ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF HERALD OF ANTIAIRCRAFT DEFENSE, ISSUE NO. 2

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80T00246A069000240001-9
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 67
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 19, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: August 1, 1963
• Content Type: REPORT

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18. IIB.C. Be". 793 and 794, the transmission or revelation of which in any manner to an unauthorized person Is prohibited 50X1-HUM
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SUBJECT English Translation of Herald of
Antiaircraft Defense, Issue No. 2
DATE OF
INFO.
PLACE &
DATE AC
REPORT
DATE DISTR.
NO. PAGES
REFERENCESI
1. An English translation of Issue No. 2, February 1963, of the
Soviet publication Vestnik Protivovozdushnoy Oborony /Herald 50X1-HUM
of Antiaircraft Defense , JSu is e by the MITI
Mns
,rnw Ministry -nre
House of the
2. In some cases, the articles were translated in their entirety:
in other cases the were summari ed
Distribution of Attachments for Retention:
0O/FDD:
OSI:
ORR:
CC-I:
FTD:
'J-~SAC-
i
Arm,
Army/FSTC:
DIA:
Navy:
Navy/STIC:
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NSA ocq
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Vestnik Protivovozdushnoy Oborony, No 2.. February 1963
Editorial
I. G. PUNTUS.
Guarding the Peaceful Labor of the Soviet
People
The Historical Victory on the Volga
According to the laws of Life
We Train Soldiers in Combat Traditions
Here Is An Example To Be Followed
Combat Training
-- Absolute Fulfillment of the Combat Training
Plan
-- Tactical Training of Officers of Radiotechnical
Troops.
A. A..D'YACHEIlICO -- The Oscillation of an Airplane and Ways of
Preventing It
-- Combat Employment of Air-to-Air Missiles
Equipment and Its Use
A Rating Is an Indication of an Officer's Combat Maturity
G.N. SKORODUMOV
D. P. OGLOBLIN
--. Maintenance of Antenna Mast Equipment Under
Conditions of the Far North
-- The Effect of Usage Factors on Hydraulic Booster
Operation
29
Yu. V. ANOSOV
Negative Feedback and Its Use in Electron Amplifiers
29
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tvo roreign v ssem
N. P. KHARITONOV -- Relay Regulator Adjustment
I. X. KRASNYY -- This Is How We Teach Radar Set Tuning to,
Officer Candidates
Innovations and Inventions
Ye. I. RUMYANTSEV and G. I. VASIL'YEV -- Loudspeaker Adapter
V. *T. ZAVIDrCEV -- Crossover Box
K. I. KONONENKO
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51.
55
and V. S.ZABEI -- The Employment of Plasma for Detection 55
Reviews and Bibliography
V. N. MATAKOV Concerning Fearless and Brave People 62
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S Q rvreigu uJ.setem
In Chasti and Podrazdeleniye of Our Troops
Transferable Banner Award -- by V. M. Alekseyev (Page 2)
Abstract:
This brief article reports on the awarding of an oblast Komsomol
Abstract:
This brief article reports outstanding achievements of a radar chast',
Innovators' Conference -- by V. N. FROLAV (Page 2)
Abstract:
This brief article reports on a conference of innovatc-s and inven-
Officer PSBENICBNYY.
The Sum Total of Fine Initiative -- by V. A. VIKTOROV (Page 2)
tors, which was held at the Minsk Higher Radiotechnical Engineering
School.
An Example for All -- by N. Ya. KOMAROV (Page 2)
Abstract:
This brief article reports that the podrazdeleniye, commanded by
CaptA. ZUURBIIAV, has been designated "outstanding" for the fourth year
in a. row and has been awarded a transferable pennant for successes in
training. r captioned photograph by I. SAVIIJ, which showed Capt ZHOIt$IIAV
discussing a line diagram with a. subordinate, accompanied the article
Guarding the Peaceful Labor of the Soviet People -- Editorial (Pages 3-6)
Abstract:
This. editorial, which for the most part is historical in content,
states the need for combat readiness and combat capability to be maintained.
No Foreign Dissem
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The Historical Victory on the' Volga -- by Lt Gen Avn I. O. P012US
(Pages 7 - 11)
Abstract:
This.historicil article relates events and battles of the Defense
of Stalingrad in World War ii. The article is accompanied by a captioned
photograph of Col P. SHAVtRIN by V. RAYKOV on page 8, and on page U by
a captioned photograph of Lt. V. GOLOVATYY, which is dated 1942-
Party Political Work and Military Training
According to the Laws of Life -- by Col I. V. KUZNETSOV (Pages 12 - 15)
Abstract:
This article relates and discusses ingiovements in aircraft main.
tenance initiated by Engr-Capt,MARCHENKO in a technical operations chest''.
t captioned photograph by photo correspondent V. TALAflTh on page
15 shows military personnel of a podrazdeleniye meeting with two factory
workers, who took part in the November CPSU Plen j
Ti. Train Soldiers in Combat Traditio
--'b
Ca
t
V
M
TUMALARYAN
ns
y
p
.
.
.
Abstract:.
This article states the necessity for training soldiers in the his-
tory of their country and in the revolutionary and combat traditions of
the Communist Party; and discusses methods of carrying out this training.
LA captioned photograph by I. SEREGIN on page 17 shows Officer Ye.
PERFILOV talking to young soldiers about World War II. A captioned
photograph by K. FEDULOV on page 20, shows Lt V.PETRENKO, secretary of
a podrazdeleniye party organization, talking with Pfcs A. SKUBAS and N.
BOCHARNIKOV, both candidate-members of the CPSUj
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Chronicle of Komsomol Life (Page 19) 50X1 -H U M
Abstract:
This series of five brief items presents examples of Komsomol train-
ing achievements and pledges. One item identifies Sr It NOZDRIN as the
head of a Komsomol organization in the Moscow PVO District.
Here Is An Ex=)le To Be Followed -- by Lt Col A. B. SOLOV'YEV (Pages
21 - 24)
Abstract:
This article relates how a shortage in personnel vas overcome in the
radar company commanded by Capt SEYRANYAN when the personnel of the com-
1A captioned photograph by S. ZAKHAROV on page 22 shows Sr It S.
DWOCIMA and Sr Sgt V. TISHCF UCO, operator first class, checking an
antenna and a wavegaide_]
circles, lectures, technical evening meetings, and a technical newspaper.
pany trained for job interchangeability. The personnel trained in con-
tiguous specialities by initiating a planned training Program, study
Combat Training
Absolute Fulfillment of the Combat Training Plan -- by Army' Gen P. F.
BATI'1'SXIY (pages 25 - 29)
Abstract:
This article emphasizes the importance of combat and political train-
ing, its planning, preparation, execution, and evaluation.
LA captioned photograph by K. KONSTAN INOV on page 299 shows Capt
N. KALIlV, radar company commander, and Lt A. KODflOV, who is KALm's deputy
for political affairs, working out a training schedule
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Tactical Training of Officers of Radiotechnical Troops -- by Engr-Co,
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Ye. I. GORBACH (Pages 30 - 33)
.Abstract:
This article attacks the idea that it is sufficient for radiotech-
nical officers to know only how to service equipment., and discusses the
needs and methods for tactical training of radiotechnical officers.
? Searchers -- by Mai Ye. K. STEPANOV (Pages 32 - 33)
Abstract:
This brief article describes equipment innovations which were
developed by personnel in a radar company commanded by Capt MALAKUOV.
LThe article is accompanied on page 33 by a photograph which shows Lt
I. LE MEV working out an.innovation suggestion
The Oscillation of an Airplane and Ways of Preventing It -- by Engr-Lt
Col A. A. D'YACHENICO, Candidate of Technical Sciences (Pages 34 - 37)
The oscillation 5aska h1 7 of an airplane is its involuntary osci-
nation in.respect to its angle of pitch (longitudinal oscillation) and
its angles of roll and yaw (lateral oscillation) in the process of pre-
cision, piloting. Longitudinal and lateral oscillation of an airplane may
appear jointly or separately. Their simultaneous appearance is possible
during flights at high altitudes. During flights at low and medium alti-
.tudes lateral oscillation does not usually appear, but longitudinal oscil-
lation may occur during the execution of precision maneuvers at flying
speeds approaching the speed of sound.
It should be noted that the probability of the appearance of longi-
tudinal oscillation at low and medium altitudes is especially great in
fighter planes with non-reversible booster controls and in those, which
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are not equipped with devices for the automatic regulation of stick
force. in these airplanes stick force is produced. a artificially with
the aid of a simple spring mechanism and therefore changes only in
relation to the travel of the stick. At speeds below Mach 1 an increase
in flying speed facilitates the manual control of the plane, which lovers
the piloting accuracy, one of the factors needed for the appearance of
longitudinal and lateral oscillation of an airplane.
Flying theory and practice show that the oscillation of an airplane
during inaccurate piloting occurs only in those flight conditions (maneu-
vers) during.which the angles of attack, yaw, and roll, in the initial
moment following a deviation of the controls, fluctuates according to
the law of fluctuation 5D kolebatel'nomu zakong, so that their period
of fluctuation T is between 1-2 seconds. If that period is less than
1 second or greater than two seconds, piloting inaccuracy does not usually
result in the oscillation of the airplane.
The question arises: why does piloting inaccuracy result in oscilla-
tion only when the period. of a plane's fluctuation is between 1-2 seconds?
In order to answer this question it is necessary to examine schematically
the process of controlling an airplane. While flying, a pilot controls
the accuracy of his maneuvers by means of, variations in the linear and
angular dimensions characteristic of a plane's motion. Thus, during
high altitude flights, pilotage, etc., the movement of the plane is con-
trolled mainly by variations of the angles of pitch, roll, and yaw. The
disparity between the regrired and actual variations of these angular
dimensions is eliminated by manipulating the controls. Let us ewe
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how this process occurs with respect to control of the angle of pit&h-
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Suppose that in reference flight conditions a plane is flying with
an angle of pitch '9 ;(figures 1 and 2). Flying conditions require
that the plane transfer to a different angle of pitchc"9rer . Before
doing this the pilot visually determines the difference between j" vs
He then ascertains the amount of elevator deflection needed to transfer
the plane to a new angle of pitch in a given period of time. The pilot
next makes the necessary elevator adjustment and the plane begins to
change its angle of pitch as shown in the curve ABCD in Figures 1 and 2.
It can be seen that following the deflection of the eievator.. the plane's
angle of pitchJU.^changes according to the law of fluctuation with
periods of fluctuation T1 1 second (see figure 1) and T2 n 2.5 seconds
(see figure 2). Following the deflection of the elevator in the process
of elevator (T 1 sec.). s
a'.. o --
J.-reouired
,YCI
t t
0 0,5 to rt 2,0 23 3.0 t,cem
Figure 2. Change in. an airplane' s. angle of pitch following deflection
of elevator (t 2.5 sec.) 6
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of precision piloting, the pilot carefully watches the chantte in the
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angle of pitch (in-Me case being considered) and notes not only the,
difference between the actual and required values of the angle of pitch
Or= lya ;4 , but also the speed of its change (in figures 1 and 2 the
speed of change in the actual angle of pitch may be represented by the
slope of curve ABC). Therefore, when a certain period of time t1 has
passed since the beginning of the. change in the actual angle of pitch,
the pilot again notices the necessity of correcting the elevator deflec-
tion in order to check the increase in the actual angle of pitch. &C4 .9
and proceeds to make the necessary correction.
in view of the fact that there is a certain delay in the reactions
of the plane and pilot from the moment the pilot notices the necessity
of correcting the original elevator deflection (point B in figures 1
and 2) until the moment the change in the angle of pitch begins under
the influence of that correction (point C in figures 1 and 2), there
elapses a certain period of time which is called the total time lag
do the reactions of the pilot and plane.
Let us assume that length of time is 0.4 seconds. .In this case the
pilot's correction of the elevator deflection results in a disproportionate
effect. In the case of a change in the angle of pitch according to the
law of fluctuation with the period T1 n 1 sec., this correction is accom-
panied by an increase in the amplitude of fluctuation of the angle of,
pitch.(curve CE in figure 1), i. e. the oscillation of the plane. ' If the
* The size of a- in a given situation may characterize the piloting accuracy
in respect to the angle of pitch.
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inherent characteristics of the plane are such that the period of
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fluctuation of the angle of pitch is equal to or greater than 2.5
seconds, correction of the original elevator deflection when '--C 0.4
seconds results in a decrease in the amplitude of fluctuation and,
consequently, an increase in the piloting accuracy (curve CE in figure 2
From figure 1 it may be seen that the intensity of longitudinal
oscillation of an airplane depends on the length total time lag in
the reactions of the pilot and plane on the period (T) of the
fluctuation of the angle of pitch, and also on the ability of the
pilot to execute a, given precision maneuver. In figure 1, the pilot's
skill may be characterized by the amount of time tl and the degree of
variation.in the angle of pitch cYC - In the moment of time tl.
An insufficiently trained pilot will notice the necessity of correcting
the original elevator deflection later than an experienced pilot. This
means that, is the case of a plane piloted by an inexperienced pilot, point
B.on the curve ABCD will be located to the right of that for a plane piloted
.by an experienced pilot in figure 1..
The total time lag of the pilot and airplane t= a [ depends
in turn on the pilot's training, his physiological make-up, the flying
conditions, and also on the aerodynamic characteristics of the plane and
its control system. Frot^figares 1 and 2 it can be seen that in order
to raise the piloting accuracy of a plane it is desirable to reduce the
total time lag of pilot and plane. Pilots better trained in the execution
of a given precision manuever have a smaller time lag in reaction to a
variation than pilots who are not as well trained. On the average, the
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period varies in length from 0.4-0.8 seconds; therefor- **~ ^=^i1-
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lation of a plane in flight appears during a period of rapid fluctuation
of 1-2 seconds.
The size of this period of rapid fluctuation depends on the aerody-
namic composition of the airplane and on the flying conditions. Mathema-
tically this may be expressed as follows:
K -- coefficient of proportionality (Its size depends on the com-
position of the plane and the Mach number of flight, and for a specific
plane, only on the mach number);
where
-- coordinate of longitudinal focal point of an airplane in
units of a mean aerodynamic chord. (It changes during the
transition from subsonic to supersonic speeds);
xj - U -- coordinate of plane's center of gravity in units of a mean
aerodynamic chord.
-- dynamic head
1-?
From the formula it can be seen that a pilot can change the period
of fluctuation of a plane's angle of pitch by changing the amount of
dynamic head, i.e. by changing the instrument flying speed. This means
that if the pilot finds his plane in a state of oscillation, he can
eliminate longitudinal oscillation by changing his instrument flying
speed. The formula may also be used for determining, on the ground, fly-
ing conditions. under which longitudinal oscillation is possible.
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Calculations show that certain fighter planes which have smalkX1 -HUM
gins of overload stability at subsonic flying speeds have a period of
rapid, fluctuation in the angle of pitch T = 1-2 seconds at :Low and medium
altitudes when the Mach numbers 0.7-0.85.. A further increase in the Mach
number of flight. while flying at a constant altitude decreases T to less
than 1 second because, it increases the dynamic head and the overload sta-
bility, which is characterized by '~-r . With low values of T (less.
than 1 second) a pilot is not in a position to react to each fluctuation
in the angle of pitch. He visually estimates the angle of pitch by
averaging the fluctuations and then flys the plane as he would under
normal conditions.
These planes can also have a T value of 1-2 seconds during high
altitude flights at supersonic speeds. The distinguishing characteris-
tic in the oscillation of an airplane during high-altitude flights is
the large amplitude of the plane's oscillation. Let us point out that
during high-altitude flights planes which are not equipped with semi-
automatic (or automatic) devices have low damping and, consequently,
a small decrement of dewing. Therefore, following a deviation in the
controls, these planes experience a prolonged period of fluctuation.
Figure 3 shows the effect of the size of decrement of damping
on the change in a plane's actual angle of pitch following deflection
of the elevator. It can be seen that a decrease in t substantially,
impairs the plane's re action to the deflection of the elevator: This
reaction at high altitudes (with a small. ).increases its tendency
toward oscillation. From the drawing it can be seen that for 1 the
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angle of pitch varies according to an aerodynamic law,.i.A fi+I&t++Ations
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disappear and the plane's tendency toward oscillation also disappears.
Figure 3. Effect of the size of the damping decrement on the change
in. a plane's angle of pitch following deflection of the elevator.
The preceding statement would be completely accurate if the pilot
could accurately determine and execute the required control adjustments
during the transition from to with a limited time. In flying,
mistakes in controlling a plane always occur. As shown in figure 1, it
is possible to graphically and analytically show that mistakes in mani-
pulating the controls increase a plane's tendency to oscillate, even
with relatively good damping ( V 0.7) of its angular movement.
The size of the error in manipulating the controls depends on both
the pilot and the plane. In planes with excessively light and sensitive
controls requiring small changes for piloting and little force on the
stick and pedals as well as small balancing deviations of the latter
(i. e. with a small margin of static stability, high control effective-
ness and a small gradient of force in stick travel and pedal control),
the relative error in 'measuring out" the required deviation of the con-
trols is much greater than in planes with normal control characteristics.
An increase in friction and play in the control system Also increases the
3.1
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relative error in "measuring out" the required deviation of the controls
owing to deterioration in the centering. ability of the stick and pedals
and the appearance of."free movement" in them called the zone of insensi-
tivity:
From what has been said., it is possible to make the observation that
at the basis of a plane's oscillation lies a short period of characteristic
rapid fluctuation and a relatively large time lag in the reactions of the
pilot and plane. A decrease in the decrement of damping the angular move-
ment of a plane (a decrease in its damping properties) and an increase in
the relative error in `measuring out" the required deviation of the controls
strengthens the plane's tendency toward oscillation.
Let us examine the work of a pilot while flying in the state of
fluctuation or near it. If for some reason the plane enters the state
of fluctuation it is necessary to counter each individual fluctuation
of the airplane for this only makes the piloting worse. It is necessary
to fix the organs of control in a position which will facilitate the trans-
ition of the plane to another instrument flying speed. If the pilot
discovers that at speeds approaching that of sound and at low altitudes
the controls become excessively free even though the plane is still
controllable, it is necessary to slow down to a safe speed, smoothly
taking the plane into a climb, but, in no case permitting air braking.
In doing this the pilot must avoid abrupt deceleration or a sudden
movement of the controls, I. e. any movement which would result in a
disturbance of the plane's balance. While flying at high altitudes and
speeds at which the period of a plane's rapid movement is greater than
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in the state of oscillation, it is possible to damp the fluctuation of the
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angles of pitch, roll, and yaw by vigorous movements of the controls
(see figure 2). This means, in part, that to ensure more or less
accurate piloting of a plane at high altitudes the pilot must work
harder (i. e. more frequently adjust the controls), which is desireable.
and raise the level of combat training.
A good understanding by flight crews of the causes and nature of
oscillation of a fighter plane, and also the means. of preventing it,
will promote the further improvement in the mastery of aviation equipment
jA photograph of Capt. S. CHERNEGA, a CCI controller, and Capt. A.
ZAIKO, a navigator, appears on page 337.
Bravery and Skill -- Capt. M.A. YSFIMOV (Page 38)
Abstract:
This brief article describes how Capt Yu. KOLESOV, pilot first class
and flight commander, was able to safely land his jet fighter aircraft
by restarting the engine of the air craft several times after a malfunction
had caused engine temperatures to increase to a critical level. 1A photo-
graph of KOIESOV by A. KOZOBROD accompanied the article]
Programmed Teaching with Special Machines -- by Ma. Gen Arty T.I.
ROSTUNOV (Pages 39-43)
Text:
The Communist Party is greatly concerned with the training of highly
qualified officers. This concern is explained best when it is considered
that to conduct contemporary combat operations, which require complex com-
bat equipment and weapons, demands a great amount of knowledge, skill, and
experience. This was pointed out by N. S. KHRUSHCSEP at the Kremlin
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A T ? Tl _
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reception for military academy graduates on 5 July 1962. At this meeting,
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the head of the Soviet government presented an assignment to the workers
of higher military educational institutions - to perfect training methods
and to employ the latest technical advances in this matter.
The rapid progress of science and military technology has aggravated
h in
olume
]mo
le
the
e
i
h
6wont
uve
w
ick exists between
of
g
,
on
bile coot odic
which is necessary to a military specialist, and the possibility of master-
ing this required knowledge within an. established amount of training time.
The present system of training by means of lectures cannot resolve this
.contradiction. Therefore, an acute necessity has arisen to change over
to essentially new trainer methods, which include the best of what has
been learned through training experience and yet would make possible far-
reaching advances in the training of military specialists, allow considera-
tion of the latest scientific achievements, and conform to, or even shorten,
the amount of time presently required for training.
The principal shortcoming of the present training method is that it
is basically active in respect to the lecturer, but passive in respect
to the student. In other words, there is no full measure of responsive
communication in the training process. Also, after he has delivered the
lecture material, the instructor does not immediately receive any knowledge
concerning how much of the material has been mastered by the students. As
a rule, the instructor obtains this information over large spans of time -
by questioning 2 or 3 students during a lecture period, during laboratory
sessions, and from semester examinations when final, evaluations concerning
subject mastery are made.
14 (a)
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This sort of information does not allow any judgements to be .?a? ?~^^+
50X1-HUM
the level of subject knowledge of any one student during the training cycle,
nor does it allow for corrective interference with the training process.
Fi nally, as a consequence of all this, the instructor proceeds 'blindly"
through the training process and required training results are not achieved.
A serious shortcoming of present training methods is the absence of
individual training aids. It is well known that lectures and other similsr
methods of training are not differentiated, either in content or in form,
in conformance with the knowledge and perceptive ability of different
groups of learners. Also,, one student group may range from the outstanding.
to the. weak.: Again, present training methods do not allow for the organiza-
tion of differentiated training. As a consequence of this, the most
capable students do not work at full capacity throughout their courses
of study in a higher military educational institution and less capable
students fall behind.
Also, technical training aicl; which are currently employed, offer no
possibility for systematic and objective checking of student progress, nor
do they allow the student to check his progress during independent work
periods. In the absence of any self-checking process, the student frequently
goes to testsand examination without being sure of the strength of his
knowledge in any single subject.
Another problem appears when the work of individual students is con-
sidered. Of course, command and professorial staffs, and Komsomol and
party organizations pay much attention to this problem, but we cannot
say with any validity how well an individual student independently masters
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his assigned. material. A reason for this is that some students study
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listlessly during the semester and then attempt to make up for lost time
by cramming for examinations. As a result, many of them enter examinations
with only a superficial knowledge of subject matter.
A major shortcoming of current training methods is that conducting
examinations, quizzing students on laboratory work, and correcting home-.
work require a great deal of unproductive time. Is it not possible to
automate this process? Of course, it is. However, up to now, a logical
mathem atical-teaching theory and optimal methods of checking training have
not been worked out. Statistical data, based on systematic and objective
investigations and on evaluation of student progress are necessary for
such a study.
Some shortcomings of teaching literature should also be pointed out.
Contemporary text books, manuals, and monographs are too voluminous and
contain much information, which, although it is applicable, is superfluous
for students. In order to help students to gain understanding of subject
matter, instructors spend a large amount of time composing and delivering
lectures on themes which are already in the textbook.
Also, it is impossible to remain silent concerning the fact that teach-
ing plans for course study and for the conducting of separate activities
in higher military educational institutions, until now, have been built
on insufficient scientific bases. As a result, individual questions are
scattered about in different course, which creates parallelism in the
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A finding of an analysis of teaching processes and their results at the Kiev
50X1-HUM
Higher Engineering Radiotechnical School [KVIRTU) was that it is necessary to
change over to a programmed method of teaching with maximum use of teaching
machines for successful resolution of the crucial tasks which are presently
before higher military educational institutions. It is understood that this
given method evinces no change in the subject content of any course, but of the
actual program of the teaching process. Thus. the most rational sequence of course
study and of checking questions and assignments is determined; the teaching
process is enlivened; and simultaneous checking of mastery of material by instruc-
tors (external responsive communication) and by the students, themselves (internal
responsive communication), is allowed. In the opinion of the professorial staffs
of many higher military educational instutions, such a method of teaching will
largely eliminate the shortcomings of present teaching methods, increase
productivity of learning activity, and shorten the time required for learning'.
The essence and content of programmed teaching, using teaching machines, are
as follows:
The subject matter: of a course is presented in parts in order that each
student.can have his progress evaluated in an individual. manner after he has
completed each part. This segmented presentation should be done by meant of an
algorithm, which, according to subject matter, should indicate a firm, scientif-
ically founded order for a logical,~sequential presentation of theme and, then,
of the course. This sequence separates subject matter for its most expedient
mastery. The teaching sequence must also indicate the relation between courses.
Much has, already been done in our school toward changing over to programmed
teaching. Teaching algorithms have been composed for individual courses. In
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a need for a general. algorithm to teach students of a single profile. It
50X1-HUM
seems to us that such a general algorithm can be programed and checked
by electronic ccn U.,,Uout
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 50X1-HUM
A skelton amplifier circuit with negative feedback is shown in figure
2a. Here K is the coeffiecient of amplification of an amplifier without
negative feedback; Uin is input voltage; Uout is voltage at the output;
U is negative feedback voltage; and B is the feedback coefficient
oc
U
oc
Uout
,it is apparent that the voltage Uk = Uin - co will be supplied
directly to the amplifier input. In its turn
Uout
Uin - oc ,
or U o u t = k.: II n - k . Uoc-
Substituting, in place of Uoc a value, equal. to B . Uout, we
derive that U t=k. Uin - k.B. Ufor
k
oc=1+Bk , (3)
vc
feedback.
This foramila results from the earlier introduced general formula (1).
If it is accepted that x(t) = Uin, an y(t) . Uout, and this expression is
Uout
placed in formulat (1); replacing U by.koc, we derive formula'(3):.
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i I
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no roreign J lssem
It is completely evident that with kB greater than 1, formula (3) +Alesn
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the aspect 1
k00 n. B . (4F)
It is evident from formula (4) that amplification by an amplifier
with negative feedback (when kB is greater than 1) does not depend on
the properties of the amplifier itself and, consequently, a change in the
amplification coefficient k does not evoke a change in koc (within definite
limits, of course). Thus amplification by an amplifier with negative feed-
back depends only on the feedback circuit. Since there are no tubes, feed
sources, or other elements for elimination of resistance in this circuit,
such an amplification with negative feedback is completely stable.
The physical influence of negative feedback might be explained as
follows: with reduction of amplifier amplification, voltage at the out-
put is decreased and, consequently, there is a reduction in voltage oc.
As a consequence of this,voltage 1k at the amplifier input begins to
increase, evoking an increase of output voltage which compensates for the
drop in amplification. Negative feedback is correspondingly self control-
ling with an increase in amplification. But it mnst.not be forgotten .
that it is self controlling in a.similar manner only when Bk is greater
than 1. Practically, this condition is not difficult to fulfill, since
the coefficient of a cascade amplification of contemporary tubes lies
within the limits of several hundred or even thousand. Consequently,. the
intensity of B might lie within limits of 0.05 to 0.2. Since k00 is
1 .
approximately equal t6'-B, then it is evident that a large value for B
is disadvantageously taken from a reduction in amplification.
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 .a n n I . u m n n i
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LIV i?VL J,bM V400 M
Negative feedback also improves other characteristics of an amplifier
5OX1-HUM
and is used: for increasing amplifier stability; for achieving a required
amplifier input or output resistance when necessary; for decreasing
extraneous amplification due to source feed pulsation, temperature change,
magnetic field influence, etc.
The shortcomings of a circuit with negative feedback are: the
amplifier amplification is decreased by 1 + Bk times as is seen from
formula (3); the amplification circuit and its adjustment are complicated;
and there is a possibility in some cases of parasitic generations being
formed, especially with an incorrect choice of a circuit and its elements.
When a negative feedback circuit is connected with a part of an
amplifier circuit, a closed circuit is formed, which is called a feedback
loop. The intensity of Bk is called the loop gain (sometimes, it is
U U
called the feedback factor). Since B = oc , and k = out , then
U Uk
out
Uoc , whereupon Uk conforms to voltage at the Uk loop.input, and
Uk
out oc and as combined or composite when Uoc is proportional to U and I
out . out
A negative feedback circuit is shown in figure 2a according to voltage,'
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Uoc to its output. Finally, the intensity A = 1 + Bk is called negative
feedback depth indicates the, amount of reduction in amplification of an
amplifier with feedback.
Classification of negative feedback, methods of obtaining It, and
standard circuits. According to the method of achieving negative feedback,
it is subdivided: according to voltage when the intensity of U is pro-
oc
protional to U ; according to current when U is proportional to 1.,4.;
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110 xvrelgu Ulssem F
and in figure 2b according to current.
50X1-HUM
Negative feedback, according to the method of input supply, is in
series when Uin and Uoc are introduced to the circuit in series (figure 2a),
in parallel when these voltages are supplied in parallel (figure 2b),
or composite (sometimes bridge according to input) when the voltage
connection is combined in series and in parallel.
In some comparatively complex circuits, it is not east to determine
the aspect of negative feedback. In order to determine the method of
obtaining feedback, it is necessary to first mentally short-circuit
the load, and then to break this circuit. To determine the means of
supplying negative feedback to the input, it is necessary to first
mentally short-circuit the input of the alternating electromotive source,.
and then to out it off. According to the presence or the absence of Uoc,
the circuit is visualized by. using the following table.
Determination of Negative Feedback
by Derivation of Uoc
by Supplying Uoc.to Input
Negative
Feedback
Short-
circuit
Cut Of
Short-
circuit
,by Voltage
by Current
Composite
No Uoc
Uoc
We
Uoc
No Uoc
Uoc
Series'
Parallel
Composite
Uoc
To Uoc
hoc
No We
Uoc
UOC .
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 .1 i ea r A .I
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INC .LUrcibLa L18DCJU .
An amplifier might have one or several negative feedback loops.
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.l'
if there is one loop, the connection is called single loop; it were
are several, it is called multiloop. Depending upon whether one loop
includes another or not, they are called dependent or independent.
Finally, loops, which encompass individual amplifier steps., are called
individual or local negative feedback loops.
A few circuits for the derivation and supply of negative feedback
in. amplifier cascades are shown in figure 3.. For simplicity in the
illustration, some circuit elements, which have no part in the operation,
are omitted. Figure 3a is a circuit for derivation of negative feedback
according to voltage with a potentiometer (divider) Fl 2. Voltage Uoc is
precipitated to resistance R2 and supplied in series to the input. This
feedback is called in series according to voltage.. Capacitor C is a
separating capacitor. Its magnitude must be sufficiently large. Feed-
back in series according to voltage is also shown in,figure 3b. Here,
Uoc is removed from the auxiliary winding of the output transformer.
Negative feedback according to voltabe is also shown in figure 3b.
Here, Doc is removed from the auxiliary winding of the output transformer.
Negative feedback according to voltage is shown in figure 3c, but in this
circuit it is supplied in parallel. The separating capacitor C must not
generate a frequency dependence, therefore its capacity must be compara-
tively large. The magnitude of Uoc depends. on the magnitude of R.
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Figure 3.
The feedback circuit can supply fleedbackJ to the first tube anode
or to the second tube control grid. With this, it is necessary to remember
that the tube changes the phase of supplied voltage by 180 degrees. There-
fore, negative feedback is shown in figure 3c. If this communication dis.
seminates to two cascades, a phase shift of 360 degrees is obtained and
an example of positive feedback will be observed. In order to avoid this,
it is necessary to change the phase, which is achieved by transferring
the feedback circuit from the anode (or grid) circuit to the cathode
circuit as is done for the iterated network R,C in figure 3d. Here, the
(.local) negative'feedback is in series according to current, due to resis-
tance r; and it is in series and interstage according to, voltage, due to
circuit R.C.
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Figure 4.
The three-.cascade amplifier circuit with resistance coupling, shown
in figure If, is a little more comples. In the first step, the local
negative feedback is in series according to current, due to R1; in the
third,. it is local composite, in series according to the input, due to
divider R 3 R 4 ; and, finally, all three ateps are enveloped by series
feedback. according to voltage, which is generated by the third trans-
former winding and the dividers RR 2 and R3 4? The basic value of this
circuit is namely its feedback.
Negative feedback is also used in cathode follower circuits.
Here B is equal to 1 and k00 is close to the value of 1. A cathode
follower circuit gives very little distortion, a.large input resistance,
and a small output resistance. With this, the input and output voltages
coincide in phase. Because of these qualities, the cathode follower
circuit has found wide usage.
If a negative feedback circuit is composed of resistances, its
magnitude does not depend on frequency. Such feedback is called frequency-
independent. Sometimes, it is desireable to obtain frequency-dependency
feedback, for example, in order to compensate for frequency distortion and
inserted lines with an amplifier or by other means. Then, the circuit is
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composed of a combination of resistances and reactances.which are seleeted
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according to a frequency characteristic.
Non-linear elements may also be introduced into negative feedback .
circuits. This is done in those cases when, for example, it is necessary
to preserve voltage stability at the output while voltage magnitude is
being changed at the input. Especially well related to these are
multiple automatic gain control circuits (age) which are widely, used
in radio receiving equipment.
If, in the circuit, there is no bridging capacitance forlresistance
bias in the cathode circuit, we receive an additional feedback in respect
to current, which reduces amplification. Finally, if the bridging
capacitance has insufficient magnitude, there is feedback for low
frequencies and amplification at these frequencieswill be reduced.
That, which was mentioned earlier, is also related to the capacitance in
the screen grid circuit. It is necessary to select a bridging capacitance,
so that the resistance capacitance for the lowest frequency ranges is
5 to 30 times less than the resistance value.
Analogous negative feedback circuits are used in push-pull amplifiers,
but the feedback is usually employed symmetrically to each tube. Sometimes,
feedback is. used for amplification control. Variable resistance is
introduced into its circuit for this (for example, replace amplifier
R1R2 with a potentiometer in the circuit shown in figure A. However,
it is not possible to recommend such a method of gain control, since
with alteration of negative feedback,,iuput and output resistances will
be changed;.and with small feedback values, the stability and the
distortion compensation capability of the amplifier will be decreased.
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 The influence of: negative feedback on amplifier characteristics.
? 50X1-H U M-
This influence is essentially manifested on all basic parameters of an
amplifier. Therefore, by selecting any feedback circuit, we can find an.
amplifier with the characteristics which we are interested in. Let us
examine this in more detail.
Input amplifier resistance dependes on the method of supplying feed-
back voltage to the cascade input and does not depend on the method that
.is used to remove it from the circuit output. It is increased with nega-
tive feedback in series and decreased with negative feedback in parallel.
This is explained by the decrease of the voltage, which is supplied
directly to the amplifier cascade (Uk = Uin - Uoc) and, consequently,
by the decrease of input circuit current, which equivalently increases
input resistance.
In a majority of cases, it is desireable to have a high input
resistance. Therefore, negative feedback in series is often used.
It is found in parallel only in intermediate amplifier steps and in
a few special types of equipment.. Thus, for example, several voltages
are supplied simultaneously to a computer circuit; so a circuit with a
negative feedback in parallel is, for this situation, more suitable.
Amplifier output resistance. depends on the method of taking feed-
back voltage from the output and does not depend on the method used to
supply it to the input. With feedback according to voltage, the output
resistance is decreased; and with feedback according to current, it is
increased. This is explained by the output voltage being decreased in
the first cases and by the current being decreased in the second case.
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In. terminal cascades used for improvement of amplifier load aA A,a+anPnt
50X1-HUM
it is desireable to have a sma71 output resistance.. Therefore, feedback
according to voltage is usually used in these cascades, but feedback accord-
ing to current is used more often with initial cascades.
Figure 5.
In order that feedback voltage does not depend on load and its
osciallations, and consequently, in order that. load does not affect the
amplification coefficient and the output resistance, the bridge circuit,
which is shown in figure 5a, is used. Here, feedback is removed according
to voltage from the divider R1R2, and according to current from resistance
B. By placing the tube with an equivalent generator, which has the
voltage mUIn and internal resistance Ri, where m is the coefficient of
tube amplification, we obtain a circuit in the shape of a bridge which
is shown in figure 5b. During conditions of equality, contrasting arms
are formed, i.e., when RI . R2 m R . R , this bridge is in equilibrium.
1 3
Having chosen the conforming resistances Rl, R2, and R3, in order that
this condition would be fulfilled, it can be expected that the operation.
of the circuit does not depend on the magnitude of load R , which is
n
connected to the bridge diagmlal:
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Various types of distortion are common in amplifiers. Non-linear dis-
tortion usually is formed in terminal cascades, and frequency and phase
distortion in all other cascades. Negative feedback, in all parts of the
circuit which is encompasses, greatly improves the relationship between the
effective signal levell, and the level of harmful components. This is especially
important for terminal cascades, where one and the same coefficient of non-
linear distortion can significantly increase the voltage, which is supplied
to the input, and consequently, can increase output power.
Until this time, we have assumed that phase shifts in a feedback loop
were equal to zero since it is only under this condition that Uin and Uoc
will be in antiphase. However, due to reactive elements, which enter into
the circuit in the negative feedback loop, voltage can achieve a phase shift,'
especially at low and high frequencies, which, in its turn, evokes a decrease
in feedback and an increase of interference and distortion. Therefore, from'
amplifier circuits, which are encompassed by negative feedback, as well as
in the feedback itself; it is desirable to exclude reactive elements, espec-
ially transformers which have sharp expressions of amplitude-frequency and
phase-frequency characteristics. With this point of view, it is more.expe-
dient to select an amplifier circuit with resistance coupling.
It was said earlier that, due to reactive elements (capacitors,
choke coils, transformers), phase shifts for individual frequencies can
appear in the loop, which, in certain conditions, might lead to amplifier
stability disturbance, which is formed by positive feedbac4 I.e.,, is
generated. With this, distortion and interference are increased for fre-
quencies where phase shifts are significant. The most dangerous frequencies
are the cut-on frequencies of a band.
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in practice~it is difficult to achieve identical phase shifts for input
50X1-HUM
voltage and feedback voltage at all frequencies. Therefore, it is always
necessary to. consider the possibility of generation formation. The greater
its probability is, the greater is the feedback encompassment and the more
significant its depth.
Special frequency-phase correction circuits are usua31y connected into
multistage negative feedback amplifiers, where the phase shift along the
loop reaches 180 degrees. Such a circuit is shown in figure 6. Here, the
circuit R1 Cl decreases amplification and shift at low frequencies and Rg
C2 decreases amplification and shift at high frequencies. The approximate
values'of the circuit elements are: Rl = from 2 .to 5 megohms; R2 = from
1,000,to 5,000 ohms; Cl = from 0.1 to 0.5 microfarads; and C2 Q from 200 to
2,000 picofarads.
Figure 6.
.It is always necessary to consider the possibility of the emergence
of feedback due to spurious capacitance, inductive coupling, or . resistance
coupling. Ea case it arises, it is necessary to attempt to nu111fy its
influence on the general properties of the amplifier and especially an. its
stability.
The construction of a circuit with negative feedback in amplifiers,
achieved by semiconductor triodes, is not essentially different from anwli-
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fiers on electron tubes; however, there are a few differenc50X1-H U M
caused by the peculiarities of the semiconductor devices. One of them
is the significant instability of the semiconductor parameters, which
is dependent upon temperature changes and the spread of characteristics,
even for one quality, which leads to amplification change. Therefore,
the employment of feedback is considered an important method for bringing
about amplifier stability.
The simplest negative feedback can be used in circuits where voltage
at the output is shifted 180 degrees in phase in relation to the voltage
Figure 7.__._.
at the input. This condition of a circuit is fulfilled by a master fobshebif
emitter, which is available for this and for other qualities. A standard
circuit, which connects feedback in amplifiers at semiconductor triodes
with a master emitter, is shown in figure 7. A given circuit with negative
feedback in series (according to current) is shown in figure 7a. In order
to increase the stability of the given circuit, it is necessary to increase
the magnitude of B. However, it cost not be forgotten that an excessive
increase of this resistance, finally, leads to a restriction of the circuit'
operation according to voltage. Inclusion of resistance B2 allows the
same stabilization coefficient to be achieved with small resistance valves
of El.
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A circuit with negative feedback is parallel (according to voltage)
50X1-HUM
is shown in figure 7b. Here, stability is improved with an increase of
r~n
the ratio '., although too at a value of this ratio leads to a
decrease of amplification. And, finally, a circuit with combined feed
back, where stability is achieved by matching resistances Rl and R3, is.
shown in figure 7c.
All of these circuits are almost equivalent in respect to their
qualities. The most convenient elements of the circuits can be achieved
by the use of negative feedback in series in primary cascades, and by the
use of negative feedback in parallel in terminal cascades. In the most
.responsible cases, as well as ordinarily, interstage feedback can be used,
but, in this case, it is necessary to consider the comparitively small
input resistance in order not to allow shunting of the output circuit.
Also, in tube circuits., feedback voltage with the use of semi-conductors
in amplifiers can be achieved fran the.auxiliary winding of an output
transformer.
Consideration of what has been said here, can produce the conclusion
that the use of negative feedback in electron amplifiers improves all of
their characteristics significantly. Distortion is decreased in all of
their, aspects and stability is increased. A conforming choice of a'feed-
back circuit allows the amount of input and output resistance of an
'. t
amplifier to be changed within necessary limits, which also has an important
significance. The use of negative feedback is especially effective in
terminal cascades where delivered amplifier power is' significantly increased'
and amplifier efficiency is improved by use of negative feedback.
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Decrease of amplification in an amplifier with negati-- k is
50X1-HUM
canzparatively easily compensated for by increasing amplification in primary
cascades or by increasing the number of primary cascades. Of course, the
additional complication of the circuit is a drawback, but the virtues of
negative feedback are so significant that it has found wide usage.
- o
Relay Regulator Adjustment -- by Engr-Lt Col N. P. IaARITON&V (Pages 67-(9)
As is well known, the EM-75 diesel-electric station uses the 6-731
generator charger, which operates in conjunction with the MU-21f relay
regulator. The RET-21f relay regulator differs from, automobile regulators
in that it has five parts instead of three: two voltage regulators, two
current limiters, and one reverse current relay. The generator oscillator
winging is divided into two parallel circuits. An individual voltage regu-
lator and current limiter which have special coapensation windings for
simultaneous operation are connected in each of them. However, a short-
coming here is that the contacts of the regulators and limiters operate
under identical conditions. If one of the regulators has a large spring
tension, its contacts will be broken by a large current, which will quickly
bring on burning of the points and lead to their going out of order pre-
maturely.
Identical currents in parallel arms of the generator oscillator
windings can be achieved by correctly adjusting the voltage regulators,and
current litftiters.
Adjustment of the HET is usually done on a special stand, but it
can be done Immediately at the power plant. For this, it is necessary
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to prepare a frame rack to place the relay regulator in a vertical position
50X1-HUM
and to prepare connections to connect it to the generator, the storage battery,
and the framework.
Irk
Figure 1.
For adjustment, the MU-24 is removed from its shock absorbers and
placed in a vertical position without its covers. Then the leads from
the terminals +Ya, Sb1 and Sh2 of the generator are disconnected, and the
lead,,which goes from the terminal +B of the relay regulator, is disconnected
from the FO-57 filter. Then the relay regulator is connected to the gener-
ator according to the circuit which is shown in figure 1. The size of the
leads, which are intended to connect the relay terminal +Ya and the relay
re,R,ulator and the Fc-57 filter, must not be less than 10 square millimeters.
The size of the remaining leads are 2.5 square millimeters. The following
direct current measurement instruments are used in the circuit: multi-
range ammeters with measuring limits of up to 2 amperes, a voltmeter with
a measuring limit of up to 30 volts, and the multirange ammeter from the
diesel control panel. , 17zz
Figure 2. 1. - plates; 2. - arranum _stop screw; 4. - cam
48
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At the beginning of the adjustment, gaps are checked. The aan between
50X1-HUM
the armature and the core, with open reverse current relay contacts (figure 2),
must be within the limits of 1.7 to 2.2 millimeters; and with closed voltage
regulator and current limiter contacts. (fiaure3)..within 1.8 to 2 mtlllmeters.
Figure 3. 1.- contact adjustment screw I{; 2.-lock nut; 3.- cam E; 4.-
.axis; and 5.- stop screw.
The reverse current relay gap is adjusted by changing the position
of the arresting device U (see figure 2). The voltage regulator and current
limiter gap is adjusted by tightening screw K. after loosening the lock mrt.
The allowable size for the gap between the open reverse current relay
contacts is from 0.6 to 1 millimeters for each pair of contacts. This
of the relay is determined (connected voltage fU vklj = 24.5 to 26.5 volts).
gap is adjusted by adjusting the insulation plate P (see figure 2), after
the lock nuts have been loosened.
The engine is started in order to check and adjust the reverse current
relay. While its revolutions are smoothly increased, the voltage connection
Then,-as the number of diesel revolutions is decreased, reverse current
is determined by the multirange ammeter on the control panel while the relay
is disconnected (i revolution = 2 to 8 amperes)..
Adjustment of the connection voltage can also be accomplished by
changing the spring tension with cam, E, after loosening lock nut V. To
49 -
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 ww T A Y
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?Y0 rV&Ci6ia 1/LCDCUI
increase the tension of the spring, and, consequently to increase connec-
50X1-HUM
tion voltage, the cam is turned in a counter clockwise direction; and for
decrease, vice versa.
Change of intensity of reverse current is done by moving the insu-
lation plate P which has. fixed contacts. In order to decrease intensity,
the plate is moved upward; and for increase, it is moved downward.
After the arresting device is adjusted, the gap between the open con-
tarts is within o.6. to 1.0 millimeters, and all fixed details are fastened
with stop screws; everything is checked again in the manner recommended
above.
If the electric parameters of the reverse current are within the norm,
adjustment of the voltage regulator can be carried out. For this, the
voltmeter is connected from terminal +Ya to terminal +B, and diesel revo-
lutionsare.set equal to 1,500 RPM. Then, the voltage, which is sustained
by the voltage regulators, and the current in the oscillator winding cir-
cuits OShl and OSh2 are determined. The voltage must be within the limits
of from 26.6 to 28.5 volts$ with a load current no greater than 43 amperes
and the currents in the oscillator winding circuits equal (it - i2).
Voltage regulators and current regulators can operate with unequal
currents in the oscillator viuding circuits, but the contacts, which break
the large current, will be overloaded and will go out of order prematurely'.
Therefore, parity of currents in the oscillator winding circuits is
determined during regulator operation by the accuracy of. voltage. regulator
and current limiter adjustment.
if the voltage, which is sustained by the regulators, is laves than
.the norm, it is necessary to increase the spring tension of that regulator
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which has the lower oscillation current in its circuit. 5X1 HUM currents,
it is necessary to do this for either of them until generator voltage reaches
.a specified intensity.
Then, the current in the oscillation winding circuits is determined with'
the nuiltirange ammeters Al and A2. If it is smaller than i2, the smaller
oscillation current intensity is subtracted from the larger and divided by
( _ il) Then, the tension of the spring is increased on the
2
voltage regulator, where the oscillator current in the circuit is lower,
i2 - it )
until that current is increased to the intensity ( 2 ) and the stop
screw is tightened. Then, the spring tension of the second voltage regulator
is decreased for parity of currents in the oscillator winding circuits and
that stop screw is also tightened. If the voltage, which is sustained by
the.regulators, exceeds the norm; it is necessary to decrease the spring
tension of the regulators.
A 50 ampere rheostat with a meadmum resistance of 0.7 ohms is necessary
for checking and adjusting current limiters. Th order to use the nwltirauge
meter of the control panel, the rheostat is connected with a storage
battery in the circuit while the diesel is in operation (when the lead is
disconnected from the plus terminal of the storage battery, the starter
will not operate). When the diesel is operating at 1,500 RPM end rheostat
resistance has been decreased, the current, where the limiters begin to
operate (1 limiter [off] 43 to 53 amperes), is determined by the multi-
range ammeter on the control panel.-.The currents in the oscillator winding
circuits must be equal, as during operation of the voltage regulators.
 n n Ti ni T T n x. m YAr
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?V rv+WL~L4 u16DGU.
If the limiters begin to operate at too low a current level, they
50X1-HUM
are adjusted by an increase in spring tension; and if the current is too
large, spring tension is decreased. The method of adjustment here is the
same as for adjustment of the voltage regulators.
Figure 4.
Adjustment of voltage regulators and current limiters by the methods,
which are described above, can be done with two voltmeters or even with
r,r_ rr1 =
For clarification of this, let us examine the circuit which is shown
in figure 5. If a voltmeter is connected to the terminals Shl and Sh2
of the relay regulator, which is operating in common with the generator;
it will indicate the difference between the decrease of voltage at section
OShl and the decrease of voltage at section OSh2 (i.R1 - i2R2). Since
individual oscillator windings of the generator tared to operate with identi-
cal revolutions it can be considered that their resistances are equal.
In this case, if the currents in the oscillator winding circuits are also
equal, the voltmeter, which is connected to the terminals Shl and Sh2,
will indicate zero.
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ivo roaeign iassem
Consequently, when one voltmeter is connected to the 50X1-HUM +B
and '}Hass", and the second voltmeter is connected to the terminals Sh1
and Sh2, the intensity of the voltage, which is sustained by the regu-.
lators, can be determined; and the current in the oscillator winding cir-
cuits can be adjusted in the same way. They must be adjusted whenever it
is necessary.
If the voltage., which is sustained by the regulators, does not
correspond to the norm, it is necessary to achieve the desired voltage
by changing the spring tension on either regulator. Then, the voltage
must be measured at the terminals Shl and Sh2, the voltmeter reading must
be divided by half, and, by changing the spring tension of the same regulator,
the voltmeter arrow must be guided to half of the previous reading. Then,
the stop screw is tightened. The spring tension of the second voltage regu-
lator must be changed so that the voltmeter indicates zero. Then, the
stop screw is tightened again. Adjustment of the current limiters is
accomplished in the same way.
The degree. of misalignment of the voltage regulators and of the current
limiters, and the condition of their contacts can also be determined without
removing the relay regulator covers by measuring the voltage at the terminals
Shl and Sh2, which is especially important while the relay regulator is
in use. If the currents in the oscillator winding circuits differ by 20%,
voltage.at the terminals Shl and Sh2 will ideally be I. volt.
It must also be noted that there can be different currents in the
oscillator winding circuits also as a result of burning or of significant
fouling of the contacts. Therefore, it is recommended that they be cleaned
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LIW Xv =-6u LSDDGW I
before adjustment is attci ted. It is necessary to check the voltage at
50X1-HUM
the terminals Sh1 and % after every 100 hours of power plant operation.
This is How We Teach Radar Set Tuning to Officer Candidates -- by Engr-
Lt Col I. M. M ASNYr (Pages 70 - 71)
Abstract:
This article explains the mechanics of teaching radar set tuning
as done by ICRASEfl's school. After careful classroom preparation, the
officer candidates complete a sequence of practical activity, which is
followed by checking and reviewing sessions.
Innovations and Inventions
Loudspeaker Adapter -- by Plc Ye. I. RUZfM TSEV and Pvt G. I. VASIL'YEV
(Pages 72 -.73)
Abstract:
Ml
43P
B3
Aurc S
ar Z
' 1 1
as
33-
inn
6M II W,4,
0
MPN --
.f3 Taw
5k
C-O-N-P-I-D-E-N-T-I-A-L
0
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r ?45'4 L r?
E5
55 r
IZZZIM
This article describes the uses and construction of a remotely controlled
50X1-HUM
loudspeaker adapter. A schematic diagram of the adapter is given.
Two illustrations show the physical construction of the box.
Crossover Box -- by E~4-Maj.V. T. ZAV]DEYEV (Page 74)
Abstract:
This brief article describes the operation of a crossover box, used
for different kinds. of current. The box measures 70 by 25 by 3 centimeters.
JThe caption to a photograph on page 74 of Capt M. POLYAKOV by Z.
SORKIN praised Capt POLYAKOV for his innovation achievements
In the Field of Science and Technology
The Employment of Plasma for Detection -- by Candidate of Physical and
Mathematical Sciences K. I. KONONENKO and V. S. ZABELB A (Pages 75 - 77)
Text:
The detector is a basic element of almost every radiotechnical apparatus.
The history of radio began fundamentally with the development of a electro-
magnetic wave detector. With the development of electron tubes, the electron
tube detector proved itself to be most effective for long naves and it assumed
a domineering position in radiotechnology. In the course of its development,
L..
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when decimetric and microwave ranges were adopted, electron tube detectors
50X1-HUM
were no longer suitable since their sensitivity dropped sharply with raised
frequencies. Because of this, the employment of crystal detectors was begun
in decimetric and microwave ranges. They were more suitable because of
their small size, their sufficiently fine sensitivity, and. their. independence
from power supply sources. But it was soon discovered that these detectors
had serious shortcomings.
Therefore, study was subsequently begun of what are called plasmic
detectors. First experiences already have shown that these detectors
successfully execute their functions in a range of from 50 cycles per.
.second up to 6,000 megacycles.per second without a loss of sensitivity.
Their operation is almost completely independent from frequency. There-
fore, they are called wide range. There are. two possible detection mechanisms
and, in conformance with this, there are two types of detectors.
What is a plasmic detector? It is a gas-discharge tube of special
construction, in which a gas-discharge plasma is formed and maintained
in a stationary condition due to the energy of an external, source.
Operation of the detector is based on the use of the non-linear properties
of the plasma, which is a highly ionized gas containing a, small quantity
of neutral molecules and an identical number of positive ions and electrons.
In, this manner, this system is, on the whole, electrically neutral.
It would be a mistake to consider that plasma is a rare phenomenum,
which is studied only by scientists in their laboratories. We meet with
it in neon advertisement tubes, in electric arc welding, in the aurora
borealis. Our Earth is encircled by a plasmic b1niket at an altitude of
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a few hundred kilometers, which is called the ionosphere. Scientists,
50X1-HUM
who are occupied with studying outer space, have come to the conclusion
that only one 1,000th part of the mass of our Galaxy is firm matter.
Al]. the other matter is gas, of which a large part is in a plasmic
condition.
Currently, the properties of plasma are widely used both in--science
and in technology. Of special interest is the development of plasmatrons.
With their employment, thermal energy has been successfully transformed
directly into electric current energy.
The employment of plasma for detection is based upon the usage of
one of its multitudes. of qualities - non-linearity. The condition of
the plasma is determined by its parameters which are primarily related
to the electron temperature, which reaches a level. of several tens of
thousands of degrees in ordinary gas-discharge tubes; to electron density,
i. e., their quantitative value in a single cubic centimeter; tg plasmic
potential; to potential gradient; etc.
The two types of plasmic detectors, which were mentioned earlier,
differ from each other in their mechanisms for interaction of the electro-
magnetic wave field with the. plasma and also in their construction.
The first detection mechanism is used in a detector with probes.. If a
probe, which represents a metallic electrode (flat, cylindrical, or
spherical), is located in the plasma; it is negatively charged. As a
consequence of this, the electrons in the plasma will be, repelled from
which is devoid of electrons and which is called the TAngyiir JEark space,
is formed in the vicinity of the prob e.
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If voltage, which is alternating in respect to the cathode, is 5OX1 -HUM
to the probe during a certain constant potential at the probe; electrons
being to be attracted to the probe from the realm of undisturbed plasma
during a positive half-period, and positive ions are repelled. This
results in an'electron current being supplied to the probe. During a
negative half-period,, the process will come about inversely: electrons
will be repelled,. ions attracted, and an ionic current will be supplied
to the probe. However, since the ionic mobility is significantly less
than that of the electrons, this current will be extremely small in com-
parison to the electron current and, consequently, is usually disregarded
(figure 1). The resulting current at the probe will have a direct com-
ponent with an intensity dependent upon the intensity of a supplied
high frequency voltage.
Pac: I.
The construction of this type of detector is shown in figure 2.
It is a glass bulb with an internally located small cylindrical anode.
A tungsten filament, which serves as a cathode, travels along the axis
of the anode. The tube is filled with an inert gas and discharge is
maintained by a constant voltage between the cathode and the anode.
this way, the plasma is concentrated in the anode internal cavity.
In
Disks,,
j.
symmetrically located at the ends of. the anode, serve as detecting probes.
They are fastened to the wires of a two-wire line, which is soldered into
No Foreign Dissem
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the tube bulb. A signal is supplied along the line, which can be extended
50X1-HUM
into an antenna for reception in free space or else terminated as a loop
Figure 2.:
The second type of detector differs in its simplicity. Its operation
is based on the direct interaction of the high frequency field of a travel-
ing wave with plasmic volume. Electrons are the most sensitive plasmic
elements. Under the influence of a'nigh frequency field, which penetrates,
the plasma, the speed of the electrola is increased, the plasmic tempera-
ture is raised, and this, in its turty alters the discharge current which
is flowing througa the detector. Between the power intensity of the
applied high frequency field and the ntensity of current change, there
is a determined quantitative relationship which makes possible an evaluation
of field power according to the chan&,of the discharge current.
~+xc 3.,,
Figure 3.
Constructively, a detector of thel;econd type is a small diameter
glass tube Vaich is sealed at both eni~, Two rod-electrodes are soldered
to its ends and are separated from eacillIother by a few millimeters. The
tube is evacuated and filled with an in'rt gas to a pressure equal to a
of the. gas in the tube, which is suitsha for each tube in respect to
its na:rcnr diapason of detected wave lhes, is selected by experimental
5:1
few tens of millimeters of a column of 4!rcury. The optimal pressure
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.means. The plasma is "ignited" by constant voltage which is supplirn,
50X1-H U M
to the electrodes. The tube is exposed to the current of ultra-high
frequency power in a free space or else'is inserted into a circular
aperture which is made in the wide walls of the waveguide. A low fre-
quency signal can be removed from the electrodes and observed by the
level of conforming detector noise with an oscillograph. The change
in discharge current is also an indication. Its strength can be verified
by any measuring circuit.
Such detector operation is observed when the power of high frequency
oscillations does not exceed a certain critical value. An increase of
the power above the critical level evokes a supplementary ionization
of the gas in the discharge tube. Then, the stationary condition of
the plasma is disturbed and the relationship between the applied power
and the detector current becomes unstable. Thus, for exaarple, if neon
tubes are exposed to an impulse power with a gas pressure of from 0.5
to 2 millimeters of.mercury and a discharge current of from 7 to 50 mii]Sem-
peres, the critical power. will be found within the limits of 17 to 250
watts.
There has been much interest in the sensitivity of plasmic detec-
tors. The sensitivity depends on many faciD rs, in particular: the
accuracy of evacuation and preaging of the tube, the gas composition,
the operation regime, the peculiarity of the construction of the tube,,
stability of operation of the detector itself, gas pressure in the tube,
etc. One of the conditions, which are necessary for the achievement of,
high sensitivity and of a low noise level of a plasmic detector is the
stability of discharge. Here, especially rigid demands are made of the
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no iore3.ga Dw.ssem
1 .
detector. High stability of discharge is achieved by accurate evacuation
50X1-HUM
andpreaging of the tube, by selecting conforming discharge regimes, by
replacement of a constant feed voltage with a highfrequency alternating
voltage, and by theraddition of a certain number of impurities, in par-
ticular mercury, to the basic gas.
The resonance qualities of plasma can be used for a sharp increase
in sensitivity. Different levels of resonance can be observed in plasma:
electronic, ionic, and cyclotronic. Cyclotronic resonance requires the
use of a magnetic field. The employment of resonance phenomena can
increase detector sensitivity two or three times. The shortcoming of
resonance detection is its narrow-band property. The frequency of elec-
tronic and ionic resonances can be regulated within certain limits by.
change of the density of the plasma. The frequency of cyclotronic
resonance can be regulated by changing the magnetic field. The sensiti-
vity limits of plasmic detectors according to power are presently from
0.001 to 0.1 amperes per watts in conditions where the resonance qualities
of the plasma re not utilized.
In using plasmic detectors for the detection of impulse power,
the inertness of the detectors is of great significance, i. e., it is
a.-plasmic property that it is extremely slow in regaining an original
.undisturbed condition. Inertness of plasma is determined by the ultimate
time necessary for establishing an eq,uilibrial distribution of electron
speed and density. The time necessary for reestablishment of a concentra-
tion is significantly greater than the time necessary for reestablishment
of speed distribution. The time for reestablishment of electro n speed
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distribution has a basic role for small subcritical powers. This am'50X1-H U M
of time depends upon the duration of the induced impulse and the pressure
and type of utilized gas and iuprities. This amount of time can be
shortened by using a gas which has a large electron trapping profile.
An infinite reduction in detector inertness cannot be anticipated, but
a limiting value of impulse frequency succession and duration, which,
makes plasma detection possible, has not yet been established.
We have discussed two types of plasmic detectors. Which of them is
the best? Both are suitable for use. The first type of detector possesses
fine sensitivity, operates on any frequency, and detects both constant
and pulse oscillations equally well. The second type of detector is dis-
tinguished by its simplicity and is small in size, which makes it especially
suitable for use in waveguides. Its sensitivity is as fine as that of the
first type.
In conclusion, it should be noted that plasmic detectors are not
repetitions of other detectors, for instance of crystal detectors. They
possess new qualities and peculiarities, which are inherent only in them.
Chief among these are: a wide diapason, an operation independence from
external atmospheric temperature, the ability to. use resonance detection,
and the ability to endure large power loads. Plasmic detectors with their
new qualities might also be used in checking equipment used for measuring
voltage and power, at high and ultra-high frequencies.
Reviews and Bibliographly
Concerning Fearless and Brave People -ii. by Col (Res) V. N. MATARCV, U.
62
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taran) by F., A. VAZBZ(, Voyenizdat 1962, 94 pp., 10 kopeks; and Defenders
of the Capital's Skies (Zashchitnilci. neba stolitsy) by N. N. mVSICY,
This article review two historical brochures: Aerial Ramaing (Vozdusbnyy
Abstract:
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