SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY VOLUME 19, NUMBER 3

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• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP10-02196R000700020003-3
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 59
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: March 15, 2013
• Sequence Number: 3
• Publication Date: September 1, 1965
• Content Type: REPORT

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Volume 1.9, NuMber. 3
September, 196
?
SOVIET
ATOMIC
!ENERGY
-ATOMHAR 3HEPT1,111
(ATOMNAYA, iNERGIYA)
TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN'
CONSULTANTS BUREAU
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ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA
EDITORIAL BOARD
A. I. Alikhanov M. G. Meshcheryakov
A. A. Bochvar M. D. Millionshchikov
N. A. DollEzhar (Editor-in-Chief)
V. S.1Fursov P. N. Palei
I. N. Golovin V. B. Shevchenko
V. F. Kalinin D. L. Simonenko
N. A. Kolokol'tsov- V. I. Smirnov
(Assistant Editor) A. P. Vinogradov
A. K. Krasin N. A. Vlasov
A. I. Leipunskii (Assistant Editor)
V. V. Matveev
SOVIET ATOMIC
ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
? 1966 CONSULTANTS BUREAU, A DIVISION OF PLENUM PUBLISHING
CORPORATION, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N. Y. 10011
Volume 19, Number 3 September, 1965
CONTENTS
RUSS.
PAGE PAGE
Collective Interaction of "Runaway" Electrons with Plasma in the S-1 Stellarator
?P. I. Blinov and L. P. Zakatov
1143
233
Stability of a Partially Compensated Electron Beam?B. V. Chirikov
1149
239
Distribution of Specific Ionization Along a Track as a Function of the Initial Energy of U235
Fission Fragments?F. Nasyrov, A. A. Rostovtsev, Yu. I. Il'in, and S. V. Linev
1156
244
Total Cross Sections of Re185 and Re187?V. P. Vertebnyi, M. F. Vlasov, A. L. Kirilyuk,
V. V. Kolotyi, Zh. I. Pisanko, and N. A. Trofimova
1162
250
Neutron Spectrum from Heterogeneous Media?K, Meyer
1166
253
Some Characteristics of Diphenyl Heating Turbines and Their Limiting Power?V. S. Danilin,
I. I. Zakharov, A. A. Loginov, and V. A. Chernyaev
1172
257
A Test-Rig Study of the Startup Modes of the I. V. Kurchatov Nuclear Power Station,
Beloyarsk?V. N. Smolin, V. K. Polyakov, V. I. Esikov, and Yu. N. Shuinov
1177
261
Variation of the Properties of Beryllium During Aging ?V. M. Azhazha, I. G. D'yakov,
I. I. Papirov, and G. F. Tikhinskii
1185
269
Gamma and Neutron Dosimetry in Nuclear Reactors by Means of Colored Polyvinyl Alcohol
Films?Ya. I. Lavrentovich, A. I. Levon, G. N. Mel'nikova, and A. M. Kabakchi
1189
273
Two Genetic Types of Postmagmatic Thorium-Rare-Earth Deposits -V. A. Nevskii
and P. S. Koz,lova
1193
277
The Economic Efficiency of Using Nuclear Radiations in the Production and Processing
of Agricultural Products?N. S. Prokof'ev
1198
282
NOTES ON ARTICLES RECEIVED
Obtaining Accelerated Monokinetic Bunches of Electrons with High Capture Percentage
in a Resonator Buncher?B. A. Snedkov
1203
287
NOTES ON ARTICLES SUBMITTED
Use of Monte Carlo Method to Analyze the Passage of Fast Neutrons Through Hydrogen
?L. M. Shirkin
1204
288
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Increasing the Pulse Length of Beams of Particles from the OIYaI Synchrocyclotron at 680 MeV
?V. I. Danilov, I. B. Enchevich, B. I. Zamolodchikov, g. A. Polferov, E. I. Rozanov,
V. I. Smirnov, and V. G. Testov
1206
289
Annual Subscription: $95
Single Issue: $30
Single Article: $15
All rights reserved. No article contained herein may be reproduced for any purpose whatsoever
without permission of the publisher. Permission may be obtained from Consultants Bureau, A
Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N. Y. 10011, U.S.A.
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COLLECTIVE INTERACTION OF "RUNAWAY" ELECTRONS
WITH PLASMA IN THE S-1 STELLARATOR
(UDC 533.2)
P. I. Blinov and I.,-. P..-Zakato'v
Translated fro.m Atcimnaya Energiya, Vol. 19, No. 3,
pp. 233-238, September, 1965
Original article submitted November 18, 1964
The authors study the interaction of "runaway" electrons with plasiria.during the. ohMic leadinglirrie "
of the S-1 Stellarator,. and the associated radio emission.
?
As is well-known, when an electric field is applied to a -plasma there arises a current of ninaWayelectrons. For
all the electrons to become runaway, the field must, as shown in [1], exceed -a certain tritital value'
2
ECrit
where XD is the Debye radius. If the field is weak, only those electrons with velocities well above thermal will enter
the runaway state, i.e., a state of unlimited acceleration. In race-track type apparatus, runaway electrons must quite
quickly emerge from the plasma, exciting bremsstrahlung x-rays from the beam-limiting diaphragms and chamber
walls in the region of curvature.
On the other hand, a directed electron current in a plasma can excite electrostatic oscillations [2, 3]. For this
to occur, as shown in [2], the directed velocity of the electron current must exceed the thermal velocity of the plas-
ma electrons. Thus the growth of electrostatic oscillations prevents unlimited acceleration of the electrons inthe plasma.
The oscillations take several of their own periods to develop [4]. Meanwhile the runaway electrons are rapidly
retarded to near thermal velocities, causing an abrupt decrease of the current in the plasma. If the electric field is
not switched off, the process of acceleration and retardation will be repeated periodically.
When scattered at inhomogeneities in the plasma and at the plasma-vacuum boundaries, longitudinal vibra-
tions can be transformed into transverse ones and be radiated out of the plasma [5, 6]. This effect is caused by inter-
actions between the harmonics of the electrostatic oscillations [7]. Thus the presence of x-ray and radio emission
from the Stellarator during the ohmic loading period may indicate the presence in the plasma of runaway electrons.
The appearance of runaway electrons in a Stellarator was first observed in [8]. Collective interaction of runawaSt
electrons with plasma in strong electric fields was studied in detail in [9, 10].
to amplifier
Fig. 1. Receiving circuit for 30-300 Mc/sec range.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
The construction of the S-1 Stellarator is described in
[11]. The initial pressure in the chamberwas 2 ? 10-7mm Hg.
All the measurements were made on helium in the pressure
range 1.1 ? 10-4 to 2 ? 10-3 mm Hg.
Radio emission from the plasma was studied over a
wide frequency range, from tens of kc/sec to tens of giga-
cycles/sec. Low-frequency noise (down to tens of kc/sec)
was received by magnetic or dipole antennae placedl near the
straight part of the chamber, and after amplification was fed
to the input of an OK-24 oscillograph. Radiation in the
range 30-2000 Mc/sec was received similarly and led via .a
coaxial cable to a selective circuit (Fig. 1). To avoid re-
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Fig. 3. Oscillograms of current, radiofrequency emission (X = 3 cm) and x-ray emission
from plasma (top downwards, respectively). a) Electric field antiparallel to retaining
magnetic field (sweep time 6 msec, attenuation at oscillograph input 1: 1 for radio
waves, 1: 500 for x-rays); b) electric field parallel to magnetic field (sweep time 3
msec, attenuation at oscillograph input 1 :5 for radio waves, 1:1 for x-rays).
/, rel. uni
1,0
ts
-60 -60 -30 0
30 60 go (/), degrees
Fig. 4. Detector current versus angle of rotation
antenna, 0) Experimental points: ) theo-
Reduction in Nrun/N (e.g., by escape of runaway elec-
trons from the beam) must lead to reduction in level or even
collapse of the electrostatic vibrations. On the other hand, such losses must be accompanied by intense x-radiation
from the chamber walls. Measurements showed that changes in the direction of the electric field in relation to the
magnetic field lead to abrupt changes in the amounts of x-ray and radio emission. The intensity of x-ray emission
was a maximum with the electric field E antiparallel to the magnetic field H, whereas in this case the radio emission
was relatively weak. When the direction of E was reversed, the power of the radio emission rose sharply, while the
intensity of x-ray emission fell by a factor of about 100 (Fig. 3). This may indicate that, in the first case, hydromag-
netic instability was occurring: in the S-1 Stellarator the angle through which the lines of magnetic force curve at
the boundary of the plasma pinch is nearly ?27, and therefore in the first case the Kruskal-Shafranov limit is
reached at lower plasma currents than in the second case.
For a pinch of diameter 8 cm, Nrun 109 cm-3, i.e.,
Nrun 1?-3 N, since the mean electron concentration N at
the moment of appearance of radio emission is below 1012cm-3.
A current jump of 100 amp with accelerating voltage
300 V over the entire length of the race-track corresponds to a
power of 30 kw expended on slowing down the electrons. Ac-
cording to [12], about half of this power (in our case about
15 kw) is expended on swinging the electrostatic vibrations.
The experimentally measured radiative power at 3 cm wave-
length was 25 mw/cm2 with field frequency 60 Mc/sec, i.e.,
seven orders of magnitude higher than the power of thermal
radiation for electrons at a temperature of 100 eV. If we
assume that the radiation is uniformly distributed along the
whole length of the chamber, the full radiative power for the
same frequency band is 400 watts, corresponding to about 3%
of the power of the electrostatic vibrations as calculated in [12].
retical curve.
POLARIZATION
The polarization of the radiation was measured in the three-centimeter region. The dielectric antenna was
connected via a rectangular waveguide to a detector head against which was placed a low-quality resonator, which
was designed to separate a relatively narrow frequency spectrum. The transmission band of the resonator was 50 Mc
at 9650 Mc. By rotating the whole channel around the axis of the antenna, it was possible to measure how the radio-
emission intensity varied with the angle between the plane of polarization of the waveguide and the axis of the vacu-
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Hann, kilo:-oersted
10
p, rel. units
100
o
U
ol
010 0)2 0,14 015 . 418 E, V/cm
Fig. 7. Radio power emitted, versus e1ec-
-? ? tric field intensity.'
Fig. 9. Oscillograms of current and low-
frequency signal from magnetic probe, for
various discharge conditions.
2,5
0 01 02 0,30,5 E, V/cm
Fig. 8. Hmin, field for beginning of radio emission,
versus applied electric field E, for various chamber
pressures, mm 1) 1.1 ? 10-4; 2) 1.7 ? 10-4; 3)
2.5 ? 10-4; 4) 4 ?
Figure 6 plots Emir, versus the initial pressure in the chamber:
the graph is nearly linear. This relation follows from Dreicer's
theory [1]: the deviation from a straight line shows that the tempera-
ture and degree of ionization of the plasma vary with the pressure.
Let us compare 'Emin with the value predicted by the Dreicer
?.
formula:
Ecrit =-- 1.5-10-8
?
where Te is the electron temperature in ?K. Radiation with wave-
length 3 cm corresponds to a density of order 1012 cm-3, and the
electron temperature is then about 30 eV for initial presSure 10-4
mm Hg. Then Ecrit = 0.05 V/cm, which is about 2.5 times greater
than the experimental value, Emin = 0.02 V/cm. This fact, together
with the stepwise graph of radiative power versus E (Fig. 7), shows
that electrostatic vibrations arise only when a significant fraction of
the electrons enter the runaway state.
At pressures above 1.5 ? 10-3 mm Hg, the radiation vanishes at all frequencies. This is apparently due to in-
creased damping of the vibrations.
Relation between Emission and Magnetic Field Intensity
It has been noted that radiation from the plasma is observed only when the magnetic field exceeds a certain
value. At lower fields there is no radiation. The minimum field intensity was found to depend on the bypass voltage
(i.e., on the electric field intensity E), and also on the initial chamber pressure and the size of the diaphragm limit-
ing the diameter of the plasma pinch.
As seen from Fig. 8, with increasing bypass voltage, Hmin at first falls sharply, then passes through a minimum
and begins to increase slowly. As the pressure increases the critical magnetical fields decrease. However, the value
of E corresponding to the minimum of the critical magnetic field is practically independent of the initial pressure.
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STABILITY OF A PARTIALLY COMPENSATED ELECTRON BEAM
(UDC 533.9)
B. V. Chirikov
Translated from Atomnaya gnergiya, Vol. 19, No. 3,
pp. 239-244, September, 1965
Original article submitted August 13, 1964; in revised form, April 12, 1965
The author discusses the conditions for stability of a partially compensated electron beam in relation
to deflection ("snaking"). It is shown that, with a continuous spectrum of perturbation wave vectors,
there is always a region of strong instability (with relatively large increments). With a discrete
spectrum (e.g., with a beam of finite length in an accelerator), instability occurs only at beam cur-
rents greater than a certain critical value. Landau damping and radiation friction do not eliminate
the instability. A weak dissipative instability is discovered, caused by radiation friction. In some
cases Landau damping stabilizes this instability, but can also increase it.
The investigation is based on a model beam in the form of two pinches, electron and ion, with
constant dimensions and uniform densities.
Studies of the stability of a particle beam in an accelerator are usually limited to the single-particle approxi-
mations, i.e., they discuss the motion of a single particle in the external fields. In this case the stability problem
can practically be solved unambigously and reduces to a suitable choice of external fields.* To a first approxima-
tion, the interaction between particles can be regarded as the electrostatic repulsion, and hence we can estimate the
limiting current. In actual fact, partly or wholly compensated beams in an accelerator form an unusual kind of
plasma. It is well-known that in a plasma ther can be a number of instabilities due to the interactions of.a large
number of charged particles. The question arises: How far can these instabilities arise in accelerators? This prob-
lem was first dealt with by Budker [3] for a so-called stabilized electron beam. One of the most deleterious plasma
instabilities was found to be beam deflection ("snaking"). In [3] is was shown that polarization of the beam, i.e.,
relative displacement of electrons and ions, eliminates this instability for sufficiently shortwave initial perturbations;
it was suggested that long-wave perturbations might also be stabilized by external fields. This type of instability
was further discussed in [4, 5]. The authors concluded that full stability can only be attained in a strong-focusing ex-
ternal magnetic field, and not by eddy currents or weak focusing. These results were obtained by treating separately
stabilization by the external field and by polarization, the assumption being made that, to get stabilization, it is
enough for these two stability regions to overlap. This treatment is in general incorrect, because new effects may
arise from the simultaneous action of both forces. In this paper it will be shown that the simultaneous action of
polarization and external forces always leads to instability for a certain range of wavelengths.
1. Dispersion Equation
Following [3-5], we shall begin by examining the stability of the simplest model: the electrons and ions are
regarded as forming two cylindrical pinches of the same radius a, with constant densities ne and ni, for which we
shall use the dimensionless values
3ta2e2n, na2e2ni
ye= 2 V
MC mc2 t
(1)
* However, in systems with no damping (e.g., in proton storage rings), it is possible for delicate nonlinear effects to
arise, of the stochastic-instability [1] or separatrix-splitting [2] type: these are difficult to calculate.
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Frequency dependence of F(w). a)
3. Zones of Instability and Increments
kv <
X (stability); b) kv > X (instability).
Let us first consider the case I ? 1, which is the case with relatively small compensation, a ? y m/m ? 1.
As remarked above, the zone of instability is then (X/v) < k < k2, since the maximum of F(w) is less than zero for
all k > (X/v). Calculating k2, we find the region of instability to be
A2 < (kog < + Qg [ 1 + 3V/3(1. it, ] 1 + ,
Qs
(8)
which becomes smaller but does not vanish when 0 < X, corresponding to overlapping of the regions of stabilization
by polarization and by the external field.
The complex roots in the instability zone are
kVQ4(h0)2 ? )1.2
V2
[Q2+____
ks(ko _t_ 2i2 pQ.g2 X2 (ko)2
(9)
Hence it is seen that the increment is relatively small rE) and the instability is almost aperiodic (Rew ? Imw).
The most unfavorable part of the zone of instability is its right hand edge, (kv)2--)- Q2 + X2. In this case the approxi-
mate expression (9) is inapplicable and must be replaced by
(4 17 02-1- j
(10)
In practice, however, the maximum increment can be determined from the frequency scatter LQ.* To make an
exact allowance for these fluctuations, we must abandon our simple model. We can make a rough estimate of their
effect if we assume that the minimum difference
92 + (k.0)2
o where 6 A(g) .
From Eq. (9) we get
* It is important that there is a continuous frequency spectrum, i.e., a spectrum of random fluctuations of frequency
Q, which is just so for a beam which is usually located in a highly nonequilibrium state. On the contrary, a spatial
and slowly changing inhomogeneity of the external fields leads only to displacement of the frequency X and does not
impose limits on co. Exceptions to this are external forces caused by eddy currents, since these fluctuate proportional-
ly to the beam current.
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ye < (i-)2 (ica.)1/3
This value, though less than Eq. (16) [(g ? 1)], is still very large, owing to the smallness of a 0)
IT= ?`177/41Ye = (kv ? (0) kiYeYnz? (18)
The frictional force is equivalent to an imaginary term added to the external force:
2,2 x2+
(ko ? co). (19)
Assuming that this added term is sufficiently small (X1-4. 0), we can find a correction Aco in the formula
OF (co. X2) am+ OF (co, X2) A(.0 + 02F (co, X2) (Aco)2 (20)
OX2 aw2 v7
where AX2 = iX, (kv ? w), and for w we are substituting the roots of the dispersion Eq. (7).
Let us consider the expression for the correction to the frequency in the linear approximation (20):
Au) ? iXi (ko ? c)) 71,178:?62) .
(21)
OF Q2
Since[(ku_,,,r_x212 >0, the sign of Im(Aco) is determined by the signs of kv ? co and OF/3w and can
=
be either negative (damping) or positive (instability). Since Im(Au.)) oF/aw)-1, it is clear that the strongest effect
of friction corresponds exactly to the maximum and minimum of F(w). In this case, by Eq. (20),
Au) ? kv
0F/c1X2
102F/dco2 ?
(22)
Radiation friction, which is most important for electrons, isrunfortunately too weak to suppress the type of instability
under consideration. However, appreciable instability may arise under the action of frictional forces.
The physical significance of this dissipative instability is that the velocity of the electrons ($i kv ? w) may be
directed in a sense contrary to the local wave velocity [(ay/at) ? ?co]. Then the frictional force coincides in direc-
tion with the wave velocity and may lead to oscillation. The mechanism of the oscillation is associated with scatter-
ing of electrons in the field of the ion pinch, which vibrates with a certain phase difference from the electron pinch.
Hence, it is clear that dissipative instability based on frictional forces is possible only in the presence of ions.
6. Landau Damping
Let us now consider the scatter of the longitudinal velocities of electrons and ions,* which is known to cause
damping of the vibrations [7]. We shall confine ourselves to the discussion of a simplified dispersion equation [8].
This equation can be derived from the expression for the polarization force Eq. (2), in which ye and yi must be re-
placed by the electron and ion displacements averaged over the distribution function. This calculation yields
tQ
(23) 2 op du
u)2 ? Q2 oo_ ficeod)L x2 = 1.
The exact theory [7] shows that the integration in Eq. (23) must be carried out in the complex plane of the variables
v, u, bypassing the zero denominators (vo, u0) by a circuit from below. The ionic and electronic Landau damping are
* We regard the ions as nonmagnetic.
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w kv ? X, as the velocity distribution of the electrons is usually fairly narrow. The physical meaning of the in-
stability is the same as that discussed in Section 5, as in the ultimate analysis Landau damping is due to particle
collisions, i.e., it is a special kind of friction. The importance of the collisions follows from the assumption [7] that
the distribution function is constant. The part played by collisions was demonstrated clearly in [9, 10]. Instability
due to Landau damping is evidently similar in its mechanism to the so-called universal instability in a plasma [11].
We take this opportunity to thank G. I. Budker, V. M, Galitskii, V. I. Karpman, S. S. Moiseev, R. Z. Sagdeev,
V. V. Sokolov, A. M. Stefanovskii, and I. B. Khriplovich for helpful discussions.
LITERATURE CITED
1. B. V. Chirikov, Atomnaya gnergiya, 6, 630 (1959).
2. V. K. MePnikov, Dokl. AN SSSR, 148, 1259 (1963).
3. G. I. Budker, Atomnaya gnergiya, No. 5, 9 (1956).
4. D. Finkelstein and P. A. Sturrock, Plasma Physics, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1961).
5. D. Finkelstein, In symposium: "Storage of Relativistic Particles" [Russian translation], Moscow, Atomizdat
(1963), p. 171.
6. A. A. Vedenov, E. P. Velikhov, and R. Z. Sagdeev, Usp. fiz. nauk, LXXIII, 701 (1961).
7. L. D. Landau, ZhgTF, 16, 574 (1946).
8. J. E. Drummond, Plasma Physics, by Editor J. Drummond, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1961).
9. A. A. Vedenov, E. P. Velikhov, and R. Z. Sagdeev, Nuclear Fusion, 1, 82 (1961).
10. V. E. Zakharov and V. I. Karpman, ZhgTF, 43, 490 (1962).
11. A. A. Galeev, V. N. Oraevskii, and R. Z. Sagdeev, ZhgTF, 44, 903 (1963).
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some or all of this peri-
odical literature may well be available in English translation. A complete list of the cover- to.
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
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"sececcora
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pulse height, arb, units
8
Fig. 2. Pulse height distribution in chamber 9.
ARe ARe
(dnIdR)i?e?.= (dE I d11)1 '
(1)
where AR is the length of a chamber; e is the charge on the electron; C is
the electrical capacity of a chamber; W is the energy lost by a fission
fragment in the creation of an ion pair.
A typical pulse height distribution in chamber 9, shown in Fig. 2,
was obtained for fragments for thermal fission of U235 at 35 mm Hg total
pressure of the filling gas, Ar + CH4 (510), in the chambers.
T
\\\NN\NN\
The following measurements were carried out with the help of a
DMA-1024 two-dimensional pulse height analyzer having 32 channels
,--I/ along each axis [11]. Chamber 9 was kept connected to the input of one
analyzer axis; the remaining chambers of the telescope were connected in
Fig. 1. Diagramof ionization chambers. turn to the input of the other axis. Thus, chamber 9 enabled one to dis-
tribute the fragments over 32 channels in accordance with their ionizing
power, and the two-dimensional analyzer made it possible to follow the specific ionization from chamber to cham-
ber for each group of fragments whose pulses from chamber 9 fell into the appropriate analyzer channel.
In Fig. 3 is shown typical pulse height distributions in the first eight chambers of the telescope from a group
of heavy fragments whose pulses from chamber 9 fell in the sixth channel of the analyzer.
In analyzing the results, the pulse heights corresponding to the positions of the maxima of the distributions
were considered values characteristic of the average specific ionization of the group of fragments. From these values,
v(R) curves were constructed for all groups. The relationship ?dE/dR(R) for the fragments was computed from the ex-
perimental data for the distribution of v(R) in accordance with relation (1). To do this, the constant relating the
quantities v(R) and ?dE/dR (R) was determined on the basis of data for the initial energies of the most probable light
and heavy fragments (100.2 and 66.7 MeV, respectively [12]). The conversion coefficient was determined inde-
pendently from both energy values, and the values agreed within 2%. For all other fragments different from the
most probable, the average value of the coefficient was used in the calculations. The initial energy of the frag-
ments was determined from the area under the ?dE/dR (R) curve. Measurements on the two-dimensional analyzer
with chamber 11 enabled one to find the energy of fragments travelling in a direction opposite to that of chambers
1-10. To find the dn/dR (R) dependence, it was assumed that the average energy expended in the creation of an ion
pair was the same for all fragments and amounted to 26.6 eV [3].
The dependence shown in Fig. 2 characterizes the distribution of fragments in ionizing power for normal gas
pressure along a small portion of the track LR = 1.4 mm (range from the beginning of the track, 11-12.4 mm). Al-
though this distribution resembles the two-group mass distribution of the fragments, it is not the mass distribution it-
self. The beginning of the distribution corresponds to the heaviest fragments, the first maximum to the most probable
heavy fragment, and the second maximum to the most probable light fission fragment.
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AH/AL
2
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
40 50 60 70 80
90
100
110 E,
MeV
Fig. 5. Dependence of the most probable mass ra-
tio for U235 fission fragments on the energy of one
of the fragments (0?heavy, 0?light fragment).
E, MeV
.90
60
30
0
1
2
3
4
v, cm/sec ? 108
15
12
.9
6
3
8 12 16
a
20
Z4 R, mm
N
2
1
.
-.------
-.-,_
\
`..
N.
?
N. N
N. s.
6 4 8 12 16
20
24 R,
/TIM
Fig. 6. Curves of energy (a) and velocity (b) along
the track of fragments with different initial ener-
gies, MeV: 1)115.5; 2) 100; 3) 67; 4) 34.
energies and velocities through the data for ?dE/dR (R). The
averaging over the experimental points. In Fig. 4, values are
given for the most probable masses of the light, AL, and heavy,
AH, fragments corresponding to the values found for the ener-
gies EL and EH. The mass was determined from the ratio of
the initial energies of the fragments EL/EH. It should be
pointed out at once that the mass was determined with poorer
precision than the initial energy of the fission fragments be-
cause the error in this case is made up of the errors in suc-
cessive measurements of the energies of both fragments emitted
from the U235 layer in opposite-directions. The largest error,
approximately ? 10%, attaches to masses far from the most
probable because of the low statistically effective count rate
and partly because of the resolution of the chambers.
It is difficult to measure specific ionization out to the
end of a track. The small maximum in the ?dE/dR (R) curve
at the end of a fragment track, shown in Lassen's papers, was
not investigated here. Because of this, the numerical results
of the experiment have an additional error associated with the
arbitrary extrapolation of the ?dE/dR (R) curve to the end of
the fragment track.
Two experimental curves are shown in Fig. 5 which
characterize the most probable fragment mass ratio for the
emission of one of them with a given energy. Although the
curves were obtained independently of one another, their in-
herent connection is completely clear. The curves have an
almost symmetric shape. The line drawn in the center be-
tween the curves evidently characterizes the most probable
energy falling to the share of one fragment, on the average,
for fission with a mass ratio AH/AL.
Because fragments (for example, heavy ones) with the
same initial energy can be obtained from fission with different
mass ratios AH/AL, all the results obtained in the experiments
should be referred to fragments with the most probable mass for
a given energy.
It is clear from Fig. 4 that the light fragments differ from
the heavy ones in the nature of the ionization along a track.
Portions of the light fragment tracks with notably different rates
of decrease in the quantity ?dE/dR characterize different rates
in the loss of charge Zeff. The ionization energy loss per unit
length for the majority of the heavy fragments is greater than
for the light fragments at the beginning of the tracks. This
comparison could best be made if the specific ionization were
represented as a function of velocity. For example, a com-
parison of specific ionization at identical fragment velocities
directly characterizes their charges. Such a relationship was
derived on the basis of the experimental data. To do this,
curves were determined, first for the energy E, and then for the
velocity V, along the track of fragments having different initial
data about the fragments are of interest in themselves. Curves of the functions E(R) and v(R) are given in Fig. 6 for
four fragments. The upper and lower curves refer to the lightest and heaviest fragments, respectively, for which ex-
perimental data were obtained. The middle curves typify the most probable fragments on the light and heavy groups.
Similar curves were obtained for fragments with other initial energies and velocities, and then the dependence of
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3. F. Nasyrov, Atomnaya gnergiya, 16, 449 (1964).
4. N. Perfilov, Dokl. AN SSSR, 28, 5 (1940).
5. N. Lassen, Phys. Rev., 68, 142 (1945); Phys. Rev., 69, 137 (1946).
6. N. Lassen, Kg1. danske. Vid. selskab. Mat.-fys. medd., 30, 13 (1955).
7. C. Fulmer and B. Cohen, Phys. Rev., 109, 94 (1958).
8. N. Bohr, Phys. Rev., 58, 654 (1940).
9. N. Bohr, Phys. Rev., 59, 270 (1941).
10. N. Bohr, Penetration of Atomic Particles through Matter [Russian translation], Moscow, Izd-vo Inostr. Lit. (1950).
11. A. A. Rostovtsev et al., Atomnaya gnergiya, 11, 58 (1961).
12. Handbook of Nuclear Physics, Translated from the English, L. A. Artsimovich, ed., Moscow, Fizmatgiz (1963),
p. 321.
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some or all of this peri-
odical literature may well be available in English translation. A complete list of the cover-to-
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
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TABLE 2. Levels in Re Isotopes
Isotope
Resonance
energy
2grn
this
work
(7]
R 0185
Re187
t.
2,156?0,019
5,93?0,02
7,18?0,03
11,97?0,06
12,9?0,07
14,74?0,09
21,46_0,15*
4,41?0,01
11,2?0,06
16,2?0,10
17,7?0,1
18 , 5?0 , 1
*Unresolved level.
4,3?0,2 6,6?0,1
0,24?0,04
1,6?0,3
0,94?0,12 0,63?0,07
0,9?0,1 0,72?0,08
0,94?0,15 0,65?0,07
10,3?1,6 5,3?0,3
0,41?0,09 0,64?0,10
3,0?0,3 1,8?0,1
0,73?0,10 0,44?0,04
2,3?0,3 1,32?0,14
0,7?0,1 0,52?0,05
were also observedin rhenium with energies of 22.09 ? 0.07, 24.94 ? 0.07, 26.79 0.08, 27.45 ? 0.09, 29.6 0.1,
34.08 ? 0.10, 36.7 ? 0.2, 39.7 ? 0.2, 41.7 ? 0.3, 45.8 ? 0.3, 47.8 ? 0.3, 50.5 0.3, 51.6 ? 0.3, 54.0 0.3,
55.3 ? 0.4, 58.0 ? 0.4, 61.5 t 0.4, 63.7 ? 0.4, 70.8 ? 0.4, 74.6 ? 0.4, 79.0 ? 0.5, 87.0 ? 0.5, 96.7 ? 0.5, and
108.0 ? 0.5 eV. It should be pointed out that the level at 27.45 eV belongs in Re185, and the one at 39.66 eV in Re187.
As far as the identification of higher levels is concerned, this is difficult to do at the resolutions with which we
were working.
Data on the total neutron cross sections of rhenium in the resonance region have been published [4-7], parame-
ters obtained in [5] being used for some of the resonances in [7]. It should be noted that the value of gib for the
1,0
0,5
1,0
0,5
0
so,
100
150
200
280 80 40 20 10
5,0
2,34 E, eV
Fig. 1. Transmission of Rel (a) and Re187 (b) samples.
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average widths of the positive levels. The total cross section of Re185 at 2200 m/sec is 118 ? 2 b, and cross section
of Re187 is 90 ? 2 b.
LITERATURE CITED
1. M. F. Vlasov and A. L. Kirilyuk, Ukr. fiz. zh., 8, 947 (1963).
2. V. V. Vladimirskii and V. V. Sokolovskii, In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Peaceful
Use of Atomic Energy [in Russian], Dokl. sovetskikh uchenykh, Vol. 1, Moscow, Atomizdat (1959), p. 519.
3. V. P. Vertebnyi et al., Atomnaya nergiya, 12 (1962), p. 324.
4. Neutron Cross Sections, BNL-325, USA, AEC (1957).
5. G. Igo, Phys. Rev., 100, 1338 (1953).
6. V. P. Vertebnyi et al., Proceedings of the Working Conference on Slow Neutron Physics [in Russian], JINR,
Dubna (1962), p. 8.
7. Suppl. to Neutron Cross Sections, BNL-325, USA, AEC (1961).
8. G. V. Muradyan and Yu. V. Adamchuk, Proceedings of the Working Conference on the Interaction of Neutrons
with Nuclei [in Russian], JINR, Dubna (1964), p. 22.
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Here
T 0 E dd2 _1)2? E ddE? (1) 0= coPo? CD ; I
T 1E dd2 :21? E dci(DE1 + 01= C1 (C D ? 00).
Pi, 1-i
(i. = 0; 1)
ci= ,
(1 ?Pot -- Po)
(1.2)
(1.3)
where gi is the characteristic constant of a heavy-atom moderator; Ti is the temperature of moderator i measured in
the same units as the neutron energy. Because the scattering cross section 4i) for both moderators is independent of
neutron energy, the magnitude of Pii for plane and cylindrical geometries can be calculated, for example, with the
help of expressions given in [10, 11]. In order to obtain a good approximation of Eq. (1.1) to the transport equation,
we shall assume that LiZ,si) 1.
In this paper, Eq. (1.2), which was solved in [1] by calculating the energy moments of the neutron flux density,
is solved by means of a Laplace transform, which is defined for the neutron flux density as
(Di (t) = L (E)] = dEcEicbi (E). (1.4)
Considering the boundary conditions (Di(0) = 0, Um 11(E) = 0 (i = 0, 1), we can obtain equations for 430(t) and 431(t)
E-*
from Eq. (1.2) which must be solved with the initial condition (for normalization of total flux)
(Do (0) = = 1.
2. Solution of the Equation System
If we introduce
1?tTii? To)
= (1 ? tri)2?Di (1=0; 1); u=t(T
we obtain for 00 and 01 a system of differential equations which can be represented in the form
u u) dd211,,P2? -I- [1 + co + ci? (4 + ci)u] )
X d*?du 2 (1 + c) ipo = 0;
(1.5)
(2.1)
(2.2)
dhl)
u (1 u) ? [1 , co + ci? (3 ?ci)
du 1 1
Solutions of the system of hypergeometric differential equations which satisfy the initial condition, Eq. (1.5) can be
written in the form
if one uses
(Di (t)(l+tT i)2
x F ( 2, ci; 1 + co + ci; ;
tITi_i)2F
X (2,1 +ci-i; 1 4-cod-ci; "T11-4--1 t?T.T1)
) '
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(2.3)
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the properties of the region, the spatial and energy dependence of the neutron flux density in the i-th
region can be defined approximately by
0 (r, E) (Di (r) xi (E).
(3.1)
It is understood that the spectra xi(E) are normalized to unity for the appropriate type of energy cutoff se-
lected. Each spectrum X (E) represents one group of neutrons whose contribution to neutron flux density or total
neutron flux is determined by the functions 4Di (r).
This method can be applied to the quasi-transport model discussed in the previous sections. In this model, the
neutron absorption cross section is zero for each of the two components of the media considered so that neutron tem-
peratures To and T1 correspond to the equilibrium spectrum X i (E) and to the Maxwellian spectrum:
Xi 0; 1).
/
On the basis of Selengut's method, we obtain an expression for the neutron flux density
(E) = at? Xo (E) -F (E).
If the total neutron flux is normalized to unity, a solution is found in the form
(Di (E) =1 +C+ CI {(1 ct-i) Xi (E) ciXi-i (E)),
where i = 0,1.
(3.2)
It is more practical to make a comparison of Selengut's approximate solution with the exact solution on the
basis of integral characteristics where detailed calculations of the exact spectrum are not required. First, we form
the neutron density moments
CO
M(7',1) = -1( dE EN:Di (E).
Using the approximate solution Eq. (3.2), we obtain for m = 0,1,2, ...
3/0) n+1
1 + co +1(1 + cf-i)
n
Correspondingly, we have for the exact solution
(n+ 1) r(n+(1+co+
1+c0+cic)1) v n-v n
L x Ti Ti v) r (n --rv(-Fc.)c) (I; ?(1, ;Flit) ei_i)
v=0
(3.3)
('3.4)
Hence it follows that one can calculate the moments of the neutron flux density accurately by the approximate
method only for n equals 0 and 1, and higher moments obtained by the use of Eq. (3.3) are incorrect. Using Eq. (3.2),
one can obtain from Eq. (2.7) an expression for nuetron density or effective neutron temperature corresponding to the -
interrelation between density and neutron flux:
I. 1
?
V-Tieff +co+ ei Ti
(3.5)
It is necessary to compare this result with Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9).
A comparison of the results obtained by Selengut's approximate method with the exact solution shows that the
approximate method leads to the correct result in many cases, especially when a strong interaction between neutrons
and one of the two components of the medium under investigation predominates and when the temperatures of the
two media are insignificantly different.
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Equations Equation
(2.8) and (2.9) (3.5)
Tr /To 0.81 0.735
TTff/Ti 0.69 0.643
,Ifftiff 1.17 1.14
On the other hand, the results that have been obtained point to the need for a critical approach to the interpre-
tation of the results from relative integral measurements. Situations are possible where the theoretical and experi-
mental results are in good agreement although the theoretical model reflects an actual situation rather poorly. A
definite conclusion can only be reached on the basis of results from a large number of different integral experiments.
LITERATURE CITED
1. K. Meyer, Kernenergie, 4, 935 (1961).
2. D. Kottwitz, Nucl. Sci. and Eng., 7, 345 (1960).
3. M. V. Kazamovskii, A. V. Stepanov, and F. L. Shapiro, In: Proceedings of the Second International Con-
ference on the Peaceful Use of Atomic Energy [in Russian], Dokl. sovetskikh uchenykh, Vol. 2, Moscow,
Atomizdat (1959), p. 651.
4. D. Selengut, Nucl. Sci. and Eng., 9, 94 (1961).
5. H. Hurwitz, M. Nelin, and G. Habetler, Nucl. Sci. and Eng., 1, 280 (1956).
6. H. Markl, Nukleonik, Heidelberg, 4, 39 (1962).
7. A. Mockel and L Devooght, Nucleonik, 4, 236 (1962).
8. A. MUller, Nukleonik, 2, 54 (1960).
9. W. Rothenstein, Nucl. Sci. and Eng., 7, 162 (1960).
10. J. Chernick, Genfer Berichte: 5, 215 P-603 (1959).
11. H. Kiesewetter, Kernenergie, 6, 106 (1963).
12. W. Magnus and F. Oberhettinger, Formeln und Satze fiir die speziallen Funktionen der mathematischen Physik.
Springer Verlag. Berlin, Cottingen, Heidelberg (1948).
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Fig. 1. i-s Diagram for diphenyl.
400
300
200
100
0
200
1
2
0
300
400
Fig. 2. Specific volume flow
rate of vapor at turbine exhaust,
plotted versus initial tempera-
ture of diphenyl. 1) Vacuum of
0.035 atm; 2) 0.07 atm; 3) 0.1
atm. ID ) Turbine K-4-35; x)
turbine K-6-35; A) turbine
K-25-90; *) turbine K-50-90.
19 vo/frz
nst 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
7 6 5 4 3 2
Fig. 3. Change of volume flow rate of
vapor, plotted versus number of stages for
condensing steam turbines.
volume flow rate of vapor in a diphenyl turbine, it is relatively easy to achieve sufficient length of the
first-stage vanes.
Especial interest attaches to the subsequent stages, whose dimensions determine the limiting power. For con-
densing steam turbines, the maximum power is determined by the flow characteristics, though there is here also a
certain difficulty in getting a smooth enough flow section.
To calculate the limiting power of a one-flow condensing turbine we use a formula from [9]:
N 175
kw,
MaX n 2 Vz
woo)
where Ho is the available heat transfer in the turbine in kcal/kg, n is the speed of the rotor in rev/min, cz is the ex-
haust velocity of the vapor in m/sec, vz is the specific volume of the vapor at the exhaust in m3/kg, and Tim is the
mechanical efficiency of the turbine.
(1)
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6. For all the stages ?xa = 0.5.
From these assumptions we get
4[3d;. + (#, )712.
The mean available heat transfer per stage is
ho.av
a
4134 C, (Lyn
813dpi (m),
a L a
(4)
(5)
where M(m) is the function plotted in Fig. 4. From the initial and final parameters of diphenyl vapor, we find Vo and
Vz, and from the graph in Fig. 3 we determine the number of stages required, nst. Since
therefore
Ho Ho
n
ho. av? 2134M (m) '
dz= 213M110
(m) nst
The weight of vapor passing through the final stage, with axial exhaust, is
G,= = 0.523 14c z
vz PM (m) n stvz ?
This equation shows that in this case the maximum flow rate through the final stage depends on the available
heat transfer, in contrast to those turbines in which the limiting power is determined by the strength characteristics.
The limiting power of a diphenyl turbine is given by
(6)
(7)
(1000 2 Hcz
Nmax = GzHo -= 6.7
n M (nt) n se" z
110i1M kw.
(8)
Figure 5 gives the results of calculations from Eq. (8). It was assumed that risi = 0.86, 71m = 0.96, losses at
exhaust velocity =g .v. = 20/o, and with n 3000 rev /min in Eq. (8) the reducing gear efficiency r = 0.98. It is
seen that, for the conditions assumed, the limiting power of a diphenyl heating turbine is very small.
In the range of parameters under consideration, we can take the isoentropy index K = 1.025. This corresponds
to a critical pressure ratio e* = 0.61. From the values of K and e*, Fig. 6 plots the change in the parameters of the
diphenyl vapor current versus e = (P2/P1).
Thus the diphenyl vapor reaches sonic escape velocity at a lower pressure ratio than that for steam. At the
same temperature, the velocity of sound in diphenyl vapor is less than in superheated steam.
Our discussion of the properties of diphenyl as the working substance of a turbine shows that a turbine in a
nuclear diphenyl heating set with power 20-50 MW must have the following characteristics:?
1. Low rate of rotation (down to n = 1000 rev/min), so that a reducing gear must be used (lower speeds are in-
convenient because of the increase in size of the turbine);
2. Two-flow construction in one casing, as owing to the low available heat transfer the number of stages
is small;
3. Single-crown regulating stage (with nozzle vapor distribution);
4. Exhaust diffuser with strongly developed through-flow cross section.
The optimum vacuum and the coefficient of loss at exhaust velocity must be determined from a practical
analysis of the plant is performance and its requirements. However, it may be said that, from the viewpoint of
volume flow rate at the exhaust, the best vacuum of a diphenyl turbine should not exceed 0.07 atm.
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A TEST-RIG STUDY OF THE STARTUP MODES
OF THE I. V. KURCHATOV NUCLEAR POWER
STATION, BELOYARSK
(UDC 621.039.514.23)
V. N. Smolin, V. K. Polyakov, V. I. Esikov,
and Yu. N. Shuinov
Translated from Atomnaya fnergiya, Vol. 19, No. 3,
pp. 261-268, September, 1965
Original article submitted September 18, 1964; in revised form, September 26, 1964
The results are given of an experimental investigation carried out on a test-rig of the hydrodynamic
stability of the coolant flow in the channels of the first and second reactors of the Beloyarsk Nuclear
Power Station. The choice of methods of startup of the Nuclear Power Station units, which are ac-
ceptable to the experimental final adjustments, is justified. The results are given of a study of the
startup modes.
Channel type reactors are used in the I. V. Kurchatov Nuclear Power Station, Beloyarsk. Water boiling is ac-
complished in one group of channels and steam superheat in the other group of channels [1]. In the initial state of
the reactor the superheat channels and the steam ducts are filled with water. During startup, it is necessary to free
these channels from water and to convert to steam cooling of the superheat channels. As a result of this, preliminary
heating and startup of the NPS units must be undertaken without an extraneous source of heat.
In the startup period, just as in the nominal mode of operation of the station, it is necessary to provide reliable
cooling of the fuel elements (absence of a heat transfer crisis, assurance of hydrodynamic stability). Papers [2 and 3]
were devoted to a study of the noncrisis cycles of cooling of the fuel elements by a steam-water mixture. The pres-
ent paper describes the results of an investigation into the hydrodynamic flow rate stability of coolant in the channels
in the boiling cycle; the problem is discussed of the transition of the superheat channels from the water cooling cycle
to the steam cycle, with subsequent attainment of nominal parameters.
In order to carry out the investigation, experimental thermo-technological test-rigs were constructed, whose
basic circuits corresponded to the technological circuits of the first and second units of the NPS [4]. The test-rig for
the first unit consisted of two independent circuits, a closed loop and an open loop. Three evaporative channels 'are
included in the first loop and one superheat channel is included in the second loop. The test-rig for the second unit
is a closed single-loop circuit with an internal circulatory sub-loop. Two evaporative and two superheat channels
were included in the loop. Chemically demineralized water was used as the coolant.
The experimental evaporative and superheat channels were made to natural size [1, 4]. In the evaporative
channels, the coolant through the central tube was directed into the lower cap and then lifted upwards through six
peripheral tubes, passed through the heating zone and entered the upper cap. The design of the superheat channels
of the first unit of the NPS is similar to the evaporative channels. In the superheat channels of the second unit there
is no central tube. The coolant moves downwards through three tubes and upwards through three tubes. The coil
compensators for linear expansion in the evaporative and superheat channels of the first NPS reactor are located be-
low the active zone and in the superheat channels of the second reactor they are above the active zone in the de-
scending tubes.
The experimental channels, in contrast from the operating channels, have no fuel elements. The coolant in
the experimental channels was heated by a low-voltage electric current over a length corresponding to the active
zone of the reactor. All the tubes of the channels in the heated zone were connected in parallel with one another,
by common current-feed contacts. The central tube of the evaporative channels was electrically insulated from the
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min
12
10
8
4
200 300?C
a
min
.???
100
200 36T
Fig. 2. Temperature fluctuations of
walls of the heated tubes as a result
of feed pulsations: a) zone of surface
or bulk boiling; b) in the econo-
mizer zone.
lations per minute. Subsequent increase of the steam content again led to the creation of the pulsations. Secondary
pulsations (see Fig. lb) arising in the region of high steam contents were characterized by the considerable and quite
high frequency (15-20 oscillations per minute).
Feed pulsations in the channel tubes were accompanied by temperature fluctuations of the tube walls over the
entire length, with a frequency coinciding with the frequency of the feed fluctuations. In regions of low steam con-
tent, the temperature fluctuations of the walls in the upper sections of the heated zone (where surface or bulk boiling
was observed) only occur on the side of reduction from the initial value (Fig. 2a); in the economizer zone it occurs
on both sides of the initial value (Fig. 2b). The maximum amplitude of the temperature fluctuations of the walls
were found to occur in the economizer zone of the channels, but did not exceed the temperature differences which
the walls of the heated tubes have at a coolant temperature equal to the saturation temperature and to the channel
inlet temperature. In the regions of high steam content, as a result of the generation of secondary pulsations, the
temperature fluctuations of the walls in the upper sections of the heated zone were of a crisis nature and occurred
only on the side of increase from the initial value. Thus, as a result of the investigation, two regions of pulsation
modes are observed: a region of low steam content (x = 0-15%) and a region of high steam. content (x = 25-80%).
Figure 3 shows curves, separating the zones cf stable (upper curves) and pulsation (lower curves) operation of
the evaporative channels of the second unit in the region of low steam content. It follows from the figure that with
increase of pressure, the range of stable operation of the channels is extended, for a constant coolant feed rate. With
increase of the feed rate the zone of nonpulsation operation is increased. An increase of power contracts the zone
stable operation of the channels. The data given were obtained in channels with 6.2 mm diameter discs. In the
channels of the first unit, with 4.2 mm diameter discs, no pulsations were observed over the entire range of feed
rates investigated (700-2500 kg/h per channel) at pressures of 980 newton/cm2 and above.
Secondary pulsations were observed with feed rates through a channel of less than 1000 kg/h, a pressure below
600 newton/cm2 and a steam content at the channel outlet in excess of 25%. With increase of pressure, the pulsa-
tions originated at higher steam contents. For example, at a feed rate through the evaporative channels of the first
reactor of 1000 kg/h and a pressure of 400 newton/cm2, the pulsations originated at a steam content of 35%, and at a
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min I
501
30
20
10
Shut-down of
?feed-water
supply
ZOO 300 400?C
a
min
50
40
10
20
Shut-down of
-?--feed-water
supply
0200 300 400 500 100 ?C
Fig. 4. Temperature changes in the transition cycle. a) Coolant temperature at inlet and outlet of
superheat channels of the first reactor; b) wall temperature of heated tube.
that described in [5]. Essentially, it consisted in the following: the apparatus is heated up without boiling of the
coolant in the first and second loops. After the water temperature attains a stationary value, in the evaporators, the
power is reduced and the supply of feed water in the loop is shut off. Water from the second loop is removed through
the superheat channels. The pressure in the second loop falls, the water boils off, the steam-water mixture proceeds
to flow out of the loop and, finally, a stable level is set up in the evaporators. The superheat channels are finally
freed from water. Preliminary heating up of the second loop without boiling of the coolant enables it to be removed
from the insert tubes of the superheat channels.
By studying the hydrodynamic instability of the feed rates in the evaporative channelg, it was established that
boiling in the primary circuit without inter-loop pulsations can be achieved only at pressures of 700-800 newton/cm2.
The dual-circuit technological test-rig system, just like the layout of the first unit of the NPS, enables any pressure
whatsoever to be established independently in the primary circuit over the startup period as a result of the absence
of boiling in the evaporative channels. This makes it possible to transfer the first circuit to the boiling cycle after
purging the superheat channels and after the establishement in the second circuit of such a pressure at which, as a re-
sult of its transfer to the boiling cycle, the pressure in the first circuit should not fall below the stated limit.
The experiments were undertaken at an initial pressure in the first circuit of 1000 newton/cm2 and in the sec-
ond at a pressure of 300-400 newton/cm2. After filling the loops with water, the specified pressure was created, the
coolant feed through the channel was stopped and the heating was switched on. The test-rig was heated up to a water
outlet temperature of 5-10?C below the saturation temperature. The power was then reduced to 3-4% of nominal and
the supply of makeup water was shut off. The pressure in the loop dropped, which led to boiling of the water. At this
instant, steam formation took place in the loop because of the heat of the first loop as well as the accumulated heat.
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200
400
600?C
Fig. 7. Change of wall temperature of a
heated tube of the superheat channel as a
result of startup at reduced pressure.
In contrast from the circuit of the first unit of the NPS, the second
unit has a single-loop circuit. The situation does not permit the startup
method used for the first unit to be used to the full extent, since the
large drop of pressure in the loop leads to the creation of feed pulsations
in the tubes of the evaporative channels. Subsequent increase of power
after purging the superheat channels from pulsating feeds in the evapora-
tive channels, can lead to vortexing of the feeds and overbuming of the
fuel elements. Consequently, purging of the superheat channels must be
carried out with the provision of a stable coolant supply in the evapora-
tive channels.
For handling on the test-rig, the method was used of the gradual
replacement of the water circulating through the superheat channels,
first of all by a steam-water mixture and then by steam. This method
was used in one loop of the First Nuclear Power Station [7]. The loop
circuit contained evaporative and superheat channels. A certain supply
of water was established through the evaporative channels and part of
the water was directed into the superheat channels via the separator.
The onset of superheating was accomplished by increasing the power
prior to the instant of formation of the level in the separator without ad-
justing the coolant feed.
In our experiments, the required startup power was determined
from the conditions for providing reliable purging of the superheat chan-
nels. This was dependent upon the necessity for ensuring the passage of
a supply of steam through each ascending tube of any superheat channel up to the instant of purging the steam from
them, which would generate a pressure drop between the lower cap and the composite collector, equal to or greater
than the levelling pressure of the coolant column in the ascending tract of the channel [8].
Heating of the test-rig prior to obtaining water in the separator, located on the saturation line, and subsequent
purging of the superheat channels was carried out at a pressure which ensures a nonpulsation cycle of operation of the
evaporator channels. The initial supply of feed water was assumed to be such that the conditions were satisfied which
would ensure stable supplies in the descending tubes of the superheat channels (see Fig. 3b). After heating up the
test-rig prior to the production of water in the separator, located on the line of saturation, the feed water supply was
reduced gradually. A steam-water mixture entered the superheat channels and finally, after the formation of the
level in the separator, saturated steam entered. The level in the separator was formed by reducing the supply of feed
water to an amount somewhat less than the amount of regenerated steam. After purging the superheat channels, they
were observed by the temperature of the superheated steam, the temperature of the heated tube walls and the level in
the separator. The investigation was carried out on one of the two parallel-connected superheat channels at pressures
of 490 and 880 newton/cm2. The main consideration was given to determining the conditions at which reliable cool-
ing of the superheat channels is ensured in the startup period.
As a result of carrying out the experiment, it was established that with an adequate pressure differential a
temporary stoppage of circulation occurred even in an isolated superheat channel. Figure 5a shows the plot of the
change of pressure differential in a superheat channel as a result of the gradual replacement of water by steam, and
Fig. 5b shows the plot of the change of wall temperature of the heated tubes in the same process. It follows from the
diagrams that at a pressure differential equal to 4 newton/cm2, the circulation through the channel ceased, but the
wall temperature of the tubes increased. Periodically, according to the extent of the pressure reduction in the circuit
beyond the channel, the circulation was resumed in a small interval of time. After formation of the level in the sep-
arator, the channel was free from water and the fluctuations of the pressure differential and of the wall temperature
of the tubes ceased (Apmin = 4 newton/cm2).
Figure 6 shows plots of the change of pressure differential in the channel and of the change of temperature of
the walls of the heated tubes during the gradual replacement, but at a high power level in comparison with the ex-
periment for which the results are shown in Fig. 5. In this case, circulation of the coolant through the channel did
not cease (Apmin = 8 newton/cm2). The small fluctuations of temperature of the tube walls are explained by the
passage of steam locks and by their superheating.
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700020003-3
VARIAtION OF THE PROPERTIES OF BERYLLIUM DURING AGING
(UDC 546.45)
V. M. Azhazha, I. G. D'yakov, I. I. Papirov,
and G. F. Tikhinskii
Translated from Atomnaya gnergiya, Vol. 19, No. 3,
pp. 269-272, September, 1965
Original article submitted August 25, 1964; in revised form, December 28, 1964
The change in the residual resistance and mechanical properties of powder-metal beryllium as a
result of its residual resistance and plastic characteristics of beryllium on the time and tempera-
ture of aging are generally similar. A significant increase in the plastic properties of beryllium
can be achieved by heat treatment of hot-pressed beryllium under the optimum system and by the
aging of other grades of beryllium.
The plasticity of beryllium in the region of "hot" brittleness at temperatures of 400-600?C may be substantial-
ly improved as a result of aging of the supersaturated solid solution formed when the metal is cooled after various
technological treatments [1].
For a study of the kinetics of the process of solution of the superfluous phases during homogenization and depo-
sition of these phases during aging, the use of the method of measuring the residual resistance of the samples is
promising [2]. Thanks to its high sensitivity to structural changes, this method permits recording of the initial stages
of the processes of evolution, both at the usual temperatures of aging (-700?C) and at reduced aging temperatures
(-400?C). With the aid of a measurement of the residual resistance, it has been shown, in particular, that the effect
of temperature of aging depends on the purity of the metal, increasing with increasing amount of impurities, and that
even metal of maximum purity (99.96% Be) undergoes aging during suitable heat treatment. These circumstances
should be taken into consideration in selecting the system of aging, which must be modified depending on the grade
of metal.
The purpose of this work was to establish the effectiveness of the influence of aging on the mechanical proper-
ties of beryllium at increased temperatures, as well as the interrelationship between the mechanical characteristics
of aged beryllium and its residual electric resistance.
As the starting material, we selected hot-pressed beryllium, technical purity, with the following content of
impurities (according to the data of spectral and chemical analyses):
Fe
Al
Mn
Si
Cu
Ni .
Cr
Mg
Ca
C
0,04
0,035
0,03
0,005
0,01
Na20+21NaH. (1)
We should therefore expect that purification of sodium from the products of its reaction with water will involve
the recovery of sodium hydride and oxide. There arewell-developed methods [2] for freeing sodium from its oxide by
means of cold traps. However, there are no reliable data available on the simultaneous purification of sodium from
oxide and hydride, or from hydride alone. (The author of [3] discusses the possibility of trapping sodium hydride in
cold traps.) Our research therefore comprised two stages: we first studied the purification of sodium from its hydride,
then from the products of its reaction with water.
The work was done with an ordinary sodium circulation loop. Measured portions of hydrogen or water were fed
into the gas space of the tank pump. To avoid precipitation of oxide or hydride on the walls of the tank's gas space,
the temperature in the latter was kept 50-70? higher than the temperature of the sodium. The operation of the cold
trap was monitored by means of the plug indicator described in [2, 3].
300
cu
U)
2 200
00
013
00
100
0
o
cp 00
0 000
Stage I
Stage II_ i
0
0 0
o
Stage III
0
10
Time, h
20
Fig. 1. Purification of sodium from hydrogen. Stage
I: filtration through cold trap; Stage II: Cold trap
switched off, 2.2 g hydrogen fed into pump tank;
Stage III: filtration through cold trap.
300
U)
V, 200
00
'6.0
obi)
0
100
0
0
0 0
00
0 Cs.
n
oSt o o
age I
o
Stage II 1
00
0 o
Stage III
1-
i
10
Time, h
ZO
Fig. 2. Purification of sodium from the products of its
reaction with water. Stage I: filtration through cold
trap; Stage II: cold _trap switched off, 105 g water
added; Stage III: filtration through cold trap.
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700020003-3
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF HELIUM AT TEMPERA TURES
OF 0-1000?C AND PRESSURES OF 1-200 ATM
(UDC 621.039.534.3)
N. B. Vargaftik and N. kh. Zimina
Translated from Atomnaya tnergiya, Vol. 19, No. 3,
pp. 300-303, September, 1965
Original article submitted December 21, 1964; in revised form, May 14, 1965
A number of studies published in recent years have been concerned with the thermal conductivity X of helium
over a wide range of temperatures and pressures [1-7]. However, the results of experiments conducted by various
authors are not in sufficiently good agreement, and this makes it difficult to determine the behavior of the function
X = f(t, p).
The purpose of the present study is the experimental investigation of the thermal conductivity of helium in the
0-1000?C temperature range at a pressure of 1 atm, as well as an analysis of published experimental data on the
thermal conductivity of this gas at various values of t and p. The investigations were conducted on the apparatus
described in [8], using the hot-wire method. (The methods ued for the calculations and for processing the experi-
mental data are described in the same reference.)
In the processing of the experimental data, it is particularly important to make a correction for the tempera-
ture jump, since at high temperatures the value of the correction for helium is considerable, even at p:= 1 atm, as
will be shown below.
LIt,?C
40
36
As is known [9], the correction for the temperature jump is calculated by means of the formula
3
32
26
24
20
16
12 0
2
goz 404 aos gos
lip, cm-1 Hg
1 (1)
At=Atgas+B (73)
where At is the measured temperature drop between the wire and the
inner surface of the measuring-tube wall; tgas is the actual tempera-
ture drop in the gas layer; B is a value dependent on the physical prop-
erties of the gas and the wire material, as well aS on the geometry of
the instrument and the total amount of heat, Q, generated by the wire.
Thus, At must be linear function of lip when Q = const. From
the measured values of At corresponding to different pressures at the
same average gas temperature, we can construct the linear function
At = f(l/p). By extrapolating At to the value lip = 0, we can find the
value of tgas which appears in the basic formula for determining the
thermal conductivity X of a gas by the hot-wire method:
Q ? (2)
2%.=-A
At gas
where A is a constant depending on the instrument. For a given gas
pressure and specified conditions of temperature and instrument geome-
try, the temperature-jump correction Ati can be found by the formula
At ?At (3)
(at ) ? P gas
J P
Fig. 1. Graph of At = f(lip) for vari
ous values of temperature: 1) 355?C; where the subscript p represents the gas pressure for which the correction
2) 652?C; 3) 962?C. is determined.
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700020003-3
606
538
590
C 582
6
cd
576
566
400
392
X 384
a
0
100 150 p, 'atm r
b.
Tz.
?
3 7 6i7
368.-
50 100
150 p, atria
Fig. 3. Comparison of the experimental data of [6]
with the results obtained by Enskog's theoretical form-
ula for temperatures of 315.6?C (a) and 37.8?C (b):
o) calculation by Eq. (5) for values of X0 taken from
[6]; x) experimental data of [6]; 0) value of X ob-
tained by correcting for the temperature jump;
Enskog's calculation for high pressures and extrapola-
tion of X to p = 0.
5t
? %
20
10
0
?
200 400 600 800 t, ?C
Fig. 4. Graphs of Sti = f(t) obtained in the present
study and in [6]: 0) experimental data of the pres-
ent study; e) recomputation using the data of [12];
X) values of 6ti obtained from the 37.8?C and
315.6?C isotherms [6]; assumed graph for [6].
Enskog's formula for t = 37.8?C and t = 315.6?C. Figure 3 indicates that the differences between experimen-
tal and calculated data increase with increasing pressure along the initial part of the curve but remain
constant at higher pressures.
The reasons for the difference between the experimental results and the Enskog theory, which was worked out
approximately for a monatomic gas, were not given in [6]. However, [6] took no account of the correction for the
temperature jump between the gas and the sutfaces of the coaxial cylinders, which was quite large for light gases,
even when p> 1 atm.
Our experiments, conducted at various pressures, enabled us to determine the value of the correction for the
temperature jump between the helium and the platinum. In tile apparatus used by Johannin, Wilson, and Vodar [6]
the cylinders were made of silver. Naturally, the magnitude of the temperature jump depends on the relationship be-
tween the atomic (molecular) weights of the gas and the solid. However, there has been little investigation of this
question from the quantitative viewpoint. We therefore used the results of Rothma,n's experiments [12] on the tem-
perature jump between helium and silver cylinders, which were obtained only for t = 686?C, The gap in this appa-
ratus measured 0.6 mm. At this temperature and with p = 1 atm, it was found that
(ot )
(Atp?At as)?100% (2.22-2.10)!10Q%
j p=
2,22
where the subscript p corresponds to 1 atm. For coaxial cylinders (with the same cylinder material and the same
values of 69 is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the gap [12];
-(6t j )1_ 62 (6)
?(6tj )2 61
Consequently, for the apparatus described in [6], where t = 686?C and p = 1 atm, we have t,j = 1.2%, since 6 = 0.2
mm in the apparatus used by the French authors and 6 = 0.6 mm in Rothman's apparatus.
Figure 4 shows the graph of otj = .f(t) for p = 1 atm, plotted from experiments on thermal .conductivity of heli-
um performed on the apparatus we used. It follows from this graph that 6tj = 12% when t 686?C. Thus, on the ap-
1223
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700020003-3
3. W. Leidenfrost, Intern. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 7, No. 4 (1964).
4. E. Commings and J. Lenoir, Chem. Eng. Prog., 47, 223 (1951).
5. N. V. Tsederberg, V. N. Popov and N. A. Morozova, Thermophysical Properties of Helium [in Russian],
Moscow ? Leningrad, Gos6nergoizdat (1961), P. 45.
6. P. Johannin, M. Wilson, and B. V6dar, Second Symposium on Thermophysical Properties, sponsored by ASME,
January 24-26, 1962, Academic Press (New York, 1962), p. 418.
7. N. Blais and J. Mann, J. Chem. Phys., 32, 1459 (1960).
8. N. B. Vargaftik and N. Kh. Zimina, Teplofizika Vysokikh Temperatur, 2, 716 (1964).
9. D. L. Timpot and N. B. Vargaftik, Izv. VsesoyuZ. teplOtekhn. in-ta, No. 9, 1 (1935).
10. J. Hirschfelder, C. Curtiss, and R. Bird, Molecular Theory of Gases and Liquids [Russian translation], Moscow,
Izd-vo inostr. lit. (1961), p. 497.
11. M. Wilson, Jr., 0. T. S. Dept. of Comm. Ga 1355 (January, 1960).
12. A. Rothman, Thermal Conductivity of Gases at High Temperatures, United States Atomic Energy Commission
(January, 1954).
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some or all of this peri-
odical literature may well be available in English translation. A complete list of the cover- to.
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
1225
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700020003-3
TABLE 1. Chemical Composition and Certain Shielding Parameters of Materials
Material
b0
-X
Oxygen aric
hydrogen
content of
water, kWrr
Other elements, kg/m3
3
High energy
neutrons and
gamma
rays
0
o E
oc,
2
. E
0
Thermal
neutrons
Mg
Al
Si
Ca
Fe
X104
x,
X103
la'
x103
'
x 102
Water
1000
111
889
14,3
1,64
9,96
2,19
26,95
2
Sinter cakes and
ore-melt-crusts
1900
260
19
948
278
125
22
949
2,84
1010
1
3
Boron mud
2170
39
308
34
745
22
340
577
108
7
-3,12
61
5,5
4
Gypsum
2300
52
420
856
431
538
10,1
1;99
4,40
0,77
6,5
5
MNB brand boron
chamotte
2370
1
10
113
1282
21'
558
328
2
39
16
3,56
199
1,22
6
MB brand boron
chamotte
2370
79
1128
536
570
10
40
-
---
3,44
140
.1,40
7
Ordinary chamotte.
2390
1250.
4
362
720
12
33
9,4
1,95
3,26
0,21
1,06
8
Limestone
2400
253
1175
14-
11
22
909
10
9,2
2,03
3,16
0,31
1,72
9
10
Andesite
Marble
2500
2500
2
4
20
33
301
1175
1199
186
30
265
690
21
946
111 9,33
9,27
1,99
-2,04
3,08
0,34
0,29
4,26
1,98
11
12
Granite
Calcium borate
2500
2500
8
72
64
578
306
1176
848
33
127
7-
783
35
13
139
628
156
32
9,34
-
2,02
.--
.3,26
3,28
5,10
0,39
513
1,10
8,10
13
Boron carbide
2519
2172
347
--
--
--
5,20
3612
2,05
14
Calemanite
2560
76
638
364
988
493
-
-
---
?5,32
596
8,40
15
Magnesian cement.
2580
39
312
893
1195
33
31
'6
69
-
10,2
1;87
.3,99
0,40
4,70
16
Quartz sand
2600
1382
27
1473
18
-
9,4
1,94
3,18
0,138
1,01
17
Serpentine
2620
32
256
1085
630
556
4
57
--
9,97
1,89
3,86
0,354
3,94,
18
Datolite ?
2790
38
304
113
1103
16
68
438
658
52
-
--
3,94
170
4,61
19
Gypsum alumina
cement
2920
18
147
1146
12
422
140
72
885
75
9,-26
242
3,34
0,50
2,65
20
Boron cement -
2950
5
43
34
946
38
88
341
18
1375
62
--
--
2,88
48,7
1,64
21
Alumina cement
3000
1146
20
580
124
26
968
134
8,89
247
2,89
0,45
1,16
22
Diabase
3000
2
20
1322
210
270
685
L_
15
171
304
9;16
1,99
3,09
0,45
1,15
23
Basalt
3000
2
20
1369
183
291
758
7-
36
214
126
9,25
2,02
3,13
0,34
1,08
24
Portland cement
3080
3
27
1129
'34
68
395
31
1309
82
8,83
1,95
2,78
0,43
1,50
25
Limonite . . . ....
3120
36
288
888
6
74
255
16
1557
8,88
2,4]
3,46
1,68
3,89
26
Chromite
3520
17
137
1435
359
264
193
8
78
575/453*
9,24
2,2
3,34
1,09
2,21
27
Hematite
3980
1305
71
210
7:2
2320t
8,22
2,51
2,69
1,64
1,30
28
Barytic ore
4200
2
f9
1184
88
516
-
2226[164
7,32
2,85
2,33
0,50
0,84
29
Scrap
metal
4700
1466
19
102
16
3095
8,08
2,57
2,43
2,30
1,30
30
Steel
7800
7800
7,10
3
2,14
2,70
1,20
*. Chromium content,
t Barium content.
tfor En 100 MeV
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700020003-3
TABLE 4. Composition of Concretes
Initial density,
3 i
k/m3 I
I
Total
amount of
*
water, kg 1
No. of materials
taken from Table 1
:
Mixing
water, % of
concrete
density
Amounts of materials, 0/0
by wt. of concrete denistv
'
Boron con,.
tent of con-
crete, kg
Iron content
of con-
crete, kg
.
-
'
2000
253
. 24+6+5
12,5
15,7+67,1+4,7
?43,3
31,6
2000
253
. 24+6+5
12,5
15,7+54,0+17,8
59,7
13,7
2050
295
.20+ 5
13,9
19,0+67,1
'70,5
17,6
2150
429
24+17
11,3
10,7+780
-
6,1
2170
564
24+4
10,8
14,0+75;2
, _
9,3
2320
298
24+7+13+27
12,6
12,9+47,7+1,0+25,8
20,7
372,4
2330
430
24+17+27
13,0
13,0+47,7-F26,3
363,1
2340
430
24+7+26+17
12,6
12,8 H12,8-4-26,0+358
89,9
2350
134
24+16+8
5,6
9,4+28,9+56,1
-
11,6
2390
206
24+13+16+8
8,6 ?
12,3+3,4+28,6?47,1
70,8
12,3
2390
208
24+13+16+8
8,6
12,3H-1,7+30,3+47,1
35,4
12,3
2390
29[
24+12+16+8
10,5
8,4+6,2+27,2+47,5
18,0
12,1
2400
212
21+161-8,.,.8,8
12,7+25,8+52,7 -
-
19,0
2400
250
24+16+8
10;4
18,7+188+52,1
-
17,3
2400
354
24+3+16+8
12,8
6,1?12,1+17,5-1-515
4,1
23,1
2420
401
24+7+27+17
-12,4
12,7+12,7+25J-1-36,5
, -
374,4
2430
510
24+18
12,2
17,5-4-70,3
69,1)
43,1
2700
478
24+25
8,9
11,1+80,0-
1074,0
2770
406
24+4+27
6,5
12,7+39,2+41,6
-
684,3
3270
186
24+16+27
5,6
9,2+19,2+66,0
1275,0
3300
232
24+14+28
5,6
14,7+7,3+72,4
33,6
111,0
3340
208
24H-14+27
5,4
11,4+6,6+76,6
30,8
'1504,0
3370
312
19+25+27
6,5
8,9+21,4+63,2
+ ,
1623,0
3460 . ?
500
24+26 '
11,3
10,1+78,6
-
387,5
3540
341
19+28
8,5
13,5+78,0
-
120,1
3550
219
24+28
5,6
9,8+84,6
-
119,2
3630
335
15+27
8,5
11,3+80,2
1707,0
3660
183
24+27
4,9
8,2+86,9
-
1795,0
4300
183
24+16+27+30
4,2
8,1+9,3+16,3+62,1
-
3087,0
4440
416
19H-25+30
5,1
5,0+38,8+51,1
-
3126,0
4650
186
24+16+30
3,9
6,4+10,9-08,8
-
3698,0
4730:
356
19+25+30
5,7
6,3+14,0+74,0
-
3837,0
5080
101
24+14+30
3,2
5,3+4,5+87,0
32,2
2921,2
5290
332
19+30
5,7
10,8+83,7
-
4435,0
5350
262
24+30
4,8
10,6+84,6
4535,0
6310
133
24+30
2,1
4,6+93,3
-
58900
* This includes
both the chemically bound water in the materials and the mixing water.
Cross section of in
?
10 20 30 40 50 60' 70 80 .90 100
Iron content of concrete, % by weight
Fig. 2. Variation of the cross section of inelastic
interaction of ultra-high-speed neutrons as a func-
tion of the iron content of concretes: Q) Barytic
concrete; A) chromite concrete; *) concretes con-
taining iron ore or steel scrap.
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700020003-3
SENSITIVITY OF SCINTILLATION METHOD IN GAMMA-RAY
FLAW DETECTION
(UDC 620.179.15)
A. A. Arkhangel'skii and R. Yu. Volkovyskii
Translated from Atomnaya tnergiya, Vol. 19, No. 3,
pp. 308-309, September, 1965
Original aeticle submitted September 14, 1964; in revised form, February 2, 1,965
The sensitivity of gamma-ray flaw detection is assessed by the minimum size Axmin of the defects shown up.,
This quantity is associated with the measurement error: the smaller the latter, the smaller will be Axmin and the
higher the sensitivity., The lowest instrumental error is obtained with the scintillation method [1, 2], which has high
detector efficiency and sensitivity to radiation .and low noise level in the measurement circuit. We shall therefore
assume that (at least over a restricted range of thickness of the component under test and of radium gamma-equiva-
lents of the radiation sources) instrumental error is unimportant and the sensitivity is determined purely by the sta-
tistical error, i.e., by fluctuations in the number of gamma quanta.
Let us derive a relation for the minimum detectable, defect size Axmin in terms of the thickness of the test
component and the integral gamma-quantum flux incident on the component, assuming that the sensitivity is deter-
mined by the statistical error. Following the experimental method of determining the size of the minimum detect-
able defect, let us assume that LImin, the variation in the gamma-quantum flux due to the defect, is k time greater
than Ain, the variation due to fluctuations:
A/min= kA/n.
The relative r.m.s. error in measuring the flux, arising through fluctuations in the number of gamma quanta, can ,
[3, 4] be written as
(1)
A /fi, TI
)
jr2TV/
where I = flux of gamma quanta incident on scintillator (integral flux), T = RC = time constant of integrating circuit,
u = detector efficiency, i= amplitude distribution coefficient of current pulses at output of photomultiplier. For the
pulse-count method 71= 1.
The change in flux due to a minimum-size defect is given by
A/ ; =k_ if
min -1/ 2,tv ?
(3)
As a rule, a sharply collimated beam of gamma quanta is used in work with the scintillation method; we shall
therefore consider a parallel beam traversing the test substance. The change Al in flux due to a defect of small di-
mension Ax can be written
A/= I oe-l-txp,Ax , 4)
where fa is the flux of gamma quanta incident on the component under test (in the conditions of the experiment this
may be regarded as proportional to the radium gamma-equivalent of the radiation source). By Eq. (4), the size of
the minimum detectable defect is related to the flux change AImin by the relation
Ax
A/min
;?
min 10e- 4xtt
Substuting for AIyj in Eq. (5) from Eq. (3), we get
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(5)
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gamma radiation from Cos? the theoretical and experimental results agreed for thicknesses 30-150 mm, and for gam-
ma rays from Cs137 for thicknesses 20-120 mm. For large thicknesses, the size of the minimum detectable defect in-
creases rapidly, as predicted by Eq. (7). At low thicknesses there is a deviation from Eq. (7), and the minimum de-
tectable 'defect size is independent of thickness for such thicknesses.
The elementary theory of sensitivity based only on statistical errors is undoubtedly of use. With high-sensi-
tivity measuring equipment and sources with small enough radium gamma-equivalents, instrumental error can be
neglected over a certain range of thicknesses, and the formulae given above can be used to determine the sensitivity
of gamma-ray flaw-detection.
LITERATURE CITED
1. A. A. Arkhangel'skii and G. D. Latyshev, Zavodsk. Laboratoriya, 23, No. 4, 430 (1957).
2. A. A. Arkhangel'skii and G. D. Latyshev, In: Proceedings of Conference at Tashkent on the Peaceful Uses of
Atomic Energy. T. 2., Tashkent, Izd-vo AN UzSSR (1960), p. 47.
3. N. N. Shumilovskii and L. V. Mel'ttser, Principles of the Theory of Automatic Control Systems Using Radioac-
tive Isotopes [in Russian], Moscow, Izd-vo AN SSSR (1959).
4. L. K. Tatochenko, Radioactive Isotopes in Instrument Engineering [in Russian], Moscow, Atomizdat (1960), P. 178,
5. A. A. Arkhangel'skii, "Zhel.-dor. transport," No. 8, 36 (1959).
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some or. all of this peri-
odical literature may well be available in English translation. A complete list of the cover-to-
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
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0,95
0,90
0,85
480
475
111051119?1111111111
111014.11111111111111111
07 03 04 0,5 06 0,7 08 09
1'0 Omax
Fig. 2. y versus dimensions of gas space, coating
thickness and range of recoil protons, for various
values of aid: 1) 0.01; 2) .0.05; 3) 0.1; 4) 0.2.
W fill (a, d) Ww (d) TV w (a) ?TV w (a + d)
Y?-1
iv (d) W-(d) ? (3)
If a ? d,
?and
=
Tii.w (a) ?a1V, (a)
1 ? ?
(d)
In [5] it was shown that
2
W (x)=
a (1 ?.2a + 9
fl'o"rd)a :1?-1.MaX;a
4/
.1-47 (d) max 2 for a > 1,
'
equal to the neutron energy
) Directed neutron flux; ) isotropic
neutron flux.
where a (x/Rmax); Rmax = range of protons with maximum energy
number of knock-on protons produced in unit mass of the substance,
Putting Eq. (5) into Eq. (4) and taking a ? d, we get
? a 3
1-4 o(_ -- 61!) for
7/ 4 6 < 1;
a
1.-7 for 6>1, ?
-
En; N
(4)
(5)
(6)
where 6 = (d/Rmax). A similar relation can be derived for a chamber situated in an isotropic neutron flux. In this
case, as shown in [5],
Ww (x)=
R max (. 1 a 1
W (d) a ? ? ? ? a2 + a ln
d 2 3
for
w ((I)R MaX for a>1.
" d 6
Calculate as before: then for an isotropic neutron flux we get
V=
1 ? 6 (6? 2 In 6) for 61.
(7)
(8)
Figure 2 plots the ratio of the energy evolved in a plane chamber with conducting coating to the energy evolved
in a strictly homogeneous chamber, versus the distance between the chamber walls eXptessed as a Multiple of the path
of maximum-energy protons.
As an example of the application of the results obtained, let us consider a plane polyethylene chamber filled
with ethylene, in a directed flux of neutrons with energy 1 MeV. The distance between the chamber wails is 1 cm,
which corresponds to ?1.26 mg/cm2. The range of protons with maximum energy 1 MeV is 2.8 mg/cm2 [6]. Thus
in this case d/Rmax = 0.45. From the curves of Fig. 2 we find that the error in determining the absorbed dose of such
a chamber with a conducting coating is equal to:
?15% (=O,85) for a-=0,25 mg/cm2(a/d= 0,2);
?8% (y=0,92) for a =0,126rng/cm2 (ald=0,1);
(v = 0,96) for a = 0,063mg/crn2 (a 1 d =0,05);
?1% (v=?99) for a =0 ,013Ing / cm2 (a I d ,01).
In the last case the error is below 1370..
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700020003-3
MEASUREMENT OF THE EXTERNAL BACKGROUND
IRRADIATION OF THE INHABITANTS OF USSR CITIES
(UDC 539.16.04)
I. A. Bochvar, I. B. Keirim-Markus, A. A. Moiseev,
T. I. Prosina, and V. V. Yakubik
Translated from Atomnaya gnergiya, Vol. 19, No. 3,
pp. 311-312, September, 1965
Original article submitted April 1, 1965
In recent years a great deal of attention has been devoted in many countries to a study of the level of back-
ground irradiation caused by natural radioactive isotopes contained in the soil and other components of the external
environment and by cosmic rays, as well as to the determination of tissue irradiation doses of the population. The
results of the investigations published up to 1961 were correlated in the work of the United Nations Scientific Com-
mittee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation [1].
Later Gibson [2], on the basis of systematic dose-rate measurements conducted from September, 1961,to August,
1962, at a height 1 m above ground level in the town of Groves, England, confirmed the presence of three clearly
marked components of external background irradiation: cosmic rays, with an absorbed dose rate of 3.2 grad/hour
(26 mrad/year); natural radioactive isotopes contained in
Annual Doses of External Background Irradiation of Small the soil, with a dose rate of 5.3 grad/hour (46 mrad/year);
and nuclear fallout, with a dose rate of 0.2 to 2 'grad/hour
(depending on its "age").
Groups of Inhabitants of USSR Cities
City
?Value
,o-3 c,_,
? 2 ,I
-?
.,., 0 (1)
x
or backgrouno
irradiation dose,
mrad/year
?
mini-
mum
maxi-
mum
aver-
age
Alma-Ata
263
90?22
140?32 110?18
Astrakhan . .
242
70?18
120?28 90?17
Askhabad
256
70?18
120?28 90?19
'Baku
245
40?12
90?22 60?18
Vil'nyus
262
30?10
90+22 70?22
Vladivostok
237
80?20
120+28 100?14
Erevan.
256
60?16
110?26 90?14
Irkutsk
281
90?22
150+34 120?22
Kiev
230
70?18
140+32 100?22
Kishinev
310
70?18
110+26 90?15
Leningrad
251
50?14
120+28 i 90?23
L'vov
227
70?18
140?321110?21
Minsk
259
70?18
110?26 90?17
Murmansk
283
80?20
180?40 130?26
Novosibirsk
325
90?22
120?28 100?11
Orenburk
256
30 r-10-
80?20 50?16
Petropavlovsk-
Kamchatskii
227
70?18
100+24 90?13
Riga
201
90?22130?30
110+17
Sevastopol'
167
30?10
70+18 40+12
Sochi
305
70?18
170+40 110?30
Tashkent
268
50?14
130+30 100?25
Tallin
201
80+20
150+34 110?22
Tbilisi
221
80?20
150?34 110?21
Khabarovsk
269
50?14
120+28 90.3:22
Chita
245
70?18
140?32 100?23
Yakutsk
264
40?12
110?26 70:?21
In the United States, the dose rate of the external
background irradiation in the vicinity of cities in Ver-
mont and New Hampshire, measured with high-pressure
ionization chambers and gamma spectrometerS, was found
to be 50-150 mrad/year [3].
According to the data of [4], the average dose rate
of background irradiation, measured outdoors, above with
granite deposits, was 104 mrad/year; above chalk de-
posits it was 31 mrad/year; and above clay deposits' it
was 61 mrad/year. The investigations used ionization
chambers filled with nitrogen to a pressure of 50 atm.'
The measurements were made both indoors and outdoors.
On the basis of these measurements and of approximate
data on the average length of time spent by persons in-
doors and outdoors, the average annual doses of external
irradiation per man were calculated. However, if we try
to extrapolate the results of background irradiation dose-
rate measurements conducted in various places where
people may spend their time, so as to obtain the average
tissue dose of irradiation of the people living in a given
region, we may arrive at serious inaccuracies because of
the indeterminacy in our estimates of the time spent by
people indoors and outdoors.
In order to exclude such indeterminacies, the auth-
or of [5] proposed and used a portable individual dosi-
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SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING NEWS
MOSCOW CONFERENCE OF COMECON SPECIALISTS
ON APPLICATIONS FOR IONIZING RADIATIONS
V. P. Averkiev
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 19, No. 3,
pp. 313-314, September, 1965
The Institute of Chemical Physics Of the USSR Academy of Sciences was host to a conference of specialists
from member nations of the Council for Mutual Economic Aid (COMECON] held in Moscow May 27-29, 1965,for the
purpose of coordinating joint research projects on applications for high-level sources of ionizing radiations.
The conference heard two review reports by the USSR delegation, five by the Bulgarian, Polish, Roumanian, and
Czech delegations, 18 original contributions on problems in radiation chemistry and radiobiology, and five papers by
USSR delegates on radiation facilities.
Soviet scientists 'reported on the development of radiation processes Which promise to be of substantial value to
the national economy.
Of greatest interest for practical utilization was the method of radiation cross-linking of polyethylene initiated
by special additives such as antioxidants and thermal stabilizers, so that the thermal resistance of polyethylene insula-
tion material was improved by 50? to 100?C, the service life was stretched to 5000-6000 h at 150? and to 200 h at
200?C (ordinary polyethylene begins to "flow" at 100?).
Another focus of interest was the development of rubber radiation vulcanization technology, so that rubber can
be produced without adding sulfur and rubber parts capable of withstanding heat loads to 410?C (the thermal stability
of standard technical grade rubber is at most 100?C).
The following radiation processes were judged of potential industrial interest: grafting polymers from the .
vapor phase or liquid phase onto natural and synthetic fibers, glass fibers, or .a mineral base; polymerization of fluoro-
olefins, telorneriZation of ethylene with carbon tetrachloride; modification of organic-impregnated wood materials,
plywood, paper; synthesis of organotin compounds; sulfochlorination of synthine and polyethylene, oxidation of paraf-
fins in the production of detergents; radiation-thermal cracking of petroleum to increase the yield Of valuable Un-
saturated hydrocarbonS.
Data were also reported on new approaches in the study of matter, including radiothermoluminescence, based
on a comparison of the emission spectra of heated and pre-irradiated Material and a reference spectrum, to gain, in-
formation of fine structural changes in the test material.
Representatives of the Soviet Union attending the radiobiology panel gave an account of results of a study of
pre-sowing irradiation of agricultural crop seeds. The investigation disclosed that ionizing radiation is a powerful
tool in affecting the intensity and direction of exchange reactions in plant organisms, and the training of 'crops. Pro-
duction tests confirmed the effectiveness of ionizing radiations. Pre-sowing exposures increased corn crops silage by
30%, cotton yield by 15 to 30%, potatoes by 20%, cabbage by 21%, carrots by 30%, radiShes by 26%. The biochem-
ical composition of root crops was improved at the same time, with increase in sugar, protein, and vitamin content.
Soviet scientists and designers also reported on the development of equipment for handling radiation processes
under production conditions. Large isotope facilities with cobalt sources to 500 thousand gram-equivalents of radium
have been built. Extensible indium-gallium loops for nuclear reactors, in up to 2 million gram-equivalents of radi-
um, compact electron accelerators of 95% efficiency and up to 25 kW beam power accelerating electrons to 1:5
MeV energy, are now available, along with the portable seed irradiators GUPOS-800, GUPOS-GI, GU138-800, GUBE-
4000, and others.
Bulgarian scientists reported obtaining copolymers of polyformaldehyde with styrene, methylmethacrylate,
propylene oxide. Products produced by the addition of various antioxidants and age resistors using radiation with no
other stabilization measures were shown to exhibit enhanced thermal resistance.
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700020003-3
SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE OF THE MOSCOW ENGINEERING
AND PHYSICS INSTITUTE [MIFI]
V. V. Frolov
Translated from Atomnaya triergiya, Vol. 19, No. 3,
pp. 314-316, September, 1965
The annual Scientific Conference of the Moscow Engineering and Physics Institute, running from May 5 through
May 2.1, 1965, scheduled 53 sessions and 22 panels; to hear a total of 210 papers, As in the preceeding year, the out-
standing papers were presented by students as well as by faculty members.
Among the 2000 in attendance, 800 were representatives of research institutes, centers of higher learning, and
industrial plants.
The panel on experimental nuclear physics showed greatest interest in a paper by V. V. Botog, V. G. Kirillov-
Ugryumbv and associates on the 'energy spectrum of .cosmic muons at large zenith angles in the 1011 to 1012 eV
en-
ergy range, in experiments using a 9 m2 area ionization calorimeter. The preliminary measurements reported are in
excellent accord with theory. V. D. Bobrov et al. reported experimental results of measurements of the rates of
capture of negative inutins by the nuclides Ni51'60'62 and Cr50'52'53'54. Comparison of experimental results arid predic-
tions based on the theory of finite Fermi systems showed a fit of absolute capture rates to within 10% and a relative
variation in isotopic effect accurate to 3%. A paper by V. t Gol'danskii and V. P. Shantorovich on the use of posi-
tronium in chemistry for research on the electronic structure of matter and on the kinetics of chemical reactions dis-
cussed some possible chemicalresearch using inuortium and positronium. A paper by V. I. Gol'danskii and I. P.
Suzdalev demonstrated the effectiveness of the Mossbauer technique in studying thin surface oxide. films, including
those difficult to detect by other available methods, and established the mechanism in oxidation finely dispersed
tin in air.
The theoretical nuclear physics panel heard an interesting paper by A. B. Migdal on recent results on the con-
struction of a phenomenological approach to the theory of the nucleus as a many-body problem. The reporter and
his students formulated gage invariance conditions and found the probabilities for single-particle transition in nuclei.
Results of the application of this theory to quantitative calculations of muon capture cross sections in spherical nuclei
were reported by G. G. Bunatyan. V. M. Novikov and M. G. Urin developed the qualitative theory of muon capture
in a quasi-classical approximation valid for heavy nuclei. The audience responded with interest to A. S. Kompaneits
and A. S. ChernoV ("Solution of Cosmological Equations of Cylindrical Symmetry") obtaining solutions of Einstein's
equations for a homogeneous axisymmetric model in two limiting cases: dustlike matter and an ultrarelativistic gas.
Yu. A. Vdovin and V. M. Galitskii tteated the kinetic equation for photons in a resonant medium. The investigation?
covered both a system of strictly resonant molecules and the spread of molecular energy levels. The way in which
quantum effects influence multiple coulomb scattering of high-energy charged particles in matter was discussed in
a paper by N. P. Kalashnikov and M. I. Ryazanov.
Six panels on experimental physics were held.
S. B. Shikhov and A. A. Ignatov described their procedure for calculating neutron relaxation length and asymp-
totic spectra in poor breeding media, a useful technique for treating constants of spherical harmonics. The paper by
I. S. Slesarev and V. V. Khromov on new synthetic methods for calculating the space multidimensional distribution
and space-angle distribution of neutron fields in reactors was found highly interesting. Using the method of arbitrary
separation of variations, they reduced the initial equation with ease to a system of simple linear equations. The
conference took note of the highly accurate results obtained calculating reactor systems by these methods, and the
impressive savings in computer time. V. I. Davydov and S. B. Shikhov developed analytic methods for neutron field
calculations. The use of matrix algebra enabled the authors to construct an efficient algorithm for use in calcula-
lations of multiregion nuclear reactors.
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Some papers dealing with erosion of metal surfaces in low-pressure gas discharges triggered by ion beams and
laser beams were submitted to the low-temperature plasma panel.
The panel on solid state physics showed peak interest in A. N. Oraevskii's report on chemical lasers, a report
by Yu. A. Bykovskii and K. N. Vinogradov on double injection in silicon on a p-i-n structure, and a paper by R. K.
Leonov and associates on a pulsed gas laser. The first of these papers cited voltage-current Curves on silicen p-i-n
structures having a negative resistance region, while the other reported pulsed laser action involving singly ionized
argon.
There were also panels on automatic control and telemechanics, electronics, plasma physics,
sign of instruments and installations, strength and stress analysis and physics,
Most of the papers presented are to be published by topics in scientific symposium issues edited by the MIFL
cybernetics, de-
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/03/15: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700020003-3
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON NONDESTRUCTIVE
TESTING IN NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
V. Gorskii
Translated from Atomnaya gnergiya, Vol. 19, No. 3,
pp. 317-318, September, 1965
An international symposium on nondestructive testing of Structural material's and components in nuclear indus:-
try was held in May 1965,in Bucharest, under IAEA auspices. This conference, the first of its kind, attracted 90-odd
scientists from 19 countries. Forty-four papers were submitted. Representing the USSR were A. A. Kiselev, V. V.
Gorskii, and V. G. Gerasimov.
In recent years, quality control of structural materials and of finished parts has been receiving exceptionally
close attention. Methods used in nondestructive testing (ultrasonics, eddy currents, magnetic fields, X-rays', a-, *6-,
and )'-radiation, and miscellaneOus 'techniques) have contributed in large measure to the improved strength and
re-
liability in performance of parts and equipment. Nondestructive testing MethOds have won themselves :a firm posi-
tion in nuclear industry. This is explainable by the tighter requirements on service life of fuel elements and on
strength of structural Materials.
RepresentatiVes of all the leading nuclear centers and research laboratories in the USA (Los Alamos, Oak Ridge,
Argonne, Savannah River, Hanford), Great Britain (Harwell, Warrington, Springfields), France (Saclay), Italy (Ispra),
Belgium (Mol), and other countries presented papers to the conference, illustrating the state of techniques and meth-
ods in nondestructive testing of Cladding materials for fuel elements, tubing for steam generators, reactor pressure
vessels, 'completely fabricated fuel elements, welded joints, and techniques for Monitoring the content and length-
wise distribUtron of Uranium and plutonium in fuel elements, and similar related questions.
Inspection of Tubing
Tubing for fuel elements. An appreciable number of the papers submitted were devoted to quality control and
measurement of the geometrical dimensions of thin-walled stainless steel tubing, zirconium alloys, aluminum alloys
and SAP (sintered aluminum powder) for Use in the fabrication of fuel element jackets. Ultrasonic inspection tech-
niques (b. ?Woriton, USA; M. Destribat, Prance; F. Mann, Britain; W. Nystrom, Sweden; and others) are in use pre-
dominantly to spot hidden flaws in tube walls (slag inclusions, cracks, oxide films, spalling) and to detect cracks and
deep scratches on the inner and outer surfaces of tithes. Defects in tubing are detected by transverse waves and Lan-lb
waves The pulsed echo Method for inspection in water is Common: operating frequencies range from 2 tb 15 MeV.
Two sets of ultrasonic wave receivers and transmitters are placed crosswise and lengthwise to the tube axis to detect
flaws. Inspection proceeds at a rate of 0.3 to 0.5 Meter per minute. All delegates to the symposium were interested
in defect size allowances in tubes and fuel element jackets. Direct data on the degree of hazard inVolved in defects
of specified dimensions in fuel element jackets are not available from results of in-pile tests, but there are plans for
performing tests of this nature (Belgium, P. Libbotte). In analyzing all the contributions at the symposium, We may
state that suitable criteria for scrapping zirconium alloy tubes would be scratches to 5% of the tube wail thickness
and extending several millimeters (to 10 mm in fact) in length, or 10% of wall thickness for stainless steel tubing.
Eddy current methods in quality control of tubing are in less frequent use, since the Method is less sensitive in
the view of Some reporters. But IC Rericken (LISA) feels that stainless steel tubing of less than 6 min diameter and
less than 0.75 min wall thickness Should be inspected by pulsed eddy currents: The sensitivity to fine-stale defects
is the same as for ultrasonic methods, and the inspection proceeds at a rate several times faster (tubes 9.55. by 0.5
mm have been inspected at a rate of 4 meters/min). This view is sustained by P. Forster and T. Millier (West
Germany).
The wall thickness of smooth tubes and finned tubes with fins spaced greater than 2 trim is Measured by an
ultrasonic water-immersion resonance method (F. Wells; R. Sharpe, Britain; A. Van der Linde, Netherlands; S. Lund;
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Inspection of reactor pressure vessels was discussed by W. McGonnagle, G. Tenney (USA), R. Filip (Chechoslo-
vakia), and D. Horvat (Yugoslovia). Methods for monitoring U235 content and distribution (A. McEachern, Canada),
PU242 content, using isotope dilution techniques (G. Chenoir, France), boron content (W. Francis, USA), the structure
of sintered materials (E. Labusca, Rumania), and miscellaneous topics were also discussed.
The range of application of nondestructive testing techniques are continually expanding. The use of infrared
radiation, microwave techniques, x-ray television systems employing vidicons sensitive to the x-ray wavelengths,
are among the most promising developmental techniques. Nondestructive techniques are being used not only in flaw
detection, but also to determine the physical contents of materials.
The symposium was very well organized, proceeded in a businesslike atmosphere, and contributed to a liberal
exchange of views on current topics and avenues of development of NDT.
The proceedings of the NDR symposium will be published by IAEA in late 1965.
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of cosmic particles of greater than 1011 eV energy that such cases can be understood by assuming the existence of a
particle with a geometric interaction cross section 1/30 the geometric cross section of the nucleus, a lifetime longer
than 3 ? i0 sec, and mass approximately 10m
g.
If unitary symmetries make it possible to classify strongly interacting particles and to sometimes predict their
masses and properties, then another direction the theory of strongly interacting particles could take would be probing
into the asymptotic properties of scattering amplitudes. Restrictions on the asymptotic behavior of the amplitudes
based on analyticity and unitarity were discussed in the lecture by A. Marten (CERN), K. A. Ter-Marticosyan dis-
cussed the Regge pole model in the light of new experimental data. New experimental findings were discussed in
lectures by L. N. Strunov, "Experimental studies of nuclear amplitudes of forward scattering processes at high ener-
gies," A. L. Lyibimov, "Particle scattering at high energies at high momentum transfer," and F. Duke (Britain),
"Data on ir-p-scattering at 1 GeV." New data on pion charge transfer and on pion scattering by nucleons (backward
scattering) were reported by V. A. Shebanov and Yu. V. Galaktionov.
The topic "Weak interactions and parity violation" was the subject of lectures by I. Yu. Kobzarev on the
properties of vectorial constants in strange decays, by M. Schwartz (USA) on neutrino physics and searches for the
intermediate boson, by V. S. Evseev on the coupling constant in it-capture, by P. A. Krupchitskii on the existence
of an internucleon potential breaking space parity, etc.
Of greatest interest was the lecture by L. B. Okun' reporting new work by Lee, Bernstein, and Feynmann on pos-
sible nonconservation of C-parity in electromagnetic interactions. This far-reaching suggestion advanced to account
for the famour Cronin effect (the decay K?2 ?> 7r + 7r) may be varified in a series of independent experiments. It is
essential, though, that nonconservation of C-parity is not manifested in the generally observable elastic coulomb
scattering processes. But the asymmetry of ir +- and IT --mesons in the Dalitz diagram for the electromagnetic decay
11-* 37r is to be expected. The total worldwide statistics on this mode of decay seem to indicate some such asym-
metry, despite the low reliability of the data. Ther are at present no experimental facts to contradict the hypothesis.
Lectures on electromagnetic interactions may be grouped under two headins. K. Strauch, V. Fisher, and L
Pless (USA) spoke on photoproduction of particles, isobars, and meson resonances at high energies. L. Leder-
man discussed in some detail the present status of a wide variety of experiments designed to check the range of ap-
plicability of electrodynamics. He also gave an account on experiments on proton scattering of muons and com-
pared these data to findings in electron-proton scattering.
Four reports dealt with experimental techniques. I. Pless and F. Solmitz addressed the school on automatic
scanning, data processing, and data analysis for handling bubble chamber and spark chamber results. In his lecture
"Spark chambers," K. Strauch centered his attention on the properties of chambers with large interelectrode spacing
and discharge track delineation. We note that spark chambers with large discharge gap have been studied most in-
tensively in the Soviet Union and are now awakening great interest in the USA. A. I. Alikhanyan dwelt on new tech-
niques in the detection of high-energy particles. He cited new data on the properties of track delineation chambers
and projection spark chambers, supplementing the lecture by E. Strauch, told of original attempts to measure par-
ticle energy by recording radiation emitted in transitions and by measuring ionization losses in layered emitters,
and made public the results of the first experiments.
This article cannot mention all the lectures, still less provide a full and detailed account of their contents.
Some of the latest results of greatest interest were only sketched. Once again we stress that this was a school, not a
conference, and the lectures dealt for the most part with relatively known results. Some topics were discussed in
detail at the seminars devoted to symmetries, to processing experimental data, to spark chambers. Scientific con-
tacts outside the lectures were most fruitful.
In conclusion, expressing the view of those in attendance, we should like to thank the organizers, and in par-
ticular A. I. Alikhanyan whose efforts contributed mightily to the successful outcome.
All the proceedings of the session will be published by the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR.
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IAEA CONFERENCE ON PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE DOSAGE
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 19, No. 3,
p. 320, September, 1965
A conference of experts on protection of the population from radiation accidents met in Vienna in May 1965.
This was the third such Vienna conference under joint sponsorship of IAEA and the World Heath Organization, to de-
velop recommendations for protection of the population from radiation hazard in the event of-catastrophic accidents at
nuclear facilities.
Representatives of 14 merriber nations of IAEA and of 6 international bodies met to discuss a plan of recom-
mendations drawn up by the preceding conference. This plan was found to be too narrow to encompass all related
problems (e.g., there are no data on regularities governing the migration of radioisotopes according to biological
chains, etc.). The force of the recommendations was restricted to cases of major accidents where large sections of
the population might become exposed to radiation, and the doses exceed those specified in the basic rules for pro-
tection from exposure.
The document drawn up consists of two major parts. The first rates the probability of occurrence of leuke?
mias, thyroid and bone tumors and neoplasms in other tissues; and the genetic sequelae of radiation exposure de-
pending on absorbed -dose and other factors. The second major part presents the principles for calculating tissue
doses and buildup of levels of radioisotopes