SOVIET GRAIN POST-HARVEST PROCESSING AND STORAGE

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP08S01350R000602130001-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 27
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: March 9, 2012
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: November 1, 1976
• Content Type: REPORT

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Scientific and Technical
Intelligence Report
Soviet Grain Port-Harvest Arocessing
and Storage (OUO)
SI 76-10029
November 1976
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 STAT
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November 1976
Soviet Grain Post-Harvest Processing and Storage
Pro,~ect Officer
STAT
The Soviets perennially experience high losses and deterioration in the
quality of grain because of inadequacies in their post-harvest processing
and storage capacity and technologies. Such losses are particularly
significant in years of abundant harvests because they tend to reduce
the carryover available to supplement years of poor harvests. Storing
large quantities of unconditioned newly harvested grain in uncovered
piles in the open is a major cause of storage losses.
In the next 5 years reduction of grain losses caused by inadequate
post-harvest processing will result primarily from increased quantities of
improved equipment and balanced distribution. The Soviets will
continue to produce improved grain cleaners and dryers to replace
obsolete and small capacity equipment and to increase total numbers.
Radically new approaches to equipment design or acquisition of foreign
technology are not likely to have a significant impact within the next 5
years,
To expand closed storage facilities for grain purchased by the state,
the Soviets plan to construct during 1976-80 an additional 30 million
tons of storage capacity. If planned construction is carried out, Soviet
procured grain storage capacity by 1980 could reach an estimated 166
million tons, with 62 million tons in elevators. Even approximate
achievement of the goal could contribute to a significant reduction of
losses in grain quality and quantity.
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SOVIET GRAIN POST-HARVEST PROCESSING AND STORAGE
Project Officer
SI 76-10029
November 1976
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
DIRECTORATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE
STAT
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Post-harvest processing and storage technology have a major bearing on losses in
Soviet grain quantity and quality. These two elements occupy key points in the chain
of events between grain production in the field and the consumption of grain as food
and feed. Since grain production is seasonal and consumption is relatively continuous,
grain must be made suitable for safe storage, and facilities for safe storage must be
provided if major grain losses are to be prevented.
Grain storage losses are influenced greatly by harvest factors, e. g., moisture,
temperature, mechanical injury, presence of weeds, and the condition of procured
grain. One of the primary causes of losses and deterioration in quality in the USSR is
the high-moisture content of harvested grain.
The destructive activity of microorganisms, highly dependent on moisture and
temperature, is the most serious problem in regard to quality and losses of newly
harvested and stored grain. Also microorganisms in the grain mass generate large
quantities of heat during storage, a major source of spoilage and quality losses.
This report reviews the status of Soviet grain post-harvest processing and storage
capacity and technology, evaluates their effectiveness in relation to biological factors,
harvest conditions and procurement practices, and assesses the impact on Soviet rain
quality and losses. (A glossary of terms is included at the end of this report. )
The study was prepared by the Office of
Scientific Intelligence and coordinated within CIA. The report contains information
through September 1976.
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CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE .......................................................... v
PROBLEM .......................................................... 1
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .................................... 1
DISCUSSION ....................................................... 2
Introduction ....................................................... 2
Factors Affecting Grain Quality and Storability ............... . ......... 3
Biological Factors ................................................ 3
Harvest and Procurement Factors ........................ . . ......... 4
Moisture Conditions During Harvest .............................. 4
Damp and Wet Grain in Procurement ............................ 4
Mechanical Damage ............................................ 6
Weeds ........................................................ 7
Germinated Grain .............................................. 7
Post-Harvest Processing .............................................. 8
Grain Cleaning .................................................. 8
Grain Drying .................................................... 10
Active Ventilation (Aeration) ....................................... 12
Grain Storage ...................................................... 14
Storage Facilities ................................................. 14
Storage Capacities ................................................ 14
Storage Losses ................................................... 15
Future Trends ................................................... 17
GLOSSARY ......................................................... 19
FIGURE
Page
Average Moisture Content of Harvested Grain ........................... 5
TABLES
Page
1. Probability of Harvesting Grain With Less Than 16% Moisture .......... 4
2. Soviet Classification of Grain by Moisture Content ..................... g
3. Moisture Content of Procured Grain in the Kazakh SSR, 1972 ........... 6
4. Moisture Content of Weeds and Grain ................................ 7
5. Principal Grain Cleaners in the Soviet Union .......................... 9
6. Principal Grain Dryers in the Soviet Union ................ . ............ 11
7. Soviet Grain Cleaning/Drying Complexes for Commercial Grain on Farms .... 11
8. Approximate Periods of Safe Storage of Grain Prior to Processing ......... 16
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SOVIET GRAIN POST-HARVEST PROCESSING AND STORAGE
To evaluate Soviet grain post-harvest processing and storage capacity and
technology and to assess their impact on grain quality and losses.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Soviet post-harvest processing and storage are
inadequate in capacity and technological quality to
handle properly all of the harvested grain, especially
in high grain production years. Inadequate post-
harvest processing also reduces the capacity of storage
facilities. Grain subjected to spoilage and self-heating
has only limited use (primarily for feed or industrial
purposes) and reduces Soviet options in utilizing
procured grain. Reduction of grain losses because of
inadequate post-harvest processing will result
primarily from increased quantities of improved
equipment and balanced distribution.
Major losses have resulted from the need to store
large quantities of newly harvested grain in outdoor
piles because of shortages of enclosed storage facilities.
Losses in grain stored in the open areas can be twice as
large as those in elevators under normal conditions
and even greater in unfavorably wet years. Heavy
losses occurred in 1973 in both the grain procured by
the state and that which remained on the farms, when
an estimated 35 million tons or more of grain had to be
stored in the open.
Post-harvest processing of grain involves one or
more of the following steps: cleaning, drying, and
cooling to achieve safe storage conditions. As of 1974,
more than 20,000 grain-cleaning machines had been
installed within the procurement system. In many
cases the technical effectiveness of the cleaners was
low and the cost of cleaning was high, resulting in
individual batches frequently being stored without
cleaning for long periods of time.
Artificial drying of some of the grain is necessary in
all Soviet grain-growing regions, even to some extent
in the south. Harvest moisture problems are greatest in
the New Lands, the Far East, and middle and
northern portions of the European USSR. Nearly 40%
and in some years up to 60% of the newly harvested
grain is damp or wet and requires drying. In
unfavorably wet years, 80 to 90% of the grain in
Siberia, the Urals, and North Kazakhstan, must be
dried. In eastern regions more than 50% of the
produced grain must be dried twice to reduce it to
proper moisture content. More then 63 million tons, or
over 70% of the procured grain, was dried at Soviet
reception centers in 1973. About 38 million tons of this
was dried within the RSFSR where harvest moisture
problems are greatest. Despite large increases in the
capacity and number of grain dryers, the Soviets are
unable to secure complete drying at reception centers
of all grain that is purchased. Dryers of the column-
type, which comprise more than 80% of the total in
the USSR, suffer from low efficiency, low rate of
moisture removal, unequal drying, overheating of the
grain, and the inability to dry wet grain directly from
the combine.
It is expected that the Soviets will continue to
produce improved models of grain cleaners and dryers
to replace obsolete and small capacity equipment and
to increase total numbers. Modernization and
rebuilding of larger drying and cleaning facilities will
continue. Little evidence exists to indicate Soviet
intent to acquire foreign drying and cleaning
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technology. New approaches to grain dryer design that
may be instituted by the Soviets will not have
significant impact on their grain drying problems
within the next 5 to 8 years.
The Soviets. are relying increasingly on the use of
active ventilation (aeration) systems to reduce losses in
storage, particularly that in flat storage. The major
function of active ventilation is to establish and
maintain moderately low and uniform grain
temperatures by blowing air through the stored grain.
Long-term storage of grain in flat storage, especially if
it is wet, is impractical without aeration. In 1973 the
USSR Ministry of Procurement had 6,000 grain-
receiving and processing enterprises, with a total
capacity of 48 million tons, equipped with
installations for active ventilation. More than 60% of
the flat storage facilities within the procurement
systems were so equipped by 1975.
Soviet enclosed storage facilities presently are
insufficient for storing grain from normal and above
normal harvest years, and they must be supplemented
by storage under inadequate open conditions.
Although silo elevators are considered the most
desirable storage facilities by the Soviets, permanent
grain storage capacity is primarily flat storage in long
low buildings, comprising nearly 80% of the capacity
within the procurement system. Enclosed storage of
damp and wet grain is limited to flat storage, with or
without aeration. The storage capacity in flat storage
is reduced nearly one half when holding wet grain.
Even though Soviet grain technologists admit that
temporary storage (primarily on open floors) is
undesirable, the USSR is forced to rely on this
procedure because of inadequacies in processing and
storage capacities.
The Soviet Union has recognized the need for
greatly expanding the capacity of enclosed permanent
storage facilities to reduce storage losses. As of 1
January 1975, the total permanent storage capacity
within the procurement system was 136 million tons,
of which about 32 million tons were in grain elevators.
Soviet farm grain storage capacity was 98.5 million
tons in 1973, but only 54.7 million tons were in
standard storehouses. Farm grain storage facilities
range from open-air platforms and roofed storage
areas to standard storehouses.
Plans call for the construction of 30 million tons of
new elevator storage facilities within the procurement
system during the next 5-year plan (1976-80). The
newly constructed elevators will include drying and
cleaning facilities and, therefore, also will increase
Soviet grain processing capacity. Under the plan grain
storage capacity within the procurement system by the =
end of 1980 could total 166 million tons, with 62
million tons in elevators. This effort represents a
greatly accelerated and expensive program and reflects
the extremely serious need to reduce storage losses. It is
believed that the Soviets will exploit or purchase
foreign grain elevator technology but specific evidence
of the extent of such efforts is lacking. Past Soviet
performance and the unprecedented rate of planned
elevator construction make it likely that at best a large
portion of the total planned elevator capacity will be
achieved by 1980. Even an approximate achievement
of the goal could contribute to a significant reduction
of losses in grain quality and quantity.
DISCUSSION
Maintenance of quality and prevention of losses
during storage of cereal grains are dependent on the
fact that dry, dormant grain with an unbroken surface
offers resistance to decomposition by microorganisms
and granary pests. Dormancy and hardness of the
outer surface of grain are controlled largely by the
moisture content. Weather during harvest can
determine the stage of maturity, extent of physical
damage incurred during harvest, and the moisture
content of the grain crop.
Grain in storage also interacts with its environment,
exchanging heat and moisture. The presence of high-
moisture content may lead to increased physiological
activity of potentially damaging organisms, chiefly
microorganisms, associated with the stored grain. For
grain to be safe during collection, transport and
storage, biological activity should be kept at a
minimum. Since biological activity will occur only in
the presence of adequate moisture and at suitable
temperatures, the moisture content and temperature
of the grain are essential keys to its safekeeping,
primarily during storage.l-s
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FACTORS AFFECTING GRAIN QUALITY AND
STORABILITY
Biological Factors
Damage to grain during storage is not simply the
result of a departure from known optimum conditions.
When moisture and temperature exceed biological
thresholds, the resultant biological responses may not
only be self-maintaining but also self-generating. An
increase in the physiological activity of micro-
organisms will lead, through breakdown of organic
matter, to increased moisture content and heat and
hence to a further increase in growth and metabolism.
Even small foci of damage can result in rapid
deterioration of the grain bulk as a whole. Partial
control is not sufficient. Every part of the grain bulk
must be kept below the critical levels of temperature
and moisture content.
The degree of microbial deterioration of grain
depends upon the rate of growth of storage
microorganisms. This rate is affected primarily by the
interaction of temperature and moisture. The growth
is also affected by seed coat damage, arthropod
infestation, time, and previous fungal infection.
Grain is hygroscopic and exchanges water vapor
with its environment. There is'essentially a one to one
relationship between grain moisture content and the
relative humidity of the ambient air. For many
important food grains, moisture content of 13 to 15%
corresponds to a surrounding equilibrium relative
humidity of about 70%. A moisture content of 13 to
15% is considered to be critical in that fungi can
multiply above this level of moisture. However, some
storage fungi are known to multiply at relative
humidities as low as 62% (grain moisture content of 11
to 13%).1 3 4
The rate of reproduction of storage microorganisms
increases, within limits, with temperature. To prevent
fungal growth entirely by temperature control may
not always be practicable, since a number of storage
fungi can still grow at temperatures below 0?C. The
rate of multiplication may be slowed so that damage
becomes negligible. Storage even at 5?C. may result in
visible fungal growth after about 2 months at moisture
content above 22%. The time necessary for mustiness
and visible fungal growth to develop depends mainly
on temperature and moisture. Since some fungal
growth may occur at below 0?C., low temperature
storage alone without some drying cannot prevent
fungal growth. Maximum fungal growth is achieved
at about 30? to 50?C. (85 to 90?F),a a
The Soviets indicate that self-heating is the primary
cause of spoilage of grain during storage. Self-heating
is the increase in temperature of a grain mass as the
result of physiological processes occurring in it, caused
chiefly by microorganisms. Storage microorganisms in
the grain mass evolve large quantities of heat through
their metabolic activities. The thermal characteristics
of bulk grain are such that any heat generated within
the bulk is dissipated very slowly. Spontaneous
heating of bulk grain is unlikely if the grain moisture
content is less than 14%. It occurs in grain with
moisture content in excess of 14 to 15% and in most
cases with grain having a moisture content in excess of
17 to 18%. This arises chiefly from the respiration of
the storage fungi present. The cumulative effects and
the spread of these self-induced temperature and
concomitant moisture changes are such that grain
temperatures approaching 60?C. (140?F.) may be
reached.' a s
Self-heating has negative effects on the state and
quality of stored grain. The quantitative and
qualitative changes depend on the duration and
intensity of the process. If self-heating is allowed to
continue, significant losses in the weight of the grain
and deterioration in its quality to the point of
complete spoilage will occur. Self-heating sharply
reduces the germination rate and worsens its bread
baking qualities. In wheat the gluten content is
lowered and is greatly reduced in quality-it turns
dark, its tensile strength is changed and it loses its
elasticity. The acidity of the flour prepared from
heated grain is increased and its water-holding
capacity is decreased. If temperature of the grain
exceeds 40? to 45?C. (104-115?F.), the gluten cannot be
separated from the wheat. A grain mass that has been
subjected to self-heating, even if it is stopped before
significant qualitative changes occur, is unstable for
lengthy storage because the quantity of fungal growth
is high and the protective seed coat has been
damaged.'-a s
Mustiness is another result of the activity of storage
fungi. When fungi have extensively invaded and
partly consumed the grain, they have already
produced masses of spores. The grain will have a
musty odor and moldy appearance and may cake
together in the later stages of spoilage.a
Germ damage is the term applied to dark brown or
black embryos (germs) in small grains and corn caused
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by storage fungi. This type of damage is important in
grain that is to be processed into flour, meal or other
food. The damaged portion may result as dark
particles in the final product. Such grain usually
contains large quantities of fatty acids and is often
extensively moldy, imparting undesirable flavors to
food.'-' a to
MOISTURE CONDITIONS DURING HARVEST-One Of
the main causes of grain losses and of significant
deterioration in quality in the USSR is moisture during
harvest. Meteorological conditions during ripening
and harvest-precipitation, dews, fogs, and relative
humidity-have major bearing on the harvest and
post-harvest losses. The harvest moisture problem is
dependent to a large extent on geographic location. In
the Northern Caucasus, the Crimea, and the Southern
Volga, newly harvested grain usually has a moisture
content at 15% or below, but in regions to the north
and west the moisture content rises to 16 to 20% and
above (figure).
Two Soviet researchers recently have described
moisture conditions during harvest and the average
moisture content of newly harvested grain by
establishing zones within the grain-growing area. Four
zones were established. Characteristics of the four
zones coincide with the information on average
moisture content of harvested grain shown in the
figure. The description of the zones also supplied
information on the agrometeorological conditions
which contribute to the grain moisture problem. Since
the zones encompass fairly large areas, the Soviets
state that deviations from the described conditions
could occur during any harvest year.9
In 1975 a Soviet researcher drew up a table, based
on a survey of actual data, showing the probability of
the occurrence of proper grain moisture content by
economic region.14 These data, shown in table 1,
essentially coincide with data given on the six zones.
The moisture problem in the vast spring wheat areas
of the Virgin Lands of the RSFSR and Kazakhstan
deserves special discussion. The harvest moisture
problems in the Virgin Lands to the north and east of
Volgograd Oblast are generally greater than for major
Soviet wheat areas in the North Caucasus and
southern Ukraine. In Kazakhstan during the period of
grain harvest, a large amount of rain falls and freshly
harvested grain frequently has a moisture content of
18 to 20% and, in very wet years, up to 30 to 35%.
Probability of Harvesting Grain With Less
Than 16% Moisture
Baltic ..................................... 0.01
Northwest ................................. 0.10
Volga-Vyatka .............................. 0.11
Eastern Siberian ............................ 0.11
Far Eastern ................................ 0.13
Central ................................... 0.21
Kazakhstan (Northern Portion) ............... 0.30
Belorussia ................................. 0.30
Urals, Western Siberian ...................... 0.35
Southwest, Central Black Earth ............... 0.66
Volga:
Northern Portion ......................... 0.65
Southeastern Portion ...................... 0.98
North Caucasus, South, Donetsk-Dnepr,
Moldavia ............................... 0.66-0.97
Central Asia ............................... 0.99
Excess precipitation frequently delays or complicates
harvesting operations and interferes with grain
processing at the threshing floors.
Significant harvested grain moisture problems have
occurred in the Virgin Lands in 5 of the last 7 years. In
1969, 1971 and 1972, harvest moisture problems were
associated with a late ripening crop because of delays
in spring seeding. In 1973 and 1974 moisture problems
were more directly related to harvest weather.ls
DAMP AND WET GRAIN IN PROCUREMENT-In the
vast Soviet spring wheat area east of the Volga River
(the Virgin Lands), grain is frequently procured by the
state at moisture levels in excess of 20%, and
occasionally significant amounts are delivered to
procurement centers with levels in excess of 30%. It is
generally accepted that the Soviet grain lands east of
the Volga are climatically analogous to the prairie
provinces of Canada. The unique Soviet problem is a
distinctly wetter moisture regime in the autumn
during harvest in the USSR compared with that of
Canada and the United States. This places a large
burden on the Soviet grain handling system.IS The
magnitude of the grain moisture problem in the Virgin
Lands can be seen from various data on the amount of
damp and wet grain delivered to procurement centers.
(The Soviet classifiction of grain by moisture content is
shown in table 2. )
The average moisture content of grain delivered to
procurement centers iri the Urals, Siberia, and
Kazakhstan in the late 1950s, as calculated by a US
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Q~7~P~]~J~ ~u~0~~4MP~ C~0~4C~fliil4 04 Gi)i1lPM~?'~~C~d (~P~OW
researcher, was of the order of 20 to 25%. Data also
have been compiled for the 1950-56 period for
combined damp and wet grain deliveries as a percent
of the total grain deliveries to procurement centers for
four of the economic regions in the Virgin Lands. The
amount of damp and wet grain in procurements
varied from 30% in the Ural region in 1953 to a
maximum of 95% in Northern Kazakhstan in 1950.
The median percentage of damp and wet grain for
1950-56 was 79.2%, which is consistent with the Soviet
Minister of Procurement's statement in 1972 that
every year 70 to 80% of the total procurements in the
Virgin Lands are recieved wet.' is
The Minister of Procurement of the Kazakh SSR
supplied data on the moisture content of procured
grain for that republic in 1972 and indicated that
almost half of all the grain arrived at grain reception
points in a wet state-17 to over 19% moisture. The
oblasts included in the Virgin Lands category
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Soviet Classification of Grain by Moisture Content
Dry ..................... Up to 14 inclusive
Moderately dry ............ Over 14 to 15.5 inclusive
Moist (damp) ............. Over 15.5 to 17 inclusive
Wet ..................... Over 17
(Northern Kazakhstan, Kokchetav and Tselinograd)
had especially serious problems. Northern Kazakhstan
Oblast delivered 87.8% of all grain in a wet condition,
Kokchetav Oblast 87.5%, and Tselinograd Oblast
82.8%1e (table 3).
In the Central non-Chernozem economic region
during the period 1963-68, a survey indicated that
76.3% of the procured grain was classified as wet; 15%
had moisture of 15.6 to 17.0%; and only 8.7% was dry
or of average dryness of 15.5% moisture or below. In
Ryazan Oblast during this same period, 47.4% was
classified as wet (14.3% had up to 19% moisture and
33.4% had over 19%) and the remaining was damp
with a moisture content of 15.5 to 17.0%.20 By
contrast, in Krasnodar Kray in the North Caucasus
during the period 1963-68, an average of almost 90%
of the freshly harvested grain was of dry or average
dryness (up to 15.5% moisture); 6.7% was in the 15.5
to 17.0% range, and 4.2% had moisture content above
19%,zo
In 1973 the harvesting and state procurement of
grain was complicated by severe temperature drops
and continuous rains in regions of the Central, Central
Chernozem oblasts, the North Caucasus, and the in
the Volga region. Exceptionally large quantities of
grain with high moisture content were received at
grain reception points in these areas. In Lipetsk Oblast
batches of grain had up to 30% moisture content. In
Ryazan Oblast much grain was received with a
moisture content over 25% and in separate batches up
to 40%. The Soviets reported that analogous examples
could be shown in other oblasts. Ryazan, Tambov,
Voronezh, Ulyanovsk, Lipetsk, Kursk, Orlov and
several other oblasts had continuous rains during
harvest, resulting in practically all arriving grain
having a 17 to 30% moisture content. On 1 October
1973 in 10 oblasts of the Central Chernozem and
Central zones alone, about 10 million tons of damp
and wet grain arrived for procurement.si-ss
During the 1974 harvest in Ryazan, Belgorod,
Kursk, Penzensk, Tambov, Uralsk, Aktubinsk,
Poltava, Vinnitsa and Kharkov oblasts, nearly all grain
that arrived at grain reception enterprises was
characterized by high moisture content requiring
immediate drying.20 In 1974 a significant quantity of
grain was received in very wet condition. In the
Ukrainian SSR alone, more than 10 million tons of
grain with high moisture content was accepted at
procurement points. Some of it was exposed to
overheating and had a high content of germinated
grain. Much of this very wet grain originated in the
middle to northern and northeastern Ukraine.ls
MECHANICAL DAMAGE-Mechanical injury or
damage to grain has a negative influence on the
storage of grain as well as its sowing and production
qualities. Not only is mechanical damage injurious in
itself, it also intensifies the respiration process and the
development of microorganisms and grain pests.
According to Soviet researchers, a reduction in
mechanical damage of grain during threshing, which
indirectly results in losses in quality, is equal in
importance to elimination of direct quantitative losses
in the process of harvesting.9
Moisture Content of Procured Grain in the Kazakh SSR
1972
Karagandinsk ..................
30.0
17.8
15.9
36.6
Kokchetav .....................
4.3
8.2
31.2
56.3
Kustanay ......................
58.9
13.0
13.5
14.6
Pavlodar ......................
14.5
18.2
21.2
46.1
N. Kazakhstan .................
42
8.1
11.2
76.5
Turgay .......................
48.8
25.2
12.9
13.1
Tselinograd ....................
6.6
10.6
20.2
62.6
Total for Republic ............
37.2
13.4
15.6
33.8
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Mechanical injury to grain is divided by the Soviets
into two major categories: macroinjuries and
microinjuries. Grain with macroinjuries differs from
whole grain and for this reason can be removed on any
modern grain cleaning and grading machine. Grain
with microinjuries is more difficult to detect and it
cannot be separated from undamaged grain even with
the most complex machine.9 13
A Soviet analysis of 18 varieties of winter rye, 25
varieties of spring wheat, and 9 varieties of winter
wheat taken from the combine hopper in the 1970
harvesting season in 38 oblasts, krays, and
autonomous republics of the RSFSR indicated that as
an average, microinjuries to winter rye were 59%; for
winter wheat, 34.8%; and 34.3% for spring wheat.9
WEEDS-The occurrence of weeds, trash, and
immature and sprouted grain has a significant impact
on the moisture content and keeping qualities of grain.
These are major problems in the USSR. Grain
harvested from weedy fields has a higher total
moisture content because of the presence of weed seeds
and parts. Such weed seeds and parts are generally
immature and contain a high percentage of moisture.
The presence of weeds will add at least 3 to 5% to the
moisture content of harvested grain.14 Table 4
illustrates this for Moscow Oblast.
Trisvyatskiy indicates that impurities in grain
significantly increase the occurrence of self-heating.
The increased moisture content of unripened seeds of
weed plants in freshly harvested grain result in high
rates of respiration and the evolution of large
quantities of heat which facilitate development of mi-
croorganisms. An especially strong effect on the grain
mass is caused by parts of green plants which contain
up to 70 to 80% and more water, are saturated with
microflora, and are favorable media for their
development. The physiological activity of the grain
bulk grows immensely as the result of admixtures of
weed seeds. According to Trisvyatskiy the energy of
respiration of weed seeds in freshly harvested grain can
increase the energy of respiration of grain bulk by 40
times.' s Weed growth in fields and the subsequent
presence of weed seeds and parts in harvested grain
have long been major problems in the USSR,
especially in the New Lands.
In 1972 Kazakhstan had very serious weed
problems; more than one-third was "highly
contaminated" with weeds. In the Virgin Land
oblasts, the situation was even worse. In North
Kazakhstan Oblast, 50.9% of the procured grain was
weedy; for Kochetav Oblast, 74.9% was weedy; and
for Tselinograd Oblast, 62.9% was weedy.18
In 1969 the collective farms in North Kazakhstan
delivered 20.5% of all grain heavily infested with
weeds. Other data indicated that during the 1966-70
period, state farms in North Kazakhstan supplied
procurement with 38.7 million tons of grain which
contained 1.5 million tons of weeds and moisture.
During 1971-72, the figures were 19.6 million tons of
grain which contained 0.7 million tons of weeds and
moisture. According to calculations of the All-Union
Scientific Research Institute for Grain, on an average
for every 100,000 tons of grain arriving at grain
reception points in the eastern regions of the nation,
wastes (water and weeds) amounted to 5,000 to 7,000
tons. Transport expenditures for the useless
transportation amounted to an estimated 3.3 million
rubles for state farms in the northern oblasts of
Kazakhstan during 1966-72,1e
GERMINATED GRAIN-EXtended ra1nS In Var10US
zones of the USSR cause a delay not only in harvesting
but also often lead to the partial sprouting of the grain
in the field and sometimes to complete loss of the crop.
Germination in the spike results from rainy weather
and an overripe stand of grain. In 1973 in the RSFSR,
complaints were noted about the lag between mowing
and threshing. In several oblasts, grain was seen
germinating in the windrows and in the standing crop.
In the Ukraine in 1974, more than 10 million tons of
wet grain was accepted at procurement centers. Some
if it was overheating and had a high content of
germinated grain.la
A representative of the Ministry of Procurement
stated that overall, a significant quantity of grain was
received in 1974 with a high content of germinated
grain. Because part of it was delivered immature and
with a high germinated grain content, such grain was
still unstable for storage with respect to biological
characteristics requiring daily inspection of its
condition in spite of drying.15
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Post-harvest processing of grain in the Soviet Union
is carried out both on the farms and at State
enterprises of the system of procurements. Processing
includes receipt of the grain, primary cleaning of it,
drying to bring the moisture content within basic
standards, and secondary cleaning and sorting to bring
it up to basic standards.24
Post-harvest processing is one of the most time-
consuming procedures in Soviet grain production.
Processing at the threshing-floor level, i. e., cleaning
and drying, takes up more than 20% of the labor
resources involved in grain production. Expenditure of
labor for post-harvest processing at the collective and
state farms of the non-chernozem zone comprises an
average of 40 to 50% and, on some farms, 60% of the
total labor expended on grain.' 18
The amount of post-harvest processing accom-
plished at the farm level varies from geographical
regions. In 1974, the Ministry of Procurement repre-
sentative stated:
"The experience of past years has shown the high
effectiveness of transporting grain to receiving enterprises from
the threshing floors of kolkhozes and sovkhozes or directly from
the combines on hourly schedules. This makes it possible to free
more than 20% of the automotive transportation engaged in
delivery of grain, to increase the handling capacity of receiving
equipment and technological lines of grain receiving
enterprises, and to improve the organization of labor on
kolkhozes and sovkhozes and in transportation and
procurement organizations."25
Economic calculations and Soviet and foreign
experience support the economic effectiveness and
desirability of post-harvest processing at the place of
grain production. This processing in many regions of
the USSR, however, is accomplished primarily at grain
reception points. Grain is sent directly to reception
centers from combines or sometimes after preliminary
processing on individual winnowing grain-cleaning
machines at the farms. According to Timofeyeev,
because the quality of such grain was below desired
conditions, collective and state farms of the Central
non-chernozem, for example, failed to receive from
each ton of grain more than 12 rubles in the form of
deductions from purchase value. Transport of
admixtures and water in the grain mass comprised up
to 30% of the volume of the transported grain. Wastes
that could have been utilized for cattle feed were not
returned to the farms.ss
Grain Cleaning
According to the Soviets, at the present time grain is
cleaned in the USSR both by enterprises of the USSR
Ministry of Procurement and by collective and state
farms. There is a two-stage system of post-harvest
processing of grain-at mechanized grain points of the
farms and at grain-receiving, elevator, and grain
processing enterprises.27
This two-stage system, however, describes one
which exists only in part. The best that can be said is
that much of the grain has to be cleaned at the
reception centers and that some of it in certain areas of
the country is cleaned before it leaves the farms.
Apparently some grain is cleaned several times, first at
the farms and then at the grain reception centers and
at other elevators. One reason for this is that grain at
the farm level frequently is only partially cleaned and
sorted on small capacity machines. A second reason is
that the majority of farm threshing points do not have
a capability for drying grain. This means that in those
geographical regions where harvests occur in rainy
seasons or where freshly harvested grain has ahigh-
moisture content, it is expedient to dispatch grain
directly from the combines to reception centers to
avoid excessive losses at the farm level. This is
especially true in Kazakhstan.12
The Soviets publicize the more extensive introduc-
tion of the continuous method of post-harvest
processing at the farm level. These aggregated systems
are called mechanized grain-cleaning points and
complexes. These points reportedly are equipped with
grain cleaning, drying, loading and unloading,
conveyor, and other equipment for fulfilling all
operations connected with cleaning, sorting, drying,
and storage. In addition some farms have grain
cleaning-drying complexes or grain cleaning
aggregates with productivity of 5, 10, 20 and 40 tons
per hour. Such complex mechanization reportedly
increases labor productivity by 7 to 10 times and
reduces costs of drying and cleaning 1.5 to 2 times.28
Table 5 lists the Soviet grain-cleaning machines and
grain-cleaning aggregates and their productivity.
Grain cleaning-drying complexes simply add various
types of driers to these aggregates (these are discussed
in the section on grain drying).
Soviet reporting on the use and effectiveness of their
systems of grain cleaning, often called flow-level
technology, is contradictory and frequently ambigu-
ous. They claim extensive introduction of the systems
at the farm level and high rates of supply of grain-
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Table 5
Principal Grain Cleaners in the Soviet Union
cleaning machines to the farm. They state also that
the situation has changed radically since 1963. As of
1974 it is claimed that collective and state farms
operate more than 25,000 mechanized grain points,
grain-cleaning aggregates, and grain cleaning/drying
complexes. More than 30% of the total grain harvest is
processed by farms. As a result, weediness of grain
arriving at reception centers reportedly has decreased
in several regions. In the Ukrainian SSR, the northern
oblasts of Kazakh SSR, the Volga regions, and Altay
Kray in 1965-70, for example, weedy grain at
reception centers decreased 2 times as compared with
1957-64. Delivery of weedy grain reportedly decreased
in many regions in 1971-73.27
On the other hand, the same report states that grain
cleaning at elevators and grain reception enterprises is
necessary for a number of reasons: 1) the need to
receive grain directly from the combine, 2) the large
masses of grain requiring cleaning at the farm
threshing floors during short procurement periods, and
3) the poor supply of modern grain cleaning machines
for the farms.27
The Soviets claimed that the number of grain-
cleaning points on farms in 1973 corresponded to the
needs of the oblasts. The qualitative standards,
however, were low since the facilities were not
provided with the latest equipment. The grain
cleaning capacity was based on cleaning and
separating equipment that removed only large
admixtures from grain. This is reflected in the quality
that remains on the farm and creates difficulties for
cleaning at grain reception points.1e
In Kazakhstan, post-harvest cleaning of grain has
been reported to be a bottleneck in achieving high-
quality grain. It also has been suggested that on the
farms, the workers are not interested in bringing grain
up to basic condition, since the excess moisture and
high content of admixtures are counted in production
volume.12
Even in lesser areas of grain production, grain
cleaning is a problem. In Uzbekistan, it was noted in
1974 that farms often supply the state with grain
straight from the combines. As a result the farms were
charged for unclean grain. The collective and state
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farms of Uzbekistan reportedly had the necessary
machinery for preliminary and secondary cleaning.
But these machines were utilized poorly, primarily
because they were not well adapted to flow line
processing, had low productivity, and required a great
deal of manual labor.29
It would appear that effective grain cleaning is
primarily conducted at reception centers and
elevators. The system of cleaning can be divided into
1) grain cleaning prior to drying and distribution for
storage and 2) cleaning in preparation for long term
storage, industrial processing, and export.
As of 1974, more than 20,000 grain-cleaning
machines reportedly had been installed in the Soviet
procurement system (grain receptior_ points and other
storage facilities). Of these, 45.8% had a certified
productivity of 80 to 100 tons/hour; 50%, 50
tons/hour; and 4.2% up to 10 tons/hour. The average
productivity was 25 tons/hour. At many enterprises,
however, technical effectiveness was low and the cost
of cleaning high. Frequently individual batches of
grain were stored without cleaning for long periods.
The ZV-50 and VO-50 pile cleaners certified at 50
tons/hour are used for preliminary cleaning of grain at
reception enterprises. These cleaners are designed to
almost completely remove large, coarse impurities and
separate out a considerable portion of weedy
impurities. But these machines are cumbersome and
complicated to operate, have a low level of reliability,
and are difficult to repair.27
The ZSM-50 and ZSM-100 grain-cleaning separa-
tors with a 50 and 100 tons/hour productivity,
respectively, are used widely at grain reception centers
and elevators for secondary cleaning of grain. In
addition to large and weedy impurities, they can also
separate out grain admixtures. Their maximum
technical effectiveness, however, is only 50%, due to in
lack of reliability of operation of the sieves and in the
irregular operation of inertia cleaners.27
Grain arriving at reception enterprises during
procurement differs in terms of the type of grain crop,
size characteristics, types of weediness, and
physicomechanical qualities, depending on its
geographic origin. A major Soviet complaint is that
with many cleaners, it is impossible to change sieves
and air separation regimes rapidly enough to match
differences in the grain or to adjust the cleaner to
handle the moisture content and degree of weediness.
Higher demands on grain-cleaning machines for
preliminary cleaning are the result of improvements in
transporting and handling grain which have increased
the rate of grain arriving for cleaning. Therefore, the
Soviets consider it necessary to develop cleaning
machines of greater productivity than those of ZV-50
and VO-50 machines and to simplify their designs.27
Grain Drying
The USSR is the world's largest producer of grain
crops but differs from many other countries in that a
significant portion of the harvested grain must be
dried. According to Soviet statistical data over a
number of years, nearly 40% and in specific years, up
to 60% of the freshly harvested grain requires drying.
This is especially true of grain grown in the eastern
USSR where in certain years more than 50% of the
grain purchased by the state must be dried two times.
In certain regions of the USSR (the Far East, Siberia,
the Urals, Belorussia, and others), the harvest period
frequently coincides with the onset of rainy fall
weather, and the freshly harvested grain may contain
up to 25 to 30 and sometimes even 35% moisture. In
unfavorably wet years, 80 to 90% of the harvested
grain in Siberia, the Urals, and North Kazakhstan
must be dried artificially.? ao
Artificial drying is applied in all grain growing
regions of the USSR, even to some extent in the
southern portions. According to the Soviets, the
moisture content of grain designated for long-term
storage should not exceed 14%. Timely drying,
especially if the harvest coincides with periods of
precipitation, is essential for preventing spoilage. 30
In 1973, grain reception enterprises of the USSR
reportedly dried more than 63 million tons of grain, or
70% of that procured. Additionally, a considerable
amount was dried at the farm level. During the period
1 July 1973 through 1 January 1974, grain receiving
enterprises of the RSFSR dried around 38 million tons.
In the Ukrainian SSR in 1974, more than 13 million
tons of grain and oil seeds were dried. This was more
than 2.5 times that of the first years of the 9th Five
Year Plan (1970-72). In 1972 in Tselinograd Oblast,
of a total of 2,667,800 tons received at reception
points, some 2,300,000 tons, or 86% required artificial
drying. The figures in Kustanay Oblast were about the
same, is is
Various types of dryers are utilized in the USSR, but
the most widely used are column dryers. These
comprise more than 80% of the active installations
having a productivity in the range of 2 to 50
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Table 6
Principal Grain Dryers in the Soviet Union
Petkus (GDR) ......
Column
1.5
Farm
SZSh-8............
Column
8
Farm
SZSh-16...........
Column
16
Farm
SZPSh-8...........
Column
8
Farm
SZPB-2.0 ..........
Drum
2
Farm (mobile)
SZPB-4 ...........
Drum
4
Farm
SZSB-4............
Drum
4
Farm
SZSB-8............
Drum
8
Farm
ZSPZh-8 ..........
Column
8
Farm and grain reception center
VTI-8 ............
Column
8
Elevator and mill
VTI-15 ...........
Column
15
Elevator and mill
ZSZ-8 .............
Column
8
Elevator
ZhZS-22...........
Column
22
Elevator
DSP-12 ...........
Column
12
Elevator
DSP-16 ...........
Column
16
Elevator
DSP-24 ...........
Column
24
Elevator
DSP-24Cn .........
Column
24
Elevator
DSP-32 ...........
Column
32
Elevator
DSP-32-OT-2......
Column
32
Elevator
DSP-50 ...........
Column
50
Elevator
PS-50 .............
Pneumo-gas recirculating
50
Elevator
RD-2 x 25-75 .......
Gas recirculating
50
Elevator
1'selinnaya-50 ......
Gas recirculating
50
Elevator
tons/hour.' 30 Dryers available in the USSR are listed
in table 6. The column dryers have a number of
deficiencies which have been pointed out by Soviet
grain technologists. Perhaps the most serious
deficiency of all is that drying grain is possible only if
it has been cleaned or is relatively free of admixtures
and wastes: Even a small quantity of weedy
admixtures frequently leads to congestion of grain
between the heat chambers and consequent burning
of it.' 30 These deficiencies in column dryers have led
the Soviets to search for other types of dryers. As a
result pneumogas and gas recirculating dryers, the
jalousie grain dryer ZhS-22 and drum dryers S2Pb-2,
and SZPB-8 were developed. All of these, however,
also have certain deficiencies.ao
For post-harvest processing, a number of Soviet
scientific research and project-design organizations
have developed a family of unified grain cleaning,
drying complexes of varying productivity. These sets
of unified equipment are designed to provide flow
methods of processing. The complexes differ in the
quantity of dryers and type of procedures utilized. For
zones where the moisture content is excessive (22% or
more), the procedure calls for sequential processing
through two sets of dryers with an intermediate rest
period. In regions where moisture content is 18 to 22%,
a single processing through one dryer or one set of
dryers is specified. Grain dryers are not specified for
regions where moisture content is below 18%. Instead,
it is recommended that the grain be brought down to
standard moisture, if necessary, by active ventilation
with heated air. Basic grain cleaning/drying com-
plexes produced in the USSR are cited in table 7.
Soviet Grain Cleaning/Drying Complexes
for Commercial Grain on Farms
Type of Capacity
Designation* Dryer** Drying/Cleaning
KZS-5Sh .................. Column 4 5
KZS-IOSh ................. Column 8 10
KZS-20Sh ................. Column 16 20
KZS-40 ................... Column 32 40
KZS-56 ................... Drum 4 5
KZS-lOB .................. Drum 8 10
KZS-20B .................. Drum 16 20
*All complexes include cleaning machines for preliminary clean-
ing, secondary cleaning and grading-sorting.
**Total capacity of the complex is limited by dryer capacity.
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The Soviets point to a number of problems that can
occur during drying of grain:
1) Unequal heating and drying, especially in column dryers,
resulting from insufficient cleaning of grain before drying, self-
sorting in the shaft, varying speeds of grain movement in the
column, and unequal distribution of heat in the chamber.
2) Faulty condition of dryers and also incorrect servicing or
operation (odor of smoke, sulfur).
3) Roasted or burned grain when temperature is too high.
4) At high temperatures, wet, freshly harvested grain may
become swollen and wrinkled; to correct this, the temperature
should be reduced.
5) Lessening of the quality and content of gluten in wheat.
Reducing the temperature prevents this but reduces dryer
productivity.30
Despite large increases in the capacity and number
of grain dryers, the Soviets admit grain-drying
problems at reception enterprises, especially at the
state and collective farms in Siberia, North
Kazakhstan and the Far East.23 The Soviets
acknowledged that the shortage of drying capacity in
Kazakhstan in 1973 ranged an average of 30 to 40%
for each of the leading grain oblasts.18 In Kustanay
Oblast (RSFSR), many grain reception enterprises still
had obsolete SZS-2 and SZS-8 dryers. The low-
capacity dryers represented about 30% of the existing
drying capacity in the oblast,32 as
Errors in the use of dryers contribute to lowered
productivity and also to lower quality because of
incorrect operation. In 1974 the RSFSR Ministry of
Procurement indicated that many errors were
occurring. These errors included low quality repairs
and the consequent equipment down time and tardy
start-ups when moist and wet grain arrived. Violation
of temperature regulation caused heat deterioration in
the grain. Because of improper regulation of grain
movement in the column and unsatisfactory
performance of blowers, the productivity was reduced.
Also proper grain cooling after drying was not being
maintained.zs
Grain dryers at farms and especially at grain
procurement centers are utilized unsatisfactorily or
inefficiently. For example, in 1974 in Penzensk,
Kuybyshev, Lipetsk, Kursk, Tambov, and Ryazan
oblasts (RSFSR), utilization of existing grain drying
capacity was unsatisfactory. When large quantities of
wet grain were arriving at the grain reception centers,
the productivity of dryers in these oblasts was 30 to
50% of capacity (34% in Penzensk, 40% in Tambov,
43% in Kursk and 30 to 50% in the other oblasts). In
1973 many of the grain reception centers permitted
accumulation of dried grain near the dryers which
prevented the dryers from being used. Meanwhile raw,
wet grain was accumulating and some underwent self-
heating that resulted in quality deterioration.ao 3a
In 1973 in the RSFSR (Central Chernozem, Volga,
and Ural areas), complaints were reported concerning
overloading of grain-drying capacity at the reception
centers. The principal collective and state farms were
not making full use of their drying and cleaning
equipment and consequently sent to reception centers
wet and dirty grain without regard to the actual
capacity at the reception center. The rates of
shipments at many centers exceeded the means of
drying. Dryers were being used around the clock but
could not meet demand. As of 5 September 1973,
around six million tons had been dried but much wet
grain remained. To provide drying assistance, 130
ZSPZh-8 mobile dryers were sent into the areas from
eastern regions. Some of the procured grain was so wet
that even after repeated passage through the dryers, it
still remained damp. Part of the seven million tons of
grain being shipped to other regions included wet
grain for drying at other locations. Such out-shipment
of grain for drying also occurred in 1974 in the RSFSR,
Ukrainian SSR, and Kazakh SSR.so 2r 3s-3'
Although artificial drying of grain is most widely
applied, in recent years the method which the Soviets
call "active ventilation" also is applied for preserving
and, to a lesser extent, drying of freshly harvested
grain. Active ventilation consists of blowing air (or
heated air if drying is the goal) through the grain mass,
usually by means of blowers attached to perforated
ducts.
Active ventilation with unheated air can be
employed either for temporary preservation prior to
drying in a grain dryer or for long-term storage by
preventing self-heating. The purpose is to cool the
grain to a point low enough to reduce or inhibit the
activity of fungi and insects and to establish a uniform
temperature throughout the mass, thus preventing
moisture translocation.'
Safe storage of food and feed grain is required to
prevent mold and self-heating. Even a small reduction
of the temperature will increase the period of safe
storage. The Soviets indicate that "reduction of grain
temperature by two times increases the time of its safe
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storage by 10 times." Research by the All-Union
Scientific Research Institute of Grain (VNIIZ) showed
that cooling grain to 10?C or below sharply reduces the
activity of biochemical and microbiological processes,
inhibits the development of insects, ticks, and other
pests in stored grain, eliminates the danger of
occurrence of self-heating and spoilage, and preserves
the natural properties of grain.?
In the Soviet Union, active ventilation reportedly is
conducted in storehouses (flat storage), bunkers or
silos, and also on platforms. In production practice,
flat storage storehouses, sheds, platforms, bunkers, and
silos equipped with installations for active ventilation
are utilized for temporary storage and for aerating
with cold air of wet and moist grain that cannot
immediately be sent to dryers because of the amount
of grain requiring drying. This capacity also is used for
storing dried grain that has been cooled insufficiently
in the dryer chamber.so
Initially active ventilation was considered by the
Soviets only as a means of quickly and effectively
cooling grain. Further study showed, however, that
the method can be utilized for drying. By applying
sufficiently dry air, it is possible to reduce moisture by
1 to 3%. During aeration for the purpose of drying, it is
necessary to introduce into the mass large quantities of
air.3 ~ ao
Because of the poor temperature conductivity of
grain, if placed in flat storage at harvest, grain may
retain high temperature in its depth. According to
Kleyeva, grain 80 cm from the surface after 45 days
can retain its summer temperature even while the
temperature of the outside air is reduced to -2.5?C.
Thus a temperature gradient can be set up between
the outside and inside of the pile. As a result moisture
is transferred from warm to cooler areas and, in time,
zones of moist grain occur which become foci for self-
heating.' To prevent this the Soviets recommend
periodic ventilation of grain which equalizes the
temperature. Moisture accumulation as a result of
condensation also is eliminated during ventilation.
This so-called prophylactic aeration is conducted only
at times of day when the air is dry and cold.37 If self-?
heating has already begun, the Soviets recommend
that the grain be aerated at a maximum rate
independently of the weather and relative humidity
until completely cooled.37
Soviet installations for active ventilation of grain are
of several types: the permanent (built-in) types,
transportable air duct systems, and portable tube
systems. The permanent and transportable duct
systems are used for aerating large quantities of grain
and the portable tube systems are used for eliminating
pockets of self-heating grain in bulk.3 ~ 30
Permanent installations are used at grain reception
points and typically at grain storage buildings of
3,200-ton capacity. The installation consists of a
blower and a system of air distribution channels built
into the floor of the storehouse and air distributing
gratings or screens covering the channels. The air
passes upward into the grain above it. Permanent
aeration systems reportedly are not utilized in
collective and state farms but only in grain storehouses
of the procurement system.3 ~ 3a
Transportable air duct systems can be utilized for
aerating in storehouses, under sheds, and in open areas.
The air ducts in this system are placed on the floor
of storehouses or on the ground of open areas.a as
Portable systems include vertical and horizontal
tube systems. The tubes are inserted in the grain after
the storage areas are filled, and the tubes are applied
frequently to eliminate foci of self-heating detected in
the grain bulk. Such tube systems require high
expenditures of manual labors ~ ao as
In 1973, the USSR Ministry of Procurement
indicated that there were 6,000 receiving and
processing enterprises which had 48 million tons of
storehouse capacity equipped with installations for
active ventilation of grain. More than 60% of the
storehouses within the procurement system reportedly
were equipped with active ventilation systems by
1975.30 Soviet grain technologists state that drying
grain with unheated air is not profitable and under
specific conditions it may worsen the quality or induce
spoilage of the upper layers of grain. 3? By heating air
1?C, its relative humidity can be reduced by 5%.
Therefore to dry grain by ventilation during
unfavorably rainy or. misty weather (relative
humidities near to 100%), the Soviets recommend
heating the air by not more than 7?C z ao
By increasing the temperature of air 5?C, the rate of
drying is increased by 10 to 12%, but unevenness of
drying grows by 1.5 times. This leads to overdrying in
the lower layers of the grain (down to 8 to 6%
moisture) which is undesirable. According to the
Soviets, overdried grain for feed reduces its
assimilation by animals.' 3? For accelerating the
drying of grain in Soviet practice, the air for active
ventilation is heated to temperatures up to 40 to 50?C.
In this case the process is referred to by the Soviets as
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drying grain with heated air. It is believed that drying
by heating air during active ventilation is applied
primarily by the Soviets to drying seed grain and that
it is used infrequently or only in exceptional cases for
procured grain.? ao
Storage Facilities
Enclosed grain storage facilities within the Soviet
grain industry are in general similar to those in the
United States. These facilities are of two principal
types: 1) the tall cylindrical, or square silo, usually
grouped together in elevators; and 2) flat storage
buildings, which are long low rectangular buildings,
usually single storied. Both facilities often are located
together at state grain procurement centers. Silo
elevators are equipped with bucket and belt conveyors
for transporting grain into silos and for handling the
grain within and between silos. Flat storage buildings
may be mechanized for loading and handling grain or
they may be unmechanized. Flat storage buildings
have been utilized extensively in the USSR because
they can be constructed more quickly and cheaply
than silos. The permanent grain storage capacity in
the USSR is primarily in long, low, flat storage
buildings. In 1970 it was reported that such storage
comprised more than 85% of the total storage capacity
within the procurement systems so as ao
Grain silo elevators are considered to be the most
desirable facilities for storage by the Soviets. However,
in silo elevators, grain for storage must be dry or
moderately dry (14 to 15% moisture content). Storage
of damp or wet grain in silos is prohibited with the
exception of grain designated for immediate drying,
not to exceed the 3-day productivity of the dryers at
the elevator. Wet grain storage in elevator silos is
prohibited because it is readily subject to deterioration
and self-heating which can rapidly lead to obstruction
of the silo by caked grain, resulting in complete
spoilage. Since 1930 grain dryers have been an
obligatory part of any newly constructed Soviet grain
silo elevators. Recently, in addition to grain dryers, at
some elevators there may be silos equipped for active
ventilations so
Grain stored in long, low storage buildings not
equipped with active ventilation can have a moisture
content up to 17%, but the height of the pile must be
reduced. The height of the grain bulk in such storage
buildings depends on the technical condition of the
building, the crop, moisture content, weed and litter
content, and time of year (hot or cold) the grain is
stored. Ordinarily with dry or moderately dry grain,
the height is 2 to 2.5 m near the outside wall and 4.5 to
5 m in the middle of the building. With grain
containing up to 17% moisture, the height overall
should not be higher than 2 m. During the temporary
storage of grain at up to 19% moisture content, the
height must not exceed 1.5 m and, with grain over
19% moisture, must not be higher than 1 m. In long,
low storage buildings equipped for active ventilation,
the overall height of grain bulk can be 3.5 m for 16%
moisture content, 2.5 m for 18% moisture, and 2 m for
any above 18% moisture. But any with moisture
content above 19% must be constantly aerated until it
can be sent for drying. Therefore the wetness of the
grain stored in long, low buildings can affect the
amount of grain stored. The storage capacity for grain
of 17 to 18% moisture or above in storehouses with or
without active ventilation is reduced roughly to at
least half that of dry grain.l s ao
In addition to permanent enclosed grain storage
facilities, so-called temporary storage facilities are
utilized in the Soviet Union. These facilities include:
1) prepared open-storage areas, sometimes paved with
asphalt. These are narrow and long open platforms
upon which the grain is piled, 2) walled open storage,
called clamps similar to the asphalt areas but having
low walls (1.8 m high) on the long sides of the asphalt
area to increase the storage capacity by permitting
higher piling. The Soviets indicate that grain on these
walled clamps should be covered with tarpaulins over
a supporting framework, but this is frequently not
done, and 3) roofed storage areas or sheds without
walls but with asphalt or concret floors. Such roofed
areas represent only a small percentage of temporary
storage.l 30 40
Storage Capacities
It generally has been accepted that as of 1 January
1974, the Soviet Ministry of Procurement had storage
capacity for only 126 million tons of grain and
oilseeds; only 28 million tons of it was in elevators.
Total off-farm storage capacity, as of 1 January 1975,
probably reached a little over 136 million tons,
including grain elevator capacity of approximately 32
million tons. An unknown amount of this total
capacity is used for holding reserve stocks and seed
supplies, which reduces the total annual storage
capacity. Also some of this capacity is utilized for
oilseed storage (5 to 7 million tons produced
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annually). Further, Soviet storage facilities probably
operate somewhat below capacity and some may be
closed for repairs.al-aa
Soviet grain storage facilities on collective and state
farms recently have been estimated to be about 100
million tons capacity. The Soviets themselves reported
that farm grain storage capacity was 98.5 million tons
in 1973. However, only 54.7 million tons of this farm
storage was in standard storehouses.aa-as
A recent (1974) Soviet text on the elevator industry
stated that in 1968, within the procurement system, 10
million tons and in 1973, 14 million tons of grain were
stored in clamps (short-walled, open area storage)
within the procurement system. Whether these figures
include all outside storage within the procurement
system for those years cannot be determined.ao
Storage Losses
According to Soviet data, grain stored under
optimal conditions (moisture and temperature
primarily) will lose from 0.07 to 3% of its dry matter
during a year's storage. As the result of self-heating,
grain may lose 3 to 8% of its dry substance in addition
to losses in quality and technical properties. Grain that
is stored in elevators, if state standards are met, is
likely to be subject to the least losses. Grain stored in
long low flat storage buildings does not have to meet
such stringent requirements and as a result is
susceptible to higher losses. Grain in so-called
temporary storage facilities is the most susceptible to
high losses because of lack of protection from the
environment and lack of post-harvest processing. One
Soviet researcher has generalized that natural losses in
grain stored on asphalt areas and clamps, under
normal conditions, can be twice as large as those in
grain properly stored in elevators. It is believed that
these losses in outdoor storage may be even greater in
unfavorably wet years.a as
The Soviets have stated that their enclosed grain
storage facilities are of insufficient capacity during
years favorable to grain production. Shortages of
storage capacity vary depending on geographic
location. For example, the Kazakh Ministry of
Procurement indicated that in 1972, there was a
shortage of about 4.55 million tons storage capacity to
meet the .actual amount of newly harvested grain
being received. The Soviets have indicated also that
the capacities of processing equipment and storage
facilities are calculated on the basis of meeting the
requirements of average conditions. The peak loads at
grain reception centers during the height of harvest
exceed capacities by two to four times. Therefore a
portion of the grain must be stored temporarily
without processing.37 a'
Two Soviet grain technologists have conducted
extensive research on length of time for stable storage
in some representative zones of the USSR. They
studied the dates of harvest and the actual
temperature and moisture content of freshly harvested
grain arriving at procurement centers. As criteria for
safe storage, they considered no loss in germination
rate, no noticeable fungal growth (absence of moldy
odor and less than 4% presence of fungal colonies),
and absence of grain fermentation. The approximate
periods of safe storage of grain, without post-harvest
processing, determined for typical regions are cited in
table 8. The research showed that in Moscow Oblast,
an average of 55.6% of all newly harvested grain
accepted at grain reception centers requires immediate
processing-cleaning, drying or active ventilation-if
it is to be stored safely; 35.7% can be held without
deterioration for 7 to 10 days, and the remaining 8.7%
must be treated within less than 2 months. By contrast
in Krasnoyarsk Kray, despite the high amount, 67.3%,
of grain received with above 19% moisture content,
the length of safe storage without processing is less
limited. This results from the fact that the average
temperature of the grain received is about 12?C,
making it possible to hold the grain without quality
changes for at least 10 days.48
A major cause of storage losses in the USSR is the
fact that during recent years, large quantities of newly
harvested grain have had to be stored for extended
periods of time in huge outdoor piles, either in clamps
or on asphalted areas because of shortages of covered
storage facilities. Heavy losses under outdoor storage
conditions occurred in 1973 as a result of undesirable
moisture and temperature relationships, improper
processing and handling procedures, and inefficient
grain transport.
Criticizing the high losses involved, Brezhnev in
December 1973 stated "because of the large harvest,
large quantities of grain had to be stored in piles under
the open sky." He further indicated that Soviet
planning organizations had not even "estimated the
sum total of losses involved." This criticism probably
related to state procured grain. The Deputy Minister
of Procurement confirmed that storage capacities in
1973 could not handle the increase in procurements
and the accumulation of state grain supplies;
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Table 8
Approximate Periods of Safe Storage of Grain Prior to Processing
Central-Non Black Soil
Moscow Oblast ..................
Ryazan Oblast ................. .
North Caucasus
Krasnodar Kray .................
Southern Ukraine
Nikolayev Oblast ............... .
Crimean Onlast ................ .
Urals
Chelyabinsk Oblast ............. .
Eastern Siberia
Krasnoyarsk Kray ............... .
Percent
of grain
Safe
storage
(days)
Percent
of grain
Safe
storage
(days)
Percent
of grain
Safe
storage
(days)
Percent
of grain
Safe
storage
(days)
8.7
50
15.0
10
20.7
5
55.6
1 or less
38.2
17
14.1
7
14.3
3
33.4
1 or less
89.1
17
6.7
7
-
-
4.2
1 or less
70.5
10
13.2
2
5.9
0
10.4
0
96.6
15
3.2
5
0.2
1
-
-
19.2
100
16.0
40
18.3
15
46.5
10
4.6
160
8.6
80
19.5
20
67.5
10
therefore, a large amount of grain from state resources
was stored in piles for extended periods of time.4s so
The actual quantity of grain stored in outdoor piles
and the total resulting losses have not been reported
and cannot be determined. The Soviets did report that
in 1973, grain stored in clamps within the
procurement system amounted to 14 million tons. It is
not known whether this represents all outside storage
of grain. Generally the Soviet Union strives to move
grain stored in the open to covered storage by the
beginning of December. Even when this is possible,
deterioration is unavoidable. To the extent that some
of the grain in temporary storage was moved to
covered storage by December 1973, the total amount
of grain in outside storage prior to that date probably
exceeded 14 million tons.3o
The 1974 grain harvest was the second largest grain
crop produced in the USSR and, because of
inadequacies in storage capacity, a portion of the
grain had to be stored in the open. The ministries of
procurement of the RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, and
Kazakh SSR proposed measures to ship raw grain from
open storage to the nearest grain collection enterprise
equipped with dryers and from clamps to areas of
more immediate consumption or to places where
unused storage was available. A significant quantity
continued to remain in open storage in Saratov,
Volgograd, Orenburg, and Rostov Oblasts and the
northern oblasts of the Ukraine.20
Elevator and other grain storage facilities in 1974 in
the Ukraine reportedly had an increased capacity of
one-half million tons over that of 1973. Many storage
facilities in 1974 still contained grain from 1973,
creating problems in coping with the 1974 harvest.
The state had allocated an additional 31.7 million
rubles for constructing new facilities and "large
asphalt covered" areas. By October 1974 over half of
these were already in use,sz
The Soviets admitted that the year before (1973),
much of the grain stored outside had undergone self-
heating. Anticipating similar problems in 1974, they
expressed the need for daily concern for grain at
reception centers. They stated that the grain stored
outside must be monitored carefully in order to take
measures in time to prevent serious deterioration.20
The storage of grain outside in clamps and on the
ground is considered undesirable by Soviet grain
technologists and to be avoided if at all possible.
When used as a stop-gap measure,. Soviet technologists
unanimously recommend covering the grain with
canvas or other means of protection. Foci of self-
heating are especially dangerous in grain stored in
ClaInp5.3 6 30 40 46
Temporary storage of grain destined for procure-
ment on Soviet farm threshing floors is considered
highly risky. When storage capacities at reception
centers are overloaded, delivery from farms frequently
is slowed. In 1973 a great deal of grain designated for
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procurement accumulated at farm threshing floors.
This condition was considered highly undesirable
because of the threat of spoilage.53
Grain storage on Soviet farms is inadequate. As of
1973, the on-farm capacity was reported to be 98.5
million tons, of which only 54.7 million tons was in
standard storehouses. In 1973 more than 120 million
tons reportedly had to be stored on farms. It was not
stated where the 21 million tons of grain in excess of
capacity was kept, but presumably, some of it was
stored outside in piles. Farm storage ranges from open-
air platforms and roofed open storage to standard
storehouses. Generally the conditions of storage are
considered to be more primitive than that within the
procurement system. In addition grain stored at the
farm level frequently has undergone limited or almost
no post-harvest processing. The Kazakh Ministry of
Procurement noted in 1973 that grain remaining on
the farms-40 to 50% of the gross harvest-was not
subjected to any industrial post-harvest processing at
a11.18
In discussing losses in Soviet grain quality, a general
assumption is often made that procured grain which
loses its quality or is spoiled in storage can be used for
animal feeding. This should not be taken to mean that
losses of low quality or spoiled grain have been
reduced through feeding. There is a loss, first of all, in
the sense that the grain has only limited use which, in
effect, reduces Soviet options in utilizing it. Second,
storage losses may reduce the feed value. For example,
Soviet animal nutritionists have discussed the losses in
nutritive substances in barley stored for 30 days.
If the barley is stored at proper moisture content
and temperature conditions in covered grain
storehouses, the following reductions in nutrients
occur: 0.04% in dry substance, 0.041% in protein
content, and 0.39% of the carbohydrates. By contrast
if barley is stored on open areas or in clamps at 30%
moisture, the following losses occur within 30 days:
dry substance 50%, protein 65%, and carbohydrates
80%. The percent of nutrient losses in grain above the
critical moisture level (14.5%) but below the 30% level
were not cited but would be considerably greater than
in properly stored barley. It is indicated that grain
with increased moisture within 2-3 days begins to self-
heat and spoil resulting in loss of its food, feed, and
industrial qualities.
Future Trends
The Soviets are acutely aware of many of their
problems in post-harvest processing and storage of
grain, particularly in regard to the need for more
enclosed storage facilities. Problems in post-harvest
processing include quantity and distribution of
cleaning and drying equipment and improvement of
their efficiency. The Soviets have a continuing
program to modernize drying and cleaning facilities at
grain receiving centers through rebuilding and
addition of improved components. It is expected that
they also will continue to produce improved models of
grain cleaners and dryers to both replace obsolete,
inefficient and small capacity equipment and to
increase the total numbers. One of their primary goals
will be to achieve a better balance in distribution of
the equipment within existing problem areas,ao as s3
Little evidence exists to indicate that the Soviets will
attempt to resolve some of their grain post-harvest
processing deficiencies through acquisition of foreign
technology. Soviet efforts are directed toward
improvement of existing models of equipment and
increasing their effectiveness through aggregation of
individual units into flow lines to increase capacity
and efficiency. The All-Union Council of Scientific
and Technical Societies, however, has called for new
designs of drying equipment which would replace
traditional grain drying operations. They would like to
see a conversion to newly designed highly productive
units employing preliminary heating of damp grain
prior to drying. Scientific research and experimental
work directed toward the creation of new highly
efficient drying equipment possibly under a single
planning and design center specializing in grain
drying equipment was called for. It is doubtful that
this new approach to grain drying design will be
implemented rapidly, if at all. In any event the impact
on Soviet grain drying problems probably would not
be significant within the next 5 to 8 years.sa ss
Recognizing the need for further expansion in
permanently enclosed storage facilities, the Soviet 5-
year-plan (1976-80) calls for the construction of 30
million tons of new elevator (within the procurement
system) storage facilities. The Soviets indicate that this
additional storage capacity will meet the country's
requirements fully for closed storage facilities for
procured grain by 1980. If achieved and if existing
facilities are maintained, off-farm capacity at the end
of 1980 could total an estimated 166 million tons, with
62 million tons in elevators. This effort represents a
greatly accelerated and expensive program and reflects
the extremely serious need to reduce storage losses.sa as
It is believed that some exploitation of foreign grain
elevator technology either in design or through
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purchase of specific equipment will occur in support of
the massive elevator construction program, but
specific evidence is lacking. Considering the
unprecedented annual rate of construction (almost
twice the annual rate in 1971-75) and the difficulties
historically encountered in Soviet grain elevator
construction, it is considered unlikely that the planned
total elevator capacity will be completely achieved by
1980. On the other hand planned increased rates of
investment and modernization of elevator construc-
tion organization and implementation could permit
the completion of a major portion of the planned
construction. Even the approximate achievement of the
target goal could contribute to a significant reduction
of losses in grain quality and quantity.41 az so es si sz
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Active ventilation (aeration)-Blowing air through
grain bulk in storage to establish and maintain a
moderately low and uniform temperature
Clamp ("bunt")-Large rectangular asphalted areas
with low wooden walls along the length of the area;
used to store grain in the open; sometimes covered
with a canvas
Combine-Grain harvester which cuts and threshes the
grain in the field in one operation; may also be used to
pick up and thresh cut grain in windrows if two-phase
harvesting is employed
Elevator-A group of grain silos (cylindrical towers)
associated with an elevator building for conveying
grain into the silos
Flat storage-Storage in long, rectangular grain storage
buildings
Grain reception center-Centers which accept grain
purchased from collective and state farms and subject
the grain to post-harvest processing and storage;
usually located in close proximity to grain growing
regions
Platform storage-Storage of grain in the open on
rectangular areas on the ground; usually the area has
an asphalt floor
Post-harvest processing-The treatment of grain after
harvest to make it suitable for storage by cleaning and
drying; also the treatment of newly harvested grain in
storage to maintain its safe storage (cleaning, drying
and cooling by active ventilation)
Procurement-The purchase of grain from collective
and state farms by the Ministry of Procurement of the
USSR or certain Soviet republic ministries of
procurement
Procured grain-Grain purchased from collective and
state farms by the Soviet Government procurement
system
Procurement system-The system under the USSR
Ministry of Procurement which purchases grain from
the collective and state farms, processes the purchased
grain to make it suitable for storage, stores the grain,
and makes it available to various grain consumers
Self-heating of grain-The "spontaneous" heating of
grain as the result of the heat evolved by the metabolic
activity of microorganisms in damp and wet grain
Silo-Tall cylindrical hollow tower for storage of
grain; almost always combined with other silos and an
elevator building for loading, unloading and moving
grain
Storage fungi-Fungal microorganisms which are
distinct from field fungi and are found in bulk or
stored grain; they primarily are comprised of about a
dozen species of Aspergillus, several species of
Penicillium, and a few species of yeasts
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