ON APPLICATION OF MAXIMUM PRINCIPLE TO ROCKET FLIGHT PROBLEMS

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STAT
ISAEV V.K., KURIANOV A.I., SONIN V.V.
ON APPLICATION OF MAXIMUM PRINCIPLE TO ROCKET FLIGHT PROBLEMS
1963
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SUMMARY
On the Application of the Maximum Principle to the Rocket
Flight Problems
Isaav V.K, Kurianov A.I. and Sonin 14V.
The formulation and solution of the number of problems in the rocket.'
flight is presented in general form on the basis of Pontryagin's maximum
principle.
The first section considers the problem of optimum rocket flight in
both uniform - constant and uniform - cylindrical gravitational fields for
the cases of constant and regulated exhaust velocity. A strict conformation
of the series of the results obtained earlier by some other investigators,
-- -
is given, and some new statements related to optimal programming magnetude
and direction of the rocket thrust.
The second section presents considerations on the techniques Of numeri- ?
cal solution of rocket flight variational problems on digital computers.
The third section deals with the treatment of the optimum control
problem of the power - and exhaust velocity - limited rocket during the
interplanetary transfer. The results of numerical calculations of the bounded
control effects on the parameters of transfer between the Mars and Earth
orbits are discussed.
The problem of optimum transfer between the planets orbits with recove-
,
ry is analysed.
An asymmetrical transfer trajectory is shown in general to be optimum.
The fourth section deals -with an optimum problem of vertioal limited-
thrust rocket motion in the nonuniform atmosphere.
An extremal trajectory is shown. be formed in general from the four arcs:
1. Maximum thrust arc or coasting arc in dependence of initial condi-
tions.
2. Variable thrust arc.
3. Maximum thrust arc.
4. Coasting flight arc.
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The first three Sections of this paper present the review of the results
published by Isaev and Sonin in 1961-196) (see RI] p 110) p fi'l )*
Paragraph 2 (Section I) deals with the materials of reference [1)] written
by Kuzmak and bavidson together with one of the authors of the present paper.
The fourth section is written by Kurianov.
The maximum principle, formulated in the works of the Soviet mathemati-
cians headed by Pontryagin, is the generalization of Weierstrass' classical
variation calculus condition. The mLximum principle has been widely acknow-
ledged in recent years as a method permitting an effective treatment of op-
timum processes in case the control functions are bounded.
Outlined below are the results of the application of the maximum principle.
to some problems of optimum programming of the rocket thrust modulus and
rocket thrust direotion. The first section of the paper briefly relates to
the main qualitative features of laws of the optimum control of constant
exhaust velocity vehicles for the cases of model problems of motion in both
uniform oonstant and uniform-cylindrical (radial) gravitational fields.
Besides, some problems are considered dealing with the structure of the
power-limited vehicle optimum controls in case of constraints imposed on the
exhaust velocity.
The maximum principle reduces the variational problem to the boundary-
value problem for the system of ordinary differential equations of the opti-
mum object's motion.
It is important therefore to modify the available and to develop new
algorithms of the boundary-value problems numerical solution by the digital
computers.
These problems are considered in tne second section of the present paper
where the results of the numerical solution of the variational problems
connected with the motion of the rocket in the Kepleriah central field are
analysed.
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The fourth section deals with the optimum problem of vertical thrust-
limited rocket motion in non-uniform atmosphere.
It is shown that the extremal trajeotory consists of four successive
arcs: 1/ - maximum thrust arc (or coasting aro depending on initial condi-
tions); 2/ - variable thrust arc; 3/ - maximum thrust arc; 4/ - coasting
flight arc.
I. ON SOME QUALITATIVE FEATURES OF ROCKET
MOTION OPTIMUM CONTROL REGIMES
1. Rocket Optimum Motion in Uniform Constant
Gravitational Field
[8,10]
10. For the sake of simplicity, let us take the case when the effective
exhaust velocity C is constant (regulated exhaust velocity oase is conside-
red in the second section). Let V and it
axes Ox and 4, of Cartesian frame, m(t) =
No
vt.
mass (related to initial value),
Pmax
(related to maximum thrust value Pmax )p - inclination of thrust vec-
tor to Ox axis (Fig.1).
The following constraint is imposed on the engine thrust value:
are speed projections on
M(1)
non-dimensional
A1(0)
- non-dimensional thrust
where
0 4 Po (i) 4-1
The equations of motion are:
? Autcosg) Au,Stn
u=
ril= u? --tt, 4.v,
Prit[tx
A =NC n tott5+ , 0(=
(0)?C
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let us introduce vector X=fis,./isl= (um, va), mo), x(-0, v0))
of state space X = (U,V;
Statement of theoblem: to determine optimum ,control 1(=(u,,y)
which transfers the system (1.2) from the initial fixed position 2?=X(0)=
eu 0, it: in:
x during
during time t = T to some set G(1)6X in such
a manner that at the moment t = T the functional 5=E Clii(T) obtains
its maximum (minimum) value with constraint (1.1) imposed on the control.
In this case the time T may be either free or fixed (21 and I? may be re?
lated to some constantly differentiable variety of space X [1].
20. In the general case of optimizing the arbitrary functional S,
the optimum program of controlling the jet engine thrust direction versue
time is expressed by:
ho no'
1/2 CO? rv_ "I
(1.7)
which corresponds to the result obtained by Leitmann kJ and Lawden 15] .
From Eq. (1.7)-follow the results obtained by Okhotsimsky, Eneev 131
Ross IQ and Fried. 17] for various types of functionals and various
boundary conditions. There P=p(0) etc. ? initial values of the
components of the pulse vector
system solution).
Each program (1.7) has a corresponding characteristic number:
P Pur-,Pg
(i.e. of the conjugate
to
14 14 14 14
Let us call the control Ufa boundary One if the arcs of the
special control in the sense of the maximum principle are not included
in it; the control 1.12 is special if fr.,4+4t.
1.
For the case of the rocket motion in the uniform constant field the
following statement takes place [8]
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All the 3-optimum values of the control 1/, satisfy the following
features:
a) control AO) is a boundary one;
b) 'optimum control consists of not more than two powered arcs (where
control is accomplished at the maximum thrust regime 111(4)=1
c) if the optimum control contains two powered arcs they ajoint the
boundaries of the motion interval [0, T] and the start and the end of the
coasting arc are symmetric relative to the characteristic point t = to
determined by the corresponding optimum program of controlling the direc-
tion of the thrust vector. g)(41.
All the above statements generalize the known results obtained by
D.E. Okhotsimsky, T.M. Eneev 131 , A. Miele, J. Capellari .(91 and G. leit-
mann [4] for the case of motion in the uniform constant field.
30. The statement mentioned refers to the case of the three-dimen-
sional optimum motion in the uniform gravitational field. In this case the
thrust vector f5(1) throughout the motion interval 10o T1 is in some fixed
plane.
This result arises from the fact that the end of the vector
pti PITT+ Pwi
whose direction cosines define the angles of the thrust
vector direction in space, uniformly moves along the straight line:
0
where
0 0
Pu-P.pv-013x
P=1 Py P:
- initial values of pulses.
(1.8)
The characteristic point, in this case, is the point of the shortest
distance (1.8) from the origin of coordinates (Fig.2):
o 0 0 o o o
.7
? PuPx4PyPPtPi
9 +
2 2 2
?
All the admissible types of optimum controls of thrust value
in the uniform field are shown in Fig.) 1101 .
It should be noted in conclusion, that any problem of the optimum
motion in thP uniform field is reduced to quadratures which are expressed
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by elementary functions. Thus the variational problem is reduced to the
solution of transcendental equations [8] .
2. Rocket Optimum Motion in Uniform?Radial Field
1?. Uniform?cylindrical model of the radial gravitational field is
introduced into consideration in (13j .
The advantages of such a model of the field are evident in the case
for which the flying range is the value of the same order as F where T
distance from the gravity center to the middle of the cylindrical layer in
which the rocket trajectory passes.
By approximating the projections of the gravitational acceleration on
axes ()X and (:), (with the origin of 0 in the mayfly center) with the
expressions 9,/=-02y where Oa V =Consii. determine
the optimum, program of the thrust direction:
4:CoSat-Pl5intlt
tor
a UN cos tit ?pi? Sin Of
from which follows the periodicity of the optimum law:
20. The optimum program of thrust modulus is boundary if
If the conditions
9..1/N+13: ==conSt, t0-904-1141? 0
take place, there can be special, in the sense of the maximum principle,
(1.9)
(1.10
optimum control 11,(t) when
5
It is important to note that the special control (if it is accomplished
on the trajectory) does not conjugate with the boundary control at any arc.
Analysing the switching function 1, (Fig.A) on the basis of the methods
described in [8] , the following conclusions can be drawn: on optimum
trajectories of long duration can be realized.any number of decreasing
powered arcs which form, except the first one, the sequence with period
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There occurs a symmetry of coasting arcs boundary points relative to time
moments for corresponding to the minimum values of pnclmin and
forming the sequence with period 9/9
3. tatimum Motion of_ance Power-Limited
and Exhaust -Velocitz:Iimited Vehicle
[151
Let us consider the optimum motion of a space vehicle in case of con-
straints imposed on the control parameters (power JVr and
exhaust velocity C of the jet stream). The works by Irving-Blum [121
and "Altmann [14] dealt with the problem of interplanetary flights with an
engine whose jet flow maintains constant power at any exhaust velocity
(Fig.5a). Leitmann showed that when a constraint
< r 4 Jr( iii,?ax== AC
is imposed on the power N, minimum transfer time flight (in uniform con-
stant field) must be made at the upper border N = No and it is not advanta-
geous to interrupt the engine operation [141 .
The maximum principle permits carrying out the analysis for the engine
having arbitrary characteristics Us in the plane (AcC) (Fig.5a), includ-
ing the limitations imposed on the exhaust velocity C (Fig.5 ). It is
4)
possible to show that the optimum control will always pertain to the outer
border Fs of the Lls area.
If the part of the border I-, aligns with the axis N 0, coasting arcs
are permitted in the optimum control.
Calculations were carried out for characteristics of the type shown
in Fig.5A (or 5e which is equivalent)..
? The branch of the characteristic in the range 04 C' is i8 a cur-
ve of constant consumptions, the central - constant power; C max - upper
limit of regulated exhaust velocity.
(Fig.5)
-17) An exception is a fine case of the special control when the switch-
ing function 1,-1+,1 converts to zero in non-zero interns.-
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For oharacteristic of the type 54 there are the following optimum con-
trorregimes: a) exhaust velocity C (lower velocities are
disadvantageous); b) variable exhaust velocity (Lmet4(: r
fef, p% 4 17ISiflSbe
-
Ia+ e
sin fee ?
(1.17)
(see Fig.5).
It is apparent that at a fixed angular velocity of rotation about the
roll axis ( V;2,) the amplitude value becomes Maximum at SP =ar- Ske
and minimum at 9?,, =49.
Note that Expressions (1.15-1.17) are valid for all possible relation-
ships of Al (ln,() satisfying the conditions
60/ /
(V) >0
and
fine-,(), 0 (xi o< ore gr
To supplement the study for small values of L20, consider
b) a case of small values of angles re and V:t. when the equations
of motion of the axisymmetrical body are linearized.
As it has already been mentioned above, the conditions of applica-
bility of the asymptotic method at small $2 are violated at some suffi-
ciently marrow transition phase which is at a comparatively high altitude.
Along this path phase the value and direction of velocity slightly differ
from their values for the re-entry case, and the damping is negligibly
Small. Regarding this, the linearized equation of the body motion along'
the transition phase is written in the form
ci Li t?e di i
(1.18)
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Here le= ? 14, 4 and 4_ de- Sparr tipe angles (Fig.6).
In similar conditions the motion along the transition phase has been
described in Reference (1)). _(1-4)
Introducing new variable = 8 E' 2 we obtain
cI4Z 2'27 -
+ [fa) + -7 ? (1.19)
ciez
Approximate the density - altitude relation for the "transition phase" by
using formula:1,...,00e and introduce new argument
2 //71:tifig 4-"-I
X ?
//fir.44 /Stm -A Y /se,neil
Then considering the approximations given above reduce Equation (1.19)
to the following form:
?0(
where
e)0(---= 0
x4
ano
If = A V /sen9/ Av /seine/
Parameterfl has the order of the specific time ratio (i.e.
the path phase adjacent to the atmosphere boundary.
The solution of Equation (1.20) is:
0E =
where Or. (.0
At small X.
at large 5C
J?4,(X) 2:4fie
- the Bessel function of an imaginary order.
X2 #5143
2 11 ffp)
y, (X) = /LA_ cosy 6,_s(9frf )4- 0
(1.20)
for
(1.21)
(1.22)
(1.2))
Using Formula (1.22) determine the values of A and B in term of the .
initial conditions and then by means of Formula (1.2)) predict the amplitude
of the oscillations of the body by the angle of attack at the end of the
transition phase, where the asymptotic method is applicable. The value of
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the angle of attack in Resal's axes is equal toal but 1E1 =10(1 there ?
fore,determine the amplitude values of 0C min
max and d(the angle of
attack measured in the Resal axes is not set to zero inthe general case,
but alternately attains maximum and minimum values):
4
ot max
14men
where
= le; IrcCelp
- icat
(1.24)
(1.25)
fitt
U5D, # 51./2)4(c44 rile sl/n 45 )If
54440442P # sinfq,(1.26)
(1.27)
A' sce)sh Rite ,
?xebRite
=
J. -1/ en -t- 224, rie
2
Consider the structure of angle SP . At fixed
(l.28)
X0 (fixed initial
Moment) it comprises ?a random value of. "phase" V.4 in this case, it is
normal to consider that the values of VI are equally probable in the
range from 0 to 2fr, therefore, the values of V are also equally pro?
bable.
In the case when the value of ft is large, Clia2,72! and
?
Then the amplitude becomes independent of the initial value of the phase
and the results obtained above become valid. The principal feature of the
motion at small,fil is its dependence on phasetp
This phenomenon can be interpreted on the following physical basis.
At small values of die the dynamic pressure buildup along "the inter?
mediate phase" occurs very abruptly and the initial disturbance beyond
the atmosphere does not simply define the character of the disturbance
motion in the lower layers of the atmosphere, since, in this case, much
depends on the phase or angle of attack of the body at the moment when
dynamic pressure increases abruptly.
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While at large values off( the specific time of dynamic pressure
buildup essentially exceeds the period of the disturbance motion and the
initial phase becomes inessential.
Extremes of Expressions (1.24) and (1.25) with respect to St. are
obtained at 0, and 57=
\a R_AY
( 01 max)max ?xsbrite (Of )21,2,4 a V
(s/ vi,)eshe 72-Ae
(d max menx shy(/' ?4)a' chz ge- ("4 -17/z )
Sk= 0)
(1.29)
tice
(cimen /iNe nt? 4112 )4Che ( = ? )
X sib gra
\e 2/1 (( Sfri 5+1;ts% 4 lifer
rnew ,
(0( min hymn- .th
? Xirite
? Ce = ) .
Asymptotic Equation (1.15), in this case, gives the following result:
e(CP, fPe
(1.3o)
nett' ac 4r
d men ? OP: ? )
x
her;ce it follows that
cnct?T ac
(o(naz )mcr-c ? Ce. -ye. (1.31)
Cerriar Ca' (CZ Max ) men
From consideration of Fig.7 it becomes clear that at > 1,5 the
difference between the true value of the amplitude and the asymptotic one
does not exceed 10. _
Since along the path phase following the transition phase the asympto?
tic method is applicable, we may neglect the approximations indicated
above and write down all the formulas for the amplitude of the angle of
of attack, with damping, velocity change and path angle taken into account.
To do this, it is sufficient to substitute
f
-ff4dt 7ja
I I 72.
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for -17 in Formulas (1.26). (1.27) and (1.29). The analysis of the written
out formulas permits getting an idea of the character of the motion at
various values of ft. Thus, for example, it turns out that at smallj4( the
motion of the body in the lower layers of the atmosphere almost in all the
oft a?"?.T
cases becomes "near to planar" in the sense that the ratio becomes
small.
The obtained results for the general case of the motion at small Y'y
and WA have not been analysed in Reference [13].
2. Consider the motion of the vehicle with a high positive lift-drag
ratio ( so called "skip motion" LVJ ) as a second example of usage of
the asymptotic method.
After introducing some generally-accepted approximations (AV c<
-AH
=p0 e = coast.) the equation of motion is reduced to
the Form
where
[1.5], (9):
at4g
FW 2.2"
tng E' -J
? -I-
tire Cr Y
(2.1)
x .1"):57Cx a
Vv=2m I ?
Without giving detailed transformations (see (9] ) write a final formula
which gives the amplitude values of altitude versus velocity
CY
C-
hi CY "Pnicr41 = const (2.2) C-)2 2/771 mze)
yt
Here the argument of function h is a ratio of maximum "amplitude
densitrilmax to the density corresponding to the quasy-steady glide
path [14]
-
Function h (u) is predicted by the formula:
liWee ) '
=7-7"?/ee di
2i(zr)
where Z1 (u) and Z2 (u) = u the roots of equation
(a)
u - z + in z/u = 0.
(23)
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The plotted function h Cu) is given in Fig.8.
At tt =wi
h (u)
if It (2.4)
a
at L( >> I
(a) 2 te
? 3 (2.5)
Substituting approximate formulas (2.4) or (2.5) into relationship (2.2)
we get results corresponding to the results given in Reference 16 or- 14 ,
respectively.
Formula (2.2) combines the two extreme cases considered in these papers.
3. In conclusion dwell on the problem of accomplishing a more rapid
numerical integration when studying the motion approaching the Keplerian one.
The asymptotic methods are highly effective when solving this problem.
If we introduce osculating variables a and b by means of formula
crconyi- 69,stpn -ast;nerr- &Gee"
0.1)
where r - radius vector, t- polar angle, and/0 - ellipse parameter, then
the equations for the planar case are reduced, as it is known,
to the form (see e.g. f71 ).
aa
city fi42 Sirn erlir oc,g 81>n 2 CO,S OW
cle - f cost y *air ddeg co,s sez.? I nit
(let fir" 1z
0,0 2
010- ite 3,3 air
(3.2)
2
Here spy = Y(Z)where g Cr) - acceleration of gravity; /2, and Jr ?
projection of disturbance acceleration on the radius vector and transversal.
When studying the motion approaching the Keplerian one when disturbance
acceleration is small, Equations (3.2) can be re-written in the following
standard form:
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where ?
- low parameter.
It is important to note that in cases when eit and -do not
evidently depend on. polar angle LT functions Xi have with respect to er
a period equal to .2771
Further, this condition will be supposed feasible. In conformity with
the said in paragraph 1 the principal terms of the asymptotic solution
of the set of Equations (3.3) are determined from the average set of
Equations
(3.3)
cid" (3.4)
0
Here, when calculating the integrals, variables xi xn are considered
parameters. These equations describe a circular drift of the osculating
elements during a great number of revolutions of a vehicle relative to the
centre of attraction.
If the integrals incorporated in the right-hand parts of Equations (3.4)
can be calculated analytically, then subsequent numerical integration of
these equations is a rather simple problem, as the solution of the set of
Equations (3.4) does not contain rapidly changing components. In this case,
the averaging of the equations allows reducting machine time, required for
calculations, 1/145' times. However, with a rather complex relation between
acceleration components le and ir and the parameters of motion, these
integrals have to be calculated numerically (see, for example [111 ). In
this case, it is necessary to do it in each step of numerical integration
of Equations (3.4) in the course of calculating their right-hand parts.
Due to this, in the last case the averaging ?of the equations is advisable
only when the condition of applicability of the asymptotic method is
feasible with a rather great margin. But for these cases a method of a more
rapid numerical integration of the equations in the osculating variables
may be suggested, which does nof require calculation of the integrals in
.the right-hand parts of the average equations and, owing to this, substan-
tially siMplfies programming (see (10] , [7.1 ).
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Introduce into the consideration one more fictitious set of equations,
differing from Equations (3.)) only in having in its right?hand parts a
larger period T than 271 with respeot to CI
dr _
.2.7r
t7)(i=4,..,n)
7'
(3.5)
When averaging this set of equations, average the right?hand parts with
respect to T. Note the following equation
2Ar 7
i 1 v
(xi, ... , Xn,e0CitY =
T i '
0 0
where X1, ... , Xn and T are considered parameters.
ar gUTOdcr(3.0
fr,
This equation is prove
by a simple replacement of the integration variable. It apparently follows
from Equation (3.6) that the average sets of equations for sets of (3.3)
and (3.5), respectively, coincide. This means that the averaie characteris?
tics of the solutions of Equations (j.3) and (3.5) should also coincide
(see Fig.9). Thus, the average characteristics of the solutions of the .
initial set of. Equations (3.3) can be obtained by numerical integration
Of the set of.2quations (3.5). If we consider that the numerical Integra?
.
(ion step required is at least proportional io the period of the right?hand
parts of the equations with respect to tr (see [101 ), then it follows that
we can gain time, required for numerical integration, 2r/i/r times when
integrating the set of Equations (3.5) instead of the set of Equations (3.3).
Ratio 77121r is limited from above by the condition of applicability
of the asymptotic method to Equations (3.5) with an increased period of the
right?hand parts. The main condition of applicability of this method doh?
sists in the fact. that change in Xi in: each interval of change in with
the length of order T would be small as compared witeaXi ? complete change
in Xi within the entire considered interval of change in ?X
Using this condition it is not difficult to obtain the follOWing
approximate formula for selecting period T.
where /
? 77ter)
e .
2.7( most
= I? and emot
? maxim.= permissible error.
(3.7)
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17
This formula also permits evaluating the gain in time which is got when
integrating the set of Equations (3.5) instead of integrating the set of
Equations (3.3).
Thus, for example, at emax 0.1 and rz) = 0.01 machine time
required for the calculations oan be decreased 10 times. The method described
above may be called a method of artificial increase in period.
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18
FIG.
e Saftld
t
FIG.2
1WiT
cC
200
150
10
5
175?
,\de:
IllkL
do . /80?
?
IIS140?
FriallErns..to,
namil..._
ob.-
.
60
0
_
20
D 11 - a en i tin4
FIG.3
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2.0
0
FIG. 4
Fis.6
k.
L "mi`r-nt
I I I I ft I ttt " " 11"? rp
?'
G046?
qo 20 30 40 50 60 70
FIG 5
80
I9
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20
'Olmendmear Of max of
AO nun ac lc6.64.4.21
2,0
1,0
Xj
it
(00
50
.3
4
a
3/mac
/0
20 30
Fit 8
40 p?,,?.
9.
SOLUTION OF THE INITIAL SET OF EQUATIONS
SOLUTION OF THE SET OF EQUATIONS WITH
AN INCREASED PERIOD
SOLUTION OF THE AVERAGE SET OF EQUATIONS
FIG. 9
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21
REFERENCES
I. Annus H. "PyxosoAcTso TeopeTagecxo2 mexamma".
191Ir.
2. Foronmdos H.H. n 30apes "MeToA acamnoTatiecxoro npaOnmeaaa
AAA cacTem c spamaxaleacs Imola i ero npamesexze x ABZUHEM sapaneasax
+woman B maruaTnom none".
YMI T.7 le I I955r.
3. BOA000B B. M. "AclimnToTaxa aaTerpanos HeROTOph7 BO3M39llaHHUX cocTem".
LAB CCCP .I21 S 6 I958r.
4. aopoAanuma A. A. "AcamnToTitnecxxe saxonm pacnpeAenexaa c060Tsesemx
saaneHali AAA mexoTopux oco6ux sum Angepeunnanbaux ypanaleam2 sToporo
nopsAxa".
Yen.maTem. Hays I952r. T.Y11 A 6.
5. Rysmax P.E. "AcanToTattecue pewesan aexoTopux menanettux Asuptiepeausansaux
ypasaesal sToporo nopaAxa c nepemeaamma xonclanaesTama".
TpyAu M Beecommoro maTem. csema. Mow= I956r.
6. Rysmax r. E. "11xememe ocecammeTpacaoro TsepAoro Tena (mono menoAsaasoa
TOITAH ROA BO3Aa2OTBROM MOMOHTOBI meAneaxo H3MaHAKWEXCA BO spemesa".
MssecTaa 0TH AH CCCP S 4 196Ir.
7. Rysmax r.E., KORHAH D.M. "Hosea cpopma ypassemill ABliZaHHA cnyTsaxa H
nplinoxeme ee x accneAosaaam Asmara, 6nasxax x xenneposmm".
Xypman "ButtacnaTensaaa maTemaTaxa z maTemaTanecxan 00314Ha". B necaTa.
8. MaTpononsclud XL A. "HecTagsmapaue ADOHOOOH B xenasegaux xone6aTenEsux
cacTemax".
143z-BO AH YCCP, I955r.
B. Bpomescxati B.A. "Hplamexeme aclucToTanecxoro meToAa x segoTopam saAanam
Amsamaxa ReTaTensm annapaTos".
Mazeuepnun fitypipan'S 2 I962r.
IO.Rpomesexak B.A.. Boeaxos B.B. "MeToA yexopeavis pactieTa 6ucTpux
xsasanepaounecm Ammesait Ha RAOPOBIA BH4BOAATOAEHEIX mammax".
XypHaA "BHRHOAHITASHaA maTemaTaxa a maTemaTattecxan 4a3ima". B neqaTm.
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22
II. Oxoummoxm2 Ifeee T.M., TapaTufwea P.11. "OnpeAeneeme epemeem
c&mecTBonanloi mcxyccprieneoro cnytemica 3etam m'itoonmeaeme eelcomx
eoemywelimit ero opatTuli.
12. CeAos ii. It trimammtlecime goexru a Aemzeum mcxyccTBetieboc CHyTHREOB
3emme.
Cdopemx 14C3 A 2 I958r. MoA?eo All CCU.
13. Leon H. "Angle of attack convergence of a spinning missile descending
through the atmosphere".
Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, No.8, 1958.
14. Eggers A., Allen H., Neice S. "A comparative performance of long?range
hypervelocity vehicles"
NACA T.N. 4046, 1957.
15. Eggers A. "The possibility of a safe landing".
Space Technology Chapter 13, 1959.
16. Campbell G. "Long period oscillations during atmospheric entry".
American-Rocket Society Journal No.7, 1959.
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t
G.L. GRODZOVSKY, A.L. STASeENKO
ON TELE CONTOUR OF RADIATING ELEMENTS. PART III.
THE FORM OF A FLEXIPT:Pi THREAD IN THE CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE FIELD.
1963
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f
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P.A. PPo33oBox12
A.E. CTaceuxo
0 OOPMETBIIEOOTBOEZIKX 3.11EMBHTOB,
OLTIAIXE.AEMIE MAYNEHIEM. qACTb III. QOPMA rKBK0g
B HUE IZHTPOBEEliblX CM.
AHHOTaggA
? DpeAumylAge I A II gam pa6oTu 6uAm nocHmuemu onpeAenemm OnTEMMBH&X
clopm TennooTHomnmAx peep, oxAazAaemux manymemmem.x/ B HacTommet III %Lam
paccmoTpeHa Opma cmodoAHot neHTE1 /rA6Ao2 Himmis KOTOpas o6KaTumaeT. ?Ann-
Maemut AAAARAp A Amyl:mem co ?Hoeg nomepxmocTm.oTHAToe OT nmAAHApa TenAo.
nOKa3a11011 gTO (Dopma rm6xot Hinz 110A AetcTAxem geliTp06eIlibm a AopmoAA-
COBuxCUI. sosHmxammx npz HpameHAA MATH C nOCTOAHRO2 yrnomot cicopocTim (4),
onzcsmaeTcH cymmot onAAnTztlecAmx AHTerpanom nepHoro A-TpeTbero poAa.
OnpemeAeau HaTAmeHme HATA A Anima nonce mumsr ee c ummumpom.
Hatmemo, FIRITH OARIOIKOBOR oTHOCETWILHOR =WM noAo6Hu. T.e. in
cl)opma He 38.BECET OT yrnomot CKopoCTR, eon AmmeftHaa cicopocup nponopuonaALHa
hcaaaHu cn0006u ynymmeHAA Ycirommt TenAoneppAamm oT AznmaApa K neuTe
nyTem ymempieHAA =Au ynacTica conpzAocHomeHms AeHTu c umnAHApom. HaTnzeamm
;leant.
x/ cm., rpusowitima r.A. AOKAaA Ha XII xourpecce MAO .11 rah rp0A30B0Rmit,
? B.B. ckpoiloB Amman. lia XIII goimpecce MAO.
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Grodzovsky
A.L. Stassinko
SUR LA FORME DES ELEMENTS DISMISSION. PART'S III.
IA FORME DU FU FLEXIBLE DANS LE CHAMP DES FORCES
CSNTRIFUGSS.
Annotation.
Lea parties preoedentes I et II du travail sont oonssorees A la defini?
tion des formes optima des ailettes d'emission.x)
Dans oette partie on envisage la forme de la bande libre Cf ii flexible)
qui enveloppe le cylindre refroidi at emit de la surface la ohaleur priS du
oylindre.
La forme du fil flexible est decrit par la somme des integrales elliptiques
du Premiere et deuxidme genres sous raotion de la force centrifuge at is
force centrifuge compi6 qui surgissent au temps de rotation du fil avec
la vitesse angulaire (A) constant?, On a &table la tension du fil et la
longueur de la section contractee avec lo cylindre. On a trouve que les fils
de la longueur peat]. relative sent seMblables, c'est A dire leur forme ne
depend pas de la vitesse angulaire, si la viteSse lineaire est proportionelle
d (A) . On a monire les moyens a ameliorer les conditions de refroidissement
de oylindre d la bande a l'aide d'augmentation de la longueur de la section
contraotte gia bande avec le oilindre et de la tension de la bande.
x) Ie rapport fait A XII oongres d'IAF par m?r nrodiovsky et le rapport fait
A XIII oongras Win par m?r8 Grodzovsky et Frolov.
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2
Grodsowsky.
A. L. Stassenko
ilBER DIE FORM DER WiRNIELBITENDEN ELEMENTS MIT
STRARLONGSKIMLUNG. 3. OIL.
DIE FORM DES B/EGSAMBN FADERS It ZENTRIFUGAIRRAFTFELD.
Ubersicht.
Zwei erste vorhergehende Teile der irbeit waren der Bestimmung der
Optimalform der whrmeableitenden Rippen (mit Strahlungskilh. lung) gewidme.t.x)
-tin vorliegenden dritten Tell 1st die Form des freien Bandes (des biegsa?
men.Fadens) betraohtet, das den au kilhlenden Zylinder usafasst tmd die vom
ibm abgenommene Wttrme von seiner OberIf1Atche ausstrahlt.
Es 1st gezeigt, das die Form des biegsamen Fadens tinter .44fic, Einfluss
der bei der Padenrotation mit .konstanter WinkelgeschwindigkeiFtfiuftretenden .
Zentrifugal ? und Coriolis?KrRfte durch die Stamm& der elliptisahen Integralen
der ersten und. dritteia Art besohrieben wird. Es sind die, Fadenspannung und
BerUhrungsstreoke des Fadens mit dem Zylinder bestimmt. Es tat festgestellt,
das die Paden mit gleichen Relativltingen ahnlioh sind, d.h, litre Form von
der Winkelgeschwindigkeit unahhtingig ist, wenn die Lineargeschwindigkeit LA)
proportional 1st. Es sind die Verfahren zur Verbesserung der Warmetibergangs?
verhaltnisse vain Zylinder zum Band mittels Verlangerung der Zylinder?Band.,
Bertihrungsstreske des Pansies und VergrUsserung, der Bandspannung gezeigt.
x) Siehe G.L. Grodsowsky, Vortrag, gehalten auf dem 12. 'Congress IAF und
G.L. Grodsowsky, W.W. Frolov, Vortrag, gehalten auf dem 13. Kongress IAF.
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Summary
In the two prOvious parts of the paper radiating fins of optimum oontour,
were disousied.x)
In this part the form of a free belt (flexible thread), 'rolling around
the cylinder to be cooled and radiating the heat removed from the cylinder
into space is oonsidered.
The form the thread takes under the influence of centrifugal and Coriolis
!forces induced by its rotation with a constant angular speed% shown to be
expressed in terms of the sum of elliptio integrals of the first and third
kind.
Tensionof the thread and the contact line length are derived. The
,threads of equal dimensionless length are found to be similar, i.e. their
form does not 'depend upon angular speed, if the linear velocity is proportion-
al to CA) . Some meane are indicated to increase heat transfer from the cy?
linder to the belt by increasing the contactline length and tension.
In the paper [1] the scheme of the belt radiator (Fig.].) was discussed
in which a flexible belt pressed by rollers to the cylinder removes the heat
from the cylinder and radiates it from its surfaoe. It is of interest to
examine a free belt pressed to the cylinder by centrifugal forces induced by
the rolling of the belt around the cylinder with a certain angular speed.
The problem of determining the form of the belt, its tension and its area
of contact with the cylinder is reduced to the problem of a flexible thread
in the centrifugal force field which is the topic of this paper.
It is assumed that a flexible thread having length Land density per
unit of length/At rotates with a certain constant speed GO around a cylinder
with radius r0 and moves simultaneously with a modulus?constant speed V (Fig.2%
If the thread rolls around the fixed cylinder without sliding,
Var0.4.). Within the limits of the angle 2% a part of the thread contacts
the cylinder.
The form of the threadrits length of contact with the cylinder and its
tension are to be determined.
The force of inertia acting upon the thread element de is
d Et4,2-F_ (2/a.1/44.) --i0t V kJ CIS = aPOIS /1/
x) G.L. Grodzovsky, Report at the XII IAF Congress.
G.L. Grodzovsky and V.V. Frolov, Report at the XIII IAF Congress.
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where at is the curvature of the thread,
no is the orth of the normal to it,
cp is the force per unit of length and
F' is a radius?vector.
It can be shown that the balanced form of the free flexible thread
described by the equation
where is the
T-0 is the
In the proposed
perpendicular to LO
/2/
tension of the thread,
orth of the tangent.
problem the form of the thread will be a flat curve
opt
Writing Equations /1/ and /2/ An projectionsYche axes "4 and no
we derive correspondingly "
CIA 4_ it
? 0
' 2- '2.)Pi
(gC3 P ei ? 0
+ 21" +2 -AK .+ 2-7 K
_ (ft+yzyi
Here
n 6 = 21 e=
r = ro tA) r?o
A = ,
/3/
/4/
is
The double sign in Equation /4/ takes into account the fact that y(19
may not be a simple function, the positive sign being chosen for 9:)< yv
where j3, 92. is a point dividing simple
this point p_ccx3).
the following /formJD = , 0
/6/
and the negative sign forry"
branches of the curve 9(5) (at
The initial conditions have
with
After integrating /3/ we get
A - = 41- -92-
The substitution of the variables
2.
ce?2142-7 =1?
fr
reduces the curvature K and Equation /4/ to
hence
-??-fre-(a+i-pz)A n
Ko)
Kw_
e
r4 ? ati-f
the form
2C
(N)/9/
2c
/7/
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5
Thus the thread may consist of pieces of two kinds: with variable
curva
Wand arcs of ciroumferences with curvature - const. From the
P2
ens o the first kind when tr. r=-- 1-
b Ocr. (2)
condi=0
we have C = C1(1 4. g) ) C = gt
1 1 a kr75.
and K(i)( 'ilf_ ) = Ke1)( '04. ), i.e. the contact of the second kind,
which is quite natural. It is evident that the curvature of the thread has a
fixed sign and its absolute magnitude does not decrease with i? . It is nega-
tive with 0-1 and the thread has a point of self-intersection. Therefore
the flexible thread is a mathematical model of the flexible belt when b> -1,
Considering the former variables and integrating Equation /9/, we get[2.3
f
T-990 - i ra f e(Pz--1)-] dP
1 /10/
i t V Ca---(P4)31? La +8 V- Wit
The equalityjpf= 0 is fulfilled at the points where the radicand turns
into zero:
fot- +ge--1)32 = 0
This equation, cubic relative to I) , has three valid roots.
ii.2-1;3= r -1044 tit+ (?2--)2i
In the inter-
valJZ j 3
0.10
0.08
0.03
0.05
0.03
0.03
0.08
0.05
0.10
0.07
0.012.
0.07
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.08
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.08
0
0
0.01;
0.06o
m
0.0i
0.07,E1
--.1 0
o0
o 0
o
_.
is)
A
0`n
-a
CD
5'
?,
.=
CD
0
-0
-0
CD<
0
CD
to
Table 1
(cont.)
0
0
U
0
a
0
a
5'
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
;11:2
Electric systole
(sec)
Etrelka
Eelka
Pchyolka
dusnka
0.28
0.27
0.28
0.24
0.25
0.27
0.21
0.20
0.24
0.30
0.20
0.23
0.23
0.29
0.21
0.23
0.24
0.25
0.20
0.23
0.23
0.22
0.20
0.24
0.25
0.25
0.21
0.24
0.25
1-?.9
0.20
0.23
0.25
0.27
0.22
0.24
0.32
0.24
0.22
0.26
CD
(S)29
re-
OTD124
a
(022
0
(24
Systolic index
(per cent)
Strelka
Belka
Pchyolka
Mushka
42
36
36
47
28
31
31
57
28
28
29
45
29
29
26
40
31
24
23
39
34
65
2?
35
48
50
27
38
51
54
2?
39
41
28
24
34
43
39
21
41
E,3
<
2:9
?5
xr
CD p
CT
Maximal arterial
22essure (mm.Hg)
Strelka
140
92
99
96
,100
198
181
128
112
120
0
1(1),9
Minimal arterial
pressure (ravens)
51
43
43
34
36
37
48
45
30
43
0
5
0
030
0
? 0
>
0
CD0
0
0
0
0
0
Tablj 2 % 0
.. co
o .0
co DT
0 a 0
DT Dynamics :If phbnocardiograohic and seismocardiographic indices shown by animals in weightlessnessa
w =11
w co
co
a ? Circuits 5'
5
Indices Animals Pre-launch - 2 3 4 5 6 7 1.2 14. 15 16 -o
w
m
w
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0
11 12
J 10. 13 W
Co 9)
r
9) Amplitude cf 1st
3 2.8 1 1.9 2.2
^ Belka 1.9 1.6 2.2 1.7 2 1.8 ff
tone of Pile& (mm) co
n
Mushka 2.7 1.5 1.7 1.3 1.3 .1.3 1.1
co 1.4 1 1 1 a?
a 0
o
0
o Amplitude o 2.7 2.3 f 2nd
-0 Belka 1.3 2.5 2.7 2.2 2 3 2.1 0.6 1.8;
?< tone of PhCG (mm)
1.4 0.9
kiiusdka 1.1 4.4 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.3 0.7 1 0.9 E,
-0 <
a
<
a Duration of 1st
a) tone of MCC; (sect) Belka 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.08 0.07 0.10 0.09 0.1 lt.
Y,
? Mushka 0.09 0.20 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.12 0.1 n.?...- rip
ti 0.09x
co I
X co
co go
F Duration of 2nd Belka 0.05 0.06 -0.07 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.D7 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.082
w tone of PhOG (aeo)
w
co
Musha k 0.07 0.12 0.1 0.09 0.14 0.10 0.08 0.1 0.09 0.08
m 0.088
0 co
to
Mechanical systole Belka 0.24 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.15 0.18 0.18 0.18C::1N
1:-.) o
o
Ni Ni
1 Diehl:a 0.18 0.20 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.17 0
o
0 _
0 Mechanoelectric Belka 0.83 0.70 0.83 0.88 0.90 >
0.8233
5 coefficient - K 0.3 0.82 0.82 0.85
3J Mushlta .0.88
0.7 0.7 o
0.75 1.0 0.67 0.66 0.7' 0.7 0.7
o
m 0.64 0.61
m -1
o Amplitude of 1st o
-1
0 cycle of seismo- Pchyolka 7 7 8 6 9 9 8 9 10 8 0 m
o as
Ni cardiogram (mm). as >
m o
> Amplitude of 2nd m
o w
m cycle cf seismo- Pchyolka 7 6 5 6 9 6 6 7 7
w 5 8
m cardiogrnn (mm) o
o o
o --.1
o o
Duration of 1st Pchyolka 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.21 0.21 0.29 0.41 0.27 0.18 0.19 0.2(8
o
o
o cycle of soismocalrd1oi;r6m (sec)
6 _.
cb
Oa 0
lCD 0
0
97& ar ..So 97
0
O 0
0
O m
a Table 3 a
5' 5'
m w Dynamics of. several indices of tne circulatory system shown by cosmonauts in weightlessness m w
. (average values) .
Cl) w .?
w Circuits w
^ r
Indices Cosmonauts Pre-launch
n' 7 13 23 29 39 c 55 61 71 76 rv
O 10 Cc. 12 co
a 1 ? 2 ? 3 4 5 6 7 8
__....
O 0 :
O Auriculo-vuntricu- Titov G.S. 0.16 0.16 - -
- -0
-0 0.16
-<
-< > 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.12 lar conduction Nikolayev I.G. 0.10 - - >
.75
-0 7'
-0 (sec) Popovich P.R. 0.10 -. 0.10 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.13 - - -
a a

tov a.s. 0.033 0.048 0.046 - - - - - o
o delay - -m
m
w w
6 _ 6
o Mechanical systoleo
o Titov G.S. 0.35 0.47 0.41 - - - - - - - o
o (sec) o
-...] -...]
o o
o o
o o
_.
_.
6 6
'
Table 3 (cont.)
I
.P(27
1 2
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 2:
5'
Duration of 1st w-
m
Bykovsky V.F. 0.14 0.10 0.06 0.08- 0.15 0.13 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.19
cycle of.seismo- C.15
Tcreshkova V.y.0.13 - 0.12- 0.16
0.11- _ _
cardiogram (sec) 0.16 0.12 0.14 _
0.17 _
w
r
rv
0
Duration of 2nd a
cycle of seismo-
Bykovsky V.F. 0i07 - 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.08 0.0,) 0.10 0.12 0.07 0.09 0
0 ?
-0
Tereshkova V.V.0.07 - 0.10 0.06 0.09 0.06 - - - - ,<
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41?
INVESTIGATION OP BIOLOGICAL EFFECT
OF COSIJC RADIATION UNDER CONDITIONS
OF SPACE FLIGHT
By N.L. Sisakyan, V.V. Antipov,
P.P. Saksonov, and V.I. Yazdovsky
(The USSR Academy of Scientes)
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ABSTRACT
The present communication summarizes results of radio-.O-
logical investigations conducted on seven Soviet shins-
satellites (ships-satelliteu 2,4, and 5 and Vostoks 1,2,3,
and 4). For the study of the injuring effect of cosmic radil.=-,,
tion, objects were used which possessed different radiosen-
sitivity and tests were performed reflecting changes in
physiological functions and in hereditary structures of a
cell, an organism. Experiments were conducted on mammals
(dogs, mice, rats, guinea pigs),_fruit flies, plant objects-
seeds of higher plants (wheat, pea, onion, pine, beans,
raddishi carrot, etc.), Tradescantia microspores, culture
of chlorella algae on different nutrient media, numerous
biological and cytological objects on tissue, cellular,
subcellular and molecular levels.
'Analysis of experimental redults has shown that under
the influence of cosmic radiation in a totality with other
flight factors in hereditary structures of different biolb-
gical objects - cells of the marrow of mice, seeds of differ-
ent plants, lysogenic bacteria, Tradescantia microspores,
etc. - disturbances appear which have a small, but statistic-
ally confident value. At the same time it has been establish-
ed that cosmic radiation caused no stable and expressed
changes in life functions of mammals and man.
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?2?
Investigation of the biological effect of cosmic radia-
tion is one of the complicated and at the same time most
urgent problems of cosmic biology and medicine.
Successes of science and rocketry have made it possible
to accumulate by the 'present time relatively extensive data
on physical parameters of cosmic radiation - its composi-
tion, intensity, the energy spectrum and spatial distribu-
tion in circumterrestrial space.
According to present data, cosmic radiation is repre-
sented by galactic rays (primary cosmic radiation), by pro-
tons produced during solar flares and by penetrating radia-
tion of circumterrestrial belts. Due to difficulty of protec-
tion, of practical interest is the biological effect of high-
energy protons and heavy nuclei of galactic radiation (long-
term flights), protons of solar flares and the inner radia-
tion belt with energies of about 100 and more
Investigation of the biological effect of cosmic radia-
tion and its individual components is conducted under condi-
tions of flight experiments on various flying vehicles and
in laboratory experiments with the use of proton accelerators
and more heavy particle accelerators. It is quite evident
that both methods of investigation, which have its advantages
and drawbacks, should complement each other. Let us consider
briefly these two trends.
At present time in some countries, including the USSR,
there are technical possibilities for conducting laboratory
investigations of the biological effect of protons - the
predominant type of radiations in outer space. However, con-
ditions of irradiation by protons at different accelerating
installations considerably differ from those which can be
encountered in flight. The impulse character of irradiation
and large dose rate obtained in experiments with protons at
accelerators certainly affect the results of the biological
effect of radiation which should be taken into account at
the estimate of biological effectiveness of protons of primary
cosmic radiation, of the inner r,diation belt and solar
flares. such le aro biolo&:ists' opportunities for studying
the biological effect of high-energy heavy nuclei in labora-
tory conditions.
The successes in the development of rocketry and aero-
nautics have created the necessary conditions for carrying
out radiobiological investigations in fli.eht experiments.
For these 4urposes high-altitude balloons-aerostats, rockets,
recovered artificial Earth satellites are used.
During flight biological objects carried on board
ships-satellites are subjected not only to the effect of
cosmic radiation, but of other fadtors too - accelerations,
vibrations, weightlessness, etc. Therefore, if we fail to
protect the organism from these factors, and ionizing radia-
tion acts in a complex or against the background of their
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,4
influences., then difficulties naturally arise in the estimate
of the radiobiological effect.
The influence of flight dynamical factors is absent
during experiments at high-altitude balloons. It is more
rational to use balloons for studies of the biological
effect of the heavy component of cosmic radiation lifting
them to heights of 35-40 km. However, at these heights
shields in the form of the Earth's magnetic fields and the
layer of the atmosphere prevent us from studying the entire
spectrum of heavy particles encountered in outer space.
The first experiments on a high-altitude balloon were
conducted with this aim in view by the Soviet scientist
G.G. Prizen in 1935 /1/. The main task of his experiment
was to study, on fruit flies, the role of cosmic radiation
in spontaneous mutation. The exposure of the objects took
place at a height of 15,900 meters during two hours. The
experimenter did not detect the harmful effect of cosmic
radiation and made a conclusion that apparently cosmic radia-
tion could not be considered an evolution factor for earthly
organisms. The same year experiments on aerostats were begun
In the USA too. Extensive use of aerostats for biological
purposes has been made since 1951. The height and duration
of flight were extended: aerostats could be lifted up to 30 km
and flew during approximately 24 hours. Experiments were
conducted on various biological objects: fruit-flies, seeds
of different plants,neurospores, mice, guinea-pigs, etc.
(Simons 2; Simons and Hewitt 3; Pipkin and Sullivan 4; Eugster
and Simons 5). At the same time physical characteristics of
cosmic radiation were investigated, such as density of particle
flux, charge and energy of particles, etc.
Analyzing the results of American investigations con-
ducted on high-altitude balloons one should emphasize that
in the predominant majority of experiments no injuring effect
of cosmic radiation was revealed. ;ffects which can be ascribed
.to the action of cosmic radiation were revealed only in experi-
ments on barleycorn (Eugster and Simons 5), cells of man's
skin (Eugster 6) and in experiments on black mice of the
line Gc7b1. (Chase 7, Simons and Steinmetz 8). In experiments
on barleycorn the appearance of mutations was revealed -
short-sized and ugly forms in the next generation of these
srains. After-flight observations of black mice revealed an
increase of the number of grey hair, and also the fact that
in some cases grey hair was situated on ono line as if along
the track of heavy particles of comic radiation. The appearance
of pigmentized spot was revealed in a human skin strip.Eugater
associated this with the effect of a heavy particle. ,
The absence of the influence of cosmic radiation on
hereditary structure and physiological functions in different
objects in the majority of experiments should be explained
first of all by insufficient height and small duration of
the exposure of biological material.
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In flight experiments conducted by Soviet and American
investigators at high-altitude and ballistic rockets flight
altitude was increased considerably. Aowever, time of expo-
sure of biological objects continued to be insufficient. In
these tests, as in the majority of balloon experiments, it
was impossible to detect and estimate the biological effect
of cosmic radiation (Yazaovsky V.I. et al. 9, Graybiel et
al. 10).
The possibilities of radiobiological investigations
extended considerably with the use of Earth satellites for
these purposes. The historic flight of the dog Laika opened
the series of these experiments.
In the present communication results of radiobiologic-
al investigations conducted on seven Soviet spacecrafts
(ships-satellites 2,4, and 5 and ships Vostok 1,2,3, and 4)
are discussed. For studies of the injuring effect of cosmic
radiation, objects having various radiosensitivity were
used. Tests reflected changes in physiological functions
and hereditary structures of a cell, of an organism.
Viammals (dogs, mice, rats, guinea-pigs), fruit flies,
plant objects-seeds of higher plants (wheat, pea, onion,
pine, beans, radish, carrot, etc.), microspores of Tradescantia
chlorella algae cultures on different nutrient media, numerous
biological and cytological objects at tissue, cellular; sub-
cellular and molecular levels were used in these experiments
(Gyurdzhian A.E. 11, Antipov V.V. et al. 12).
In experiments on -mammals special attention was given
to the study of the state of the blood production system, to
the determination of intermediate exchange products of nuc-
leic acids (desoxycytidine and Dishe of .positive substances),
to the investigation of the state of natural immunity, and
to the determination of the content of serotonin in blood.
Besides, control was conducted over the state of pigmenta-
tion of hair of black mice (line 057b1.). Physiological
changes were investigated on other objects too, such as seeds
of higher plants, microorganisMs, cells of different tissues
in the culture, etc.
The effect of ionizing radiation on hereditary struc-
tures of a cell, of an organism was studied on mice, fruit
flies, seeds of higher plants, lysogenic culture of E. coli,
microspores of Tradescantia paludosa, etc.
The abovementioned biological objects were in flight
from 1.5 to 96 hours at heights of 180-320 km. The total radia-
tion dose received for the period of flights was respective-
ly from 1.5 (during 1.5 hour flight) to 60 mrad (during
96-hour flight) at average dose rate from 7.2 to 1372 mrad
per 24 hours. At these heights at the orbital ineltnation of
65? about 90% of the absorbed dose is caused by primary
cosmic radiation, and 10(7J is due to the Earth's radiation
belts (Nesterov V.E. et al.13).
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? ?
Taking into account biophysical peculiarities of the
heavy componentof galactic rays one may think that biolo-
gical .effectiveness of radiation of this type will be con-
siderably higher than effectiveness of X-rays and gamma?
rays. It is also evident that being sensitizers of ionizThg
radiation, some flight factors intensify the effect of this
radiation. Consequently, even if these peculiarities were
taken into account one could expect that radiation reaction
would be discovered in some biological objects - lysogenic
bacteria, fruit flies, Tradescantia microspores.
'abet are the results of these experiments and how do
they agree with the readings of physical dosimeters?
General clinical observations and special laboratory
studies of peripheral blood, marrow,urine; the state of
'
natural immunity of mammals which flew on orbital ships did
not reveal any indices of radiation injury (A.A. Gyurdzhian
14, V.V. Antipov et al.15:):
Cytogenetic investigations of the marrow and spleen
cells of mice undergone flight on ships 2,4 and 5 have made
it possible to discover some violations of the division
process of the nuclei of these cells. It was shown that
under the influence of flight some changes appear in cells'
nuclei in the form of chromosome reconstructions and chromo-
some sticking Arsenyeva, V.V. Antipov, V.G. Petrukhin
et al.16, 1.A. Arsenyeva, V.V. Antipov et al.17). A question
naturally arose which of the flight factors caused these
changes? The total radiation dose during flight on ship 2
was 10 mrad, and on ships 4 and 5 it did not exceed 2 mrad.
Thus it is difficult to suppose that the cytogenetic effect
in the marrow and spleen cells was caused by cosmic radia-
tion, even if one admits that the RDE coefficient of the
heavy component is 10-20. Further laboratory studies have
Made it possible to establish that violations of the divi-
sion processes of cellular nucleus, similar to those which
were detected in cells of the marrow and spleen of mice after
flight, can appear not only at the action of ionizing radia-
tion, but also under the action of vibrations, accelerations
and their combinations. Consequently, one may think that
during flight this effect was caused by the action of dyna-
mical factors, and, first of all, "vibrations and accelera-
tions (I.A. Arsenyeva, V.V. Antipov et al.17).
Fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) of different
lines were exposed on ships during all flights. The effect
of flight factors, and first of all, cosmic radiation on this
object was estimated by the influence of the frequency of
the appearance of dominant and sex-coupled recessive lethal
mutations, as well as on the frequency of the appearance of
primary nondivergence of X-chromosomes.
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t.1
Analysis of experimental material first of all indi-
cates the absence of distinct dependence of genetic changes
in Drosophila melanogaster on flight duration. Considering
Ya.L. Glembotsky's data (18) on the influence of space flight
factors on the frequency of the appearance of sex-coupled
recessive lethal mutations one can see that these statistic-
ally confident changes were detected during flights on
orbital ships 2 and 4 and Vostok 1. At the same ti;pe they
were absent during flights of orbital ship 5 and Vostok 2.
In experiments with fruit flies the mutagenic effect was
absent also during flights of space ships Vostok 3 and
Vostok 4. The statistically confident effect was detected
from dominant lethals in experiments on ships 2 and 4. In
experiments on Vostok 2,3,4 the effect was statistically
not confident (G.P. Parfyonov 18). The influence on the
frequency of the appearance of primary nondivergence of
X-chromosomes was investigated on Vostoks 1,2 and 3. In
experiments on Vostoks 1.and 2 the genetic effect was statis-
tically confident, and in an experiment on Vostok 3 it was
absent completely (N.P. Dubinin et al.13).
How to explain the appearance of hereditary changes
of fruit flies insome flights and the absence of them in
other flights? In Ya.L. Glembotsky's opinion, the genetic
effect hardly was caused by the action of vibrations and
accelerations. If this effect depended on vibrations and
accelerations, then their mutagenic action should take place
in all seven flights. Hereditary changes in fruit flies '
apparently are not associated with weightlessness, since in
experiments the appearance of the effect did not depend on
the increase of time of the action of weightlessness. The
authors believe that the leading role in the appearance of
genetic effects in fruit flies during flight belongs to the
heavy component of galactic rays. It is quite evident that
this supposition requires further experimental proofs by
laboratory tests elucidatin:; the coLibined effect of vibra-
tions, accelerations and ionizing radiation on hereditary
structures, as well as by flight experiments with great
duration of flight.
To estimate the biological effect of cosmic radiation
lysogenic bacteria were used which react to the action of
relatively small doses of ionizing radiation (0.2 - 0.1 rad)
by induced phagoproduction. As was shown by investigations
conducted in the USSR under the leadership of Professor
N.H. Zhukov-Verezhnikov, the system of lysogenic bacteria,
in particular E. coli K-12 ), is a very convenient
biological model for genetic investigations which permit to
record molecular changes, i.e. changes in the state and
exchange of bacterial and phagous desoxyribonucleic acid.
Lysogenic bacteria were exposed on orbital ships 4 and
5 and on Vostoks 1,2,3 and 4. Analyzing the experimental
material obtained one should note that only in experiments
on ships Vostok 3 and Vostok 4 the statistically confident
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inducihg effect of flight factors on lysogenic bacteria E.
coli K-12 (A) was discovered. The inducing effect was
more expressed in experiments on space ship Vostok 3 than 1.
in experiments on Vostok 4 (N.H. Zhukov-Verezhnikov et al.19)
As pointed out above, the method has made it potsible.
to reveal the inducing effect of ionizing radiation within;
the limits of 0.2 - 0.4 rad. However, it does not follow
from this that discovered induction of lysogenic bacteria
in experiments on space ships was associated with the action
of only cosmic radiation in small doses. Apparently the
detected inducing genetic effect is caused by the complex
action of vibrations, accelerations, weightlessness, and
ionizing radiation. This supposition is confirmed by labora-
? tory investigations which shows the capability of Vibration
to increase significantly the sensitivity of lysogenic bacteriE
to the action of ionizing radiation (N.E. Zhukov-Verezhnikov
et al.19).
Dry seeds of higher plants were exposed in all seven
ships-satellites. Seeds of wheat and pea are investigated
in more detail in genetic aspect. If we sum up the data
on all seeds which flew on apaceships and corresponded to
the control ones, then statistically confident difference
will be revealed between experimental and control materials.
This is explained mainly by the fact that due to large
quantity of the analyzed material confidence of difference
is strongly increased. Analysis of data obtained has shown
also that small, but statistically confident increase of
the percentage of chromosome seconstructions in cells of
roots of embryos of air-dry wheat and pea seeds did not
depend on duration of flight (V.V. Khvostova et al.20).
Thus difficulties are quite evident which arouse at
the estimate of the sole of this or that flight factor in
the genetic effect in seeds of higher plants. Those diffi-
culties are increased by the absence of sufficiently full
laboratory data on the influence of vibration and complex
effect of ionizing radiation and dynamical flight factors
on hereditary structures of seeds. In this connection of
some importance is the fact that the mutagenic effect was
revealed in barley seeds after balloon flight. This effect
was sufficiently well explained by the action of cosmic
radiation nuclei (Eugster and Simons 5). Therefore, if we
assume that chromosome disturbances in seeds of wheat, pea,
pine, beans etc. (see Delone R.L. et al.21, their experi-
ment on Vostok 3) are caused mainly by cosmic radiation,
then how can we explain the fact that the mutagenic effect
is not increased with the increase of the time of flight,
i.e. with the increase of the ionizing radiation dose? It
is quite evident that to explain the causes of this interest-
ing phenomenon, further control experiments are needed in
laboratories and on space vehicles (for instance, with
protective means against different flight factors).
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Let us briefly consider the results of biological
experiments carried out by A.G. Nikolayev and. P.R. Popovich
under conditions of space flight. In these experiments the
influence of flight factors was investigated, and, first
of all, of cosmic radiation and weightlessness on the process
of fecundation, the growth and development of the organism,
and on the processes of division of cellular nuclei.
Experiments were carried out on Drosophila melanoi:;aster
and microspores of Tradescantia paludopa. These experiments
thave shown the possibility of copulation, egg laying and
normal development of fruit flies under weightlessness (un-
published data of G.P. Parfyonov et al.). In experiments
on Tradescantia microspores the part of the material was
fixed by P.R. Popovich after 56 hours after launching which
excluded the influence of vibrations and accelerations act-
ing on the object during the ship's descent. As a result
of an analysis of the material received a now type of re-
constructions has been revealed - spherical fragments which
were recorded not only in the metaphase, anaphase and tele-
phase, but also in the prophase and interphase. /Beaides,
different disturbances of mitosis have been observed, for
instance, nondivergence of chromosome complexes, etc.
(N.L. Delone et al.22). The results of the flight experi-
ment with Tradescantia microspores carried out by Ccsmonaut
V.F. Bykovsky should help find the causes of these changes.
He managed to fix the experimental material three times
during flight, and thus the opportunity is offered to differ-
entiate the action of vibrations and accelerations appearing
at the ship's ascent and descent duo to the influence of
weightlessness and cosmic radiation. The treatment of the
material obtained is not yet completed. However, preliminary
results give grounds to believe that the aims set in the
experiment will be fulfilled in a full volume.
, Of great interest are the experiments carried out on
the American satellite Discoverer XVII. The satellite carried
cultures of tissues of man's organism - cells of synevial
membrane of the joint and cells of the eye's conjunctiva,
different human and animal blood preparations as well as
bacterial spores stable to temperature and algae culture.
As is known, the flight of this satellite coincided with
a very intensive solar flare. The biological objects under
test were subjected to irradiation by the total dose of
30-35 rad. However, during laboratory studies made on these
objects no effect of cosmic radiation was detected except
for bacterial spores. It is evident that, unfortunately,
the investigation methods used turned to be insufficiently
sensitive (E. Eulban 23).
From the not complete list of papers cited in the
present report it is evident that extensive work has been
done by Soviet and American scientists on selecting objects
and developing adequate tests for studies of the biological
effect of cosmic radiation. The ektensive experimental materi-
al obtained in flight experiments on aerostats, high-altitude
and ballistic rockets, ships-satellites may be essentially
regarded as background data for further radiobiological in-
vestigations in the cosmos. Rapid successes in the develop-
ment of rocketry give grounds to believe that opportunities
for conducting such investigations will be extended in the
near future.
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?9-.
REFERENCES
1. G.G. Frizen, Doklady Acad. Sci. USSR, 1,14,1936.
2. D.G. Simons, J. Aviat. Med., 1554, 25, 4.
3. D.G. Simons, and E. Hewitt. Aerospace Ned. 1961,
32, 10.
4. S.B. Pipkin, and 'LW. Sullivan, Aerospace Med.,
1959, 30, 3.
5. J. Eugster and D.G. Simons, X International
Astronaut Congress, hoc. 1960, 1, 113.
6. J. Eugstor, Ztschr. ferr grztlicho Vorbildung,
1957, 51, 13.
7. H.B. Chase, J. Aviat. Med., 1954, 27, 2.
8. D.G. Simons, and C.H. Steinmetz, J.Aviat. Med.,
1956, 27, 2.
9. V.I. Yazdovsky, A.V. Pokrovsky, and A.D. Soryapin,
Conference on Aviation Medicine, Abstract,
Moscow 1957.
10. Graybiel A. et al.X International Astronaut.
Congress, London 1959, 1, Wien, 1960.
11. A.A. Gyurdzhian, a paper in Problems of Space
Biology, (a book), 1962, 2, 93.
12. V.V. Antipov, U.N.. Bayovsky, 0.0. Gazonko et al.,
a paper in. Problems of Space Biology, 1962, 1,267.
13. V.E. Nesterov, W.F. Pisarenko, I.A. Savenko, and
P.I. Shsvrin, in Problems of Space Biology,
1962, 2, p.170.
14. A.A. Gyurdzhian, a paper in Problems of Space
Biology, 1962, 1, 27.
15. V.V. Antipov, V.W..Dbbrov, and P.P. Saksonov,
in Problems of Space Biology,- 1963, 3.
16. M.A. Arsenyeva, V.V. Antipov, V.G. Potrukhin
et al., Artificial Earth Satellites, 1961, 10,32.
17. iI.A. Arsonyeva, V.V. Antipov, V.G. Potrukhin
et al., a paper in Problems of Space Biology,
1962, 2, 116.
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?
- 10-
16. Ya.L. Glombotsky, Yu.A. Lapkin, Parfyonov,
and E.1.1. Kamshilova, Kosmich, .issled. (Space
Research), 1963, 2.
lg. N.H. Zhukov?Verezhnikov, I.N. idaisky,
V.I. Yazdovsky et. al., .3u11. Experimental Biol.
and Lodicinc, 1963,1_0.
?O. Khvostova, 3.A. Gostinsky, V.S. TJozhayeva,
and L.V. Novzgodina, Kosmich. Isslod., 1963, 1.
21. L.K. Gordon, N.L. Dolene, V.V. Antipov,
V.G. Vysotsky, Kosmich. Issled., 1963, 2.
22. E.J. Bulban, Aviat. Week and Space Tochn.,
1961, .74, 1, AO.
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PROBLEMS OF RADI/TION SAFETY OF SPACE
FLIGHTS
By Yu.M. Volynkin, P.P. Saksonov,
V.V. Antipov and I.A. Savenko -
(The USSR Academy of Sciences)
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ABSTRACT
The main problems of radiation safety of space flights
are discussed:
? investigation of physical parameters of cosmic radia-
tion - the spectrum of components and their energies, deter-
mination of ionizing radiation in space and in time, etc.;
determination of relative biological effectiveness of
individual components of cosmic radiations;
elucidation of specific contribution of cosmic radia-
tion to the biological effect of space flight factors;
investigation of the effect of cosmic radiation on
heredity and variability of organisms;
determination of admissible limit radiation doses for
space flights;
development of methods of dosimetry of ionizing radia-
.tions aboard space vehicles;
development of effective means of physical and pharmaco-
Ihemical protection of organisms against radiations;
prediction of radiation situation in outer space;
selection of orbits least dangerous in radiation aspect.
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2
Biological experiments conducted on different space
vehicles, astrophysical investigations of outer space, and,
at last, flights of Soviet and American astronauts have
convincingly demonstrated radiation safety of short-time
orbital flights below the Earth's radiation belts and in
the absence of enhanced solar activity. Radiation doses
received by cosmonauts are small and cannot exert harmful
influence on man's Organism.
However, at more prolonged flights with the crossing
of the radiation belts, and especially during solar flares,
ionizing radiation can become a real threat to human health
and life.
Consequently, today the problems of ensuring radiation
safety of space flights are not only of theoretical interest
but also of practical importance. Let us briefly discuss
the main problems. This is, first of all, the study of
relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of protons and
heavy nuclei of different energies, the investigation of
the combined action of these particles (together with
other flight factors) on the organism, and the development
of effective physical, biological and pharmacological
protective agents.
It is quite evident that 'successful study of the
biological effect of cosmic radiation and development of
effective protective measures are inconceivable without
maximally full information about physical characteristics
of cosmic radiation: the composition, energy spectrum of
individual components, density and spacial distribution.
Alongside the acquisition of data on the physics of cosmic
radiation the investigation should be made of biophysical
peculiarities of the action of the heavy component.
The solution of the above mentioned tasks is closely
associated with the successful development of the methods
of physical and biological dosimetry of ionizing radiations
which in the system of measures ensuring radiation safety
of space flights occupies the prominent place. Due to
imperfection of methods of physical dosimetry of high-energy
particles, especially on the present stage of research it
is rational to check physical measurements carried out
during flights by biological reactions using for these
purposes the most investigated radiobiological objects.
v".
k 12 Let us briefly discuss the problem of relative biologic-
, \ , al effectiveness of individual components of cosmic radia-
,f tion, and, first of all, protons - the predominant type of
penetrating radiations in outer space.
At present the biological effect of high-energy pro-
tons, their RBE, as compared to X-rays and gamma rays, are
investigated mainly in laboratory conditions at different
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3
accelerating installations. Experiments were conducted on
different biological objects: monkeys (Zellmer and Allen
1961), dogs (A. Lebedinsky, Yu. Nefedov, N. Ryzhov et al.
1962), rats, mice (E. Kurlandskaya et al. 1959, 1961, 1962,
G. Avrunina et al. 1961, V. Fyodorova and G. Avrunina 1959,
V. Antipov, B. Razgovorov, V. Shashkov et al. 1962), fruit
flies (Ye. Glembotsky et al. 1962, G. Parfyonov et al, 1962),
dry seeds of higher plants (V. Khvostova at al. 1962,
L. Gordon et al. 1962).
The most complete data are obtained in experiments on
mice and rats. In these experiments RBE was estimated
according to survival rate, and change of the blood produc-
tion system. Comparative investigations were made of canceri-
genic effect of protons and X-rays. (E. Kurlandskaya et al,
1962, M. Raushenbakh, V. Antipov, B. Davydov et al. 1963).
Analyzing data in literature and results of our Own
investigations we can conclude that RBE of protons with
energies of 120-660 Mev does not exceed 1 for rats, mice,
fruit flies, seeds of higher plants. For monkeys (Zellmer
et al.) and dogs (A. Lebedinsky et al.) RBE of protons with
energies of 730 and 550 Mev lies within the limits 1-2. It
should be stressed that the above mentioned experiments,
especially on monkeys and dogs, are not numerous. Therefore,
they require repetition and more precise character of experi-
mentation under identical irradiation conditions with the
use of the same estimation tests. Of great interest will
be further studies of remote consequences of irradiation -
the cancerigenic and leukemic effects of protons as well
as studies of the biological effect of protons with energies
less than 100 Mev whose RBE according to calculations, should
be higher than that of protons with energies of 120-660 Mev.
Estimating RBE of high-energ. protons obtained at
different accelerating installations one should take into
account the impulse character of irradiation and large dose
rates. These factors should certainly affect results of
the biological effect of radiation, and, therefore, they
should be taken into account at tentative determination
of RBE of protons of primary cosmic radiation, the inner
radiation belt and solar flares. Unfortunately up till
present time it was impossible to conduct flight experi-
ments for estimating satisfactorily relative biological
effectiveness of protons of outer space.
Still less experimental data are available on biologic-
al effectiveness of alpha-particles (helium nuclei) and
nuclei of more heavy elements. On the basis of calculations,
RBE of these particles are taken to be equal 2-10, and,
according to some tests, more than 10. Further studies of
RBE of heavy particles are closely connected with develop-
ment of engineering of nuclear research, with creation of
more powerful accelerating installations as well as with
extension of radiobiological research in outer space.
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The problem of investigating the complex influence
of ionizing radiation and other flight factors (vibration,
acceleration, weightlessness, changed gaseous composition,
etc.) on the organism is also very urgent.
Experimental data on this problem are almost absent.
However it is very important to know what is the specific
contribution of cosmic radiation to the general a6tion of
flight factors on the human organism. It is also very import-
ant to know what is the influence of other flight factors
?
on qualitative and quantitative aspects of the biological
radiation effect: Without these data it is imposstble to
sive scientifically substantiated recommendations on
pharmacotherapy and prophylax$s of radiation injuries.
Our investigations (V: Antipov, B. Davydov, V. Vysotsky
1962, T. Lvova and N. Suprunenko 1961, 1962, 1963, etc.)
indicate that acceleration and vibration exert different
influence on the development of radiation injuries which
depends on the succession of the application of these
factors. For instance, the effect of vibration and accelera-
tion on the fifth-seventh day after irradiation aggravate
the development of radiation sickness (reaction). If, how-
ever, vibration and acceleration are used before irradia-
tions they do not aggravate the radiation effect. Moreover,
they even lessen it slightly.
The absence of sufficient experimental data on RBE
and on combined action of flight factors and radiation pre-
vent us from giving scientifically substantiated recommenda-
tions on permissible limit radiation levels for astronauts:
The limit permissible dose of cosmic radiation for
cosmonauts (25 rem) for flight of duration from several
days to one year, which we recommend, is based on calculat-
ed physical data with the account of radiobiological experi-
mental and clinical facts about the injuiring effect of
ionizing radiation under terrestrial conditions. Apparently
transfer of these data to cosmic radiation is inadmissible
without reservations. Therefore, the recommendation on .
permissible dose of 25 rem should he regarded as temporary.
With the acquisition of experimental data on the biological
effect of individual components of cosmic radiation, on
the effectiveness of radioprotective compounds this dose
will be altered.
Of great practical and theoretical interest is the
problem of finding effective radioprotective pharmaco-
chemical compounds. Their use will permit to decrease the
weight of physical protection, thus decreasing the weight
of a flying vehicle and increasing the time of flight-.
By the efforts of many scientists working in this
sphere, preparations are discovered, and synthecized capable
of protecting the organism against lethal doses of ionizing
radiation. However, the majority of these preparations may
be hardly used under specific conditions of space flight.
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We believe that pharmacological preparations designed
as individual protective means of the crew against the
injuring effect of cosmic radiation should meet the follow-
ing main requirements: They should have high effectiveness
combined with nontoxicity, they should not exert any addi-
tional action during repeated long-time use, they should
not cause even short.-time loss of working capacity (per-
formance), they should not exert negative influence on
.resistance of the organism to the action of different
flight factors-overloads, psychic stress, weightlessness,
etc.
One should take into account that apparently pharmaco-
chemical means of protection against radiation should be
used not only for cosmonauts, but also, for the whole bio-
complex of a space ship.
We have treated only some radiobiological problems
which, in our mind, are not only of theoretical, but also
frf great practical importance in the solution of the problem
of the protection of the cosmonaut from the injuring effedt
of cosmic radiation. Of exceptional interest is also the
study on problems of the genetic effect of cosmic radiation,
of the biological effect of the heavy component: etc. These
problems deserve special discussion. However, it should be
noted that Soviet geneticists have accumulated extensive
material on the action of different space flight factors
on the genetic apparatus of various biological objects.
(N.N. Zhukov-Verezhnikov et al. 1960, 1961, 1962, N.P, Dubinin
et al. 1960, 1961, 1962, M.A. Arsenyeva et al. 1961, 1962,
Ya.L, Glembotsky et al. 1961, 1962, G.P. Parfyonov, 1961,
V.V. Khvostova et al., N.L. Delone ot alit 1962, N.I. Nuzhdin
et al. 1963).
The solution of the above mentioned problems will make
it possible to work out a scientifically substantiated
system of measures guaranteeitg radiation safety of space
flights. One of the possible schemes of this system partly
checked during flights of Soviet space pilots envisages:
the selection of orbits not
respect;
the prediction of radiation
especially solar flares;
dangerous in radiation
situation in outer space,
reliable dosimetric control of radiation levels in
the cabin of a space ship;
effective physical, pharmaco-chemical and biological
means protecting astronauts from the injuring effect of
cosmic radiation.
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6
Thus the consideration of some principal radiobiologicel
problems has shpwn that in this shpere there are very many
unsolved questions. This is understandable since space radio-
biology is a very young branch of young science - space
biology. However, there are grounds to believe that combined
efforts of? scientists of different specialitiies, representa-
tives of different countries of the world, will lead to a
successful solution of the problem of radiation safety of
space flights in near outer space.
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TH:p J,Nsunirq OF RADIATION SAFETY.
DURING FLIGHT? OF SOVIT COSflONAUTS
? ?
Y4.A. GAGAIE, G.S. TNY1L_A.G. NI-
KOLAYEV AND .2.R. ytFOVICH
By Yu.'L. Volynkin, P.P. Sakuonov,
V.V. Antipov, N.N. Dobrov, and
Nikitin
(The USSR Academy of Sciences)
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Ltik/
ABSTRACT
A system of radiation safety measures during manned
space flights Provided prediction of radiation situation
in outer space, measurements of the integral dose and. dose
rate directly on a ship-satellite, biological dosimetry
of cosmic radiation as well as use of pharmaco-chemical
antiradiation agents in case of emergency. The results '
.obtained have made it possible to estimate positively the
radiation safety system of?manned space flight:
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During flight along the orbit of the ship Vostok a
apace pilot is subjected to the action of primary cosmic
radiation (galactic rays) and Bremsstrahlung produced at
the interaction of the outer radiation bolt electrons with
the ship's hull. The possibility is not also excluded of
small irradiation by protons of the inner radiation belt
which, for instance, in the region of the Brazilian magnetic
anomaly descends to heights of 230-320 km.
According to E.N. Vernov et al. (1), V.E. Nesterov
et al. (2), at altitudes of 180-340 km at the orbital in-
clination. of 65?, approximately 90 per cent of the absorbed
dose is duo to primary cosmic radiation, and 10 per cent
is due to radiation of the Earth's radiation belts. It
should be noted that strongly ionizing heavy nuclei, whichi
as protons, can cause nuclear disintegration stars in the
biological object, constitute the part of primary cosmic
radiation. Taking into account biological peculiarities of
the action of the heavy component, one 'should expect that
biological effectiveness of radiation of this type will be
much higher than the effectiveness of X-rays and gamma rays.
Ueasuroments carried out aboard spaceships-satellites
TI-V and ships Vostok have shown that at these heights the.
integral 24-hour radiation dose varies within 8-15 milli-
rads. It is quite evident that even high biological effective-
ness for the heavy component of primary cosmic. radiation is
taken into account, the radiation dose received during shox-t-
time flights at heights of 180-250 km is not dangerous.
At those hei6hts protons produced durin solar flares
constitute a real threat for the cosmonaut's health. Solar
protons have energy from several Lev to 700 iev, and in some
Oases their energy Cm reach several Bev.
After mihty solar flares the intensity of cosmic rays
at large distances from the ii;arth beyond the magnetic field
is increased by thousanth and even tons of thousands times.
This leads to an enormous increase of doses up to lethally
dangerous levels on the order of 500 rad. In orbits of ships
of the Vostok type whcre the shielding effect of the .2arth's
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magnetic field is felt, the irradiation dose decreases reach-
ing several tens of rads per flare. Taking into aecount
that protons of solar flares act in a complex or against
the background of other flight factors increasing radiation,
reaction, there are grounds to suppose that under these
coalitions the dose of several tens of rad will be danger-
ous for the cosmonaut's health.
Production of solar flares occurs without ay definite-
ly expressed regularity in time. Therefore, the probability
of getting into a flare of different intensity depends on
average probability of its appearance and on duration of
flight.
Besides protons of solar flares, ionizing radiation
caused by the American high-altitude explosion over Johnson
Island in the Pacific Ocean on July 8, 1962, constituted
a grave danger for space pilots A.G. Nikolayev and P.R. Po-
povich. Taking into account the above mentioned, the system
of measures guaranteeing radiation safety during flights
of ships Vostok provided for
prediction of radiation situation in outer space;
measurement of the integral dose and the dose rate
directly on a ship-satellite;
. biological dosimetry of cosmic radiation;
use of pharmaco-chemical antiradiation agents under
conditions of emergency.
To predict radiation situation in outer space the
"solar service" was established to observe the state of
solar activity. This service functioned before and during
flight. Astrophysical observatories and heliophysical sta-
tions situated at different points of the Soviet Union
conducted continuous optical, magnetic and radio observa-
tions of the Sun. Besides, in the upper atmosphere direct
measurements of the intensity of radiations were carried
out by means of the instrumentation lifted on balloons.
Balloon flights were accomplished six-seven times during
24 hours in different places of the USSR, including polar
regions. Information obtained about radiation situation in
outer space enabled the organizers of flight to take deci-
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,sions on the accomplishment of flight and its successive
program. -
To increase radiation safety tho ships had the
necessary design shield which protected the cabin against
penetration of some part of cosmic radiation, and which,
to a considerable degree, protected the cabin against the
effect of radiation associated with the nuclear explosion
in outer space.
The astronauts were provided by special radioprotec-
tive compounds for the case of sharp deterioration of radia-
tion situation for prophylaxis of the injuring effect of
'radiation.
Dosimetric control on ships Vostok 1 and Vostok 2
was carried out by means of individual dosimeters ILK, IFK
and thermoluminescent glassos. The total dose for flight
was less than 1 mrad in Y.A. Gagarin's flight and 12 mrad
in G.S. Titov's flight.
In connection with the increase of flight time of
ships Vostok 3 and Vostok 4, special on-board dosimetric
instrumentation was installed whose telemetry readings were
transmitted to ground observation points. Besides, the sot
of individual dosimeters was extended. Apart from dosimeters
with which Yu.A. Gagcrin and G.3. Titov were provided,
A.G. Nikolayev and P.iZ. I?epovic. had DKP-50, nuclear photo-
emulsions, etc.
According to data of on-board dosimeters, the total
dose during the Vostok 3 flight was 43 1 mrad, and dur-
ing the Vostok 1. flight it was 32 + 1 mrad (S.N. Verna)",
Savenko et al. 3).
Readiiiis of individual dosimeters D1CP-50 did not go
out of the limits of errors caused by self-discharge.
According to data obtained by means of individual
4 dosimeters placed on cosmonauts, the absorbed dose was from
46 to 64 mrad for A-G. Nikolayev, and. from 37 to 46 mrad
for P.R. Popovich (see I.B. Kerim-Larkus et al. 4).
The set of ionizing radiation detectors situated in
the bioblock has made it poesible to estimate radiation .
conditions in which biological experiments were conducted.
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According to the data of the study of nuclear photoemulsions
and'scintillation dosimeters, the integral dose in places
of location of bioblocks on the ship Vostok 3 was 56 + 8
mrad, and on Vostok 4 it was 45 + 7 mrad during flight.
The contribution of charged particles to the, integral dose
was about 40 per cent, and approximately two thirds of this
contribution fell to heavy nuclei (Z:1"). According to the
data a dosimeters In and ILK, during flight the total
Jose was about 50-60 mrad (V.N. Lebedev, V.S. liorozev et
al. 5).
Thus the average dose rate of radiation during flights
of Space ships Vostok 3 and Vostok 4 was 13 t 2 mrad per
24 hours, i.e.:noticeably exceeded the dose rate observed
on Vostok 1 (7.2 mrad/24 hours) and on Vostok 2 (6.4 mrad/
24 hours). The increase of the dose rate may be accounted
for by possible residual radiation caused by the high-
altitude nuclear explosion on July 8, 1962.
As evident from the above cited results of measure-
ments, integral doses obtained by different methods agree
with each other within the measuring errors. As is well-
known, these doses do not exceed the norm established for
persons working with penetrating radiation sources, and
are not dangerous for human health.
Alongside the above mentioned instrumentation, differ-
ent biological objects were carried aboard spaceships: air-
dry seeds of plants (wheat, pea, onion, pine, cabbage,
carrot, etc.), microspores.of Tradescantia paludosa, lyso-
genic culture of E. coli K-12 (A), Drosophila melanogast-
er, human cancer cells, eggs of swine's Ascaris. These
objects were used for biological dosimetry of cosmic radia-
tion, and for investigation of the injuring effect of flight
factors, including ionizing radiation, on hereditary. struc-
tures and physiological functions of a cell, of an organ-
ism.
It should be noted that results of radiobiological
investigations agree quite satisfactory with the data of
physical measurements. These experiments have shown that
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injuring effect of flight factors on humditary structnn.o
of some objects may be revealed by means.of genetic tests.
c).r instance, different disturbances of mitosis were observ-
ed in sprouts of wheat.(V.V. Thvostova et al. 6), in micro-
spores of Trad.escantia (Lk.. Delon:: et al. 7), an inducing
effect is detected in lysogenic bacteria, (N.N. Zhukov-
Verezhnikov et al. 8). It should be emphasized that these
effects are not 'great in a cluntitative respect. At the same
time fie Use of phyaiolqical methods of research has not 4
permitted to reveal any expressed chan7cs typical of radia-
tion injury in life functions of different objects.
The revealed 4;enetic changes probably are caused by
the effect of a totality of flight factors, including ioniz-
ing radiation in smell docs. The possibility is not exclud-
ed that such factors, as vibration, accelerations etc.
are sensitizers for seii.e objects, as far as the effect of
cosmic radiation is concerned. In our opinion, the supposi-
tion that the above mentioned injurios of hereditary struc-
tures are specific and arc caused by the heavy component
of galactic rays is less substantiated. It is quite evident
that the causes and mechanism of genetic disturbances
observed in some biological objects under the influence of
flight factors require further investigations.
General clinical observations and special laboratory
examinations of Yu.A. Gagarin, G.S. Titov, A.G. 'filkolayev
and.P.R. Popovich regularly conducted after completion of
fli6ht also confirm convincingly that during these flights.
there was no negative effect of cosmic radiation on space
pilots' health.
? Thus, the results obtained permit to estimate positive-
,ly the system .of 'measures used to.twarantse radiation safety
during manned space fli:hts on board ships of the Vostok
type.
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RUB NOES
1. S.N. Vernov, I.A. Savenko, P.I. Shavrin,
V.E. Westerov, and N.F. Pisarenko, .
Artificial ?arth Satollitea, 1961, 10, 34.
2i V.E. Nesterov, Y.F. Pisaronko, I.A. Savenko,
and P.I. Shavrin, an article in a book Problems
? of Space Biology, 1964 II, 170.
.3. I.A. Savenko, N.P. Pisarenko, P.1. Shavrin,
and V.E. Nesterov, Kosmicheskie issledovaniya
(Space Rosearch), 1963, 1.
4. I.B. Kerim-ilarkus, N.A. Sergoyeva, and
L.N. Uspensky, Kosmich. Issled.0'1963, 1.
5. V.N. Lebedov, J.c. orozov, G.P.
E.D. Nikitin, and Salatskaya, Kosmich.
Issled., 1963, 2,
6. V.V. Khvostova, S.A. Gostimcky, V.S, Eozha-
' yeva, and L.V. Wevzdoina, Kosmich. Issled.,
1963, 1.
7. N.D. Delone, Popovich, V.V. Ant ipov,
and V.G. Vysotsky,.Kosmich. Issled., 1963, 2.
S. N.W. Zhukov-Verechnikov, 1.1q. Naisky,
A.P. Pokhov, N.'. Rybakov, G.P. Tribulov, -
P.P. Saksonov, B.A. Fischenko, Antipov,
K.D: Rybakova, Parfyonov, V.V. Pantyu-
khina, and E.D. Anisky, Bull. Experimental
Biology and ..1..edicine, 1963, 10.
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.1th -
4tt
ON THE BIOLOGICAL 'EFFECT.- OF HIGH?ENERGY
PaoTo NS -
By -P.Pi .Saksonov, V.V. Antipov, V.S..Shashkov,
B.L. Haz3evol'ov, G.2. 1:lurin, and V.S. Horozov
(The. USSR Academy of 2iedica1 Sciences)
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ABSTRACT
Reaults are discussed:cofet.investigation into the
inauring effect of protons With 'energies 660 and 120 Mev
aided at determination of 'relative biological effectiveness
:TRBE),ofttheee particies'and of the investigation On'Mice
into:radioproteCtiVe-properties. of cystamine, serotonin,
etc,. under conditiani-ofrirradiation'by protons. Experiments
Were:oarrie4 out On. different biological objects (tate,
mice, .fruit files etc.) with the use of different techni-
- qup'of'inVestigations.
.The .experiments have town that RBE of protons with ?
energiea,660' and 1207Mev.for ID was.0.7 for mice and rats.
The same resUlts'were -Obtained during relative estimates
of chromosome disturbances in celle of the marrow of mice,
in'spronts,of seede of higher plants, during determination.
'CI re6etaiVe sex-coupled and dominant lethal mutations of
? tioSOlohila melanogastei.
?
?
The effedtiveness is shown of site pharmaco-chemical
laubetance$ (cystamine, serotonin, *etc.) used as protective
agents un.dar conditions-of the effect of high-energy
protOns.
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In the era of the conquest of outer space by man the
problem of the biological effect of cosmic radiations on
living organisms is not only of a theoretiCall but also
of-great practical importance.
dosmic radiation, especially during long-time flights
beyond the Earth's magnetic field, will be one of the main
obstacles 'on the path of the conquest of interplanetary
space (1,2). From a practiCal point of view, in the-aspect
of radiation danger, of 'special interest are Oerpuscular
,iradiations high-energy protons and heavy mUltiply charged
nuclei.
It is assumed that if We have satisfactory information
about physical characteristics of cosmic radiation,Hthe
absence of sufficient data on Relative Biological Effeetive-
ness (RBE) of individual components of cosmic radiation is
the 'main Obstacle for establishing scientifically substantiat-
? ed permissible radiation levels and developing effective
Protective measures.
RBE of different types of radiations, corpuscular
radiations included, depends on many factors., Ionization
density. and linear energy lesses,during the passage of
radiation's tough matter play great role in this respect.
It iflnewn that the increase :f specific ionization from.
: 3 to 100 ion pairs Pet 1 micron of the path affects little
RBE which remains approximately equal.tounityc The increase
of ionization density from 100 to 1000 ion pairs per 1
Siornn gives the RBE inerease proportionally to the :specific
ionization logarithM-(3).. It should be emphasited that, at
the:estiMate of RBE, 'alongside physical peculiarities of
the action of radiations, one should also' take into account
- biological peculiarities, the level of organization and the
110:notional state of a Cellimrgan, system 'or tm integral
organism, as well as the character of tests by means of
which the relative effectiveness of different types of
radiations is determined.
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???
Protons are known to be the. moot widely spread kind of
penetrating radiation in outer Space. They constitute 85, per
cent Of primary cosmic radiation (galactic, rays), they are
generated in large quantities during solar flares, and are.
the part of radiation of inner and'outer radiation belts. ..
At present only 'first Steps are taken in the determine-7:
tion of RBE of 'protons. According to data by .E.B. Kurlandskaya...
et al. (4) and'G.A'.. Avrunina (5), biological effectiveness
of protons Partied to be not higher, and for some indices.
(mortality ra6e, variation:ormorphological compocition.of
peripherigblood) even lower than biological effectiveness
of X-rays. For inatance, RBE for LD50 is; 0.55 for mice and
0.65 for rats, respectively.. A.V. Lebedinsk Yu.G. Nefedov,
N.I. Ryzhov et al. (6) have found that the RBE coefficient
of protons with the energy 510 Mev is 0.8 for rats and
1.2 for dogs. ?
According to R.V. Zellmer and R.G. Allen (7), the RBE.
coefficient for protons with the energy?750 Mev, as compared
to gamma ray, amounts to approximately 2. This conclusion
is made by them on the basis of experiments with monkeys.
in which BE was estimated from time of appearance, the
graveness of the process of development of iridocyclitel .
erythemas and other injurie8 of sight's organs. According .
to P. Bonet-Maury; A. DeySine et al. (8), RBE for protons
with the enargy of 157 'Mev for LD56-for rats amounts to .
0.77 + 0.1, ai compared to X-rays. ?
In this report we present results ft experiments for
studies of RBE of protons with the energy 660 and 120 Mev
whose specific ionization is.6 and 20 ion pairs per micron?
respectively (Ga. Murin, V.S. Morozov et al.). The experi-
ments were conducted on Various biological objects with the.
use of different methods of investigation. The objects were
irradiated in'a pulsed proton" beam' of- the synchrocyclotron
of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at.Dubna with
the current density of 108 - 109 particles per square cm
per sec. The number of pulses was about 100 per 1 sec. with
the duration of 200-400 Msed each. In our experiments the
dose rate determined from induced activity in carbon plates
was 400-700 rad/min for E=660 Mev and 80-120. rad/min at
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E=120 Mev. The RBE of protons, as compared to gamma rayst
was estimated by means of different tests charaCterizing
life functions and heredity of a cell, of an organism.
The experiments conducted have Shown that RBE for
protons with energies 660 and 120 Mev for LD50 for mice
and rats was about 0.7. Clinical examination of animals
have also shown somewhat lower effectiveness of protons
as compared to gamma rays (V.S. Shashkov, B.L. Razgovorov,
V.V. Antipov et al.). The same results were obtained during
comparative evaluation of chromosome breaks in the cells
of the mice marrow (M.A. Arsenyeva, L.A. Belyayeva et al.),
in sprouts of seeds of higher plants-wheat, pea, barley and
others (V.V. Khvostova et al., L.K. Gordon), at the deter-
mination of recessive sex-coupled and dominant lethal muta-
tions of Drosophila melanogaster (Ya. L. Glembotsky,
G.P. Parfyonov et al.).
It should be emphasized tnat at the estimate of RBE of
high-energy protons obtained at different acceleration
devices it is necessary to take into account the impulse
character of irradiation and large dose rates. These factors
affect the results of the biological action of radiation,
and, therefore, they should be taken into account at tenta-
tive determination of RBE of protons of primary cosmic radia-
tion, the inner radiation belt and solar flares.
For a more complete estimate of the protons' RBE, of
great interest are the results of experiments aimed at
investigation of radioprotective properties of various
pharmaco-chemical agents used under conditions of irradia-
tion by protons. It is quite evident that such investigations
are also necessary for the solution of the principle ques-
tion-on the possibility of the use of pharmaco-chemical
protectors at the action of corpuscular radiations.
By the present time an extensive experimental material
has been acquired which shows the effectiveness of a number
of pharmaco-chemical preparations used as protective agents
under conditions of the effect of X-rays and gamma rays.
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?6
Thus analyzing data in literature and results of the
authors' own investigations we first of all come to the
conclusion that RBE of protons with the energy from 660
to 120 Mev determined in experiments on mice and rats,
fruit flies, seeds and other biological objects does not
exceed 1. These facts quite satisfactorily confirm the
.
supposition expressed by us that for the above mentioned
values of specific ionization (6-20 ion pairs per micron
of tissue) RBE should not exceed 1.RBE exceeding I was
detected for protons of 510 Mev in experiments on dogs
(6) and for protons of 730 They in experiments on monkeys
(7). Evidently his difference to some extent is due to
the type of an animal and depends on the tests by which
RBB was estimated.
The results obtained give groundsto believe that there
is the perspective of using some preparations as protective
devices for space pilots and the entire biocomplex against
harmful effect of high-energy protons.
Of great theoretical and practical interest for space
biology and medicine will be extensive investigations of
RBE of protons with the energy of 100 Mev as well as the test
of the effectiveness of pharmaco-chemical antiradiation
agents under these conditions.
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REFERENCES
1. Yu.M. VOlynkin, P.P. Saksonov. Abstracts of
Reports.. USSR Acad.., Sol., 19624 p.12.
2. V.V, Antipovi N.N. Dovrov, P.P. Saksonov,
3. Shepherd L.R., J. British.Interpianet
1959i 30; p.130:
44 E,B. Kurlandskaya, G.A. Avrunina; V.L, Pono-
maryoVa, V.I. FyodordVa, B.i. Yanovskaya;
S,13; YarmOnnko; Doklady Aad 4 Sci; USSR;
1962; No.3; p:70:
5: G:A: Aviunina, a. paper in a book "On the
Biological Effect of High-,Energy Protons";
?
Mosel* 1962, p.5.;
6. A:V. Lebedinsky; YuiG. Nefedov; NJ. Ryzhov
et al:i Abstracts of Reports. USSR Acad.. Sci,"
1962; p:12:
7: Rai. Zellther and R.G. Allen1 Aerospace Med..,
1962; 32; 10; p4942.
8: P. Bonet-Maury; k; Deysine M. Frilltey,
C. Stefan; Cir. Adad. Sol:, 19604 25,
P.308;
9. S:P. Yarthonenko; Avrunina4,VkS., ShashkoV,
R.D. GoVorun; Radiobiolog4ya (Radiobtology);
1962; 2; lc P.125.
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