersson Island and is
practically snow free. It is apparently volcanic in
origin, has terraced slopes, and rises to a cone-
shaped summit reaching an elevation of 1,263 feet.
The steep slopes of the island are the site of a
large- penguin rookery. A low gravel beach
bounded by cliffs lies in a deep bight on the east-
ern side of the island. Along the northwest coast
is a campsite where provisions were left in 1903 by
the shipwrecked crew of the Norwegian ship
Antarctic.
Other islands of the Joinville Island group in-
clude Joinville Island, D'Urville Island, Dundee
Island, and a number of smaller islands and islets,
most of which are connected by sea ice. The group
is separated from the tip of the Palmer Peninsula
by Antarctic Sound, which is usually blocked by
ice. On Joinville Island, the largest of the islands,
a mountain reaches an elevation of 3,700 feet.
The rest of the group is covered by a low, smooth
icecap, bare rock appearing only where surfaces
are perpendicular. At the northwestern end of
Dundee Island there is a rocky beach (landing
place (2) ) backed by a 40-foot-high ice face. Ells-
worth landed here during his 1935-36 expedition.
Aircraft have landed on the snow plain in the
northern portion of the island. -
The coastal peaks that emerge from the ice
sheet on the mainland between Cape Longing
and Cape Dubouzet are the fringes of the interior
PAGE 22-70
NAVY-JANUARY 1956
frozen tableland. This inland plateau is high,
marked by elevations of 2,000 to 3,000 feet. A
peak on Cape Longing is reported to reach an
elevation of 5,500 feet, and a large glacier breaks
the ice cliffs just north of the cape.
The mainland coast trends northeastward from
Cape Longing along Prince Gustav Channel to
Duse Bay, some 7 n. miles wide and 31/2 n. miles
deep. This stretch of the mainland is marked
by jutting headlands and ice-filled inlets. The
eastern shore of Duse Bay is formed by Tambarin
Peninsula, which extends southeastward from the
tip of the Palmer Peninsula. The northeast face
of the Palmer Peninsula is indented by Hope Bay,
which is 13/4 n. miles wide and about 2'/2 n. miles
long. A British stone hut and meteorological sta-
tion have been located within the bay in Hut
Cove since 1946. Landings have been effected
inside the cove (landing place (5) ) and southwest
of the western entrance point. The ice cliff be-
tween Hope Bay and Cape Dubouzet is the sea-
ward edge of a vast glacier.
The South Orkney Islands, some 345 n. miles
northeast of the tip of the Palmer Peninsula and
lying between latitudes 60?S. and 61?S., consist
Of two barren, mountainous islands and a number
of smaller islands and islets. The main islands,
Coronation and Laurie Islands, have a combined
coastline length of only about 100 miles. Ap-
proaches to the group are hazardous because the
islands are inadequately charted, are covered usu-
ally by fog, and are fronted by icebergs, rocks,
and shoal areas. Tide rips which may be caused
by sunken rocks are common, and the combina-
tion of floating ice and currents makes naviga-
tion close off the coasts and between i the islands
extremely dangerous.
Coronation Island, the largest of the South Ork-
ney Islands, is about 30 miles long and 3 to 8
miles wide. It is dominated by a mountain ridge
that extends the length of the island and reaches
its greatest height in the eastern part where it
ascends to 3,000 feet. Completely glaciated, the
terrain of the island descends steeply to the sea
in rugged cliffs except along the northern and
northwestern coasts where the icecap descends to
the water's edge in gentle slopes. All coasts are
indented, but the anchorages in the indentations
are for the most part temporary at best. Only
Sandefjord Bay on the west coast has desirable
conditions for anchoring. Here the holding ground
is good in 5 to 18 fathoms and shelter from the
weather is provided by headlands and nearby
islands. In the bay and throughout the surround-
ing waters, great care must be taken to avoid the
numerous rocks and bergs, both grounded and
afloat. Landings have been made on the western
part of Coronation Island (landing place (4) ).
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NAVY-JANUARY 1956 MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
Laurie Island, the other major island of the
group, is considerably smaller, being only about
12 1/2 miles long and in places less than 1 mile
wide. The island is essentially a complex of ice-
covered peninsulas separating several embayments.
Scotia Bay, an embayment at the western end of
the south coast, has been the site of an Argen-
tine meteorological station since 1904. Anchorage
may be taken in 8 to 10 fathoms in the entrance
of a cove at the north end of the bay; however,
anchorage is not recommended in the bay because
the holding ground is poor, the bay is exposed, and
the cove is small. In this cove, which is the
location of the Argentine station, landings have
been effected (landing place (3) ) . The bay en-
trance is flanked by some of the numerous rocks
and islets that encircle the island. Scotia Bay
is ice locked during the winter, as is the entire
island group, and is clear of ice for only a short
time during the summer.
South of Coronation Island are several islands,
islets, and rocks. Several good anchorages are
available in this area, which has long served as
a station for whalers. Borge Bay, located off the
east coast of Signy Island, is one of the more
frequented anchorages. On the west shore of the
bay there is a good beach where fresh water is
available.
Powell Island,- east of Coronation Island, and
two smaller islands form Ellefsen Harbor, a small
but well-sheltered anchorage with depths of 8 to
13 fathoms over good holding ground.
The South Shetland Islands are separated from
the northwest coast of the Palmer Peninsula by
Bransfield Strait, which is 60 to 70 n. miles wide.
The islands are arranged in a chain that extends
in an east-northeast - west-southwest direction for
a distance of approximately 280 n. miles. The
island chain is divided into two groups by a broad
strait that is about 65 n. miles wide and contains
a few relatively small islands. The most important
islands in the northeastern group are Clarence
Island and Elephant Island, and in the southwest-
ern? group are King George Island, Livingston
Island, and Deception Island. The islands are of
volcanic origin, mostly mountainous, and range
in size from tiny islets to King George Island,
which is 48 miles long and 18 miles wide.
Approaches from the north to most of the South
Shetland Islands are restricted by a gently sloping
insular shelf; by numerous islets, rocks, and sub-
merged obstacles extending far offshore; and by
strong currents. Strong currents also flow through
the narrows between the islands. Navigable chan-
nels allow passage between most of the islands,
and approaches to the group from the south are
clear except for scattered islets, rocks, and reefs,
most of which are found close offshore.
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The larger islands of the South Shetland Islands
are indented by many large bays providing ade-
quate shelter for anchorage. Many of these bays
have been used or visited by whaling and sealing
vessels. A British meteorological station and an
Argentine meteorological station are located on the
shores of the bay that is enclosed by the horseshoe-
shaped Deception Island (FIGURE 22-49A) . In ad-
dition to the larger embayments, numerous pro-
tected coves indent the coasts of almost all of the
larger islands.
The coasts of the South Shetland Islands are
steep, consisting of ice cliffs and barren rocky
bluffs. Many of the smaller islands are little more
than bare, steep-sided conical rocks jutting up from
the water. A few islands have low, almost flat
profiles, but most of the islands have rugged,
mountainous interiors. All but the aforemen-
tioned steep-sided, conical islets are capped with
snow and ice. Sheltered sand and gravel beaches
suitable for landings are available on Clarence
Island, King George Island, and Deception Island
(landing places (6), (8), and (10)).
From Cape Dubouzet to Cape Kater the coast of
the Palmer Peninsula trends southwestward for
about 100 miles and is indented by a few partly
sheltered bays and several minor indentations.
The coast is covered by ice through which only a
few pinnacles project. Bransfleld Strait, which
separates the Palmer Peninsula from the South
Shetland Islands is, in general, clear. The strait
is approximately 38 to 64 n. miles wide. Ap-
proaches from the strait to the coast are partly
obstructed by two small islands, each about 21/2
miles in diameter. One of the islands lies 'about
10 n. miles off Cape Kater and the other lies' about
11 n. miles off the center ,of the coast bkween
Cape Dubouzet and Cape Kater. In addition, num-
erous islets, rocks, and reefs are found in the
vicinity of each island and as far as 12 n. miles off
portions of the mainland coast.
The shores of the mainland are mostly fronted by
ice cliffs. However, a few bare rock and pebble
beaches are found at the tips of promontories and
at the foot of ice cliffs. Two of the promontories
were used as landing places (landing places (7)
and (9) ) . The entire coast is backed by an almost
featureless plateau that is about 2,000 feet high
behind the northeast end and 6,000 feet high behind
the southwest end of the coast. Numerous glaciers
flowing northward off this plateau join to form
an almost level ice platform that extends to the sea.
The Palmer Archipelago, which consists of Trin-
ity Island, Brabant Island, Anvers Island, and
smaller associated islands, extends northeast -
southwest for 135 n. miles off the northwest coast
of the Palmer Peninsula between _Cape Kater and
Cape Renard. Approaches to the islands of this
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NIS 69
group are clear from the open sea to the north and
northwest and through Bransfield Strait to the
northeast. Passage between the group and
Palmer Peninsula, however, is restricted to a con-
tinuous channel that is composed of several straits
and has a minimum width of 3 n. miles between
Trinity Island and the mainland. The channel is
encumbered by islets and rocks, the greatest con-
centration of which are found at the southwest en-
trance of the channel off the south coast of Anvers
Island. Approaches to the east coast of Anvers
Island and the west coast of Brabant Island are
through a broad bay that is partly obstructed by a
group of islands. This bay narrows to the south
to a channel 11/2 n. miles wide. Approaches to por-
tions of the northeast coast of Brabant Island and
the south coast of Anvers Island are restricted to
narrow channels by close-lying islands. The chan-
nel off the northeast coast of Brabant Island is
short, encumbered by several small islands, and
about 2 n. miles wide. The channel along the
south coast of Anvers Island is approximately 19
n. miles long, 1 to 3 n. miles wide, and channelized
at either end by smaller islands. The remaining
islands of the archipelago are small and are lo-
cated far enough apart from one another and the
mainland to have relatively clear approaches. In
places, however, the approaches to the islands are
encumbered by groups of islets and rocks extend-
ing a maximum of 5 n. miles offshore.
A good anchorage reportedly used by whaling
vessels is available off the west coast of Wiencke
Island, which is located off the south coast of
Anvers Island. The harbor is sheltered from wind,
swell, and drift ice by a smaller island and several
rocks.
Trinity Island, which is approximately 15 miles
long and 13 miles wide, lies 3 to 17 n. miles off the
Palmer Peninsula coast and is located about 18 n.
miles west of Cape Kater. Approaches to large
portions of the coast of this island are fouled by
rocks and reefs for a distance of 5 n. miles offshore.
The southwest portion of the island consists of an
-ice-covered tableland that merges with the high,
partly exposed rock characteristic of most of the
island. The summit, 3,670 feet high, is located ap-
proximately at the center of the island.
Brabant Island, which is 33 miles long and 20
miles wide, lies 4 to 28 n. miles off the mainland
and about 64 n. miles west-southwest of Cape Kater.
The island is predominantly mountainous with bare
rock showing only on the peaks and steeper slopes.
A landing was made on the northern portion of the
island (landing place (11) ) . Several small islands
and numerous islets and rocks encumber the ap-
proaches to parts of the coast of the island, and
foul ground extends as far as 5 n. miles off the west
coast of the northern extremity of the island.
PAGE 22-72
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
Several of the bays indenting the coast of the
island offer possible shelter, but most of the bays
contain encumbrances. The east coast of Brabant
Island is backed mostly by the ice cliffs of glaciers
rising to the snow-covered foothills and peaks of
a mountain range that parallels most of the coast.
The northern extremity of the island is a high
rocky peninsula, much of which is fronted by high
rocky cliffs. The west coast is intersected by moun-
tain ridges ending in rocky promontories, between
which are cliff-faced glaciers descending through
valleys. Of the several mountain peaks that
closely back the west coast of the island, the highest
reaches an elevation of 8,054 feet.
Anvers Island, which is 43 miles long and 28 miles
wide, lies about 8 to 40 n. miles off the mainland
and is separated from Brabant Island by a bay,
4 to 18 n. miles wide. Islets, rocks, and shoals ex-
tending as far as 6 n. miles offshore are found in
great numbers off the north, west, and southwest
coasts. Only scattered encumbrances lie off the
other coasts of the island. The southeast coast of
the island is fronted by steep rocky cliffs from
which icefalls and hanging glaciers descend to the
shore. The glaciers originate in the valleys of a
mountain range. The peaks of the range attain
the highest elevations found on the island, almost
10,000 feet. The remaining highly indented coasts
of the island are bordered by a belt of piedmont
ice that is backed by glaciers descending from the
rugged mountainous interior. Landings were
made on the southwest part of Anvers Island (land-
ing place (17) ) , but elsewhere the shores of the
island afford only a few possible landing sites.
The remaining islands of the Palmer Archipelago
are considerably smaller than Brabant Island and
Anvers Island, and most of them are found in the
body of water between Brabant Island and Trinity
Island. The small islands are predominantly
mountainous with coasts backed by rock cliffs,
cliff-faced glaciers, and gentle, snow-covered slopes.
Landings were made on three of these small islands
close off Anvers Island (landing places (13) , (14),
and (16)).
From Cape Kater to Cape Renard the mainland
coast trends southwestward for about 200 miles.
This irregular stretch of coast has many embay-
ments and is sheltered by the Palmer Archipelago.
Approaches to the coast are restricted to numerous
straits and passages by the islands of the Palmer
Archipelago, which extend as far as 40 n. miles off-
shore. Passage between the mainland coast and
the islands is through a strait that is 3 to 11 n. miles
wide but is encumbered by islets, rocks, and reefs.
The approaches from the strait to the mainland
coast are encumbered by many islets and rocks
that are,found off most of the promontories and at
the heads of several of the bays. Sheltered an-
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MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
chorages are available in many of the bays, though
the usefullness of these Anchorages is severely
limited by the danger of the calving of encircling
ice cliffs.
Most of the coast between Cape Kater and Cape
Renard is fronted by the rice cliffs of glaciers. How-
ever, bare rock is found on many of the promon-
tories and on the sides of the numerous narrow
glacial fiords indenting the coast. A few land-
ings were made on the southwest half of the coast
(landing places (12) and (15) ) . The coast is
characterized by numerous rocky promontories ex-
tending inland as ridges to a high interior plateau
that has an approximate elevation of 6,000 feet.
Many glaciers descend from the plateau between
the ridges.
From Cape Renard to Cape Rey (66?44'S.,
66?30'W.) the mainland coastline trends southwest-
ward for about 240 miles and is extremely irregular.
Approaches to the northeast part of the coast are
restricted by a concentration of small islands, islets,
and rocks lying from a few hundred yards to 32 n.
miles offshore. Approaches to the southwest part
of the coast are channelized by the Biscoe Islands,
16 to about 50 n. miles offshore, and by numerous
smaller islands, islets, and rocks in the strait
between the Biscoe Islands and the mainland.
The Biscoe Islands lie in a northeast - southwest
line that roughly parallels the mainland coast for
a distance of approximately 85 n. miles. The
islands vary in length from 2 to 25 miles and all
are relatively low (maximum elevation 600 feet) ,
featureless, and covered by ice. Rock is exposed
only at the bases of some of the ice cliffs that rim
most of the islands. The islands are all oriented
with their lengths parallel with the axis of the
island chain. On some of the islands the icecap
summit is located closer to the southwestern end
of the island.
Three small islands lying 1 to 4 n. miles off the
portion of the mainland coast just southwest of
Cape Renard restrict approach to that part of the
coast to a narrow channel. The small islands are
snow- and ice-covered rock masses, with an eleva-
tion of 2,100 feet recorded on the largest island.
Fiords indenting two of the islands have been used
as anchorages.
The mainland coast for about 100 miles south-
west of Cape Renard is indented by several bays
8 to 14 n. miles long. The bays are separated by
narrow strips of land, many of which terminate in
high, cliff-faced promontories. A few small islands,
1 to 3 miles in diameter, lie close off some of the
promontories and restrict entrance into several of
the bays. Although most of these islands have bold
profiles and reach elevations up to 2,500 feet, land-
ings have been made on two of them (landing
places (18) and (19)). Near the southwest end,
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the mainland coast is indented by Marin Darbel
Bay, a broad embayment situated between Cape
Bellue and Cape Rey. Most of the coast is rimmed
by ice that joins with the calving ice cliffs of the
valley glaciers at the bayheads; however, a landing
was made at one point (landing place (20)). A
particularly broad glacial sheet formed by several
valley glaciers lines the shores of Marin Darbel Bay.
Valley glaciers dissect the high plateau (elevation
6,000 feet) closely backing the entire coast. Nu-
merous ridges extend seaward from the plateau and
end in rocky promontories.
J,
From Cape Rey to Camp Point (67?58'S.,
67?19'E.) the coast is about 220 miles long. The
greater part of the coast is shielded by Adelaide
Island, which lies close off a broad, mountainous
cape that dominates the mainland coast. Ap-
proaches are through Matha Strait and Marguerite
Bay, located to the north and south respectively of
Adelaide Island, and through a strait 50 n. miles
long and 3/4 to 19 n. miles wide that separates
Adelaide Island from the mainland. Passage
through Matha Strait is, in general, clear through
a broad strait separating the Biscoe Islands from
Adelaide Island. The strait is encumbered only
by a few scattered groups of islets. Approach to
the mainland from the south through Marguerite
Bay is restricted by a chain of islets, rocks, and reefs
that extends more than 20 n. miles south of Ade-
laide Island. An island approximately 5 miles in
diameter and several smaller islands divide the
northern part of the strait between Adelaide Island
and the mainland into two channels. Four elon-
gated islands, 3 to 7 miles long, channelize passage
through the narrower part of the strait to the south.
Farther south, Pourquoi Pas Island and several
smaller islands channelize approaches to the ex-
tremely irregular southern part of the mainland
coast. The channels are mostly clear, as much
as 25 n. miles long, and 1/2 to 7 n. miles wide; how-
ever, they are difficult to navigate because of the
strong currents that flow through the narrows
and the strong local offshore winds.
Adelaide Island is approximately 78 miles long
and 35 miles wide. Approaches to portions of the
north, south, and east coasts of the island are en-
cumbered by groups of islets, rocks, and shoals.
A range of mountains separated into five distinct
masses trends the length of the island. The steep,
snow-covered mountain slopes drop off sharply to
the irregular east coast of the island, while the
west coast of the island is backed by a broad snow-
and ice-covered terrace that spreads seaward from
the base of the mountains. The shores of the west
coast consist of calving ice cliffs, 100 to 140 feet
high, that are notched by numerous minor in-
dentations.
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NIS 69
Pourquoi Pas Island, which is 17 miles long and
15 miles wide, and the other smaller islands restrict-
ing approaches to the southern part of the Cape
Rey - Camp Point stretch of coast are distinguished
by the predominance of steep, bare cliffs lining their
shores. Snow- and ice-capped mountains reach
maximum elevations of 5,400 feet on Pourquoi Pas
Island and more than 3,000 feet on the smaller
islands.
A comparatively regular stretch of mainland
coast about 45 miles long fronts the broad cape
of land that is closely bordered by Adelaide Island.
A mountain chain with a maximum elevation of
over 5,500 feet extends north-south parallel' to
the coastline of the cape. From the mountain
chain steep, snow-covered slopes and valley
glaciers descend to the strait. The north coast
of the cape is indented by a large fiord 22 n. miles
long and 10 to 12 n. miles wide, the head of which
is rimmed by several valley glaciers. The fiord
is bounded on the east by steep rock cliffs and on
the west by the ice cliffs of a glacial mass that
descends from the mountainous interior of the
cape. The south coast of the cape is backed
by steep rocky slopes that flank the ice cliffs of
a valley glacier extending northward across the
neck of the cape to the fiord. The remainder of
the mainland coast south of the cape to Camp
Point is unusually free of ice and is indented by a
bay and several fiords. Valley glaciers descend
from the high interior plateau and fill the heads
of the fiords. The walls of the fiords consist
of bare rock. Landing places might be found on
the raised beaches and glacial moraines at the foot
of the cliffs along portions of this part of the
mainland coast.
Between Camp Point and Cape Jeremy (69?24'S.,
68?51'W.) , a distance of about 170 miles, the coast
is almost entirely bordered by ice cliffs. The domi-
nant terrain feature, a continuation of the high
Interior plateau, decreases in altitude to the south
and gives way to a rift valley behind the south-
ern part of the coast. This rift provides an over-
land link between the east and west coasts of
the Palmer Peninsula.
Approaches to this stretch of coast are through
Marguerite Bay, a large body of water 130 n. miles
long and 60 n. miles wide (FIGURE 22-49B). The
entrance to the bay is quite broad, extending more
than 60 n. miles between Adelaide Island to the
north and Alexander Island to the south. The
northern part of the entrance is fouled by a chain
of islets, rocks, and reefs that extend more than
20 n. miles south of Adelaide Island. Navigation
within the bay is restricted by scattered groups
of ice-covered islets and numerous uncharted, sub-
merged pinnacles. Marguerite Bay is generally
filled with ice, even throughout most of the sum-
PAGE 22-74
NAVY 7 JANUARY 1956
mer months. When most of the bay is relatively
clear, navigation is still hazardous in the south-
ern part of the bay because of the large quantity
of sea ice and bergs carried there by prevailing
northerly winds.
Several ice-covered islands ranging in size from
tiny islets to islands 4 miles in diameter restrict
approaches to the northern portion of the main-
land coast. These islands lie 6 to 17 n. miles south
of Camp Point and extend as far as 5 n. miles
directly offshore. One of the islands, Stonington
Island, has-been used as a base camp for several
expeditions (landing place (22) ). Groups of islets,
rocks, and reefs front a promontory located 20 n.
miles south of Camp Point, lie as far as 8 n. miles
off a cape located 48 n. miles south of Camp Point,
and extend a few hundred yards to 24 n. miles
northwest of Cape Jeremy.
The Camp Point - Cape Jeremy stretch of coast
is indented by a fiord and several bays, the largest
of which fronts most of the southern part of the
coast. A landing was made on the northern part
of the coast by the British expedition of 1934-1937
(landing place (21) ). Most of the shore is imthe-
diately backed by the ice cliffs of piedmont glaciers.
The glaciers are relatively narrow along the north-
ern part of the coast, but widen southward to a
width of 18 n. miles and fill most of the large bay
that indents the southern part of the coast. Back-
ing the coastal ice are the steep slopes of mountain
peaks, ridges, bluffs, and blunt promontories be-
tween which numerous glaciers descend seaward
from the high interior plateau. A fiord 7 n. miles
long and 31/2 n. miles wide lies 18 n. miles south
of Camp Point. The fiord is flanked by the steep
cliffs of the plateau to the north and a promontory
to the south. At the head of the fiord is a large
glacier which flows northwest from a vast interior
basin. The glacier also flows southeast from the
basin to the Bowman Coast on the east coast of
the Palmer Peninsula. Several other glacial val-
leys merge in this basin and offer sledge routes
between the east and west coast's of the peninsula.
Between Cape Jeremy and the western entrance
of Carroll Inlet the coast is about 500 miles long
and is sheltered by Alexander I Island, a large
crescent-shaped land mass approximately 260 miles
long and 170 miles wide. This island is separated
from the mainland by a rift known as George VI
Sound, which is almost entirely filled with shelf
ice that renders the sound virtually impenetrable
by vessels.
Approaches to most of the south and east coasts
of Alexander I Island and to the bordering main-
land coast are obstructed by shelf ice that is edged
by ice cliffs and has an extremely irregular sur-
face composed of pressure ridges, hummocks, rifts,
and depressions. However, the northeastern part
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of George VI Sound for 25 to 35 n. miles south
of Cape Jeremy and the southwestern part of the
sound through Ronne Entrance are relatively free
of ice. Approach to the mainland south of Ronne
Entrance is restricted by several islands ranging
in size from less than a mile in diameter to more
than 70 miles in length. Passages that separate
these islands from each other and froin the main-
land are almost entirely filled with extensions of
the shelf ice of the sound. Approach to the west
coast of Alexander I Island is encumbered by Char-
cot Island, which is approximately 55 miles in
diameter. Passage by vessel between Charcot
Island and Alexander I Island is blocked by shelf
ice that almost completely fills the intervening
Wilkins Strait. Groups of islets restrict approaches
to the north end of Alexander I Island, and nu-
merous rocks, reefs, and other obstacles, most of
which are uncharted, make approaches hazardous
to much of the remainder of the island.
Most of the mainland coast, the coast of Alex-
ander I Island, and the coasts of the smaller off-
lying islands are rimmed by ice cliffs with few
possible places for landing; however, a landing
was made on the northern coast of Charcot Is-
land (landing place (23) ). Broad piedmont gla-
ciers broken in places by scattered nunataks back
the north and west coasts of Alexander I Island
and the mainland coast south of Alexander I Is-
land. Rising from the piedmont ice in the north-
ern part of Alexander I Island are the steep, barren
slopes of several mountain ranges, the peaks of
which attain maximum elevations of over 10,000
feet. The mountain slopes lie close behind most
of the north half of the east coast of the island.
The coasts of the southern part of Alexander I
Island and most of the mainland coast are backed
by isolated mountains and groups of mountains
between which broad glaciers gradually descend
from the interior highlands. Charcot Island and
the smaller off-lying islands are almost completely
capped by snow and ice. A few mountain peaks
back the north coast of Charcot Island, and scat-
tered terrain features appear through the mantle
of snow and ice on the smaller islands.
D. Coastal Sector 2: Western entrance of
Carroll Inlet to Cape Colbeck, including Peter
I Island
730s., 790W.; 770-.
b,
158?W.
(FIGURE 22-76; USHO Charts 6637 and 6638)
1. General
The mainland stretch of coast between Carroll
Inlet and Cape Colbeck is approximately 2,200
miles long and fronted by exceedingly heavy pack
ice. Aerial survey has revealed little of the coastal
configuration because ice covers the coast and
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GEOGRAPHY
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extends seaward. The only landings effected in
Coastal Sector 2 were on Peter I Island, about 240
n. miles north of the eastern part of the coastal
sector, and on Edward VII Peninsula, located at
the western extremity of the coastal sector.
The South Pacific Ocean lies off the entire coast,
though the Bellingshausen Sea and Amundsen Sea
immediately border the east half of the coastal
sector. Areas of open water are reported along-the
coast of the central and western portions of the
coastal sector; however, passage through the pack
has never been achieved. The approach of the one
landing effected on the mainland coast of this
coastal sector was made through the Ross Sea.
Coastal terrain behind the almost continuous
ice cliffs is generally described as rugged, consist-
ing of numerous coastal ranges and isolated
mountain massifs. The Ellsworth Highland of
the central and eastern part of the coastal sector
lies between the coastal ranges and the interior
plateau. Heights in the Ellsworth Highland reach
about 12,500 feet. The coastal ranges are, in
general, somewhat lower, but two coastal peaks
midway along the coastal sector are reported to
reach 15,000 feet.
2. Coast and landing places
etween Carroll Inlet and Cape Flying Fish the
coast is approximately 500 miles long and is
bordered by the Bellingshausen Sea. During the
summer, pack ice probably extends about 180 n.
miles from the coast, but ice conditions are dif-
ficult to forecast. It is considered likely that no
open water exists along this stretch of the main-
land coast during the summer as it does along
many other portions of the. coast.
Between Carroll Inlet and about 85?W. longi-
tude, the coast is called the George Bryan Coast
and consists entirely of ice cliffs. Behind this
coastal stretch lies the highland belt called the
Ellsworth Highland, which extends from the base
of the Palmer Peninsula to the interior continental
plateau. A mountain range dominated near its
northern end by the 12,500-foot Mount Ulmer lies
a considerable distance inland in the highland
belt.
From 88?W. to about 100?50'W. the coast is
called the Eights Coast. The coastline at the west-
ern end of this stretch of coast is not charted be-
cause of the irreconcilability of the sources. Near
97?W. longitude the coast trends northward along
the Noville Peninsula, which ends in Cape Palmer.
At the base of the peninsula is a 4,000-foot-high
mountain and a mountain range about 3,000 feet
high extending nprthward to the tip of the pen-
insula. The eastern side of the peninsula is in-
dented by bays that are probably always filled
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NIS 69
with shelf ice. The two Fletcher Islands lie just
off this coast.
The Thurston Peninsula, of which Noville Pen-
insula is an offshoot, extends northwestward and
westward for about 80 miles and terminates in
Cape Flying Fish.
The only landings in the area have been made
on Peter I Island, located about 240 n. miles north
of the mainland coast (FIGURE 22-50A). Extend-
ing about 14 miles in a north-south direction, the
island is covered by snow and ice except where
slopes are precipitous. The Norwegians in 1928-
1929, and again in 1947-1948, and an American
expedition in 1947-1948 have landed on the island
(landing place (24) ).
The greatest elevation on Peter I Island is an
extinct volcano which reaches a height of about
4,000 feet. The east coast is precipitous while the
west coast is lower but contains a high piedmont
in its central portion. Both the northern and
southern sides of the island have more gradual
slopes and terminate in low ice cliffs. The cliffs,
which look very much like cliffs of shelf ice, appear
to be afloat in some places, but in other places a
narrow shelf of bare rock is visible at the water's
edge. Twin glaciers cut the northern coast.
Anchorage in 21 fathoms over sand and volcanic
stones is available in a bay along the island's west-
ern coast, but little shelter is afforded from the
winds.
Between Cape Flying Fish and Cape Dart, ap-
proximately 410 n. miles west-southwestward, the
coast is about 1,000 coastline miles in length and
consists mostly of peninsulas separated by bays.
The extent and shape of most of the bays are un-
known. When observed from the air (1946-1947)
all but one small embayment were almost com-
pletely filled with shelf ice. This stretch of coast
is bordered by the Amundsen Sea.
Because of heavy pack ice in the approaches
to this coast, no vessel has thus far been able
to reach the continental shores. From the air
long stretches of open water have been observed
along the shore of the western part of the coast.
Several islands lie in the approaches to the main-
land; two groups of small islands are located in
the southeastern part of Amundsen Sea, and three
large islands lie mostly within the edge of the
shelf ice in the large bays along the central part
of the coast.
From Cape Flying Fish to the head of Pine Is-
land Bay, located about 180 n. miles to the south,
the coastline is highly irregular. Except for one
small embayment on the south side of Canisteo
Peninsula, which is about 110 n. miles south of
Cape Flying Fish, the embayments in this part
of the coast were mostly covered by shelf ice during
PAGE 22-76
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
1946-47. The coast is backed by mountains about
1,800 to 3,400 feet high.
From the head of Pine Island Bay the shore
trends westward for about 240 miles to the base
of Martin Peninsula. Two bays separated by Bear
Island and an ice tongue are features of the coast-
line. Bear Island, which is about 52 miles long
from north to south and 32 miles wide, is en-
veloped on the south and west sides by the shelf
ice. Martin Peninsula, about 25 to 33 n. miles
west of Bear Island, projects about 90 miles north-
ward. This part of the coast is backed by an
extensive coastal mountain range about 7,000 feet
high.
Between the northernmost point of Martin Pen-
insula and Cape Dart, about 190 n. miles west-
ward, the coast is indented by a large and a small
bay separated by a peninsula that is about 75
miles wide along its seaward edge. The large bay
as charted is about 55 n. miles wide between Mar-
tin Peninsula and the broad peninsula to the
west, but other dimensions and the shape of the
embayment are unknown. An island about 25
miles long and 11 miles wide lies in the middle
of the entrance of the bay. The extent and shape
of the smaller bay is unknown though it is charted
as being about 28 n. miles wide. The mainland
coast from the western entrance point of this
bay to Cape Dart is formed by the glaciated slopes
of Mount Siple, which rises to about 10,200 feet
approximately 10 to 20 miles inland. Elsewhere
the terrain behind the Martin Peninsula - Cape
Dart stretch of coast is largely unknown, but
mountains about 5,000 feet high have been re-
ported about 35 miles inland of the eastern part,
and an unbroken ice sheet has been reported be-
hind the western part.
Between Cape Dart and Cape Colbeck the coast
trends about 750 miles southwestward and is in-
dented by two large bays and three small bays.
The large bays are mostly filled by shelf ice, and
two of the small bays are almost completely filled
by glaciers.
The approaches to the mainland coast between
Cape Dart and Cape Colbeck are through a wide
belt of heavy pack ice. Few ships have penetrated
very far into the pack. A vast area of open water
was observed in December 1940 to extend from the
northern edge of the Getz Ice Shelf, which lies
southwest of Cape Dart. Patches of water have
been seen in other embayments along this part
of the coast, but none of the bays have been found
to be ice free.
Between Cape Dart and a point about 190 n.
miles west-southwestward the coast is indented for
about 120 n. miles by a large embayment known
as Wrigley Gulf, which is almost completely filled
.by the Getz Ice Shelf. The coast of the gulf is
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composed of steep mountains that are mostly ice
covered and separated in places by outlet glaciers
from the polar ice sheet. From- the western en-
trance point of Wrigley Gulf the coast known as
Hobbs Coast trends west-southwestward for about
140 miles to the eastern side of Emory Land Gla-
cieF, which is about 25 miles wide. The coast con-
tinues west-southwestward for about 90 miles to
the northeastern entrance point of Paul Block
Bay. This stretch of coast, known as the Ruppert
Coast, consists of an ice slope and many snow-
covered ridges. Paul Block Bay, which is about
15 n. miles wide, extends eastward into the con-
tinent for an unknown distance. The Hobbs Coast
is backed by mountains of the Hal Flood range,
the 'highest summit of which is about 10,000 feet
high. The Ruppert Coast is backed by the north-
ern end of the Edsel Ford Ranges, a series of
mountain groups about 2,500 to over 4,000 feet
high. An island about 35 miles long was re-
ported (1940) to lie about 18 n. miles north of the
western part of Ruppert Coast, but its existence
is doubtful.
From the western extremity of Ruppert Coast
the coast trends southward for about 100 miles,
westward for about 75 miles, and northwestward for
about 55 miles, forming the shores of Sulzberger
Bay. The bay is about 115 n. miles wide and ex-
tends southeastward about 60 n. miles. The east-
ern coast of Sulzberger Bay is composed of moun-
tains dissected by large glaciers that flow into the
bay from the polar ice sheet. The ice sheet reaches
the southern coast of the bay through shallow
valleys in the form of large glaciers. Rock walls
do not clearly mark the borders of the valleys.
The western coast of Sulzberger Bay, which is
formed by the eastern side of Edward VII Pen-
insula, is covered by the ice sheet descending from
mountains into the bay as widely crevassed, gla-
cier icefalls. Most of Sulzberger Bay is covered
by heavy shelf ice which makes the coast inacces-
sible to vessels. The largest island in the bay,
Guest Island, is about 48 miles long and has a
maximum elevation of about 1,200 feet near its
eastern end.
Except for an 18-mile stretch of coast near the
western end, the coast between the southwestern
entrance point of Sulzberger Bay and Cape Col-
beck, about 65 miles westward, is fronted by heavy
shelf ice.
The only landing made on the Cape Dart ? Cape
Colbeck stretch of mainland coast was effected on
the northern side of Edward VII Peninsula by
rn- embers of a Japanese expedition in 1912 (land-
ing place (25) ). The approach to the coast was
made from the west through the Ross Sea.
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E. Coastal Sector 3: Ross Sea Area, Cape
Colbeck to Cape Adare
158?W. to 170?E.; 71?S. to 86?S.
(FIGURE 22-76; USHO Chart 6636 and B.A.
Chart 3177)
1. General
This coastal sector includes the coast of the Ross
Sea, an extensive embayment in the South Pacific
side of the Antarctic continent about 600 n. miles
wide between Cape Colbeck, the northwesternmost
point of Edward VII Peninsula and Cape Adare,
about 625 n. miles northwestward. Most of the
Ross Sea is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf which is
about 450 n. miles long north ? south, from the ice
cliffs at its seaward edge to the escarpment of
the Queen Maud Range, and is about 425 n. miles
wide between the western shore of Marie Byrd
Land and the easternmost point of Ross Island,
the largest island in the western part of the Ross
Sea.
The approaches to the shores of the Ross Sea
and to the face of the Ross Ice Shelf are through
a belt of pack ice which varies in nature and
position from year to year, in accordance with
the weather of the previous season, and which
may also vary during any one season. The best
approach known thus far is along, or no more
than about 4 degrees eastward or westward of, the
180th meridian. Ships have approached the Ross
Sea at greater distances from the 180th meridian
but more time is required for passage through the
pack ice in these waters and the dangers to ships
are greater. Southward of the belt, the Ross Sea,
except in the northeastern part around Cape Col-
beck, has always been free from pack ice during
the summer months of the years in which observa-
tions have been made.
Scott Island lies about 315 n. miles northeast-
ward of Cape Adare. A few volcanic islands lie
along the western side of the Ross Sea. A few
other islands lie in the shelf ice near the east and
west sides of the embayment.
2. Coast and landing places
The shoreline of the Ross Sea from Cape Col-
beck, the eastern entrance point, around the
head of the embayment to Cape Adare is' about
1,900 miles, exclusive of indentations. The east-
ern shore of the embayment is backed by the ice-
covered polar plateau, broken in a few places on
Edward VII Peninsula by small peaks of the Rocke-
feller Mountains. The other shores are backed
mostly by high, glaciated mountain peaks and
ridges.
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N S 69
From Cape Colbeck to Ross Island, along the sea-
ward edge of Ross Ice Shelf, is about 455 n.
miles. The western shore of Edward VII Penin-
sula, for about 35 miles between Cape Colbeck and
the eastern edge of the Ross Ice Shelf, is an in-
accessible ice cliff about 125 to 200 feet high. From
this point ice cliffs about 180 feet high form the
seaward edge of the Ross Ice Shelf and extend
westward to Ross Island with only two known in-
dentations. Two other indentations which have
previously existed and have been used as landing
places or as shelter, no longer exist (1955) .
One of the existing indentations, Okuma Bay,
about 50 miles south of Cape Colbeck, is about 3
miles wide and indents the shelf ice for about
4 miles near the point where the shelf ice is in
contact with the shores of Marie Byrd Land. Al-
though a landing was reported to have been made
by a Japanese expedition in 1912 (landing place
(26) ) , the bay is reported to ordinarily be clear
of ice early in the spring, leaving high cliffs which
afford no landing places. When observed in Janu-
ary 1955, the bay was considered unsuitable for a
landing site not only because of the high cliffs
but also because of the heavy pressure of the bay
ice inside. Vast pressure ridges extend southeast-
ward into the shelf ice from the head of Okuma
Bay.
Kainan Bay, about 50 miles west of Okuma Bay,
is about 2/8 miles wide (1955) and recedes about
2 miles into the shelf ice (FIGURES 22-50B through
22-51B). The bay is bounded by the shelf ice which
forms cliffs about 35 to 80 feet high around the
bay and rises to about 150 feet 2 miles inland.
The southern part of the Kainan Bay is bounded
by an area of pressure ridges which rise about
15 to 25 feet above the sea. The pressure area
extends about 1 to 2 miles hack from the bay with
a long prong extending to the southwest and a
crescent-shaped arm curving to the east. The pres-
sure area has a seaward face of low escarpments
about 10 to 30 feet high, behind which a series of
isolated knobs and ridges, interspersed with cre-
vasses, ,rise above a fairly level snow plain. This
plain is depressed about 25 -to 50 feet beloW the
general level, of the surrounding shelf ice. A Jap-
anese Expedition landed in Kainan Bay in 1912
and the U.S.S. Atka moored to the fast ice, which
was about 8 to 10 feet thick, in the bay (landing
place (27) ) 21 January 1955. Access to the shelf
ice from Kainan Bay was over snow ramps in the
southeastern and southwestern corners of the bay
in 1955, and also several landings were made on
the shelf ice by helicopter from the U.S.S. Atka
while the ship was moored to the bay ice.
The Bay of Whales area, headquarters site of
several Antarctic expeditions, about 32 miles south-
Westward of Kainan Bay has been known, in one
PAGE 22-78
NAVY-JANUARY 1956
form or another, for more than 100 years (FIGURES
22-52A and 22-52B). Since discovery by James
C. Ross in 1842 the width of the entrance to the
embayment has varied from about 10 miles to as
little as 200 feet (1946-47) and the length, from
about 10 to 15 miles. Movement of a considerable
amount of ice from the Bay of Whales area has left
ice cliffs about 20 to 100 feet high exposed to the
open sea and the bay, as it now exists, cannot be
used as shelter (1955). The area is formed at the
junction of two separate shelf ice systems, the
southern shores of which appear to be aground;
the ice system which forms the eastern shores
moves westward and the system which forms west-
ern shores moves northward. Several landings
have been made in the Bay. of Whales area, from
the sea, and from the air (landing place (28) ).
Discovery Inlet, which was a deep inlet in the
shelf ice about 75 miles west of the Bay of Whales
area, has been destroyed by extensive calving of
the Ross Ice Shelf (1955) ; however, the disappear-
ance may not be permanent. The U.S.S. Bear of
Oakland moored to the ice at the head of the inlet
in 1935 (landing place (29) ). The Ross Ice Shelf
continues westward (FIGURE 22-53A) to the coast
of Victoria Land at McMurdo Sound.
Three snow-covered islands are known in the
eastern portion of the Ross Ice Shelf. Roosevelt
Island, about 103 miles long in a north-south
direction, 40 miles wide, and approximately 1,200
feet high, lies in the shelf ice an undetermined
distance behind the Bay of Whales area. Another
island which lies about 34 miles westward of Roose-
velt Island is about 23 miles long, in a general
east - west direction, and about 17 miles wide.
About 52 miles southeastward of Roosevelt Island
lies another snow-covered island which is about
57 miles long, in a northeast - southwest direction,
and is about 40 miles wide. This island lies in the
entrance to a large ice-filled embayment which ex-
tends eastward into the continental plateau.
The part of the continental land mass which
borders the eastern side of the Ross Ice Shelf, about
500 miles long, has been seen from the air, but
very little of it has been explored and it is largely
unknown. The shore is entirely covered by the
continental ice which appears to move off the
continental land mass into the eastern side of the
Ross Ice Shelf.
That part of the land mass along the southern,
southwestern, and western sides of the Ross Ice
Shelf and the Ross Sea is much better known, as
most of it has been seen from the Ross Sea or
from the shelf ice, and some areas have been ex-
plored. In general, this part of the shore, where
known, is bordered by high mountain ranges which
stand up mostly as high rock or ice cliffs, except
where broken by a few embayments, or cut down
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NAVY - JANUARY 1956
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
by valley glaciers originating on the seaward side
of the structure and by many outlet glaciers from
the great ice sheet which covers the vast south
polar plateau. The mountains rise to elevations
of over 3,000 to about 15,000 feet and stands up
in places as much as about 9,000 feet above the
ice sheet which covers the polar plateau.
Several of the glaciers which flow into the Ross
Ice Shelf and into the Ross Sea have been named
and described. The southeasternmost is imper-
fectly defined on its eastern and northern margins.
This glacier, although of comparatively low gradi-
ent, appears to bring a large volume of ice from
the plateau to the shelf ice. The next four outlet
glaciers to the northwest which flow into the south-
ern end of the Ross Ice Shelf form a continuous
piedmont for about 132 to 138 miles along the
shore. The piedmont, deflected northwestward
by outflow from the southeasternmost glacier and
the ice sheet northward of it, produces extensive
folds and other disturbances in the ice sheet be-
tween the other glaciers, which may extend some
distance into the shelf ice in front of the piedmont.
This stretch of the shore consists of outlet glaciers
flanked by steep sided remnants of the foothills of
the Queen Maud Range, in turn backed by the
high tabular mountains of the same range some of
which rise to more than 13,000 feet about 15 miles
inland. One of the glaciers, the Axel Heiberg Gla-
cier, was traversed by Amundsen during the south
polar expedition of 1911.
For about 155 miles west-northwest to Beard-
more Glacier, the shore line is indefinite and in
part unknown, but most of it is probably bordered
by steep mountains and cliffs. One peak rises to
approximately 15,000 feet, about 12 miles inland.
From the Beardmore Glacier, the coast trends
northwestward for about 190 miles, then north
about 160 miles, then turns northeastward for
about 115 miles to the edge of the ice shelf at the
head of McMurdo Sound, an indentation about 45
n. miles long and 40 n. miles wide between Ross
Island and the mainland. Five glaciers are shown
on charts of this part of the coast but only two are
named and of nine charted inlets which indent
the coast, only five are named.
Beardmore Glacier, the largest and probably
best known has an average width of about 12
miles, is about 100 miles long, and rises from
about 200 feet above sea level at the shelf ice
surface to more than 7,000 feet where it merges
with the plateau ice sheet near the 85th parallel.
Mountains over 5,000 to more than 10,000 feet high
flank the Beardmore Glacier. On the western side,
the rounded peaks of the Queen Alexandra Range
are separated by a series of deep valleys cut by
glaciers tributary to the Beardmore Glacier. The
mountain range bordering the eastern side is
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rugged but not as high and has only two charted
tributary glaciers. The largest tributary is on the
eastern side of the upper Beardmore Glacier. It
is about 15 miles wide and is flanked on the south-
ern side by the Dominion? Range which trends
southeastwardas a rugged row of peaks over 10,000
feet high. Although the surface of Beardmore
Glacier is broken by crevasses and extensive ice-
falls, it has been traversed by two exploring parties.
The glacier was discovered by Sir Ernest Shackle-
ton and traversed by his exploring party in De-
cember 1908 in an attempt to reach the south
poi, then later, by members of the south polar
expedition of Robert F. Scott in 1911. The shelf
ice in front of the glacier is corrugated by broad
undulations for about 20 miles northward.
Koettlitz Glacier lies about 400 n. miles north-
northeastward of Beardmore Glacier. This gla-
cier is not as well known as Beardmore Glacier
but has been traversed twice by exploring parties,
the Robert F. Scott Expedition, 1901-1904 and by
members of the British Antarctic Expedition,
1910-1913.
On the east side of Koettlitz Glacier are two
mountains connected by a saddle over 2,000 feet
high. The highest and easternmost of the moun-
tains, an inactive volcano, is the most conspicuous
summit at the head of McMurdo Sound. A long
narrow peninsula, about 25 miles long and 5 miles
wide, projects southeastward from the slopes of
this mountain into the Ross Ice Shelf. Three
small islands lie in the ice shelf northward of this
peninsula and a number of islets lie farther north
in the edge of the shelf ice near the head of Mc-
Murdo Sound. The northwest edge of the Koett-
litz Glacier flows along the glacierized foothills of
a high mountain range which backs the part of
the coast from the head of the glacier to the 'lati-
tude of the head of McMurdo Sound.
Ross Island, bordering the east side of McMurdo
Sound, is about 53,miles "long east - west and about
50 miles wide north - south. Four volcanos, one
of which is active, dominate the terrain of Ross
Island. The highest peak, about 13,350 feet, is the
active volcano Mt. Erebus, near the western side,
and the lowest is Mt. Bird, about 5,640 feet high,
near the northern end of the island. A large
geyser about 3 miles south of Mt. Bird was active
in 1908. The shores are Mostly steep but are ac-
cessible in a few known places.
Landings by members of two British expeditions,
Carsters E. Borchgrevink in 1900 and Robert F.
Scott in 1902, were made near the eastern tip of
the island (landing place (30) ). Landings were
made and Antarctic expedition headquarters estab-
lished at Cape Royd (landing place (33) ) ; Cape
Evans (landing place (32) ) (FIGURE 22-53B), about
6 miles south of Cape Royds? and at Hut Point on
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NIS 69
Cape Armitage (landing place (31) ). Many land-
ings were made on Cape Armitage while H.M.S.
Discovery was frozen in the ice for two winters dur-
ing 1902-4. Ernest H. Shackleton established a
base on Cape Royds in 1908 and occupied another
at Cape Evans in 1914-16 which had been estab-
lished by Robert F. Scott in 1911-12. Cape Armit-
age has access to the Ross Ice Shelf and hence the
mainland, but the mainland is not accessible
throughout the year from Cape Royds and Cape
Evans because the routes are subject to condition
of the bay ice (FIGURE 22-54A). A landing was
made on the southwestern side of Beaufort Island,
a volcanic island about 1 1/2 miles in diameter ap-
proximately 11 n. miles northward of Ross Island.
The landing, which was unofficial, was made in
1903 by a sailor from the vessel Morning (landing
place (35) ).
From McMurdo Sound, the head of navigation
along the western coast of the Ross Sea, to Terra
Nova Bay the coast trends generally northward
for about 180 miles. Part of the western shore of
McMurdo Sound, from the shelf ice which forms
its head to a point about 30 n. miles north-north-
westward, is broken by glaciers, inlets, and high
rocky promontories. The rest of the western shore
of the sound for about 15 n. miles to the western
entrance point is formed by part of an extensive ice
piedmont. Several glaciers flow into the western
side of McMurdo Sound. A bay immediately west-
ward of McMurdo Sound indents the coast for
about 6 n. miles. Landings have been made at
two places along this part of the coast; on Butter
Point (landing place (36) ) near the foot of Ferrar
Glacier, and at Cape Bernacchi (landing place
(37) ). Ferrar Glacier was first traversed from
McMurdo Sound to the polar plateau by Scott's
expedition in 1901-04, and members of Shackle-
ton's expedition landed on Cape Bernacchi in 1908.
This part of the coast has been examined several
times by British expeditions based at Ross Island
and reconnaissance surveys have been made of
most of the area. The shore of McMurdo Sound
from near Cape Bernacchi northward for about 15
miles to the western entrance is formed by an
ice piedmont which is about 6 to 14 miles wide.
The seaward edge of the piedmont is an ice cliff
about 5 to 80 feet high. The surface is rough
and pitted; near the seaward edge it is furrowed
by ravines apparently caused by melt water. The
piedmont continues northward from the western
entrance of the sound for about 34 miles.
From here the coast continues its northward
trend about 103 miles to the foot of the Drygalski
Ice Tongue, a large ice tongue which projects about
30 n. miles eastward into the Ross Sea immediately
south of Terra Nova Bay. Granite Harbor, a large
embayment; indents the coast about 28 miles
PAGE 22-80
NAVY - JANUARY 1956
north of the western entrance of McMurdo Sound.
A small ice tongue projects into the head of this
bay. This bay has been visited by ships and a
landing was made on the shore near a bluff on
the southern side of the bay about 8 miles inside
the southern entrance point (landing place (38) ).
Most of the shore, from the northern entrance
point of this embayment to the foot of the Dry-
galski Ice Tongue, rises in cliffs which are heavily
glacierized. Several of the glaciers end in long
ice tongues extending as much as about 5 miles
eastward from this shore into the Ross Sea. This
part of coast is backed by mountains from about
3,000 feet to over 8,000 feet high.
Franklin Island (FIGURE 22-54B) , about 14 miles
long north - south and about 7 miles wide, lies
about 60 n. miles southeast of the tip of the Dry-
galski Ice Tongue and about 60 n. miles northward
of Ross Island. The shores are mostly rock cliffs
about 500 feet high except on the western side
where ice cliffs about 30 to 100 feet high form
the shore. Landings were made on the island in
1841 by Sir James Ross, and in 1900 by Carsters
E. Borchgrevink (landing place (34) ).
The shores of Terra Nova Bay from the southern
entrance point to the head of the bay are formed
by ice cliffs, about 50 to 100 feet high, at the
seaward edge of the Drygalski Ice Tongue. Except
for about 17 miles of low shores near the head of
the bay, the remaining shores to the northward
are formed by ice cliffs 50 to 150 feet high through
which, in places, dark rocks project. A small
island, which forms the western side of a cove
about 2'/2 miles wide, lies in the ice tongue near
the head of Terra Nova Bay. Landings have been
made on the northeastern side of the small island
(landing place (39) ) and the British Antarctic
Expedition of 1910-13 established a food depot
near the landing place. Two other small islands
lie close offshore about 25 n. miles west-southwest-
ward of Cape Washington. Pack ice drifting out
of the western side of the Ross Sea is deflected by
the ice tongue south of Terra Nova Bay and con-
sequently, in most years, during the summer Terra
Nova Bay may ordinarily be free of drifting pack
ice. This part of the shore is backed by moun-
tains about 3,000 to more than 9,000 feet high.
From Cape Washington, the northern entrance
point of Terra Nova Bay, to Cape Adare the coast
trends irregularly northward. Wood Bay indents
the coast northward of Terra Nova Bay for about
20 n. miles. The southern shore of the bay is
mostly ice cliffs, which are the seaward edge of
the ice slopes of a conspicuous, extinct volcano
over 8,000 feet high. A large pebble beach forms
the shore of a small cove at the head of the bay,
and the northern shore is formed by rock cliffs
and deep valley glaciers. The bay may be naviga-
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NAVY-JANUARY 1956 MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
ble, depending on the condition of the pack ice
and on swell which enters the bay from the south-
east. Most of the south side of Wood Bay is
backed by the slopes of Mt. Melbourne, and the
other sides are backed by mountain peaks and
ridges between which glaciers flow from the high
interior plateau. A landing was made near the
head of Wood Bay in 1900 by members of Borch-
grevink's Expedition (landing place (40) ) .
Northward of Wood Bay is a large indentation
which extends about 50 n. miles westward into the
coast. The shores of the embayment are backed
by high mountains up to about 4,000 feet high.
Except for a small inlet in the northeastern part,
the embayment is completely filled by an ice shelf.
The shelf ice probably varies in shape and size
from year to year but the dimensions are now
about 58 n. miles long north - south by 50 n. miles
wide and the seaward edge is about 20 to 150 feet
high. A group of small islands lie in the shelf
ice near its southern end. Coulman Island, about
18 n. miles long and 9 miles wide, lies to the east
of the ice shelf. The island, flat on top, rises near
the northern end to a low dome about 2,000 feet
high. It is completely snow-covered except at the
shore which is formed by cliffs about 500 to 1,500
feet high. A channel separates Coulman Island
from the eastern edge of the shelf ice but this
channel has not been explored by ships. Pack
ice which breaks out of bays and inlets farther
south drifts northward along the face of the shelf
ice and becomes congested near Coulman Island,
which may in some years, keep the area ice-filled
-until February. An inlet which extends into the
northern end of the shelf ice for about 16 n. miles
is accessible to ships.
Landings have been made on the ice inside the
inlet (landing place (41) ) in the shelf ice and on
some rocks at the base of the cliffs at the north
end of Coulman Island (landing place (42) ) .
The shore along the coast from landing place 41
northward to Cape Adare rises in steep rocky bluffs
and cliffs broken in places by ice slopes which
extend down to the sea from the icecap, and is
backed by the high mountains of Victoria Land.
Possession Islands, a group of 9 volcanic islands
and islets, lie about 1 n. mile to 3 n. miles offshore.
The islands range in size from about 3 miles long
to mere pillars of rock with vertical walls as much
as 300 feet high. The northwestern island, about
3 miles across and the largest of the group, is low
and bare except for a small peak about 300 feet
high at the southeastern extremity. The other
islands are rocky and most of the shores are formed
by cliffs. The channel between the islands and
the mainland has been passed by several ships
and is believed to be free of dangers, however, heavy
pack ice may block this channel.
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Landings were made by Ross in 1841, by Kristen-
sen in 1894, by Borchgrevink in 1899 and by Col-
beck in 1903, on a long stony beach on the south-
western side of the largest island in the group
(landing place (44) ).
Scott Island, lying about 315 n. miles northeast-
ward of Cape Adare, is a rocky ice-covered islet
about 500 yards long in a north - south direction
and about 250 yards wide. The sides are mostly
cliffs, high on the north end and sloping gradually
to the southern end where they are about 6 feet
high. A landing was made in 1902 on the south-
eastern side of Scott Island by members of the
British Colbeck Relief Expedition (landing place
(43) ) .
F. Coastal Sector 4: Cape Adare to Cape
Adams
71?S., 170?E.; 75?S., 62?W.
(FIGURE 22-76; USHO Charts 6636, 6640,
6641, and 16321-9; B.A. Charts 3171 and 3172)
1. General
Coastal Sector 4 is composed of the Antarctic
coast lying west of the Ross _Sea and east of the
Palmer Peninsula. Cape Adare is the eastern limit
of the sector and Cape Adams is the western limit.
The Indian Ocean and the South Atlantic Ocean
border, the coast of the sector, which measures
about 5,990 miles in length.
The approaches to most coasts of the sector are
obstructed by a broad belt of pack ice that in
places lies as far as about 1,000 n. miles offshore.
The difficulty in transiting the belt of pack ice
is usually least in January and February, and
least along certain meridians such as the Green-
wich meridian, and between about 70? and 90?E.
Between the belt of pack ice and the mainland,
broad areas of navigable water usually prevail. A
strip of land ice, fringed by sea ice, immediately
borders most shores, making the depths in the
water adjacent to the ice relatively great. -In those,
areas where vessels may apprOach ice-free parts
of the mainland, or close-lying ice-free islands, the
chief navigational danger is the possibility of run-
ning aground on uncharted rocks and pinnacles,
which seem to abound in such areas. Near most
of the ice-free areas the depths and bottom con-
tours are usually quite erratic.
The Balleny Islands lying about 150 n. miles
offshore near the east end of the sector, and sev-
eral scattered islands off the Queen Mary Coast
in the vicinity of 90? to 105?E., are the main
larger islands in the sector. Many widely spaced
groups of small islands, however, border the coast.
The small islands, where bordered by a. relatively
narrow width of sea ice, often constitute the most
accessible land. In places such as the Vestfold
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N I S 6 9 NAVY - JANUARY 1956
Hills along the east coast of Prydz Bay (about
77?E.), ice-free hills separated by inlets usually
afford landing places. Similar areas that are
usually ice free lie along the east coast of Vin-
cennes Bay (110?E.) , close east of Denman Gla-
cier (100?E.) , and southeast of Stefansson Bay
(59?E.), but the approaches to these areas are at
times obstructed by ice. Except for these ice-
free areas, and the ice-free headlands and out-
crops along the coast, nearly all coastal terrain
is covered by continental ice. In many places in
the interior, however, ice-free mountain peaks
penetrate the continental ice.
In Coastal Sector 4 a small number of landings
have been made at rather widely spaced places.
In general these landings are grouped in the vicin-
ity of 140?E., and between 500 and 110?E. The
chief factor governing the location of landing sites
is the navigabilityi of the adjacent seas, as con-
trolled by the character or absence of ice.
2. Coast and landing places
Between Cape Adare and Cape North, about 100
n. miles to the northwest of Cape Adare,, the coast
is composed of steep rocky cliffs and headlands sep-
arated by glaciers with Cliffed faces. This stretch
of coast is usually inaccessible to vessels because
of the belt of drift ice and icebergs that usually
borders the shore. A bay and several fjord-like
inlets indent the shore.
The largest and easternmost bay, Robertson Bay,
opens about 20 n. miles and is indented about 24
n. miles to the southeast. About one-half mile
south of Cape Adare a triangular spit about 1 mile
in extent provides the only landing place in the
bay. This landing place (landing place (45) )
was used by Kristensen . and Bull in 1894-95, by
Borchgrevink in 1899, and by the northern party
of the Scott expedition in 1912. The remaining
shores of Robertson Bay are composed largely of
steep cliffs and headlands separating glaciers and
glacier tongues. Anchorage may be taken almost
any place on the east shore of the bay where the
holding ground is good. There is a paucity of
soundings in the bay, but the large number of
grounded bergs observed indicates comparatively
shallow water near the eastern shore. Because
of ice carried into the bay by strong currents and
frequent gales, vessels should keep engines in
readiness at all times.
Between Robertson Bay and Smith Inlet, about
45 miles to the northwest of Robertson Bay, the
coast consists of steep rocky cliffs and headlands
and the cuffed margins of glaciers. Smith Inlet,
which appears to be a fjord, is about 8 n. miles
wide and recedes inland a considerable distance.
Yule Bay, about 6 n. miles wide and indented a
similar distance, 'lies about 19 miles northwest of
PAGE 22-82
Smith Inlet. Cape North, a vertical snow-covered
cliff over 200 feet high, is about 22 miles westward
of Yule Bay. The entire stretch of coast is backed
by the mountains of the Admiralty Range.
The Balleny Islands lie about 150 n. miles off
Antarctica between 162? and 165?E. longitude.
The sea between the islands and the mainland
is frequently covered by heavy, impenetrable pack
ic'e. The islands, volcanic in origin, consist of three
large and two small islands which extend north-
west and southeast for about 100 n. miles. The
islands are heavily glaciated With ice tongues pro-
jecting into the sea, and the shores are mostly
steep with rock or ice cliffs.
Sturge Island, the largest and southeasternmost
of the Balleny Islands, is about 32 miles long and
10 miles wide. Most of the shore is formed by rocky
cliffs and broad ice tongues.
Buckle Island, about 15 miles long in a general
north ? south direction and 3 miles wide, lies ap-
proximately 30 n. miles northwest of Sturge Island.
The island is composed of a gently sloping plateau
about 3,000 feet high, ending at the shore in steep
rock or ice cliffs. Several rocks and islets, the
largest of which is Sabrina Islet, lie about 2 n.
miles off the southern extremity of Burke Island.
Young Island, the northeastern island of the
group, is about 24 miles long and 6 miles wide.
The island terrain slopes gently seaward from a
'plateau about 3,250 feet high. The northern and
southern ends of the island are steep rocky bluffs,
and the western side is steep and crevassed, but
low. Rocks about 50 feet high lie off the northern
end of the island, with foul ground extending for
a distance of about 2 n. miles seaward. Two small
islands lie off the southern end of Young Island.
The largest, Borradaile Island, about 21/2 miles
long and 1 mile wide, is ice-capped, about 1,250
feet high, and the shores are composed mostly of
rock cliffs.
An Australian expedition led by Stuart Camp-
bell landed on Borradaile Island in 1948 (landing
place (47) ). Another landing was made on Bor-
radaile Island in 1839 by Captain Freeman of the
? cutter Sabrina, which accompanied Captain Bel-
lany's schooner Eliza Scott to the area. Members
of a French expedition in 1949 landed on Sabrina
Islet (landing place (46) ).
From Cape North to Cape Freshfield, the coast
trends in a west-northwesterly direction a dis-
tance of about 390 miles. This part of the coast,
and some of the polar plateau behind it, has been
seen from the air, a few areas have been observed
from the sea, but none have been explored. Lillie
Glacier Tongue projects northward for about 20 n.
miles between Cape Williams, about 60 n. miles
west-northwest of Cape North, and Cape Cheet-
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MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
ham, about 22 n. miles farther westward. The
coast between Cape Cheetham and Cape Kinsey,
about 110 miles northwestward, has not been ob-
served from the sea. The coast between Cape
Kinsey and Archer Point, about 20 miles west-
northwest, is rugged and the shore is made up
mostly of steep rocky points separated by glaciers
and backed by high hills. Between Archer Point
and Cape Freshfield, about 160 miles west-north-
westward of Archer Point, the only part of the
coast that has been observed from the sea is a
50-mile stretch of the shores of Joseph Cook Bay.
Between Cape Freshfield and the east edge of
Ninnis Glacier about 90 miles to the west (148?E.) ,
the coast is composed of hilly to mountainous ter-
rain, most of which is covered by snow and ice.
A bluff about 28 n. miles west of Cape Freshfield
rises almost vertically for about 1,000 feet, capped
by about 200 feet of snow. The bluff is composed
of columns of red rock overlying horizontal strata
that crops out near the top of the 300-foot-high
slopes of rock debris that conceal the base of the
bluff. About 10 miles west of Cape Wild, which
lies about midway along this stretch of coast, cliffs
of columnar rock lie along the coast and continue
southwestward for an additional 10 miles. In sev-
eral places between the areas of columnar rock
cliffs, small embayments deeply indent the coast.
At the west end of this stretch of coast Buckley Bay
is enclosed on the west by Ninnis Glacier, which
extends almost 80 n. miles seaward as a glacier ice
tongue. Most of this stretch of coast was surveyed
in 1912-13 by a sledge party from the Australasian
Antarctic Expedition based in Commonwealth Bay
to the west.
Ninnis Glacier and Mertz Glacier enclose a large
bay that was entered in 1840 by Wilkes' ship, the
Vincennes. Measured along the coastal trend the
bay is about 55 miles wide, and including the
glaciers the coast measures about 120 miles in
length (to 144?30'E.) . Most of the coast of the bay
consists of ice cliffs, behind which rise ice-covered
slopes that teach elevations of about 3,000 feet
about 20 to 25 miles inland. For about 5 miles
along the coast 'of the west half of the bay, a rock
outcrop about 300 feet high underlies the icecap.
Both Ninnis Glacier to the east and Mertz Glacier
to the west have heavily fissured surfaces, and both
terminate in glacier tongues facing the sea with
ice cliffs standing 100 to 180 feet high. Mertz
Glacier, which extends about 50 n. miles seaward,
descends from the high interior plateau through
a steep-walled valley.
West of Mertz Glacier to Point Alden, about 75
miles to the west-northwest (142?E.) , the coast con-
sists of three embayments separated by capes bor-
dered by reefs and islets. The two capes are
bordered by ice cliffs, but at the head of the middle
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embayment the elevation of the shore decreases
almost to sea level and a valley extends inland.
The western embayment, Commonwealth Bay, con-
tains a number of islets and reefs, and in most
places is bordered by ice cliffs 60 to 150 feet high.
During the summer months the strong southerly
winds usually keep the bay clear of pack ice. A
cape at the head of the bay, which was the site of
the main base of the Australasian Antarctic Expedi-
tion (1911-14) of Sir Douglas Mawson, rises about
40 feet above sea level (landing place (48) ). Near
the cape, a landing was made in a small cove that
was about 300 yards wide and 1,000 yards long, with
depths of about 15 feet. The cape was again
landed upon in 1931 by Mawson's British-Austral-
ian-New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition,
and again in 1950 when the French Antarctic Ex-
pedition laid a depot there. About 8 miles west
of the cape, another rocky cape rises about 80 feet
above the sea and is off-lain by reefs and an islet.
About 10 miles northwest of the second cape, Point
Alden marks the western entrance point to Com-
monwealth Bay. The boundary between George V
Coast on the east and Adelie Coast on the west
lies near Point Alden.
From Point Alden to Cape Robert (138?E.), the
slightly irregular coast measures about 125 miles in
length. This stretch of coast was viewed by Wilkes
in 1840, and landed upon by D'Urville. The latter
expedition sighted a cape about 12 miles west of
Point Alden, but was unable to land because of pack
ice. The expedition successfully landed men
among the islands near Astrolabe Glacier, however,
which lies above 70 miles west of Point Alden (land-
ing place (51) ). About 17 miles west of Point
Alden, the French Antarctic Expedition in 1950
landed and made their base camp (landing place
(49) ) . The expedition also laid a depot on the
coast a short distance east of Cape _Bienvenue be-
tween Point Alden and Astrolabe Glacier (landing
place (50) ).
Between Point Alden and Cape Robert the coast
is bordered by groups of small islands that serve as
rookeries for Antarctic birds. Access to the main-
land in most places is obstructed by ice cliffs that
are breached in places by glaciers that extend 2
to 5 n. miles seaward. Back of the ice cliffs the
inland ice rises toward the interior and reaches
elevations of about 2,500 feet about 15 to 18 miles
inland.
From Cape Robert to Cape Folger, the coast ex-
tends westward about 785 miles. From the vicinity
of Cape Robert, westward about 195 miles to Cape
Mose (130?E.) , the coast is usually bordered by
pack ice extending as much as 60 to 80 n. miles off-
shore. The ice commonly contains icebergs which
may drift into the pack on the prevailing ocean cur-
rents. This stretch of coast, most of which lies
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NIS 69
within the limits of the Clarie Coast, has been de-
scribed as being composed of high, snow-covered
hills.
The Banzare Coast, named after the British-
Australian-New Zealand Antarctic Research Ex-
pedition Of 1929-31, extends west from Cape Mose
, to 122?E. and measures about 170 miles in length.
Porpoise Bay, which indents the coast between
Cape Mose and Cape Goodenough (126?E.) , was
named after one of the vessels of the Wilkes expedi-
tion of 1840. The bay, whose limits are not de-
fined, is about 85 n. miles wide and recedes south-
ward about 50 n. miles. From the Banzare Coast,
west to Cape Folger (110?30'E.) , the coast meas-
ures about 335 miles in length. This stretch of
coast includes the Sabrina Coast (approximately
116? to 122?E.) and, at the western extremity, the
Budd Coast (approximately 110? to 116?E.). In
the past, access to most of this coast has been
denied by a wide area of pack ice containing im-
prisoned icebergs. In 1840 when Wilkes' ship lay
35 to 40 n. miles offshore, he reported the Budd
Coast as composed of a lofty, snow-covered moun-
tain range trending nearly east and west, and show-
ing many ridges and indentations.
From Cape Folger to Cape Elliott, the coast ex-
tends generally westward about 246, miles. Vin-
cennes Bay lies immediately west of Cape Folger.
The bay is about 66 n. miles wide between the east-
ern entrance point, Cape Folger, and the western
entrance point, Cape Nutt (108?20'E.) , and is in-
dented about 30 n. miles. A group of islands lies
in the eastern part of the bay near Cape Folger
(FIGURE 22-54C) and another group in the western
part of the bay near Cape Nutt. In 1948 a party
from U.S. Navy Task Force 39 landed by boat on
the islands in the east part of the bay (landing
place (52) ) . Their ship reported depths of 45
fathoms 800 yards offshore, and depths of 800 fath-
oms about 1 n. mile offshore. Several glaciers dis-
charge along the head and east coast of Vincennes
Bay.
From Cape Nutt, the western entrance point to
Vincennes Bay, the coast trends west-northwest to
Cape Elliott (103?E.) , a distance of about 170 miles.
All of this coast is part of the Knox Coast, which
was viewed by Wilkes in February 1840. Wilkes
described the coast as high, rounded in form, and
terminating in vertical ice cliffs. Bowman Island,
covered by ice and about 17 miles long, lies about
30 n. miles northeast of Cape Elliott. Pack ice
usually extends 40 to 60 n. miles off this coast and
to the westward merges with Denman Glacier and
the Shackleton Ice Shelf. In 1948 a party from the
U.S. Navy Task Force 39 made a helicopter land-
ing on a small islet lying close offshore about 37
miles west-northwest of Cape Nutt (landing place
(53) ) ?
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NAVY - JANUARY 1956
From Cape Elliott, west-southwest about 200
miles to Farr Bay (95?E.) , the coast is continuously
fronted by ice that at times extends 200 n. miles
seaward. All except the eastern part of this stretch
of coast is bordered by the Shackleton Ice Shelf
which might extend as much as 120 n. miles out to
sea. The shelf ice, which encompasses many is-
lands, extends westward from Denman Glacier
which lies about 90 miles from Cape Elliott. Den-
man Glacier is the largest of the many glaciers.
along this stretch of coast. The glacier usually
terminates at sea in ice tongues that at times reach
as much as 45 n. miles seaward. Flanking Denman
Glacier about 25 to 50 miles inland are mountain
peaks at elevations of approximately 4,000 feet.
The coast between Cape Elliott and Denman
Glacier was landed upon by helicopter in 1948 by
men of the U.S. Navy Task Force 39 (landing place
(54) ) . Most of the area landed upon was composed
of hills with a maximum of 400 feet of relief, and
covered by glacial material (FIGURE 22-55A).
Nearly all ponds and inlets in the area were found
to contain salt water. The coast west of Denman
Glacier was explored in 1912-13 by men of Maw-
son's Australasian Antarctic Expedition. The base
for this group of men was located on the Shackleton
Ice Shelf near Farr Bay (landing place (57) ) . Par-
ties from the U.S. Navy Task Force 39 in 1948
landed by boat on islets near the Shackleton Ice
Shelf (landing place (56) ) , and by helicopter on
islets protruding through the shelf ice (landing
place (55) ) . All eicept the eastern extremity of
this entire stretch of coast is part of the Queen
Mary Coast (92? to 100?E.).
From the east edge of Farr Bay, west about 215
miles to Cape Penck (about 88?E.) , most of the
coast is bordered throughout the year by at least a
narrow belt of sea ice. At the west end of the
coast, however,' Cape Penck is encircled by the
West Ice Shelf which in that immediate vicinity ex-
tends about 40 n. miles offshore. The coast be-
tween Farr Bay and Cape Penck is bordered by)the
Davis Sea which is usually navigable during the
Antarctic summer. The approaches to the sea,
however, are often encumbered by pack ice, es-
pecially off the Shackleton Ice Shelf, but ships usu-
ally are able to reach the Davis Sea by approaching
from the north along the 90? meridian.
Drygalski Island lies about 45 n. miles off the
mid-portion of this coast. The island is about 9
miles in diameter and rises to an elevation of about
1,200 feet, but is completely covered by ice and is
encircled by sheer ice cliffs. Depths of 65 to 100
fathoms have been found close off the island. A
small number of islands and islets lie close off the
mainland.
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MILITARY- GEOGRAPHY
A landmark along the coast is Gaussberg, an ex-
tinct volcano that rises to an elevation of about
1,148 feet about 48 miles east of -Cape Penck. The
mountain, pyramidal in shape and in places bare of
snow and ice, stands close back of the shore. A
landing by Drygalski's German Antarctic Expedi-
tion of 1901-3 was made near Gaussberg (landing
place (62) ) , though their ship, the Gauss, wintered
in the ice about '50 n. miles offshore. In 1948 par-
ties from the U.S. Navy Task Force 39 landed at
four places along the coast between Farr Bay and
Gaussberg (landing places (58) through (61)).
Two of the landings, made to points above the ice
cliffs, were accomplished by helicopter; one landing
on sea ice near the coast was accomplished by heli-
copter; and one landing on an island was accom-
plished by traversing the sea ice in a "Weasel."
Between Cape Penck and Cape Darnley
(69?30'E.), about 450 n. miles to the west-south-
west, the coast is indented about 190 n. miles by
a broad embayment. Several stretches of the em-
bayment coast are free of the usual cover of con-
tinental ice and have been landed upon by several
expeditions. The waters close off the coast are
often free of critical pack ice, though about 100 to
300 n. miles from shore the ice conditions are com-
monly much worse. A reef of doubtful existence
has been charted about 105 n. miles northeast of
Cape Darnley. For a distance of about 50 n. miles
northeast of the cape, Icebergs often become
stranded and cause congestion of the ice pack.
The West Ice Shelf, which in most places ranges
from about 10 to 20 n. miles in width, borders the
coast for about 230 miles southwest from Cape
Penck. This stretch of coast constitutes the Leo-
pold and Astrid Coast. The remainder of the
southeastern coast of the broad embayment meas-
ures about 490 miles in length and is called the
Ingrid Christensen Coast. Prydz Bay lies off the
Ingrid Christensen Coast, between it and the Amery
Ice Shelf. The southwestern coast of the broad
embayment, most of which is fronted by the Amery
Ice Shelf, is called the Lars Christensen Coast.
MacKenzie Bay lies to the northwest between the
Amery Ice Shelf and the northern part of the Lars
Christensen Coast.
From the southwestern extremity of the West Ice
Shelf, west-southwest about 93 miles to the Vestfold
Hills, the coast is covered by continental ice that
at sea terminates in ice cliffs. The continental ice
is heavily crevassed near the ice front, but is es-
sentially featureless toward the interior. From the
ice cliffs the rate of ascent toward the interior is
at first comparatively rapid (about 5 feet per 100
feet) , but shortly levels off to an imperceptible rise
toward the interior ice plateau.
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Sotithwestward of the ice cliffs the ice-free Vest-
fold Hills straCh about 28 miles along the coast,
and extend inland a maximum of about 14 miles.
The hill area is fronted by scattered islands and
perhaps by scattered reefs, and is intruded by in-
lets and fjords (FIGURE 22-55B) . The hills, which
rise to maximum elevations of about 425 feet, are
steep-sided on most lower slopes. The hills are
composed of bedrock intruded by dikes, and in a
few places are lightly covered by morainal material.
The hills reach their highest elevations near the
center of the group, but toward the interior the
elevations decrease. Along the inner margin of the
hills the edge of the continental ice near sea level
rises in ice cliffs, but on the hillsides gradually thins
to a low, morainal ridge. Back of the hills the
continental ice gradually rises to the high interior
plateau the same as the continental ice to the
northeast. The Vestfold Hills area was landed
upon in 1935 by Captain Mikkelsen of the Nor-
wegian Lars Christensen expedition, and in 1939 by
men of Ellsworth's expedition (landing place (63) ) .
Southwestward from the Vestfold Hills to the
head of Prydz Bay, a distance of about 140 miles,
the coast is bordered by glacier ice tongues sepa-
rated in places by ice-free hills and in places is off-
lain by groups of ice-free islands. The glacier
tongues range in width from about 9 miles in the
SOrsdal Glacier ice tongue adjacent to the Vest-
fold Hills (FIGURE 22-56A) , to about 35 miles in the
multiple tongues that make up the Publication Ice
Tongues about 78 miles to the southwest. Of the
island and hill areas, which range in width from
12 to 29 miles, the Rauer Islands and the Larse-
mann Hills make up the most conspicuous areas
(FIGURE 22-56B) . In 1939, men of Ellsworth's ex-
pedition landed on some of the ice-free islands of
this area (landing place (64)).
In general, each ice-free area is very roughly
comparable to the Vestfold Hills in composition,
height, and appearance. Like the Vestfold Hills,
along its landward margin each island and hill area
is overlain by the edge of the continental ice which
terminates in moraines and ice cliffs. Toward the
interior the continental ice gradually rises to the
ice plateau of the interior, reaching elevations of
about 7,700 feet above 100 miles inland, and higher
elevations farther inland. In two known areas,
however, the continental ice rises as much as 1,500
feet in the first mile from the sea.
Near the southwest end of this coast one of the
Publication Ice Tongues extends about 20 to 40 n.
miles into Prydz Bay, almost reaching to the Amery
Ice Shelf on the opposite side of the bay. The two
opposing ice formations constrict the entrance to a
bay which lies to the southwest and is probably
covered with ice almost every summer. Scattered
islands border the southeastern shores of the bay
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NIS 69
and Baker Three Glacier discharges into the head
of the bay.
The Amery Ice Shelf extends about 60 to 70 n.
miles north-northwest from its near juncture with
the Publication Ice Tongues. At least part of the
terrain behind the ice shelf is mountainous. Mac-
kenzie Bay, which lies to the northwest of the
Amery Ice Shelf, is almost entirely bordered by ice
cliffs. Nevertheless, landings were made at the
head and along the western shore of the bay by
men of Lars Christensen's ship, the Torlyn, in 1931
(landing places (65) and (66) ) .
From Cape Darnley, westward about 135 miles to
Cape Daly (64?30'E.), most of the coast is bordered
by ice cliffs, but landings have been made in two
places near the middle of this stretch of coast. In
approaching this coastal stretch, vessels should at-
tempt to make a landfall well to the eastward, and
then work westward. The approaches to the east-
ern half of this coastal stretch are reported as clear,
except for the tendency of icebergs to become
stranded within 50 n. miles northeast of Cape
Darnley and cause congestion of pack ice. Several
rocks and reefs are charted in the approaches to the
west half of the coast, and it is reported that many
rocks and submerged pinnacles are uncharted.
Foul ground is reported about 45 n. miles northeast
of Cape Daly.
Near the middle of this stretch of coast, two huge
rock masses lying about 4 miles apart rise steeply
from the waters edge. Several uncharted reefs are
reported to lie in the near vicinity. The eastern
rock mass, Murray Monolith, rises sheer about 1,250
feet above the sea and the western rock mass, Scul-
lin Monolith, rises to an elevation of about 1,550
feet. Several expeditions have made landings near
Murray Monolith (landing place (67) ) . A landing
has also been made near the scree-strewn slopes
of Scullin Monolith, and a cache of supplies been
deposited there (landing place (68) ) .? ?
Along the western two-thirds of this stretch of
coast scattered mountain peaks that reach eleva-
tions of about 1,500 to 3,300 feet penetrate the con-
tinental ice at distances of about 3 to 20 miles from
the shore. All of this stretch of coast is part of
the Mac-Robertson Coast, which continues farther
to the west.
Between Cape Daly and Austnes Point (57?20'E.),
the northern entrance point of Edward VIII Bay,
the coast measures about 220 miles in length.
This stretch of coast is bordered by groups of is-
lands and islets which during the summer are usu-
ally free of show and ice, and often ar6 joined by
sea ice. Though open water is commonly found a
short distance off the coast, at times northerly swell
and west-setting currents press pack ice and ice-
bergs in toward the shore. To the north, however,
between about 62? and 66?S., pack ice often impedes
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NAVY - JANUARY 1956
the approach to the open water nearer the shore.
Ships usually find the easiest route of approach to
lie between about 70? and 80?E., by-passing the
area of pack ice and approaching the coastal seg-
ment from the east. The east half of the coast
is part of the Mac-Robertson Coast, and the west
half comprises the Kemp Coast.
The groups of islands along this coast extend a
maximum of about 20 n. miles offshore, and are
surrounded by widely ranging depths. Most of the
islands range in height between 100 and 400 feet,
and some of the larger ones are dotted with fresh
water lakes. When clear of ice the small bay lying
about 87 miles southeast of Austnes Point, adjacent
to S tefansson Bay, may afford shelter for vessels
and the shores may afford landing places. In 1933
the British Discovery Investigations expedition
landed and investigated the bay (landing place
(70)).
Most of this stretch of coast is bordered by ice
cliffs, interrupted in places by high rock cliffs, most
of which are about 600 to 1,200 feet high. In
places, however, heavily crevassed icefalls overlie
the cliffs and, especially along the Kemp Coast, ice-
free hills are separated by tongues of continental
ice that at sea end in ice cliffs. The coast between
about 25 and 55 miles west of Cape Daly is backed
by ranges of north ? south trending ridges that
rise about 5 to 10 miles inland, and are charted as,
far south as about 40 miles inland. The ridges,
which make up the Framnes Mountains, rise to
about 3,000 to 5,000 feet in elevation. Farther to
the west, scattered peaks show through the con-
tinental ice. In 1931 Mawson's British-Australian-
New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition landed
at a point about 95 miles west of Cape Daly (land-
ing place (69)).
Between Austnes Point and the head of Ice Bay
(49?30'E.), the coast measures about 290 miles in
length. Most of this stretch of coast is fronted by
ice cliffs but near the northernmost part of the
coast, small groups of islands that in the summer
are free of ice lie in front of the cliffs. The largest
of these islands, Proclamation Island, rises to about
800 feet and was landed upon in 1930 by the Brit-
ish-Australian-New Zealand Antarctic Research Ex-
pedition (landing place (71)). Pack ice that is an-
chored by these islands and by grounded icebergs,
and is held ashore by winds and swell, obstructs the
approaches to much of this coast. The approaches
to the western part of this coastal stretch and to
Ice Bay are perennially obstructed by ice. In 1929,
men from the Norwegian Lars Christensen expedi-
tion ship Norvegia, under Captain Riiser-Larsen,
landed by airplane on the sea ice near Cape Ann,
about 90 miles west-southwest of Proclamation
Island (landing place (72) ) . The interior of En-
derby Land is covered by the continental ice sheet.
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NAVY-JANUARY 1956 MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
Mountain peaks, most of which reach elevations
of about 1,500 to 2,000 feet, pierce the icecap within
about 20 miles of the sea. Farther inland the peaks
and mountain ranges rise to higher elevations.
Between Ice Bay and Riiser-Larsen Peninsula
(34?E.), the coast measures about 290 miles in
length. Most of this stretch of coast is bordered
by ice cliffs that have been perennially unapproach-
able because of the pack ice, which may be held
ashore by northerly swell. Most of the coast has
been viewed only from an airplane. In the bay im-
mediately east of the Riiser-Larsen Peninsula,
many islands border the east coast, which is made
up of many rocky headlands. Between the head
of this bay and Ice Bay to the east, the inland ice
rises in steep slopes which contain countless nuna-
taks and peaks. This stretch of coast is the Prince
Olav Coast. To the south of the bay, mountains
that are usually ice-free in the summer protrude
through the inland ice. The west coast of the bay
is the Prince Harald Coast.
The coast extending about 780 miles westward
from the northwestern extremity of the Riiser-
Larsen Peninsula to about 5?E., makes up the Prin-
cess Ragnhild Coast and the Princess Astrid Coast.
The Riiser-Larsen Peninsula is covered by ice and
is devoid of nunataks and outcrops. The entire
stretch of coast is bordered by ice cliffs and in
places, notably along the western part of the Prin-
cess Astrid Coast, the ice cliffs contain many in-
dentations. Rugged mountains 6,000 to 10,000 feet
high lie about 75 miles inland along most of the
Princess Ragnhild Coast. Mountain peaks from
10,000 to 13,000 feet high lie about 100 miles inland
along the Princess Astrid Coast. In 1933 a sledge
party from a Norwegian expedition under Captain
Riiser-Larsen landed somewhere on the Princess
Ragnhild Coast' (landing place (73) (position in-
definite) ). In 1939 a party from the German Ant-
arctic Expedition under Captain Ritscher landed
near the western limit of the Princess Astrid Coast
(landing place (74) ) .
The Princess Martha Coast, about 540 miles in
length, lies west of the Princess Astrid Coast be-
tween about 5?E. and 20?W. Most of the Princess
Martha Coast is bordered by ice cliffs, though three
short stretches lying west of the Greenwich me-
ridian are free of ice cliffs. During the early part
of the summer a belt of pack ice lying in the vi-
cinity of the 60?S. parallel obstructs the approach
to the Princess Martha Coast, though south of the
belt of ice the seas are usually navigable. The belt
of pack ice usually .disappears in late December
and early January. The route of approach that
best minimizes the barricade of pack ice lies along
the Greenwich meridian.
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The Princess Martha Coast lying east of the
Greenwich meridian is entirely fronted by ice cliffs,
behind which snow-covered nunataks pierce the
continental ice. Astride the Greenwich meridian,
an ice tongue about 25 to 45 n. miles wide extends
about 70 n. miles seaward, with depths of about
1,000 fathoms at the se,award extremity. Along
the west sideof the ice tongue a broad rift open-
ing about 21/2 n. miles has been named Byrd Bay
(FIGURE 22-57A) . Toward the interior the bay
narrows, and about 5 n. miles from the entrance
is covered by bay ice. In 1955 the U.S. Navy ice-
breaker Atka tied up to the bay ice (landing place
(75.)') (FIGURE 22-57B) .
West of the broad ice tongue the coast is bordered
by ice cliffs, except for three comparatively short
stretches along the ends of projecting peninsulas.
Near the first peninsula the German Antarctic Ex-
pedition of 1938-39 landed in two places (landing
places (76) and (77) ). About midway between
the first and second breaks in the ice cliff, Atka
Bay indents the ice cliff about 7 n. miles (FIGURE
22-58A) . In places around the bay the ice cliffs
are only about 15 feet high, so probably can be
landed upon. Men from the U.S. Navy icebreaker
Atka were transported to the top of the ice cliff
by helicopter (landing place (78) ) . Along the sec-
ond break in the ice cliff the Norwegian-British-
Swedish Antarctic Expedition of 1949-50 landed
and set up their base, Maudheim (landing place
(79) ) . A short distance west of the third break
in the ice cliff, which extends both east and west
from Cape Norvegia, men from the Atka also made
a landing (landing place (80) ).
The terrain backing the Princess Martha Coast
is characterized by snow-covered slopes, many 'of
them so precipitous as to be snow-free, and rising
to altitudes reportedly greater than 13,000 feet.
That part of Coats Land lying between the Prin-
cess Martha Coast and Duke Ernst Bay (35?W.),
which measures about 385 miles in length; faces
the Weddell Sea in an almost continuous ice cliff.
During the early summer months pack ice lying
about 700 to 1,000 n. miles offshore obstructs the
approaches to the coast, though navigable seas im-
mediately border the coast.
The eastern 100 miles or more of this stretch of
coast is bordered by shelf ice. To the west the suc-
ceeding 45 miles of coast is unsUrveyed. Most of
the remainder is bordered by shelf ice, interrupted
in several places by broad glaciers terminating in
very high cliffs. Soundings of 80 fathoms or more
have been taken a short distance off the ice front.
These comparatively shallow soundings, plus evi-
dence of tide marks on the ice, indicate that the
glacier ice is not afloat.
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NIS 69
From Duke Ernst Bay to Cape Adams, the coast,
which is fronted completely by the Filchner Ice
Shelf, trends northwestward about 425 miles to
Cape Adams (75?04'S., 62?20'W.). The treacher-
ous ice of the Weddell Sea prevents approach to
the coast, except during the summer season when
some penetration from the east is possible. At
the head of Duke Ernst Bay, two glaciers, Schweit-
zer Glacier and Lerchenfeld Glacier, descend from
the high inland terrain. With a German expedi-
tion Filchner landed in this area in 1912, but later
abandoned the site (landing place (81) ). The
southern entrance point of the bay is marked by
Bertrab Nunatak, a bare rock about 1,000 feet high.
Except for a rough outline of the face of the
Filchner Ice Shelf, the coast between Duke Ernst
Bay and Cape Adams is uncharted. The edge of
the shelf ice is very irregular as far as Gould Bay,
an indentation in the shelf about 100 miles west-
ward of Duke Ernst Bay. Gould Bay, about 15
miles across, is indented about 20 miles southward.
West of Gould Bay the shelf ice front is compara-
tively regular. The interior, called Edith Ronne
Land, is completely uncharted.
G. List of sources
In addition to standard intelligence sources such
as the Special NIS, Sailing Directions, Tide Tables,
and NIS Antarctica Gazetteer, are the following:
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36. FRASER, F. C. "On the Development and Distribution
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by the U.S. Weather Bureau from Weather Bureau
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p. 17-280, 1932.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
CONFIDENTIAL
NIS 69
CHARTS
185. ARGENTINA, ? MINISTERIO DE MARINA, DIRECCION GENERAL
DE NAVEGACION E HIDROGRAFIA. Navigation Charts:
31; 64, 65, 100, 101, 103, 104, 114, 116.
186. AUSTRALIA, ROYAL 'AUSTRALIAN NAVY, HYDROGRAPHIC
BRANCH. Navigation Chart: 08.
187. GERMANY, OBERKOMMANDO DER KRIEGSMARINE. Naviga-
?.tion .Charts: 384, 397, 402, 547, 1057, 1062; 2702, 2704.
188. GREAT- BRITAIN, HYDROGRAPHIC DEPARTMENT. Naviga-
NAVY-JANUARY 1956
189. U.S. HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE. Contoured Position Plot-
ing Sheets (BC series) : 0110S-0115S, 0209S-0217S,
0309S-03175, 0408S-0417S, 0507S-0517S, 0608S-0617S,
0709S-0717S, 0810S-0817S, 0910S-0917S, 1010S-1018S,
1110S-1118S, 1209S-12185, 1308S-1318S, 14075-1418S,
1508S-15155, 1609S-16155, 17095-1715S, 1810S-1815S,
19105-1915S, 20095-2015S, 2109S-21155, 22085-2215S,
2307S-2315S, 2408S-24155, 2509S-2514S, 26105-2614S,
27105-2714S, 28105-2814S, 29105-2914S, 3009S-3014S,
3108S-3114S, 3207S-3214S, 3308S-3314S, 3409S-3414S,
3509S-35145, 3610S-3614S.
tion Charts: 1774, 2202A, 2202B,
2203,
2683,
3170,
190.
Navigation Charts: 0453, 0454, 0825, 958,
2003,
.
2451, 2452, 2453, 3570, 3866, 3875, 5411, 5412,
3171, 3172; 3173,3174, 3175, 3176,
3177,
3196,
3202,
5446,
3205, 3213,- 3570, 3571, 3579, 3585,
3589,
3593,
3596,
5801, 6636, 6637, 6638, 6639, 6640, 6641, 6650,
6652,
3866.
6653, 6654, 6661, 16321-24, 16429.
PAGE 22-94
CONFIDENTIAL
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
?
?
?
r /14110
A. COASTAL SECTOR 1. DECEPTION ISLAND. Argentine base at head of small bay in southeast part of
island. Approximate position 62?59'S., 60?34'W. Probably 1954.
Nwv,
-PI EDmONT GLACIER
ierwitior
I. ? Jr> 4' ? ?
t
k t " I figt
. _
gar:
'CALVING ICE8ERGS..
_- r? ? -.2.1Z. ? ? ? .77.7
? -4
. . .6 ?
? rr.o-
?-? -
-
- ? ??????4.1,
-,-
-
PVV-
.11????
????
-
- ? - - - -
_ ?
-
r
4?4ro.
^ k. ?
?
;
r
?
. ? .440:
? 1.
1:1:4166 rfkil .2,14
? - !. IISEBREAKER
- ???? /5.?
- ? ...
,
-
?
-????-?
B. COASTAL SECTOR 1. MARGUERITE BAY. Note sea ice in foreground, cliff ed front of glacier in background, and steep,
rocky terrain in right background. Photo portrays type of coast common to many areas of Antarctica. Arrow de-
notes direction of ice movement. Approximate position 68?S., 62?W. 1948.
CONFIDENTIAL
50X1
FIGURE
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDp97-00952R000200250001-2
A. COASTAL SECTOR 2. NORTHERN EXTREMITY OF PETER I ISLAND. Approximate position 68?43'S., 90?32'W.
February 1955.
B. COASTAL SECTOR 3. KAINAN BAY IN EAST EDGE OF Ross ICE SHELF. Landing place (27) . View eastward
from west of bay showing U.S.S. Glacier of "Operation DEEPFREEZE" breaking out ice for berthing of cargo
ships. Shelf ice in foreground and background, bay ice in middleground. Approximate position 78?S.,
162?W. 1956.
FIGURE 22-50
CONFIDENTIAL
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,5
Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
_
A. COASTAL SECTOR 3. KAINAN BAY
IN EAST EDGE OF Ross ICE SHELF.
Landing place (27). Supply ship
and icebreaker of "Operation
DEEPFREEZE" moored to bay ice
at head of bay. Approximate po-
sition 78?S., 162?W. 1956.
?
, ? .
? I-vs!!
*;.
'17 ; ? ? is. :A:CM r,
,
,
t,
? ?Ii,i^ii_.=LI; ? ?
?
B. COASTAL SECTOR 3. KAINAN BAY IN EAST EDGE OF ROSS ICE SHELF. Landing place (27). Photograph taken
during "Operation DEEPFREEZE." View looking south over bay ice in foreground, shelf ice in left middle-
ground, and pressure area in right background. Approximate position 78?S., 162?W. 1956.
CONFIDENTIAL
FIGURE 22-51 50X1
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release n 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
AT J. LJ
avaax?
A. COASTAL SECTOR 3. BAY OF WHALES, IN EAST EDGE OF ROSS ICE SHELF. Landing place (28). View northeastward with
pressure-ridged bay ice in foreground. A 1955 expedition reported that the Bay of Whales was destroyed by extensive
calving of the Ross Ice Shelf. Approximate position 78?S., 164?W. 1947.
,Y1,54.r. 101.
B. COASTAL SECTOR 3. BAY OF WHALES, IN EAST EDGE OF ROSS ICE SHELF. Landing place (28) . Supply ships at edge of
bay ice in left middleground, close pack in center middleground, shelf ice in foreground and background. A 1955
expedition reported that the Bay of Whales was destroyed by extensive calving of the Ross Ice Shelf. Approximate
position 78?S., 164?W. 1947.
FIGURE 22-52
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50X1
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
?
?
?
A. COASTAL SECTOR 3. WEST OF BAY OF WHALES. Pack ice, made up of fragments of sea ice, in foreground, and the
edge of the Ross Ice Shelf in background. Approximate position 78?S., 178?W. 1955.
B. COASTAL SECTOR 3. Ross ISLAND AT CAPE EVANS. Landing place (32) . Open water of McMurdo Sound
in background. Hut Camp established by Captain R. E. Scott in 1911 in middleground. Approximate
position 78?S., 167?E. 1956.
CONFIDENTIAL FIGURE 22-550X1
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release e 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
-1
A. COASTAL SECTOR 3. McMuRDo SOUND. View southeastward showing supply ships of "Operation DEEP-
FREEZE" moored to ice at head of McMurdo Sound. Inaccessible Island in left background and Tent Island
in right background. Approximate position 78?S., 166?E. 1956.
B. COASTAL SECTOR 3. FRANKLIN ISLAND. View westward from U.S.S. Glacier of "Operation DEEP-
FREEZE" lying approximately 12 n. miles east of the island. Approximate position 76?S., 168?E. 1956.
C. COASTAL SECTOR 4. COASTAL AREA NEAR CAPE FOLGER. Oblique view of ice-free islands in background and con-
tinental ice in right foreground, separated by moraine composed of rock fragments. Arrow denotes direction of
ice movement. Approximate position 66?S., 111?E. 1947-48.
FIGURE 22-54
CONFIDENTIAL
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?
?
50X1
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2913/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
A. COASTAL SECTOR 4. ICE-FREE COASTAL AREA AT LANDING PLACE (54). In contrast to Vestfold Hills in FIGURE 22-55B,
note blanket of rock fragments covering surface of hills. Approximate position 66?S., 101?E. 1947-48.
>.
%Hr..
'7.414: ?
r
kr t,
-
,
,
" - ? 1/ ? -
r????-
tror,A9.-
- ? ?
zApt. Tt
"
4
????
. _
.. _
?
Z;:t"'"1.14: - `.?-7'11v.*:-..-- '4? ' ? .
*, --
' e-7411&41t.".;, 44%." 1...--?+.- -7- - --:- ?-"--- -7.--1 = t
. irtc..?
"t*---
-
ADELIE PENGUIN ROOKERY
12 FT.)
Ns? (.45?,2's)bes1?I9v
,s-F"CIL0 40 60 80 ICON
(SALILMMA, o RREYC OCANLSE)
30?
20?
10?
10?
E
20?
30?
40?
130?E 120?E 110?E
100? E 90 EAST
80?E 70?E
60?E 50?E
STATE OF SEA, SUMMER (JANUARY, FEBRUARY, MARCH) . IIIISOUTIBS show percent frequency of seas 55 feet.
CONFIDENTIAL STATE OF SEA, SUMMER FIGURE 22-oz 50X1
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved forRelease @50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
140?
150?
160?
170?
180?
170?
160?
150?
TAS
140?
130?W 120?W
NIS
69
110?W 100?W 0? WEST 80?W 70?W 60?W
-
RELIABILITY DIAGRAM
E-EXCELLENT F-FAIR
G-GOOD P-POOR
10
VERY ROUGH (8-12 FT.)
20
HIGH (>12 FT.)
CONFIDENTIAL
LEGEND-SEA
203?OBSERVATIONS
% CALM
% CONFUSED
SLIGHT (12 FT.)
NO
DATA
RELIABILITY DIAGRAM
E-EXCELLENT F-FAIR
0-GOOD P-POOR
04'
SUMMARY SCALE
(ALL DIRECTIONS) ?
ATI
\111111111111 1111111111111111 11111111111111111
70?
130?E 120?E 110?E 100?E
90? EAST
80?E 70?E
60?E 50?E AUTUMN
30?
20?
10?
10?
20?
30?
40?
SWELL, AuTumN (APRIL, MAY, JUNE) . Isolines show percent frequency of swell >12 feet.
rilIVVTTIVATTT A T
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
50X1
SWELL, AUTUMN FIGUI. ,67
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2 NI 69
li
CONFIDENTIAL
140?
150?
160?
170?
180?
170?
160?
150?
TAS
140?
130?W 120?W
110?W 1000W
90? WEST 80?W
Sj
166 O.
SOUTH/
AMERICA
/0?W 60?W
LEGEND-SWELL
203?oBSERVATIONS
% NO SWELL
% CONFUSED
LOW (1-6 FEET)
MODERATE (6-12 FT.)
HIGH (>)2 FT.)'
20
30
40 +0 vb (P t
RELIABILITY DIAGRAM
E-EXCELLENT F-FAIR
G-GOOD P-POOR
0 20 4000 00 100N)
SUMMARY SCALE
(ALL DIRECTIONS)
10 ?
ef '14
130?E
120? E
110?E
100?E
oiti-fLY NO4, 7- 60?
H \ORD I`
DATA
90? EAST
80?E 70?E 60?E 50?E WINTER
30?
20?
10?
10?
20?
30?
40?
SWELL, WINTER (JULY, AUGUST, SEPTEMBER) . Iiolines show percent frequency of swell >12 feet.
flrAwrrTnrwy'rT AT
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
50X1 no
SWELL, WINTER FIGU-.? __?vu
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
NIS 69
CONFIDENTIAL
140?
150?
160?
170?
180?
170?
160?
150?
TAS
140?
130?W 120?W
110?W 100? W
50? WEST 80?W
70?W 60?W
SOUTH
AMERICA
LEGEND-SWELL
203.?OBSERVATIONS
NO
DATA
RELIABILITY DIAGRAM
E-EXCELLENT F-FAIR
G-GOOD P-POOR
60?.
% NO SWELL
% CONFUSED
LOW (1-6 FEET)
MODERATE (6-12 FT.)
HIGH (>12 FT.)
20
40
SO
0 20 40 40 00
SUMMARY Sail
(ALL DIRECTIONS)
1111111111111111
11111111111111
30?
20?
Tr..)
10?
10?
20?
30?
60?
???0\???
911
130?E 120?E 110?E 100?E ,90? EAST
40?
80?E 70?E 60?E
50?E SPRING
SWELL, SPRING (OCTOBER, NOVEMBER, DECEMBER) .. Isolines show percent frequency of swell >12 feet.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-009512R000200250001-2
50X1 ?
SWELL, SPRING FIGUitz 44-00
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2 9
CONFIDENTIAL
LEGEND
MUD OR OOZE
MUD, SAND
rgal MUD, SAND, GRAVEL
MUD, SAND, GRAVEL, ROCK
130?W 120?W 110?W
100?W 90? WEST
80?W ]0?W
AMERICA
60?W 50?W
40?
MMUD, SAND, GRAVEL, ROCK, SHELL
MUD, SAND, ROCK
MUD, GRAVEL
SAND
SAND, GRAVEL
SAND, GRAVEL, ROCK
SAND, SHELL
GRAVEL
ROCK
UNSAMPLED AREAS
CONFIDENTIAL
30?
20?
170?
10?
180?
_t>/711"
ROSS ICE SHELF
/. /
(7.5"-
te/(/ J1?
ilI
/
170?
10?
160?
20?
150?
30?
TASMANIA
140?
40?
CONFIDENTIAL
130?E 120?E
110?E 100?E 90? EAST 80?E 10?E 60?E 50?E
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
BOTTOM SEDIMENTS FIGURE 22-73
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/12/18: CIA-RDP97-00952R000200250001-2
NAVY-JANUARY 1956
KEY TO PLACES INDICATED ON FIGURE 22-75
NUMERICAL LIST
ALPHA I3ETIC A L LIST
1. Riiser-Larsen Peninsula
2. MacKenzie Bay
3. Davis Sea
4. Shackleton Ice Shelf
5. Adelie Coast
6. Commonwealth Bay
7. Cape Adare
8. Scott Island
9. Cape Jones
10 Coulman Island
11. McMurdo Sound
12. Cape Bird
13. Beaufort Island
14. Ross Island
15. Discovery Inlet
16. Bay of Whales
17. Little America
18. Kainan Bay
19. Okuma Bay
20. Cape Colbeck
21. Sulzberger Bay
22. Cape Dart
23. Amundsen Sea
24. Peter I Island
25. Bellingshausen Sea
26. George VI Sound
27. Marguerite Bay
28. Paradise Harbor
29. Port Foster
30. Clothier Harbor
31. Robert Island
32. Yankee Harbor
33. Isla de los Estados
34. Tierra del Fuego
35. Shag Rocks
36. Clerke Rocks
37. Scotia Bay
37A. Scotia Sea
38. Washington Strait
39. Lewthwaite Strait
40. Spine Islet
41. Larsen Islands
42. Coronation Island
43. Snow Hill Island
44. Lockyer Island
45. Princess Martha Coast
46. Norse] Bay*
47. Atka Bay*
48. Admiral Richard E. Byrd Bay*
Adare, Cape (7)
Adelie Coast (5)
Admiral Richard E. Byrd Bay
Amundsen Sea (23)
Atka Bay (47)
Bay of Whales (16)
Beaufort Island (13)
Bellingshausen Sea (25)
Bird, Cape (12)
Clerke Rocks (36)
Clothier Harbor (30)
Colbeck, Cape (20)
Commonwealth Bay (6)
Coronation Island (42)
Coulman Island (10)
Dart, Cape (22)
Davis Sea (3)
Discovery Inlet (15)
George VI Sound (26)
Isla de los Estados (33)
Jones, Cape (9)
Kainan Bay (18)
Larsen Islands (41)
Lewthwaite Strait (39)
Little America (17)
Lockyer Island (44)
Mackenzie Bay (2)
Marguerite Bay (27)
McMurdo Sound (11)
Norsel Bay (46)
Okuma Bay (19)
Paradise Harbor (28)
Peter I Island (24)
Port Foster (29)
Princess Martha Coast (45)
Riiser-Larsen Peninsula (1)
Robert Island (31)
Ross Island (14)
Scotia Bay (37)
Scotia Sea (37A)
Scott Island (8)
Shackleton Ice Shelf (4)
Shag Rocks (35)
Snow Hill Island (43)
Spine Islet (40)
Sulzberger Bay (21)
Tierra del Fuego (34)
Washington Strait (38)
Yankee Harbor (32)
(48)
* Location and name not verified by the U.S. Board on Geographic
Names.
NIS 69
CONFIDENTIAL
W
150?
w
160?
wr
180?
170?
E
160?
E
E
TASMANIA
140?
E
130?W
120?W 110?W 100?W
90? WEST
80?W 70?W 60?W 500W
40?
w
30?
w
.2:
.
10?
E
20?
E
30?
E
40?
E
50?
`Z`
et\
600
,,
C.)
\
\
A i''
X
8
\
w
V
23
22 , =.-r='-'
.,,,..),, \ , ..z,
-"'.- % t
? ,...,-..-.1 ?????-? ,,r
03
18 _
17--2--.0?9 o
ROSS
)
70? 15 , ',fit ROSS ICE SHEIF i
.;:- )11 80? f Ni7/,?
ii),),(
60 ?
0
.
OR
_ S UTH
? 30
- 28
27
26c-: ,-,-4-
': '''''';'---- y '
?... A
?
. i
,.__. _., ...
0 .
G k? \- ''' _
i. Is
,2
800
TIC A
,..-_
I
'
0 SOUTH
A , AMERICA
.
,
Nr" .
,,? 34
ili
3 'A KLAND ISL NDS
, KE PA -SAGE
.
SH. LA ? ISLA DS
/
,a5 3 1 . 4 3' 9 , '
29 ? 40 37A

38 / \\souTH
ORGIA
,36
.
.
SOUTI sHASNADN a, CH
50'
24
I
70?
4 SOUTH OR EY
..
. . ?
s r Do o4
,
46
. .
45 j70? i 48 60?
'
ARC
, '
, 25
--......
80?
CAMPB --L---1 LAND
; UCKLAND
ISLANDS
MACQUARIE
I.SLAND.
k
n
BALLENY ,
. ISLANDS /.
.
,...., ,,c ki 1
10, 14 felitin
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V
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BOUVET.
(.) ISLAND
k
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.
PRINCE EDWARD
HSLANDS?
ISLANDS',--
: ?
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i--_,Jr,if
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