BIBLIOGRAPHY - ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA

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• Publication Date: January 1, 1959
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BIBLXOGRAPs.
Electrostatic Phenomena
This compilation is the result of a bibliography search on
electrostatic phenomena from the standpoint of theory and application,
An asterisk indicates that the original reference is available
in the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company Research Library.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Electrostatic investigations Page
A. In the rubber industry MO Ma C" M 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
B? In the textile industry .- ? 0 0 a. Me es OM 0 Is 0 0 10
C. In the paper industry - - - ? ? 0 WO CO MD 0 0 0 . 11
D. Theory - - ? ------- - - - - - - oses 0 0 0 0 0 M ? 13
II. Electrostatic Control
A. In the rubber industry - - - - - - - - - - - - - = 18
B. In the plastics industry - - - - - - - - - - - _ - 40
C. In the textile industry --- - Ms 00 AM CD 43
D. In the paper industry 55
E. In the petroleum industry - CD am 0 a. 57
F. In miscellaneous industries - -- - - - - - - - _ 69
Supplementary bibliography
A listing of references is given in which the originals
are not available in the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company
Research Library, Furthermore, the Chemical Abstracts
when available did not supply any information.
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This document is part of an Integrated
TIM. it separated from the file it must be
subjected W individual systematic review.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
ELECTROSTATIC PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS AND RUBBER
I. ELECTROSTATIC INVESTIGATIONS
A. In the rubber industry
TRIBO-ELECTRIC PROPERTIES
P.E.Shaw Proc. Roy. Soc. 24,, 16 (1917); Davis & Blake,
'!Chemistry and Technology of Rubber", Rein-
hold, c. 1937, p. 589
Investigators have been trying to arrange materials, both solid
and liquid, in triboelectric series, usually from positive to negative,
such that any given material is positively charged when rubbed with any
one of those below it in the series, and is negatively charged when rubbed
with any one of those above. A series in which a number of materials
are listed is this by Shaw. In this series crude rubber, gutta-
percha, vulcanized rubber and ebonite occupy positions toward the
'negative end, though the sequence varies considerably from one series
to another.
FIRE HAZARDS AND STATIC ELECTRICITY IN RUBBER FACTORIES
F.J.Hoxie Rubber Age 10, 90-1 (1921)
It is shown that the fire hazard is greatest at the time of
least humidity, and that 3/4 of the fires in rubber factories are caused
, by deficiency in atmospheric humidity.
PIEZOELECTRICITY
Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) .312, 81-93 (1924);
Memmler, D.K., ed., "Science of Rubber",
Reinhold,. c.1934, PP. 471-2
Piezoelectric investigations on ebonite, vulcanized soft
rubber, glass, horn, etc., were. made by K.R.Brain, who was able to
study the behavior of electric charges of the same order of magni-
tude as those to which Curie had subjected crystals. For small
loads, the charge was found to be proportional to the load, but
for larger loads, the charge increased more slowly. Hysteresis and
fatigue phenomena were also observed. Cubical test pieces of milled
stock for insulation purposes and other types of rubber behaved in an an-
isotropic manner in relation to their piezo-electric effect.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE SURROUNDING MEDIUM ON FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY
J.H.Jones Phil. Mag. 52, 1160-77 (1925); C.A. 20,
333 (1926)
The metal wheel gives the best result in air, ebonite the poorest,
while the ebonite wheel gives the best result in oil, metal. the
poorest. The order of the gaseous media for the best production of
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frictional electricity is SO2, air
TRIBOELECTRIFICATION
N2? coal?gas, H2, CO20 02, 03.
Deodhar, Indian Assoc. Cult. Sci. 2, 210
(1926); Davis & Blake, "Chemistry & Technology
of Rubber", Reinhold, c. 1937; p. 589
Careful observations on the triboelectrification of rubber
disclosed many discrepancies and anomalies. A 'hard rubber rod in
contact with flannel, for example, sometimes acquired a positive charge,
sometimes a'negative charge, and on occasion showed a reversal of ?
charge on prolonged rubbing. Pieces of rubber which were supposedly
identical developed opposite charges when rubbed together. Various
anomalies of both hard and soft rubber and sulfur were described.
in some detail.
THE OBSERVATION OF CATAPHORESIS IN COLORLESS SOLS. I. THE
CHARGE ON RUBBER IN BENZENE
R.H.Humphry and R.S.Jane Trans. Faraday Soc. (advanced proof),
Oct., 1926; C.A. 21, 846 (1927)
The path of a stream of rubber sol dispersed in benzene flow?
ing down through benzene was rendered visible by means of the
Toepler "Schlieren" method (utilizing the- difference in refractive
index).
When such a stream is allowed to pass between 2 electrodes
dipping into the benzene, the presence of charged Particles is
revealed by an ,appropriate deviation from a vertical path on apply?
ing a p.d. to the electrodes. When Tubber containing traces of mois-
ture is dispersed in ordinarylaboratory.benzene, charged particles.
of both signs are present, since the stream spreads into a fan
shape.
In confirmation of this, a deposit is obtained on both electrodes
dipping into such a.sol. The addition of small amounts of electrolyted?
sufficient to change the viscosity; has no effect on the charges.
When carefully dried rubber is dispersed in moisture?free benzene, no
charged particles are found. In metal sols stabilized by rubber from
which water has not been excluded, particles of both signs may be
present.
DANGERS FROM STATIC ELECTRICITY IN THE HANDLING OF SOLVENTS
A.A.Bachhaus . Am. Dyestuff Rept. 16., 604, 660-1 (1927);
C.A. 22, 127 (1928)
Static electricity may develop in a liquid solvent flowing
through pipes, air or other gaseous medium, solvent vapor issuing '
into air or other gaseous medium, or gas passing through a liquid solvent.
These solvents which are comparatively good conductors are safe stati?
cally when flowing through pipes.
With solvents which are poor conductors the pipe lines should
be good cenductors and well grounded. Sprays should be avoided by
discharging the liquid at the bottom Of the receiving vessel. If the
spray cannot ,be avoided, the air should be ionized by means of ultra?
violet light or x?rays, or moisture.
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*ACCUMULATION OF STATIC ELECTRICITY IN TIRES
Gummi Zeitung 4A, 2591 (1930)
Investigations have shown that electrical charges are influ?
enced by two main causes: (a) by the compounding ingredients
in tire rubber which have high dielectric properties, and (b)
by the form and nature of the tread design. Treads with sharp
? edges gave the most brouble. It was also noticed that on wet
days this problem was not present because the wet surface of the
;tire is a better conductor than. the dry surface.
*MASTICATION ? A PRELIMINARY STUDY
? F.H.Cotton Trans. I.R.I. fi, 487-515 (1931)
It is thought probable that ionization of oxygen both on
the surface and throughout the mass of rubber on a masticating
mill, caused by static charges produced by friction, plays some
part in promoting oxidation during. mechanical working.
*MASTICATION OFRUBPER ?.AN OXIDATION PROCESS
W.F.Busse ,Ind, Eng. Chem. 2A, #2, 140-146 (1932)
The rate of oxidation is' increased by the activation of
oxygen during milling owing to the electrical charge which devel?
ops. Since the rubber acquires a charge on going through the mill,
the oxygen probaly tends to form ion clusters on the surface of
the rubber which could easily cause the formation of a rubber
peroxide.
The charge on the rubber may reach a potential sufficiently
high not only to form ion clusters on the 'surface of the rubber,
but also to form ionized oxygen molecules, 02 and 042 and even
ionized oxygen atoms and ozone. In these cases the oxygen would
be even more strongly activated than when it was in the form of
ion clusters and it would combine more readily with the rubber.
The importance of the electrical effect in the breakdown
of rubber.during milling is accOmpanied by luminescence effects.
When rubber is milled with. cold:rolls, no electrical discharge
takes place underneath the: bite, but there is a more or less
even glow over the surface of the rubber where the rubber enters
the bank, and occasionally tiny sparks. Most of the frying and
crackling noise heard on a small mill is due-to these sparks.
If the rolls are heated this effect disappears.
STATIC ELECTRICITY AS A FIRE CAUSE
E.E.Turkington Quart. Natl. Fire Protect. Assoc. 28,
? 16-25 (1934); C.A. 28, 7533 (1934)
Examples of many unusual cases of static electricity are
given. In one instance flow of crude oil through a 2" pipe at
? high velocity with a clear drop of 20 feet is said to have produced
discharges up to 4 feet in length. Static generated by discharge
of carbon dioxide from cylinders is negligible unless solid parti?
cles are mixed with the gas. Thus when discharged upright no .
sparks resulted, but when inverted sparks up to 3" long were ob?
(i) tained.
There is a variation in the hazard from individual operators
' according to skin dryness. In one instance cited, five shoe
machine fires from rubber cement were attributed to one operator,
and the difficulty was corrected by changing operators.
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Grounding, humidity control to maintain over 40% relative
humidity, and ionization, as preventives are discussed. Analysis
of the fire record of 147 static fires is shown graphically
to be seasonal and in rough inverse ratio to relative humidity.
6% of such fires in this record were in dust and lint, 94%
in inflammable liquids, 39% involving rubber cement operations,
25% other spreading and coating operations, 14% in cleaning,
7% in printing presses and 9% in miscellaneous operations.
? PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE BY PULLING APART PLIES OF RUBBERIZED
FABRIC
Dawson, T.R. and B.D.Porritt, "Rubber-
Physical and Chemical Properties",
R.A.B.R.M., England, o.1935, p. 431.
Tests on rubberized balloon fabric by stripping off one ply
and measuring the charge on the remaining. piece. Capacity of
measuring system (electroscope): 127 micro-micro-farads.
Data given in tabular form.
PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE DURING RUNNING OF TIRES
Dawson, T.R. and B.D.Porritt, "Rubber-
Physical and Chemical Properties",
R.A.B.R.M., England, c.1935, P. 431.
With speeds up to 35 m.p.1.1r. on new clean asphalt roads, at-
mospheric temperature 700 F. and relative humidity 60%, potentials
up to 6000, volts may be produced.
PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE BY FRICTION OF TWO PIECES OF RUBBER
Dawson, T.R. and B.D.Porritt, "Rubber
Physical and Chemical Properties",
R.A.B.R.M., England, 0.1935, P. 431 .
Charges may be produced by rubbing together 2 pieces of rubber:
If a small area of one piece (A) is rubbed over a relatively large
area of another (B), A becomes negative and B positive, provided
the two surfaces are initially in identical condition. Dirt,
adsorbed films, temperature, and strain considerably influence the
results.
"Strain" is produced by continued rubbing, and causes the
charge on A to become zero and eventually positive. "Strain"
is removed by boiling in water.
Warming A gives it a positive tendency.
PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC CHARGES ON RUBBER BY PRESSURE
Dawson, T.R. and B.D.Porritt, "Rubber-
Physical and Chemical Properties".,
R.A.B.R.M., England, c.1935, p. 430 .
Tests on (i) "Para rubber" containing "very little if any"
crystalline sulfur, dielectric constant 2.94; (ii) pure .(vulcanized)
sheet, dielectric constant 3.96.
The rubber (sheet 1.6 mm. thick) was mounted on a steel disc
and sheets of various materials pressed on to it. As pressure
increased from 0.5 to 2 kg./cm2 the piezoelectric charge increased,
but then :remained constant up to a pressure of 5 kg./Cm.2; the
table gives these constant values.
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TRIBOELECTRIFICATION
' Davis & Blake, "Chemistry & Technology.
of Rubber", Reinhold, N.Y., c.1937,
pp. 588-590
This section contains a literature survey of the work done
on triboelectrification between the periods 1.898-1932. '
FIRE HAZARDS
Power Transm. 8, 665 (1940); Ann. Rept.
Frog. Rubber Technol. Ai 89 (1940)
The risk of fire or ekplosion is due to accumulation of static
charges to Such an extent that spark discharge takes place.
Static electrical charges are generated on power transmission
belts in three ways, first, by the friction of the belt on the
pulley, Secondly, through the separation of the belt. from the
pulley, and thirdly, to a less extent by the friction of the
atmosphere on the belt.
. Notes with illustrations, extracted from a report presented.
to an American Fire Protection Association are given.
*STATIC ELECTRICITY AND ITS EFFECT ON CAR RADIO PERFORMANCE
S.M.Cadwell, N.E.Handel, and G.L.Benson
Ind. Eng. Chem, (News Ed.) 12, 1139-
1141 .(1941)
In general, changes in the electrostatic field are caused by
variations in electrical resistance between the wheel and the axle,
variations in electrical resistivity about the circumference of
the tire, variation in road materials and corona discharges from
the car. All of these factors cause tire radio static and their
relative importancelis approximately in the order given.
It was demonstrated that it is not necessary to eliminate
the generation of electrostatic charges but only to limit the
potential on the tread surface to a low value in order to eliminate
all of the undesirable static shock and tire static. This can
be done by inserting about 2 grams bf a special electrically con?
ductive powder through the valve stem of the inner tube. The
powder readily distributes itself and adheres to the walls of the
inner tube, forming a continuous and uniform conductive layer.
*STATIC ELECTRICITY AS RELATED TO AUTOMOBILES AND TIRES
Rubber Manufacturers Association, Inc.
India Rubber World 1Q1, #5, 49-50 (1941)
There are two types of difficulties resulting from static
electricity in automobiles: radio interference and electrostatic
shock.
Factors influencing static electricity in automobiles are
road surfaces, atmospheric conditinns, clothing and car uphol?
stery and moving parts of the car.
A procedure is given which is said to eliminate either shock
or radio interference static when the cause is due to generation
of static electricity from friction of the moving parts of the car.
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*STATIC ELECTRIC PROBLEMS IN TIRES
J.W.Liska and E.E.Hanson Ind. Eng. Chem. 618-24 (1942) .
The major problems are discussed, and the relation between
voltage and conductivity is derived mathematically. This equa-
tion is in accord with experimental data. A laboratory testing
machine for evaluating the static-generating properties of rubber
mixtures is described, and data on the effects of compounding
Ingredients are included. Methods and techniques for measuring
the resistivity of rubber mixtures are described, and it is shown
that static generation and resistivity are interrelated. The
relation between "dispersion" and resistivity is then discussed.
The importance of semi-conductive tires in aviation and trucking,
especially in munition plants, is pointed out.
*ELECTROSTATIC PROPERTIES OF RUBBER AND GR*S
R.S.Havenhill, H.C.01Brien and J.J.Rankin
J. Applied Phys. 150 731-40 (1944)
A new "electrostatic modulator" for measuring the electro-
static charges on various materials is described in this paper.
This device in conjunction with a mirror surfaced metal plunger
sustem for contracting the sample, has been used to measure the
contact potential of various rubber and GR-S compounds.
Data are shown on both rubber and GR-S compounds, and they
bear out the formulation of an "electrostatic contact potential
theory of reinforcement" in which reinforcement is explained on
the basis of contact potentials and resultant electrostatic forces
set up between the rubber and reinforcing agents.
' By the application of this theorylorganic materials, which have
a highly positive charge, such as polymerized trimethyldihydro-
quinoline and Flectol Hp have been found to increase the tensile
of GR-S pure gum type compound as much as five fold and to nearly
double the tensile of high zinc oxide GR. S compounds.
*FIRE HAZARDS IN THE RUBBER INDUSTRY
H.E.Davis Trans. I.RI,2g, 128-134 (1944)
Static electricity is produced on the mastication and mixing
mills, calendering and topping operations, on ply cutting and
cover building machines and during spreading operations. It is
developed by the flow of solvent through pipes when transferring
from one container to another., and by the discharge of dry powder
from bags to storage bins.
Static electricity sparks twelve inches long have been ob-
served when masticating rubber. Sparks, 1 inch long and although
of low amperage, are sufficient to ignite solvent vapors; an
operator on many processes in a rubber factory if wearing rubber
shoes can generate a potential of 6,000 to 10,000 volts which is
discharged on approached to earthed plant.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
H.C.Bryson Paint Technology 10, 280 (1945); Ann.
Rept. Frog. Rubber Technol. 10, 73 (1946)
It is claimed that tubes wear out through static sparks
passing between them and the inside of their casings, and a con-
ductina linina is snaaoq.Eari_
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*ELECTROSTATIC AND TENSILE PROPERTIES OF RUBBER AND GRJ.S AT ELEVATED
TEMPERATURES
R.S.Havenhill, H.C. O'Brien and J.J.Rankin
J. App1. Physics 12, 338-346 (1946)
With this new instrument the contact potentials of both ?
rubber and GR-S was found to become highly negative at elevated
temperatures. This apparent "boiling off" of electrons and re-
sultant disruption of electrostatic attractive forces within the
material is much greater for GR-S than for rubber and probably
accounts. for the much greater decrease in tensile of OR-S over
rubber at elevated temperatures.
*ELECTROSTATICS IN THE RUBBER INDUSTRY
R. Beach Rubber Age 51 453-60 (1946)
The author has investigated a number of spreader rooms in
various companies where it was a common experience for several
fires to occur daily during the winter months. One rubber-proof-
ing company estimated that the cost of each fire ranged from $100
to $400, an average cost being about $175 per fire, counting the
loss of stock, of carbon dioxide, and of labor outage.
The vapors liberated from the rubber cement on spreaders
accumulate near the windup, on the floor, because the volatile
components are from two to four times heavier than air, Also,
vapors are shown to collect above the stock, after the doctor knife,
where they volatilize from the cement by virtue of the high tem-
peratures,created by the.steam driers.
In operations where stock is run through the various types '
of processing machines, the electrification of the stock occurs
from its contact with the moving elements. The fire hazards
appear as a result of the high energy sparks occurring concurrently
with the presence of flammable fuel-air mixtures, which latter
may either be entrained in the rubber-coated stock or liberated
in tackifying operations.
Since the solvents are essentiai.to the processing of the
rubber stock, the mitigating efforts must then be directed essen-
tially toward the control of the electrification. In all cases
of mitigation, the devices which are employed for accomplishing
this utilize the principle of ionization of the ambient atmosphere.
As air molecules are ionized by these mitigating devices,
near the surfaces of the stock, the positive ions are strongly
attracted to the agative charges residing on the stock, and the
negative ions are repelled to remote distances from the stock.
Whether or not complete neutralization of the charged stock occurs
depends upon the supply of ions which is created in the closely
surrounding atmosphere.
Many means are known for producing ionization of the air
molecules, among which are:
1.-bombardment by x-rays;
2.-radiation of ultra-violet energy;
3.-emanation from radioactive substances;
4.-beat of combustion; and
5.-energy from high voltage electric fields.
However, the high expense, or the inconvenience of cumbersome
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equipment, associated with the use of x?rays ultra?violet radia?
tion, or radio?active materials, prohibit their use in industrial.
services.
In order to meet the exacting requirements of the rubber
industry, the author has devised and patented certain simple,
inexpensive means for the ionization air molecules to neutralize
charged stock. He has utilized a relatively low and safe voltage
from the stock itself, directly after the processing roll. The
unite are light in weight, and low in cost, and they have the
advantage of utilizing no transformers or rectifying devices; also,
they are not attached to the electric power or lighting system
of the plant.
RESTING OF RUBBER MIXINGS
Rev. gen. caoutchouc 24, 132 (1947)
An explanation has been given that substantiates the common
works practice of resting rubber mixings for 24 hours after pre?
paration. During mixing the rubber and sulfur become charged With
static electridity of the same sign. A tension thus exists
between rubber and sulfur and if vulcanization'is carried out at
this stage, chemical combination of rubber and sulfur is prevented.
By resting, however, much of the electricity is discharged and not
enough is left to interfere with vulcanization.
*FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY. 'HAZARDS IN HANDLING INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
W. Fordham Cooper ,Trans. 22, 26-8 (1947)
A discussion of the causes of electrification when liquids
are'handled and precautions which should be taken to minimize the
danger.
The most important precautions recommended are: (1) increase
the conductivity of solvents if possible; (2) use high flash
point solvents wherever possible; (3) earth all metal work and in
particular bond discharging to receiving vessels, together with
all intermediate nozzles, funnels, and the armouring of hosepipes;
(4) keep up the humidity of the air and remember that warm surfaces
tend to be dry and insulating while cold surfaces tend to be
damp and conducting; and (5) do not introduce earthed or even
unearthed conductors to points near the free surface of a liquid
or paste which may be charged ? even though it is in an earthed
container.
*ELECTROSTATIC PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH RUBBER
D. Bulgin Trans. I.R.I. 23, #1, 35-40 (1947)
A review and discussion, with special attention to problems
in the manufacture of rubber goods, sparks from insulating surfaces,
sparks from induced charges or leakage charges on conducting ob?
jects,* charges on rubber dough, static electricity on rubber goods
in service, and its removal.
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FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER
Natl. Board fire Underwriters Research
Rept., #4, 31 143. (1947); C.A. AL 3658
(1947)
The report is concerned chiefly with OR-S and pertains to
butadiene and styrene plants, and the fire and explosion hazards
both from raw materials and processing.
*A STUDY .OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES PRODUCED DURING MASTICATION OF
RUBBER AND OF GR-.S
R.S.Bavenhill, L.E.Carlson, and J.J.Rankin
Rubber Chem. & Tech. a, 476,93 (1949)
, A new electrostatic field strength meter has been described
which measures and records, not on1$ the magnitude of electro-
static fields, but also their polarity.
. This device hati been used in a study of the mastication of
rubber, and has furnished data which indicate that rubber becomes
less negative, and may actually become positive, as mastication
proceeds; this indicates in turn an oxidation of the molecules
as well as an electronic rearrangement and orientation of the rubber
molecular chains.
Data on OR-S polymerized at different temperatures show
entirely different electrostatic breakdown curves, which, with
other physical characteristics, indicate unusual properties of the
crude low-temperature polymersj e.g., high molar weight, long.
chain molecules, already or easily oriented, which do not oxidize
or break up appreciably on mastication. ,
' A partial correlatien of Mooney viscosity and electrostatic
contact-potential and field strength has been shown for rubber.
and GR-S which have been masticated on 'a rubber
*ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF VARIOUS CARBON BLACKS IN NATURAL, OR-S,
COLD AND BUTYL RUBBERS
L.R.Sperberg, G.E.Popp; and C.C.Biard
Rubber Age, 561-4 (1950)
The experiments had as their aim the effects of the type of
C black, type of rubber, state of dispersion of the 0 black,
and flexing on the electrical resistivity of vulcanizates contain-
ing various C blacks. In addition, the relation between surface
and volume resistivity was studied,
The experimental technique is described in detail. The results
show that the degree of milling of.rubber-O black mixtures has a
major influence on the electrical resistivity of the mixtures
when the blacks are of intermediate or large particle size,
whereas this invluence is insignificant with C blacks of relatively
fine particle size. .
With increase in the proportion Of C black, the conductivity
increases, and the relative influence of the degree of dispersion
becomes less. The type of rubber governs the electrical resistivity
for a given proportion of C black, probably because of the relative'
degrees of dispersion in the various types of rubber; the degree of
dispersion is governed by thermoplasticity of the rubber at the
temperature.of mixing. '
Butyl rubber-MAf black vulcanizates are relatively highly
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conductive and this feature results in lower accumulation of static
charge on vehicles equipped with Butyl inner tubes. The common
assumption that flexing lowers notably the conductivity of a vUl?
canizate containing C black by rupturing the C black chains was
not confirmed. Although flexing may increase the electridal re?
sistivity slightly, the magnitude of this increase is much less
than would be expected on the basis of a rupture of 0 black chains,
and is similar with all types of d blacks, whether good or poor
conductors.
' An experimental comparison of the surface and volume resistiv?
ity showed that they are of the same order of magnitude; hence it
Is probable that electrostatic charges built up by movement of
an inner tube in a tire casing are discharged at the contact ;
surface of the tube and casing. Such a discharge could cause
surface crazing of inner tubes, since.traces of 03 might be formed
as a consequence of the electrical discharge.
I. ELECTROSTATIC INVESTIGATIONS
B. In the textile industry
*SUN SPOTS, IONIZATION OF AIR AND TEXTILES
P.M.Strang Textile Research 11, 447-58 (1941)
In addition to temperature and humidity, static has a noticeable
effect on textile manufacture. Cotton fibers during processing -
acquire a negative electrical charge, which, although reduced .
in quantity by temperature and humidity,. may be dispersed through?
out the fibers to a greater degree when the humidity is increased.
The static charge is rather difficult to remove, so that with
fiber twisted into yarn the like?charged fibers tend 'to repel
each other. The strength of the yarn will be the net difference
between these two sets of forces.
There is 4 daily cycle in the amount of ionization of the
air, as well as an annual cycle, and. the amounts of ionization
vary with the altitude. Altitude, and the amount of foreign'
matter such as smoke, moisture, cloudiness, etc., in the atmosphere
also have their effects.
It has been found impossible to prove scientifically the
effects of ionization on textiles in absolute units of comparison.
At present the quality spinning cottons are produced on lands of
low earth resistivity in the South while the Pima cotton from
Arizona, with wide variations in qualities, is grown on lands
of high earth resistivity.
THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SPINNING MATERIALS
B. Axhausen Melliand Textilber, 21, 441-3 (1940);
C.A. 21, 2332 (1941)
Electrical conductivity is an important factor in the forma?
tion of static charge on the fibers during spinning.
An apparatus is described consisting essentially of a parallel
plate condenser across which the fibers whose conductivity is to be
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measured can be inserted. The condenser is charged to 340 v.,
the fibers put in place, and the time required for the voltage to
drop to 170 v. is recorded.
From these data, and the weight and length of the sample,
the specific conductivity is calculated. This varies greatly with
moisture content, salt content, and degree of lubrication or sizing*
*ELECTRIFICATION DURING THE PROCESSING OF FIBERS
J. Textile Inst. 4Q_, T702 (1949)
The introduction of many fibers at low moisture?regain
together with the general tendency to increase processing speeds
has aggravated the troubles due to static electricity. The var?
iation of static charge with moisture?regain during carding has
recently been investigated. It was found that for wool, Ardil,
casein, cellulose acetate and nylon, the charge increasea at first
with decreasing regain, but for the lower regains the curve flat?
tens and the charge tends to assume steady value. The conclusion
was reached that the amount and nature of the absorption of moisture
by fibers is possibly of more importance as regards static electri?
fication than the chemical constitution.
I. ELECTROSTATIC INVESTIGATIONS
C In the taper jndusy
STATIC ELECTRICITY IN NATURE AND INDUSTRY
P.G.Guest Bur. Mines, Bull, 4a, 98 pp. (1933);
C.A. 28, 417 (1934)
The literature on static electricity and its hazards is re?
viewed. Over 260 references are given. The industries concerned
Include Al, aviation, building, chemical, cleaning and dyeing,
cotton, grain,, mining and handling, paper and printing, petroleum,
S and sugar.
STATIC ELECTRICITY IN PAPER .MANUFACTURE
J. Strachan Paper Maker & Brit, Paper Trade J. 2/
T581-2 (1937); C.A. 11, 6875 (1937)
Static electricity is not generated when 2 dry paper surfaces
are rubbed together* When 2 sheets of paper are pressed into
intimate contact under a pressure of 100-120 lb. per sq. in. and
then separated, the 2 surfades that have been in contact are charged
electrically, one positively and the other negatively.
When dry paper is rubbed or pressed into contact with another
material such as metal, the paper surface acquires a single charge,
generally negative. On the dry end of the paper machine, static
electricity is produced not so much by friction of the dry paper
surface on metal as by Close contact of paper and metal under
pressure. When several layers of dry paper are pressed together,
opposing positive and negative charges appear when the sheets
are separated.
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ELECTRICAL CHARGE PHENOMENA ,IN PAPERS
W. Brecht, F. Schmid and R. Vieweg
Papier-Fabr, 25, Tech. Ti., 133-40,
142-59 (1937)'; C.A. .11, 5574 (1937)
Esperiments are described on the electrification of paper by
means of a special static electrifier, paper machines, in rolls,
and in rotary intaglio printing presses.
Water vapor,:escaping from the inner portions of the paper
'disk does, not cause surface charges. Primarily, electrification
depends on the relative humidity of the surrounding air. When
the humidity of the air is caused by atomized water particles, the
electrical conductivity of air increases. Humidifying by atomiza-
tion thus supplies a method of deelectrification. The type of
fiber, loading, sizing, hardness, thickness, and gloss appear
to be relatively unimportant factors in electrification, except '
insofar as they affect moisture content. The addition of small
amounts of NaCl prevents electrification.
,Une1ectrified paper may become statically charged in the
printing press. When paper rolls carry charges prior to printing,
the humidity of the store room has bery little effect on the rate,
of discharge, and here the moisture content of the paper is im-
portant. The length of time during which the surface charge is
retained, Is greater the drier the paper, the tighter the winding
of the roll, and finally the drier the surrounding air.
ELECTRIC CHARGES ON RAPER
M.O.Lerner Bumazhnaya Prom. 12, #5, 26...9 (1941);
' C.A. 22, 4245 (1943)
The formation of static electricity depends on the nature
of the paper, as well as the material with which the paper comes .
into contact. The water-absorptive power, electrical conductivity
and nature of fibers are additional factors, as well as fillers,
glues and chemical salts.
*A METHOD FOR STUDYING THE DISTRIBUTION AND SIGN OF STATIC CHARGES
ON SOLID MATERIALS
H.H.Hull J. Appl. Physics 20, #12, 1157 (1949)
A special powder is used to show how static electricity is
distributed on materials suet), as paper. Red particles of this
powder are attracted to positively charged areas and blue .particles
are attracted to negatively charged areas. Paper from heat-set
printing presses shows streaks of static electricity generated
by idling rollers and shifting patterns of static electricity
generated in the folderi often with opposite charges on the same
sheet of paper.
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I. ELECTROSTATIC INVESTIGATIONS
D. Theory
THE ELECTRIFICATION ASSOCIATED WITH DUST CLOUDS
W.A.D. Rudge Phil. Mag. 25, 481 and Proc. Roy. Soc. A22 256 (1914);
C.A. 2, 2349 (1913)
Nearly all kinds of finely divided particles when blown into a cloud
of dust by a current of air give rise to electrical charges.
THE ELECTRO-OSMOTIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE PRODUCED BY THE MOVEMENT OF
SOLID BODIES IN LIQUIDS
J. Stock . Anzliger. Akad. Wiss. Krakan 1913 131.;.C.A. 8 1369
(1914)
A quantitative study of Darn's discovery (Am. Physik 10, 70) that a
solid body falling through a liquid produces an electrical field.
*ELECTRICAL EXCITABILITY AND. CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUID INSULATORS
D. Holde Ber. AL 3239 (1915); C.A. 2, 879 (1915)
Specific conductance of various samples of benzene plus petroleum
ether were found to be 10-14 to 10-15. The extent of electrical excitations
when a practically non-conducting liquid flows through a narrow tube
depends primarily upon its conductance and upon the influence of tempera-
ture and moisture.
CONTACT ELECTRICITY IN HIGH VACUUM
A. Coehn and A. Lotz Z. Phys. 1, 242 (1921); C.A. 11, 3585 (1921)
In the highest vacuum obtainable by modern methods a production
of charge still takes place on the contact of two dielectrics. Subject
with higher dielectric constant is always plus.
*FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY
H.F. Vieweg J. Phys. Chem. 22, 865-889 (1926)
A literature survey of previous work in this field is presented.
In this study of the effect of moisture, certain anomalies observed
by previous workers have been explained.
A frictional electric series has been established and shows the
effect of using different crystal faces. An explanation of frictional
electricity has been proposed, using the electronic structure of
matter as a basis. A suggestion as to the physical significance of "Coehn's
rule" has been offered. The effect of moisture films on frictional electric
charges has been shown to be related to Lenard's "laasserfallelektrizitat".
The charges produced when air is bubbled through various solutions have
been measured. An explanation of these effects, has been presented on the
basis of the selective adsorption of ions by a gas.
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TRIBO-ELECTRICITY ARD FRICTION II - GLASS AND SOLID ELEMENTS
P.E.Shaw. and C.S. Jex Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A 118, 97, 108 (1928);
C.A. 22, 4043 (1928)
Measurements have been made of the sign and charge acquired when
glass rods are rubbed by various elements. Elements are listed which gave
positive and those which gave negative charge. Vacuum did not affect the
results. Various theories of. frictional electricity are discussed.
FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY
P.E. Shaw Phil. Mag. (7), 2., 577-83 (1930); C.A. 21,
445-6 (1931)
Charges obtained on rubbing like bodies are due to difference
, in surface strains. The theory of polar structure of atoms and
molecules with the resultant orientation in surface films should
prove important in explanations of phenomena in triboelectricity.
THE NATURE OF FRICTION
P.E. Shaw Phil. Mag. (7), 628-39 (1930); G.A. 25.,
445-6 (1931)
Triboelectricity and friction are two aspects of the same
phenomenon. In all cases of solid contact, solid combination takes .
place on contact. Charging of both surfaces occurs when they-separate
In friction, the work is the work performed in total electrical separation
plus the work in deformation of the surface structure. The law of friction
is limited in application and becomes invalid for extreme surface curvatures
as well as for the extreme loading.
*QUANTITATIVE INVESTIGATIONS OF FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY
E. Hess Z. Physik 7j, 430 (1932)
Experimental data are recorded with respect to the electrical
charges between solid dielectric materials in which the indefinite-
ness of the mutual contact surfaces is avoided by substitution of
the friction with a slip-free mutual pressure device having accurately
defined pressure.
*EFFECT OF SURFACE CHARGES ON MEASUREMENTS OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF POOR
CONDUCTORS
A. D. Goldhammer Z. Physik 84, 212 (1933); C.A. 28, 389 (1934)
The conditions under which surface charges seriously affect such
measurements were studied. In the experiments of Seidl (Z. Physik 76,
565 (1932) insufficient care was taken to avoid errors. In order to
avoid these errors the objects should be shielded.
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*ELECTRICAL STREAMING POTENTIALS WITH TURBULENT FLOW
H. Reichardt Z. Physik Chem. A la, 15 (1935); C.A. 22, 11 (1936)
Helmholtz equation holds for turbulent flow through a tube.
ANISOTROPY PHENOMENA IN POLYSTYRENE WITH AN ORIENTED DISTRIBUTION
OF PARTICLES
G.F. Daletckii Compt. rend. acad. sci. U.R.S.S. a,
311-13 (1946) (in English); C.A. go
5355 (1947)
Oriented layers of polystyrene were obtained up to 3 mm. thick
from solution, and up to 12 mm. thick by polymerization of monostyrene.
Gentle polishing of these oriented films caused them to acquire a
positive charge, whereas strong polishing restored the negative charge
customarily present in bulk polystyrene. These oriented films probably
consist of layers with identical groups toward each other (phenyl to
phenyl and methylene to methylene). Mechanical treatment causes removal
of material at the methylene layers, which have a smaller bond energy
than the phenyl groups.
*INCENDIARY ACTION OF ELECTRIC SPARKS IN RELATION TO THEIR PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
F.J. Llewellyn Trans. I.R.I. 21 29-34 (1947)
A discussion, with data on electrical charges of powders, diagrams
of apparatus used for determining the minimum condenser energy for
ignition of dust clouds and of vapors, the incendivity of metallic and
organic dust clouds, and the minimum energy necessary for the ignition of
vapor-air mixtures.
*ELECTROKINETIC POTENTIALS AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE IN SOLUTIONS OF
LOW DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
A. J. Rutgers and M. deSmet Trans. Faraday Soc. 41, 635 (1952)
Measurements on .(iso-05H11)4N picrate in pure dioxane, dioxane-water
mixtures, benzene, benzene-acetone mixtures. Found potentials of up
to 80V. Also found that the streaming current was dependent on applied
voltage.
*COLLOID SCIENCE Vol. I - Chapter IV
ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF THE DOUBLE LAYER p. 115 - 193 Chapter V
ELECTROKINETIC PHENOMENA p. 194-244
These two chapters discuss various properties of the double layer
including potentials, structure and theories. It includes various basic
experimental techniques. The most pertinent sections are on streaming
potentials and relaxation_ time. They state that the streaming potential
is proportional to the pressure of flow for non-turbulent flows, provided
the surface conductance of the liquid does not play a large part.
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*THEORY OF CONTACT ELECTRIFICATION
F.A. Vick British Journal of Applied Physics Supplement
No. 2 S1-86 (1953)
A discussion of the Helmholtz theory of static electrification is
given. It is possible in principle to predict the magnitude and direction
of the flow of electrons between two such solids in contact. In many
cases in practice, however, the presence of surface states complicates
the picture. The states, acting as traps for electrons, may originate
in various ways, including-imperfections of the lattice structure at the
surface, the presence of adsorbed atoms etc., and the precise condition
of the surface may depend on its immediate past history. The surface
density of charge due to such states may be high enough to cause a brush
discharge from the surface when the two solids originally in contact are
separated, and the bombardment of the surfaces by the resulting high
.speed electrons and ions may again alter the surface structure. The density
of surface states on an insulator may vary from place to place on the
surface. In addition to electron transfer, there May be movements of
ions, especially when the local =lace temperatures are high or contact
with liquid is involved.
*SURVEY OF GENERATION AND DISSIPATION OF STATIC ELECTRICITY
P.S.H. Henry British Journal of Applied Physics Supplement No. 2
S6-S11 (1953)
A simple statement of the author's problem is, that if two surfaces
are brought together and separated, either with or without rubbing, .charged
particles are found to have crossed the boundary, with the usual result
that the two surface's have gained equal opposite charges.. The.author attempts
to explain the five following questions with regard to this phenomena.
1. What are the charged particles which cross the boundary?
2. How do they get there and when?
3. How many are present?
4. Up to what distances can they cross the gap?
5. What conditions decide haw many cross which way?
A discussion is made on each of the questions. No direct adequate
answer is given to any of the questions.
A REVIEW OF STATIC ELECTRIFICATION
D.F. Arthur J. Tex. Inst. T721 (1955)
The mechanism of charge separation between solids is discussed in
detail including the short-range dissipation during separation. Charges
on an insulator may be removed by contact with a conducting liquid
including a conducting film formed on surface or by ionization of the air
near the surface. Ionization may be accomplished by ultraviolet light,
x-rays or a corona discharge brought about by a point or wire of high
potential. A discussion of experimental methods used is also given.
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*EFFECT OF TURBULENCE ON THE STREAMING POTENTIAL
P. E. Bocquet, C. M. Sliepcevich and David F Bohr
Ind. Eng. Chem. LL 197 (1956)
A review of Helmholtz and Smoluchowski basic work on streaming
potentials and experimental work in which they combine their equations.
Give description of electronic equipment and experimental conditions.
Conclude that the Helmoltz-Omoluchowski equation is valid for both
laminar and turbulent flow, provided the flow is fully established. The
existance of a laminar film at the wall in turbulent flow is further
substantiated; streaming potential can be utilized as a technique for
studying fluid flow phenomena near the wall.
*LOCATION OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES IN KIRKUOOD'S MODEL OF ORGANIC IONS
Charles Tanford Journal of the American Chem. Soo. 79, 534852 (1957)
The interaction between electrostatic charges on organic ions was
treated earlier by Kirkwood in 1934. This paper is a further study on the
same problem. It is highly theoretical and judged to be of little practical
value.
*INFLUENCE OF TURBULENCE ON ELECTROKINETIC PHENOMENA
A.J. Rutgers, M. deSmet and G. deMoyer Trans. Faraday Soc. .0.. 393 (1957)
The electric charges in the liquids are in .a diffuse layer close to the
wall; in laminar flow, the speed of the liquid near the wall is
proportional to the distance from the wall. In turbulent flow, however,.
parts of the liquid hear the wall may be carried to the central part of
the capillary. By measurement of the streaming potentials in laminar and
turbulent flow an equation was obtained from which the thickness of the
double layer could be calculated.
4THERMODYNAMICS FOR ELASTIC SOLIDS IN THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD I. GENERAL
FORMULATION
C.M. James Li & Tsuan-Wu Ting
(Carnegie Inst. of Technol) J. Chem.
Phys 27, 693-700 (1957)
Condensed collection of all thermodynamic relations among 1st
derivs under variation of temperature, stress, and electrostatic field.
*ELECTROSTATICS IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
A. Klinkenberg and J.L. van der Minne
A Royal Dutch (Shell Research & Development Report
178 pages) Elsevier Iib. Co. (1958)
A comprehensive report on theoretical and practical work from Lab to
tank scale. Most practical results of their work is the development of
an additive for petroleum which increases the conductance to a level that
will allow charges to bleed off before they reach dangerous levels. They
had concluded that three things are necessary to have an explosion caused
by static electricity (1) an explosive gas mixture must be present (2)
an electric charge must have been generated and must have accumulated on a
solid or in a liquid (3) the electric field must cause a spark of sufficient
intensity to ignite the gas. Charging of a liquid can occur by flowing through
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pipes, flowing through a filter and by small particles settling through a
liquid. Increasing conductance of liquid reduces charge that will
build up.
II. ELECTROSTATIC CONTROL
A. In the rubber industry
BELT ELECTRICITY AS INCENDIARY
M.M. Richter Chem. Ztg. . 31, 1255; C.A. 2, 1038 (1908)
Discussion of generation of electricity on belts. Recommends
treatment of belts with glyceraand water to, prevent build up of charge.
FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY ON INSULATORS AND METALS
W.M. Jones Phil. Mag. .21, 261 (1915); C.A. 2, 2482 (1915)
Experiments prove that rubbing friction has the effect of removing
electrons from either rubber or the specimen rubbed at a rate proportional
to the rate of rubbing. It is shown that frictional electricity reaches
a constant maximum value when the generation of the charge is compensated
by leakage.
Pearson, Henry C., Rubber Machinery,
India Rubber World Pub., c. 1920, pg. 197
In early days of proofing fires were of frequent occurrence.
A simple device for discharging the frictional electricity consists
of copper strips to which are soldered needles that are set just below
the guide rollers, but not close enough to tear or mark the fabric. A
conductor wire is attached to this device and grounded, usually in water
or on a pipe running into the earth. A perforated pipe near the rubber
covered roll, through which live steam is forced, is also employed to
guard against such fires.
FIVE HAZARDS AND STATIC ELECTRICITY IN RUBBER FACTORIES
Wolfgang Ostwald Kolloid Z. .?.2, loo (1921); C.A. 16, 174 (1922)
It is shown that the fire hazard is greatest at the time of least
humidity and that 3/4 of the fires in rubber factories are caused by
deficiency in atmospheric humidlty.
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iiCHAPMAN ELECTRIC NEUTRALIZER
Pearson, Henry C. Pneumatic Tires, India Rubber Pub. Co.,
New York, c. 1922, p. 154-6
Rubberized fabric is easily electrified by friction and
pressure and it is thought that this phenomenon is also caused by
the evaporation of the solvent naphtha from the cement, or by some
unknown chemical action, such as oxidation or change in hydration
of the rubber or fabric.
To minimize the fire hazard of the spreading operation, spreaders
are equipped with devices for removing these static charges. The
Chapman electric neutralizer distributes alternating charges at high
voltages in minute quantities to the places where the static charges
collect. The principle on which it works is the simple law of
attraction and repulsion, that the static charge in any insulating
material selects for itself the kind and quantity to exactly neutralize
itself.
In the application of the Chapman neutralizer the transformer
is located on some convenient wall and a single heavily insulated
wire leads to the several machines to be treated. Each spreading
machine is fitted with two "inductors" extending across the machine over
the fabric. One is placed just back of the spreading knife and the
other near where the fabric is rolled up. These inductors are placed
so that the fabric passes them at a distance of two to four inches.
The influence of the inductors extends through the air for several inches
around them, and every portion of the fabric as fast as it comes within
this region of influence is imperceptibly but instantly deprived of any
electric charge existing upon it. The result of this action is that
the inductor at the head end of the spreader instantly and completely
neutralizes every part of the fabric as fast as it leaves the spreading
knife, before any charge imparted to the fabric can accumulate
sufficiently to discharge to the roll, knife, frame or pipes in the
form of a spark.
The object of the other inductor, treating the fabric just
before it is rolled up, is to remove any slight charge redeveloped
by the other rolls over which the fabric passes before winding up.
HOW TO AVOID STATIC FIRE HAZARDS IN RUBBER MILLS
Wm. D. Milne Chem, Met. Eng. 1,01, 20 (1924); C.A. 1.111.
768 (1924)
Charges of static are built up on belts, moving surfaces of
cloth, the bodies or clothing of workmen in vapor clouds and solvents
flowing from nozzles or jets. Safeguarding is effected by grounding
everything - material, machinery, men and by humidification.
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DIELECTRIC CONSTANT, POWER FACTOR AND RESISTIVITY OF RUBBER AND GUTTA
PERCHA
Hein Curtiss and A.T.McPherson Bar. Standards Tech, Paper. No. 299.
669 (1925); C.A. 20, 842 (1926)
Discusses experiments involving raw and vulcanized rubber and
gutta percha with various sulfur levels and various fillers. These
materials were tested for suitability for insulation of submarine
cables. All fillers increased the dielectric constant. Carbon black
increased the dielectric constant and power factor and lower the
resistivity.
*FIRE HAZARDS OF STATIC ELECTRICITY
R.M. Clark ? . Ind., Eng. Chem, 11, 1127-9 (1925)
To prevent dust explosions caused by static, it is essential
that all moving parts of machinery be connected metallically and
the machines themselves grounded. The frictional electricity will
be neutralized through the connections between the moving parts, and
if there is any excess charge it will be dissipated through the ground
wire. Rotating parts of machinery may become insulated because of the
film of oil surrounding the bearings, for lubricating oil is a non-
conductor. Thus it is possible for rotating parts to be charged
even though the stationary parts are well grounded. A solution is to
affix a small metal brush, such as a piece of piano wire, so that it
will rub against a portion of the moving machinery. Such a brush
should be well grounded.
Belts can be connected to the earth by installing metal combs
in contact with their inner surfaces or by providing a network of
grounded wires close to the belts and parallel to them. Various belt
dressings have been used with the idea of making the inner belt surface
conducting. Equal parts of glycerol and water are probably effective
in some instances, the glycerol tending to retard evaporaticn of the
water which acts as a conductor between the belt and the grounded
pulley. If such a dressing is used, it should be applied every few
days. Another method which may be more adaptable to dusty locations
is the use of an idle metal roller which presses against the inside
surface of the belt. In addition to being grounded, the roller should
be connected to the pulley by means of an electrical conductor.
SOME ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF RUBBER
P. Dansheath Trans. Inst. Rubber Industry 2, 460 (1927);
C.A. 21, 2399 (1927)
Following a review of past research on the electrical properties
of rubber, experiments are described which deal with the power factor
of soft cured rubber-sulfur mixtures, under different conditions. The
results show that with all other conditions invariable, the power
factor increases with relative humidity, and with the cure above a
certain optimum cure at which the power factor is minimum. The addition
of mineral rubber, of china clay or of lamp black likewise results
in increased power factor. The latter is practically independent of
the frequency.
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*TAKING STATIC OUT OF INDUSTRY
J.A. Davis Textile World 21, #19, 77, 79, 93 (1927)
William H. Chapman made the discovery that led to the invention
which has freed industry from the costly interference of "static".
Rubber manufacturers formerly feared frictional electricity as some-
thing more than a deterrent to quality and output- it was a constant
fire menace. Many disastrous fires had been caused by sparks of this
form of electricity igniting naphtha.
In 1904, while working on some electric motors which the Continental
Paper Bag Company had sent him for repairs, Chapman received a letter
from that concern bearing the information that the production of their
automatic bag machines was greatly curtailed by frictional electricity
which caused the bags to stick together. It was so bad that a machine
designed and built to produce 300 bags a minute could not be made to
deliver at a rate of more than 100.
He then brought forth his invention and demonstrated its value,
completely neutralizing some electrified paper. This was accomplished
by bringing the paper within radiating range of a high tension, high
frequency coil of wire. He constructed a similar coil of smaller
size and took it to the bag mill. Placing it by the side of one of
the bag machines, he inserted an extension plug into a nearby lamp
socket and the finished bags slid out of the machine and into a smooth
pile even at the slow speed at which the machine was running. The
terminal was then strapped to the machine and the speed was increased
three-fold.
The Chapman electric neutralizer had conquered a menace to production
and quality in the bag industry as it has continued to do in many other
trades ever since.
*BELT DRESSING FOR ELIMINATING STATIC
P.W. Edwards and J.0. Reed India Rubber World 80, #2, 60 (1929)
Static electricity can be removed from belts and other surfaces
by grounding systems, humidifying the air sufficiently, ionizing the
air in contact with the belt, or other surface by means of a gas flame
or by silent discharge of high frequency and high voltage current.
Static electricity can be eliminated by special belt dressings.
A good rubber belt dressing can be prepared by mixing 18 parts
of lamp black with 82 parts of good spar varnish. A smaller quantity
of lamp black may prevent most of the cracking which develops after
the above dressing is used for several months. The dressing must dry
on the belt before running. A non-flammable thinner for the varnish
can be prepared by mixing equal volumes of carbon tetrachloride and
varnish makers' and painters' naphtha.
This paper is a summary of the work done by the Bureau of Chemistry
and Soils, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
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L,0,1
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*ELIMINATION OF STATIC FROM BELTS
Rubber Age 2j, 493 (1929)
P.W. Edwards and J.O. Reed of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils
of the U.S. Department of Agriculture found that the most satisfactory
results for a non-static rubber belt dressing was obtained by using
18% lamp black with 82 parts of good spar varnish. For a good non-
flammable thinner they recommend equal volumes of carbon tetrachloride
and varnish makers and painters naphtha. This was carefully tested on
belts in actual installations on an air compressor and on a rubber
conveyor belt. It was also tried on rubber belts in flour mills and
on threshing machines. When applied to the entire surface and allowed
to dry, static did not develop.
*EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND FREQUENCY ON THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
OF RUBBER
H.L. Curtis, A T McPherson and A. H. Scott
Phys, Rev. 2 , 224 1080 (1929); C.A. 2,2,
3517 (1931)
The dielectric constant,powar factor and resistivity of rubber
depend on the percentage of sulfur used in its vulcanization, on the
temperature and pressure and for the first two properties, on the
frequency at which measurements are made.
*CARBON BLACK IN RUBBER INSULATING COMPOUNDS
W.B. Wiegand and C.R. Boggs Ind, Eng, Chem. 22, 822 (1930); C.A.,
4958 (1930)
Contrary to popular belief and statements in the literature carbon
black not only has no deleterious effects but improves insulating
properties in many cases - used 3 1/4% carbon by volume. Resistivity
increased 68%; breakdown voltage increased 40% and dielectric constant
increased accordingly. With 30% or 35% carbon similar improvements
were observed but of less magnitude.
*A. METHOD OF MAKING ELECTRICAL CONTACT WITH EBONITE AND SOFT RUBBER FOR
INSULATION TESTS
H.F. Church and B.A. Daynes Trans. Inst. Rubber Ind. 6, 82 (1930);
C.A. 21, 3872 (1931)..
An Aquadag coating was put on the ebonite or rubber for use as .
an electrode in measuring the resistivity, power factor and dielectric
constant. The solution was dry for testing to eliminate effect of H20.
The volume resistivity is less using Aquadag than when using Hg as an
electrode.
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*EFFECT OF ACCELERATORS AND ANTIOXIDANTS ON THE ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
AND WATER ABSORPTION OF VULCANIZED RUBBER INSULATION
J. Hi Ingmanson, C.W. Scharf and R.L. Taylor
Ind. Eng. Chem. al, 83 (1933);
C.A. 2, 629 (1933)
The influence of 10 commercial organic accelerators and of 12
commercial antioxidants on the moisture absorption, specific resistivity,
specific conductance, dielectric constant and power factor of typical
'130% rubber" insulating mixtures, both in dry condition and after
immersion for 5 days in distilled water at 700, was studied. The
results indicate that accelerator and antioxidant do not have a
determinant effect on the moisture absorption, but may influence greatly
the electrical properties. The quantity of moisture absorbed is not
a satisfactory criteria for judging electrical stability.
*HIGH TENSION RUBBER CABLES
H. Heering Proc. Rubber Tech, Conf. London, 1938
p. 1086
Although rubber has excellent breakdown strength, its lack of
ozone resistance is a serious disadvantage. The formation of ozone
can be eliminated by use of semi-conducting or conducting rubber
sheaths. These rubbers are made by incorporating large amounts of
black; figures are shown of the wide differences in resistivity
obtained with different blacks and the superiority of acetylene black.
Rubbers with resistivities of 1/10 ohm, cm. are made with this black
and used instead of metal as conductors.
CONTINENTAL GUMMI-WERKE A. -G.
Brit.
Frog.
Difficulties due to charges of
during service are avoided by using
consisting of rubber 100, graphitic
sulphur 3, zinc oxide 15, colophony
benzthiazole 1.
467,141 (1938); Ann. Rept.
Rubber Technol. 1, 110 (1938)
static electricity accumulating
an electrically conducting rubber
carbon (acetylene black) 100,
5, stearic acid 2, and mercapto-
ELECTRIFICATION OF CLOTH DURING RUBBERIZATION AND A'REMEDY FOR IT
N. Drozdov and V. Smirnov Caoutchouc and Rubber (U.S.S.R.)
1938, #2, 44-8; Chem, Abs. 32,
5251 (1938)
A simple device to remove and neutralize electrostatic shocks
consists of a steam pipe situated under the cloth near the knife.
The pipe is perforated to let out steam and is grounded.
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ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE RUBBER
Electrical Review 122, 796, 800
(1938); Ann. Rept. Frog. Rubber
Technol. 2, 55 (1938)
Electrically conductive rubber with good mechanical properties
and a specific resistance as low as 1 ohm is useful where static
charges are undesirable.
ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING NEOPRENE & RUBBER
J. Inst. Auto Eng. 7, 57 (1938);
Trans. 11. 50-64 (1941)
In a paper by C.D. Law mention is made of a conducting rubber
tyre having a specific resistance of 50 ohms compared with 5 x 107
ohms for standard rubber tread but no details are given with regard
to processing or testing. The use of such highly conducting tyres
is claimed largely for combating current discharge on electrically
operated trolley buses.
*DIELECTRIC MEASUREMENTS IN THE STUDY OF CARBON BLACK AND ZINC OXIDE
DISPERSION IN RUBBER
A.R. Kemp and D.B. Herrmann Proc. Rubber Tech, Conf. 1938, p. 893;
Rubber Chem. and Tech. 12, 317 (1939)
Specific conductance specific resistance and dielectric constant
of various ZnO and carbon blacks at various loadings were tested.
Particle size and dispersion determined change in electrical properties.
Smaller size and better dispersion improved properties while 1120 soluble
impurities had a deleterious effect.
*STATIC ELECTRICITY, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE RUBBER INDUSTRY
C.R.A. Chadfield Trans. Inst. Rubber Ind. 14, 372 (1939)
0,A0 a, 9041 (1939)
An illustrated discussion, with particular attention to the causes
and results of static electricity in industry, the static detector
and methods for minimizing or reducing static effect.
*REMOVING STATIC ELECTRICITY
W.C. Glass Rubber Age 45, 89-90 (1939)
The use of the Chapman rJlectric Neutralizer Device on rubber
; spreaders and coating machines is recommended to eliminate fire hazards.
This neutralizer consists of two essential elements - a power unit
to produce the corrective charge of alternating current of suitable
intensity and in a safe form, and a so-called "Inductor Bar" for attach-
ment to the machine requiring treatment in order to deliver the opposing
charges, or to express it another way, to provide an alternating electro-
static field for charged materials to pass through.
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*BELTS AND PULLEYS
Ann. Rept. Frog. Rubber Technol.
4, 89 (1940)
Probably the most common method of preventing the accumulation of
static electricity on belts and pulleys is to provide an earthed
comb placed near the surface of the belt and designed to remove the
charge as it is formed. Another effective method of preventing the
accumulation of static electricity is to apply to the belt, at frequent
intervals, a material which will make the surface of the belt a con-
ductor of electricity. If either combs or belt dressing are used the
pulley and the line shaft must be properly earthed. Bearings in line
shafts, due to the oil film, are. often not of low enough electrical
resistance properly to earth the shaft. In such cases, use must be
made of earthed brushes on the shaft itself. Where belt drives are
used, the static charge hazard can be lessened by decreasing the speed
of the belt and increasing the size of the pulley.
RUBBER HOSE
J.H. Van Straelen Belg. 435,867 (1940); Ann. Rept.
Prog. Rubber Technol. 4, 93 (1940)
The danger which arises from a static electrical charge especially
on hoses used for the passage of inflammable fluids is overcome by
the use of a flexible rubber hose in which undulating metallic wires,
which are connected to earth are incorporated and embedded in the body
of the hose.
RUBBER HOSE
Soc. Industrielle du caoutchouc Soc. An,
Belg. 432,728 (1940); Ann. Rept.
Frog. Rubber Technol. 4, 93 (1940)
This patent covers the manufacture of a hose which is made up with
a lining consisting of a continuous layer of rubber in which is
incorporated particles of electrically conducting material such as carbon
or copper. Around this, metallic wires are wound helically, and a layer
of nonconducting rubber surrounds the wire, being in turn protected by
a layer of tough rubber.
COATING ON AEROPLANE DE-ICERS
Science & Appliance 4, 3 (1940);
Ann. Rept. Prog. Rubber Technol.
.2, 47 (1941)
An application of semi-conducting rubber is the coating on aeroplane
de-icers to prevent punctures due to static electricity.
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*ELECTRICALLY SEMI-CONDUCTING RUBBER AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER COMPOUNDS
A.E. Juve India Rubber World 103, #5, 47, 50 (1941)
The generation and dissipation of static elec. charges has become
increasingly important, particularly in factories using rubber beltst
in the oil and aviation industries, in hospital operating rooms and
in filling stations. In view of this, rubber products which are
relatively highly conductive have already been developed for special
service conditions, such as for washing-machine V-belts? airplane-tire
treads, airplane-wing de-icers, gasoline-hose nozzles, and hospital
operating-room equipment.
The specific resistivity of rubber and synthetic compounds can be
varied within wide limits of compounding.
*ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING NEOPRENE AND RUBBER
B.J. Habgood and J.R.S Waring Trans. I.R.I. 11, 50..64 (1941)
In applications such as aeroplane and trolley bus tyres, conveyor
belts and flooring, electrically condttlAng rubber helps to eliminate
the effect of static electricity.
HOSE
F. B. Williamson Jr. (Whitehead Bros. Rubber Co.)
U.S. 2,244,635 (1941); Ann. Rept.
Frog. Rubber Technol. 78 (1941)
A hose has been designed to overcome the dangers of static charges.
It is made by attaching the apices of the alternate loops of a sinuous
static conductor at spaced points and in a substantially straight line
to the face of a fabric wide enough when wrapped on an inner tube, and
on itself to provide all the plies of the hose. The apices of the
intermediate loops are attached to spaced points in another line
substantially parallel to the first and spaced from it at a distance
equal to the circumference of the hose. The conduction should be
placed inward from the side edges of the fabric far enough to provide
materials for plies on each side of it.
*INVESTIGATIONS OF CARBON BLACK WITH THE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
H. Heering, I. Gizycki and A. Kirceck Kautschuk 17, 55 (1941);
C.A. 22, 870
The particle sizes of various carbon blacks were determined and
correlated with the tensile strengths and specific insulation resistance
of vulcanizates containing these blacks.
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C.)
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*ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTIVE RUBBER INCLUDING A RECOMMENDED
METHOD OF TEST FOR DETERMINING THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF RUBBER -
COMMITTEE ON GASES - NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOC. OF CANADA
Rubber Age (N Y) Q, 203, 1941);
C.A. 2443 (1942)
A lab technique based on fundamental principles is described,
TRIBOLUMINESCENCE OF RUBBER
Kuti Kosiyamco J. Chem, Soc. Japan 62, 597 (1941);
36,293 (1942)
Linen was soaked with benzene solution of rubber and dryed. .After
pressing two sheets together for 2 - 3. days a bluish green light was ob-
served on tearing them apart in the dark.
*NULLIFYING STATIC ELECTRICITY IN RUGS AND CARPETS
Rubber Age El, 228 (1942)
This development provides for the interweaving of a conductive
yarn throughout the pile and backing of the carpet which runs into a
rubber composition treated backing that absorbs the static electricity
generated through friction.
STATIC ELECTRICITY FROM LEATHER BELTS
S.F. Wilson Southern Power and Ind. 60, #3,
73 (1942); Chem. Abs. 36, 2796 (1942)
Static electricity discharges from belts can be prevented by
rendering them conductive. One powder manufacturing company finds
that graphite is very effective as a static preventive. Another
company uses a 50% glycerol-50% water solution, sufficient of which is
automatically applied at intervals to keep the belt in moist condition.
Static electricity ,is generated by belt slippage and by the
continuous making and breaking of contact between belt and pulleys,
as well as by friction with the surrounding air. Potential is always
highest halfway between pulleys, ,,and discharge combs should be placed
at this point. A good, pliable, high-friction belt, with good conductivity,
and smooth on both sides, will never cause serious static troubles.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF RUBBER CCUPOUNDS
J. G. Robinson Rubber Chem. & Tech. L;., 128 (1942) and
Trans. Inst. Rubber Ind. 12, 33 (1941) C.A.
927 (1942)
By means of a new technique for determining vol. resistivity the
effect of compound variations were investigated on mixtures containing
80% rubber. Substitution of French chalk for ZnO give increased resistivity.
Increased stearic acid did the same. One antioxidant decreased resistivity,
two were ineffectual. Accelerators gave diverse variations. Increased
concentration decreased resistivity. Variation with time of cure depended
on compound being investigated.
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PNEUMATIC TIRES
U S Rubber Co. Brit. 544,757 - April
7363 (1942)
A tire with a coating of rubber cement between
sidewall and tread portions - the cement containing
weight of the cement solids of acetylene black.
27, 1942; C.A. 2.6.
the carCass and
at least 15% by
STATIC-DISCHARGING FLOOR COVERING
E.N. Cadwell and L.Marick (U.S.Rubber)
U.S. 2,302,003 (1942); Chem. Abs.
a, 2158 (1943)
A coating of a flexible electrically conducting material, such as
a rubber composition containing carbon black, is affixed to the under
side of a rug, and a plurality of electrically conducting elements
comprising textile materials, such as cotton cords, and an electrically
conductive rubber composition are used which come into contact with the
coating and extend to substantially the top of the rug.
NON-STATIC BELTING
J.C. Walton and 4E. Hall (Boston Woven Hose & Rubber Co.)
U.S. 2,318,441 (1943); Chem. Abs. 22,
6158 (1943)
Use is made of a body including a plurality of fabric plies, covers
of electroconductive rubber bonded to and covering the entire areas
of both faces of the body, an electroconductive means such as rubber
plugs containing electroconductive carbon connecting the covers at spaced
locations along the belting, such means including at each location a
strip of electroconductive rubber extending through the respective plies
at relatively spaced points and located between adjacent plies between
adjacent points.
*CONDUCTIVE RUBBER FLOORING
C.S. McChesney and J.W. Short (Dunlop Tire & Rubber Corp.)
U.S. 2,325,414 (1943)
This patent provides a flooring with a highly conductive material
such as metallic wire, distributed throughout. This system of wire or
wire mesh is connected to a ground so that a charge of electricity,
static or otherwise, need pass only a short distance through the
conductive rubber to the highly conductive wire and thence to ground.
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STATIC REDUCING PNEUMATIC TIRES
G.L. Benson (U S Rubber Co) U.S. 2,316!549 April 13, 1943; C.A. 21,
5888 (1943)
The inner surface only of the inner tube wall is provided with an
acetylene carbon black powder around the circumferential crown region.
PNEUMATIC TIRE
Arthur W. Bull, Glenn G. Havens and John F. Williams (U.S. Rubber Co.)
U.S. 2,329332 September 14, 1943; C.A. lg.,
1145 (1944)
A tire with a ribbon of electrically conductive rubber extending
from one bead under sidewall tread and to other bead to provide path
for electrical charge. ,
CONDUCTIVITY OF RUBBER TREAD STOCKS - EFFECT OF PROPERTIES OF CARBON
BLACK
Leonard H Cohan and Janes F Mackey
Ind. Eng. Chem. 11, 806 (1943) C.A. 21,
5274 (1943)
In a smoked sheet formulation it was found that as carbon black
particle size decreased electrical conductivity increased. As the
crystal structure approached graphite type conductivity increased and
as volatiles were removed from black conductivity increased.
When blacks are heated at high temperatures the product becomes more
graphitic and more conductive.
GENERATION OF STATIC ELECTRICITY IN RUBBER FACTORIES AND ITS PREVENTION
A.G. Taeilikman - Legkaya Prom. 1943 N. 3-4, 6-8; C.A. Ig 891 (1944)
Static electricity generated particularly on spreading machines
is a source of danger. It can be overcome by a Chapman ionizer as
modified by author.
*ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE RUBBER
H.E. Elden . Rubber Age (N Y) 3ce (1944)
A short discussion including extreme values that can be obtained.
Specific resistances between one and 1015 ohms; tire tread with min.
resistance of 30 ohms/cm3; cable covering minimum resistance of 10 ohm.
Stretching 10% halves the conductivity.
NON-STATIC TIRE
Elmo E Hanson . U.S. 2,339,546 January 18, 1944; c.A....2q,
4149 (1944)
Uses a conductive rubber compound extending over bead and under tread.
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*CONDUCTIVITY OF TREAD STOCKS - NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC RUBBERS
Leonard H Cohan and Martin Steinberg
Ind. Eng, Chem. 2.4t, 7 (1944); C.A. 21.,
1908 (1944)
Electrical conductivity of natural, reclaim, Bane S, Neoprene-GN,
Thiokol-N and Butyl-l.5 with various blacks and various loading. Found
conductivity depends mainly on particle size of blacks.
Particle size determines conductivity in a series of the same type of black.
INSULATION RESISTANCE OF HARD AND SOFT RUBBER II NOTE ON THE MEASUREMENT
OF SURFACE RESISTIVITY
B.A. Daynes J. Rub. Res. 122. 51 (1944); C.A. 21, 5432
(1944)
Precision of volume leakage correction is confirmed in most cases
but a small end correction is given for use when necessary.
*THE CARBON SPECTRUM FOR THE RUBBER COMPOUNDER
C.W. Sweitzer and W.C. Goodrich
Rubber Age (N Y ) 22, 469 (1944)
Covers effect of various carbons on Many properties of rubber
including electrical conductance of rubbers.
STATIC RESISTANT VEHICLE TIRES
John Fielding (ingfoot Corp)
U.S. 2,342,576, February 22, 1944; C.A. 2g,
4834 (1944)
A layer of rubber having a high electrical conductivity underlying
the tread but terminating short of the bead or rim contacting portions
of the tire.
METHOD FOR TESTING STATIC CONDUCTIVE RUBBER BELTS
Anon. Rubber Age 51, 577 (1945)
A simple test equipment for estimating the power of a belt to conduct
static electricity is described and consists of a low wattage neon bulb
connected to two metal prongs which are placed on moistened spots on
the belt surface a short distance apart. The bulb, when connected to
an A.C. supply, glows if the belt possesses proper conductivity.
+ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE RUBBER
D. Bulgin Trans. Inst. Rubber Ind. 21, 188 (1945)
C.A. Q, 2673 (1946)
A discussion of natural rubber, GR-S and Butyl containing different
Carbon black and various uses to which electrical conductive.:: blacks
have been put.
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A rather long article which gives some history of conductive
rubber and discusses many factors which control conductivity - black and
their particle size, milling, history of sample, temperature effects
and methods of testing. Of the polymer types, butyl was better than
natural or GR-S.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
H.C. Bryson Paint Technology 10, 280 (1945) Ann. Rept.
Prog., Rubber Technol. 10, 73 (1946)
It is claimed that tubes wear out through static sparks passing
between them and the inside of their casings. A conducting lining is
suggested.
.ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE RUBBER - METHODS OF MEASURING CONDUCTIVITY
R. G. Newton J. Rubber Reeearch 11, 35 (1946); C.A.
40, 5282
General discussion of precaution in measuring conductivity includes
a general discussion of electrodes and contact resistance. The conductivity
of a rubber depends on history and testing conditional e.g., 10%
elongation doubles the resistivity, cutting or compressing increases
theresistivity. The mixing technique, degree of vulcanization and tempera-
ture of testing influence the conductance.
*CONDUCTIVE RUBBER
A.S.T.M. & Soc. Automotive Eng.
A.p.T.m. Bull. #142, 59 (1946)
It has been found that when a rubber compound has sufficient
conductivity to cause a 2w. neon bulb to flow when a 110 volt current
is passed through it, the rubber is sufficiently conductive to eliminate
or didsipate static electricity.
TIRES AND
Sehrbundt
This
by static
EXPLOSIONS
and others P.B. 4690; Bibi. Sci Ind. Bapts.
5, 760 (1947)
report includes the prevention of fires and explosions caused
electricity.
*FIRE HAZARDS AND PROTECTION OF RUBBER CEMENT
E.E. Turkington Rubber Age 62, 61-3 (1947)
In every instance of a rubber-cement coating and drying process
fire caused by static - whether it was quickly brought under control
or not, whether damage was severe or negligible - the fire can be
traced back to inadequate grounding and humidification.
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Protection engineers recommedn that practical tests be made with a
static indicator by running the material through machines with the humidi-
fication system operation, but without cement in the tank. Weil-grounded
static-collecting brushes should be installed at all points where static
is found to collect. Careful and frequent tests throughout the area
always pay.
MEASURING STATIC CHARGES
Dunlop Rubber Co. and D. Blugin
Brit. .588,420 (1947); Ann. Rept.
Frog. Rubber Technol. 11, 133 (1947)
A portable device consisting of an electrometer valve, with batteries
and instruements, has been produced for determining the magnitude of
static charges within a range of 20 to 1,000,000 volts. In use this device
need not be brought closer than 12 in. to the sheet or conditions causing
the static charge.
TYRES ON AIRCRAFT TAILWHEELS
W. Becker P.B. Report #37719; Bibi. Sci.
Ind. Repts. h, 133 (1947)
This paper describes the particular problems of discharging electric
charges through the conductive tyres on aircraft tailwheels.
*ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF GR-S AND NATURAL RUBBER STOCK LOADED WITH
SHAWINIGAN AND R-40 BLACKS
P.E. Wack, R.L. Anthony and E. Guth J. App. Phys. 18, 456 (1947)
C. A. 41, 4948-T1947)
Resistance measurements and temperature coefficients were made
on stocks with varying black loadings. 40-140 pts black per hundred parts
of rubber were used. Results are interpreted on the assumption that carbon
black tends to form chains in the rubber matrix.
FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER
National Board Fire Underwriters Research
Rept. #4, 31 pgs (1947) C.A. 420 3658
(1947)
The report is concerned chiefly with GR-S and pertains to butadiene
and Styrene plants, and the fire and explosion hazards both from raw
materials and processing.
*ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING RUBBER
K.A.Lane and E.R. Gardner
Trans. I.R.I. 2h, 70-91 (1948)
The work deals with a new method for measuring the resistivity of
rubber, the development of highly conductive vulcanized rubber, and methods
of testing antistatic tires.
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The generation of static electricity by vehicles with rubber tires
is discussed, and theory is evolved whereby the effects to be expected
can be predicted from lab. tests to within about 50% of the true value,
*COPOLYMER CCMPOSITIONS CONTAINING FINELY DIVIDED METAL PARTICLES
P. K. Frolich and I.E. Lightboun (Jasco Inc.)
U.S. 2,441,945 (1948)
An interpolymer of an isoolefin and diolefin (I) such as iso?
butylene and butadiene in liquid ethylene can be compounded with metal
salts, pulverized metal or metal powder. This compound prevents the
accumulation of static charges.
*STATIC?CONTROL V?BELTS
Burton, W.E., ed., Engineering with
Rubber, McGraw?Hill Book Co., N.Y., c.
1949, pg. 75
Friction between ordinary V?belts and their sheaves often generates
static electricity, Which, by creating high potential differences, may
cause shock to operators or become a hazard in plants where explosive
materials are handled. Static control?V?belts were developed to drain
off such electrical charges before they reach dangerous proportions. The
rubber used in the covers is compounded in such a way that the belts
actually are conductors of static charges but will not contuct ordinary
electric currents such as those used to operate motors and lights. Sone
'static?control belts are made by merely coating the surface with conducting
materials.
To insure proper operation of a static conducting belt, the machine
on which it is used should be grounded properly, as by running a stranded
copper wire or strip from the machine to a water pipe. The ground conductor
need not be insulated.
? STATIC CHARGE ELIMINATOR
G.R.S. Charles, W.I. Sanderson and M.H. Easy
Brit, 627,241; Ann. Repts. Frog.
Rubber Technol. 12, 64(1949)
A device for dissipating static charge in aircraft consists of a
flexible earthing rod of rubber, polyvinyl chloride or similar material,
which contains sufficient metallic particles to give it an end?to?end
resistance of 1/2 megohm.
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF FILLED RUBBER MIXTURES III, MIXTURES OF NA
BUTADIENE RUBBER WITH CHANNEL BLACK
B. Dogalkin, K. Pechkouskaya and M. Dashevskii
Kolloid Zhov. 10, 357 (1948); C.A. 42
8188 (1949)
Measurements of resistivity of rubber with various carbon black
sizes and mixing. Resistivity decreased by mixing and increase in amount
of carbon black.
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LIGHT PHENOMENA ON ELONGATING VULCANIZED RUBBERS
A. Van Rossem Rub. Chem. and Tech. 22, 332 (1950)
A,discussion of luminescence of rubber when torn in darkness.
Found only with non-reinforcing fillers. Possibly due to electric
discharges.
8
*ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL "BTRED-OFF" IN RUBBER COMPOUNDS
J.A. Hurry, T.D. Bold, and W.E. French
India Rubber World 12h, 689-95 (1951)
Methods are described which measure the capacity of a rubber product
or experimental sample to "bleed off" self generated or imposed electro-
static voltage. Although the ohmic resistance can be established, there
is no method based on resistance values alone for predicting whether static
voltage will be generated during the life of a product. However, the
potential bleed-off test is a direct measure of this condition, and a
product which is satisfactory on the basis of this test can be relied upon
to be statically safe and free of spark discharge hazard.
*RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN:.ELECTROSTATIC TEST EQUIPMENT FOR EVALUATING
RUBBER AND ASSOCIATED MATERIALS
R.S. Havenhill, L.E. Carlson, H.F. Emery and J.J. Rankin
Trans. Inst. Rubber Ind. 22, 339 (1951)
A new electrostatic probe and associated equipment for detecting
and recording polarity and magnitude of the electrical potential when
rubber is mixed in Banbury. Discusses effects of various compounding
ingredients en the electric charge and how mixing can be followed by
this method. Sample charts for several ingredients are given.
*CONTACT RESISTANCE OF VARIOUS ELECTRODES FOR TESTING ELECTRICALLY -
CONDUCTIVE RUBBER
R.H. Norman Trans. Inst. Rubber Ind. 22, 276 (1951)
A number of types of electrodes were tested on rubbers in the
resistivity range of 10 tql0 ohm cm. 'Brass electrodes vulcanized to
the rubber were found to be the best. For Already vulcanized samples,
tin foil attached by colloidal graphite, were best. Samples of high
resistance give most trouble in Measurement because 'of high value of
contact resistance and surface leakage.
%STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF LOADED RUBBER MIXTURES IX
K. Pechkovskaya, T.S. Millman and B. Dogadkin
Koll. Zhurnal 14, 250-2 (1952) - Rub. Chem.
Tech. 26, 810 (Y953); C.A. 4087 (1952)
Conductance of rubbers on milling of carbon blacks is measured.
The most highly developed carbon black structures were obtained with
butyl and natural rubber - highly crystalline rubbers. Sodium butadiene
rubber and butadiene styrene copolymers gave less highly. developed
Carbon black structures.
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*THE ELECTROSTATIC PROPERTIES OF RUBBER AND PLASTICS
B.A. Endres and W.T. Van Orman
Rubber World 222, 359 (1953)
A review of the accumulation of electrostatic charges in rubber and
plasticis and its dissipation. Discuss use of self charging electrostatic
polyethylene air filters and show the difference in the dust collecting
ability of this type compared with conventional types.
*STATIC ELECTRICITY ON RUBBER TIRED VEHICLES
D. Bulgin Brit. J. of Appl. Physics L, Supplement 2,
S83 (1953)
The electrostatic charge which originates at the separation of the
tire tread from the road raises the potential of road vehicles to a
maximum of 100,000 V., the value depending on roughness of the road
surface, vehicle speed and tire tread resistance. The inter?connection
of these factors is given in the paper with both experimental and
theoretically derived values of voltage. Harmful effects include shock
from the vehicle, radio interference and puncture of the inner tube due
to ozone originating between the tube and the inner wall of the tyre.
Elimination of these effects is obtained using tyres of electrical
resistance of less than 109 ohms.
*ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF RUBBER
Jean Granier Compt. rend. D1) 786 (1953); C.A.
6689 (1953)
If rubber is compressed between 2 parallel plates serving as
electrodes, its d.c. conductance, dielectric constant at frequency 1,000,
and loss angle at the same frequency decrease with increasing pressure.
This is true only if the rubber is free to decrease in thickness,
otherwise pressure has no effect. If the rubber is sheared between a
median electrode and 2 external electrodes coupled together, and equal
and opposite forces, parallel to the plates one applied to the median
and external electrodes, the loss angle decreases with the force applied.
If the rubber is stretched while immersed in mercury acting as the condenser,
the loss angle decreases with extension. An explanation assuming a de?
creased mobility of the ions when the chain molecules have begun to flow
is advanced.
*AN INTERESTING PROPERTY OF CERTAIN CONDUCTIVE RUBBERS
L.G. Kersta J. Polymer Science 10 447 (1953)
Polysulfide rubbers decrease in electrical resistivity up to 20%
elongation followed by a flat interval and subsequently increases to the
elastic limit. When natural rubber, butyl or Neoprene containing silver
particles were tested, each gave positive slopes of resistance ? elongation
curves.
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*SURVEY OF HARMFUL STATIC ELECTRIFICATION
H.W. Swann British Journal of Applied Physics
supplement No. 2 S68-S71 (1953)
Interesting examples of explosions are given for the cleaning industry,
rubber, aircraft and others. This article is pertinent. It is recommended
it be rend in full.
In the example for the rubber industry it was judged that a static
charge from a workman ignited a rubber cement.
ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE RUBBER. TRACING AND MEASURING STATIC
ELECTRICITY
P.D. Patterson (Dunlop Rubber Co. - Eng) Kautschuk
Anwendungen No. 3, 55-7 (1953) C.A.
9656 (1953)
A discussion of present developments, with special attention to
applications Of conductive rubber.
NONELECTROSTATIC SYNTHETIC RESIN MATERIAL
J.A. Bjorksten and J.B. Eisen
U.S. 2,624,725 January 6, 1953; C.A. 41
3032 (1953)
Aliphatic amine (0.03 - 1%) with at least 6 C atoms in one radical
and 0.005 - 0.5% acid in a resinous material prevents accumulation of
static charges. Thus 99.81 parts polystyrene, 0.15 part octadecyldimethyl-
amine and 0.04 part H3PO4 were mixed and injection molded. The molded
articles acquired no substantial charge during three months.
CONTROL OF STATIC ELECTRICITY IN INNER TUBES
Herbert D. Hiatt, George P. McCord and Lester C. Peterson (U.S.Rubber)
U.S. 2,656,641 (September 1, 1953); C.A.
41, P1049 (1954)
A dispersion of a conductive carbon black is blown into an inner, tube
before splicing tb render this cured tube static free..
The liquid in the dispersion is a mon-solvent for rubber of B.P. between
45-85?. For example, the dispersion may coatain 1C-20 parts of a conductive
black and isopropyl alcohol 80-,90%.
*ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS OF RUBBER-CARBON BLACK SYSTEMS
G. Kickstein Kautschuk u Gummi. 7, WT 50 (1954); C.A.
4L 6728 (1954)
A general description is given of the electrical properties of rubber-
carbon black mixtures, its dependence on variables such as mixing tempera-
ture, carbon black content, field strength and frequency. After effects
are the most important cause of the frequency dependence of dielectric
constants and loss angle. Compressive stress causes complex variations
in dielectric properties connected with the shape factor (length to thickness
ratio of the carbon black flocculated. These effects are interpreted to
give information on the type of carbon black. dispersion..
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*A STUDY OF ELECTROSTATIC CONDITIONS IN AUTOMOBILE TIRES
O. Giese, H. Stein and F. J. Lauer
Kautschuk u. Gummi 6, WT 217 (1953);
Rub. Chem. and Tech. 27, 569 (1954)
Measurements were made on tires running on a steel drum. Details
are given of the electrical set up. Discuss tire as cause of charge -
two primary causes (1) contact (road to casing), (2) flexure (casing to
tube). Measured voltage developed in many combinations of conductive
and non-conductive tires and tubes. Voltage measured on tread and on
tube. Best combination was standard casing and conductive tube which
reduced flexure voltage to zero and, reduced tread potential to such an
extent that no undesirable effects could arise. Voltages of over 5,000 V
were obtained. Charge distribution around the tires are given for various
combinations,
Supplementary Report
F. Hommel
Comments on previous paper and gives a more theoretical treatment of
the charge distribution around and inside the tire. Discusses the charg-
ing of the vehicle from the tire. They observed: a direct proportionality
between the charge voltage of the vehicle and the tire resistance,
especially that of the sidewall; a reduction of charge voltage by about
30%, due to placing water in the tube or provision of conductive inserts;
definite dependence of these functions on the speed of the vehicle, i.e.
on the charge per second.
PROCESSING OF RUBBER-CARBON BLACK MIXTURES
Kenneth W. Doak U.S. 2,720,499, October 11, 1955; C.A. 52,
3793 (1956)
Rubber-carbon black mixtures containing 0.5-3.0 parts hexachloro-
cyclopentadiene per 100 parts natural or synthetic rubber are heated
10-60 min. at 275,400?F. After compounding and curing, the stock has
lover torsional hysteresis and higher electrical conductance.
*EIECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY EXPERIMENTS WITH HIGH ABRASION FURNACE BLACK
LOADED NATURAL RUBBERS
N.C.H. Humphreys Proc. Inst. Rubber Ind. 2, 163 (1955)
This includes three sections: 1- effect of time of milling -
increased milling time decreases conductance and increases variance within
batches. Heat treatment after vulcanization gives better within batch
and batch to batch correlation. 2 - comparison of test procedures and
estimation of experimental error-molded in brass electrodes and absolute
method show no difference. No effect due to mold cavities or loadings.
3 - Effect of flexing on resistivity - a profound and immediate increase
in resistivity on flexing and a large decrease as soon as flexing ceases
followed by further slower decrease.
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*ELECTRICAL CHARGES ON TYRES AND VEHICLE
F. Hommel Rubber J. 128, 689 (1955)
The following relationships exist between the measurable electric
properties of tyres and vehicle. A proportional increase of voltage with
tyre resistance and speed; tyres and vehicles are negatively charged
on smooth asphalt, but positively on tarred, wood roads; the smoother the
road, the higher the charge and the insertion of a conductive layer into
the tyre reduces the vehicle potential.
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE CHANCES IN GRAPHITED RUBBER SHEETS UPON DEFORMATION
Bela Nador Magyor Kern. Polyoirat 61, 353 (1955);
C.A. j,,L 9639 (1958)
Rubber sheets (60 x 100 mm. and 0.75 and 0.25 mm thick) were fitted
at their shorter edges with 5 mm. thick conductor contacts and their
resistance was determined by an electronic "Orivohm" meter. The surfaces
of the test specimens were graphited by spraying on a suspension of
ground graphite in benzene. The contacts were separated and the distances
accurately measured. Resistance measurements indicated that up to an
elongation of 25%, resistance increases by the square, thence the increase
is becoming progressively larger. By maintaining a certain elongation
resistance will considerably decrease as the time advances, the rate of
the decrease following an approximate parabolical curve, becoming
asymystatic and ceasing after about 25 hours. This decrease is attributed
to the relaxation of the rubber molecules on the surface.
COMPARISON OF FRICTION AND ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY OF RUBBER RESINS
S.B. Ratner and V.V. Lavrent 'ev
Zhur. Tekh. Fiz, 26, 853 (1956); C.A. 5.2,,
15115 (1956)
Relations between the graphite, carbon black or alumina content of
SKS-30 rubber, and the friction, electric conductance and strength
are shown.
*ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF CARBON BLACK-REINFORCED ELASTOMERS
Gerald Kraus and J.F. Svetlik
J. Electrochem. Soc. 10, 337 (1956)
The experimental evidence indicates that electrical conductivity in
carbon black-reinforced rubbers is due to conductive chains formed by
carbon black particles. Below the critical threshold loading for con-
ductivity these chains do not extend continuously throughout the rubber
sample and do not cause conductivity, the resistivity of random dispersions
being independent of particle size and shape. High surface area blacks
appear to adsorb ionic impurities to produce an increase in resistivity
at low loadings. High surface area blacks, which contain the longest number
of particles per unit volume, produce the most highly resistant stocks
at small loading and also yield the most conductive stocks at high black
content. Particle aggregation habit contributes strongly in determining
the conductivity of rubber stocks at intermediate and high black loadings,
but the intrinsic conductivity of the carbon black exerts a noticeable in-
fluence only at high black concentrations.
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*CHANGES OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF RUBBERS LOADED WITH CARBON
BLACK
D.G. Marshall Proc. 3rd Rubber Technol. Conf. London,
1954 p. 483-95
The resistance of a black?loaded rubber rises when the rubber is
first stretched. If the rubber is then repeatedly stretched and released
without being left in the unstretched position, then its resistance
at first drops and then rises with extension. If the material is left
unstretched then its resistance gradually returns toward its initial
value at a rate that increases as the temperature is raised. A theory
is proposed that stretching breaks contact between carbon particles and
these are gradually reformed as the rubber returns to its original volume.
*THE ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE OF FLAT RUBBER DRIVE BELTS
G. Schon and G. Vieth Kautschuk u. Gummi, 2, 0259 (1956)
A study was made of equilibrium static charges generated on flat
rubber belts running on aluminum pulleys. A shielded electrode system was
connected to an electrometer to measure the induced charge. The effects
of velocity humidity, tension and slip were determined.
*ELECTRIC POTENTIALS IN RUBBER COMPOUNDING
R.S. Havenhill, L.E. Carlson and J.J. Rankin
Rubber Age (N Y ) 22, 75(1956)
The Electrostatic Contact Potential Theory of Reinforcement, in
which reinforcement is explained on the basis of the strong electrostatic
attractive between the positive pigments and the negative rubbers, is
discussed and data presented to prove the theory. Also shows use of
electrical potentials produced while mixing in Banbury's as an aid to
rubber compounding.
*MODEL EXPERIMENTS WITH ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING RUBBER TO CLARIFY THE
PROCESSES OCCURRING IN LOADED METALS
W. Spath Gummi u. Asbest 500 (1956); C.A. 5.2, 1638
(1957)
The properties of electrical conductive rubber with simultaneous
mechanical loading are explained on the basis of the cooperative action
of the destructive and recombination effects of the carbon black. A
significant effect must further be ascribed to internal stress. The action
of such internal stress is attributed to the doubling of the electric
frequency during periodic loading. Since the recombination effects
act very differently electrically and mechanically, a systematic and
simultaneous investigation into these values might give a further insight
into the deformation mechanism.
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WEASUREMENT OF THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF RUBBER
Kautschuk u. Gummi 10, WT 1-5 (1957);
C.A. 21, 4747 (19577-
A tabulation is given of standardized methods of resistance measurement
including details of electrodes, voltage power and test specimens. Best
electrode system gives the lowest specific resistance for conditions
otherwise the same. Variables studied included electrode pressure, power,
heat effects and polarization conductive silver paint electrodes and
their stability. Use of silver paint electrodes eliminates contact
resistance.
*CONDUCTIVE RUBBER - ITS PRODUCTION APPLICATION AND TEST METHODS
R. H. Norman - 100 pages Pub. Rubber Journal - London
A comprehensive review of conductive rubber including methods of
measuring the conductance, manufacture, effects of stress, time and other
variables on resistivity and a discussion of the uses of conductive rubber.
This includes antistatic vehicle, tires, industrial goods, hospital
equipment, etc.
II. ELECTROSTATIC CONTROL
B. In the plastics industry
REMOVING FMCTROSTATIC CHARGES
Leboucher Fr. 675,109(1928); Chem. Abs. 2.4, 2815 (1930)
The accumulation of electrostatic charges in the manufacture of lino-
leum, celluloid, etc., is prevented by rendering the surrounding atmosphere
conductive by moistening it with water to which an albumin, such as white
of egg, has been added. The atmosphere may also be ionized by ultraviolet rays.
ARTIFICIAL SHEETS
I.G. Farbenind. Fr. 757,786 (1934); Chem. Abs. 28, 3198 (1934)
The electrical charge on sheets and other colloid products of a high
degree of polymerization is diminished by utilizing AS constituents either
in or on the products, polymeric polycarboxylic acids or their salts, or
mixed polymerization or condensation products which contain polymeric
polycarboxylic acids or their salts, e.g., ?a mixed polymerization product of
acrylic acid nitrile and Na acrylate in acetone and,Me0H, or a mixed polymeri-
zation product of polyvinyl chloride and polyacrylic acid in CH2C12.
FILMS, ETC.
W.H.Moss (Brit. Celanese Ltd.)
Brit. 452,122(1936); Chem. Abs. 22, 485 (1937)
The tendency of foils, films and similar materials having a surface of
a water-resistant organic compound to become electrified is reduced by
applying thereto a solution that contains a hygroscopic film-forming
compound or a hydroscopic liquid of low volatility and which has a viscosity
not substantially exceeding that of water and a lower surface tension
than water.
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The solution applied to the films, etc., may contain an
organic liquid, e.g., EtOH, of low surface tension and vis-
cosity in addition to the hygroscopic film-forming compound
or liquid of low volatility to facilitate spreading of the
solution over the foil. The solution preferably contains
water and a softening agent for the foil substance.
Suitable film-forming hygroscopic subsLances are cellu-
lose esters or ethers.
-*THIN, TRANSPARENT SHEETING OF CELLULOSE ACETATE OR TF2 LIKE
SUITABLE FOR USE AS A WRAPPING MID PACKAGING MATERIAL
G.F.Nadeau and E.H.Hilborn (Eastman Kodak)
U.S. 2,331,715 (1943)
For preventing cohesion and static accumulation .
by the sheeting,. at least one of itssurfaces is provided
with an adherent-deposit-of fine descrete particles of zein
or other prolamine, free from plastic binder.
*ANTISTATIC COATINGS FOR VARIOUS FILMS, SHEETS AND PELLICLES
G.W.Rrant (duPont) . U.S. 2,357,380 (1944)
A coating composition suitable for use on films of
various cellulose ester or ether or other compositions is
formed of water together with starch about 0.5-3, a hydroscopic
electrolyte such as KOAc or Lid 1 about 0.03-0.22.and a wetting
agent such as "Duponal ME" about 0.2.-1.5%, .
*CONDUCTIVE PLASTIC
B.H.Maddock (Carbide & Carbon)
U.S. 2,379,976(1945)
A composition of a highly plasticized vinyl chloride
resin with a C black can be prepared which is electrically
conductive and of satisfactory tensile strength, resilience,
flexibility, and elasticity. Acetylene black is better for
the purpose than other C blacks. ,The plasticizer may be
tritolyl phosphate, trichloroethyl phosphate, or one of the
phthalate esters.
The resistivity of the complete composition at 25? is
designed to be less than 500 ohm-cm. Such a composition
reduces accumulation of static electricity and can be used
as a coating in films, threads, sheets, etc., and for mats,
heels, soles, and sheeting and anesthetic tubing in hospital
operating-room equipment.
As soles or a component of soles in shoes worn by workers
in a powder mill, also, it reduces the hazard of fire from
sudden discharge of static electricity.
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*ANTT3TATIC CCPOSITTONS
C.S.flyers (Pakelite) U.S. 2,39,863 (1946)
Suppression of static charges particularly in the
handling of vinyl resins is produced by application of a
coating of polyethylene glycols, having an average molecular
weight of over 900.
*ANTISTATIC TREATMENT OF VINYL RESIN ARTICLES
W.N.Stoops and A.L.Wilson (Carbide & Carbon)
U.S. 2,403,960 (1946)
lhe tendency for articles made of vinyl resins containing
a substantial amount of a polyvinyl halide, to develop an
electrostatic charge upon their surfaces is reduced by treat-
rent with a highly basic, water dispersible, polyalkylene
polyamine or derivatives thereof.
Treatment is made by immersing the article in a 2%
aqueous solution of the polyamine for a few minutes at room
temperature and then drying at 60-650 for about 45 minutes.
*C0j1PARTSON OF RECENTLY DEVELOPED PLASTICIZERS FOR NITRO-
CELLULOSE - Part IT
Chicago Club Official Digest Federation Paint
& Varnish Prod. Club #262, 488-
502 (1946)
Plasticizers, found to increase or decrease the static
charge of fiIms?were rated as to their electrostatic relation
to nitrocellulose.
ANTISTATIC-SYNTFETIO-RESIN .COMPOSITIONS
W.E.F.Gates and T.C.I. Brit. 580,250 (1946);_Chem.Abs.
Ali 1876 (1947)
Interpolymers of ethylenically unsat& monomers and
monomers having.acid groups (2-20 wt.% of interpolymer total)
give resins which may be converted to salts by alkali treat-
ment after polymerization. The salts swell moderately, are
antistatic, antinisting, and nay be dyes or irapregratetlwith
ionic salts. Methyl,methacryiate and methacrylic acid give
.the preferred interrolymer, the acid comprising about 10.
wt.% of the monomers. ?
*SAFETY PLUS BUILT INTO PYROXYLIN COATING PLANT
H.Rosenberg Chem.Eng. 5.2, #5, 136-8(1948)
Safety features are described. Special features are
control of humidity at 60 to prevent sparking, automatic
analysis of atms., use of scored single strength glass in
windows with 1 sq. ft. window area for each 25 cu. ft. of
room vol., discharge into tanks insolid streams to prevent
static sprays and careful grounding at all points.
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*ANTISTATIC FILMS
Bun Po Kan (duPont) U.S. 2,463,282 (1949)
It is believed the mechanism of this invention may be attributed
in part to the ability of the partially hydrolyzed ethylene/vinyl acetate
copolymer to adsorb moisture from the surrounding atmosphere and thereby
furnish the alkyl pyridinium halide with moistened paths to ionize and
conduct.
*UNCHARGING PLASTICS
Machine Design 22, 1/4, 266-8
(April 1950)
Static electricity has for years created serious difficulties
in the plastics, textile, and paper industries. It engenders many
problems of the annoyance class in a wide range of fields and acti-
vities. Any place where nonmetallic materials must be handled in
quantity or with speed and where electrical nonconductors are is fair
game for static electricity.
One process for static elimination, known as Electrosol, consists
of a two-stage dip or spray application of two successive formulations.
The first material is a fluid consisting essentially of an electrical
insulator, a dispersing and wetting agent, a catalyst for the complete
process reaction and a vehicle to provide uniform deposit, control
viscosity and permit uniform pull-out in dip usage.
After a dip or spray application and a twelve minute air dry at
normal room temperature, the plastic is given an application of another
fluid. The result of the second application is an unchanged original
material, the surface of which cannot be electro-statically oriented and
which prevents orientation of the parent material it covers. Hence, no
static charge can exist. The total deposit on the parts or material
processed averaged 0.00035-inch in thickness.
? STATIC DUST COLLECTION ON PLASTICS
P.C. Woodland and-E.E. Ziegler
Modern Plastics 28, No. 9, 95 (1951)
A standard dust was developed incorporating a fluorescent pigment
? to allow good photographs to be taken under "black" light. This
allowed use of any color plastic. Pigments, surface or internal
lubricants molding method and size, humidity had no effect on dust
collection. Radioactivity and x-ray would temporarily stop dust
collection on polystyrene. Concluded that it was unlikely in the
near future that a static free polystyrene would be developed.
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*REDUCTION OF STATIC ELECTRIFICATION BY MEANS OF INHIBITING COMPOUNDS
G.W. Graham Nature 168, 871 (1951)
The antistatic activity of liquids was investigated. Two types
of behavior were noted. 1. A smooth decrease in charge accumulation
with increase in amount of liquid with liquids of higher dielectric
constant more effective in small amounts. 2. Surface active types
which give a periodicity often with a reversal of sign up to a certain
value for each liquid after which no accumulation occurs.
INVESTIGATION OF GASEOUS DISCHARGE ON TEARING OF HIGH-POLYMER FILMS
FROM HARD BACKING
V.V. Karasev, N.A. Krotova and B.V. Deryagin
Doklady Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R. .E12, 109 (1953)
C.A. Q, 4624 (1956)
Films of benzylcellulose, acetylcellulose, gutta-percha, caoutchouc
and polyvinyl chloride exhibited a luminous discharge when torn from a
backing of crown glass at as pressures not less than 10'*3 mm. Hg. and
at rates not less than 10- cm./sec. with the exception of polyvinyl
chloride which yielded bright sparks every 2-4 sec, at a tearing rate
of 10-5 cm./sec. Observation supported the electric theory of adhesion
previously published by the authors.
*THE ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING OF SOME POLYMER BY MERCURY
J. A. Medley Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. No. 2, 528
(1953)
A method is described by'which very heavy charge densities may be
measured after separation. Concluded that the application of an external
potential gives no information about the intrinsic mechanism of electri-
fication beyond confirming that charge may transfer freely across the?
interface.
COATING OF THERMOPLASTIC RESIN ARTICLES FOR ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE PREVENTION
John Browning U.S. 2,678,2859 MAY 119 1954
The surfaces of thin flexible thermoplastic films having a tendency
to accumulate electrostatic charges are treated with a dispersion of
finely divided, discrete particles of a polymeric resinous material
containing a surface active agent. Thus a transparent 0.0002 in. film
of polyethylene was passed through an-aqueous bath containing 0.5%
of a condensation product of isooctylphenol and ethylene oxide and 0.5%
of an aqueous emulsion containing 6% triethanol stearate and 30%
polyethylene. The excess is squeezed off and film dried.
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PLASTIC COMPOSITIONS FREE OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES
Myron A Color U.S. 2,758,984, August 14, 1956; C.A. 51;
1653 (1957)
Compositions for molding of plastic articles free of electrostatic
charges are prepared from thermoplastic materials containing 20-3%
sorptive materials e.g. pigments or fillers, and a liquid for electro-
static charge dissipation which is insoluble in and non-reactive with
the resin, e.g. an amide, nitrile, nitro compound, polyhydric alcohol,
or water. The liquid for charge dissipation may be developed in situ.
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF STATIC ELECTRICITY DURING PEELING OF POLYMER
FILMS FROM GLASS
Yonosuke Kobatake and Yukihiko Inoue
? Tokoyo Inst. Technol. Killoid-Z 154,
? 168-9 (1957) in English; C.A. 52, 4239
(1958)
Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate copolymer etc. show temperature de-
pendency of electric charge generated on peeling from a glass surface
parallel to that for modulus of rigidity.
MAKING SURFACES CONDUCTIVE
Arnold S Louis U.S. 2,817,603 December 24, 1957
C.A. 22, 6841 (1958)
Surfaces of plastic!, glass, etc. are made electrically conducting
. by repeated impact with pellets coated with a finely divided pleCtrid
conductor. The pellets may be of styrene, steel, lead, etc. coated
with graphite. The treated surfaces may be coated later with a protecting
film.
II. ELECTROSTATIC CONTROL
C. In the textile industry
DISCHARGING ELECTRICITY FROM FILMS
H.J. Hands (Spicers, Ltd.) Brit. 301,439 (1927); Chem. Abs.
23, 3863 (1929) '
The electric charge carried by films of cellulose acetate or
other cellulose derivatives after evaporation of the solvent in the
process of their manufacture is removed by passing them through an
electrically conducting aqueous bath connected to earth. Solutions of
NaOH, NaH phosphate, NaC1, (NH4)2SO4 or Na2SO4 may be used.
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TREATING TEXTILES
Aceta G.M.B.H. Fr. 689,984 (1930); Chem.Abs.
1103 (1931)
The electrical chari-e on textile fibers rade of cellulose
esters or ethers is reduced during their preparation or manu-
facture by impregnating the fibers with a mixture of oils or
fats to which organic bases soluble in the oil such as dibutyl-
amine or triethanolamine are added.
TREATING TEXTILE MATERIALS
D.Finlayson and R.G.Perry Brit. 488,945 (1938); Chem.Abs.
22, 407 (1939)
Electrification of the materials, particular those of
an organic derivative of cellulose, is prevented or reduced
by depositing thereon soaps of organic bases or tetra-substi-
tuted NH4 bases, e.g., soaps of mono-, di- or tri-ethanol-
amine, propanolamines, dihydroxypropylamines, tetra-methyl-
or -ethyl-ammonium hydroxide or trimethylbenzylammonium
hydroxide with oleic, stearic, palmitic, ricinoleic, resin
and naphthenic acids, in conjunction with pine oils.
METHODS OF PREVENTING THE ELECTRIFICATION OF SILK
G.R.Vishnevetskii Sheik 2, #6, 19-22 (1939 ) ; Chem.
Abs. 25i 5709(1941)
After the checking of various rethods for preventing
the electrification of silk it was concluded that impregna-
tion of the silk with electrolytes and hygroscopic materials
was most satisfactory.
Electrolytes recommended are Na2SO4, AcONa, and NaCl.
TREATING FIBERS, ETC., OF ORGANIC ESTERS OF CELLULOSE
British Celanese Ltd. Brit. 514,134 ..(1939); Chem.Abs.
25, 3105 (1941)
The tendency to electrification .of staple fibers of
cellulose acetate, etc., is reduced and (or) their coef-
ficient of fridtion is incroaSed bra sapoffication treatment
conducted for 6-14 hours at 'so slow a rate that the acyl
content of the material is not reduced by more than 2% in 8
hours treatment.
PREVENTING STATIC CHARGES IN THE PROOFING INDUSTRY
C.R.A.Chadfield Brit. 516,383; 516,384 (1940);
Ann.Rept.Prog.Rubber Technol.
A, 144 (1940)
In the proofing industry, spreading machines, dough
mills, and vulcanising machines, are liable to fire and
explosion, caused by static electrical charges. An apparatus
(tont.)
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for neutralising these charges incorporates a series of con-
ductors mounted in a rotary insulated carrier.
PREVENTING STATIC CHARGES IN THE PROOFING INDUSTRY
W.E.M.Ayres and English Electric Co. Ltd.
Brit. 517,855 (1940); Ann.Rept.
?
Frog. Rubber Technol. 4, 144
(1940)
This device eliminates electro-static charges produced
during manufacture, by providing a conductor maintained at
a high potential in close proximity to the material and wholly
embedded in or enveloped by insulation.
RTIBBER-COED YARN: TENDERING
C.E.Bergamini Textile World 22, #1, 67 (1940);
Ann.Rept.Prog.Rubber Technol. 4,
127 (1940)
Precautions neceisary when producing covered rubber yarns,
such as control of humidity and temperature, exclusion of
sunlight, and efficient earthing of machines to guard against
ozone from electric discharges, as well as the absence of
copper and manganese are described.
*ALKYL ESTERS OF PHOSPHORIC ACID '
C.A.Hochwalt, J.E.Malowan and C.P.Pyer
Ind.Eng.Ohem. 24, 20..5(1942)
Concentrated aqueous solutions of several alkyl phosphates
are good antistatic agents for textile fiber spinning.
STATIC ELECTRICITY TN WORKING RAYON
H.Seifart Kunstseide 16 307-12 (1934);
Chem.Abs. 28, 7026 (1934)
Two different methods of avoiding the disturbances due
to the formation of electrostatic charges in the working of
rayon, particularly acetate rayon, are discussed.
The first method which involves preventing formation of
the static electricity is to choose suitable surfaces with
which the rayon comes into contact or incorporate materials
into the filaments. The second method involves the use of
devices for discharging the electrostatic charge.
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USE OF ANTNOCARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES IN WET TREATMENTS OF
MATERIAL srmi AS IN WETTING-OUT, SIZING, LUBRICATING, DE- -
ELECTRIFYING OR ,DISPERSING MATERIALS SUCH AS IN DYEING RAYON, ETC.
H.Dreyfus U.S. 2,063,908 (1936); Chem.Abs.
21, 784 (1937) -
As an assistant, there is used a condensation product
of an aliphatic aminocarboxylic acid such as 1-methyl-amino-
anthraquinone with. an ester-forming agent such as the Na salt
of sarcosine naphthanate.
CONDITIONING YARN SUCH AS THAT OF CELLULOSE ACETATE
J.B.Dickey and J.G.NeNally (Eastman Kodak)
U.S. 2,196,750 (1940); Chem.Abs.
24, 5767 (1940)
A method of eliminating the tendency of yarns, filaments
or fibers to accumulate charges of static electricity comprises
applying thereto a composition containing as its essential
antistatic component a salt selected from the group consisting
of the amine salts of furfuryloxy,and tetrahydrofurfuryloxy-
aliphatic acids.
TREATING STAPLE FIBERS OF CELLULOSE ACETATE
W.T.Jackson and W.G.Faw (Eastman Kodak)
U.S. 2,197,930 (1940); Chem.Abs.
24, 5675 (1940)
To prevent them from accumulating charges of static
electricity, cut stapleyarns of material such as cellulose
acetate are treated with a composition containing a cyclohexy1-1
dialkylamine salt of a sulfated aliphatic alcohol containing
at least 10 C atoms, such as one of sulfated decyl, laUryl
or cetyl alcohol.
CONDITIONING YARN
J.B.Dickey and J.B.Normington (Eastman Kodak)
U.S. 2,197,998 (1940); Chem.Abs.
24, 5676 (1940) ,
To render yarn, such as that of cellulose acetate or
the like more amenable to textile operations such as knitting,
Weaving, spinning,.manufaCture of Staple fibers and the like,
it is treated with a composition containing, as a lubricating
and antistatic component, dioxane-2,3-glycolic acid ether
butylamine oleylamine salt or other salt of dioxane.
CONDITIONING YARNS SUCH AS THOSE OF ACETATE RAYON
J.B.Dickey and J.G.McNally (Eastman Kodak)
U.S. 2,199,989 (1940)(blem.Abs
6098 (1940)
This patent relates to the treatment of yarns such as
? those of acetate rayon with a lubricating and antistatic
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U LI
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composition containing clilycolic dioleyl amine salt ?or other
selection from organic amine, mixed organic amine and metallic
salts or or7anic acids.
CONDITIONING YARN UCH AS TUT FORT'ED OF ACETATE RAYON
J.P.Dickey (Eastman 'Kodak) 13.8. 2,233,001 (1941); Chem.Abs.
2f, 3832 (1941)
A process of conditioning yarn to render it more amenable
to textile operations including hitting, weaving spinning,
the -,nnufactu:e of strple fil,erc, etc., comprises applying
a lubricating and antistatic composition containing as its
essential lubrIc-ting and antistatic component an ester
selected from nhosrhnte or thiophosphnte esters of partially
esterified hydroxy tertiary alkanol amines.
CONDITIONING YARNS OF CELLULOSE ACETATE AND OTHER ORGANIC
MATEPTALS FOR KNITTING, WEAVING, ETC.
J.B.Dickey (Eastman Kodak) U.S. 2,256,112 (1941); Chem.Abs.
280 (1942)
A method eliminating the tendency of various materials
to accumulate charges of static electricity, as in twisting,
winding and spinning, involves treating them with a composi-
tion containing as an essential antistatic component a
phosphinic acid of a ketone.
CONDITIONING YARNS, FILAMENTS OR FIBERS
J.B.Dickey and J.G.McNally (Eastman Kodak)
U.S. 2,279,501 (1942); Chem.Abs.
2.6.1 5360 (1942)
The tendency of the material to accumulate charges of
static electricity is inhibited by applying a composition
containing bis((l-pheny1-1(hydroxyphenyl)heptane)) phosphinic
acid or various hydroxylalkyl aryl phosphinates.
CONDITIONING YARNS SUCH AS THOSE OF CELLULOSE ACETATE
J.B.Dickey (Eastman Kodak) U.S. 2,292,211 (1942); Chem.Abs.
22, 781 (1943)
For eliminating the tendency to accumulate charges of
static electricity prior to textile operations upon it, the
yarn is treated with C181415000COOH.NH2C18H35 or other salt
selected from mono ester -derivatives of polycarboxylic esters.
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TrEATMENT OF THREADS
G.Loasby and D.L.C.Jackson (British Nylon Spinngers Ltd.)
Brit. 563,725 (1944); Chem.Alps.
3000 (1946)
Threads which are liable to develop electrostatic charges
during processing are treated with a composition which com-
prises an aqueous solution or emulsion containing a condensa-
tion product of CH2CH20 with a higher fatty alcohol and a
lubricating oil.
*FIRE PREVENTION ON HOME-MADE CETIENT COATING MACHINE
Rubber Age 54, 82 (1945)
The following methods wore used to reduce static which
had been causing fires on a six-roll stand dryer at least
once each week.
The machine hood was changed so that the fumes from the
cement tank- were not exhausted through the drying roll system.
111th baffles, the air was made to move across the fabric,
instead of from bottom to top above the fabric. This eliminated
gas pockets under the fabric, and prevented the accumulation
of explosive vapors.
The rolls had been heated by steam, causing the rubber
to stick to them. This required frequent cleaning, as it
caused the fabric to stick too tight to the roll and generate
more static as it was pulled loose. A circulating hot water
system was installed, and the temperature maintained at 170?F.
The rolls were thus kept at an even, lower temperature,
greatly reducing their coating up.
The next step was picking up and removing the static.
The ends of all rolls that the fabric passed either over or
under were finished to a smooth surface, and a carbon brush
installed on every roll. Welding cable was used to nick up
the static inside the dryer.
Copper ground stakes, driven in se-arated locations in
the building, and a cold water pipe, were used to Fround the
system. Each carbon brush and each bar with wire brushes
were tied together with copper wire, using approved ground
clamps in such a ranner that there was continuous circuit
to the four grounds.
*ANTISTATIC TREATMENT OF VINYL PESTI TEXTILES
B.G.Wilkes and W.A.Denson(Carbide & Carbon)
U.S. 2,3P11020 (1945)
The accumulation of an electrostatic charge on textiles
containing vinyl resins can kt prevented by a treatment with
highly basic polyalkylene imines of a molecular weight from
300 to 1500, especially from 800 to 1000.
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MANUFACTURE AND USE OF NEW AMINE SALTS
E.B.Thomas (Celanese Corp.) U.S. 2,384,382 (1945); Chem.Abs.
42, 220 (1946)
The salt of N-diethyl ethylenediamine and lauryl acid
sulfate is a useful oil-soluble composition for dressing
textile materials, such as silk or cellulose esters, to reduce
their tendency to acquire and retain electric charges.
FIBER TREATMENT
F.J.Schliessler (Celanese Corp.)
U.S. 2,406,407 (1946); Chem.Abs.
Al, 293 (1947)
Staple fibers having a basis of cellulose acetate or
other org. deriv, of cellulose can be rendered more amenable
to textile operations by applying to the fibers a conditioning
agent. This conditioning agent is applied in the form of a
2% aq. emulsion at a temp. of 40-50?. The antistatic properties
of the treated staple fibers are improved. (See following
patent)
*TREATMENT OF TEXTILE MATERIALS
G.W.Seymour & W.Brooks (Celanese)
U.S. 2,406,408(1946)
The conditioning agent is formed by reacting a mineral
oil, a fatty acid, a vegetable oil, and fuming H2504, and
adding to the reaction product an alkali, an alkyolamine,
and water. An alkylated phenol or other spreading or pene-
trating agent is added also.
*LUBRICANT FOR CELLULOSE ACETATE
G.W.Seymour & Walter Brooks (Celanese)
U.S. 2,407,105 (1946)
A composite lubricant, softening agent, enfi anti-static
agent for use in making high ,tenacity cellulose acetate and
saponified acetate filaments is described.
*LUBRICATION OF TEXTILE FIBERS
H.J.Billint7s(Monsanto Chem. Co.)
U.S. 2,413,428 (1946)
An aq. soln. contg. 50-605' by weight Na and (or) K salts
of Et, 1,1e, or Am phosphates, or alkylamino salts of these
phosphates, as triethanolamine Et phosphate, provibs a water-
sol. hygroscopic lubricant and antistatic compn. that is
nontoxic and noninflararable.
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*LUBRICATION OF TEXTILE FIBERS
H.J.Billings (Monsanto Chem. Co.)
U.S. 2,413)428 (1946)
An aq. soln. contg. 50-60% by weight Na and (or) X sant;
of Et, Me, or Am phosphates) or alkylamino salts of these
phosphates, as triethanolamine Et phosphate, provides a
water-sol. hygroscopic lubricant and antistatic conn. that
is nontoxic and noninflammable.
*STATIC ELIMINATOR
U.S.Radium Corporation UTextile World 92, 2,154, 156
(1947)
A new type of pelf-contained etatic-ellminator, the
"Tenotron," consists of a shielded bar carrying a radio-
active alloy strip that ionises the air by virtue of the
alpha-rays. The action is said tole permanent for all
purposes where passing of material causes a static electric
charge to generate.
NEUTRAL ESTERS OF PrOSMORIC ACID
D.c.nuil and A.H.Agett (Eastman Kodak)
U.S. 2)430,569 (1947); Chem.Abs.
4, 3773 (1948)
Neutral esters of phosphoric acid can be used as anti-
static agents.
STATIC ELIMINATOR
Anon Text.Inds. p. 91 (Nov. 1949);
Ann. Rept. Frog. Rubber Tech.
12, 40 (1949)
A static eliminator employing radioactive polonium has
been developed.
TESTING DEVICE FOR ANTI-STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Anon Text. Inds. p. 113 (Dec 1949);
Ann. Rept. Frog. Rubber Tech.
12) 40 (1949)
A new testing device has been developed by the
U.S.Testing Co. for comparing the antintatic characteristics
of different fabrics.
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*CONDITIONING CELLULOSE ESTER FILAMENTS
John B. Eisen (Am. Viscose Corp.)
U.S. 2,461,043 (1949)
Prior to collection filaments are conditioned by use of
an agent which is a nonvolatile, nonaq. soln. in mineral oil
plus a higher fatty ale. sulfate as an antistatic agent.
ANTISTATIC TEXTILE MATERIALS
A.L. Fox (General Aniline & Film Co.)
U.S. 2,498,408 (1950); Chem. Abs.
6654 (1950)
Dodecyl ethyl acid orthophosphates and other dialkyl
acid orthophosphates such as hexyl ethyl, octadecyl ethyl in
conca. of 0.3% or more prevent the accumulation of electrical
charges during the processing of fibers or fabrics made of
cotton or of cellulose ester derivatives such as cellulose
acetate.
*STATIC PROBLEMS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY
J.A. Lopez and J. K. Heusen Amer. Dyest. Rept. Ai, 105 (1952)
Three factors have caused static problem to be intensified
(1) introduction and widespread use of synthetic fibers, (2)
increasing speed of textile machinery, (3) pressure for improvement
in quality. There are four major problems caused by static (1)
reduction in output (2) improvement in quality (3) increase in
waste (4) fire or explosion hazards. Discusses the control measure
such as grounding the machine or textile, humidity control, chemical
additives, radioactive salts and high voltage discharge bars. All
of these measures have some drawbacks. Recommends a new development,
the controlled diffuse discharge system and gives details for its use.
THE STATIC ELECTRIFICATION OF TEXTILE YARNS. PART I
V.E. Gonsalves Text. Res. J. 22, 711 (1953)
A theoretical treatment of the generation of static electricity
based on the energy levels of the electrons in the various
materials.
THE FORMATION MECHANISM OF ETECTROSTATIC CHARGES OF FIBROUS MATERIALS
Heinrich Gruner Faserforsch u. Textiltech 11., 249
(1953)
The formation of electrostatic charges on fibers is caused by
touching, rubbing, distortion and warming. Electrostatic charges
of identical materials are caused by rubbing them between surfaces
of different size. When a perlon thread is torn the ruptured ends
are charged; these rupture charges are the result of an ionization
at the rupture of molecular chains and indicate that some molecules
must be orientated in the fiber direction. Perlon silk shows the
piezo effect, and piezo?electric plates can be prepared.
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THE ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE OF TEXTILE FIBERS AND ITS PREVENTION
K. Gotze, W. Brasseler and F.Hidgers
Melliand Textilbes 2h, 141-2,
220-2, 349-50, 451-2, 548-50,
638, 768-9 (1953); C.A. hg,
13224 (1954)
The electrification of fibers is discussed with special
reference to its occurrence in mill operations. The various fibers
are compared as regards their ease of electrification which is
shown to be closely related to their electrical conductance. An
explanation is offered for the electric charge developed on the
fibers when they are rubbed together. The means taken in practice
to prevent the charging of fibers are reviewed. Tests were made
on various yarns to determine the electrostatic charge developed
as the result of the rubbing action against a thread guidaat
various speeda and humidities. Increasing the relative humidity
decreased the charge, the effect being greater the higher the speed.
The effect of various finishing treatments on electrostatic charge
discussed. Generally, any treatment which reduces the friction
between the yarn and the machine or which increases the hygroscopity
of the yarn reduces the electrostatic charge.
ELECTROSTATIC ELIMINATORS IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY
P.S.H. Henry Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. No. 2
S78 (1953)
The occurrence of static electricity in the textile industry
and the ways in which it interfers with production are briefly
described. The general principles and brief description of methods
of elimination are given. Classes of eliminators on (1) electric
static neutralizers (2) radioactive static eliminator: 4 ?ray
(3) radioactive static eliminator:17 ?ray. A detailed description
of an eliminator of the latter type containing radioactive thallium.
THE STATIC ELECTRIFICATION OF TEXTILE YARNS: PART II
V.E. Gonsalves and B.J. van Dongeven
Text. Hes. J. a, 1-12 (1954)
A list is given of the many troubles caused in the textile
industry by static. The testing methods for generation of static
electricity are discussed and details of the method used in this
paper. The voltages generated at different angles of wrap around
a thread guide are given for several fibers. The effect of
relative , humidity on both charge for finished and unfinished
fibers which generally shows the higher the humidity the lower the
charge.
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ilSTATIC ELECTRICITY IN TEXTILES
J. W. Ballou Text. Res. J. 24, 146 (1954)
A discussion concerned with the physical effects that are
objectional from the wearer's standpoint. Three factors enter
into these effects - electrical charge, sign of charge and rate
of decay. The rate of decay plays an important part because it
determines how long a charge will remain. An electrostatic series
is developed for Textile fibers.. Show how blends of fabrics can
be at zero potential when rubbed even though the individual fibers
have an electrostatic charge.
41THE DISCHARGE OF ELECTRIFIED TEXTILES
J. A. Medley J. Text. Inst. T 123 (1954)
Discharge processes which may be conveniently utilized for
the dissipation of static, are analysed quantitatively and shown
to be of three main types.
(a) Conduction within the textile itself, which is responsible
for the well-known humidity effect.
(b) Conduction by surface impurities, a different mechanism
which accounts for the action of antistatic agents.
(c) Gaseous discharge: this determines maximum charge densities
in accordance with geometrical considerations.
STATIC ELECTRICITY IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Jens Munksgaard Tidsskr. Testiltek 12, 49 (1954)
C.A. Ag, 11068 (1951U
A review of this subject based on twenty references, enumerat-
ing the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods
used in dealing with static electricity, such as use of anti-
static chemicals, electrostatic discharges, radioactive radiations
and relative humidity.
II. ELECTROSTATIC CONTROL
D. In the paper industry
REMOVAL OF STATIC ELECTRICAL CHARGES FROM PAPER
J. Rathier Papier 37, 83-4 (1934); Chem.
Abs. 28, 2898 (1934)
Static electricity was effectively discharged from rolls
of paper 750 mm. long and 600 m. in diameter by exposing the
end of the roll to the action of ultra-violet light for 10 min.
at a distance of 1 m. from Hg-arc lamp. Exposure for such a short
period did not affect the color of the paper.
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PREVENTING STATIC ELECTRICITY IN PAPER OR TEXTILE TREATING
APPARATUS
J.C. Patrick (Thiokol Corp.) U.S. 2,218,176 (1940); Chem.
Abs. 1230 (1941)
? A guide for moving objects such as cloth or paper which
generate static electricity by friction with solids is formed
of a solid material having an organic polymeric disulfide along
the surface which is in contact with the moving objects.
SEMICONDUCTING CUIPOSITION
Donald,E. Edgar and D.J. Sullivan (duPont)
U.S. 2,408,416 (1946); Chem.
Abs. 41, 627 (1947)
Static charges in insulated high tension elec. cables
and other nonconducting surfaces are eliminated by coating
the flexible elec. insulation (e.g. oil impregnated paper) ,
with a semiconducting compn. comprising finely divided C black
of low elec. resistivity dispersed in a vehicle contg. an
alkyd resin as the essential film forming ingredient.
*NEUTRALIZATION OF STATIC ELECTRICITY
M.S. Pennell Paper Trade Journal 122, #15,
33-7 (April 13, 1950)
It is shown that the use of capacitative coupling,
rather than a high resistance between ionizing point and source
of high voltage makes for great flexibility and enables inductors ?
ionizing bars ? to be made in almost any desired form.
Proper application of these inductors requires consideration
of several factors. For one thing, the inductor, or at least
one of them if more than one is needed, should be located as near
the final delivery as possible, since after static is removed
from the material its subsequent travel may generate another charge.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to use several applications, because
static causes trouble at several points in the travel of material
through a machine.
Ideal conditions are for the inductor to be applied over
or under the web or sheet of paper at some place where nothing
intervenes between, and there is an air space on the opposite
side of the paper so that the charge in the paper at this point
of application shall be a- "free" charge rather than a "bound"
charge.
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II. ELECTROSTATIC CONTROL
E. Il...22_e2I221121111.jz,daalu
PREVENTING STATIC CHARGES OF ELECTRICITY IN BENZINE CONTAINERS
C. Lund. Lawerentz Dan 18, 161 Octe-0-,er 15, 1912
C.A. 2, 711 (1913)
A cartridge or a chamber is disposed in the mouth of the
supply pipe and provided with a wire gauze connected by a conductor
with the earth.
THE ELECTRICAL EXCITABILITY OF BENZENE
M.!!. Richter Chem. Ind. 35, 833; C.A. 2,
1096 (1913)
Experiments with benzine, petroleum, benzene, carbon tetra-
chloride ether and carbon disulfide. C6H6, C C142CS2 showed up
to 13,000 V. There was no ignition in 600 experiments with CS2.
Benzine charged to 5,000 volts lost its charge on contact with
the hand in the dark with no visible spark.
.*INFLUENCE ON THE ELECTRICAL. CONDUCTIVITY OF HEAVY HYDROCARBON OILS
OF THE PRESENCE OF SOAPS OF THE NAPHTHENIC ACIDS AND PHENOLS ,
D. Holde Ber. 41, 14 (1915); C.A. 9,
1109 (1915)
Conductance is increased markedly by the naphthenic acid
soaps and phenol.
THE CONDUCTIVITY AND ELECTRIC EXCITABILITY OF LIQUID INSULATORS
D. Holde Z. Elektrochem. 22, 1 (1916);
C.A. IC, 1136 (1916)
Found that charges generated by benzine, petroleum ether and
benzene were quickly transferred to walls of conducting vessel
and dissipated if grounded. Addition of ethyl alcohol or acetic
acid increases conductance and acts as further safeguard when
transferring these liquids to the container.
DISCHARGES CAUSED BY
NARRa! PIPES INTO AN
D Heide
Fires have been
ELECTRICALLY CHARGED BENZINE FLMING THROUGH
EARTHED CATCH-VESSEL
Z. Elektrochem. 22., 195 (1916)
C.A. 11, 885 (1917)
caused by electrical discharges generated
when benzine or petroleum ether flows from an insulated metal
container into an earthed vessel. Gives conductance and half
life of chaises in benzine. Suggests acetic acid or alcohol to
raise conductance.
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THE CONDUCTIVITY AND ELECTRICAL EXCITABILITY OF BENZINE, BENZENE
AND SIMILAR INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
D. Holde Petroleum 11, 425, C.A. 11, 1291
(1917)
Calculated theoretical time of discharge for electrically
excited benzine from conductivity and density. When the conductives
holding the benzine are grounded the discharge occurs in a very
short time.
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SPARK DISCHARGE AND ITS EFFECT IN
IGNITING EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES
C.C. Paterson and Norman Campbell
Proc. Phys. Soc. 210 168 (1919)
C.A. 1970 (1919)
The relationship between the electrical characteristics of a
spark discharge and its power of exploding ignitable mixtures
was investigated. A definite quantity of electricity is discharged
by a spark.
Experiments were performed on petrol?air mixtures. Igniting
power of spark increases with both the capacity discharging and
the spark potential ? more with the latter. Shape of electrode
influences spark as smaller radius of curvature give:greater
igniting power. Experiments on airplane engines showed that
energy required for ignition is only a small fraction of that
given by an ordinary magneto or battery and coil system.
ELIMINATION OF THE DANGER OF IGINITION OF ELECTRICALLY CHARGED
PETROLEUM SPIRIT, ETHER, ETC.
D. Holde Ber. pharm. Ges. .222, 569 (1919)
C.A. 14., 1440 (l926)
Experiments with discharge of petroleum spirits. Found charge
retained for considerable periods in earthed vessels. Found time
of charge dissipation greatly reduced in humid atmosphere. Tempera?
tare had little effect.
ELECTRIFICATION OF BENZENE FLOWING THROUGH TUBES
D. Holde. ? ? Ber. physik. Ges. 21, 465 (1919)
? C.A. IA, 3351 (192-67
When benzene is forced through a small tube the charge is
produced by the frictional effect on the walls of the tube.
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THE ELECTRIC EXCITATION OF BENZENE CAUSED BY CURRENTS IN TUBES
D. Heide Arb. Pharm. Inst. Univ. Berlin 12,
49 (1921); Chem. Zent. 1923, III,
1056 - C.A. 18, 2638 (1924
Proved electrical charge occurring in a current in benzine
in an isolated vessel is due to friction on walls and not to
waterfall effect.
EXPLOSION OF AGITATOR CHARGED WITH NAPHTHA
Chem. and Met. Eng. a2? 949 and
If " 26, 4 (1921-22)
Letters to the editor telling of an explosion of 900 barrel
of naphtha in an agitated vessel. The temperature was 70?F. The
naphtha had been pumped through litharge and caustic soda.
The second letter indicates a street car 100 yd away passed
by at the time of the explosion.
THE DANGER OF ELECTRICALLY EXCITED IGNITION OF FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
D. bide Farben-Ztg. 29, 1891 (1924);
C.A. 19, 400-T1925)
The apparatus is described and voltages measured when flowing
benzene through the following metal tubes, Fe-4000 V, brass-3600 V,
Al 2900 V, Cu-2000 V, humidity of air has some effect but temperature
does not.
ELECTRIFICATION OF GASOLINES
L. Bruninghaus Researches Inventions 7, 735 (1926)
C.A. 21, 1004 (1927)
Gasoline passed over Cu or brass filings, loses power of
acquiring electrical charges. Probably due to increased conductances.
Mg and Fe filing without effect. Zn powder gives temporary effect.
EXPLOSIONS AND FIRE AT PACIFIC WHARF WEST HAM (ENGLAND)
H.E. Watts and H. N. Swan Spacial rept. under Petroleum Acts
1871-1926 - June 20, 1927; C.A. 21,
2986 (1927)
A report on the circumstance and probable cause of the acrident
at the works of Clic? Petroleum Ltd. originating in a Pb tank in
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which 2000 gals. of Roumanian spirit, of the kind used as a solvent
for rubber, was being heated with H2SO4 for the removal of unsaturated
hydrocarbons and sulfur compounds. By means of a circulating pump
a mist of the spirit and H2SO4 was formed and it is believed that
the ignition of the explosive mixture, about the upper part of
the tank was due to a static charge built up in the operation.
ELECTRIFICATION OF GASOLINES
Bruninghaus Ann. Office Nat. Comb. Liquids 2,
507 (1927) C.A. 22, 159 (1928)
From experimental results, concludes that the electrification
of gasoline in contact with metal surfaces (which increases with
contact surface rather than with the velocity) is due to metal
ions which are taken up by the hydrocarbon molecules.
CAUSES OF FIRE IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY WITH METHODS OF PREVENTION
Christopher Dalley J. Inst. Petroleum Tech. 1A, 154
(1928); C.A. 22, 3769 (1928)
States that static or friction cause little risk of fire
but that precautions are necessary. pyrophoric FeS is dangerous
in dry atmosphere. It is formed by reaction of 112S with Fe in
tank.
FRICTION ELECTRICITY IN BENZINE AS CAUSE OF FIRE
Heinz Von Falsen Petroleum 2, .2A, 656 (1928)
C.A. 22, 269 (1929)
-While spent bleaching earth was being removed from a filter
press, an explosion occurred which apparently was caused by the
discharge of friction electricity generated in an insulated
apparatus.
CAUSE OF BENZINE EXPLOSIONS
Robert Burstenbinder Chem, Tech. Rundschau AJ, 40 (1930);
C.A. 24, 1513 (1930)
Benzine explosions occurring during its use in cleaning
results from electric sparks between the metal container and the
body of the individual. They may be avoided by rendering the
benzine an electrical conductor by addition of a small mantity
(2%) of 96% alcohol.
THH ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE OF LIQUID HYDROCARBONS
L. Bruninghaus . Ann. Combustibles Liquides 4, 515
(1930); C.A. 24, 4142 (1930T ?
Experiments were Carried out on liquid petrolatum identical
results were obtained with gasoline but volatilization made.expori-
ments difficult.
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ELECTRIFICATION AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION OF LIQUID HYDROCARBONS
L. Bruninghaus J. phys. radium (7)t 1, 11 (1930)
C.A. 2L, 2354 (1930)
Liquid hydrocarbons become negative3ycharged on flowing along
metal wall. Shows optimum conditions for generation of electricity.
Measured conductance under various conditions. Showed 3 types of
conductance. 1. Thick layers under a moderate electrical field
show high resistivity. Any cond. is due to traces of H2O. 2. Thin
layers under an intense field produce a semi-conductor. 3. Layer
10m thick under fields of 100,000 V/cm. have conductance same as
metals.
FLUE GAS FOR REDUCING FIRE HAZARDS
A.B. Pew, Jr. Refine. and Natural Gasoline Mfr.
2, No. 12, 122 (1930); C.A. 25.,
1370 (1931)
Various methods are given for using flue gases in tank and
refinery equipment. This system also eliminates the danger of
discharge from static or bound charges.
*THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE OF HYDROCARBONS IN THIN FILMS
L. Bruninghaus Compt. Rend. 12g, 151 (1931)
C.A., 2276 (1931)
Films of oil thick become highly conductive. at 110 V d.c0
and remain so until electrodes are separated by 15/1A. .
THE IGNITION OF GASEOUS MIXTURES BY THE CORONA DISCHARGE
R.W. Sloane Phil. Mag. 12, No. 129, 998 (1935)
C.A. 2.2, 5753 (1935)
Ignition of coal-gas-air mixtures by discharges between good
insulators and metal or between moderate insulators cannot be
ignited by discharge between two good insulators.
PREVENTING EXPLOSIONS AND IGNITION OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS BY STATIC
ELECTRICITY .
E. Myshkin Neft 7, No. 2, 24 (1936); C.A 214
4479 (1937)
Addition of 0.1% of naphthenic acid salts of elements of the
2nd or 3rd group of the periodic system to petroleum products
increases their electrical conductance and accordingly lowers the
fire hazards due to static electricity.
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*ELECTRIFICATION OF INSULATING LIQUIDS BY FLOW OR FILTRATION
C. Reichart Compt. Rend. 202, 1494 (1936)
C.A. 22, 440871936)
Motor fuel flowing through an outlet pipe and into insulated
vessel and on recirculating the negative gradually changed to
positive. Also charged by filtering through chamois leather, silk
or felt. Motor fuel treated with HC1 and untreated chamois leather
found potential difference of 50,000 volts and gave 6-7 sparks/min.
between 2 spheres 1.65 cm. in diam. and 2 cm. apart.
POSSIBILITIES OF THE SELF-IGNITION OF MINERAL OILS
Zaps and Inglauba Feuerschutz 91 (1937); C.A. a
6883 (1937)
Benzine fires occurring in cleaning establishments are due
not to any tendency of self-ignition of the solvents, but to
electrical excitation and the production of sparks. During the
pouring of the benzine electrical tensions up to 9000 V. develop and
sparks may be formed on removal of the funnel.
POSSIBILITIES OF THE (SPONTANEOUS) IGNITION OF MINERAL OIL
Karl Sperling Feuerschutz 12, 142 (1937)
C.A. 2.2., 335 (1938)
Discusses causes and remedies among which are grounding to
discharge static electricity. Catalysis hastens ignition but does
not influence temperature of ignition.
ELECTRIFICATION OF GASOLINES
L. Bruninghaus Bull. Assoc. franc. techniciens
petrole 197 No. 38, 29; C.A. 210
8874 (1937)
A study of this phenomenon in an apparatus in which gasoline
is rendered charged and conducting by passage through a tube filled
with brass filings has yielded information to be applied in grounding
commercial equipment.
CONDITIONS FOR THE FORMATION OF EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES IN PETROLEUM-STORAGE
RESERVOIRS
Z.A.Zaitseva Azerbaidzhanskoe Neftyanoe Khoz.
1938 ,No. 2 - 36 C.A. 21 3157 (1939)
Cracked gasoline does not give explosive mixtures below -10?C.
Naphtha with an initial boiling point of 70? to 135? will give an
explosive mixture between 00 and 30?.
*STATIC ELECTRICITY IN DRY CLEANING PROCESSES
L. Hartshorn and W.H. Ward J. Soc. Chem. Ind. .52, 178 (1938)
Discusses uses of water and soap emulsions to increase
conductance and decrease static charge.
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FIRE IN A DRIVING BELT AND TRANSPORTATION BELT FACTORY AND
ITS LESSONS
H. Manskopf Feuerschutz 18, 181 (1938);
C.A. 22, 1941 (1939)
Fire described is probably caused by discharge of static
electricity in benzene recovery unit.
FIRE IN A BENZENE TANK PIT
Kattenstroth Feuerschutz 18, 166 (1938);
C.A. 22, 1941 (1939)
Benzene allowed to escape through a petcock left open accident-
ally, was ignited on contact with a hair broom, probably owing to
discharge of a static electric spark.
ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA ON THE FILTER PRESSES IN THE DZHAPARIDZL
REFINERY
S.N. Usatyi and P.A. Baskutis Azerbaidzhanskoe NeftyanOe khoz
1940, No. 2-3 56-62; C.A. 2k
8234 (1940)
Fires occurring in the filter plants, after the naphtha washing
of the bleaching clay deposited on filter cloths or gauzes, were
caused by static electric charges: on the clay dust.
CARELESSNESS WITH GASOLINE -
William N. Gardner Fire Eng. 21 446 (1940); C.A. 2h,
7608 (1940)
A discussion of the fire and explosion. 400-500 V can be
generated in a gasoline supply hose by the friction of the flowing
fluid.
FIREDAMP IGNITION BY COMPRESSED AIR DISCHARGES. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
TO DETERMINE LIMITS OF RISK
I.C.F. Statham Iron and Coal Trades Rev. 142, 315
Colliery Guardian 162, 265 (1941)
C.A. 25, 5318 (19417-
Earlier work on electrostatic discharges is reviewed. Mine
accidents are mentioned. Experiments with electrostatically charged
compressed air nozzles are described. When relative humidity falls
below 70% danger of explosion is increased.
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THE ORIGIN, REMOVAL AND DANGER OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES
H. Nitka Z Ver. Deut. Chem. Beiheft La, 28
Chem. Fabrik 19/0., 211 - C.A. 25,
6794 (1941)
Found high velocities in pipes increased charges. Pipes had
little influence except for smoothness of inner surface. Liquids
which dissolve water or were hygroscopic are not easily charged.
Sprays from insulated vessels gave high charges. Good conductance
of material gave best charge prevention. It was also necessary to
ground all discharge pipes vessels, nozzles etc. Avoid high
velocities, spattering, atomizing or local violent disturbances.
.KELECTRICAL CHARGES PRODUCED BY FLOWING GASOLINE
S.S. Mackeown and V. Wouk Ind. and Eng. Ohem. 2L, 659
(1942) Cal. Tech.
Gives details of vacuum tube meter for measuring currents
of order (10-11 to 10-6 amp.) Measurement made on filling of tank
trucks, unloading of tank trucks into underground tanks and filling
of cars. Graphs and figures given. Highest found was about
90 x 10-8 amp. Current varied with rate of filling and also from
gasoline to gasoline. Sign of charge varied in some cases. Also
measured resistance of tires. Varied from 12,000 megohms (12x 10-9
ohm) to 2,000 megohm at fairly low humidity - under damp conditions
as low as 10 megohms were obtained - concluded that only under very
low humidity conditions in the filling of a tank truck was there
any possibility of generating enough current to cause a spark and
that only when all precautions had been neglected. Could not account
for differences in gasolines.
STATIC AND FLOWING LIQUIDS
Loren G. Farrel Paint Ind. Mag. 2, 370 (194)
C.A. 22, 540 (1943)
The crux of the static problem is preventing an accumulation
of separated charges whose increasing voltage and final sudden
discharge will lead to trouble.
REPORT OF SUBCOMMITTEE ON CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF SAFETY AND ACCIDENT
PREVENTION
Wilbert J. Huff Am. Gas. Assoc. Proc. 28, 510 (1946)
C.A. AL 3963 (1948)
A discussion of a natural gas tank explosion in Cleveland which
includes recommendations about static electricity. Flash point and
ignition temperatures for 217 compounds and limits of inflammability
of 119.
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FIREPROOF STORAGE OF LIQUIDS FUELS
H. Schulze Manitias Die. Technik. 2, 437 (1947)
C.A. 41,2417(1948)
Precautionary measures against spontaneous inflammation,
lightning and static electricity by protective gases over the
liquid and by proper storage tank arrangements and extinguishing
devices are surveyed.
*FORMATION OF STATIC ELECTRIC CHARGES ON AGITATING PETROLEUM
PRODUCTS WITH AIR
G.M. Kleerner Ind. Eng. Chem. 0, 92 (1947)
C.A. Al, 1105 (1947)
There is a close relation between flash point and temperature
of explosive.potentials as low as 300 V may cause ignition whereas
several thousand volts may be generated by flowing through pipes
at a few ft. per sec. Voltage above those in pipe flow may be
expected from air agitation in metal wall containers.
*IGNITION OF EXPLOSIVE GAS MIXTURES BY ELECTRIC SPARKS I. MINIMUM
IGNITION ENERGIES AND QUENCHING DISTANCES OF MIXTURES OF METHANE,
OXYGEN AND INERT GASES
M.J.Blanc, P.G.Guest, Guenther V. Elbe and B.Lawis
J. Chem. Phys. 11, 798 (1947)
Describe apparatus used for measurements. Discuss effect of induct-
ance (no effect for moderate changes). Electrode voltage (min.
ignition energy was found to be essentially independent of
avervoltage), electrode distance (increased energy necessary above
a certain distance). Mixture compound and pressure (changes con-
siderably with changes in pressure and dilution gas composition).
*IGNITION OF EXPLOSIVE GAS MIXTURES BY ELECTRIC SPARKS - MINIMUM
IGNITION ENERGIES -
R. Viallard J. Chem. Phys 16, 555 (1948)
Discussion of minimum energy necessary to ignite inflammable
gases (mixture CH4, 02 and inert gas). Comments on a previous
theory and takes issue on minimum energy necessary. Indicates
that it is dependent on both shape of the electrode and voltage
across the spark gap.
*SAFE PRACTICES IN HANDLING FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
Don Attaway Petroleum Refiner 28, No. 12, 117
(1949); C.A. 4232 7950)
A digest of safe practices to be used when handling liquids
having a flash point below 200?F and a vapor pressure ?not exceeding
40 lb/sq. in. with emphasis on application to petroleum tank truck.
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ASPARK IGNITION; EFFECT OF MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
H.F. Calcote, C.A. Gregory, C.M. Barnett and R.B. Gilmer
Ind. Eng. Chem. hh, 2656 (1952)
A description of apparatus and experimental details on measur-
ing the minimum ignition energy for 74 compounds - mostly organic.
Found values ranging from 0.0033 to 0.000285 Joules for hydrocarbons
and olefins. Gives thirteen general principles in correlating
structure with ignition energy.
ORIGIN OF ELECTRICAL CHARGES IN HANDLING ANHYDRIC FLAMMABLE SOLVENTS
Maurice Lecaustey ' Bull. mens. inform. Iterg 2, 5(1953);
C.A. Al, 4011
Dangers presented by electric charges and means to avoid them.
*LIQUIDS GIVING NO ELECTRIFICATION BY BUBBLING
W.R. Harper Brit. J. Applied Phys. Suppl. No.2,
S19 (1953)
A discussion of previous work on electrification by splashing,
bubbling, spraying and the shattering of drops. Experimental work
showed th4 if liquid is pure enough to reduce its conductivity to
below 10') ohm per am, electrification will appear.
*THE ELECTRIFICATION OF FLUIDS IN MOTION
W.F. Cooper Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Supple No. 2
SU (1953)
The electrification of electrolytes by flow in pipes can be
explained in terms of the Helmholtz electrical double layer, and
it is suggested that some sort of double layer is also produced in
commercial grades of organic liquids such as petroleum, by impurities.
The charge produced is expressed in terms of the electrokinetic
potential and the Reynolds number. With an immersed discharge,
electrification will not be observed unless the resistivity exceeds
about l0-11 ohms per cm. It is pointed out that the theory is
closely associated with hydrodynamics and that in experiments the
requirements of dynamic similarity must be observed if important
scale effects are to be avoided, and the theory is extended to
charges formed on filters and in washing fabrics. Such published
experimental work as is available is consistent with the theory
set out.
The electrification of drops, spray and wet steam is also
discussed briefly.
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IGNITION OF FIRE-DAMP BY COMPRESSED-AIR BLASTS
R. Loison and M. Giltaine Intern. Conf. Directors of Safety
in Mines Research 8th Congr. - Paper
No. 16, 14 pp. (1954); C.A.
16436 (1955)
The production of electrostatic charges appears to be the most
likely mechanism whereby a methane-air mixture is ignited by a blast
of compressed air. The presence of dust in suspension in the air-
stream is not absolutely necessary. By projection of metallic particles,
other than ferro-cerium, ignition was obtained at temperatures much
higher than room temperature. It was difficult to produce ignition by
sudden bursting of a membrane.
CONCLUSIONS REACHED IN AN INVESTIGATION OF A KEROSINE STORAGE - CAUSE
OF THE EXPLOSION AT BITBURG
K. Nabert and G. Schon Erdol u. Kohle 8, 809 (1955)
C.A. El, 8207 (1956)
An underground storage tank partially filled with kerosine exploded
near Bitburg in September 1954 killing 29 people. ?The explosion occurred
after considerable amounts of CO2 had been charged into the tank for
testing of the fire extinguishing installation. Cause and possible
preventive measures are considered.
IGNITION OF FIRE-DAMP BY A JET OF COMPRESSED AIR
R. Laison and M. Giltaire Rev. Ind. Minerale 2.6_, 21 (1955);
C.A. A2, 9280 (1955)
Ignition of fire-damp by a jet of compressed air released on it by
a sudden defect in the compressed-air lines is attributed to (1)
electrostatic phenomena, (2) projection of solid particles carried by
the air (3) sudden rupture of the diaphragm or wall separating gas and
compressed air. Of metallic particles, only pyrophoric Fe or Fe-Ce can
cause ignition if at a temperature of 1500; all other metallic particles
and dusts require much higher temperatures and higher velocities than
usually exists. A special testing apparatus is described.
*MECHANISM OF FRICTIONAL ELECTRIFICATION OF DIELECTRIC LIQUIDS
F.M. Ernsberger J. Appl. Phys. a, 418 (1956)
Commercial hydrocarbon fuels, when purified by absorption on silica
gel, become triboelectrically inactive. Found that positive electrifica-
tion can be restored by adding traces of acidic materials while if
basic materials are added negative electrification results. Neutral
substances have no effect. Proposed a mechanism of chemically adsorbed
electrically neutral molecules at the interface which may break away
as charged particles.
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SPARK IGNITION OF FLOWING GASES USING LONG-DURATION DISCHARGES
Clyde C. Swett, Jr. Symposium on Combustion, 6th Yale
Univ. 1956, 523 - 32
From experimental data a theory of spark ignition in nonturbulent
and turbulent flowing homogeneous gases by means of long-duration
discharges has been developed, based on the concept that only a portion
of the discharge length is important in ignition. lhis theory has
resulted in a relation among the variables, ignition energy, gas density
and velocity, electrode spacing, spark duration, intensity of turbulence
and fuel constants. The limited amount of data available substantiate
the relation, except for the fuel-air ratio, which requires empirical
correction.
THE INFLUENCE OF EXTRANEOUS SUBSTANCES ON THE ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING
OF FLOWING HYDROCARBONS
B. Hampel and H. Luther Chemie Ingenieur Technik., 251, 323 (1957)
The electrostatic charging of purified n-heptane was measured as a
function of the type and quantity of different additives (alcohols,
peroxides, esters, amines, mercaptans and silicones). The charging
current was proportional to the conductivity of the system over the
range 10-18 to 1011 ohms-1 cm.-1. The electrostatic charging of
Technical hydrocarbon fractions was caused in the main by the oxidation
products.
METHOD OF DISCHARGING CARBON DIOXIDE TO INHIBIT ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE
GENERATION
Harry C. Grant, Jr. U.S. 2,785,124, March 12, 1957
C.A. 11, 8438 (1957)
The generation of electrostatic charge in the operation of a snow-
forming CO2 fire extinguisher is reduced 50-fold by mixing CO2 an
oily additive, such as kerosine, in an amount between 0.2% and 1.6%
of the weight of CO2.
EXPERIMENTS ON ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING OF? CARBON DIOXIDE SNOW
A. Tietze Z. Naturforsch 12A, 82 (1957); CA 21,
10179 (1957)
The carbon dioxide snow, formed during rapid escape from a high
pressure tank is negatively charged. Addition of methyl alcohol,
ethyl alcohol, amyl alcohol, toluene, silicon oils and commercial
antistatic agents had no effect. Only water caused a profound effect.
One percent water causes transpolarization. Further addition caused
1 ,rger positive charge than the negative charge on dry snow.
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CARBON DIOXIDE CONTAINING A MATERIAL TO SUPPRESS THE GENERATION OF
ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES UPON DISCHARGE
Charles Anthony, Jr. U.S. 2,820,761, January 21, 1958
C.A. 51, 7704 (1958)
A means is described of supressing the generation of electrostatic
charges upon discharge of fluid CO2 by the addition of 0.0075-1%
of readily miscible polyalkyl esters. Borates, carbonates, oxylates,
phosphates phthalate etc., are claimed.
II. ELECTROSTATIC CONTROL'
F. In miscellaneous industries
EXPLOSIONS IN THE ALUMINUM BRONZE INDUSTRY
M.M. Richter Chem. Ztg. 32, 136; C.A. 2, 1491 (1908)
Powdered aluminum does not conduct electricity due to coating of
oxide. Voltages up to 3000 have been developed in pouring powdered
aluminum. Explosions have occurred 90 secs. after the plant started
operating.
ELECTRICAL EXCITATIONS IN SPLASHING OF LIQUIDS
I.C. Christiansen Ann. Physik. h2, 107 and 233; C.A. 2,
3069 (1913)
Water and a large number of aqueous solutions of various sort
are splashed through a tube containing a wire connected to an
electrometer and deflections are recorded. Over, a hundred experiments
are recorded and described but no very definite conclusions are reached.
*DUST EXPLOSIONS
David J. Price Chem. and Met. Eng. 2h, 473, 737 (1921)
Discuss the problem of dust explosions in industrial plants,
possible causes including static electricity and methods of prevention..
The 2nd article covers a hard rubberdust explosion and gives its
possible cause.
*STATIC ELECTRICAL CHARGES DETECTED BY NEON TESTER
B.E. Shackleford Chem. Met. Eng. 26, 703 (1922);
C.A. 16, 1533 (1922)
A neon filled Geissler tube is used to test for static electricity
in industrial plants. The tube glows at voltages of 700 or over. It
can also be used to drain off the static by grounding the tube.
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CONTACT ELECTRICITY OF SOLID DIELECTRICS
H.F. Richards Phys. Rev. 22 122 (1923); C.A. 18,
15 (1924)
Quartz fluorite, crown glass, flint glass and steel were wrung
in pairs. The charge was found to be independent of the friction and
of ionization by x-rays and proportional to the area of contact and
to dielectric Constant if the dielectric constant of steel is assumed
to be 3;1. Compressing one amorphous dielectric on another gives a
charge independent of the nature of the harder.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE SURROUNDING MEDIUM ON FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY
J. H. Jones Phil. Mag. E!, 1160 (1925); C.A. 20,
333 (1926)
The metal wheel gives the bast results in air, ebonite the poorest;
while the ebonite wheel gives the best results in oil, metal the poorest.
The order of the gaseous media for the best production of Frictional
Electricity is SO2, air, N2, coal-gas, H2, CO2, 02, 03. The static
electricity is produced by the friction of rubbing silk against the
wheel.
TRIBOELECTRICITY AND
OTHER SOLID ELEMENTS
PlE. Shaw and E.W.L.
Measurements of
various metals. The
selenium.
FRICTION. VI:r:UcA.N:::::::::75::R(MIEZS AND
WITH SILICA
Leavey-
C.A. 22, 1250(1933)
voltage generated on rubbing a Si02 rod against
voltages range from +17 for gold to - 7.7 for
HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT GENERATOR
R.E. Vollrath Phys'. Rev. 42, 298 (1932)
Used frictional electrification of diatomaceous earth by blowing
with air through a metal tube. Currents of 8 x 10-5 amps. at 260
kilovolts were generated.
FIRES IN SULFUR MILLS AND STORAGE PLACES
Schubert Feuerschutz 17, 80 (1937); C.A. 22,
6883 (1937)
Friction (shoveling, filling into bags, breaking and grinding in
mill) produces an electrical tension which by means of a discharge
spark will cause a dust explosion followed by ignition of the sulfur.
Wooden scoops instead of iron eliminated the sparks.
THE RISK OF EXPLOSIONS DUE TO ELECTRIFICATION IN OPERATING THEATERS
OF HOSPITALS
W.W. Thornton
J. Inst. Elec. Engrs. (London) ?2,
156 (1938); C.A. 22, 1148 (1939)
Electrification of a frictional character, sufficient to produce a
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in a simple manner. Conductive rubber promises a valuable
prevention.,
INTERCHANGE OF ELECTRICITY BETWEEN SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES IN
MECHANICAL ACTION
S.K. Banerji Indian J. Phys. 12, 409 (1938)
C.A. 2.2? 4490 (1939)
In friction, spraying etc., the total charge in the system
is zero and the amount of charge on any part thereof depends on the
violence of the action. Many and widely different local distributions
of positive and negative charge can be found within a given system.
NEW FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS
T. Alfred Fleming Fire Protection lic2, No. 8 - 10 (1938)
C.A. 22, 7727 (1938)
Discussion of new sources of fire hazards and actual accidents
due to these hazards. Methods of avoiding similar incidents are given.
Static electricity is one discussed.
HAZARDS OF STATIC ELECTRICITY DURING SURGICAL ANESTHESIA WITH 02-
ETHER MIXTURE
M.H. Remund and S. Wehrli
Schweiy. med. Wochsch. A2., 660 (1939)
C.A. 2L, 1852 (1940)
Static charge of the insulated table and patient apparently
caused two explosions with ether and oxygen mixtures.
CONTACT ELECTRIFICATION OF SOLID PARTICLES
R. Schnormann Proc. Phys.
C.A. 1E2., 14
Measured electrification for many types
from metal and glass vessels both in Air and
Soc. 22, 547 (1941);
of material on pouring
in vacuum.
STATIC DISCHARGES AS A CAUSE OF FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS
Volke Fritsch Z. ges. Schiess u. Sprengstoffw.
Nitrocellulose 2g, 109 (1943);
C.A. 2g, 2210 (1944)
A review.
*THE EFFECT OF ADSORBED GASES 01\PCONTACT ELECTRIFICATION
D.E.Debeau Phys. Rev. 66, 9 (1944)
Worked with 'quartz and NaCl 'contacting nickel in atmospheres
of air, oxygen and nitrogen. Press. dependent results indicate
contact electrification is a surface phenomena which depends on the
surfaces involved. Two layers of absorbed gas are involved and when
one is removed the other makes a major contribution to charge
separation. At press. below 0.1 mm. the second layer is removed and
this surface makes the Major contribution to charge separation.
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ANNUAL REPORT ON RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGIC WORK ON COAL - FISCAL YEAR 1944
A.C. Fieldner, P.L. Fisher and R.E. Brewer
U.S. Bur. Mines Inform. Circ. 7322,
79 pages C.A. 5897 (1945)
Mostly on coal - some results on ignition of gaseous mixtures by
static electricity are given.
SENSITIVITY OF EXPLOSIVES TO INITIATION BY ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGES
F.W. Drown, D.J. Kusler and F.D. Gibson
U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Invest. No. 3852
' 8 p (1946); C.A. 6721 (1947)
Twenty-seven materials subjected to discharge either in confined
or unconfined condition. Energies of 0.015 Joules or less required in
many cases to ignite.'
TOWER LIMITS OF
J.H. Burgoyne
A critical
INFLAMMABILITY IN THE
Fuel
' C.A.
review of data.
PRESENCE OF DILUENTS
.?2, #4, 118 - 125 (1948)
hi 407 (1949)
*FRICTIONAL ELECTRIFICATION OF SAND -
E.J.B. Gill Nature 162, 568 (1948)
Found that dust from sand has a relatively fast moving positive
dust and slow moving negative dust.
*EXPLOSIBILITY OF DUST DISPERSIONS
Irving Hartmann, Ind. Eng. Chem. 42 752 (1948);
C.A. a, 4348 (1948)
The nature of the dust hazards and importance of dust explosions
and various chem. and physical factors affecting dust explosibility are
reviewed. Mg, Zr, Ti and some Mg-Al alloy powders can be ignited in
a CO2 atmosphere. Mg powder explodes violently in a Freon 12 atmosphere,
Al powder somewhat less. Freon is generally considered inert.
*STATIC ELECTRIFICATION IN PROCESSING OF FIBERS: VARIATION WITH
MOISTURE REGAIN DURING CARDING
J.F. Keggin, G. Morris and A.M. Yuill
J. Text. Inst. Lq, T702 (1949)
Apparatus is used to determine charges in processing various fibers
at different moisture concentration. Capacitance is independent of
moisture regain with all fibers but cellulosic where it increases
rapidly with regain.
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*FRICTIONAL ELECTRIFICATION
E.W.B. Gill and G.F. Alfrey Nature 1L, 172 (1949)
Experiments on sand and ebonite sliding down a metal plate and
measurement of charge produced. A potential between metal plate and
a second plate placed above it would increase or reduce to zero or
change the sign of charge developed depending on sign and amount
of potential.
*ELECTRIFICATION OF LIQUID DROPS
E.W.B. Gill and G.F. Alfrey Nature 164, 1003 (1949)
Measured potential induced by a field around falling drops into
a copper vessel having an induced voltage.
THE VOLTA EFFECT AS A CAUSE OF STATIC ELECTRIFICATION
W.R. Harper Proc. Roy. Soc. A205, 83 (1951)
An experimental investigation of the static electrification of
metal-metal surfaces shows that the erratic results normally obtained
are owing to their being more than one cause, and that the complete
elimination of rubbing leaves an effect that is amenable to quantita-
tive measurement. This "separation charging" is shown to be related to
the contact potential, and to have the characteristics to be expected
if the Volta-Helmholtz hypothesis of its origin is correct. The
supposition that the hypothesis predicts negligible charging of conductor-
conductor surfaces is shown to be based on an inadequate understanding
of the significance of surface topography at the points of contact.
By paying proper attention to this, and revising the hypothesis to allow
for the transfer of electrons by tunnel effect, a precise theory of
separation charging is derived.
UNEXPECTED FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS
Rudolf Freitag Brauwelt 1949, 559; C.A. 46, 8858
(1952)
A discussion of explosions in refrigeration plants, of explosions
occurring when old, empty iron casks are opened, those occurring with
compressed air equipment and vacuum equipment and spontaneous combustion
of 99 - 99.52 nitric acid.
*PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC CHARGES ON WATER DROPS
E.W.B. Gill and G.F. Alfrey Nature 169, 203 (1952)
Charges are produced on water when it is sprayed on ice but
magnitude and sign vary. The results were inconsistant. On freezing
ice in contact with water a potential of about 50 V is built up with
ice positive and water negative. In some cases on melting, a small
reverse potential was noted.
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*DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF CROSS-LINKED POLY-
ELECTROLYTES, RESINS AND GELS
G.J. Hill, A.O. Jakubcvic and J.A. Kitchener
J. Polymer Sci. 12, 382 (1956)
A discussion of several methods of measuring conductance of this
type of material with faults of each. A new method is outlined where
the potential difference between two points is measured when a voltage
is applied along the rod.
*CONTROLLING STATIC ELECTRICITY WITH ELECTROSTATIC NEUTRALIZER
Robin Beach Prod. Eng. 24, Oct. p. 177 and Nov. p.
167 (1953)
Discusses harmful effects of static electricity in the processing
industries. Mentions fire and explosions, accidents to personnel due
to involuntary muscular responses to shock, and improper processing
which will reduce efficiency of machines. States that all electro-
static neutralizers work by ionization of the air close to the charged
material. The ions of opposite charge are attracted and neutralize
the unwanted charge. Three general types of static neutralizers (1)
High voltage pre-ionizers (2) Radioactive Pre-ionizing (3) Induction.
Type 1 and 2 have advantage that they neutralize any charge found but
the amount of charge they can neutralize is limited. Used on textile
fibers and other applications where complete neutralization must be
obtained. They do present hazards if not properly installed. Type
3 has the disadvantage that they only start working when the voltage
is of the order of several hundred volts and leave this residual
voltage on the material. It has the advantage of unlimited neutraliza-
tion. Works well for high dielectric quality stock running at top
industrial speeds. Care should be taken in choosing the proper
neutralizer for each application and also in its location.
*INDUSTRIAL FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS FROM ELECTROSTATIC ORIGIN
Robin Beach Mech. Eng. 2i 3017 (1953)
A discussion which covers conditions necessary for explosions -
oxygen, presence of fuel and a source of ignition; flammable mixtures.
The hydrocarbon family generally has an explosive range from 1-8%
by volume and requires a source of spark energy of only about 0.1 to 0.3
millijoule to ignite it. For metallic and organic dust clouds, minimum
explosive concentrations occur as low as 0.02 oz. per. cu. ft. for
magnesium but require 10 - 100 millijoule for ignition. Generation of
static electricity - lists ten general situations found in industry where
trouble from static electricity can be expected as well as the magnitude
of charge - potentials varying from a few thousand to many million of
volts. Development of high voltage - the increase in voltage as two
charged materials are separated is discussed: Electrification by
induction - a phenomena where a charge on one object, such as a
thundercloud, will cause an insulated object to slowly acquire a charge
from leakage through the insulator from earth; Control of electrostatic
hazards - electrostatic neutralizers are recommended for some situations
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?75?
but are not a cure-all; Typical electrostatic problems in industry -
discusses problems in petroleum, chemical, and dispersion industries
as well as airport hazards. In general - each problem must be treated
separately.
ELECTRIFICATION BY FREEZING
E.W.B. Gill ' Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. No. 2,
S16 (1953)
The high potentials of the order of 100 V developed when ice is
formed from dilute solutions were investigated to discover the mechanism.
Contact potentials between solids and liquids are usually of the order
of 1 V and some additional fact must operate to achieve 100 V. The
theory suggested is that, whereas in the usual case the charges produc-
ing the potentials are adjacent to the boundary, in the case of freezing
ice the charges extend to a small distance from this boundary.
THE DISSIPATION OF ELECTRICAL CHARGES GENERATED BY ROTJFiRS
J.A, Medley Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. No. 2
523 (1953)
Shows that gaseous discharge limits the charge density and that it
can be reduced further by conductors auxiliary to the rollers.
Confirmed experimentally that as the bulk conductivity of a surface
agent attains a calculable critical value in practice of the order of
10-9 mho per cm. the electrification rapidly disappears.
? METHODS OF INCREASING THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SURFACES
J.S. Forrest Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. No. 2
S37 (1953)
Difficulties due to electrostatic charges on insulating surfaces
can be overcome by coatingcthe surface with an electrically-conducting
film. The paper describes conducting films of metallic oxides, metals
carbon, moisture and wetting agents. Information is also given on the
application of these films to ceramic and plastic insulating materials.
TKO ELECTROSTATIC FIELD-METERS
A.S. Cross Brit. J. of Appl. Phys. b, Suppl. 2
547 (1953)
Two electrostatic field-meters are described, one operating from
a.c. mains and the other from dry batteries.
THE PRACTICAL ESTIMATION OF ELECTROSTATIC HAZARDS
W.F. Cooper Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. Nod, 2
S71 (1953)
The paper deals with experimental procedure and methods of cal-
culation rather than with particular results. An attempt is made to
provide a basis for the quantitative study of electrostatic hazards met
in industry and attention is drawn to several elementary but important
details which are frequently overlooked.
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FACTORS IN THE DESIGN OF AN OPERATING THEATRE FREE FROM ELECTRO?
STATIC RISKS
Bulgin Brit, J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. No.
S87 (1953)
A theoretical treatment is given of the factors governing the
voltage attained by surfaces under stated conditions of separation and
electrical resistance. The results are supported by observed values
and indicate that the resistance of rubber articles should lie be-
tween 100,000 ohm and 10 megaohms.
SAFETY MEASURES IN OPERATING THEATRES AND THE USE OF A RADIOACTIVE
THALLIUM SOURCE TO DISSIPATE STATIC ELECTRICITY
A. Quinton Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. No. 2
$92 (1953)
Precautionary measures to minimize the risk of explosions due to
the ignition of anaesthetic gas mixtures are described. Special
attention is given to the elimination of charges of static electricity,
including the use of an apparatus incorporating a radio thallium
source.
THE ELECTROSTATIC IGNITABILITY AND ELECTRIFICATION OF FINELY POdDERED
HEXAMINE
A.G. Peace Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. No. 2
S94 (1953)
It is shown that finely divided dry Hexamine powder when dispersed
in a dust cloud can be ignited by electric sparks of energy less than
0.005 Joule, and that certain previously established principles of
spark ignition apply also to this substance. The powder is shown to be
readily electrified in various mechanical operations similar to those
used in manufacturing.
*ELIMINATION OF A STATIC HAZARD BY THE USE OF RADIOACTIVE STRONTIUM
G.G. Fowlie and G. Morris Ind. Chemist. 29, 585 (1953)
C.A. 0, 9234 7954)
Eight 1.5 mc. Sr-90Y-90 beta-sources were mounted in the ceiling
of a 22 x 14 x 7.5 ft. lead styphnate drying shed. The radiation
lowered the resistance between an average man and ground to less than
6 x 1010 ohms, effectively preventing formation of small charges and
subsequent sparks. The radiation health hazard was negligible.
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THE IGNITION OF EXPLOSIVES BY CONDENSER DISCHARGES EFFECT OF ADDED
CIRCUIT RESISTANCE
G. Morris Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. No. 2
S97 (1953)
To investigate the mechanism of ignition of explosives by capacit-
ance sparks, the critical ignition energy of lead trinitroresorcinate
has been examined for a wide range of capacitance and series resistance.
The experimental data do not completely conform to the same energy -
time relation as for ignition by hot wires. A useful empirical relation
is found. The use of added resistance in earth lines is shown to
decrease plant safety.
* TEN YEARS OF RESEARCH ON ELECTROSTATICS AT THE UNIV. OF GRENOBLE - 1942-52
? N. J. Felici Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. No. 2,
362 (1953)
The emphasis is on the practical development and application of
electrostatic generators rather than on theoretical consideration.
Description of various generators are given capable of giving up to
230 KV.
THE ROLE OF ASYMETRIC RUBBING IN THE GENERATION OF STATIC ELECTRICITY
P.S.H. Henry Brit. J. Appl. Phys, Suppl. No. 2,
S31 (1953)
Two independent types of contact electrification are discussed.
The one requiring different surfaces but not needing friction, the
other requiring asymetric rubbing but not a difference in the surfaces.
It is suggested that the combination of these two effects which occurs
when different surfaces are rubbed together, is a contributory factor
to the notorious uncertainty of such experiments.
*CONTACT CHARGING BETWEEN A BOROSILICATE GLASS AND NICKEL
J. W. Peterson J. Appl. Phys. 25, 501 (1954)
The charging of borosilicate glass spheres rolling on clean nickel
has been studied under controlled conditions of cleanliness, humidity
and gas pressure. Strong evidence indicates the process of charge
transfer to be a type of contact electrification akin to that operating
between two metals. The amount of charge acquired increases with surface
area in contact and hence with distance rolled until other factors
intervene. The rate of charging depends on rolling speed and
surface conductivity of the borosilicate glass, while the maximum
equilibrium charge depends on the pressure of the gas. The gas pressure
effect is caused by electrical discharge of the highly charged sections
of the glass to the metal and causes a minimum equilibrium charge at
about 1 mm. air pressure. The effect of transverse electrical fields
is negligible for low surface conductivity but becomes important at
higher surface conductivity.
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CONTACT CHARGING BETWEEN NONCONDUCTORS AND METAL
J.W. Peterson J. Appl. Phys. a, 907 (1954)
An investigation has been made of the charging of fused quartz
and borosilicate glass spheres rolling on a clean nickel surface.
The process of acquiring charge depends only upon the nature and
surface condition of the materials and is independent of the pressure
of an atmosphere of dry nitrogen. The total charge is limited by?
gaseous discharge to the metal and therefore does depend upon the
pressure. The rate of acquiring charge and maximum charge in vacuum
has been found to depend upon rolling speed, both reaching a
maximum at intermediate speed, and to decrease with increasing surface
conductivity.
THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING MATERIALS BEFORE, DURING
AND AFTER RADIATION
I.M. Rozman and K.G. Tsimmes
Zhor. Tekk, Fiz. 26, 1681 (1956);
C.A. 51, 6247 (1957)
A new method is described for simplified measurement of electrical
conductance of insulating material before, during and after the effect
of ionizing radiation.
SEDIMENTATION POTENTIALS - PART I - THE MEASUREMENT OF SEDIMENTATION
POTENTIALS IN SOME AQUEOUS AND NON-AQUEOUS MEDIA
G.A.H. Elton and J.B. Peace J. Chem. Soc. 1956, 22
An experimental study has been made of sedimentation potentials of
glass particles in water and dilute aqueous potassium chloride, and of
silica and glass particles in toluene and ether. The results for
aqueous media have been used in a preliminary test of the theoretical
equations of Smoluchoweski and of Hermans. The potentials obtained
in non-aqueous media appear to be electrostatic in origin and cannot
be interpreted on the basis of these electrokinetic equations.
COMBATING FIRE RISKS
Iwens
The precautions
industry and some of
Paint Manuf. .17., 143 (1957)
c.A. a, 916271957)
necessary to minimize fire risks in the paint
the equipment to combat the menace are described.
FIRE PORTECTION IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
N.E. Strother-6mith Mfg. Chemist 28, 109 (1957);
C.A. 2.0 9162-T1957)
The main causes (mechanical heat, faulty electric wiring, smoking,
spontaneous combustion, static electricity, chemical reactions, heating
equipment, etc.) of fire are discussed, and the basic principles of
fire protection are outlined.
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ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING OF CdS CRYSTALS UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF STRONG
FIELDS
K.W. Boer and U Kummel Z. Naturforsch 12a, 667 (1957)
C.A. 4264 (1958)
The electrostatic charging of CdS single crystals was investi-
gated. The size of a charge depends on the position of the crystal
in the contact clamp. Some crystals are charged negatively and some
positively, depending on their position. The charging increases
first with the voltage which reaches a maximum and then decreases.
The charging effects are connected with relatively large time constants
because the transport of the charges goes over crystal phases which are
bad conductors.
REDUCING STATIC ETR.CTRICITY INSIDE STORAGE TANKS BY USE OF RADIO-
ACTIVE MATERIAL
J.J. Conradi, T.R. Miller and J.J. Skelly
Oil Gas J. 5.5, No. 46, 197-8 (1957);
C.A. 52, 7671 (1958)
A 0.1 curie Sr-90-Y-90 beta source provides sufficient ionization
in the vapor space of oil-storage tanks to provide a conducting path
through which the hydrocarbon surface can be dissipated.
ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE ADHESIVE TAPE
Jos. J. Coleman and S. Kurlandsky (burgess Battery Co)
? U.S. 2,808,352 October 1, 1957
C.A. 52, 1687 (1958)
The tape has a backing of thin electrically conducting sheet
material and an electrically conductive coating. The adhesive com-
position containing about 35 parts by weight of polyisobutylene, 40
parts of finely divided silver and a plasticizer.
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T
ELIXTR TATIC INTIM GATION
This supplementary bibliography contains references
which are not available in our library. In certain
instances titles- were given in the Chemical Abstracts
but no information. In other cases the titles are
s not given. The listing is given as potential references
if additional search is required.
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SUPPLEMENT
Electrostatic investigation
About the Galvanic. Current Whieh was aenerated by Liquid Flowing
Through Tubes
E. Dorn, Ann. Phy. and Chem. (9), 20 Om:
Studies of the Electric Limiting Layer
H. Helmholtz Ann. Physik gbj, 337 (1879); Gesammte Abha
2, 865 (1882)
About The ConvoYi08 0
Allied Phenomena
E. Dorn, Ann. Phr. and Cbeu. , 513 (laso)
gen
tricity by Water Plowing Through Tubes and
J. Elster and H. Geitel, Wien. Bor. 22 (1890)
almilm..?????????an?aper.010-0.4.100.114,,....???????????.???????0???????????11..
P. Lenard Ann. Phys. (Lpz) 1892, Vol. 46, 584
gly...01.11.11161.1?,,,.....11.11..11.11?Ifil?11111?11=0?4?4
A. Ccehn, Wied. Ann. .& 217 (1898)
A. Coehn, Wied. Ann. .4.41., 1191 (1898)
J. Perrin tm. phys. 2 601 (1904)
Ether and Carbon Disulfide Explosions
Chemische Febrik "List"
B. deRaen? Die Chemische Industrie 2z 417
Appraisal of Ether and Carbon Disulfide ftplosions
M. Richter, Die Chemische Industrie Q, 300 (1907
Phil. Mag. 12, 457 (1909)
Device For Conducting Off the Static Charges
Combustible Liquids in Metallic Containers
W. Boehm, Ger. 262,074 April 7, 1911
A Contribution to the Theory of 8lectrocapillarity
D. L. Chapman, Phil. Mag. ()a, 473 (1913)
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?
Electroosmotic Potentials Developed By Movement of Solid. Bodies
Through. Liquids
J. Stock, B411. International de l'Aced. Set. de Crocovie Series, A,
Vol. 3 No. 34 131 (1913)
Frictional Electricity on Inanlatore and Metals
Morris Jones, Electrician 7.1,
1.41,mar
H. F. Richards, Phys. Bev. 1.4, 290 (1920)
The Cataphoresis of Spheres
E. Huckel, Physikalische Z. a, 2a (1924)
ammosimii.mob.errammiswesk......nowhamo...40
P. E. Shaw and C. S. Jam, Proc..Roy. Soc. A111, 339 (1926)
????11.1.14ftem01/0?4?11
P. E. Shaw, Proc. Phys. Soc. a, 449 (1927)
W. A. Macky? Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) 141 07 (1920)
Electrisation and Conduction of Hydrocarbon Liquids
L. Braninghaus, Revue General de l'electricite gg, 787, 831 (1929)
Milislall..????????041?????????01111.111Mr??????????.???????Ow.ms
P. E. Shaw, Proc. Roy. Soc,A122 49 (1929)
P. E. Shaw and R. F. Renato*, Proc. Roy. Soc- Aan, 474 and. 480 (1930)
A. G. Dunlop, Ger. Pat. 649,262 (August 19, 1937)
The Dangers of Static Electricity in the Petroleum industry
P. Minard, Bull. Assoc. franc. Technicians petrol() 4222, No. 38
Static Electricity - National Safety Council, Inc.
Safe Practices Pamphlet No. 52 Chicago (1937)
36
Causes, Prevention. and Control of Petroleum Fires
John T. Rowell, Oil Gas J. St, No. 321 33 (1937)
Static Electricity in Nature. and Industry
P. G. Guest, U 8 Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of Mine Bulletin No. 368,
U. S. Gov. Printing Office, Wash.(1938)
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?
Steam Hose - Static
API Fire Protection Circu
J. A.
- 3 -
No. N-24, July 1938
Phys. Soc. lio 402 (1939)
,
Industrial Hazards of Static Electricity
Harold Joe Davis, Tulsa, Okla. 10 pages.
Characteristics of the Fuel Pitches and Their Explosibilit
Form
H. C. Hawarth, Irving Hartmann and H. P. Greenwald
Bureau of Mines Tech. Paper To. 61?, 1940
Staticgle
R. Beach, Elect. Eng. (N I )62, 202 (1941)
???????1.....
.Phys.
? .2
179 (1940)
y on Rubber-Tired Vehicles
rized
Some. Information on the Causes and Prevention. of Fires and Explosions
in the. Petroleum Industry
G. W. Kintz, U Bur. Hines Circ. 7112 28 pp., 1941
Theory of i1ectrophoresie - The. &laxative Effect
4. T. G. Overbook, Thesis Univ. of Utrecht, The Netherlands (1941)
On Frictional Electrification
J. I. Frenkel? Summary of paper at Sixth Conf. on Semi-Conductors,
4. of ?Ilya, Acad. of Se/. U.S.S.R. 6, 172 (1941)
4.A.
Proc. Phys. Soc. 52 51 (1941)
C. F. Dalatel and 4. B. Lagen, Elect. Eng. gz 63 (1941
Static Electricity
F. B. Silsbee, U. 3. Dept. of Commerce. Nat. Bur. of Standards Circular
No. C438, U. S. Gov. Printing Off. Wash. 1942)
Automobile Engn. 124z p. 310
4?10061.1.1..1.Palla????????11.1.11.111.1110
F. B. Silsbee, National
? of Standards C438, 1942
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A. Becker, Werkstatt and l3etrieb, 222.5132 (194)
INWIMM?i?????????401?????
S. S. MaCkeown and V. Wo Eiec. Eng. Trans. Sect. 62 2 (1943)
W. T. Partington,
an ga, 522 (1944)
Static. Electricity in Industry
R Beach - Elect. Eng. (N Y) No 184 (1945)
Safety Pram Industrial Electrostatic Hazards
Robin Beach, Safety JZ March, p. 59 (1945)
D. Bulging, J. SU. Inst.
?W1111101.1.6..011.111.0.4.0../...??????rinlea..p111..iiar..48...11.
(1945)
Distribution .of Electricity 22, 363 (1945)
National Fire Codes - The Prevention of Dust Explosions
Pub. by NFPA Vol. 2, 1946
Faectrostatic Ills and Cures of Aircraft
Robin Beach, Elec. Eng. hi 325 and 453 ( 947)
411.......?.........n??????
D. Dodenhoff Co., Text. World no
?0?41.411.1?1?.??611.1?.????=
. 7, 149 (1947)
G. Morris, engineering 241A, 49 1947)
What of Air Safety
-Robin Beach, Elec. Rug. 623 423 (1948)
41161.1?00.4110....114.???04...?
R. F. Miller, ASTI( 'auNo. 151,.91 (1948)
jn and G. Thomas, lancet May 7, 789 (ii,
. J.
Static. Electricity - National Fire PTot. Assoc. Comittee on Static
Elec., Boston (1950 rep. 1953)
Combustion, Flames and Explosions of Gases
B. Lewis and G. von Elbe, Academic Press Inc. N T (1951)
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Tests of Electrostatic Controls for Hazardous Industrial Applications.
Robin Beach, Preaented at meeting of American Inst. of Elec. Bhp.
January 24, 1951, New York, N T
cntinentalerke A. G. GOrb Pat. 20,543 (November 12* 1951)
Streaming Potential Concept
P. E. Bocquet, PhD. dissertation U. of Michigan 1952
Stegerrni . Pat. Appl. 396,5/07H 8734. (March 20, 1952)
S. M. Ed'eTstein Amer. Dyest. Rep. hao 518 (1952)
Mba.m.......e.g.a.....1.1.41??????????????????*.oym.
A. J. Hall -Hosiery Times 25, April 55 (1952)
Inaverhaee and Zoepprit - Automobiiteckn 2. 54, No. 8 1952)
Restivity Methods for Rubber
British Standard Method - B$ 2044 Method 1,2 and 3; B S 2050 Method
4, 5, 6 and 7
Static Electricity in Hospital Operating Suitee
U. S. Bdreeu of Mines Bulletin No. 520 - 1953
P. G. Guest, V. W. Sikora, and B Lewis
Electric Breakdown of Gases
J. M. Meeks. and, J. D. Craggs Oxford Univ. Press. London 1953
milk.a.10110*Ibrameo
B. G. Palmer
Kolloid Z. 21 101 (1953)
moa.mrdikomegoapielft.1.11111?Vor
September 10, 457 (1953)
W. Spenkman rd Textilkor 14., 1076 (1953)
G. W. Graham, Text. Mere. 128, 16 (1953)
Mechansim of Reinforcement VI, Electrical Conductivity of Carbon
Black-Loaded Rubber
Coyle U. of Buffalo) Univ. Microfilms Publ. No. 15688 84 pp (1955)
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{
6
Safety in Mines Research Establishment Report No. 118
R. A. Dale - 1955
Production of Static 1et.r.city by Movement of Fluids within
. Electrically Grounded Equ.pment
A. Klinkenberg . Proc. of the 4th World Pet. Cong. Sect. VI
? p. 253-264 - Cori? Colombo, Rome, June 1955
Space Explosions by Means of Static Electricity
EL Freytag, Verlag Chemie. Gmb. H. Weinhein (1955)
Development of Static Electricity by flowing Liquids
A. Klinkenberg, Erdol und Kohle 29) 779 (1956)
Paper 5
???
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