RADIO ENGINEERING

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
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• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 116
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: November 13, 2013
• Sequence Number: 4
• Publication Date: October 9, 1958
• Content Type: REPORT

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STAT
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TnERSUIT toll
RADIO ENGINEERING
(RAD I OTEKHNI KA)
Vol. 12, No. 1
January 1957
Pages 3 - 81
?.?
STAT
?
STAT
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2 ---!
6
D ;
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CS_J
_ __Table of
Long-Distance Tropospheric Propagation
B.A.Vvedenskiy and A.G.Arenberg
Certain Characteristics of Radio Note
A.D.Kuztmin
Calculation of Complex:Resonators, by
,
I
Calculation of Absorption Line, by V.S.Melinikcrr
Contents
1
of Ultrashort Waves, by
1
I
from Cosmic Bodies, by
I 15
A.I.Zhivotovskiy 28
36
Device for Visual Observation and Measurement of Frequency
Characteristics of Group Time of Propagation, Phase
Shift, and Modulus of Transmission Factor (Frequency.
Cathode-Ray Curve Tracer), by I.T.Turbovich, A.V.Knipper,
and V.G.Solomonov I 40
24-j 1
-- The Problem of Intermediate Processei in Pulse Schematics with
26_ Crystal Point-Contact Triodes, by 0.G.Tagodin 57
:
--i 1
).c_. Frequency Feedback in Receivers of Signals with Frequency
Modulation, by D.U.Kantor ' 76
30_1 I
32_1
36_4
56?
Self Oscillator with Defensive Circuit Damping, by A.Z.Khaikov 84
Problem of Generating BellShaped Pulses, by L.I.Kastaltskiy 97
Letter to the Editor by V.S.VcgmAzkLy - 101
S.A.Vekshinskiy on his 60th Anniversary 105
A.A.Pistoltkors on his 60X11 Anniversary 108
New Books 110
S TAT
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--T
LONG-DISTANCE TROPOSPHFRJC PROPAGATION OF ULTRASHORT WOES*
by
10-
12-
14
1. Introduction
B.A.Vvedenskiy, Honorary Member of the Society
A.G.Arenberg 3 Active Member of the Society
i
1
1
,
Because of the successful development of experimental techniques and because ofi
--
16-1 !
the multitude of new radio lines which have started operation in recent years, it ;
1811
has been found that in the band of ultrashort waves (meter, decimeter, and centi-
2 i
_meter waves) transmission is possible at distances which were considered as simply:iIneon-
1
ceivable up to very recently, or if it were possible, then only under special,
')4.7-11
_ rare metereological conditions. This concerns directly the task assigned to the
--..-
Soviet radio engineering by the historical decisions of the Twentieth Congress of the,
i __Communistic Party of the Soviet Union. These decisions open wide scientific and i
technical possibilities for creating new systems of long-distance broad-band cammun'
1
.4 321
.ications.
However, it is not without misgivings that we accepted the proposal to write
36_j
this paper. One of the reasons is that we cannot tell anything very new to the
_ specialists; in addition, it must be admitted that there is a certain lag in the
40_1
__development of these problems in our country, and finally - although very recently -i
42.._
a 1
__this
problem has been discussed in an extensive and by no means always unni m 0113 I
_literature, which cannot be summarized, even in condensed form, without consider- I
_ able difficulties. ,
1
i
,
I
We will begin our report with a brief reference to the history of ultrashort
sC_:
.
_wave propagation. With certain reservations, the following basic stages can be dif-
52-4
. * Paper. read.in,Hoscow....on 12 May 1956, at the Scientific Session of the_Society
imeni_A.S.Popov,_dedicated_to Radio Day.
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_iferentiated.
2-4
First Stage, (earl.y Twenties). _The first_practical stpps are being mad so; the .
__. equipment is primitive and the distance of communications mall. An interferential
6_1 ?
_ structure of the field becomes established in the vertical plane, and the dependence'
Zof the field on distance and altitude of the corresponding points is found. Quad-
/ I
? -
10-H
- ratio and other interference formulas are derived. A negligent attitude toward the
19
:troposphere leads to the concept, of ultrashort waves as "quasi-optical waves, spread-
141
_ ing only to the horizon".
16 -1
Second Stage ( end of Twenties-Thirties). The equipment is rapidly developed.
161
The distance to the horizon ceases to be the limit for communications. The role of
e%
tropospheric refraction becomes known; a concept of the equivalent radius of the
22_1 . I
earth is introduced. Simultaneously, diffraction formulas are developed, and - in
the form of a synthesis - refraction is introduced (by means of an equivalent
26_1
radius) into the diffraction formulas. An aera of increasingly refined and exact
23-1 1
- mathematical work on these formulas has started.
Third Stage (Forties). Radar, television, etc. give a powerful impetus to the
32_1
- development of equipment. The study of the troposphere is intensified; radiometer-
34__J
- eology begins; the role of atmospheric humidity in the propagation of radio waves
36_1
_is emphasized. The number of stations operating on ultrashort waves of all types
_ increases rapidly and continues to multiply; the volume of experimental material
40 1
- accumulates accordingly. Special metereological conditions make possible "ultra-
_distant reception". To explain this fact, a theory of tropospheric Wave carriers
44 '
_ is created which in certain cases and to a certain degree corresponds to the empiri-
- cal data. Theoretical mathematicians give this theory a very complicated mathemat-
4E___!
- ical form. The question of absorption (partially selective) in water vapor, atmos-
- pheric gases, rain, etc. is treated.
? 5'
Fourth Stage. Further improvement of the equipment and a widening of the net-
5 '
-
- work of regularly working ultrashort wave stations in the Forties and Fifties,
?
60_
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_'especiaIly in the last five years opens new possibilities of very distant (as far as
9i
!
_ the _ultrashort wave_and_is _concerned) and predominantly. tropospheric transmissions
over hundreds and even thousands of kilometers - even in absence of wave carriers ml
6 I
- the troposphere. At present, the possibility of a regular transmission over such
P
...'great distances of both speech and television has been experimentally proved, and
10-d
_ .. experimental multichannel transmissions are being carried out.
124
Some correction must be made at this point: When speaking of "long-distances
14-1
_ultrashort waves, we have in mind only the effects caused by the troposphere - not
the still greater distances, chiefly in television, achieved by ultrashort waves
- (as, for instance, reception of Moscow television programs in Holland) and sporadi-
6_1
- cally observed at wavelength not below 5 sit; it can be considered as proved that this
221
__can be explained by the ionosphere. Although the mechanisms of these two types of
propagation of ultrashort waves are intimately correlated, we will not speak here of
.16
- ionospheric phenomena. The field of discussion is limited by the scope of the pres-
29--1
'ent report.
30_1
Studies by Italian scientists in 1932 and Soviet scientists in 1933 preceded
32-1
- the discovery mentioned before, that waves of about 60 cm (although only sporadical-
- ly) reached distances of some hundred kilometers in radiotelephony. With increasing
3
;
_regularity, fields which in certain respects were larger than those obtained by us-
- ual diffraction computation, were observed. The number of such events during the
40?J
World War II increased, and some of these did not substantiate the wave carrier
42_J
theory. American authors mention 1948 as the date when a considerable number of
44 '
- such events became known. An important role in their accumulation is played by ra-
46--1
- dar stations and radio-relay links, Where unexpected mutual interference and great
- distances were observed.
50_4
In the beginning, super?distant fields were only considered-as disturbances.
52--i
However, when it became clear. (about 1950) that distances of regularly stable recep-
tion can be reached on centimeter waves, detailed studies were made in the USA to
- STAT
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_2determine the practical value of the newli discovered effects. In one of the Ameri-
9 f
can articles, the aim of the_stydy was deicribed as a desire "to determine the possi.;-
bilities of using higher frequencies" (naturally, for tropospheric transmission).
6 i ?
Further the article states: "Liol4er-/requencies transmitted through the ionosphere
'r
were found less convenient because of variable conditions in the ionosphere".
10
Here a few words should be said on terminology. The expression "super-distant
1211
propagation of ultrashort waves", in our opinion, is unsatisfactory since, compared
14_1
to the propagation of short waves, the expression "super-distant" sounds rather pre-
__
16_j 1
tentious. The expression: "propagation of ultrashort waves beyond the horizon" is
id-
1 1
I
--
not good either, since propagation "beyond the horizon" was known before and the
on ! .
1 1
-,__
__expression does not convey-the novelty of effect. An expression very much used
291 i
at the boundary between the Forties and Fifties, namely "turbulent propagation"
2--.2;
seems too categorical and too presumptive for the mechanics of the phenomenon. The
2f_j
__term "scattered (or diffused) propagation" is also objectionable since scattered
op i I
4 __fields are also observed in the proximity;zone.
30-1, I
1
Some authors use the expressions "extra" (or "super" or "trans") "diffractional
32 - i
_.:propagation" in view of the fact that these effects have been discovered through the
34_1
difference (increase by tens or even hundreds of decibels) of observed fields, as
361
- compared to those calculated according to usual diffraction formulas, containing the
equivalent radius of the earth. Finally (although this enumeration might not be
40_j
complete) occasionally the term "radio-crepuscular propagation"- is used. This is
42.2
__based on the fact that, whatever the possible mechanism of long-distance propagation
3E?
of ultrashort waves, the effect depends on the role of very high more or less equal
4-:?0
_ emospheric layers which, illuminated by the sun, create the crepuscular effect and
_.the expression "radio-aurora". 1
crs
We prefer to use a less compulsory and, at the same time, more adequate expres-
sion for the true status: "distant propagation of ultrashort waves through the trop-I
?sphere*.
'
STAT
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_i The foundation for a systematic study of distant tropospheric propagation of 1
. ? I
2-4 i
_.:UltraShort waves_has been_laid(as_far_as)can be determined) in the USA by the Foil- .
.4_J !-
I
4 __eral Bureau of Communications, the ILI.T., the US Naval Research Laboratory, and by 1
61 1
_ ,the Bell Telephone Company. Separate papers have been published in the USSR, Eiig--7.-,
. 8 '
' Tland, and France. USA authors call 1953 the year when technical usefulness of fleas-,
. ' 1
10-1 ? ? 1
tant" propagation has been proved beyond doubt. The total number of published papers
,
- by authors of these countries is more than 60-70. The problem is being studied in
ten large Institutes; the number of persons mentioned by the authors, as working the
16--1,
projects, is over 200; the number of other participants is evidently still greater.
181 ,
The studies encompass the bands from meter to centimeter waves. Studies were
20_1 I .
- and are carried out on a long-range basis (months and even years). Average values
22_4
__of the fields (power) and characteristics of fading are indicated. Distances for
24---i
__which the studies were made reach 500-600 km, even 1000 km. The altitudes for the
26_....i
_ corresponding points are taken both low and high (motntains and airplanes). Most
,
2.3_4 ,
4 __measurements were taken on land at fixed points. However, a considerable number of
30_1 1
I
__measurements were made with receivers moving along a certain course; for instance,
19 I
?
- approximately along a circle having the transmitter as center. This was done to
34_J
__evaluate the role of the obstacles (so-called "diffractional amplification by ob-
36 ?
--_!stacles"). 1
38-J,
The results are mostly expressed as the ratio of received power to radiated'
40_4
__power ("attenuation by propagation"*). The comparability of results is achieved by
42..J
_:excluding such characteristics as antenna amplification (reducing to isotropic) (re-
44_1
duced to 1 kw), absorption in feeders, and even the influence of the earth's surface
(the latter, by necessity, is only approximate).
Part of the studies is carried, out with specially issued or manufactured equip-
- ment, but other results are obtained from the operation of radio, television, and..
? * For practical_purposes, the minus sign in a logarithmic expression_(when_going
-over to decibels)-is replaced by the inversed.proportion. ? I
. ,
_5_
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:other ultrashort wave stations, and also from radar and similar installations.
9-4
For the communication lines multistage stabilized transmitters with frequency
41
k _modulation are used (for meter waves, resnatrons and for decimeter waves powerful
6 1
klystrons with external circuits are used). The continuous power output reachei----
--
0 I
_.10 kw. In pulse radar stations, the pulse power reaches 1 megawatt and the average
10--1
. power, 300"500 w.
12:1
The receivers have high sensitivity and selectivity, are free from noise, have
14__1
a broad band and minimal distortions. In certain cases, the sensitivity reached
135 decibels at 1 w. Spaced reception has been used intensively and with success. f
18_1
As antennas for ultrashort waves, paraboloids of rotation with diameters from
20_4
a few meters to 20 meters (weighing 3 tons) are used, while the common type for
22-1 1
meter waves are vibrating arrays. No definite advantage has been detected in using
24 I
different polarizations.
26-1
, - Some Experimental Data
1
_J
One of the basic characteristics for the propagation of ultrashort waves always
7' 'has been the dependence of the field (or power received) on the distance. In the
N
case of interest here, this question has not been decided'- chiefly on account of
the considerable scattering of experimental points, although average values of fields
2.(or power) have been collected for a considerable period of time. There is every
1
?Z-lreason to believe that this scattering is chiefly caused by changes in the tropo-
- spheric conditions incliarii ng climatic; in addition, the terrain features of the
53
6.1.;
- earthls surface may influence the character of the field.
Since the publication of papers by Bucker and Gordon (1950) it has been tacit-
agreed to accept for the field (or for the power, i.e., for its "attenuation") in
- the "transdiffractional tropospheric zone" which interests us, - a dependence on the
distance expressed in a certain power of the original figure. With reference to the
_ above, we analyzed a_considerable amount of data in our possession and arrive at
conclusion: In first and rough approximation, a tropospheric_field_inj
STAT
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_
the transdiffractional zone can be considered as inverseli-prOirOrfiOnil torabOut-the
-4
a):
-3
-10
-12
I
?
?
?
%
i
.
x
; .
x
)
?
X
X
X
?
i
?ic
x
71/4
IfR
i
.317 48 80 160 320 480 800 15l
Fig.1 - Average Level of Signals
for Distant Propagation of DMW and
CW in Closed Circuits (according
to Bullington): ? - DEW; x - CMW
0
a) Level of signal in relation to
free space, db; b) Distance km
3. 5th or 4th power of the distance so that
the attenuation is expressed by the 7-8th pow-
er. However, not only these figures-but-iIso
the "power" dependence is far from being proved.
Nonetheless the approximate dependence
mentioned before is to be considered a practi-
cal figure both for observations taken at fixed
points (1'ig.1), and for those rather rare
cases (Fig.2) when the receiver varied contin-
uously. It is typical for distant tropospher-
ic propagation of ultrashort waves, there is no
apparent difference in this approximate law.
For different frequencies, however, a differ-
ence in the absolute values of the fields has been observed, notwithstanding the
spacing of points already mentioned before (F1.g.3).

1-
_
10
a) 8
6
4
2
::?.?.":
'I'
?;1.%
?
\
.,
.
.
!
,
"t
...?
?
..:
?
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???? ?'?
.. ???
"
.
1.
-,
??
Ir
??
,?iir \I.,.
? Ps."..??????????????:1.:?:4
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0
256
384
512
_ b)
Fig.2 - Dependence of Signal Level on
Distance (according to Ames, Newman, and
Rogers) X . 13.6 cm Reception in aircraft
-at altitude 3000 m above sea level.
) Level of signal,.. db; b) Distance km.
Another method of evaluating the
1
experimental data is the prediction
curve for propagation in well-mixed airs:
as suggested by Norton, Rice, and Vogler:
The above-mentioned authors have
? I
analyzed data for 122 radio lines, oper.
ating on waves from 4.5 m to 29 9u, at
distances from 72 km to 1000 km; antenna
height: lower, 2.4 - 37 in; upper, 121 -
2400 in above surroundings; time of the
day-13 - 18h (more quiet and free of
_
carrier waves) and have plotted an 'in-
STAT
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V' tem,.
0 ???????11.
_Iteresting curve for the dependence of attenuation on diifince (Fii;4). Tills curve 1
q1 i 1
,,,,---, i
is plotted along specially selc:cted coordinates. Besides the usual parameter, the i
41, _ _ _ 1 1
0 ildistance is characterized here also by the
i
6_.-20 1
,
00-0/0aw in-gle-e;-WhiCii-ineously represenfi7i1
1 ,I
..Voiffi,
, 60 %geocentric angle of the points on the rad-
1W
io horizon for both corresponding points
,
19 ?1 , .
.._.: -too (more correctly for their radio horizons)
14
''"????
1M
30 10 .3 1 10 0 ?
16 Hi
Fig.3 - Dependence of Average Signal
?Level on Wavelength (according to
22__11 Bulling a):
-I
24 tropospher...1 propagation
=D
'
ionospheric propagation
ati evaluation of the distance is based by the
.1 a) Level Or signal with reference to free!
......___, authors of the formula on complicated and
1
4 ---,
space, db; b) Length of wave, meters 1 _
-d 22.__: not fully convincing arguments. The in-
q troduction of the angle e is connected with a complete calculating process, devel-
34-1
'oped by the same authors and aimed at an evaluation of the local relief of the ter-
361
rain. We will only refer to Fig.5b and to the general indication that, in their ex-
and also an "angle of dispersion", which
constitutes an important parameter tor all
dispersion theories (Fig.5a). The intro-
duction of this parameter is dictated by
the theories of dispersion.
The possibility of such an unusual:
3e_j,
__planations, the track is divided into four arcs of a circle lying in the plane of
401
the great circle passing through the corresponding points. The radii of these four
42 1
arcs are different and are selected by special method so that the arcs at their
__junction points do not form any break. As a result, this angle 8 is plotted on the
46_i
abscissa or, what amounts to the same, the full distance less the length of both
xn
__Irradiated parts of the track, i.e., R - Ripg R2pg. On the ordinate a modified
average attenuation is plotted (in decibels) which (for not very convincing reasons,.
- 'since they are based on the diffraction theory) is divided by the distance. Ftrther,
,
_ to exclude the influence of the effective area of the receiving antenna, the attenu-
STAT
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__ation is divided by the square of the frequency. One cannot deny, however, that
9 i
such a method is justified in that it permits a consolidation of extensive experi-
4
6
14-
26d
I _
0
901
W
KO
4..
--...--
-- 1 I
?
?
A 30-450a4
? 280-340 on
? 125- 280 an
x 70- 75cm
+ 29cst
?
,
. ;
:
*,
? .1
.
vs
?
.
.
?
?
130.
f40b
150
co--....,....?
pa
-0
:"%4.....'-'????..............?____.
?
4 -""L4................4...,...,
?
60 150 240
320 400 480 550 540 720 kV 660 SI
Fig.4 - Dependence of Modified Average Attenuation on the Distance, Correspond-
ing to the Angle 8 (according to Norton, Rice, and Vogler)
Daytime; Typical Atmospheric Conditions
a) Modified attenuation, db; b) Distance corresponding to angle 8, km
28-1
mental data into an acceptable empirical trve.
This curve was obtained during an attempt by the
4
,-;,:-theory suitable for all distances. Notwithstanding, considerable work and, at times,
:=1
2r_great intelligence as well as, at times, arbitrary methods, the work (in our opinion)
authors to create a unified
3- - aid not progress beyond a very complex but purely mechanical agglomeration of - at
::_present - heterogeneous components.
- theory indicated above, and gives it with a considerable saving
This curve is preferable over different other published
For practical purposes, however, this curve gives not less
the same purpose.
????????
information than the
of time and effort.
curves and nomograms having
All authors agree that a transition from the diffractional
zone* into the zone
* I.e., in the zone where the liclassical" (based on the concept
earth's radius) diffraction theory is_true.
of an equivalent -
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- which is of interest to us, namely that of distant propagation, proceids smoothlf:-1
21
Depending upon the height of the .corresponding points, this transition maybe very !
4
I
far away (at great heights) or relatively-near the :
I 1 1
--trinsmit1ei:-"This-ii-iitill-illuit-fitid-by'Tkaleil-a;7:
1 I I
1
periments carried out over a closed track of 74 km
(Fig.6). A practical criterion for the presence of a!
1
9A__1 1
- Fig.5 - For Determining the
Angle 8 over Flat and
32 - 1
34:1
tion is the common case when an obstacle (not even very conspicuous) in the path of
3;__j
ropagation leads to a considerable increase in the field values. An especially .
3SJ
striking point is the "amplification by obstacles"*, which,when_the_propegation goei
401
over an approximately wedgeshaped mountain, mountain ridge etc. is noticeable even
421 ?
? __beyond low hills. 1
4,
The papers by Kerby, Dougherty, and MacKeet give data on an excessive field be-
- hind
an isolated wedgeshaped mountain (Pikes Peak) in the eastern slopes of the
43__!
_Rockies. This excess reached a value of 20-30 db (wave range from 5 to 1.5 n).
so_J
- Tests with longer meter waves were made in Alaska. Bullington reports data on a
Hilly Terrain
utranszone" can be based either on a distinct predom-
inance of the fields over the "diffractional" zones
(at equivalent earthls radius) or on an analysis of
the character of tading.
Modern diffraction theories, developed to a high
degree of mathematical perfection and accuracy for the
case of a smooth spherical earth, are rather useless
(for criticism of the methods to account for refrac-
tion, see later) for the case when the surface of the
terrain relief is disregarded.
A typical example for the necessity of taking the latter point into considera-
52H
* Obviously, there.are_also (and even more frequently than amplification) attenua-
. 4
-tions_by_obstadles.
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Se
?.?
410
.......44,014:14,67).11.100P1Mwm,
0____,___ -
_ similarincreae of the field by hundreds of decibelsi-thus the "criterion oraif-
9-j
---fraction" has to be taken wi? th caution also from this point of view. One fact is
,
4 i _
6
60
45
.
I
i r
!
/
.
-r:-
/
e/
/
/
/
?
evident: Any attempt to explain ultradistant fields
I I
-WthiS effect is entirely unfounded.
It is not easy to sort the zones by analyzing
I the character of fading. It is generally accepted
1 e? ?I a) i
30 to divide fadings of ultrashort waves into "slow*
-- and "rapid". Slow fadings are ascribed to factors t
15 changing smoothly and determining an average gradi-
ent of dielectric penetrance of the air. The van-1
,,f'._.:
0 1
'
_j 80 70 60 50 ? 40 30-ations of' such fadings last for several tens of mm
221 ..),) 1
..,.. C.)
_J - utes, usually even for hours. They obey in a satis
e_.
_j
Fig.6 - Dependence of the av-
erage Signal Level on the
Height of the Receiving An-
tenna (according to Trolez)
Wave 3.2 cm; Closed track 74
_Acalong.
7: ting antenna 59 m.
a) Height of receiving anten-
na, m; b) Diffraction zone;
Height of Transmit-
- c) Level of signal in relation
to free space, db
factory manner the norma]. laws of distribution in
the sense of the theory of probability. Diurnal and
seasonal variations can be ascribed to the category!
?
of such fadings.
Rapid fadings, as a rule, have a periodic char?.
acter measured in fractions of a minute, sometimes
less. They are ascribed to mutual interference
among individual elementary oscillations reaching
the receiver due to secondary radiation (diffusion,
reflection) of the transmitter field caused by rap-
id and chaotic fluctuations in the atmosphere. Dif-
ferent from fluctuation of a laminar type, these fluctuations are thought to be of
-globular structure.
A chaotic character of these fluctuation's influences individual oscillations,
re-radiated because of these fluctuations, and gives them phases whose value, with 1
- equal probability, may vary anywhere from 0 to 2n . As a result, the vector sum of
STAY
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?
4
snms.sala=nsoa-..attrars,rataavatesrarar............
0
_.these oscillations (i.e., momentary values' of the field) must follow a special dis-
9 i
. .
1
tributionj which has been studied some time ago by and later by V.I.Siforart
_
4_2
and A.N.Shchukin.
6
C
_
This distribution, in a1 somewhat broadened form, forms a basis for,
the analysis of the character of distant ;
_
g alii Pir r.9:11
r
III
,
... 47 sr
ir
J
SI
i
-/-
sii
milk
_
1101
, Ill
lini
'
MI
AI
?
.1
fields. The studies make wide use of dia-
grams which directly indicate (for example)
1 1
b)
Fig.7 - Samples of Aircraft Records of
Signal Level (According to Ames, New-
man and Rogers)
Wave 13.6 cm; one vertical section is
equal to 3 db. Upper record: inter-
ferential zone (depressions correspond
to intervals between lobes of the
transmitting antenna); center record:
zone of "classical" diffraction. Low-
er record: zone of distant propagation
through the troposphere.
a) Signal level; b) Distance
were made on an airplane flying
during what percentage of time the =men,-
1
tary values of the field - in relation to
the average over a sufficiently long peri-
od of time - will exceed certain values.
In addition, a special functional network
is often used for which the Rayleigh dis-
tribution can be expressed by a straight
line, at a 45? angle to the coordinate
axes.
Figure 7 shows three rather frequent
types (not always distincly expressed) of
recordings for the three zones: interfer-
ential (direct dependence), "classical"
diffractional, and distant, as taken above
the ocean by Ames, Newman, and Rogers.
The rapid oscillations are so weak that
they do not even conceal the'field'decreas-
ing on account of distance (the records
away from the center). Conversely, rapid oscilla-
50-...; .
,
- tions are very strong in the distant zone. However, the experiment shows that the :
52.-- 1
- transition from one case to the other is smooth. Thus, in the general case, the
.. field represents a mixture or a superposition of both types' offields.
1.-???
STAT'
_ 1
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0 .
A study of the character of fadings is important for calculating the rel./
_jity of the_givenradio line. The same problem includes the possibility of consider-
1
0 able stabilization by using two or even three spaced
6
10
^
b)
30
4 0
1.6 t2 08 ty 0 0.4 0.8 12 1.
e)
Fig.8 - Change of Received
Power, with the Antennas
Rotated in the Horizontal
Plane (According to Chis-
holm, Portman, de Betten-
court, and Roch)
Wave 8.1-am; Track 300 km
long. Zero on the scale
of turns corresponds to an-
tennas facing each other.
a) Power received, db;
b) Both antennas rotate;
c) Receiving antenna rotates;
_ d) Measured radiation pat-
tern; e) Angle of turn,
rr
E..2. 3
degrees'
iThIi
t
transmitter is aimed at a certain portion of the at-
mosphere and the transmitting and receiving antennas
are faced in slightly different directions. Certain
phenomena relative to a broadening of the directional
characteristic can be explained by re-radiation in a
sufficiently large air space (see Fig.8). There is ?
also a decrease (reaching, for both antennas, a total
of 10 or more decibels) in antenna amplification due
to lack of a cophased front in the antenna aperture.
Therefore, the number of papers dedicated - in
whole or in part - to the theory of fadings and their
effects, is very large. For instance, spaced recep-
tion is treated by Steres, Jerks, and Mek*; broaden-
ing of antenna characteristics is discussed by Chis -
holm, Portman, de Bettencourt, and Roch; the general
theory of fadings is treated in papers by Rice and
1
G.S.Hurlick. In general, these effects coincide well
with the theory of dispersion.
There exists also a mathematical solution (Nor-
ton, Vogler, Mansfield, Short) for the change in the
distribution diagram, if the "purely-Rayleigh-type"
signal is supplemented by another signal (for in- ?
stance, to make it simple, with constant amplitude).
* Translator's note: Spelling of some of the Western authors unconfirmed._
? - STAT
2.
. . r
"?????-?11
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0
Ilowever, an analysis shows that the quality of the present experiment ii-iallan, i
2-1, I1
_'sufficient to differentiate, for instance, .complete absence of a constant amplitude
. _ _
fields of slaw fadings) fraa the average equality of two signals: of the
1 .
Rayleigh?type and of the constant?amPlitliae type, superimposea ana aaing togetEif:--
6
1
Therefore, Norton, Vogler, Mansfield, and Short
clusion, that "a
10D
velopment of the
ally dependent
IG-
p.
__given
20.
29:]
241
26--
28:1
30__
arrive at a rather pessimistic con?
full evaluation of the experimental data must wait for further de?
propagation theories, which could explain the distribution of mutu-
1
phases and of amplitudes of dispersed fields".
Thus we cannot, as yet, give an answer to the question: whether or not the
32
36
3
40
42
441
46.1
?4
48
?A
so_J
? 52,--4
54 !
field is "totally dispersed".
(To be continued)
STAT
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?
0
1
- - 1 CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIO EMISSION FROM COSMIC OBJECTS__
4_4
? I
by
A.D.KUzImin
A brief review of the characteristics of radio noise from cosmic bodies, '
of interest to radiotechnical use, is given. i
12? 1
14_ I I
--;
1 - 1. Introduction ,
1 i
I-j *.
Many cosmic bodies (Sun, Moon, Gilaxy and certain extragalactic conglomerates)
n I i
1
, are sources of radiation in the range of radio vaves. Only a part of this radiation ,
-
_j
.:reaches the earth, i.e., frequencies within the "transmission band" of the earth's
: __a- tmosphere. This "transmission band" extends from waves around 1 cm to waves near
- - 15-30 m. The limit of the "transmission band" for short waves can be explained by
- Molecular absorption in the atmosphere. Radiation, exceeding a wavelength of
_- 1540 m4 is reflected from the ionosphere.
Radio noise from the cosmic bodies is of great interest for radiotechnique.
0.The coordinates of cosmic bodies, representing sources of radio radiation, are ac-
2c- curately known. These sources are located at very great distances from the receiving
3?equipment and are therefore always within the wave zone of this equipment. Ftrthers,
4C__- the intensity of radio noise from a series of cosmic objects (for instance, moon,
'2__extragalactic bodies, galactic stars). is constant with a practically sufficient ac-
'i__curacy and its value is known.
The above-mentioned features permit the use of cosmic sources of radio radia-
tion for a number of radiotechnical measurements (Bib1.1,15) such as measuring the
_j
directive gain and the efficiency of antennas, recording their radiation patterns
-
and their adjustment. Sources whose radio radiation is constant in time can be
. utilized for control_of_sensitivity of radio receivers.
.___In_certain casesp_oosmic sources of radio noise may interfere with radio_recep-'
SIWT !
.15
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0
_J
2. Parameters of Radio Radiation from Cosmic Bodies
? -4
One of the basic characteristics of radio radiation by cosmic bodies, which de-
-
termines its usefulness for radio-technical purposes, is its intensity. For a quan-
titative characteristic of radio radiation the following parameters are normally
1-_2used:
Radio Radiation Flux. The radio radiation flux p characterizes the total ener-
gy radiated by the body in a single frequency band, during unit time through unit
: _- surface in a direction normal to this surface.
2.1.1Fhtness. The brightness I characterizes the distribution of radio noise in-
tensity over the body. It is determined by relation
;
241
E I
i A p
'7 5 I 1 = WU
AQ ' (1)
-, ---I I
t...- AQ-.0
-1 1
(70 -t i
...t.-?
_Where An is the solid angle of the area of the cosmic body for which the brightness
30_1
.is determined.
32_j
The radio noise flux p is correlated with the brightness I by following ob-
34_1
vious relation
36
3
40
P_ Sidi?. ?
(4)
1
(2)
Practically speaking, the integration should be made only within the limits of
-__the solid angle of the source since, without these limits, the integral is equal to
,
Temperature. The spectral density of radio radiation by cosmic bodies depends
- on the wavelength. However, within the limits of the transmission band of the re-
ceiving set the temperature can be considered as constant. This permits application
of the theory of heat radiation and characterization of the radiation_intensity by
_16
STi?C1
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1
?
110.0.4110
0
The radio radiation brightness is
2-1
_*dre. The brightness temperature T is
_which, at a given frequency in a given
6
source under study.
10
Rayleigh-Jeans formula,
124
ness temperature T by following ratio
usually expressed by the brightness tempera-
;
determined as the temperature of a black body
direction, has the same brightness as the
In the radio-frequency band, the radiation of a black body is determined by the
according to which the brightness I is related to the bright-
;
16__
where k 1.38 x 10-23 joule degrees
of observed radiation.
22_4
__depends on the coordinates of the emission area
26
I-
A'
(3)
?
is the Boltzman constant; A is the wavelength
The brightness temperature T, in the general case, just as the brightness I,
28?
T .T(p, 0)
3:1and characterizes the distribution of radiation over the source.
32_1 The radio radiation flux is usually expressed by the effective temperature Te.
3.;__The effective temperature of radio radiation by the source is' determined as the
36___temperature of a black body having angular dimensions of the source and emitting at
3a_la given frequency the same flux of energy, as the described source. According to
40__Jdefinition, we have
42
44_1
:_where
readily permits
ne is
2K7,2,
At
(4)
the solid angle of the source. A comparison of eqs.(2), (3), and (4)
establishing a connection between the effective and the brightness
I
50-jtemperatures
?
-1
52-A
-4
56 I
T-
? Re
(4z)
58:
60
2:7
(5)
STAT
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_.3. Determination of Poirez-Th. the-Iiii5ut-df-a-Ridii5-ReUelVefc-Catire-d-by Cos.c
2-1
' Radio Radiation
4j
The power received by an antenna in the interval df between frequencies within
? 6-1
-t-h-e-s-Olia-51-10.-E-dn?arid---eiiitted-to- the- balaild-ed antenna Toad is
11-3
ing to only one polarization**.
18 1
.....t The effective area of a receiving antenna A depends
2e1 !
ection of reception. The area is correlated with the factor
_...(9e) of the antenna by the following relation:
24-- 1
-
1
dP -1- I Adfd = KT ) Acrid Q.
2 as
eq-M to
A is the effective area of the antenna*.
that an antenna
1
The factor - is due to the fact
2
(6).
receives the energy correspond-
on its type, size, and dir-
of directional action G
30-1
Ordinated load, is equal to
32j
34_
e)? G
4x
1
The total power P (in the frequency band df), emitted by the
36_
p
T(TM)G(?,
4x
. 00
(7)
antenna under co-
(8)
-n
To compare the power of cosmic radio radiation arriving it the input.of the re-
3E-
4,0_ceiver with the power of its inherent noise, it is convenient to use the concept of
42.__e4uivalent temperature of the source Tal as delivered to the antenna. In radioas-
1'
/
- * In deriving eq.(6), losses in the antenna were not taken into consideration.
?
the band of radioastronomic observations, such an omission
It should be mentioned that this property is not due to
f but to the mechanics of antenna reception. Therefore,, the
? 5-;
receiving antenna for reception of a nonpolarized signal, does not yield a greater
? - power than with a
In
is permissible.
the type of. antenna used,
use of a nonpolarized
polarized antenna, receiving only a signal of one polarization. r
. ,
1
STAT
. -
I
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0
- tronomy this value is simply denoted as antenna temperature.
9-7 1
1
equivalent temperature of the soUrce delivered to the antenna is a resis-
4_,.;
tance temperature equal to the output resistance of the antenna; when coupled to the:
1
---_---
input of the receiver instead of the antenna, this yields at tload of the receiv-
? e
_ er the same volume of noise as the source under observation. On the basis of this
determination and on the determination of the noise factor F of the receiving de-
12-_i
._ vice, it is not difficult to show that the power ratio of the cosmic signal to the
inherent noise of the receiver
16
18
is equal to
11=
FT.
___ where To = 290?K is the standard temperature of the surroundings. The noise power
'79
?7
emitted from a coordinated load by a resistance at the temperature Ta is known to be
PR=KTadf. . (10)
26_1
, .
.f, t.??? A comparison of eqs.(8) and (10) will yield the following relation for the
. --1 i
equivalent temperature of the source, as delivered at the antenna:
__I 1
T.= T(p,E)G(tp, e)dg.
(4s)
36__ 1
Considering that SG(T,O)di2=47c, the latter expression can be reduced VI_
L_(its)
38--1
40? the following form
42:i
441
-A
46_1
r(v, e)G(? ?,e)dia
Tg ---="4
S G(?,e)ila
(4n)
1 (12)
The formulas obtained permit calculating the equivalent temperature of the
source delivered at the antenna, if the radiation pattern of the antenna G(9, 8)
and the distribution of the brightness temperature T(p, e) of the emitting body are
-known.
:7---'---
"4.
For a further analysis, let us introduce the concept of theeffective solid, ?1
1 - ,ISTATI.
'19 I -
I'
-i
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0.
__angle for the radiation pattern of the antenna
9 i
1
-I 1
!---
4_1
2... SJF(T,E0d1Q,
(13)
Os) ---
i
6-1
. ._ _, __
-I
where F( 8) is a function describing the-iadiation patern of the-intiiiiii-.,
C.-ji . Cinax ! !
;
10-- Let us review two particular cases of considerable practical interest, where the
,
1-- - recorded ratios can be
...?
I
_! 1
1. Case of reception from emitting areas whose brightness temperature changes
1
_ negligibly within the limits of the radiation pattern of the antenna. Then, in
eq.(12) the term T can be removed from under the integration sign, which gives
i
',0-2
greatly simplified)
Ta
(14)
Thus, the equivalent temperature of the source as delivered at the antenna is
_ equal to the brightness temperature of the observed section in the emitting area.
__I
This happens usually when receiving the radio radiation of galactic background by
231]
__narrow-beam directional antennas.
? 30_1
2. Case of radio reception from sources whose angular sizes are small
in COM-.
32_ I
parison with the width of the radiation pattern of the antenna (f1ee4
34_1
can
36_1 ?
3
40
,
be expected that, within the limits of the solid angle, G(9, 8)
Then eq.(12) is reduced to the form
A
T -T1 i3-71-9-?
a a
) .
Gmax
Here, it
const.
, (15)
The equivalent temperature of the source as delivered at the antenna can be
'.- also expressed in this case as a flux of radio radiation. Substituting into eq.(15)
- the expressions (4) and (5) and making simple transformations, we obtain
48j
se I
T ?
a 2k
(16) ?
Equation (16) is more convenient for Practical purposes. It differs from
? r es ?
?
eq.(15) where, in order to determine Tv two parameters of the source must be known
54 !
? - (effective temperature of the source Te and angular dimensions ne). Here it is .
56
gr,
S TAT?
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_.'sufficient to know only one parameter of the source the radio-radiation flux p-).
2-4 ? 1 .
'
This fact is particularly important when calculating Ta of discrete sources, whose
_. _ _
4...1 i
. _ angular dimensions have not yet been accurately determined.
1
6 r 1
I i....
? r_ 4. Basic Intensity Characteristics of Radio Radiation from Cosmic Objects
?... -
tr a) Solar Radio emission (Bib1.2 -6). Differentiation must be made between the ,
_j
12 radio radiation of a so-called "quiescent" sun, observed during periods when the so- '
t
1
-- I
I._ lar surface has no spots or other active formations that would create disturbances
.
in the solar atmosphere, and the radio radiation of the so-called "disturbed" sun
I i
1
:.when such formations are present.'
I 1
,
- The intensity of radio radiation frari m a quiescent sun is fairly constant from
1
1
day to day in the meter and millimeter bands and is the same for years of maximum and
_ - minimum solar activity. In the band of centimeter and especially decimeter waves,
the intensity of radio radiation from a "quiet" varies according to the cycle of so-'
liar activity (11 years) and increases in the years of maximum solar activity. Aver-
? -J
1 2 __age data on the intensity of solar radio radiation in the 6 mm to 10 m band are giv-
en in Table 1.
:
- -91
and by the effective temperature of solar radio radiation Te, reduced
For convenience, the intensity is expressed both by the flux: p in units of
cycles
38--
to the visible solid angle of the sun E =68 X 10-5 sterad = 0.22 square degrees.
401
The figures in the numerator corresponds to the years of maximum, while those in the
42-1
denominator denote the years of minimum of solar activity.
44
The radio noise of a "disturbed" sun are characterized by a general increase in
zf_ 1
radiation intensity and by its considerable fluctuations. This increase depends on
the wavelength and constitutes, on the average, a few percent in the millimeter wave
band (MMW), a few tens of'percentsin the centimeter wave band (CMW) and 1.5-3 times ,
more in the decimeter wave band (D1801), but tens and hnndreds of times in the meter
c,
__wave band (MW). The duration ofthe diaturhanCiis from a-few miniites-iii-the
56
STAT.
.1
CO
21
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.band to a few days in the MW band.
? Besides the above-mentioned increasein intensity, occasional (a few times a
_ _ _
4_
year) especially powerful radio radiation bursts
? 6 t
1
811 Table 1
occur during which the intensity in-:
itsoremosowan
34
36
3
40:i
k
w2
Te. Ite
.
p.1021
m cycles
8 mm
?
200
6,7-10'
. "
3 cm
32 .
17,5?10a
27
15?1'03
10 cm
13
80?10?
6,5
40 101
25-c.m
7
2?10s
3,5
1-106
. 50 cm
5
6.105
2,5
3?106
1,5 m
0,85 .
1?106
.
3 m
0,3
1.5?10?
. .
10 m
0,035
. - .2?106 . .
_
_
42
- creases by 20-30% in the MMW band; by tens of times in the am band; by hundreds of
times in the DMW band; by tens and hundred thousands of times in the band of 1414.,
The duration of such bursts is from a few minutes to an hour.
The proportion of periods during which solar radio noise has a "quiet" or
turbed" character depends on the phase of the eleven-year cycles of solar activity. ,
? E2--
In the years of maximum solar activity, up to 30-50% of the time, the solar radio I
radiation has a "disturbed" character. In the years of minimum solar activity, the l.
, .
22
.,-STAT
-
far. 42 ? ......."".7,""."`". ? 1?????,
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__'number of days when the solar radio radiation has a "disturbed" character is only i
last.Alinjimum of solar activity was in 1953. In the next few years an in-
- .
4
crease in solar activity, with xmaximum in 1958, will be observed.
1
b) Galactic R&ioRidiatiori: In 1932, in-Studying atm6sphei1d-Fadiii-disturb--
ances (Bib1.7) a source of radio radiation was discovered which periodically changed'
IC
its location during 24 hours.
12
radio radiation is the general
1? -
wavelength. The greatest amount of .radio radiation comes from the galactic center i
(right ascension a = 17h 50m, inclination 15 = -28?) which is in the direction of the
- Sagittarius constellation; the mi.nimum comes from the galactic poles.
The intensity of galactic
Further studies showed that the source of observed
galactic background (Milky Way).
radio radiation depends on the coordinates' and on the
99
Table 2
I, rnt. I
18,3
I 100 1
160 I
200
1 480
I 1200
1 3000
7', 'K
1 140 000
I 3860
I 1370
1 447
I 107
1 17
1 2,6
321]
3: In Table 2, taken from a literature review (Bib1.8 -9) values for intensity of
3,__- _'Iradio radiation from the galactic center are given, expressed in units of brightness
3E',--temperature.
-J
401 The distribution of radio brightness over the galaxy also depends on the 'Wave-
In the centimeter and decimeter wave bands, a pronounced concentration of
-radio radiation occurs at the galactic equator, with a direction toward the galactic
? -center. For instancea for a wave of X
?.--ty of radio radiation decreases to half (as compared with the intensity of radio
-radiation toward the galactic center) extends to-10? in the direction of ..the galac-
tic plane (along the Milky Way) and about 4? in the direction perpendicular to this i
1
plane. With an increase in wavelength, the maximum of galactic_radio_radiation -1.
broadens. Thus, for. the wave X = 60 cm the area, of the mentioned zone is. include0
STAT,
t-'? ? .
i
-
='25 am the zone at whose border the intensi7
58
3
. ? -
?
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/11/13: CIA-RDP81-01043R002700130004-0
0?
_lbetween about 400 along the galactic plane and about 8? in a direction perpendiCiiiii]
2
_to thiA plane.
For waves of the meter band, the maximum of radio radiation spreads even more.
-
For instance, for the 3-mii-ei.ifaveiii-One--ai-wii-oe-IYOrdeii-lhe intensity of radio-
;
radiation drops to half, has an area of about 800 x 20?. For this wave, the radio
brightness in the direction of the galactic poles is 14012 times less than toward
12
their center. For longer waves, this difference decreases still more. Thus, for the
_ '
_16.4 m wave (Bib1.9) radio brightness in the direction of the galactic poles is only;
36?j
_4-5 times lower than in the direction of the center.
e
c) Radio Radiation from Discrete Sources. In 1946 (Bib1.10), when studying the
20._J
fine structure of radio radiation from the galactic background a powerful source of
_radio radiation was discovered in the constellation of Cygnus, having a compartively,
_ small angular size. Later, research on other areas of the sky discovered a great
_ quantity of radio radiation sources of similar type. These sources were called
"radio stars".
1
Further studies have shown, however, that the concept of "radio stars" as a
!
__special type of cosmic bodies cannot be identified with any optical bodies of a size
IA 1
__similar to those of normal stars. The extraordinarily powerful radiation on, radio
36_1
_frequencies leads to a series of conclusions which are unacceptable from the physic
8?
31
__point of view.
40_1
Measurements taken during recent years have shown that the angular magnitudes
421
of a series of "radio stars" ars of the order of a few angular minutes. Moreover,
4/ r
_.a considerable part of discrete sources of radio radiation could be identified with
4
optically observed nebulae. Therefore, at present the expression "radio star" is
being chrmged to a more adequate expression conveying the essence of the effect, i.e.
--that of a "radio nebula".
' 52--
/
At present a large number (about 2000) of discrete sources of radio radiation
--is known. The radiation flux from these sources depends on the frequency, usually
STAT ?
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/11/13: CIA-RDP81-01043R002700130004-0
0
increasing with an increase in wavelength.i
able 3 gives the coordinates and the intensity of radio radiation of the
. _
2 --,
4
most intense discrete sources observed over the territory of the USSR (Bib1.11-14).
Table 3
n6
a)
b)
c.)
cl) I
C)
3,2cm
10cm I
1
'20cm
50cmi
1 m
3m
10 m
Cassiopeia
234 21'n
+ 58 20'
5,9
15
25
40
60
150
600 .
Cygnus A
19h 57m
+ 40? 35'
-
8
12
20
35
110
400
Taurus
05h 31'n
+22'04'
7,3
8
10
13
16
18
IS
Virgo
12h 28'n
+12?44
-
1,8
2,3
3
5
12
-
Centaurus A
13" 22'n
-4246'
-
2,2
2,8
4,5
7
1.8
-
Orion M-42
5' 33'n
.-537'
2,7
4,5
4,5
-
-
-
-
Nebula,
,_
Omega 11-17
18" 17m
- le
7,5
7
8
-
-
-
-
Nebula M-20 '
17" 59m
-23'
-
1
4
-
-
-
-
a) Source; b) Coordinates; c) Radio radiation flux x 10-24 w/m2 cycles on
Waves of; d) Direct ascension; e) Inclination
3011 I .
-J !
,- The radiation flux is expressed in units 10 . w -24 ? . The coordinates of
. 1 m2cycles
34_1
__the sources are given in an equatorial system of coordinates. Conversion of the
36J
_ equatorial system of coordinates into a horizontal system is shown in. another paper
_:(Bibl.16).
40__; I
Besides discrete sources of small angular magnitude (in the range of a few an-
42 1
_ gular minutes)there are also comparatively spread discrete sources of radio radiation
with angular magnitudes in the range of a few degrees. Data covering two more inten-
AA_
sive sources of the above type are found in Table J. The intensity of radio radia-.
? r
Q
--tion is expressed in units of effective temperature of-the source Te.
50_,
As indicated in these Tables, the constellation of Cygnus contains two neighbor-
? 52-1
ing sources of radio noise. Considerable difficulties in separating them and a pos-1
? ?
? - sible error in determining the antenna parameters makes the use of these two sources
STAT
I?
25
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/11/13: CIA-RDP81-01043R002700130004-0
0
ammarner...0.127,raviaairwr,
.undesirable for radiotechnical purposes. i
4) Radio Radiation of the Moon and Planets. Radio radiation from the moon has2
. a thermal character. In the wave band X * 3 cm, the effective moon temperature,
6 .
characterizing the intensity of its radiation, is equal on the average to Te k:200 -1C
?i
Table 4
a)
b)
_ 1
e)
1
. I
f)
c)
d)
I .:
lu crn
20 as
50 age
g)
)1)
20h 20m
1743"
40' 00'
?29'
I
i)
I, 5*
1 .
j)
I20'
16"
70*
50
300'
160*
?
a) Sources; b) Coordinates of center; c) Direct ascension; d) Inclination;
,16
e) Spread; f) Effective temperature Te?K for waves of; g) Cygnus-I; h) Sag-
__ ittarius; i) 10? x 2? spread along galactic equator; j) 12? x 2? spread along gal-
_J
actic equator.
321
'_ and apparently depends only insignificantly on the phase of the moon. The radio
radiation flux from planets is very small because of their small angular dimensions.
3 The author expresses his gratitude to N.A.Logova and U..V.Khangilldin, who part-
:-__icipated in composing the review on the sun.
42-1
_ Article received by Editors on 30 January 1956.
1
46_4
_4 BIBLIOGRAPHY
48_1
.7- 1. Aarons,J. - Measuring Characteristics by. Means of Solar and Cosmic Radio Radia-,
z ?
7f;
5
tion. Proc.
IRE, Vol.42, No.5 (1954), Pp.810 - 815
2. - Quarterly Bull. on Solar Activity, Nos.87
ure Gradient in the Solar Atmosphere. for Ileasuring_ofilad.'s-TAT
TD
MAmmT.,,,n
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/11/13: CIA-RDP81-01043R002700130004-0
0 .
Waves. Astrophys. J. Vol.113, NWU(1951)-,- - 566 .
4.- ...1.1inett1H.C. and Labrum,N.R. -Radio Radiation of the Sun on the 3.18 cm Wave,
4.j
Austral. J. Scient. Res., Vol.3, No.1 (1950), pp.60 - 71
5. Christianseri,W.H .1 Hindman,J.V.? Little ,A.G.-; PaYne,"
and Allen,C.W. - Radio Observations During Two Solar Flares. Austral. J.
le
Scient. Res., Vol.41 No.1 (1951), PP.51 - 61
12:1
' 6. Christiansen;W.H. and Hindman,J.V. - Slow Variations in the Intensity of Radio
14 i
Radiation of a "Quiet" Sun in the Decimeter Wave Range. Nature, Vol.167,
16-j
No.4251 (1951), pp.635 - 636
1;J
- 7. Jansky,K.G. - Radiation in the Direction of Arrival of Atmosphere Noise at High
23-'1
? Frequency. Proc. IRE, Vol.20, No.12 (1932), pp.1920 - 1932
22:
8. Brown,R.H. and Hazard,C. - Model of Galactic Radio Radiation. Philos. Magazine,
24
Vol.441 No.356 (1953), PP.939 - 963
n6 1
- 9. Shain,C.A. and Higgins, C.S. - Observation of General Background and Discrete
4,-
Sources of Radio Radiation at 18.3 mc Frequency. Austral. J. Phys., Vol.?,
30 - I
No.1 (1954), pp.130 - 149 1 .
22
1- 0. Hey,J.S., Phillips,J.W. and Parsons, S.J. - Cosmic Radio Radiation on 5-ra Wave.
3._j
Nature?.Vol.157, No.3984 (1946), Pp.296 - 297
36_- i
__11. Haddock,F.T., Mayer,C.H. and Slonnaker?R.M. - Radio Observations on Accumulation
;
of Ionized Hydrogen in Various Discrete Sources on the 9.4 cm Wave. Nature,
V01.174, No.4421 (1954), PP.176 - 177
42_2
._12. Hagen,J.P. and EcClain,E.F. - Discrete Sources of Radio Radiation on the 21-cm
44 ,
Wave. Proc. .IRE, Vol.42, No.12 (1954), pp.1811
_13. Mills,B.V. - Distribution of Discrete Sources of Cosmic Radio Radiation. Austral.
48_4
J. Solent. Res., Vol.5? No.2 (1952), pp.266 - 287
50
- 14. KaidanovskyilH.L., KardashevIN.8. and - Dokl. Ak. Nauk Vol.104,
-;
No.4 (1955), PP.517 - 519 _
15. Troitsky,V.S. - Radioastronomy Methods for Measuring Antenna Losses.
55 '
53
6a
27 .
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0
Zh. Teich. Fiz. Nc;.2 (1956) , pi.-.485---:TtS 6
_
16. Blazhko - Course in Spherical Astronomy. Gostekhmizdat (1954)
_ _ .
4_11
6
ICT1
12]
14
18-1
20_1
99:1.
242
2621
28-
32_
36_
3
4.0-1
44_1
46:
46_1
52,-1
54--I
STAT
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CALCULATION OF. comPum RESONATORS
by
A.I.ZhivOtovskiy
Active MeMber of the Society
The article reviews complex resonators, composed of several sections of
homogeneous concentrical lines with different wave resistances. Deductions of
16-2
expressions for the technical calculation of such resonators are made..
la-1 1
1
:".11. Introduction
6. In the technique of decimeter waves resonators having the shape of concentric
lines are frequently used as oscillatory circuits. If the length of such lines does,
not exceed one quarter wavelengthl-they usually permit the transfer of a very broad
25 - frequency-band and permit operation with a high efficiency factor.
If the working frequency is raised, the line is made longer using resonance on
?- longitudinal overtones. This leads, however, to a decrease in the active input re- i
6.6
sistance of the unloaded resonator, to a lower efficiency, and to a narrowing of the:
These deficiencies can be eliminated or lessened either by using complex lines,
transmitted frequency band.
in which transformed resistances, both distributed along the circuit or concentrated',
?
are used. These include important contact resistances whose value frequently exceeds
the total of 411 other resistances.
Such transformation of resistances is usually much more effective if the resis-:
tance is greater in the vicinity of current antinodes (for instance, contact resis-
tances) in the total balance of circuit resistances.
Before reviewing complex circuits, let us discuss the simple circuits.
??????666.66?61.66,6666.666.666
1,
STAT
; .
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/11/13: CIA-RDP81-01043R002700130004-0
f _ _
2. Simple (UnifOrn) Cri
6
When a capacitance is connected into the beginning of a uniform circuit (Fig4.),
its geometric length at resonance is determined by expression
where 1 is the geometric length from the beginning of the circuit to the first volt-,
age node;
n is a whole positive number;
X is the wavelength, corresponding to the resonance frequency.
The value n can be odd or even. With an even value of n, the end of the circuit
'must be loaded with a very considerable
--.04/
Iresistance, while with an odd n the load
must have a very small resistance, for in-:
h??? t
Fig.1
..
. .
, stance, it can be shorted; such circuits
. TIT
' are frequently used as oscillatory circuits.
,
I I
In the present work only circuits with an
odd n are considered.
It is known (Sib1.1-4) that a line shorted at the end with distributed parame-
-
- ters and having a capacitance at the beginning, can be exchanged for an equivalent
one with concentrated parameters - if the frequencies are near resonance - and hay-
- lug the same resonance frequency, quality factor, and active input resistance.
Transforming known formulas, the parameters of such a circuit can be expressed
in the following manner:
50_1
I 21c \
Qxx ==
1:4XX
? -
sint 0
? sin 20 \
R11 RI ? 1)--z 1- 2r2B I
r
20 + sin 20 + (n ?1)z
(3)
29_
STAT
? ,T!,""?7"-n?-??,??.. ,????
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1
Cs-2
1
Gip,. (1 +
sin 20
; ?
I.
pc = co Lg --
W C, 20 + sin 20 +(n? 1)
4w sins 0
1 (5)
Here Re xx and Qxx are the active input resistance and the quality, factor of an
unloaded circuit; Ce and pe are the capacitance and characteristic of the equivalent
__.. ?
circuit; I . ;
is the resistance of unit length of the circuit; :
_
_... ,
r is the resistance at the current antinode together with other added resis-
- --. tances (except R1); i
..
t, ' I
- 0 z 2/1 T1/4-- is the electric length of the circuit section 1.
At n > 1, a uniform line can be exchanged not only for an equivalent circuit,
but for a system n of connected circuits, as shown in Fig.1 for n m 5.
All other resistances, besides RI, can be attributed to any circuit. For a
more definite and easy calculation, a part of other resistances (for instance, con-
tact resistances between circuit and capacitances, etc.) can be attributed to the
- first current antinode and called r1' while the other resistances (for instance, the
- resistance between the circuit contacts and the shorting device, etc.) can be attri-
___,
buted to the last current antinode and called rn;
14
Then the circuits will have as parametere -
Rel
20 sins 0
sin 28
+ 20 + 2ra
All other equivalent resistances, except the last one, are identical
aws
Res = Res . = R
R1 ?
The equivalent resistance of the last circuit is determined by the
6C
30
(6)
(7)
STAT
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_
expression
? In accordance with the
. equal to
?- ? ? 7.-4. ? YacIffa2==r4TAIasmor.
_
(8)
above, the quality factor of these circuits will be
=
R11+
20 + sin 20
8it
to the quality factor of the other circuits except the last one
20.....J
_ while the quality factor of the last one will be
94 1
_n
f.
"777'
=
Q4=
? 2mp
Bra
The characteristics of the circuits are determined by the expressions
4w sins 0
Pei I.
20 + sin 28
419
Pu pes 7111 MC Pea ?
?
The voltage in the first circuit will be
= Up1 sin ../piTi sin a
(9)
(10)
(u)
(12)
03)
The voltages in the other circuits are equal to U where Ipi and U re?
p 1' P 9
?
spectively, are the current and the voltage in the antinode.
- 3. Complex Lines
Here lines will be reviewed whose feature consists in following: to the first
uniform section of length I are added uniform sections of a length equal to X --having
4
different characteristic impedances. The influence of discontinuity is disregarded
since, in many cases, it has no practical significance.
31
STAT
? ?
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/11/13: CIA-RDP81-01043R002700130004-0
?
? .-Such a- complex line? with resonance can also be visuallied-as ?ystem ofCaiiiiec-;-
,
ted circuits, as shown in Fig 2.
The voltages of the circuits are determined according to the formulas
'i0
1 " I
14
?
Ul=rsin 9,
-- -----------
2v3 =---. /piggy,.
U4.5 --= Ip Ply
U= a W
11.--1. p W-2) st-1 '
- - -
Here Ip indicates the current in the antinode of the corresponding circuit. The
equivalent resistances of the circuits are, respectively, equal to
Rfl
24M00 84sin10
s
Mn20
Rill (1 + -- 20 ) 4-2r1 i[(20-1-sin20 ll
?
1R11+ ?I
while the quality factor is
56
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Ra.
- Rix 4- 8ra
Qxt m'
Ru +
20 + sin 20
(18)
(19)
(2o)
. ?
(21)
2"8"*I (22)
Risk
? e ? ? ? ? ? ar e.? ? ?
2cm,
Q.=
Rusa-t-8r.
52
EC,
-
3_2
STAT
? 1
?
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Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/11/13: CIA-RDP81-01043R002700130004-0
14.
The characteristics of the circuits will be
9_
10
_j
12 _j
4w1 sin' 0
- Pa? 20 ? slu 29
4sh.
Pea ? ?
---(24
(25)
(26)
Taking into account the above relations, the system of these connected circuits;
can be replaced by
---.
IC:
--
20_
....!
9 9 I
?j
24
f
one equivalent circuit, with the parameters:
(27)
(28)
(g9)
:
i
:
i
84 en' 0
Reze
:
? 1
'" AA ,
2 B
Q ,Im R .
xx A A '
44 sin' 0
was ?
B
_.)Where 1
? I ,
A .. 20 + sin 20 cc's 11
C2 ' (--) Ri4 ?
RI, ?8ri + Ri.+1-\ R.. -:-
3.2 i . ii Ws Ws
i
+ (w2w4 )2 ... R , . +. . . + 8 i gihws- ? ?w ,
m ?
_.?i )2.
'
I. ,,,
i wiry& 1 k w04. ..mix -
yr 1 S
B ___ 20 -4- sin 20 re's y ,?', , I' w? ... ,
"r
, wl + Th _i_ -I- (---- "S H w 4
W WS fez
10__j
......i + ( ri2e,i)stv, 4.. .. + ( meth? ton_i )2te
a-
Wall - ? - gra
...___
/0
It is convenient to use eqs.(27), (28), (29) for calculating such complex reso-
nators. The Table lists the calculation data obtained from these formulas for uni-
?`:
form circuits with n 1 (Nos.1, 8, and 15); for miform circuits with n = 3 (Nos.2,
9, anda6); and for complex circuits with n - 3 (all other numbers).
For these calculations, the following values are accepted: Cin 5 ugf,
X - 20 cm, rn = 0.02 ohm. The concentric circuits are of copper, and the diameter
----------
of the inside conductor of every line is constant and equal to 20 n.
STAT .
?
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/11/13: CIA-RDP81-01043R002700130004-0
?
.1
0
i
,
4
0
r
CIO
?
Table
Nt I
Iva
skis
w,I
min
cos
ehrn
R r
seh. on. -
'(XX
A I
Mc
1
15
?
?
5 640
400
7.05
2
15
15
15
3 650
835
2,18
3
15
15
60
9 700
1 640
2,95
4
15
15
90
10 300
1 670
3.07
5
15
60
'
60
3 980
2 780
0,71
6
15
60
90
6 460
3 880
0.83
7
15
90
90
4 100
4 180
0.49
8
60
?
?
18 200
882
10,3
9
60
60
60
12 300
3 450
1.78
- 10
60
60
90
21 500
5 180
2,07
Ii
60
90
90
12 700
5 020
1,76
12
.60
90
60 .
720
346
?
1 13
.60 ?
15
60
36 500
3 100
5,9
14
i
60
15
90
39 700
3270
8,05
I
?
15
90
?
?
20 000
957
10,45
- 16
90
90
90
13 700
5 170
1,32
17
..
90
60
60
13 200
3 530
1.87
18
90
60
90
23 700
5 450
2.16
19
90
is
90
46 000
3 690
6,25
20
90
15
GO
41 800 3 440
6.08
II
?
.
The band of transmitted frequencies Pf is determined at the level of half? :
3
b?--t 44 power for a loaded resonator, whose equiv?.
C4c-A
1alent resistance Rim, for all reviewed
cases, is equal to 3000 ohms.
As it appears from the Table, the ac?;
,
tive resistance at the input of an unload?:
-
ed complex resonator Re xx for n 3 can be
greater than in a uniform resonator ? even
Fig.2
at nx 1 ? which is due to transformation
s
of the resistance rn. (Compare No.1 with Nos.3 and 4, No. with Nos.10,13,14, etc.);
SI-T1
34
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. The frequency-band Af of the complex resonators with n*
-
corresponding nniforn resonator with n 1, while it may be considerably larger for
_ - a uniform resonator with n . 3. (Compare Nos.3 and 4 with No.2, Nos.13 and 14 with
N0.9, Nos.19 and 20 with No.16, etc.)
These examples show the advisibility of using complex circuits in a number of
- cases.
12
? 1
_Article received by the Editors 26 July 1956.
3.6
le_j
_1. Neyman1/4.S. - Triode and Tetrode Generators for Superhigh Frequency. Published
2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
? !
;
by "Sovetskoye Radio" (1950)
2. Zhivotovskiy,A.I. and Kraychik,A.B. - On the Calculation of Oscillatory Circuits
in the Ultrashort -Wave Range. Radiotekhnika Vol.6, No.1 (1951)
.3. Zhivotovskiy,A.I. and Kraychik,A.B. - Design Elements and dalculation. of
Superhigh-Frequency Generators and Amplifier. Izvest. LETI, Imeni Lenin;
Vol.XXV (1953)
4. Grifone, Luigi - Dimensions of Cavity Resonators for Tubes with .Plane Electrodes.;
!
Alta Frequenza, No.6 (1954)
? ?
3C-4!
.401
4 .1
4
4 67
5 0 -
52?
STATI ?
?
273 -7'1-4
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I
E.j
16
CALCULATION OF ABSORPTION LINE__
V.S.Melnokov
Active Member of the Society
This article presents an analysis of the absorption line designed
in such a way, that energy absorption per unit length is constant all along the,
line.
lE_J
1
Homogenous lines used at present for power absorption are calculated for con-
_ stant wave attenuation along the line. The power dissipated along each unit length ,
of the circuit differs. At the beginning of the circuit, the dissipated power is
high and decreases considerably at the end of the circuit. Consequently, the line
is inefficiently utilized for the dissipation of energy.
It would be desirable to design an absorption line with an even power dissipa-
tion along its length.
When denoting by P (1) the power passing through the point at a distance x fran
_.the end of the circuit, the condition of continuously dissipated energy will be
written as
50 !
C et
7. !,
55
dPx).,const
d x ?
(1)
Assuming that the total power put into the circuit is equal to P and the length
of the circuit is I, we obtain, in accordance with eq. (1), ? -
d P (x) P
d x 1
k (X.) zon P (1 ? I.
36
(2)
? STAT
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I.
6
_
The basic equations of a long circuit have the form
dUz(x)I
d x
dl
(3)
?
?
_j
1E__1
9')-1
? i
r
?n
31;
s/
Solving these equations in accordance with our
troduce a new function o (3) which is the input resistance
is (1 - 3), at a point ac: distant from the end. Then
I
dl
problem, it is advisable
of a circuit
eq.(3) can be written
.to in-
whose length
as*:
(4)
(5)
(6)
dx P VO d x
A solution for eq.(4) can be sought :Ln the form
of:
?
current, we .have
? 'tin .
U =Use
ly(x) emits
1 It
where Uo and. 10are arbitrary integrations.
According to the general theory of alternating
P (x) Re (U /*),
_ where I* is a current value at the point xl conjugate with I.
--n
According to the conditions of the problem, the input resistance at the begin-
ning of the circuit must be purely active at any frequency. Hence, to obtain a cirl
cult with uniform structure along the entire line, it is sensible, to request that 1
p(3) should be a purely active value. .
In the design in question, it is desirable that the conductance y (3) be purely
1.
,reactive. .Then,
+ir (At di
I* no. 4 e?
* Here the author uses a method borrowed from the work of.V.A.Illin.
S TAT
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2-
0 ?
??????????
Substituting U and rcinto eq.(6) and taking into account the active Chari-cteir-:
p(x),
Hence
12
., ?
--
but, since POO
,n
-
we obtain.
2L--2
,
and
_
dP(x)
dx
yrs)por)--1),,
its
P (x) 112 4 eu
d P(x) P (x) iy (x) p (x)
d x (x) 1 s
have been
determined earlier [eq.(2)] 2 we have
p (x) .1 ? x
(7)
(9)
According to the preliminary conditions, y(x) must be purely reactive, while
p(x) must be active. Then we assume
z(x)..A4-11-1X1
y(x)==ibi ).
. -
1
After this substitution, eq.(9) is split into two equations
PC4
Based on design considerations,
of the circuit Ri as being constant.
? p (x) = 0 1
RI 1
p(x) 1 ? x
?
(10)
one can select a longitudinal active resistance
Due to this fact, we will obtain from eq.(11):
P (x) = 1 ? R _-f).
(12)
Here R simultaneously becomes the input resistance of the circuit (when xim.0).
and the total
of the distributed active resistances.
From the first equation of the
system (11) and from eq.(12), it is evident that
-----------
(:13)
STAT
. ?
?
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ina la c rs
The value V is the characteristic impedance of the circuit under the assump-
tion that the latter is free of losses. However, for a line-withoa-iassei the co
it.
2x
131173:1rn -x-7 is valid. Then :
;
(x) ?
C (x) ? Co
?
I
where L(1) and C(1) are the longitudinal induction and capacitance at the point 34
Lo and Co are the longitudinal induction and capacitance at the beginning of
113 !
the circuit.
From eqs.(13) and (14) it also follows that
L (x)
C (x)
R(1 ? .
(15)
It is apparent, that the characteristic impedance of a circuit free of losses
W(x), is equal at the point x to the SUR of the obndt resistances from the point x
? . to the end of the line..
?
If, in first approximation, it is assumed. that the characteristic impedance of
the described loss-free circuit, at any point, differs little from the characteris-
tic impedance of a two-wire circuit, then,
AV(x)..1Z(1?.21) .1201412-4-
Solving this equation with respect to DI we obtain a dependence of the distance
? between the two lines, the diameter of the conductor being constant
D dsh ?
L120 1
(17) ?
- Article received by the Editors 17 September 1956.
STAT
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0
4 _I
18
'221
2$
1,
DEVICE FOR :VISUAL OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT OF_FREQUENCY _____
CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUP TIME OF PROPAGATION, PHASE SHIFT,
AN]) MODULUSOF TRANSMISSION FACTOR
(Frequency Cathode-Ray Curve Tracer)
by
I.T.Tubovich
A.V.Knipper
V.G.Solamonov
Active Members of the Society
The article explains the principles of design for a device for rapid
measurement of frequency characteristics, investigates the errors, and des-
cribes the basic diagram and some of its nodes.
0 C I
k
? -j
, 1. Introduction
One of the basic parameters, determining the quality of the equipment and of
- - the communication channels, are the frequency characteristics of the transmission
. factor modulus, of the phase shift and Of the group propagation time. Especially
high standards are placed on the frequency characteristics of equipment and chan-
nels in television.
- - The device measuring these characteristics must have an accuracy of not less
than ? 0.02 ? sec when measuring the group propagation time and of ? 2% when measur-
ing the transmission factor modulus (Bib1.1,2,3).
A substantial role is played by the time required for measuring the character-
,istics. Experience shows that measurement according to points of one frequency
characteristic of the group propagation time in the television main line requires
several hours. Moreover, when measuring according to points, certain overshoots in
the characteristics may_remain unnoticed..
-
'Zr
STAT
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1
?
A high degree of accuracy and of speed for measuring the frequency characteris-
tics can be obtained by frequency modulation with the help.of_an oscillograph.
It has been stated that osciilographic methods for measuring characteristics
are less accurate than methods for measuring byPoints'. In ouinPiniiin,--this is not
so. Specific inaccuracies of oscillographic measurements of characteristics (on
account of parallax, nonlinear dependence of the beam deflection on the voltage,
_ etc.) can be eliminated by a direct comparison of the measurements of characteristic
with the calibrated lines on the oscillograph screen, the distances between lines
being set by the calibrating device.
; 1
High-speed measurements exclude errors due to unstable characteristics of the
measured object. For instance, the characteristics of the group propagation time
;
of television mains can be displaced parallel to themselves. This does not influ-
,,
__ence the quality of the television picture; however, if the characteristics change .
along the points, this may lead to considerable errors.
Further, in the case of high-speed measurements the requirements as to the sta-;
1
_ bility of the equipment elements can be relaxed. -
,?.__
This article explains the principles of design for a high-speed measuring de-
_
__vice of frequency characteristics, reviews errors, and gives the basic diagram of :
the schematics and of some nodes of the device, of independent importance. All this
3
has been worked out in 1953-55 in the Research Laboratory for Scientific Problems
of Communication, of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Bib1.4-5).
4.2_H
2. Errors in High-Speed Measurement of Frequency Characteristics
In measuring frequency characteristics by the method of frequoac3rmodulation,
an error due to transient processes will arise. As a result of research on this
error (Bib1.6) the following formula is obtained:
OS (e) as
A (.4 = 2 el.!
5.1 1
(1) ?
?
where S(w) is a complex error when measuring the transmission factor; _S(14) . is_thej:
STAT
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dw
factor of the is the rate- al' -freque-nc-y -Chang- e---d-ur--
object' dt
ing observation.
Calculations show that, for the vast majority of objects under study, operating
at frequencies in the range of 6 mc per second, the error AB(w) is- negligibly small.
?
Therefore, when measuring a segment of the frequency characteristic whose width is
1 n
_
in the range of 6-8 mo, the cycle of frequency modulation can be selected in the
range of one second. Examples of calculation according to eq.(1) are elsewhere gi
11.
_ en (Bib1.7).
3. Methods for Measurement of Group Propagation Time
The measurement of group time is done by Nyquist's method (Bib1.1). This meth-
od is based on the fact that, during transmission of a modulated oscillation across
a quadripole, the phase difference envelope at the input and output of the quadripale
_ is approximately proportional to its group propagation time. This method has an in-
herent unavoidable error (Bib1.4).
. i
--.
the formula
- i
--
. t'.9 1 I
db (w) tg 02 d\ .1
(2)
i d a, k 2 dta ) 9
_...2
where
tiT is the error of group time measurement, 11 is the amplitude of the frequen-
cy modulation (constant), b(w) the attenuation of the measured object, 'T the
This error (see Appendix) can be expressed by
propagation time, and 'w the frequency at which the group time is measured.
group
Equations (1) and (2) show that, in the simultaneous presence (in the frequency
characteristic of the object) of steep fronts of the transmission factor modulus and
of group propagation time, it must be ascertained that both the error due to the
high-speed measuring method [eq. (1)] and that due to the Nyquist formula [eq. (2)]
?do not exceed the prescribed value. For the majority of broad-band objects (with
the exception of those with very steep fronts of characteristics) this error will be
less than 0.02_A_sec.
q6 - I
5Z
42
,
STAT
???
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_
4. Basic Diagram of the Device
The basic diagram of the device is shown in Figa. According to its purpose,
. it can be divided into two parts: the transmitting and the receiving portion.
C
A. Transmitting Part
In the transmitting part a voltage of varying frcquency is created, within the
. -
,?-;
limits of the high-frequency band under study, and amplitude-modulated by a constant
low frequency. This voltage is obtained as a result of pulses in the mixer (6) be-
tween the oscillation of a fixed-frequency oscillator (5) and the oscillation of the
FM oscillator (3). Swinging of the FM generator is achieved by a sawtoothed oscil-
lator (.4). The amplitude modulation of the FM oscillator is caused by the modula-
tor (2) which is fed with oscillations from the quartz oscillator (1). The frequen-
cy- and amplitude- modulated oscillations generated at the output of the mixer are
amplified by a broad-band amplifier (8) and then by an output stage (10), and are
fed to the input of the object under study (11). A constant amplitude of the out-
put voltage envelope in the entire frequency band is required when measuring the
transmission factor modulus and is achieved by using deep negative feedback at the
frequency of amplitude modulation. This is done with the help of an automatic amp-
litude-envelope control (AA) (7).
The basic diagram of the transmitting part of the device remains unchanged
when measuring all three characteristics.
B. Receiving Part
The function of the receiving part is measurement of the amplitude of the en!-
' ?.;
velope at the output of the object under study (when measuring the transmission
factor modulus); comparison and measurement of the difference of the envelope phases
at the input and output of the object under study (when measuring the group propa-
gation time); integration of the group time as to frequency (when measuring the de-1
? - viation of the phase shift characteristic from linear).
STAT
43
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a
(11 II 3 ( ,co?c1 CA) Ct.') C'ej tc 1t2.. ?
* iic..1 C1 1 1 1 1 1. 1 1 1 r, 1 1 1 1
cr.) (.7%
a)
3 4
I I
1
1
liz
6 7
10
C.)
13
19
16
d)
V Ef
20
) c)
21
23
A
Fig .l
Quartz oscillator, I' ? 10 kc; 2 - Modulator; 3 - oscillator, f 40 - 48 mc; 4 ? Sawtoothed oscillator,
cycle; 5 - Oscillator, f 44 - 54 mc; 6 - Mixer; 7 - AAEC; 8 - Broad-band amplifier; 9 - Detector; ;
.0 Output stage; 11 - Object studied; 12 - Resonance amplifier, fo ? 10 ko; 13 - Phase inverter for 3600;
-1 Limiter; 15 -; Phase discriminator; 16 - Calibration phase inverter; 17 - Calibration modulator;' 18 - De-
Itectbr; 19 - Resonance amplifier, fo ? 10 kc; 20 - Limiter; 21 - Mixer; 22 - Oscillator; 23 - IF amplifier,
? 17 kc; 24 - Detector; 25 - Marker; 26 - Integrator; 27 - Oscilloscope I
fo
a) Transmitting part; b) Receiving part; o) Control channel; d) Measuring channel
1
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r.
The number of blocks utilized in the receiving part of the device varies, de--
_ pending on the characteristic being measured.
4_
? Measurement of the transmission factor modulus consists in measuring the envel-
_ ope-amplitide it-the-output of the object under study.. This ii-dae-to.the fact that
the envelope amplitude at the input is constant for the entire band of operating fre-
_ quencies. For this measurement, only a part of the blocks in the described basic
diagram is utilized.
The envelope (10 kc) is obtained through the detector action of the detector
(18) of a high-frequency oscillation supplied from the output of the object under
study (11). The obtained oscillation is amplified by the resonance amplifier (19)
_
and is fed to the mixer (21) (switch P1 in position nW). In the mixer, the fre-
quency of 10 kc is converted into a higher frequency by means of an auxiliary oscil-
- lator (22), is considerably amplified in the IF amplifier (23), is detected for the
_
second time in (24) and, after filtration, is fed to the vertical deflecting plates
of the oscillograph (27) (switch P2 in position "14,a"). The horizontal deflecting
_ - plates of the tube are supplied with sawtooth voltage from the oscillator (4).
To eliminate errors, which might occur on account of the nonlinear character of
detectors, amplifiers etc., as well as on account of parallax, a special calibrating
_
_- device (17) provided in the equipment; its operating principle is given below.
_
The frequency is recorded by the marking device (25)
Measurement of Group Propagation Timi
This is done according to Nyquist's ethod, i.e., by a comparison of the en-
----------
velope phase at the input of the measured object with that at the output. Comparison
of phases is done in the phase discriminator (15), which is supplied with two volt-
ages of 10 kc frequency and equal in amplitude, from the test and control channels:
The test channel includes the detector (18), the resonance amplifier (19), and the 1
amplitude limiter _(20) (Relay P in position a). The control channel includes
l?
detector the resonance amplifier (12), the adjusting phase inverter__(13),_and___:!,
STAT
45 ,
I
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Cop Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/11/13: CIA-RDP81-01043R002700130004-0
. the amplitude limiter (14). !
I._
_ ___ . The purpose of the amplitude limiters is to create substantially identical
4,....:
_ amp-
litudes at the discriminator input, independent of the amplitudes of the input volt-!
_ ages. The -adjusting-giaie inverter (13) provides the initial-Phaii-sitiiii for-thei-
c., ! .
. .._ .
_ test and control channels, to a value of about
1C--j
1,
in certain limits) to the difference of the envelope phases at the input and at the
output of the object, i.e., proportional to the group propagation time. This volt-
16 ?1
age, after its frequency has been changed (21 and 22) and amplified (23), is detect-
The voltage at the input of the phase discriminator (15), is proportional (with.-
--
ed for a second time (24) and is sent to the vertical deflecting plates of the oscir7
lograph tube (27). Recording of the group time is carried out by the calibrating
nn !
2 -1
device (16) (see below).
Measuring the Deviation of the Characteristic of Phase Shift from Linear. The
deviation of the characteristic of phase shift from linear is obtained by integra-
.
tion of the frequency group time. If the frequency changes with time in a linear
manner, the integration according to time can be substituted for integration accord-
ing to frequency, which is done by integrator (26).
5. Recording of Data from the Device
Recording of data from the device is done by means of comparison. The measur-
_ ing process is divided into two cycles: measuring and calibrating. During the meas-
uring cycle, the screen of the oscillograph tube shows the measured characteristic,
? while during the calibration cycle it shows two lines, the distance between which
._ can be established by the calibrator. The tube used in the device has a consider-
_ able afterglow. For this reason, the measured characteristic and the calibrating
- lines are observed simultaneously and can be compared with each other.
A. Recording of Transmission Factor Modulus'
recording .the modulus of the transmission factor during the_calibratig.,
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a
cycle, frequency modulation ceases, and the input of theobjeCt-under-
2--
_ studyissiip-
plied with a_constant frequency controlled by the operator. The_calibrator.(17).
Fig.2
(Fig.1) is a potentiometer, whose transmis-
sion factor is being-tbinged-several-tiMei
by a relay during the calibration cycle.
This projects on the screen broken horizon-
tal lines, whose position and spacing is
determined by the attenuation of the po-
tentiometer. Figure 2 shows an oscillo-
gram of the frequency characteristic for
the modulus of transmission factor from a double circuit, including calibration
_,lines and marker spots.'
B. Recording of Group Propagation Time.
During the calibration cycle (Relay R in position b), one of the arms of the
_ phase discriminator (15) (Fig.1) is supplied, instead of with test voltage, with
32-
voltage from the control channel across the calibrated phase inverter (16) and the
7.=
limiter (20). During the calibration cy-
cle, the phase shift created by the phase
iinverter is changed several times in jumps,
Icreqting calibrated lines on the screen, .
whose spacing can be read from the scale
42_
41 of the phase inverter. The phase inverter
is graduated in microseconds.
Figure 3 shows the oscillogram of a
--- frequency characteristic for group propagation time of the same object, together .
Fig.3
with calibration lines.
47
STAT
-
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?
_
C. Recording Deviation of the Phase Shift Characteristic from Linear
When recording the deviation of the phase shift characteristic from linear the
device operates in the same way as in recording group time. The only difference con-
in-the-following: the voltage from the detector output (24)-in-thia?ca'Se-gOes
through the integrator (26), which results in a calibration curve in the shape of
ic--
triangles instead of rectangles. The oscillogram of the deviation of the phase shift
characteristic from linear and the calibration lines are shown in Fig.4.
14
6. Phase Discriminator
The phase discriminator (15) represents a summator which is fed, in antiphase,
by two low-frequency oscillations of approx.-
imately the same amplitude. This brings
the output voltage tq a value in proportion
with the phase difference of these oscilla7:
-
/
Fig .4
inator when the phase greatly differs at
the input voltages.
tions.
Deviation from the correct proportion
(error of discriminator) is caused by:
a) nonlinear characteristic of the discrim=
the input, b) difference of amplitudes of
If the phase discriminator input is fed with voltages ul = U1 sin (DT + )
9
and u2 -U2 sin (nt - ), whose phase difference is p +
U1 - U2 6 - (U
then
the relative amplitude difference by
_ i1 + u2)'
criminator output can be written as
it 2 and if we designate
the voltage at the dis-
171-1hErs 1114. lisinfgt+j-).?[1-1-1sinOt--1218=5
U1 +U, (2CoS t sin -32? + a sin Q t cos 1-).
2
? r-r7 ??-?.-.????????--
STAT''
, .
?
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The amplitude of this voltage will be determined as
=
1J1+ U2 2
2
1/S1112 "I + 22-2 COS21-
2 4 2 '
_
from, which, as the discriminatorerror-tp ;-we -obtain the expression
=n/ sins-TT + 7-61COS1+?T.
Figure 5 shows the curves for the dePenderce of the error Ac on the phase dif-:
ference 9, caused by the amplitude difference 6..
Or
:CI 1
401
1111111111111P111ft.....
Fii.5
_
The diagram indicates that the error accrues rapidly in the area of small
!
angles. The operating band of the discriminator should be selected, for practical
reasons, within
_ tude difference
ceed
the limits of 0.07 to 0.6 radians. Moreover, if the relative ampli-
does not exceed 2-3% the error of the discriminator will not ex-
42
If the error of the discriminator in the area of non-zero phase difference
'
_ drops abruptly, the requirements for stable voltage at the output of the limiter
. so decrease. This is an advantageous feature of this method, as compared with
measurements according to points, where the recording is done at zero phase differ-,
- ence..
7. Limiter.
The limiter block consists of a resonance amplifier stage, a cathode _repe4prl_
STAT-
49
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a.
1?????-??
_
and 'the limiter-ivopei7i4hose diagram is shown in Fig.6: The iiresenoe
ling between input and output of the limiter creates a spurious.amplitude_and a phase
modulation at its output. To compensate this straw
coupling, an additional coupling (a smallcapacitance
01 ii .1
fl C and a large resistance R) is established between the
input and output of the limiter, to compensate for the
stray coupling.
Fig.6
Besides its direct purpose (to obtain the same
it
--- !
amplitudes at the input of the phase discriminator) the limiter is also used to ob-
- ?
tain harmonics of the fundamental frequency. If the phases of the harmonics in the ,
phase discriminator are compared, the sensitivity of the discriminator will increase
in proportion with the number of the harmonic. For this purpose, the device uses
2/
the ninth harmonic.
Connecting in series two limiter blocks, a change of voltage in the input of
t
the first one by about five times will yield, at the output of the second one, rec-
tangular pulses whose harmonics amplitudes (up to the ninth inclusive) are constant
with an accuracy of 1%. In this case, a phase shift between input and output of the
limiters (for the fundamental harmonic) does not exceed 10-3 radian, while the value
for the ninth harmonic is 10-2 radian.
3;2-1
!C___
the limiter, the phase difference between the HF voltage envelope at the input and ;
.output of the test object can be measured with an accuracy to within 10-3 radian.
4:
Since the accuracy of the device is defined by the basic error introduced into
5r
- 8. Integrator
A most practical layout for integration is one with a capacitance feedbacks as:
shown in Fig.7a. Here R and C are the integrating resistance and capacitance. Rn is
the load resistance, Cc and Ry are the stray capacitance and leakage resistance, re-
spectively.
__ An expression for the transmission factor of this hookup has a rather _complex,:
SI-AT
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0
C?
A
aspect (Bib1.5). However, if the real values of the circuit parameters are taken in-
to consideration and if, in this expression, terms higher than the second order of.:
smallness, i.e., terms whose value is smaller than 1072 are taken into considera-
tion, an expression for the transmission factor k is obtained, determined by the
ratio of the output to the input voltage, as follows:
K
auf
am *IL RyIP
14;nRPC OPCr
" . where p is the Laplacian operator.
:
-
(5) ?
1 1
The first term of eq(5) is proportional to - (the operator -means integration)
P P
1
and is a useful value, while the second is proportional to -75., i.e., to the double
integral and represents an integration error. This error is caused by.the finite- .
ness of the tube amplification factor ( 0) and by .
1
the presence of leakage ? from the integxating capaci-!
BY
ROI
tor.
From eq.(5) it is apparent that the value of the !
stray capacitance Cc does not-enter into the expression
for the transmission factor, i.e., the error caused by
this fact is small compared .with errors caused by other
parameters.
evt ? To compensate the integration error, the circuit
must be complicated in such a manner that an additional .
+Um
Fig.7
term would appear in the transmission factor. This
1
term would be proportional to -77 but with a sign oppo-
site to that of the error..
In the case of a symmetric circuit, such compensa-
tion is very simple and consists in sending a voltage from the output of One inte-
grator across the resistance Rev to the input of the other one or vice versa
(Fig.7b). Having written an expression for the transmission factor of-this.aiarnim
STAT
ga..4
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??????????????11...-11.
0
. we obtain the condition for compensating the integration error, as follows
1
42
Thi-s defines- t1ieval?e of the compensating resistance Rtv. In actual circuitio
A a
- ,
14
the full swing of the output voltage in the range of 600-700 ve
the value Rev is in the range of 200 megohms.
?
When compensation is available, it becomes possible to obtain in the diagram of
?
Fig.7b (with tubes of type 6Z118) an integration with an accuracy to within 1%, with 1
9. Input Detector
To decrease the dependence of the phase shift in a detected low-frequency oscil-
_ =
1
lation on the high-frequency amplitude, a circuit of consecutive detection without
Fig.8
capacitance is used.
When a modulated signal passes through the meas-
ured object having a nonlinear character, the voltage
sent to the detector may have a low-frequency component,
_
producing large errors. To eliminate a voltage of this:
frequency, a rejection filter and a symmetric detection;
system (Fig.) are used. To eliminate the tube input
capacitance, deep negative feedback is applied.
Such a diagram ensures the independence of the
amplitude on the detected voltage, with an accuracy-to
within 1% and of the phase to 10-3 radian - when the
. carrier frequency changes from 0.2 to 10 mc. Moreover, the phase of the. detected
oscillation does not depend (with an approximation as mentioned above) upon the amp-
- litude of the input voltage, if this latter is changed by 5 times.
5 2--
10. Experimental Testing of the Accuracy of the Device
Testing of the device is carried out as follows:
STAT
I
, .
?
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a) The input of theis shorted to the output; thezi the transmission Lac-,
..-
__ tor modulus is equal to 1, while the group time is equal to 0_ in the, entire frequen-
cy band. A comparison of the resultant characteristics with the calibration lines
. -li -at the errors do not exceed the
shows t permissible ?
b) The errors of the device are measured in the same manner by coupi &ng it with
? ?
voltage divider which does not cause phase distortions and is used as reference;
12
c) The characteristics of a series of uncomplicated objects, as measured by the
1
device, are compared with the theoretical calculations.
14-1
-
U. Technical Data of the Device
Frequency band: 0.2 - 10 mc;
Test band of group propagation time: up to 10 ?sec;
Measuring accuracy of group time: 2% ? 0.02? sec, .with attenuation drop
to 1.5 neper;
Measuring accuracy of the modulus of transmission factor: ? 0.02 neper in
the band to 0.5 neper; and ? 0.05 in the band, to 1.5 neper;
Output resistance: 75 dims;
Input, high-ohmic or 75 ohms.
36-1 .
'Appendix
3
The input of the measured object is supplied with a modulated voltage
401]
i 1---
,q ? iii we U cos. 1(1 + m cos it 0 ...
*-1
-1-,..---$
i
---; (7)
. 4_ 1 = U[ m in
cos?t +-2cos(40-1-12)t? --2- cos (0 ? e) ti .
4
If F(s) is used for denoting the transmission factor modulus of the studied
--- object, and(w) for the phase shift, then the output voltage of the object under ;
5C___
- test can be expressed by
?.
, us -. F ((a)U (cos [flifiFt +661(:):+cosmitiFt::::;11;.t 7. (a 4: C)1:-_ .. , ___ 1
r (8)-----:
- ,
4- :
!
STAT
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I
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v.
0.
- ?
6
Let us expand FOiri CO and w(u)?11) into a Taylors seriei,-limiting-
expansion to two and the second - to three terms.
Then,
:, ?
the-firit---
(9)
(10)
10
12
4.1(6)
o
122
dg*14.+
al d2 I 66)
+???''`
' 2 dos
1
2.:).-1
_i
0," 1
22 dv
WidT nig db (44
-=
X sW - -11- Mn 0 (t -Ft) [mcos 2 y 4- %) sin ? )(
2 d a 2d.2d..dr --j: -- --]
?-?;-.1
d q:,(w)
where T is the group propagation time.
dw
Substituting eqs,;(9) and (10) into eq.() and making transformations we obtain,
122 d in2db(0)
us. UF(0)( co?s4.01- 41+ m cos2 0+.0cos 7 de+ d ? s1ng(t-1-)X
21 QV
_J X sin (t s) cos -- .
2 d.jj
?- where b(w)z- in F(w) - is the attenuation of the test object.
The amplitude of the high-frequency voltage A is equal to the square root from
the sum of the squares of the factors with orthogonal components i.e.,
3611
-m
3C--j
40
42_1
d
A ----.1/F(?) {
I 4- ins -4- 1 r db Mr+ 2 m cos 9.0 + Ocos 77; ?
- ? 2 2 ".
2 mIldb(0) cis s
sin 12(t ? s) sin ?
? 24.
12)
+ ? m -t- cos 22 (t
1 [. . Q fib (e)
2 d ?
Expanding eq.(12) into a Fourier series and neglecting the moll terms, we
_J
find that the first harmonic of the envelope at the output of the object is shifted
- relative to the input envelope, through an angle of
? 51_j
1
4
12464 gisdI
= ? arctg do tg
24.1
(13)
_If, according to Nyquist, the group time t* given by device, is determined
slwq
?
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_: as
j
a'
then as the error of method AT .T11' .the following is obtained
L _ _
1
2 dbm cis d
--? arc ds. tg 2 d?)]
12
Considering that the value contained in the brackets is smpll
- unity and assuming tale'1 Z Z we obtain eq.(2).
(15)
compared with
.;
The authors thank V.P.Saveltyev and A.A.Kolokov for their help in carrying out'
the experiments.
2
Article received by the Editors 28 July 1956.
-1
-1
- 1. Nyquist,H.
*
30H
p.522
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and BrandpS. - Measuring of PhaseDistortions. BST'', V61.9 (1930),
2. Bunt,L.E. and Albersheim;W.J. - Device for Rapid Measurement of Distortions of
-Th the Characteristics of Group Time. PIRE, Vol.4 (1952), PP 454 - 459
36_t.
_3. Alsberg,D.A. - Accurate Measurement of the Vectors of the Total Resistance by
3C--
the Method of Frequency Modulation. ?IRE. (1951), fl, 39, 11, p.1393
4(1 i
__ 4. - Device for Measuring the Distortions of the Phase-Shift Characteristic in
42 ,A
Broad-Band Communication Channels. Research Laboratory for Scientific Work
on Communication Problems, Acad.Sci. USSR (1952)-
5. -.Device for Visual Observation and Measurement of Frequency Characteristics.
4E__!
Research Laboratory for Scientific Work on Communication Problems, Acad.Sci:
5;
USSR (1954-55)
6. TurbovichpI.T. - Progress in Measuring Frequency Characteristics by the Method
of Frequency Modulation. Radiotekhnikap Vol.% No.4 (1954)
-1K.=
?
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'
_ 7. Turbovich,I.T. and Solomonov;V.G. - Progress in Accurate Measurement of Frequency,
6--
e
14
Characteristics of Telephone Channels. Collection of Scientific.Paprs_op.__
Wire Communications. Izd.AN SSSR, N0.4 (1955)
221
24-
26
9r1 I
30_J
32_1
4
0/ t
36_1
3q
4 0_1
42_1
44_j
45 '1
467_1
50
? 52-11
? 54
-1
-36-
1. ? f?ITI.r.I.,...(T,21?0?
S TAT
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THE PROBLEM OF INTERMEDIATE PROCESSES IN PULSE
SCHEMATICS WITH CRYSTAL POINT-CONTACT TRIODES.
by
0.G.Yagodin
The article reviews a method of analysis for intermediate processes with
crystal point triodes, based on a substitution of the dynamic properties of a
triode by an approximate equivalent circuit and by aligning of the nonlinear
triode characteristics. Intermediate processes are studied in a diagram of a
single-cycle relaxator and in a trigger device with a triode working without
,
saturation.
Calculation methods for pulse schematics with point-contact triodes, have been
I
worked out with sufficient details in application to slow processes. In this case
?
the calculation of the basic parameters for pulse oscillations and operating *condi-
._
? tions of the circuit is, in fact, reduced to a determination of the input character-
,r; - t
_istic of the circuit, for instance, ue = f(i2) with Ek = const, Rb = const and Rk
- const (Fig.1) and to its analysis. The input characteristic can be obtained from
'
"
_ known statistics of characteristics for a triode, either by graphic methods (Bib1.1)
or analytically (Bib1.2). In the latter case, the real characteristics of a triode
- is aligned within the area of cutoff (I) of the active section (II) and of the sat-
on .
uration areas (III). For each of these areas the values of a triode parameter are
_ - determined and linear equivalent circuits, usually T-networks, are composed. With
_. the help of such a model of a crystal triode, the characteristics of pulse oscine-
- tions can be calculated, under the assumption that jumps in the circuits are momen-,
_ tary (Bib1.314),
that the influence on such jumps by the parameters of the triode
- and the circuit have been considered, and that useful operating conditions for the
_
_ circuit have been determined, etc. However, for an analysis of intermediate pro-
57
_
--
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????111.1tas
cesses in the circuit, the dynamic propertieS-Of crystal triode-i?thast-lie-knoien. i
9 .._..
It has been experimentally proved that the dynamic properties of point-contact :
_ ___ _ _ _ _ ...____
1
n
?
Fig.1
triodes, notwithstanding a sufficiently '
4
4-vmst
0 li?coput
pronounced field effect-ahd-Siirfide pheribio-
ena in the area near the limit frequencies '
or exceeding it, are determined by the dif-
fusional character of the movement of the
14_
charge carriers. Thus, in first approximation, both for point-contact and planar
triodes the one-dimensional diffusion equation obtained by V.Shokli (Bib1.5) can be
applied. However, the solutions of this equation for intermediate operation (Bibi. 6,
nr
7,8) cannot be used for practical calculations, in view of their complexity.
:
To investigate processes in circuits with planar triodes, the approximate ex-
24-J ?
pression for an intermediate characteristic, as offered by E.I.Adirovich and V.G.Ko-
r
lotilova (Bib1.9), can be used. However, for engineering calculations, with the aim
of simplification, it is more practical to represent crystal triodes by equivalent
'circuits reflecting their dynamic properties and assuring the requested accuracy of
!
calculation. The necessary elements of such circuits are elements taking into con-
__
34_J
, sideration a weakening and a phase shift of
.4'
#4- 1,--1146:1
-- 74d 4 , high-frequency signal components and re-
1
.S2-- uz----1
, fleeting a delay in the reaction of the -
40:1 Fig.2 ,
,
, system to the input disturbance, caused by
. the tail portion of the diffusion. In point-contact triodes practically no diffu-
sion delay appeared, so that the equivalent circuit becomes much simpler for these
46_1
_ triodes.
It is known that, in a broad frequency bath (up to critical frequencies) a
- point-contact triode can be represented by a low-signal equivalent circuit (Fig.2)
- , for which
56
co
;-.0
60
rml ( p) U z.
1 ps
?
(1)
58
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STAT
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or by a circuit as per Fig.3in which, for dynamic-46iating-ConditioniTthi-curreht-
n
in an oscillator i and in the circuit of the emitter ie are connected by the rela-
tion
T.=
21q.
-(2)
(3)
where fo is the limit frequency of the triode, at which the current amplification
i 1
__factor drops to 0.7 of its value at low frequencies.
_
For large signals it is necessary to take into consideration the nonlinear
Fig .3
character of a triode. If the triode does not
1
T6RIC reach the saturation point, its properties can be
duplicated by an equivalent circuit as showu in
Fig.4. Within the limits Of the active area, the
time constant of the equivalent current generators,
2-?,RC
? in the schematics in Fig .3 and 4, is equal to
3O I
= RC.
32_1
_J
2 _- .:status of an equivalent diode in a collector circuit, which corresponds to the con- ,
Fig .4
(4)
Under the operating conditions of a saturated triode, i.e., under a changed
40-_1
ai,>iA.? (5)
49
_ the phenomenon of accumulation of nonbasic carriers occurs; in first approximation,
44_2
this can be taken into consideration by introducing a new discrete value for the
4:5
- time constant of the current generator
vs>1. (6)
5o:1
condition, in particular, limits the maximum speed of count in discriminator cir-
r - !
In this case, the use of point-contact triodes may become limited. The latter
-
59
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O.._
.._. The existence of approximate linear equivalent circuits of crystal poia- 1
i .
;
2.--! 1
i
_ contact triodes permits a calculation of both rapid and slow processes in the cir-
- cuits with the help of a device based on the classical theory of circuits.
Thus, the approximate solution of the prOblem of intermediate processes in a
, I
nonlinear system is reduced to consecutive linear solutions obtained for a series of
10-1
_ areas and to their subsequent reconciliation at the boundaries of these areas.
12-1 As concrete examples, let us consider intermediate processes in the circuit of f
14__, I
_ a single-cycle relaxator and in a trigger device with a point-contact triode, work-
16 1 :
16 ID 1
ing without saturation.
1
,
20-- :
itive pulse, sent to the circuit of the emitter, can be designed as per Fig.5*. '
22_1
--I :? ? --1 . - Let us consider intermediate proces-
9!_', P, A le _.
4..i
?f
0 u ses in this circuit under the assumption
.-se Rs I I g
that triggering is accomplished by the
- ....
1_ -I action of a current gap, received from an
?I
Fig.5 Fig.6 1
..... ,
:-
oscillator with an infinite internal re-
39 .1 _ sistance; the transition of the circuit from the state of stable equilibrium to an
34_J
- ,active state occurs instantly; the load resistance in the collector circuit Bk is
36_i ,
_ not great. Under these assumptions, the movement of the systems in the active area
3e--1
can be represented by the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.6.
40_j ;
__. The initial condition for this movement, can be written as
42.:iI 1
(71
441, le (0)1.---. O. .
I _,
. -
In the general case, the circuit of a single-cycle relaxator, started by a pos7
With an input disturbance of
1
i(t)=O for t 0
_ (8)
.31iThe_simplest_schematic_of a trigger device,is_reduced to the same configuratiop4
_when_t into_consideration the influence of input stray capacitance.
STAT ?
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0 _
we have
. .--
! ----I
io (t) _ A!: r s +04-i-i-s et+p24-0+s eArl
A LJW a(aci-13) VP-0 r '------ -----
, .
I i
6 __1
i it ( t, . I 1 f W , at - I - V a -I- W at p2 + vp+w 01 . 1
1 ?IT 1.?TW -r a :a ? 0 e + e -
Pal-0 ,
E-1
---1 i
--1
NHx rz +a2+ya+ze..t+fis+Yp+zersei, (9c)
?1 iN(t)= xl.m a (a ? ii)
1', 1 ;
, where 1
14 -_ _?_ J. 1
i ! a as. ? ?7-1 (L. ? Irt?.2- -- 4M); ft . -- --L(L 4- I/n.2 =7171,) 1
- , 2 2
15_._J ,
,
I K = T Te(TuRz ? 2" isR12)
18 1 /
I Rz (T Ts+ T T11 ? Tern) ? Ti2 (C. RIS + TeRn)
L.
20 ! K
,
7
III. Rz (Te + TO ? TuRn '
2 ? ; N .
.I v F (TuRz ? risks)
J K
94_,Jt
-1 Q Rz F -I- THRzi r -Ft THE ?TuRnF -FT RiD
1 ?
? N
25_1
i Rz F -}-TnEK- F Rz D
s ?
2E-1 N
---/
n
U,= STai (RID ? TitE)
!i
t Rz D 4- TeRr D + T 7.12E + TerIllEr+ T Rz F
'I? I V?
U
I I
3C RE F +Ti2EK + RE I)
1 W ; X --= v T ((TILE + RisD)
U
?1
36_1
I y = t TeE -+ T TnE + T R12D + TeR12F ? TeRnD + 70'114
33?,i X . .
40__.1
H z . TeAt+TnEk + Rap + RF .; R....R. ? RE .
X .
42-1
4
re. ReCe; Tn= RC,; ? 4P.
D CeU 4; E + Use; F sTe ? Ce(Ee+ U4)
R21t Rx
U -- ? (1.1 s.--- i1 R; =r11 R? + Rd
s 119 41
(rij is the small signal parameter of a triode in the active area).
5::171
Superimposing on eq.(9) the initial.eq.(7) we will obtain equations,
-movement of the system in the active area, i.e.,
44_1
- ? 0 < les,
E.
1
describing
(11)
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_
Where Iets is the value of emitter current at the instant tP when saturation of the
B
triode is achieved, i.e., when eq.(5) is satisfied. The method for determining Iss-
and the time ts has been described before (Bib1.10).
The movements of the system in the saturation area are reviewed analogously,
_ for when
1
_J
for which case, the initial conditions are as follows:
0
?-?
i
I
(]2)
i g (t ? ts)11..i.r --= les . 1
. (13)
El g(t--4,)11_t ? Rubs+ Riii &I
, _ _
,
The value I in a circuit of a sing)e-cycle relaxator can be determined with
emax
sufficient accuracy from a study of the input characteristic.
Having equations for the system displacement in the active area and in the sat=
_ uration area and knowing the limits of the current changes of the emitter from
_ eqs.(il) and (12), one can calculate the duration of the leading edge of the pulse
30 '
emitted by the system. The duration of the pulse proper is determined according to
3
7
_known formulas (Bib1.3,4).
Notwithstanding the fact that in a single-cycle relaxator the process of re-
-
--verse tilting happens without outside influence, the speed of this process. depends
- ont2, on account of the effect of accumulating-holes. The accumulation of holes
f
limits the minimum duration of the pulse, obtainable from a single-cycle relaxator.
Simultaneous use in the pulse circuits of crystal diodes and triodes improves -
. sometimes very substantially - the operating quality of the circuit. For instance,
- with the help of a diode, the limit frequency of repeated pulses in a single-cycle
--relaxator can be increased.
The use of a crystal diode in conjunction with a source of constant Q shift of
the load element in the emitting circuit yields a broken characteristic of the load,
- which gives the possibility, at our choice, to secure the points of intersection of
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0
???????????exl?MIZIWCIMIlde.???1.1.......1.1.4.
e load with the input characteristics. In jarticu1ar, aIl three points of inter- i ?
section may be outside the saturation zone (Fig.?). .1t i's evident that, if in this
_ .. _ _ _ . _
4 i
? __Jr-
case the stability of two equilibrium
r ,
, ?t1D 111'
R a
I
sfates Cdn-be- as-stir-6d,-- then?Siteh?a- -olidnit
.
I
. e_ *I IRd I
+E
?j
1::??????????
0
34_1
36__J
3 E1-2,
Fig .7
'can be used as a trigger device with a
diminished time count since the operation :
of the triode itself in this circuit is i
characterized by the absence of saturation.
1
As shown by the author (Bib1.11), if'
the collector-to-ground capacitance is ne-
glected, which is permissible for a great;
1
number of schematics with point-contact
triodes, the conditions for a Stable equi-
librium in tht descending branch of the ;
input characteristic, in the general case;
have the form
Ce,? ? (14a)
_ RNR _
4011
r--
_J Re )1R.7....____
I (14b)
42_4
. where RN is the steepness of the descending branch in the aligned input character-
-:istic, equal to ,
i
46 1
48 i 1 RN? R"R" ? Rn 1 .
-1 ? R22 ? RIC
----1 R2 ' (15)
50_1 r1== R11
1 Rzi + Rig-
;
5-;-1
54
- the point b will correspond to a state of stable equilibrium in the system, while
From here it is immediately apparent that, if the condition (14a) is satisfied;
5
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I
- the point e will represent the unstable one.
The trigger device shown in Fig.? Pib1.12) - after tk1ng the influence of the
Ii
^ . emitter-ground capacitance Ce into account - represents a system with two degrees
6 z
- of
schema:tie-6f ? n&r1elt Thi---
1
basic difference between these schematics, when reviewing the intermediate processes,
;
is this: for the schematic as per Fig.7 the equations deducted for the active zone
1
remain valid during the entire process. However, the inclusion into the circuit of
14_Jthe emitting diode Di and the source of the shift El, causes the parameters entering
16_.2
into these equations to have two series of discrete values corresponding to the
IC_
value of the emitter current. If Ie denotes the value of the emitter current
eom !
which produces a commutation of the load resistance in the emitter circuit, this re-a
22
sistance can be expressed by
0;4
26_4
1
AL==rd for 0 14 then
(Air)
E2 -
p Is which means that it does not depend on the voltage amplitude at the
01 I ?
- receiver input.
Introduction of frequency feedback leads also to a voltage drop of the frequen-
cy-modulated signal at the output. This drop can be compensated by a corresponding
increase of the frequency deviation in the receiver or by increasing the steepness
of the frequency characteristic of the detector. In the first case, the advantages
1C
presented by FR are increased. Only the second case is of practical importance,
20__!
.when the frequency deviation of the received signal remains constant. Under this
22.1
. condition, a system with deep frequency feedback for damping of noises is practical-,
ly equivalent to a system with a limiter (Bib1.1).
25_J
However, eq.(1) shows that the depth of feedback is proportional to the
_ anipli-
tude of the input signal. If a certain signal .voltage is sufficient to obtain the
:Is
1
_
required depth of feedback, then the amplitude reserve for stability will be exceed-
- ed at a higher signal and self-excitation will occur. Therefore, a limiter must be'
- used in a receiver with frequency feedback. A fractional detector cannot replace a
36_1
-- limiter, since it does not eliminate the dependence of the? 'output voltage on the .
3E-,
_average level of the input signal.
A limiter is also required in view of the fact that a shortening of the linear
42_1
. section of the detector, which is necessary to damp the amplitude modulation, leads
44_.!
- to a lowered selectivity in the adjacent channel (Bib1.2).
46
In the presence of a limiter, we have
sol L
-- where D is the steepness of the frequency characteristic of the detector, taken at
52-1
- the converter input, when the signal exceeds the threshold of the limit.
3. Frequency feedback greatly diminishes nonlinear distortions in the.IF
55 - 1
3c;
6C
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- ?
fier and in the frequenoy detector. Besides the usual decrease by (1 + 0k) times,
for systems with feedback, it must be taken into consideration that the signal at
the output of the converter has a lowered frequency deviation. Using the results
6_1
obtaili1dCIY-I.S.G6nOiOvSkiy shown that the fiataf-of'fionlirieak--
...
'distortions in the third harmonic in the IF amplifier, for the same single circuits,
IC--
proportionally decreases (1 + 0k)3 times. This expression does not take into account
12 __I
phase shifts in the loop; it is assumed that a quasi-stationary solution is permis-
? ;
14
sible.
4. The introduction of frequency feedback, in itself, does not change the
?7
1S_-2 ?
signal-to-noise ratio, since the frequency modulation, carrying both the useful com-
munication and the interference, decreases in the same proportion. However, in view
22_J
of the statements in Section 3, the band of the frequency amplifier can be narrowed
1 ,
2ar and the selectivity in the adjacent channel can be
.(244 I
raised. On the basis of the condition that the i
F 11107 remains the same as without it the band can be
I
1 factor of nonlinear distortions of the third har-
2 monic, after intrOduction of frequency feedback,
OF
narrowed by (1 + 014) times. This corresponds to
curve 1 in Fig.2 and to the equation
Fig .2
40:]
(2Af) =Inditt
_ p x (2)
42__11
, where (2,6f)dist'is the transmission band of the IF amplifier without frequency
feedback, a band which is necessary for the prescribed nonlinear distortions.
4,__ The narrowing of the transmission band of the IF amplifier is limited to a
Z._ value of 2FIr where Fs, is the highest modulation frequency (Bib1.4).
5. It is known that on introduction of feedback, into a system with minimum
.phase shiftp_it_is necessary (to avoid self-excitation) that the steepness of the i
:descending branch_of_the_amplitude-frequency characteristic of_the_openaoop_shoUldi
5 STAT
Eli
78
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not exceed acertain value (12 decibels per -octae) inatil-the-transmission factbr ! .
modulus in the loop does not reach unity. The necessary slope of the frequency char-
_ ._ _ _ _ _ ,
4 _
acteristic is ensured by the correcting circuit in the feedback channel, but the
?isii?h band-of-the- IF amplifier should. notbe below a certain-ire-life-12 A
E--
Let us represent the frequency characteristic of the IF amplifier as a broken
IC?)
12-J
characteristic OCB*. The steepness of the straight line AB is 6n decibels/octave,
where n is the number of circuits in the IF amplifier (the frequency is plotted on
16
a logarithmic scale). The general characteristic of the loop (without the correct-
- ing circuit) represents the total of the frequency char? acteristics of the IF ampli-
__
1
fier and of the section between the frequency detector and the heterodyne frequency
modulator. Let us assume that the transmission band of this section is much broader
line CAB (Fig.3), where the straight line AB represents the asymptote of the real
1L
22__j
24
-m
2J
_ peats the characteristic of the frequency amplifier. This simplification is not
than the band of the IF amplifier, so that the general frequency characteristic re-
only practical, but also basically permissible. A broadening of the transmission
? ?
3Oband from the detector to the FM heterodyne, in principle, presents no difficulties,
on
since the IF amplifier must ensure selectivity in the adjacent channel.
?n
The transmission factor modulus in the open feedback loop in the transmission
6:-_)
band of the IF amplifier can be determined as the ratio of the voltage En (at the
output of the frequency detector) to the voltage Em (at the input of the frequency
_
___modulator). ,
44_
I Ki =Spittil D - ! (3)
4-1 - 1
where Sim is the steepness of the modulation characteristic [,f = w.(%)] of the
In the presence of a limiter, this factor is equal to
- '
?
-A* The stability of the system is studied at small frequency deviations. In this
? 5_-
case, half of the symmetric characteristic of the HF amplifier corresponds exactly.
? i
to the characteristic of the LF amplifier.
-
?
E0
STAT
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0 .
_ En heterodyne.
2-1
?
_.cording to the formula (Bib1.5)
6
The maximum possible depth of feedback for optimum correction is determined se-
_ _ _ _ _
0
?????.)
(p K)ufb= 40Ig14
nFy
(4)
10
wherefa is the frequency at which the transmission factor for the loop becomes unity.
After simple transformations, we obtain
b
0
32_i
? fier at the level of 0.7, it is sufficient to multiply the result obtained by a cer
tam n factor b, depending on the circuit of the interstage connection and the number
?24.
of stages
3S-J
I
i
I--- ? - ---a-i, -_-_---K---- ? -
(p K) i?cib = 401g ?1-4 ? 2 --la , (5)
nFw n
8
where Afl is half of the transmission band of an idealized-
!
characteristic of the IF amplifier (segment OA, Figj).
Solving eq.(5)Ifor Lf', we have
4 nF; ViTZ:
2 a ? (6)
1
To change to the transmission band of the real characteristic of the IF ampli-
401 I bnF,, if (0 KLig .
;
1
(2- flt.4, . i (7)
1 if
42 1_ . 2 1C? I '
,
i _
' ! ;
It can be demonstrated that, for an amplifier with identical single circuits,
?
1
_..the value of b is determined according to the formula
---I
. i
1 1
. b.Y. 27 (8)
50_1 1 .
- Equation (7) is illustrated by curve 2 in Fig.2.
6. From Fig.2 it is evident that, at optimum depth of feedback_Cok)opt the
?
narrowest transmission band for the IF amplifier is obtained. At lesser depth of
STAT
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frequency feeabiCk-,-ib-and must -be broader tonsure skiffiCiefitlf-sEllf-Ealinearfl
2?
_ _ _
distortions, whereas at greater depth, considerations of stability are involved. :
4_ !
Optimum depth of feedback can be determined by solving eqs.(2) and (7) jointly.1
The reu111 fbi,iiiii?ll have the.- -aiii-eCt-
.._,?where
its
18_
20
kr [ 2
4 I 27
f a .4 1/- _g_ ?ca
c__4a144?1174-
bnF;
The corresponding band of the IF amplifier can be determined according to
(9)
For instance, for a radio transmitter with a three-stage IF amplifier on single!
- - circuits (n = 3) in the presence of nonlinear 0.5% distortions, the IF amplifier re-;
, quires a band of (21.1f)dist = 220 kc; b 0.51; Fv- 15 kc.
Calculations and practical experience have shown that, without special
- culties, a value of 1(1 = 100 can be obtained (the nonlinear distortions in the dia-
--criminator being 0.5%). Then C = 90.
With such a high value for C, eq.(9) can be simplified, to read
--;
40_1
441
C
ot,
2) 2
(
(. 4 has? T
t3 tc). lot C --= ?
hFvn
(10)
For our particular data, we have ( Ok)opt xx 20.
Equations (9) and (10) must be considered as only theoretical limits. Actually;
'
one has to use considerably less deep feedback because of additional .phase shifts in:
the frequency detector and the heterodyne frequency modulator. An especially impor-1
- 'tant_point_is the fact that it is difficult to produce and maintain_in_operation_ald
_ideal_frequency characteristic of the loop, which needs a stability reserve......The t
Si-AT
-
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0
- magnitude of the stability reserve is determined in the design stage, according to 4
?). _ ?
_the schematic arid the design of the receiver, the Q-factor of the limiterl_and the.__!
operating conditions.
. 6 ,
0 1
If it is assumed, for instance, that the stability reserve of the phase is 30
?
? 'and of the amplitude 6 decibels*, then eq.(7) takes the fora
1G
? I
10 _J
14
- '
?
--chs
03 x)?,
2Lf = 0,9n Fvb
;WI
- r---
Having simultaneously solved eqs.(71) and (2), a curve of the type shown in
Fig.4 can be plotted. From this diagramIthe op-
timum feedback for the discussed example can be
found, being approximately 12.
7. By introducing frequency feedback, the
?
(7')
Mal Oda
3,6 100
Fig.4
36:7_1
_J
--sirable.
i!
40__
__Article received by the Editors
42 I
441
- ?
I
transconductanee of the discriminator and, conse-
quently, the factor kl, can be increased propor-
tionally. In this case, a considerable narrowing
of the amplifier band is possible. However, it
has been mentioned before that a decrease of the
linear Segment in the discriminator band is un4e-
5 November 1955 and,
BIBLIOGRAPHI
----I. Chaffee - The Application of Negative Feedback to
-.2. Plusg - Investigation
.
* These are minimum figures;
51 f
--pecially for the phase.
z,
of ER Signal Interference.
-;
actually One frequently needs a greater reserve, es-
after revision, 29 August 1956.
FM Receivers. PIRE May 1939
PIRE November 1947
STAT ?
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2
? 6
- 3. ?C.Conorovskiy,I.S. ? Radio Signals and Intermediate Effects Radio Circuits.
Svyaztizdat (190)
- 4. Bell ? Reduction of Bandwidth in FM Receivers. The Wireless Eng. November (1942)
- 5. Bode,G. ? Circuit Theory and Designing of Amplifierswith FeedSicle.--Publ. HoUiii
of Foreign Literature (1948)
20?
_
14
? 30_
4
34
36_
'
32,-A
40_1
_J
49_1
441
.15
43_
50?
E ;
STAT
,
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10--
. _J. The question is reviewed of the dependence of the form of self-oscillation'
12
and energy ratios in a self-oscillator on attenuation in its circuit: The op-
timum operating conditions are investigated from the viewpoint of power trans- ?
16-J,
mitted to load and of efficiency.
18_1
1. Introduction
r With the help of a quasi-linear theory one can calculate a self-oscillator,
: provided the Q-factor of the circuit is sufficiently high. Then the voltage in the
circuit is basically created by the first harmonic of the plate current, for which
the circuit is equivalent to an active resistance. In this case, the operating con,.
? ":.___jditions for the oscillator under which maximum oscillating power P, is emitted by
_
__:the circuit, are determined.
3 12 The power P. emitted in the load depends on the efficiency of the circuit
-n
36
1
MA -
3 1
SELF-OSCILLATOR WITH EZTENSIVE CIRCUIT DAMPING
by
A.Z.Kheikov
40:1
__where 8 is the natural damping of the circuit, V the total damping (reduced) of the
42 ;
circuit, the load being taken into consideration. To maintain the efficiency of the
44
'circuit near unity, the total attenuation must exceed the natural attenuation by
46_4
many times, the natural damping being normally in the range of a few thousandth or
- hundredth. However, the operation of a self-oscillator cannot be described by the
quasi-linear theory if this theory is applied to high values of circuit attenuation:
C ,
- Operation at high attenuation leads to a change in the voltage shape in the circuit
5- .
.--:and to a change in the self-oscillation frequency. This does not in principle meet
STAT
44_
_
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_ - with ob-jeCtiOn-S-16i-al oscillator made for industrial purposes. However, an increas
_ in 612 besides leading to an increase in circuit efficiencyl_may result in a change
in oscillating power and efficiency of the self-oscillator.
6 : ?
The purpose of this article is an investigation of the
effect of total attenua-
- of the circuit on the frequency and the shape of self-oscillations and on the
10-J
_ energy ratios of the self-oscillator.
2. Equation of Self-Oscillations
1 = '
^
Let us limit the scope to a review of a single-circuit self-oscillator with in-
ductive backfeed. The equivalent circuit for such a high-frequency self-oscillator
f
--, is shown in Fig.11 representing the load by a resistance Re. The resistance connec-1
- , 22_i-1'ted in parallel with the circuit corresponds to the case
2'...... . ,of an oscillator for dielectric heating. In investigating
1
, I
_-
_....i 4
2.1?..;
i
--.1
.
30_2
Fig.1
1 ;
a system of differential equations:
only the boundary operating condition, we assume that the
current in the circuit of the first grid is equal to zero.
Taking into account the plate reactance, we can construct
. 1
34: 1
Is IL + IC + iv
i
(1)
I I
i
'36_
i
L
iami ($10 9
I
(2)
,
3E,
. where the control voltage is u . uc - Duk, with D being the grid through of the
,
t- ube ,
,
42_j r-
44D
43
50
51
54
CA
dtr, I
u = L1
a di ' (3)
1 c 2= C disk t
di (4) ?
i us (5)
"Ran" Re' 1
di L. (6)
u., .. /14 -47 . i
i
In the resultant system of equations appear only alternating voltages at the
grid and at plate of the tube; the influence of direct voltages at the plate and
85
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?
ioxasti?oaSSIrmacftes
0
? _ grid and thus of the cutoff angle of the plate current s fully taken into account
?
by
_ by_the assignment of the function ia _z_ f(U )
For analytical calculations, let us substitute the real characteristic of the
plate current by a broken line. Then the function f(uv) will-li?erep-reSerifed b thiee
segments: In the first segment whose right-hand boundary is determined by the angle
of cutoff of the plate current M.= 0; in the second segment 31...
zuy U.
segment whose left-hand boundary is determined by the appearance of
1
_ 177. 0.
4. Power Ratios
According to definition, the oscillatory power of a vacuum-tube generator is
u2
P = dt.
T Rd
The voltage of the circuit, as a value proportional to the grid voltage, is an
odd function.
? el
it-1
46_1
f?...)
Therefore,
u2 .
21-1-2-1
7: n2R e n2R e
u _
where 61 -.0, y -.sin T and P,, P
P
The value - characterizes a change in the oscillating power at a change in 6'
PA.,0
. 2 -
Tic zim
o
2n2Re
so
OP
2s
.cYldT= 2. (ekt.sin syr dr.
x
xe (11)
93
STAT
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4
6
14 -1
1 El ??-?????
18:1
20_J 1 P -0 171
--
After integration, we obtain
P
OM.
WM
e ? 1) ,
wit
P ^ Zits (h)h
UrnP- -0.
18-.1 P-
The power input is
At 61 -? 0,
p Eciatit=
? T ? 2w
--I Then,
9 4 ____! w
I
2 P_ ? _
4.
i P _0 - 2? (h) ehT sin sit d s,6 1
--i
, 3 1
P_ 1.11
30 _
_ P-o 200
_ _ _ ? __ ________ _
E.S (1? 1)11,,:isqd v.
(19)
32_, P _
34-
_1
- 7 '
.
3C-- A change in the efficiency of the self-oscillator will be characterized by the
3 ,value
1
40_1 1 7; p_. 13 - ? P.,. P-
-=
-- -6-- : - 2-n 0 =1?; n -0 ,
1 - P-? r; 'co '-
42_1, _
?
According to eqs.(18) and (19) .
- --
I he
,
. _
I --- =
7 IC h il (h) ( j ?1). (20)
P.,-, P
3 . ? The graphs for the values $ = and -D- are shown in Fig.5.
P
_1 P
-.0 = o . no
. From this, it is possible to find the dependence of the power P,n transmitted
?
: ...to the load and of_the_oscillator efficiency TIE on the magnitude of total attenua
--1 1
_ ation_of_the_circuit.___Let_us characterize these dependences as
---i !
I
--94-
i
1
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2-J
Pee .10
P Iftoo
6 - i
_J
1
Q - = 100, are shown in
6
_
n
=
M. ?
-I? 3
The results of calculations, for a characteristic Q -factor of the circuit of
12-d
5. Conclusions
14_1
16 _ _
k
e
- 60
'
An exact solution for the equation of the self-oscillator according to areas,
44 oft a . ul
X
,
, shows that the frequency and shape of the self-oscillations
1 ,
i
depend on the total attenuation of the circuit. The fre-
quency decreases with increasing 6'. When the damping 1
I i ;
values approach 2, the oscillations are distinctly differi
ent from sinusoidal.
With an increasing 6', the amplitude decreases for
the first harmonic and increases for higher harmonics.
This leads to a decreased efficiency of the oscillator anct,
Fig.5
of the oscillatory power, when 6' increases. The diagram&
of power delivered to the load and of the overall efficien-
60
'f0
cy of the oscillator have their maximums at certain values
1
of 61. Their location depends on the natural Q-factor'ofi
1
the circuit: the higher the value of Q, the smaller are
the values of 6' corresponding to the maximum of the curve1
Only: at 61 - 0 does the self-oscillator reach the
values P,,0 and no, as given by a calculation according to
(14 118
Fig .6
the quasi-linear theory. The power transmitted to the
50:1
-- load is less than 1", at any value of circuit efficiency.
.52-4
An optimum operating condition with respect to the selection of 6', will occur
- when P and 71 are at their maximum. This operating condition depends on the in-
55 !
5
95
? --f?-?"*".n.r.4 't-s. ? r-
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_ hereFlt Q-factor of the circuit. However, the above-mentioned calculations show that;
9-
operation at Qi = 5 - 2 is most advantageous. Solving eq.(8) by the Poincar6 method'
.
" for different a values, one can evaluate the influence of the cutoff angle of the
pfate-Cuiieht -on-thi-aaifit to which the osallatihitc14er-di6Feiies at increasink--
8?
.
1
attenuation. Such an evaluation has shown that, at 8 < 900, the power drops more
rapidly than at 8 x 900 and less rapidly at 9> 900.
12 _
In conclusion, I express my thanks to G.S.Ramm for his help in preparing this
14_
work.
16 ?
Article received by the Editors 24 September 1956.
22_
_J
261
23
30-d
39
34_
36_
-7
38-i
40_1
/I
44
46 i
43-4
-1
-1
. 5
58:
CC_
96
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0
10 -1
The article describes a schematic for the generation of bell-shaped pulses!
--r
PROBLEM OF GENERATING.BELL -SHAPED PULSES
?
by
12
14
and gives the results of an experimental verification of the schematic.
It is essential, in transmitting pulses, to know how stable is the system to in,L
terference. In view of the fact that the signal-to-noise ratio depends on the shape!
- and the duration of the pulse, the problem of the pulse shape requires first consid-
eration in many cases.
This article contains the description of one system for generating .bell-shaped
Tolson.
1. Optimum Pulse Shape for Pulse Systems in Multichannel Communications
? 30_2.
A bell-shaped pulse, described by the equation
?
32-1
f..dte7ale
34'1 (1)_
?4
the best solution, compared with other pulse shapes, from the point of view of
:-...._obtaining a small product*
--I i - ?
40_j 21 f A 4 ,
_j
-where Af characterizes the concentration of the frequency spectrum of a pulse, while
At characterizes the pulse concentration in time.
From eq.(1) it appears that the bell-shaped
fild?
pulse is well concentrated in time. At the same time,
. ? Fig.1
the spectral concentration of a bell-shaped pulse
also changes according to the beil law
1
- *See,- for inStance __A.A.Kharkevich: Spectra and Analysis -(1953)
97
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'C
-
4-_i
the frequency spectrum of such a pulse is compactly concentrated.
-
These features of the bell-shaped pulse are especially important when using it
C(40 2A ? e?T;
a
(2)
as a working pulse in multichannel systems
- minimum of cross distortions, combined with a maximum reduction of mutual interfer-
ence by radio stations.
of radio communications, which require a ,
IC-
--duration are equal, the signal-to-noise ratio will be greater for the bell-shaped
pulse: Its frequency band will be smaller in this case and, consequently, at the
1
When the energies of a rectangular
and of a bell-shaped pulse as well as their
.same signal-to-noise ratio a greater quantity of channels can be placed in a multi-
- - channel system when using the bell-shaped pulse. Moreover, a bell-shaped pulse,
- 1 1
. - compared with a rectangular pulse, has a better resolving power*.
..., --
__!
:.,
- - the form of a Gaussian distributionhcurve,
1
exhibited by the limit curves
1
=packets (rectangular,
It is also known that the limit resonance curve of a multistage amplifier has
of the
bell-shaped,
i.e., is bell-shaped. The same 'shape is
1
output voltage envelopes,
exponential, and others).
from different-type
From this point of view, the use of a rectangular packet cannot be justified.
Hell-shaped pulses can be obtained by the method of filtering the lower fre-
quencies and also by the method of deforming a rectangular pulse.
Let us consider a practical schematic for obtaining bell-shaped pulses by the
first method, since the second method is nothing but the method of a band filter,
- where the bell-shaped curve is obtained as a limit curve of a multistage resonance
For different values of a bell curve f (t) loe-at2 a series of calculation
_j
r;2J
? * Here, resolvingapower is to mean a minimal shift in time between input pulses,*
--while the output pulses can still be received separately.
98
?
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curves (Fig.3) were
mentally obtained obtained curves.
? 2. Method of Low-Pass Filter
Although the continuity of the function e_t2 does i
not assure an accurate reproduction of a bell curve
when a limited number of filter sections is availables!
already 10 sections are amply sufficient to obtain
actnally pulses nearly coinciding with the calculated
bell curves.1
In the present case, bell curves are obtained by
using a filter of a type. shown in Fig.11 in which im-
pedances are connected in sequence of their increasing
magnitude. i
Figure 2 shows a tested practical schematic, con-
sisting of a four-stage filter with three sections in
each stage. Experiments showed that a further increase
of stages and sections is of srail practical influence'
on the fin result.
Considering that the factor n has a value in the
range of ten, filter attenuation is compensated by
inserting over each three sections, pulse separator
tubes of the type 6Zh3 which have an input capacitance
in the range of 8 ??f.
The testing of the schematic was done under the I
following conditions: duration of input pulses bin =
2 - 7 sec; duration of output pulses b out 2.5 -
. ? sec; frequency of pulse sequence F = 25 Ice.
.As variable parameter of the _schematip4Ithe dura7
STAT
56
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0
tion of input and output pulses was used. The duration of pulses was counted on the
.2--
level of 0.67_from_the maximum amplitude.
At output, an emitter of rectangular pulses of the conventional type was used.
"
1' - In the schematic, pulses with a duration of 3 - 10?see were obtained.
Fig.3 Fig.4
iLoPum
U?At'
, palm
,
--- 'curve as compared to the calculated one (Figs.3 and 4).
24-1
Article received by the Editors 30 March 1956.
30:1
32-
-1
34=1
1
36-1
Such
38--
a schematic gives a sufficiently good approximation of the experimental
40::
42_
44_
46_
48:i
52--
100
1
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0-
- tion of input and output pulses was used. The duration of pulses was counted on thei
. ? ?
?
.. level of_0.67_from_the maximum amplitude.
4
6 :
I
-821
. 1
1C --: 42
_
1
:
I 43
0
1:
Fig.3 Fig.4
t 44 m-R4
1( --1 _ -- ----- -
9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x __:j
!
---,
-.. Bathe
i
_.,
,
, i
..
- --curve as compared to the calculated one (Figs.3 and 4).
24:] 1
i
--Article received by the Editors 30 March 1956.
23,
At outputo.an emitter of rectangular pulses of the conventional type was used.
schematic, pulses
with a duration of 3 - 10 ?sec were obtained.
Such a schematic gives a sufficiently good approximation of the experimental
? 30_
40
42J
44
46
45_
? 527-]
54-1
5$
'cr's
' STAT
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I ?
LETTER TO THE EDITOR
6 1 by
---1 1
e_1 V.S.VoyutskiY
. .
, ?
P 1 .
-,
1o_..1 :
.1
In an article by A.Ye.Basharinov "Noiseproof Features of a Correlation Method of
-1
12_
_ Reception" (Radiotekhnika No.5, 1956) treating the possibilities of correlation re -
14_i ,
_ ception, the author arrives at a conclusion based on the submitted calculations, that
%
N
"special attention to correlation methods is scarcely justified", since the noise-
IC 1
. proof features of a correlation receiver are not much superior to the noiseproof
2
features of the widely used and well-known receiver with a square-law detector.
22 i
I consider this conclusion incorrect and believe that it puts the readers of
__the magazine on a wrong track with respect to the possibilities of reception by a
_two-channel correlation or autocorrelation receiver.
2C_'
The author assumes that the value of the signal-to-noise ratio at the output
i
N 1
--(77)out characterizes the noiseproof feature of reception. This ratio is determined
3:-....2
- by the relation of the rms value of a fluctuating component az to the variation in
_ the average value of the output voltage, in the presence of a signal AZT
1 i' N a ?I
331 i
\ C out 1
,
;
40_J i
1
-1
Comparing the ratio ( ed
) express by the ratio (4-)in of various correla-
- : out
;
,
__tion receivers with a receiver with a square-law detector, the author finds that an
4,_...;
__improvement of the noiseproof feature in reception by a correlation receiver, as-
- compared with a square-law one (in the noncoherent case) does not exceed (2-, which
is certainly not sufficient and does not prove a tangible advantage of correlation
5o?
- reception.
. 5'.--1
- i
-- However, the noiseproof feature characteristic, as accepted by the author is
- not sufficient to judge the comparative advantages of correlation reception over a
' SI-AT
101
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?
6
-; Actnally, the mean voltage ZT at the output ofthe Cori-elation element7,-during--
.
a sufficiently long obaervation time, does not depend upon the noise intensity, while
.for a square-law detector we have
? 1
12_1
_J
14 I
? 2
-1
square-law reception, since it does nottike-iii66- COnsideiiiiiiim-airliiiitible-leVil-al
. - the noises and of the amplification factor of the device, which is unavoidable under
_ _ _ _.
_
- - actual conditions of reception. Exactly in this lies the error of the author.
;
161 2
where au is the dispersion of the noise voltage at the input. This constitutes an
enormous advantagc of correlation receivers over receivers with square-law detectors:
20_J s
In case of reception under the condition (-7ein u 1, even small changes in.
221
_the noise level at the detector input may lead to very substantial changes in the
24_2
_direct component of the output voltage ZT. These changes are not only comparable
9c 1
.but exceed, in their value, by far the changes in the direct component AZT caused by,
the presence of the signal. Thus, these changes are the reason for distorted recep-
30_1 1
- tion or make the latter impossible. 1
32 i
0/ !
Cation factor of the device, even of a negligible magnitude of the order of 0.1%,
_w-LU cause a change in measurement at the output, corresponding to the limit values
. of the received signals, which will render reception impossible.
40..J
As a substantiation of the above statement, I am enclosing an oscillogram con-
_ taming comparative recordings of a receiver with a square-law detector and of a re-
- ceiver equivalent to a correlation receiver under equal reception conditions at their
_ input, same signals, and same noises. The oscillogram in Fig.1 shows I - Recording
S
For instance, when (-R-)la = 10-3* any change in noise level or in the amplifi-
._Tor marking the instant of appearance of the signal with a continuous background of
50_,
--noises (inherent noise of the device). This instant is marked by an arrow.
? 52-1
_
" - * Such small ratios-( ) -in usually are found in receivers with square-law detectors.;
N
?
7 ed or - instanc e i-in- radio -astronomy.
STATI
?
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3
?????.....???
II - Recording of receiver with a square-law detector. III - Re-Cording of receiver
- I
1 ' f 1. with asynchronous storage, equivalent in its noise-
__ i
: ...... .. _ ._? .
r e?/\./._/\/_____ i . _____________.?____. _
? proof features to a two-channel correlation receilr-;
__. ' ers IV - Recoriiiig.cif time marks.
- 1 - Fig.1 !
The advantages of a receiver equivalent to a
:11correlation receiver are evident, since the latter almost does not react to noise
19.J
(see left side of the oscillogram until the instant of the signal) while at the out-
-.
put of the receiver with a square-law detector, the noise is very intense and a de-
pendable detection of the signal from the background is impossible.
e
According to Basharinov, the noiseproof features of both receivers are approxi-;
10
mately equal; actually, the noiseproof features of the receiver with a square-law de4
,),7
--tector are near zero.
24 I
- 1 REPLY TO THE REMARKS BY V.S.VOYUTSKIY
9c.
' ? 30_- 1
considerations indicating the necessity of taking into account an unstable level of
32_J
noise and of the amplification factor, when determining the noiseproof features. It
3/-_j
_is admitted that the material contained in the article with respect to noiseproof
36_i
_features, does not permit final conclusions as to the relative value of correlation
reception because of the assumed idealized conditions (the signal is represented by
40
__a harmonic function, the noise by a fluctuating stationary process, and parameters
42
of the receiver are stable during the reception).
The letter by V.S.Voyutskiy contests the deductions of the article and contains
No doubt, the conditions may change during actual reception. However, it must
4c_J
be supposed that, in a series of cases, the deductions concerning comparative noise-
- proof features of correlation detectors will be qna1itatively maintained.
50_J
The necessity to discount the unstable amplification factor for a raised sensit-
. 5`)--1:1
--ivity is well known from radio astronomic experience. In this connections compensat+
? _ing and modulating methods of reception were elaborated. The example mentioned br-
S TAT
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?
_
. li.S.Voyutekiy confirms this situation but does not give direct proof of a superiority
of correlation reception over square?law receivers since it does not discount the ?
__
_ _ _
4...2
. effect achieved by using compensating or modulating devices.
6
? A detailed discussion of the mentioned problems goes beyond the scope of this
7 article.
20
2 4 -d
30d
341
36
3 8-
40j
42_1
46_
?
50
54j521
_J
A.Ye.Basharinov
1C4
-
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?
0
_J
9-4 -
4-1
On his 60thAnniversary
6
1
S.A.VEKSHINSKTT
;I - tivities of one of the most famous of Soviet scientists, academician Serggy Arkadlye=
Sixty years elapsed since the birth and 35 years of scientific and technical ac-
Hvich
Vekshinskly.
- slovskiy at the Petrograd Polytechnic Institute, where on orders of the Peoples
j- uissariat of Post and Telegraph amplifying and transmitting electron triodes
ginal design with tungsten cathodes.
S.A.Vekshinskiy started his career in 1920 in the laboratory of Prof. M.M.Bogo-:
Corn-
of on-
In 1922 in Petrograd, under the direction of M.X.Bogoslovekiy and,S.A.Vekshia- !
_ - skiy, the Electrovacuum Plant was organized. In this plant, S.A.Vekshinskiy worked
__until 1928 as
chief engineer. Under his direction, the technology of thoriated tung-
sten Cathodes was worked out and the production of the then popular thoriated cathode
.- tubes (Micro, EDS, UT, and others) was begun.
1925, S.A.Vekshinskiy organized at the plant a vacuum,-chemical research lab-
- oratory
_ screens
In
and, in 1926, designed
for three colors.
1928 the Electrovacuum
low-voltage
cathode oscillographs
with
fluorescent
Plant merged with the electric bulb plant "Svetlana".
S.A.Vekshinskiy became the head of the consolidated research laboratory and carried
out considerable work on organizing pilot workshops and new production lines.
From 1928 to 1933, S.A.Vekshinskiy, with Prof. P.I.Lukirekiky as consultant,
_ directed scientific research on the basic problems in electro -vacuum physics and
technique andpublished a series of important basic articles, both in Soviet and
foreign scientific journals. At the same time, he played a leading role in the set-
^ up and development of electro-vacuum devices in the "Svetlanaa plant.
56
years 1929-32, under the immediate supervision of_S.A.Vekshinskiy4 the _.J
barium cathodes was developed. This permitted the SovsflTAT
105
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?^1116.12.i.
wal????????????????????????????????.???????.
. Union to avoid acquiring a license for manufacturing barium cathodes from
Phil-
ipps Company. At the plant, the development and production of the economical and re
- liable barium receiving and amplifying tubes: UB-l07, UB -110, U8-132 etc. was started.
?
6_2
_In 1934, - the laboratory of the "Svetiana" plant supervised by S.A.Vekshinskiy
was reorganized into the Vacuum Specialty Laboratory, which, while a part of the
10-j
_plant, was basically a scientific and technical center of Soviet electronics.
From 1934 to 1937, S.A.Vekshinskiy- directly supervised the V.S.L. ando.at the
14
_j
same time, did personal research on secondary emission tubes and antimony-cesium pho-
tocathodes. At the same time, he worked out and introduced the production of second7
ary electron multiplier with electrodes in the shape of louvres. Simultaneously he
20!
__directed the work of creating powerful oscillators, cathode-ray tubes, gas-discharge
*_- _rectifiers, and other electro-vacuum devices.
-Ix
From 1937 to 1938, S.A.Vekshinskiy was chief engineer of the "Svetlana" plant. 1
While he worked on the physical chemistry of photocathodes, S.A.Vekshinskiy
__covered in 1939 a new method of alloy study by simultaneous vacuum-deposition of var-
N._.2,
__ious metals and by a subsequent metallographic study of the physical and chemical
'^
3
? prdperties of the prepared systems.
In the last prewar years, S.A.Vekshinskiy created a new laboratory which, during
36_J
__the Great Fatherland War, had been transferred, to Novosibirsk. There he was highly
_active in the organization of electro-vacuum production under difficult wartime con-
40_.!
- ditions. At the same time, he continued his research on physical-chemical systems
42 1
_ and, in 1944, published a monograph: "A neiw Method of Metallogra'phic Study of Alloys".
In 1945, he was awarded the scientific title of doctor of physical and mathemat-
__ical sciences. In 1946, he was elected member-correspondent and, in 1953, active
4
- member of the Academy of Sciences USSR. 1
5C--
In 1946, by order of the government; S.A.Vekshinskiy organized the Central
5
Vacuum Laboratory; this was the beginning of the Scientific Research Vacuum Institute
54 ' I
-in which S.A.Vekshinskiy worked a5 director since its inception In 1947 up to the !
56
STAT
106
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_ present date.
2?'
S.A.Vekshinskiy created a school of Soviet electro-vacuum specialists for _ _ _ _ _ . __
,
in-
dustrial and of laboratory use. I
0
6 1 1
. In consideration of the services of S.A.Vekshinskiy in science and vacuum te-ai-Z!
p - 1
1 .:nology and on the occasion of his 60th anniversary, the Presidium of the Supreme
Soviet of USSR granted him the title of Hero of Socialistic Labor and awarded him the
1.1_j
order of Lenin and the gold medal: "Hammer and Sickle".
The Soviet radiotechnical community, marking the anniversary of S.A.Vekshinskiy
16 --4
_wishes him good health and a fruitful activity for the best of our country.
1-1.
2O
12
24 ___
26_,
2311
30
39
34
36R
38-1
40.J
42_1
40
45
? 48
Si
59
54
?
STAT
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?j
n
6 1
A.A.PISTOL'KORS I
At his 60th Anniversary
The scientific and technical community marked the 60th anniversary and 30 years,
of scientific activity of the Gold medal imeni A.S.Popov, laureate member-correspon-
-
-
_1
1- _dent of the Academy of SciencesUSSR, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Pistol'kors, one of
the great specialists in radiation, receiving and channeling.of electromagnetic 08-
- 1
1- ,cillations.
The scientific activity of Aleksandr Aleksandrovich began at the time of. broad
-i i
, --dissemination of radio communications and 'radiophone on short and medium waves. His
.books and papers devoted to calculating methods for the mutual interference of oscil-
lators, complex short-Agave and medium wave antennas, and antennas composed of linear
, oscillators for other bands became widely known and helped to create a comprehensive
- - method of analysis and engineering calculations for multiple unit antennas.
_J ?
The work by A.A.Pistoltkors on the theory of receiving leads had great theoret-
ical and practical importance. His work on the theory of coupled assymmetric cir-
- cuits permitted determination of the current distribution at the input resistance of
-?
?
_j
assymmetric circuits, and creation of engineering methods for calculating assymmetric
31- antennas - loop vibrators, antennas with upper and with shunted feed, etc.
,
A.A.Pistol'kors and his students elaborated design problems of antennas with a
!_prescribed radiation pattern.
1.:_._ Beginning in 1944, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich published a series of works on the
1
theory of slot antennas. ,
1
i 1
,
In recent years, under the direction of Aleksandr Aleksandrovich a.seriea of
1
--.4
important projects were successfully launched for creating rectifier devices with
-4 15.1--ferrite inserts.
--1 .
54_ _ __The_ab'ove-mentioned_work does not cover the entire volume_of_theoretical,studiei
i 1
r
ch. Special mention must be made of_his._very.important_work,
SIWT
-
168
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devoted to the-determination of paraMeters-arlioriiontl-leifi;-176ca6d-liai-the-iaR,
A.A.Pistolikors is not only a theoretician of high calibre but also a talented
6
inventor. He proposed widely -Used antennas and measuring deviceii-the loop-iii5ratbri
. face of the earth.
the horizontal V-antenna; measuring devices for the traveling-wave ratio, reflecto-
10-1
meter, developed together with M.S.Neyman, and others.
12-1
. During the period 19306-50,.A.A.Pistolikors carried out extensive pedagogical
14
work at the Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute, Leningrad and Moscow Electrotechni7
16_1
cal Institutes for Communications. Aleksandr Aleksandrovich has written several
18_1
books on the theory and technique of antenna arrays, including the textbook "Antennae"
which is widely used in electrotechnical colleges..
qr,
is carrying out considerable and fruitful work, coordinating
A.A.Pistol'kors
24-j
__scientific studies covering antenna designs and lines for transmitting high frequency
26
__power.
98 i
__
The editorial staff of the journel "Radiotekhnika" wishes Aleksandr Aleksandro-
4 30_1
__vich Pistollkors good health and further success in his fruitful work.
32_J
3
36-1
3a_j
40-1
42
44
467.2.]
50
?
5.!
1
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-J _.tasn..saaauInc?. ? .-a- 4.?
0
I
NEW BOOKS
Eg..__Calculation ofElectromagnetic Relays_for_Automation Devices
_ _
L.. and for Communications. Gosenergoizdat, Moscow-Leningrad 1956, 464 pages, price .
:7 _- 14 r 50 k
J. Z.
- The book is devoted to theoretical questions and to the calculation of electro-;
magnetic relays for DC and AC in automation devices and communications. Analytical
.._
.- and graphic-analytical methods for calculation of electromagnetic relays are reviewed,
1,_j- their construction is described, and experimental data are given on basic types of
__- relays for automation and communication. The book is intended for engineers and
_j
technicians making calculations and designing relays and electromagnetic mechanisms,
:
as well as for students of electrotechnical colleges and corresponding departments.
M.P.Kaplanov and V.A.Levin. Automatic Frequency Control. Second Edition, re-
lc
_vised, Gosenergoizdat, Moscow-Leningrad 1956, 200 pages, price 11 r 50 k
Sn_J
Various types of automatic frequency control systems as used in radio technical
3L--
__devices are described and classified. The calculation formulas given in the book
34_1
_.can be used for designing devices with automatic frequency regulation. The book is
36_2
intended for radio specialists and for students of higher courses in universities.
Developments in Electro-Vacuum Technique. Edited by Prof. G.A.Tyagunov. Gosen-
__
_ ergoizdat, Moscow-Leningrad, 1956, 256 pages, price 10 r 25 k
-7
A collection of articles dedicated to a description of types, calculation
methods, properties and physical effects in certain new types of electro-vacuum de-
- vices (stabilitrons, gas-discharge tubes for ultrahigh frequencies, electron-beam
EC?devices, etc.).
The collection is for students and teachers in universities, training special-- .
ists in electro-vacuum physics and techniques_and_for scientific_wOrkers of the 1
--electrb-vacuum_industry
SI-AT
110
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'
._..__.
F.V.Mayorov. Electronic Regulators. Gosenergoizdat, Mbscow, 1956, 492 pages
q__
price 14 r 20 k.
Elements and assemblies of electronic regulators for continuous and intermittent
_action are reviewed, including practical schematics for electronic regulators.
2?j
The book is intended for engineers and technical workers whose specialty is aut-
10
bmatic regulation.
12
1 _
.
i:__Designing Electric Equipment. Technology of Conductor Parts and of Magnetic Circuits.
::__Moscow?Leningrad, Gosenergoizdat, 1956, 313 pages, price 7 r 85 k.
-7
Special features of building electric equipment, problems of design, and tech-
-,
2:_nology are reviewed.
P.V.Sakharov. Technology of Designing Electric Equipment. Part I: Features of '
-A -
The book can serve as an aid for students at colleges and technical schools,
1
2: __also for instructors, engineers and technicians specializing in building electric
36
5E
6C
STAT
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