THE OCEAN AS THE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT OF THE NAVY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R002200220009-0
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 249
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 12, 2013
• Sequence Number: 9
• Publication Date: May 6, 1958
• Content Type: REPORT

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A symposium
ONR-3
THE OCEAN AS THE
OPERATING ENVIRONMENT OF
THE NAVY
50X1 -HUM
Office of Naval Research
Department of the Navy
Washington. D.C.
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CONFIDENTIAL
SECURITY
,
This document contains information affecting the
national defense of the United States withinthe mean-
ing of the Espionage Laws, Title 18, U.S.C., Sections
793 and 794. The transmission or the revelation of
its contents in any manner to an unauthorized person
is prohibited by law.
Reproduction of this document in any form by
other than activities of the National Military Estab-
lishment and the Atomic Energy Commission is not
authorized unless specifically approved by the Secre-
tary of the Navy.
CONFIDENTIAL
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50X1-HUM
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CONFIDENTIAL
ONR-3
?THE OCEAN AS THE
OPERATING ENVIRONME,NT OF
THE NAVY
A Symposium sponsored by
The Office of Naval Research
March 11, 12, and 13, 1958
San Diego, California
50X1 -HUM
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Oftice of Naval Research
Department of the Navy
Washington, D.C.
0 CONFIDENTIAL
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Statements and opinions contained
herein are those of the authors and
are not to be construed as official
or reflecting the views of the Navy
Department or of the naval service
at large.
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'ASTIA Reference Number AD I 57 I 59
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PREFACE
It is becoming more and more evident that
full exchange of ideas and rapid communication
of results are among the most powerful stimuli,
for scientific progress. The Office pf Naval
Research is, therefore, sponsoring Navy-wide
symposia on various subjects in order tp pro-
vide opportunities for scientific personnel of
Navy laboratories and contractors to get togeth-
er and to discuss problems of mutual interest.
In view of the increasing importance of under-
water operations, the gene r al theme of this
symposium is particularly timely. The program
has been so arranged as to present the view-
points of tile scientist, the engineeT, and the
fleet officer, and I am certain that the personal
contacts resulting from this meeting will plant
the seeds for greater progress of the NewNavy.
4?1:191...X.1?191????????????????
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R. BENNETT
Rear Admiral, USN
Chief of Naval Research
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MEMBERS OF THE SYMPOSIUM PROGRAM COMMITIU
Chief of Naval Operations - Captain R. H. Holden, USN
Commander C. L. Scherrer, USN
Bureau of Aeronautics - Mr. F. W. S. Locke .
Mr. I. H. Gatzke
Bureau or Medicine and Surgery - Captain J. R. Kingston, MC, USN
Bureau of Naval Personnel 7 Commander E. G. Fitz-Patrick, USN
Bureau of Ordnance - Dr. E. S. Lamar
Dr. S. Skolnik
Bureau of Ships - Mr. R. W. Stewart
Mr. W. B. White
Mr. L. M. Treitel
Bureau of Suppliei and Accounts - Mr. T. Seery
Bureau of Yards and Docks - Mr. S. Rockefeller
Marine Corps - Dr. C. E.. Wise, Jr.
'Office of Naval Research - Dr. J. N. Adkins '
Dr. I. Estermann, Chairman
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CONTENTS
Preface
OPENING REMARKS
I. Estermann, Office of Naval Research
WELCOMING ADDRESS
CAPT J. M. Phelps, USN, Navy Electronics Laboratory
THE OCEAN VIEWED AS A MILITARY ENVIRONMENT
RADM R. Bennett, USN, Chief of Naval Research
THE SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS OF NAVAL OPERATIONS
RADM J. T. Hayward, USN, Assistant Chief of Naval
Operations for Research and Development
MARINE CORPS OPERATIONS
Brigadier General S. R. Shaw, Deputy Chief of Staff,
Research and Development, USMC
THE ORGANISATION OF BRITISH NAVAL RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT
R. V. Alred, British Joint Services Mission
THE CANADIAN PROGRAM IN UNDERWATER RESEARCH
J. J. Green, Canadian Joint Staff
AN ADDRESS
L. A. DuBridge, President, California Institute .of Technology
A SURVEY OF HYDROBIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF
NAVAL OPERATIONS
S. R. Galler, Office of Naval Research
DEEP MOORED INSTRUMENT STATIONS
J. D. Isaacs, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
*Published in SECRET Supplement
in
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RESEARCH PROBLEMS OF SUBMARINE OPERATIONS
UNDER-ICE IN THE ARCTIC OCEAN
W. K. Lyon, Navy Electronics Laboratory
,REQUIREMENTS. IN MILITARY OCEANOGRAPHY
J. Lyman, U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office
MAN AND THE UNDERSEA ENVIRONMENT
L. G. Goff, Office of Naval Research
INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT
ON UNDERWATER DETECTION
E. C. LaFond, Navy Electronics Laboratory
ACOUSTIC- PROPERTIES OF THE OCEAN BOTTOM
' J. E. Nafe, J. L. Worzel, and M. Ewing,
Lamont Geological Observatory
MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE OCEAN AS IT, RELATES
TO THE TRANSMISSION OF UNDERWATER SOUND
D. S. Potter, Applied Physics Laboratory,
- University of Washington
THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF
UNDERWATER CLASSIFICATION
A. J. Hiller, Naval Research Laboratory
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107
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THE CLASSIFICATION OF UNDERWATER TARGETS
BY ACOUSTIC METHODS
D. A. Wilson, Navy Electronics Laboratory
AN OPTIMIZATION PROGRAM FOR INSERVICE
WEAPON SYSTEMS
LCDR R. L. Ploss, USN, Office ,of Naval Research
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DISPOSITION OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
IN THE OCEAN
C. L. Newcombe, Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory
174
RESEARCH TRENDS ? IN MARINE PROPULSION
,CAPT W. T. Sayer, USN, Office of Naval Research
NUCLEAR CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBINE
195
POWER PLANT STUDY
S. T. Robinson, Sanderson and Porter
HUMAN 'LIMITATIONS IN NUCLEAR PROPULSION
CAPT J. A. Brimson, MC, USN, Bureau, of
Medicine and Surgery
, *Published in SECRET 'Supplement
1-Manuscript not alA.ilable
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POSSIBILITIES FOR REDUCING SHIP
MOTIONS AT SEA
E. V. Lewis, Stevens Institute of Technology
SOME RECENT RESULTS IN WATER-ENTRY MODELING
J. G. Waugh, Naval Ordnance Test Station
JULIE AND GILDA
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CDR B. J. Jones, USN, and LCDR C. E. Rogers, USN,
Antisubmarine Defense Force, Atlantic Fleet
THE EFFECT OF SOUND VELOCITY GRADIENTS
ON THE DAMAGE RANGES FOR AN
UNDERWATER EXPLOSION
E. A. Christian, Naval Ordnance Laboratory
"PROJECT MONTE"
A. :R. Focke, Mine Advisory Committee
OFFENSIVE SEA MINES
A. H. Sellman, Bureau of Ordnance, Navy
FUTURE MINE DEFENSE CAPABILITIES RELATED
TO THE OCEAN AS THE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT
H. A. Johnson, Navy Mine Defense Laboratory
AMBIENT NOISE, ITS ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS
R. A. Frosch and A. Berman, Hudson Laboratories
SOUND PROPAGATION MEASUREMENTS
J. B. Hersey, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
TOXICOLOGICAL AND HEALTH HAZARDS OF
GUIDED MISSILES
LCDR H. D. Baldridge, MSC, USN, Naval Medical
Research Institute
*Published in SECRET Supplement
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OPENING REMARKS
I. Estermann
Symposium Chairman
Office of Naval Research
When we began to organize this symposium in the pre-
Sputnik era, two questions were frequently asked. First, what is
the value of such a symposium, and secondly, what is its purpose.
The answer to the first question has been given already by your
presence here - frankly, we did not expect such a wide audience, and
it is a particular pleasure for me to bid you a cordial welcome. I
hope that when you leave, you will have no doubts left about the
value of this symposium.
The second question is more difficult to answer. As you
know, there is an abundance of scientific meetings, and it may well
be questioned whether the organization of an additional one really
serves a worthwhile purpose. Let me say that we in ONR do not con-
sider these Navy-wide scientific symposia to be in competition with
other meetings. In our opinion, they have a peculiar function which
no presently existing type of meeting can fulfill This function is
intimately connected with the position of the scientist In the Navy
and with his interaction with other parts of the Navy. Every member
of an organization has the obvious duty to contribute to the mission
,of his organization. The scientist, however, has the additional
duty to further the mission of science. While in the first respect
his superiors are the proper judges of accomplishment, in the second
respect, judgment can be exercised only by his peers. .In the Univ-
ersity environment, this opportunity is provided for by standard
scientific jourhals and meetings of professional societies, plus a
number of ad hoc conferences on specific. subjects. The Navy scien-
tist, however, can utilize this procedure only to a very limited
extent. In the first place, he is usually more or less isolated
from those in the Navy who have the responsibility for its perform-
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ance, namely the leaders of the operating fleet. Secondly, his work
is to &large extent classified ane cannot be presented for judgment
to the scientific community at large. It is therefore necessary to
provide the opportunity to present it tea selected group of scien-
tific peers -- and this is one of the reasons why we are aswmbled
here. To break down the isolation, we have invited key people from
the operating fleet and from the Material Bureaus -- the ultimate
consumers of the Navy scientist's work. I am happy to see this
group so. well represented here today, and I hope that this symposium
and those following it will help in establishinE a closer bond be-
tween the scientist, the Bureau engineer, and the fleet officer,
who after all are all members of the same team. The program has
been so arranged as to give the scientists a forum for his advanced
thinking, and to the others, a chance to present their current day-
to-day problems for the scientists' consideration. We are sincere
in our conviction that this interchange will contribute a lot to the
future of the Navy Scientist and the Navy as a whole.
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WELCOMING ADDRESS
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Captain J. M. Phelps, USN
W. S. Navy Electronics Laboratory
San Diego, California
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Good morning, Admiral Bennett, ladies and gentlemen....
We at NEL are indeed happy to have you here with us today and we
o welcome you to the Laboratory to take part in this Symposium on
Basic and Applied Science.
You as a group represent a very selected combination of
industrial, educational and governmental civilian and military
professional competence that is assembled here to concentrate for
several days on some of the basic problems affecting the Navy in
its natural environment, the sea. We cannot begin to over-esti-
mate or to measure the long term benefits to be gained by this very
act of your taking time out to come here and to reflect and think
about and concentrate on some of these fundamental issues that are
going to be discussed within the next few days.
I hope that you will be stimulated and that you will gain
some fresh points of view and insight into what the other fgllow
sitting ,alongside you or in this auditorium is thinking about and
peAbaps you can get a little new perspective on some o:.the prob-
lems you face .from day to day. I think it is important that every
once in a' while we take the time 'out to do this. I think we have
many solutions to our problems that are available. They are float-
ing around some place and we concentrate on some of the details and
forget many times to take ourselves outside of this overall probleth
and look at it with this broad point of view. I, think that this
sort of a meeting does enable us to do that. Now too often we just-
ify meetings such as this on the basis of cross-fertilization of
ideas, but I recommend that you forget for a moment this cross-
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fertilization and look beyond your present horizons for new ideas.
What we need today are not just new ideas on what we already know
? about. We need some real inspirations to solve our problems. Suc-
cess, so they say, is supposed to come to those who are actually
prepared for it, and this type of a meeting helps us to get pre-
pared; and I hope that this particular one, sponsored by the Office
of Naval Research, will. help all of us prepare ourselves to make
better contributions to the overall Navy's efforts. So to each
one of you I hope you thoroughly enjoy your stay at NEL, and during
the few times you have outside of the Laboratory itself when these
sessions are over, I.hope you enjoy your stay in San Diego.
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THE OCEAN VIEWED AS A MILITARY ENVIRONMENT
Rear Admiral Rawson Bennett, USN
Chief of Naval Research
The mastery of the sea has traditionally been the basic
problem of the Navy. In successfully designing, building and oper-
ating a powerful modern Fleet both on the surface of the ocean and
in the depths beneath, much depends on how well we understand the
environment of the sea itself. Consequently it is most appropriate
that the first specialized annual Navy science symposium should deal
with the ocean as a military environment.
When I opened the first annual symposium a year ago in
Washington, I noted that scientists throughout the Navy laboratories
are widely separated by geography and administrative boundaries. I
pointed out that one of the principal benefits of this symposium is
that it brings together many of you working in related problems to
exchange ideas and familiarize yourselves with one another's work.
Oceanography, because of the highly diverse aspects of this
field, probably more than most scientific fields needs a closer
drawing together of those whose work touches upon this area. For
example, acoustics and bidlogy are normally unrelated but in ocean-
ography they have a direct relationship. In additionl_geographyi.
geology, physics, chemistry, metallurgy, and naval architecture, all.
play important roles in this field.
. The Office of Naval,Research has more than,a_icutine
est in. the research in this field. In fact, our,obeanographic,con-
tract research program represents the principal effort of the Govern-
ment in 'the field of physical oceanography at private or non-go-liera-
ment institutions. Through these contracts these institutions
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receive the major portions of their research funds for this program.
This has been the principal means by which the United States during
the past ten years has been able to move into a field which prior to
World War II was dominated by Western European scientists and in-
stitutions. Recently Soviet Russia has taken the lead in the number
and size of oceanographic vessels, but not in quality of research
results.
We have also participated in setting up the new Committee
on Oceanography, through which we plan to provide a national center
for focusing attention on oceanography in the United States. The
Committee is supported jointly by ONR, the Atomic Energy Commissibn,
and the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This group is to be called
upon for advice on current oceanographic problems, and, in addition,
will provide counseling, planning and coordination in long range
oceanographic research.
For the first time there will be an established means
through which the various oceanography institutions and laboratories
with programs in this field may act as a unit. Individual members
of the Committee have been appointed by the President of the National
Academy of Science. In carrying out its work, the Committee has
formed specialized standing and ad hoc panels and subcommittees
with adequate staffs. One of the contributions, the Committee will
make will be to provide forums for the discussion of problems of
concern to all branches of oceanography -- such as manpower, ship
and laboratory facilities, instrumentation, data processing and
similar common interests -- and foster the research for solutions
to these problems.
Although the Navy is primarily interested in viewing the
ocean as a military environment, it is characteristic of our re-
search programs that more than just military development is bene-
fited. For'exemple, our interest in amphibious operations stimu-
lated us to study sea and: surf phenomena because of their vital role
in the success of such operations.- This'led to giving us a better '
understanding of waves, sea and surf. We developed theories and then
confirmed and: modified them by aerial mapping of the sea surface.
A practical 'result of these studies was a decision by the Military
Sea Transport Service to route ships in accordance with meteor- -
ological and oceanographic conditions and forecasts. In a test, a
ship routed in this manner arrived at a European port one and one
days ahead of schedule while another ship following the custom-
ary great circle route arrived one day late.
Conversely work in oceanography pursued by investigators
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with no military application or benefit in mind has proved to be of
great value to us. An excellent example is the Navy's use of the
Piccard bathyscaphe, the TRIESTE, for a program of deep sea research
last summer. The TRIESTE was developed and built by Professor
Auguste Piccard through his own interest in deep diving vehicles.
Enough craft of this type could explore about 99 percent of the sea
floors in the oceans of the world.
The Navy plans to use the TRIESTE not only to explore the
ocean environment at great depths but also to evaluate the potential-
ities of the bathyscaphe both as a research tool and as a naval
craft, such as a submarine rescue vessel or a deep' diving submarine.
In the series of 26 dives carried out last summer off the coast of
Naples the emphasis was on the study of the field of sound in the
ocean growing out of the Navy's great interest in underwater a-
coustics in submarine warfare. We combined investigations in bio-
logy, geology, and physics of the ocean depths in an attempt to
identify sources of ocean sounds and to determine the sound trans-
mission qualities of the ocean and the bottom.
One of the scientists who contributed so much to the suc-
cess of the expedition last summer was Dr. Andreas Rechnitzer of
your awn Navy Electronics Laboratory. In fact, our program for next
summer calls for us to bring the bathyscaphe to San Diego for a
series of dives in this area. Even though most of the dives last
summer were conducted just off the romantic Isle of Capri, my people
tell me that they will be happy working here in San Diego next sum-
mer.
I have just barely touched on the many ways that the study
of the ocean has a vital relationship to naval operations. We know
that the ocean affects the weather and might give us the clue to
long-range forecasting, that chattering fish can be a serious hazard
to sonar operations, and that we can design more efficient hulls if
we know more about ocean waves. 'Most tantalizing of all is the know-
ledge that the ocean contains enough. deuterium to provide virtually
unlimited cheap hydrogen fusion power if we can but solve the secret
of how to obtain it.
Whether or not your interests are inclined toward the Navy;
the ocean is an integral part of man's life. The ocean spawned the
first living and growing thing and holds the key'to our future
civilization.. Any new ,knowledge that can be gathered about this
still mysterious environment -- as challeng-ing as is outer space ---
is valuable and urgently needed.
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THE SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS OF NAVAL OPERATIONS
Rear Admiral J. T. Hayward, USN
Assistant Chief of Naval Operations for -
Research and Development ?
Admiral Burke wanted to send his regards to the Symposium
and you won't object, I am sure, if I just cross off "scientific"
on this talk and say "The Problems of Research and Development,"
because we have many of them.
In the reorganization in the Chief of Naval Operations'
office he has designated my office the Assistant Chief of Naval
Operations for Research and Development, where we have the overall
programming and direction of the research and development program
for the Chief of Naval Operations. We use the very able staff of
Admiral Bennett, Chief of Naval Research, to assist us to do this job.
Of course we have many problems. If you look at the spectrum
of war, you see what faces the Navy. We have all the way from the
mega war, down to the situation that you have in Indonesia today.
Now the research and development program of the Navy is to
support the programmed objectives of the Navy, so this-means that
our problem is far from simple. You get missiles such as the
BULLPUP, which stems from a requirement for the Marines for a
conventional weapon to be used in local situations where it is neces-
sary. Our general philosophy in those fields, of course, is the
precise delivery of weapons on military objectives. There are a
lot of places and a lot of times when you don't want to incinerate
the whole countryside and you have alot of friends.. Now if you
look at our program, we have divided the overall research and
development program into two parts. Part One, which are Weapons
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Systems which lead to hardware. Part Two is the basic and applied
supporting research of the Naval establishment. For your informa-
tion, it runs a little bit higher in part two than it does in part one.
If you look in the Part One situation as we exist today, the first thing
on the priority list is the fleet ballistic missile or the POLARIS pro-
gram. This. consists of-marrying a ballistic missile to a nuclear
submarine. This, however, of course, just applies to the mega-war
situation. I am sure most of you realize that this would be of little
use to us in a situation such as Indonesia today. So we are faced
with the problem of trying to keep a balanced situation. There are a
lot of people who would put us all under the water and build nothing
but POLARIS submarines. However, this would be very unwise. I am
sure the opposition Will go down any path if we don't go down, and if
they can get us to just go down the path. of general war we'll be eaten
alive.
Now, in the situation of the POLARIS which is coming along very
well---we actually have at the moment three boats programmed.
These boats, of course, have sixteen ballistic missiles in them; they
have a 600 pound war head; it's a 1500-mile nautical missile. We
hope, if the Inyokern boys do their job, that we can launch it sub-
merged, and as you can see, it is a very potent system, and it backs
the Navy philosophy that we feel that the deterrent force should be
flexible across the spectrum also. You shouldn't put all your eggs
in one basket, not just in missiles, not just in manned aircraft, but
you need a posture such that the enemy is given great pause before
he attempts to attack you in the all-out situation. And you certainly
pose a problem to him with this particular weapons system. Now,
naturally, after seeing this and seeing what we can do in this, it
really brings the ASW picture to the forefront.
There is one very important thing that has happened in ASW
that most people don't seem to realize, and that is that there was
a time when ASW was easy, when all that was coming was to sink
you and you could always make the basic* assumption that he was
going to try and sink you, and we didn't realize how easy this
made the problem and, in a lot of instances he came just to sink you.
Now when he comes, he is going to try and evade you and he is prob-
ably going to be a lot less interested in sinking a specific ship,
particularly in the threat eto our country from submarine-launched
guided missiles.
Admiral Burke and the Vice Chief of Naval Operations have
been very cognizant of this problem. They have set up Admiral
Weakley, directly under Admiral Burke, as Op-001, who has the
ASW problem complete, to see if we cannot really help ourselves
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in protecting the country from this guided missile threat from sub-
marines. In addition, we have to do the conventional ASW job
because we are a member of a free alliance, and the free alliance
exists because of the seas, and if we cannot control the seas, the
free alliance will fall. So we have both tasks to do.
Now, in connection with this, the second priority in our weapons
systems are, of course, nuclear reactors. Most of our nuclear
reactor program has gone into attack submarines to date. However,
we do have the LONG BEACH and we do have a DLGN and w.e do have
a CVAN.. In an attack submarine we have found in recent exercises
of the SKATE versus conventional submarines in the Atlantic that
it is a very potent weapon. They can really kill the conventional sub-
marine practically 95 percent of the time. The SKATE's remarkable
performance really gives us great hope. However, when you begin
to look at the problem, talking about scientific problems, suppose
we could really communicate with our submerged submarines and
vector them from the surface. You always get back to the inter-
surface problem. We would really have a three-dimensional hunter-
killer force.
As you know, today whenever we are running against enemy sub-
marines, we usually always have to get rid of our own, get them out
of the area, because there is no real way to communicate or to know
where they are. On the East Coast they have tried some operational
experiments using the UQC Equipment from a helicopter and have
had real good luck keeping a submarine directly underneath one of
our major ships and using it as part of the detection system. But
these are not the answers obviously and we have a lot of work in the
research and development field, particularly with the problems of
detection, which is number one, of course. If we could just break
that barrier of 4500 feet a second and get some method of detecting
a submarine other than acoustic, we would be in business. Not only
would we be able. to have a really effective high rate of sweep but we
would certainly be able to cover tremendous areas and would be able
to. detect where we cannot detect today. - One of _our ideas, of course,
is to try and get the fixed wing airplane back into the picture, of the
detection field. It is a pretty bad situation at the moment, as you all
know. We are trying everything from dunking from fixed wing air-
craft to the JULIE system, of course, and the JEZEBEL system.
Now, in the problem of localization, we feel that with the JULIE
coming along, we are probably pretty good, about 85 percent accord-
ing to the results that we have today in this particular field.
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Hayward
?
However, one of our problems is the space we have to cover and
the back-up forces required to really implement this particular prob-
lem against the submarine. There has been considerable thought given
to the use of mines. In other words, we would use something such as
the Mark 52 or this type of mine to protect and keep submarines off
the great portion of our coast. As you know, the continental shelf in ?
the Atlantic gives us this particular ability. However, we are faced
with the international problems of the three-mile limit and I doubt
very much if we will ever, in peace time do it, We certainly don'a over-
look this particular way of using mines as a defense against submarines.
We are also looking into active systems, real large transducers,
off the Atlantic coast, in addition, to back up the present SOSUS sys-
tem, which unfortunately a lot of people think can tell the position of a
submarine but really is only an alerting system at the moment. But
this particular effort in ASW is the number one effort we have really
in the R&D program. We are getting additional money for it, and we
hope that by the additional effort that we can get some results. At
the moment, of course, in Congress, where Admiral Bennett and I
spend a goodpart of our time, this is a very well spoken about subject.
It just seems that at long last everybody has awakened to the fact that
the submarine poses a great menace not just to our ships but to the
country itself.
Now, of course, no words of our problems would be sufficient or
long enough if we didn't swell on space. Everybody is going to the
moon these days, including ARPA (I don't know if you know about ARPA,
which is the Advanced Research Project Agency which is coming into
being with Mr. Johnson as Director and Dr. York as his Technical
Assistant). All the service programs will be submitted to these people
for review and implementation. In the Navy's part in this, of course,
we have submitted the follow-on to the Vanguard using the second and
third stages.and another additional booster THOR, and we have also
submitted the NOTS proposals on the five-and-dime satellite, as we
call it.
We 'havein the Navy at the moment'been designated to carry the
ball as the executive agent for the satellite tracking systems that are.
run by the Department of Defense. We are in the midst of discussions
now with the Army, the Air Force, the National Science Foundation,
and the National Academy on this particular subject. This is a tre-
mendous job and is going to 'involve considerable sums of money,
am sure. In addition, the Navy has been named the executive agent
for the Pacific guided missile range out here at Point Mugu and South
Camp Cooke, which incidentally, of course, has the only east-west
launching sites, where you can launch polar ortibal satellites which ?
you cannot do down in Patrick, Florida. I am sure that the program
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Hayward
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will be funded in the near fiiture and we will have a pretty live national
program. The Navy's position is that we felt there should be a
national program and tha4 no service itself should go off into the
business of launching satellites---that it should be integrated into a
national program. We had definite requirements for reconnaissance,
communication, navigation . . . things of this kind that we wanted every
bit as much as the other services.. Of course, there is another side
of the picture which is the purely scientific picture, in which we Care
naturally interested, also.
? Now in the organization business, I am interested in the British
organization. It is always very funny---as a matter of fact when I took
this job over when the Sputnik went up, I was greatly amazed when
there was all of a sudden a great hue and cry to reorganize the Joint
Chiefs of Staff. I couldn't .see the connection between the Joint Chiefs
of Staff and My troubles in R&D. They had never said no to me in any
way, and I was very much amazed to find out that the Supreme Court
deliberated and Congress debated but the Joint Chiefs, they always
bickered. It was my first introduction to this particular side of the
organization. There is a great tendency in people to want to set up a
monolithic structure in research and development, a centralized agency
that does all of it. There is a great tendency for people to want to
separate basic research from the services, which I am convinced is
a very grave mistake, and the Russians as long ago as 1928 made two
capitalistic decisions in this line, and the first one was to decentralize
everything they could in the research and development business and
they have something like 775 various institutes of R&D all doing vari-
ous parts and pieces. They also let anybody who had a good idea submit
designs whether they were contractors or not. Tubiloff and Sitkowski
were the real people who made this decision; they convinced Stalin
that this was the way to go.
And I am a great believer that we should keep our research and
development decentralized. We in the Navy feel that if they take the
basic research away from the services, this communication which is
one of the biggest problem in this business, well we would lose it.
. Take the one subject we are all interested in, oceanography, in which
incidentally I feel we have got to make a very much greater effort: I
was quite successful thislast week in getting into the budget a -research
ship. When r see the history of re.aearch ships in the Navy I am very
much upset. They have tried for years and years and years and they
have always fallen out. I think one of the reasons it has fallen out was
that, with all due respect to the Bureau of Ships, maybe we should just
have bought a ship and remodeled it rather than putting it in the regular
ship building program because it was always put down at the bottom
of the list.
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Hayward
I can assure you that we are going to make decidedly more efforts
in this field of oceanography, and we arg going to try and do the best
we can in the ASW business. There has been terrific pressure on us
(I don't know whether Admiral Bennett discussed it or not) to have an
ASW laboratory. Well, this was fine but when you begin to think about
it, I have built several in my day.. .you have air, surface, sub-surface,
and you get a laboratory of about 3,000 people; as a matter of fact, it
is a tremendous job. What we have come up with we are going to try
and make a group on the West Coast and a group on the East Coast on
this subject and, of course, the best way to do this is to get the
Directors of NEL, Inyolcern, Scripps---and as a matter of fact, Admiral
Burke and Dr. James R. Killian now decided we should have a uni-
versity tied up with it, so we are going to get Dr. Henderson from the
University of Washington, ---get these four peopld to sit down and come
up with some recommended program. Of course, within this group you
would have your weapons; your detection, you would have all of the ASW
problems.
? The West Coast lends itself a lot easier to this praticular situation
than the East Coast does. You have the services here and I hope you
will be able to come up with a real proposal on this. We intend to do
the same thing on the East Coast with the Hudson Labs, USNUSL,
Johnsville, and on the weapons side would probably be NOL. However,
they have a much greater problem than you people have out here where
you are a little more centralized.
I want to take this occasion to tell you that Admiral Burke is
probably one of the strongets proponents of Research. and Development.
You may have read all of the trouble that the other services had with
the universities and the research business. One of thelirst decisions
that he made was that research would be the last thing that we are
going to touch. And of course, over on our side of the building (over
in Admiral Burke's shop) we have the greatest and highest respect
for the Office of Naval Research. We can't- say too much fdr Admiral
Bennett, Dr. Killian, and hi people. They have given the Navy a very
excellent and marvelous reputation in-the scientific world in the United
States and also across the seas. It is why on every?occasi'on that I can,
I try to tell people in the Navy that are 'assobiated with this program
just what a fine job ONR is doing and that we in the Chief bf Naval
Operations' office certainly know it and appreciate it. -Thank yo'u for
being here.
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MARINE CORPS OPERATIONS
S. R. Shaw
Brigadier General, U.S. Marine Corps
The role of the Marine Corps is that of a national force in readi-
ness. This means a force ready for instant action in any of a wide
variety of circumstances and places. Because the world is mostly
covered with oceans any significant force in readiness must be capable
of using the oceans to get to the scene of action - and to make amphib-
ious landings on a hostile shore without additional preparation. This,
of course, is the Marine Corps' unique characteristic.
To place Marine Corps R&D in proper context, I would like to
briefly review a bit of amphibious history before we come to the
pre?ent, and talk of the future. Prior to World War II, many military
men had come to the conclusion that the firepower of the defense had
made amphibious operations impossible. The Marine Corps and the
Navy believed that this defeatist opinion could not prevail if the
power of the United States was to be effective beyond our own shores.
By combinations of new doctrine weapons, equipment, and techni-
ques and trainini, we introduced a revolutionary strategic capability
to the world. This history of World War II is a story Of an unbroken
series of successful landings on hostile shores.
At the close of World War II, the military pessimists once again
foretold the doom of amphibious operations. The nuclear weapon was
said to have given the military commander such an increase in fire-
power, that no landing could be made. As it looked to them, the
enormous concentration of ships and supplies of our World War II
assaults was a natural target for the nuclear weapon. But these
pessimists did not allow for the resources of American ingenuity.
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Shaw
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The enormous increase in firepower which the nuclear weapon
gave to the military commander was accompanied by the advent of
another new device of utmost military significance. This is the VTOL
aircraft as presently typified by the helicopter. It has proved to be
as important an advance in tactical mobility as the nuclear weapon
was in firepower.
Recognizing both the threat and the promise of nuclear weapons
and the capabilities of the helicopter, the Marine Corps and. Navy
set to work- to develop a new amphibious concept which would give
the landing force the advantage of the quantum jump of the helicopter's
tactical mobility, thereby attaining an entirely new magnitude of power,
speed, and flexibility: Further, the new concept would provide for
maximum exploitation of nuclear firepower in the attack, while at the
same time reducing the threat of nuclear cOunterattack to an acceptable
degree of risk.
The effect of the great increase in the tactical mobility of the
landing force cannot be counted by adding it arithmetically to the
great strategic mobility we already possess in our fleets. It must
be measured by multiplying the two factors. The combination of the
two -- the new tactical mobility we have gained, and the existing
strategic mobility -- has endowed the amphibious attack with enor-
mously greater impact and flexibility. This more powerful nature
obtains under all conditions of nuclear or non-nuclear war.
With or without nuclear weapons support, Marine air-ground
landing forces, organized, trained and equipped to exploit the speed
and flexibility of the helicopter, can be projected by seapower deep
ashore at any point on the world littoral without regard for the nature
of the shoreline, and without necessity for direct beach attack. The
shorelines of the world are no longer natural defenses against our
attack. Hydrography no longer confines us to a few selected beaches
whose advantages the enemy can see as well as we. The effects of
weather are considerably reduced. The landing forces, covered and
supported by the new aerial weapons of the fleets, closely coordinating
their rapid maneuver with supporting Marine and Navy aircraft from
carriers, can strike an enemy's defensive .system with paralyzing
strategic effect.
The ultimate goal of this-concept is an all-helicopter assault
which will provide maximum impact and freedom of action for the
landing attack launched from the seas we control. We have not yet
reached this goal. But we have made great strides. We can now "
make a two-pronged attack, one prong, the vertical assault by heli-
copter, deep in the hostile rear, and the other a coordinated surface
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Shaw
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attack across the beaches using conventional means of reaching the
shore. The latter prong is now the major effort: We are working
hard toward making the helicopter assault our major effort: When
this is achieved, we will then proceed to our final objective, and the
helicopter assault will become the complete assault. The capabil-
ities we have now, gives this country's seapower far greater effect
than was displayed in those great amphibious attacks of World War II.
We are on-the way to a capability which will assign to our nation's
seapower an effectiveness of towering order.
The development of this concept emphasizes and multiplies the
basic characteristics essential, in the balanced fleet -- striking
power, staying power, versatility, mobility and defensive power.
So much for our major doctrinal developments. The techniques
we will use will continue to emphasize hard and savage fighting. We
no longer will land at the water's edge and heavily crunch our way
forward. We must travel light - and fight with rapid, bold maneuver.
To fit ourselves, our weapons and equipment, our techniques and
training to this new method of fighting, requires many things to be
done. We have accomplished a good deal already. Our developmental
efforts are keyed to this goal. More must be done.
Now then, where does science and research activity fit into the
developmental goal of the Marine Corps. The Marine Corps employs
primarily, the coordinated effort of the Navy department done by the
agencies of the Office of Naval Research, and the Bureaus, to provide
us with the basis for development. Secondarily we employ the
resources of the other military departments.
We have many of the same developmental problems that the other
services do in such areas as communications and the intelligence. In
addition we have some dandy-puzzlers that are peculiar to our modern
doctrine for amphibious assault.
Before mentioning some of these I should perhaps satisfy a ques-
tion that may be in your minds as to -where do missiles fit in Marine
Corps' operations. Now, as some of you know, around Washington,
when you say the word missile you are supposed to have an expression
on your face, in your voice which indicates great overpowering urgency.
Most- of.the, time, the expression actually achieved may be described as
frantic.
So you can see that missiles can be classed as urgent. Fortunately,
at least for the Marine Corps, we have not had to acquire the same
degree of urgency as the other services.
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Shaw
UNCLASSIFIED
The Marine Corps is not involved in those great engines of
massive destruction, the intercontinental and intermediate range
missiles .such as Titan and Atlas, Thor, Jupiter, and Polaris. The
modern missiles the Marine Corps takes must be capable Of being
landed, relatively light and compact and ready for action without
prolonged preparation. We have taken those that are suitable --
an artillery type, the Army's Honest John, an anti-aircraft type, the
Navy's Terrier, fired from ground equipment developed to give us
the first truly mobile guided missile outfit. When the Army's Hawk
anti-aircraft missile is ready, with certain special equipment for
landing force use, we will add it to our weapons. Our aviators use
the same air-to-air missiles as the Navy, Sidewinder and Sparrow.
Now I intend to mention some areas where scientific thought,
research and development can be applied to the greatest advantage
in developing our combat capability.
One of these is the problem of specifying military character-
istics of equipment to meet temperature extremes. Here I mean
ground surface equipment. As many of you know it is the general
practice to specify that equipment must operate at minus 65 degrees.
This causes a great deal of effort to come out with gear which can
meet this extreme requirement, but only after much time and
money has been spent in trying to reach that extreme.
We in the Marine Corps have begun to question the wisdom of
this practice. It is evident that these extremely low temperatures
are only to be found in a very few, relatively small and very remote
places of the world. The extreme lows in these places only occur
for a relatively few days of the year. The probability that signifi-
cant combat action could ever take place in these odd spots, in
those few periods, seems very low indeed. Further, research in
human activity indicates that no real fighting could take place in
such weather. At such extreme lows, the only time a fight is
likely is when you and an enemy reach for apiece of firewood at
the same time. The question that we are ,asking ourselves is - is
it really worthwhile to specify that standardized equipment should
demand such low temperature capabilities. We believe it to be,a
question that deserves serious consideration by all of us.
Land mine's are like the 'old Colt 45, they are great equalizers.
They are the greatest menace there is to mobile forces and swift,
decisive combat. The Russians use them in great numbers. Qur
past and present methods of finding them are rather primitive and
usually painful. We usually blow somebody up as the first indication
that Mines are present. Then we search them out and dig them up,
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Shaw
UNCLASSIFIED
one by one. We need a'means of finding them before we ever commit
forces to a course of action. And then if we cannot-avoid them, -we
want to get rid of them on a big scale, and fast. We don't have an
answer.to this one yet.
Another area where we are most anxious for early and signifi-
cant development is in the power train we use in our military
vehicles.
Almost without exception the power trains, over the years, have
become more complicated, and heavier, requiring great precision.
in building - and repair - and more fuel to make them go.
I will freely admit that this situation is largely of our own
making in the military services. Industry has engaged in the busi-
ness of developing the power train of the vehicles so that women and
children simply sit behind the wheel and let the vehicle do the driv-
ing. The refinements have been very enticing to the military. But
as in most things enticing, there has been an additional cost. And
not just the "slight additional cost" so dear to the heart of the auto-
mobile salesman.
The cost is measured in rivers of fuel. Fuel that has to be
moved in steel ships and steel drums and vehicles - expensive in
military manpower, materials and production cost. It is measured
in the extra dollars paid to produce the complicated precision-
built power trains. It is measured in the additional man hours for
maintenance, and for handling of extra spare parts.
We need today military motors and transmissions that will
reverse the trend we have been following. We need to energetically
pursue some of the engineering features which are already being
explored.
We need rugged, reliable, simple economical power train - for.
our vehicles. We need them badly.
I would now like to leave these big picture problems that appeal
to Pentagon types and to big industry and turn to a couple of problems
that we feel are every bit as important. In an era when a project has
to cost a hundred million dollars or more to be recognized as impor-
tant, these have the misfortune to be in the pocket change category.
They are of the utmost importance to us, however, because they
relate to the welfare and combat effectiveness of the individual
Marine - who is the greatest asset the Marine Collis has.
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Shaw
UNCLASSIFIED
The new methods of fighting will place a premium on the indivi-
dual's capacity to fight in small units - and to endure the loneliness
and privation of the battlefield. It will mean much to us to increase
the individual Marine's confidence - and to reduce his possibility of
becoming a casualty. It is here that one of our biggest unfilled needs
can be found. The body armor of the individual combat Marine.
- We now have armor. It is good as far as it goes. It protects
against relatively low-velocity fragments - shrapnel.
Our present 'armor is a vest of ballistic nylon pads and rigid
plates of doron. We also have a pair of armored drawers of ballis-
tic nylon pads. These latter are affectionately known among Marines
as the family jewel box. This armor is designed to protect the vital
parts - to reduce the probability of a hit or wound killing the Marine.
We need to extend body armor to the arms and legs to reduce the
probability of a man becoming a casualty at all. We want to keep him
on the battlefield as a fighting man. We don't want to lose him to the
doctor.
Whatever new ideas are necessary to make such armor possible -
its attainment would be revolutionary. Our troops now have great
confidence in their armor against ordinary shell fragments. Give
them this new idea and every general staff in the world will have to
make new calculations.
That's the first item. Now for a second. This too has to do with
the individual Marine. Our new methods of fighting places a premium
on keeping the combat marine effective and reducing the supply prob-
lem. One of our biggest problems - one that is with us every day -
is food. Chow. Our present rations have great bulk. It takes a
great effort and much time to.distribute this bulk on.the battlefield.
In the attack we now rely principally on two types of rations..
One is the "C" ration. It takes 6 pounds per man per day.- It is in
awkward packages.. The other type is the assault ration - the "K"
type ration of World War IL It is relatively light and small. Both
of these types have .a major defect. Troops exhausted to-the point
of dropping wouldn't - or couldn't- eat them. They might take the
meat part and eat that. But the rest of it was treated too many times
like a low grade dog biscuit, which it did taste like. It was chock-
full of vitamins, minerals, calorie, etc. But it was so dull and
tasteless, so-hard to eat, that exhausted men dropped them on the
ground and went to sleep rather than try to finish them.
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Shaw
UNCLASSIFIED
What was the result? Under rugged combat conditions the troops
lost their' resiliency - they could not bounce back. Too exhausted to
eat the dull food given them, they never recovered from exhaustion -
it pyramided: As' a result, tired men took more casualties-than they
needed to.
What we need is an assault ration of less than three pounds - so
good that the troops will eat it all - so nourishing that they can exist
on it for a Week or more.
As you are probably aware, we Marines are justifiably proud of
our well earned reputation for being the world's best fighting men.
But we are not at all proud-about accepting ideas or suggestions from
anyone that will help us continue to deserve that -reputation. We
solicit your help in solving our problems so that we will be able to
take some future Iwo Jima.
Thank you for your attention.
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THE ORGANISATION OF BRITISH NAVAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
R. V. Alred
Scientific Advisor to the Admiral
British Joint Services Mission
I feel a little out of place coming up here to talk on
Organisation. It is a subject which receives so much attention in
this country; a country where plans, schedules, programmes, slatings
are all part of the daily life.
The impact of this was well illustrated to me the other
day. I was taking a British visitor around, showing him the sights
of Washington - the Lincoln Memorial, the Jefferson, the Capitol.
Finally we came to the Washington Monument, and of course he had to
go up and see the magnificent views from the top. There were not
many visitors there, but one little man seemed to be attracting 4
lot of attention; he kept going from window to window, obviously
in a state of great excitement, havinga good look dawn from each
window in turn. Finally, he couldn't contain his excitement any
longer - he rushed up to the attendant and said "Say! When are
you planning to get this into orbit".
I am sure that some of you are wondering how and. why a talk
on organisation found its way into a symposium.. having the theme "The
Ocean as the Operating Environment of the Navy". -However; a little.
reflection will show that it is an appropriate subject for this sym-
posium. Just as equipment design has to take into account-4hp
fluence of the sea) sq also has the organisation of the scieutists,
who are responsible for deyeloping that equipment: They must'be-
continually brought into contact with the oceans, with the ships,
and with the men that man them. They. must live with. the navy,
work with them, go to sea with them; otherwise they will produce
equipment which doesn't do the job it was made for.
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In the United Kinbdom, naval scientists are spread amongst
a large number of establishments whose work is controlled by various
Admiralty Departments. These establishments are of two types, those
concerned primarily with the development of material for fitting in
' the Fleet, and those concerned primarily with research and invest-
igation.
The responsibility for meeting the material needs of the
navy rests with the various material Departments in Admiralty, such
as the Department of Underwater Weapon Material, and the Department
of Radio Equipment; these Departments are naval manned. The
development work is carried out in establishments generally having
a mixture of scientific and naval personnel, with a Chief Scientist
and Naval Qa1Aain in dual responsibility. The naval personnel are
there as working partners, not as controllers. A list of the more
important development establishments, together with the responsible
Department of each, is shown in Table 1. The purposes of these
various establishments are self-evident from their names.
'Underwater Detection Establishment, Portland.
Underwater Countermeasures and Weapons Establishment,
Havant.
Torpedo Experimental Establishment, Greenock.
Admiralty Signal and Radar Establishment, Portsmouth.
Admiralty Compass Observatory, Slough.
Admiralty Engineering Laboratory, West Drayton.
In addition there are a number of smaller facilites, such as the
Underwater Launching Establishment, the Admiralty Oil Laboratory
and the Central Dockyard Laboratory. The development establishments
employ about half of our naval scientists.
The organisation of the research establishments is differ-
ent. These are manned and administered entirely by, civilian person-
nel - scientific or engineering - and they report to Admiralty De-
partments which are similarly civilian manned. Table 2 gives a list
of the principal research establishments and their controlling
Departments.'
? Admiralty Research Laboratory is mainly concerned with In-
vestigations in the fields of-physics and mathematics - problems of
oceanography; acoustics, fluid dynamics, etc. -
Services Electronics Research Laboratory is responsible
for research..on electron tubes, storage tubes, solid state devices,
etc.
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Admiralty Materials Laboratory is concerned with physical
and chemical research into new materials - plastics, ferrites, sili-
cones, etc.
Naval Construction Research Establishment is concerned with
investigations relating to the design of ships' structures:
Admiralty Experimental Works is concerned with investi-
gations of hull shapes, stability of ships, etc.
In addition to those mentioned on the table, there are
various smAJler laboratories such as the Admiralty Hydro-Ballistic
Research Establishment, the R. N. Physiological Laboratory, and
the Admiralty Experimental Station at Perranporth.
These laboratories are responsible for researches and in-
vestigations not directly associated with dated naval requirements ;
it is to these that we look mostly for our scientific breakthroughs.
You will have noticed that a number of different Admiralty
Departments are responsible for the work in the various research
and development laboratories. It is however a feature of our or-
ganisation that all the scientists in these various laboratories
are in one scientific organisation - The Royal Naval Scientific
Service -with central direction as regards careers, training, etc.,
and also as regards the science which they are applying in their
various investigations. This gives a number of advantages compared
with having completely separate organisations at the various labora-
tories:-
(a) The scientists have a common loyalty through a scientific
chief direct to the Board of Admiralty; they have a common
link with the Navy thereby.
(b) There is greater freedom of movement of personnel, with no
feeling of disloyalty to one's previoUs laboratory.
(c) With the whole field of naval science availablel there is a
greater chance of a scientist finding the work which Is .most
congenial for him, and which best suits his .particular skills.
There are a larger number of opportunities for .promotion to.
higher posts (since consideration is not limited 'to persons
in the particular establishment having the vacancy).
(a.)
Transfers are good for the scientist; they give him a
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rejuvenation of outlook and a development of interest in new scien-
tific fields. They are also good for the Navy; firstly, from the
consequent cross-fertilisation of scientific ideas, which is es-
sential if progress is to be maintained; secondly, from the more
efficient use of available manpower, with transfer of effort as the
changing needs of the Navy give emphasis first to one field and
then to another.
I referred earlier to the need for the scientist to under-
stand the Navy and its needs. It is primarily in the development
establishments that this understanding is fostered.- In these es-
tablishments the naval officer and the scientist are mixed at all
levels of responsibility.. I would like to dwell a little on the way
they work together. In Admiralty Signal and Radar Establishment,
as an example, there are about 270 graduate scientists, and about
40 naval officers of whom about 20 are line officers and 20 are
electrical officers; these officers are on two-year appointments to
A.S.R.E.s, and in most cases have had recent sea experience. The
line officers are specialists in one or other aspect of naval war-
fare, such as gunnery, navigation, communication - and their duties
are manifold. They work as a member of a project team (under the
scientist Project Leader) ensuring that equipments being developed
will meet the needs of the Naval Staff; they advise their parent
Staff Division in Admiralty of the progress of development, and of
new possibilities; they maintain liaison with the appropriate naval
training school concerning handbooks and training aids for the equip-
ment under development. The electrical officer similarly works as
a member of the project team paying particular attention to relia-
bility and maintainability of equipment. This is where the naval
officer gets to know the scierytist and his way of life. The naval
officer asks for some.particular facility and the scientist wants to
know the justification for its inclusion; the scientist dreams up
a new circuit, and the naval officer wants to know whether it is as
reliable as the old one. Discussion goes to and fro as different
problems - and different. possibilities - arise. This is the breeding
ground for .ideas - ideas for meeting a naval operational need with
a piece of engineered hardware - ideas for new operational concepts
based on a recent scientific invention. Then the scientist and naval
officer take the-equipment to sea on trials -we have no separate
Operational Development FOrce for the evaluation of our eqUipment.
They learn at first hand how successful they have been in deciding
amon&b the many confliting requirements and possibilities - and
how uns'uccessf'ul, because there is always something they wish they
had done differently.
Some ay that development is slowed up because the scientist
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is not free to develop equipment as simple engineering considerations
would suggest. He must take into account the sometimes conflicting
views of his naval officers. Further, if the naval officers are to
have recent sea experience, they must change frequently. One then
finds that different naval officers draw different conclusions from
their sea experience, and a newcomer frequently tries to change
things which have been pressed for by his predecessor. The scien-
tist, who remains with the project throughout, must accordingly'
develop a critical attitude as to May" not just "what" do you
advise. And of course, it isn't long before he thinks he knows
better than the naval officer - and one more scientist has then
cleared the first hurdle in his naval education.
TABLE 1
ADMIRALTY DEVELOPMENT ESTABLISHMENTS
Establishment Controlling Directorate
H.M. Underwater Detection Director of Underwater Weapon
Establishment, Portland Material.
H.M. Underwater Countermeasures Director of Underwater Weapon
and Weapons Establishment, Havant Material.
Torpedo Experimental Establish- Director of Underwater Weapon
ment, Greenock. Material.
Admiralty Signal and Radar Director of Radio Equipment.
Establishment, Portsmouth.
Admiralty Gunnery Establish- Director of Naval Ordnance.
ment-, Portland.
Admiralty Compass Observa- Director of Compass Department.
tory, Slough.
Admiralty Engineering Labora- Engineer in Chief.
tory, West Dr'ayton.
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oakum WEARCH ESTABLISHWITS
Establishment
Admiralty Research Laboratory,
Teddington.
Services Electronics Research
Laboratory, Baldock.
Admiralty Materials Laboratory,
Holton Heath.
Naval Construction Research
Establishment, Dunfermline.
Admiralty Experimental Works,
Hasler.
Controlling Directorate
Director of Physical Research .
Director of Physical Research.
Director of Rngineering and
Materials Research.
Director of Naval Construction.
Director of Naval Construction.
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AN ADDRESS
by Lee A. DuBridge
President, California Institute of Technology
It is a great pleasure to participate in this occasion in
honor of two of my awn friends. It was my pleasure to be associ-
ated with Bob Conrad during and after the war. I watched. with great
interest especially the way in which he so effectively participated
in the initial organization of the Office of Naval Research. His
intelligent understanding and wise guidance in those days were
determining factors in the great achievements which can be credited
to ONR in the past ten years. I shall return to this subject later.
The difficult and complex subject of this nation's regearch
program in pure and applied science is being much discussed these
days, and one hesitates to add any additional words to what is al-
ready a voluminous literature on the subject. Especially do I ?
hesitate. when I realize that I have no new thoughts to add; the
best I can do is to arrange some old ideas in a different ,order, or
to express them in different words. But I often. take compirt in a
saying that is attributed to Oliver Wendell Holmes which goes,
remember correctly, something like this: "Sometimes it is more
important to emphasize the obvious than to elucidate the ascure."
It is a wonderful quotation, for emphasizing the obvious iO one of
my favorite occupations. Most speeches by.college presidents, of
course, do the same thing.
********-****-X X-X-*XCX-34 3: ***********.********** X X * X-**-X-X *-X **if***
Text of remarks at the banquet of the Second,Symposima,on Basic. and
Applied Science in the Navy sponsored by the Office of Naval Re
search, El Cortez Hotel, San Diego, California, March 11, 1958.
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Nevertheless, the nation's research program is an important
subject and it is well that we explore fully and repeatedly. It
is a complex problem, so.it pays to keep repeating and keep empha-
sizing its fundamental aspects. It is an ever changing problem --
so that our emphasis must shift from time to time.
Just now the country is engaged in a re-examination of its
whole program of scientific research and development. This is all
to the good -- and we can already see that worthwhile results will
emerge. At the same time, we must be careful lest in the heat of
excitement over recent events we act hastily or unwisely -- and
thus cancel out the progress we may have made.
Our current excitement was stimulated by the first launch-
ings of earth satellites. And these events, which can truly be
classed as man's first steps into space, have caused an avalanche
of sudden interest in space research. If we can get an object 1000
miles off the earth, we can get off 10,000 miles, 100,000 miles --
to the mobil -- to Mars. True enough! But so what? Does this mean
we must initiate a military conquest of the moon -- of all space?
Are we going to have an American colony on the moon sonn -- a
49th state?
' Is the space around the earth soon to be filled. with flying
platforms equipped to spy on all the earth, and to drop hydrogen
bombs when hostile events appear to be taking place below?
Unfortunately, these are not flippant questions; for all of
these things and many more still more fabulous and flamboyant ones
are being proposed and apparently seriously discussed in the hails
of Congress, of the Pentagon, and in the columns of newspapers and
magazines. Thus we are uncomfortably 'close to the situation where
one of the- great technical achievements in man's history, instead
of stimulating a vastly improved and valuable program of real re-
search, is being allayed to convert us into a- nation of space 'cadets
in which. billions of dollars will be wasted on fanciful and fruit-
less and. ill-conceived projects, while real scientific research is
neglected or even destroyed.
So, with your permission, I should like to look at this
problem very briefly in a very elementary way and ask how we can use
the challenge of Sputnik to enhance rather than damage our nation "s
scientific strength'. We'have the opportunity of a generation to
improve our research. program. Let us not let it slip from us by
diverting our attention to chasing butterflies.
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Du Bri. dg e
Let us start by trying to clear up one simple matter. Let
us remember that launching objects into space is not In itself a .
scientific achievement. It is an achievement of engineering or tech-
nology. The scientific problems relating to orbits in gravitational
fields were solved by Kepler and Newton nearly 300 years ago.
Newton computed the speed. with which an object would have to be
hurled in a horizontal direction to get into a stable orbit around
the earth. But it took nearly 300 years of technological develop-
menta in-rocketry, electronics, navigation, control and similar
fields to accomplish the job. I am not denying that many good
scientists cOntributed to these technological developments, nor that
it did not take many discoveries in basic science to make them pos-
sible. But rocket launching is still a highly developed technology
and is not a branch of science. That doesn't make rocketry any
less interesting or less important or less valuable; but let us be.
careful of our terminology.
But, like many branches of technology, rocketry can be a
very useful tool for the scientist and I think it is very important
that we develop this tool to the utmost and use it boldly and intel-
ligently for scientific purposes.
In order to discuss this matter, however, it is necessary
first to clear away some illusions, some delusions -- and some down-
right lied. We need to remind ourselves that just because a couple
of objects are now traveling around the earth in stable orbits is
no sign that all of Buck Rogers' adventures and achievements are
immediately possible or desirable. I admit that to deny the im-
mediate possibility or feasibility of some of the common Buck Rogers
notions is to open myself to the charge of being a shortsighted
old mossback. That is a risk I will have to take.
And I am going to start out taking risks in a big way by
saying flatly and firmly that I do not believe that the conquest.
and occupation of the moon-have-the slightest military value or
interest. Nor do I believe that. satellites floating around the
earth are of the slightest use, in the foreseeable future, as
bombing platforms or, indeed, for carrying out any other hostile
act against an enemy except' spying On him.
I think that the physicists and engineers who are listening
to me will readily understand what I mean when I question the value'
of a satellite as a weapon-launching platform. People who are used
to flying in, airplanes, however, have grdwn u*Sed to the idea that
if you drop something from a plane it falls to the earth -- and,
indeed, if you just let go of the Object at exactly 'the right place
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DuBridge
you can hit anything you please. Many such people find it hard to
believe th0.-t if you try to drop an object frdm a satellite nothing
happenp. Exactly. nothing! The object stays right there with you.
Even if WU give it a moderate push it will separate itself from you
but slightly -- and then simply become another satellite, circling
the earth alongside of the vehicle from which it was ejected. If .
you gave the object a more vigorous push, and in the backward di-
rection, it would, start falling to the earth -- but as it fell it
would Pifck, up speed, and since its angular momentum would remain
constant it, would simply-fall to a lower orbit and rotate there
with a shorter period -- and at a higher linear speed.
There is, of coa#se, the possibility that by firing our
bomb backward from the vehicle with a rocket blast one could con-
ceivably bring the bomb to a condition of zero angular momentum at
such a point that it would fall vertically and hit the target --
if the earth's rotation brought it into line at just the right
instant. But, knowing the difficulty of accurate bombing from an
airplane at,39,000 feet going 500 miles per hour (or 8 miles per
minute), I defy anyone to be optimistic in the near future about
accurate retrobombing from a vehicle a million feet above the earth
and going 18,000 miles per hour, which is 5 miles per second.-
I don't say that this is ultimately impossible. I only say
I don't see any sense to :it when we will soon be able to launch
ballistic missiles so much more accurately, effectively and econo-
mically, and_ hit any place we please without ever leaving the sur-
face of the earth at all. Paradoxically, the large rocket has
opened up. the conquest of space; but for military purposes, has Made
space undecessary.
But, of course, our space cadet replies by saying that he
is going to place a stationary platform above the earth which can
be i'apeuvered around like a magic carpet and from which a bomb can
be droPped at will on any point. 'But there are several minor 'dif-
ficulties with that idea too. First, a platform which remains for
a- long time above a single point on the earth is not 'stationary 'at
all, but is in an orbit which is rotating around the earth with the
same speed as the earth's rotation -- namely, once in 24 hours,
This is the stable period for an orbit which is about 23,000 miles
4p -- not a very handy bombing altitude! And a l'ooloab released from
such a vehicle would not fall at all, but would have to be ejedted
backward as 'before. Furthermore, one would be confined to targets
exactly on the earth's equator, for that is the only great -circle
above which there can be an orbit whieh does not alter its lati- ?
tude, and above which the vehicle could remain apparently
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DuBridge
stationary. A stationary space platform at other latitudes is just
not feasible. And who wants to bomb anything on the equator?
Fina3 1 yl of course, 3)1.1..r space errthnslast retreats to the
moon and says he will launch his missiles from there. Well, more
power to him! He'll find the temperature a bit variable (boiling
water by day; liquid air by night!); will find the lack of air,
water and any appreciable or usable source of energy a bit incon-
venient; and will be bothered by the logistic problem of shooting
his materials and supplies and weapons up there in the first place.
Why shoot a load of explosives 240,000 miles to the moon, then
240,000 miles back to hit a target only 5000 miles away is more than
I can understand. In addition, I'll guarantee to shoot. 1000 mis-
siles from the U. S. to Moscow while our moon man is waiting 12
hours, more or less, for the earth to turn around to bring Moscow
into shooting position. Finally, it is interesting to note that
a bomb projected on a zero-angular-momentum path from the moon to the
earth will take just 5 days to get there! That's rather a long time
of flight for any projectile. And we will hope the bombardier can
figure correctly which side of the earth will be up by then.
I haven't even begun to recite the real problems of space
warfare. Any physicist could quickly figure out many more. True,
he could also figure ways of getting around some of them. But I
suggest that when we make ourselves believe that because we 've got
one 30-pound satellite in orbit is justification for squandering
billions of dollars in the so-call ed military conquest of space is
jumping to premature conclusions, to say the least.
Military rocketry, of course, is very important. ICBM's
and IRBM's are an essential part of our arsenal, and let's don't
let space dreams interfere with our getting some more good reliable
rockets soon. Also earth satellites for military reconnaisance
purposes will have considerable _utility -- and .I am all for them.
And there may be other unforeseeable uses. There is plenty 'to do
without trying to nail the American flag on the whole solar system
by next week.
But if some so far inarticulate military man should conclude
that only a moderate. program of space technology would satisfy his
needs, he might still be convinced that we need to go in for space
cadet projects solely for prestige purposes. Sputnik certainly
shocked us into realizing the importance of technical prestige in
the world.
Here, of course, we face. horribly difficult problems that
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cannot be answered by scientific considerations alone. Granted there
is no scientific advantage in giving the man in the moon a black eye
or a scar on his cheek, haw many million dollars is it worth to do it
anyway -- just to show the world what a great people we are? I
honestly do not know. My awn advice would be to let the moon alone
unless or until we are able to make a serious' attempt to get informa-
tion of scientific value. And I should like to suggest that American
scientists, as a group, adopt a similar position -- namely, that we
are not .space cadets; that space stunts done just because they are
stunts are not worthy of high priority unless they embody or assist
in a real scientific experiment.
Now there are indeed many scientific experiments that ought
to be performed and that we should be working on. The ONR-IGY
program is a sound one and should be pushed. If we get busy with
these and other programs,, the scientific value will be great -- and
to the thoughtful people of the world the propaganda value will also
be great -- greater by far than for expensive and useless stunts.
But America faces a grave problem at the present time. Can
we indeed persuade the people of the country and persuade Congress
that large funds should be spent for sound scientific experiments
in space science and technology, but that we should not waste large
sums on pseudo-military, pseudo-scientific or Buck Rogers projects?
All of this, I must confess, seems to have little to do with
the theme of this symposium on the science and technology of the
oceans nor the purpose of tonight's dinner, which is to recognize
a distinguished scientist for his contribution to the nation's
military strength. But there are several connections between what
I have said and what you are here for. Perhaps I should say I have
thought up several excuses for talking to you tonight about satel-
lite research. In the first place, the Robert Conrad medal is being
awarded to a physicist who was a' pioneer in World War II in the
development of rockets fOr important military uses -- rockets which
found: wide use throughout the world and helped mightily to win many
a battle on land,. sea, and in the air. Many of today's rocket tech-
niques stem from the work he helped to get started.
This same man also servea as a clOse adviser at the end of
the war to those who were organizing the Office of Naval Research.
Now I do not believe it is an exaggeration to say that the
problems relating to the prosecution of scientific research which
we faced at the end of World War II bear some resemblance to the
problems'we face today. We as a nation in 1946 were somewhat
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DuBridg e
flushed with the success of the technological projects in which we
had been engaged during the wax. The fact that our physicists,
chemists, mathematicians and other scientists had deserted their
science and had become successful engineers had given rise to s.
widespread impression that science and technology were the same ,
thing. "At last," some people said, "we have discovered the secret
of scientific research. Just organize big laboratories, hire lots
of workers, spend lots of-money and any scientific problem can be
solved. Just look at the way the Army solved the problem of atomic
energy." '
Fortunately those who were responsible for organizing the
work of ONR had other ideas. The scientists in the great wartime
laboratories of technology were about to return to their scientific
laboratories in the univeisities. Haw were they going to be aided
in getting their scientific work underway again? Haw were the
universities to be helped to rebuild their shattered programs of
research in basic science? And how were the laboratories of science
to be enabled to make use of the great new techniques which had
evolved during the war to aid in scientific exploration? It was a
time of grave decision. The country might have decided that mili-
tary technology was indistinguishable from basic science -- might
have continued the wartime research in radar, rockets and atomic
weapons to the exclusion of basic science. But a few people thought
differently. Among them were Charles Lauritsen and Bob Conrad. They
agreed that a way must be found to provide funds to the universities
on a broad and free basis to aid in the re-establishment of basic
science. And ONR was founded with that end in view. Years later,
after the soundness of the ONR concept had been established, other
agencies were created to assist in the task -- notably the National
Science Foundation. But history will have to give the credit to ONR
for blazing the trail and holding the fort during the critical post-
war years.
Possibly we are in a similar position today. The satellite
fever has created the impression that rocket.technology'is science,
that space cadets are the true scientists 'of' the future, and that
the natiOn's only forward looking scholars are those Who are plan-
ning to land on Mars.
Fortunately, the nation's scientific strength is far great-
er today than .it was in 1946. Fortunately, there are other agencies
joined with ONR in -the promotion of science for its awn sake. But
it may take the combined resources of all of us to make sure that we
maintain and strengthen our programs of basic science,,that.we use
the great new tools of space technology for sound scientific pur-
poses, and that we do not fritter away valuable resources and valu-
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DuBridge
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able talent on useless Buck Rogers stunts, or on false conceptions of
the military value of what is humorously called space conquest. We
ought to be able to justify the scientific exploration of space
for its awn sake, without pretending that it has a military value
which it cannot possess.
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I
I I
t
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1
CONFIDENTIAL
A SURVEY OF HYDROBIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF NAVAL OPERATIONS
S. R. GALLER,
Navy-Department
Office of Naval Research
Washington 25, D. C.
The term hydrobiology like its protean relative, oceanography,
may mean various things to the various scientific specialists who
collectively have established its rather nebulous boundries.
For our purpose, however, hydrobiology may be defined as the
interrelationship of the biological components with the physical and
chemical factors of marine, estuarine, and freshwater environments.
It includes biological oceanography as well as limnology. In addition,
hydrobiology serves as a convenient focal point for data derived from
field and laboratory studies and experimental investigations in most
of the classic biological disciplines.
In recent years, the United States Navy has developed a sub-
stantial interest in hydrobiology for it has become increasingly
apparent that a variety of problems which confront the Navy in
carrying out its assigned mission, stem from hydrobiological origins.
In additon, information derived fromhydrobiological investigations
offer a basis for the eventual development of new and improved
techniques, materials, components and systems which will be useful
in Naval operations. Let us proceed to review some of the U. S.,Navy-,Is
interests in hydrobiological research.
The prevention of marine biological deterioration and fouling
has been a problem of. concern to the world's navies since the days
of antiquity. An inventory of the techniques, materials and gadgets
which hive been advocated and tried in this field would make
fascinating reading indeed since in effect it would represent a
history of man's scientific interests and activities relating to the
sea. His efforts in discovering a means for preventing marine'
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deterioration and fouling, however, have not been crowned with
spectacular success. The problem continues to be a serious one
both in terms of financial losses and operational impairments. The
Prevention of Deterioration Center of the National Research Council
has estimated that losses from marine deterioration in the United
States run about $500 million annually. The Navy, in spite. of its
research, development and maintenance efforts to date; suffers
annual dosses estimated at between $50 million and $75 Million.
More serious, however, is the reduction in .operational efficiency
which results from marine biological deterioration and fouling.
A senior Naval Officer once sized up the problem very neatly by
stating that basically the service life of outboard equipment was
prOportional to its susceptability of attack by marine boring and
fouling agents.
To the best of our knowledge, this thesis has not been
subjected to vigorous statistical analysis. Nevertheless, one cannot
argue with the evidence that marine plants and animals do attach
themselves to the surfaces of man-made objects inthe sea including
pilings, ship and boat keels, hydrophones, transducer domes, harbor
defense nets, moored mines, etc. Nor can we argue with the evidence
that many of these organisms are able to attack these objects
eventually destroying or greatly reducing their service life.
The aforegoing does not imply a criticism of the existing
research and development activities aimed at controlling this
problem. Indeed, the phenolic resins which were developed to
reduce fouling on keels, and the many marine wood preservatives
which have been developed since World War II have greatly increased
the field service life of a variety of Navy equipments.
The fact remains, however, that most of the preservatives in
current use were developed without a knowledge of their mode of
action. Consequently, a large assortment of treatments and
preservatives have to be employed to control marine boring and
fouling pests in the many geographic,and enviornmental situations.
in which the Navy carries on its operations. No one -of the marine
preservatives and/or treatments in common use today may be expected
to provide full protection in every environmental situation of
current or potential concern to the Navy.
This is true interestingly enough in spite of the fact that,
although almost all phyla contribute to deterioration damage, most
of -such damage throughout the world is caused by organisms largely
confined to two phyla: the Phylum Mollusca (the Teredo or ship
worm), and the Phylum Arthropoda, Class Crustacea7(ITTinoria or
wood gribble, Balanus or barnacle).
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f.
Ga her
CONFIDENTIAL
One of the objectives of the hydrobiology research program is to
obtain sufficient information regarding the chain of vital processes
of the organisms responsible for deterioration and fouling to
discover those "links" which appear to be most susceptable to inter-
ference and, thus, control. On this basis, it is possible to design
chemical inhibitors for the control of the animals themselves
without regard to their geographic or environmental situations. Such
an objective, of course, calls for a well coordinated research
program in hydrobiology including marine ecological, physiological
and biochemical investigations. That the results will be well worth
the effort is evidenced by the fact that such diverse fields as
chemotherapy and insect control have made outstanding advances in
recent years based on fundamental knowledge of the organisms involved.
Even at the present annual level of Naval support of basic hydro-
biological researchl(less.than one quarter of one percent of the
estimated annual loss to the Navy from marine deterioration)the
program is yielding rich dividends in knowledge for the control of
these ubiquitous pests.
Marine organisms may be important causes of interference with
underwater acoustic communication and detection systems. Since
before World War II the literature has referred to the so-called
"false target" problem caused by marine animals which represent
acoustic targets sufficiently similar to targets of operational
significance to present a serious problem to the sonar man. The
World War II reports of submarine war patrols are replete with
references to hazards resulting from sonar contacts with false
targets. Even today, using equipment with a high degree of
resolution, reports of false targets are not infrequent.
The so-called deep scattering layer, discovered in the early
days of World War II is a classic example of biological interference
with the transmission and reception of acoustic energies underwater.
Another kind of biological interference is thAt which is represented
by marine biological sound producers including fishes, shrimps,
crabs, porpoises, etc. As most of us know, the sea is not the
stark, silent deep as represented in the fiction of yester year.
Indeed, acoustically it is more akin to Broadway and Times Square
during the rush hour, and it is this feature, in large measure of
biological origin, which constitutes a problem in the operation
of passive listening devices. The ambient noise produced by a
large school of sound emitting fishes can oftentimes result in a
very poor signal to -noise ratio.
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Finally, there is an increasing body of scientific evidence
becoming available which definitely implicates very small planktonic
organisms as primary causes of biological interference with the
propagation of acoustic energies underwater. Until recently, the
acousticists and physicists concerned with submarine acoustics
were of the opinion that very small biological particulates in the
water were of insufficient acoustic target size to constitute an .
attenuation problem. While this assumption appeared to be valid
when considering the acoustic effects of individual small organisms
the fact remains that usually these individuals are not homogeneously
distributed throughout the water column. On the contrary, they tend
to congregate in response to changes in some of the factors of their
local environment. Thus, for example, changes in light intensity or
changes in the density of the medium may produce upward or downward
movements of whole populations of planktonic animals. The result of
congregation may be the development of a very substantial acoustic
target.
The hope of developing a control of biological acoustic inter-
ference, except in very highly localized environments, is utopian
indeed. However, there is one kind of information which can be
obtained from basic hydrobiological research which would be of
immediate practical value to the Navy. It should be noted that the
types of biological interference with underwater propagation of
acoustic energies have one characteristic in common. In each instance
it results from the presence of individuals or populations of marine
organisms which respond to changes in environmental factors. in
other words, marine animals and plants, like terrestrial fauna and
flora, exhibit seasonal and geographic variation in population,
especially the populations on the continental shelf. It would be of
great value to the Navy to be provided with data which could be
used to anticipate the probabilities of encountering marine animal
populations at various geographic locations according to species,
seasons, distance from shore, depth, etc. Such information might
well play an important role in planning a fleet exercise or operation.
It would certainly be of considerable value to the submarinerlfcr
example, in predicting-underwater sound conditions likely to be -
encountered, and in interpreting and evaluating ,acoustic information
obtained in the field.
During the aforegoing discussion an effort has been made to
illustrate in some detail a few of the Navy's interests in hydro-
biology. There are a number of other hydrobiological problems of
considerable concern to the Navy. The limitations of space do not
permit a detailed presentation of these problems. However, it is
hoped that the following inventary.will serve to illustrate the
diversity of Naval interests in thie field.
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1. Hydrobiological aspects of surface and submarine
concealment:
? Bioluminescence: During certain seasons of the year and in
certain geographic locations, as for example, the Central Pacific
Ocean, blooms of bioluminescent organisms occur in the oceanic waters
at the surface and down to considerable depths brightly illuminating
the sea when disturbed mechanically. Under these conditions a
surface ship or a submarine close to the surface, a mine field or
even a swimmer may produce-sufficient disturbance of the water to
result in the production of bioluminescent wakes and bow waves
which can be detected easily from' aircraft.
Ambient noise:' The changes in the quality and quantity
of ambient noise of a biological origin due to the presence of a
submarine, a newly laid mine or a team of underwater swimmers can
increase the probability of detection by an alert enemy.
2. Survival at sea:
Successful survival at sea under emergency Conditions may
owe much to our knowledge of the habits and identities of dangerous
organisms as well as the edible flora and fauna of the oceans.
Similarly the chances for surviving a period of isolation on land
is in large measure dependent upon our ability to discriminate the
edible species of animal and plant from the poisonous and venomous
forms. It is considered quite important to develop a series of
antitoxins and antivenoms for self treatment in the field in
instances when the individual has ingested poisonous forms or when
he has been injured by the venomous freshwater or marine fishes
which are abundant in many localities of interest to the Navy.
3. Protection of underwater swimmers:
This problem in Large measure may be considered as part
of the emergency.survival problem. However, the necessity for
minimizing the chances of failure of a mission involving underl4atef'
swimmers lends additional emphasis to the need for developing an
effective deterrent against sharks, barracuda and other carniVb.rous
animals. Also, the underwater swimmer is likely to Cote into
contact with many carnivoi'ous and venomous marine ?pecide usually
not encountered by the life raft or island-dwelling urvl.V.-oi*, 66
far example, moray eels, poisonous corals, sting rays, poisonous
sea urchins, etc.
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Thus, it is important that the underwater swimmer be
provided not only with a practical knowledge of the behavior and
habitats of these organisms but also with a means of coping with
them or the injuries which they may inflict.
I. The role of marine biota in oceanic radioactive
contamination:
As the Navy provides itself with an increasing number and
variety of submarine nuclear weapons it must become increasingly
concerned with the problem of controlling radioactive contamination
resulting from their use. Toward this-end, it is essential that
we enhance our knowledge of the roles of marine flora and fauna
both in. the .mitigation of radioactive contamination and in the
spreading of contamination up through the food chain.
S. The biological effects of underwater blasts:
Closely related to the problem of controlling radioactive
contamination is the problem of minimizing damage to commercial
and game fish populations resulting from underwater explosive tests.
The Navy through its hydrobiological research program is cooperating
closely with State and Federal conservation agencies in developing
a body of knowledge regarding the seasonal and geographic distribu-
tion of marine and estuarine fisheries. This information is
invaluable in planning effective underwater explosive tests with
a minimum of damage to valuable fish and shellfish species.
In concluding this phase of our discussion it should be
mentioned that there are important hydrobiological implications
in such operations as promining and mine countermeasures as well
as anti-submarine warfare. Those considerations, however, must
be reserved for secret presentation.
The aforegoing has dealt largely with Naval'problems of
hydrObiological origin. The research program in hydrobiology, in
addition, plays a major role in encouraging investigations of
marine and aquatic animals and plants as biological models exhibiting
characteristics which are of interest to the Naval scientist. The
hydrodynamic 'characteristics and mechanisms of propulsion of many
? of these animals are of interest to a variety of Naval specialists
including surface ship and submarine designers,.
Also, the abilities of certain marine And freshwater fishes
to detect and identify targets and home on them from great
distances deserves the attention of Naval scientists. The so-called
?
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a
Caller
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"long range" navigational skills of migratory fished by which they
are able in some manner presently-unknown to man, to migrate. over
great distances and to arrive with great accuracy at destinations
which in many cases proved to be the points of origin from which
they migrated from 3-7 years earlier, is of obvious interest to the
Navy. An elucidation of these phenomena may in the
establishment of new concepts and eventually to the development of
new and improved mechanical or electronic sensors of direct value
to the Navy.
No discussion of the Navy's program in hydrobiological research
would be complete without mention of the possibilities of employing
such biological agents as photosynthetic algae as a means of
improving atmosphere control in enclosed spaces such as submarines.
In this connection, it should also be mentioned that devices
patterned after the gill systems of fishes deserve more attention
as another possibility for improving our gas exchange systems in
submarines.
In conclusion, the hydrobiology research program sponsored
by the Office of Naval Research is designed to provide the basic
information required to control or eliminate a number of problems
of current concern to the Navy. The program is also designed to
provide a foundation of information which may eventually lead to
the development of new and improved techniques, materials and
equipments which will be useful in furthering the Navy's mission.
f'
It is noteworthy that hydrobiology has long constituted
a field of interest to the Navy of the U.S.S.R. At present, the
Russian Naval Adademy is the only one known to the writer which
requires its students to take a course in "Naval hydrobiology"
which covers mostof the problems presented in this paper.*.
This writer, as a matter of personal curiosity; recently endeavored
to compare the extent of USSR support of hydrobiological research
(as noted in the open scientific literature) which he considered
to have a relevance to Naval interests, with support of hydrobiology
in this country. Since there was no way of determining the actual
Russian expenditures in this research area, an estimate was made
of how much it would cost to support a similar program in this
country. The figures, although admittedly a crude estimatelnever-
theless, may provide Some basis for comparison. It-was estimated
that the hydrobiology program being conducted in the USSR (knowledge
of which was derived from the open literature) would require
approximately 18.3 million dollars for its support in the United
States.
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RESEARCH PROBLEMS OF SUBMARINE
. OPERATIONS UNDER-ICE IN TBE ARCTIC OCEAN
Dr. Waldo K. Lyon
U..S..Navy Electronics Laboratory
San Diego 52, California
During the past eleven years, the U. S. Fleet has conducted a
small but persistent study of submarine operations in ice covered
seas. This study has given the diesel submarine the ability to live
and work in ice fringe areas, the marginal zone from open ocean to
about fifty miles inside the arctic pack.
With the advent of the nuclear powered submarine into the
Arctic Ocean, as demonstrated by USS NAUTILUS last September, the
vast north coast of the USSR was opened to patrol by submarine. It
becomes, therefore, an exposed, ocean coastline as extensive as the
U. S. Canadian coast from San Diego to the Bering Strait.
A submarine patrol from Pearl Harbor to Murmansk is no
greater than from Pearl Harbor to Hong Kong. Furthermore, the ice
canopy overhead provides unevalled protection against air or surface
nraft or, missile. ?
Though the arctic submarine closes the circle around the .
.USSR, our advantage is not unilateral because the ice gives the Soviet
submarines cover from their arctic ports through Denmark Strait to our
North Atlantic coast. Furthermore, northern Canada now becomes a set
of-submarine passage ways including'Hudson Bay; which reaches near to
the heartland of the American Continent.
Submarine operations under sea ice have generated questions
of ship engineering and properties of the ocean requiring immediate
empirical answers. In this brief review; we cdn only state the
questions. We shall also try to indicate which areas require .
research. It is long term research in ocean-cryology that will give
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UB the. understanding of sea. ice we now lack and that will discover
new concepts for submarines to exploit in the Arctic Ocean.
Obviously, navigation under sea ice means knowing ship's
position similarly, to open water, and similarly to open, water, if we
use bottom features to fix position, we need precise, detailed bathy-
metric charts of the Arctic Ocean and its approaches. For twelve
years, the USSR has been actively engaged in charting the arctic
ocean by aircraft landings on the sea ice. Their published stations
are shown in Figure 1. Their published bathymetric_chart is shown in
_Fig: 1 - USSR Observations by
aircraft landings'
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Figure 2. Ten years ago, we thought the Arctic Ocean to be a flat
CXISIA APt ???? aba4
CCCCC Mire CCCCCCCCC ? 04CAIIA
?
1,
akl
-....., ,
4v.. al 14-
vt.., I/ \-:--
? ,,,,,I _IA ,,,...? (.
,?;-'1-f---,:---::!..):--.:-.54,.: ...._ d.4.-cg., 4 I,:,I
4..":::!. `,21.-> *. ? .z.;'':':?-?%??? -...'."-.7.--..??.::::.ZI Ij 1 k: 1
,7*.?^147.'l ??? ,.......7,42,A?fr,L- , 2.7." I I N
:, ..- I 'Th::. .-?"' \ -? ?
j_;\;-,., ....ii? . ? i .,...,/ !,.,1:1.,x
.,.
Fig. 2 - USSR Bathymetic and current chart
basin but we now find that it contains the Lomonosov mountain range
and has complex bottom features valuable for navigation by bathymetry.
In contrast, the United States has two floating ice bases,
namely Ice Island T-3 and the iqy ice floe Station A. We must catch
up on bottom charting by using submarines which .surface periodically
to precisely fix position by radio methods and which, for example,
use bottom planted sonar 'beacons for guidance to develop the features
-of seamount. Ti.' S. and Canadian icebreakers must get on with the
task of surveying the fringe areas, the Greenland Sea, the Lincoln
Sea and the Canadian Archipelago. '
Navigation by bathymetry is the old, reliable passive
method. Another old .reliable method is by star fix. Star fixes can
be made much' more accurate in ice covered than in open sea because
the stable surface permits the use of the most precise theodolite and
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star angles can be cut with an accuracy-equivalent to that of shore
based observation. Star fixes may be particularly useful in clear
sky, dark period of winter.
Of course, any electronic aid, e.g. LORAN, EPI, DECCA,
RADUX is applicable to the Arctic. Ocean'. However, to use the
electronic aid, to take.a star fix, to deliver a.missile, or to act
as radar picket requires surfacing in sea ice, and therein lies the
major problem.
To date, .a topside sonar system has been the principal tool
for under ice diving? The sonar system is required:
(a) to evaluate the type, distribution andthickness of
the ice canopy;
(b) to guide ascents into water openings or brash, ice, or
(c) to find the thin, recently frozen sheet ice in leads
during winter operations.
Evaluation of type of ice canopy, for example, giant floe, small floes
or brash ice, is required in order to decide in any particular area
if speed should be reduced because probability of existence of a.lead,
or small water opening, or brash ice, is sufficiently high to warrant
search for the particular opening in which to surface. The topside
sonars must then guide the ascent into the opening by detection of
all ice blocks above the vessel throughout the ascent, indicating
their thickness and approximate size.
The topside hull should be smooth, curved clean swept in
order to permit surfacing in ice cluttered leads or brash ice, or
breaking through thin ice sheet which often forms over leads at any
season. All through the hull equipment (radar, periscope, antenna,
sonar and snorkel) should retract flush with protective covers into
the topside surface,. This null type is essential to extending
submarine operations into the winter season. ?
. To date, our submarine experience has 'been-entirely with
summertime conditiohs, and the vertical 'ascentinto a water opening -
has been used exclusively,. The procedure is obvious. Let us assume
the submarine is under an ice canopy similar to that shown in Figure
3, which is a composite of vertical photographs taken at an altitude
of 3500 ft. over the Beaufort.Sea in September. The conventional
scanning sonar gives a fairly accurate pictureof_the canopy over a
2000 yd. circle, 'showing. major openings and ice floes. A vertical
sonar screen is used to observe the ice directly above the submarine
and'to determine its thickness. This vertical screen consists of
five echo sounders evenly spaced along the topside of the boat. The
submarine must maneuver directly under the water opening, observe
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Fig. 3 - Vertical Photograph of Sea Ice. Scale 400 Yds.: Inch
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relative drifts of sea ice overhead and make the stationary, vertical
ascent, correcting as necessary to match drift of the sea ice. This
is a slow process, taking, perhaps forty minutes to accomplish, but
is necessary because of the present configured hull and the
susceptibility of topside equipments to cThnge from collision with
even small pieces of ice.
It is believed that with a clean, protected topside hull
the ascent should be at slant angle, driving up with controlled speed
into the slot in the ice canopy. Let us suppose, at a cruising depth
of 600 ft., the decision has been made that the ice canopy is
satisfactory for surfacing and speed has bean reduced to about 5
knots. Suppose we use a sonar scanner of 2 total beam angle and
sweep pe surface 700 yds. ahead and find a slot'sufficiently large.
This 2 scanner should "see" all ice pieces 15 yds, in diameter or
greater. While scanning our chosen spot of surface, which is perhaps
about a 500 ft. square, we are moving ahead and at 500 yds. we start
a 20o ascent, from 600 ft., controlling speed and buoyancy. At 500
yds., we should "see" all pieces of ice at least 12 yds. in diameter,
moving on, we can detect smaller ice pieces and cut down the area
scanned. At 150 yds. from our chosen surfacing touch point, keel
depth 240 ft., we should detect pieces 6 ft. in diameter, or greater,
i.e., something about 5 tons or greater. From here in to breaking
surface, the scanner is looking at grazing angle to the surface and
gives the final check of clear length of runway ahead of our touch
point. It is then housed behind heavy steel cover to protect against
collision with small ice chunks on breaking surface. From 150 yds.
in to breaking surface, we use the vertical topside screen formed by
five echo sounders spaced along the topside to tell us what shows up
above the hull during the final break through to surface. Keep in
mind, it is the vertical beam that tells us the ice thickness; the
slant angle, scanning beam does not. Thesetopside vertical echo .
sounders work right up to breaking surface and can sustain direct-
collision with ice, as has been demonstrated on NAUTILUS and by the
echo sounder in any icebreaker hull. '
In addition to the example just described of surfacing in
water openings, the submarine must be capable of surfacing in brash
ice of nearly 100% coverage as illustrdted by Figure 4. The 'photo-
graph shows REDFISH (SS 395), a Fleet class submarine, on station in
brash ice 110 miles northeast of Pt. Barrow during,August 1952. For
five days REDFISH remained on this station, then without benefit of
aerial reconnaissance or any other form of assistance and under
complete radio silence, REDFISH submerged and proceeded under ice to
find a water opening nine hours later in which to ascend. After.
batteries were recharged, another dive of three hours brought open
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_
`-?r?-??swv...t.
_
-aff ?? ? ???1"'
-?-? ? ajigiV
1,4
14..1--
?z-,..t ? - ? $.44 . 1.4-4.t.:? ? 4.
Fig. 4 - USS REDFISH (SS395)
in Sea Ice, Beaufort Sea
water near the Alaskan coast. These dives required more knowledge of
the sea ice and detailed oceanography of the area than the more
spectacular cruise of NAUTILUS last summer.
Under brash ice, the 20 beam scanner at slant angle would
show practically a continuous ice sheet but at vertical position
would detect the brash character. The ascent would be similar to our
previous example to a keel. depth of about 75 ft.) then by vertical
ascent and to choose a satisfactory spot to "shoulder" a way through
the brash ice.
A third'typical situation iS the shallow area i.e. water
150 ft. deep, and there-are many shallow areas of operational sign-
-ificance, for-example, the.Bering Sea, the Chukchi Sea, the great
Siberian shelf and parts of the Kara Sea. In the shallow area, the
2 bean scanner serves the prime function of estimating depth-of any
massive ice ahead and determining the dimensions of a water opening
' in which an 'ascent is attempted.
Extending to winter operations, we have no experience
except in the Bering Sea where surfacing should be possible wherever
desired. In the Arctic Ocean, we must make winter* observations for
coverage, thickness and existence of fresh frozen leads. Can the
submarine break through these ice sheets, or must we provide heat or
48 s
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?
?
?
Lyon
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explosive cutting methods? The winter operation, I believe you
realize, is a vast problem, yet to be defined, let alone studied.
We depend on sonar to guide our ascents in sea ice; yet,
we must admit we know very little about the acoustic properties of
sea ice. From analysis of records taken on the topside vertical echo
sounders, which operate at about 22 Kc, we believe summertime sea ice
to be a volume scatterer at this frequency. It is acoustically like
a ship's wake. 22 Kc sound is scattered back from .throughout the
entire volume of the ice and not from its bottom interface - in fact,
this bottom interface is difficult to describe. A piece of over-
turned sea ice is shown in Figure 5, which illustrates' the open
Fig. 5 - Overturned Sea Ice Showing Honeycomb Structure.
(Scale About 2ft:inch)
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structure of the ice. This structure is free flooding and holds many
'air bubbles, which, as inwakes, are suspected to act as intense
sound scatterers.
Sound observations have been made at one other frequency,
namely, 1 Kc. These were conventional sound transmission runs to a
distance of 100 miles under ice in the Beaufort Sea. It was these
sound observations that kept REDFISH on station in the sea ice
previously described and shown in Figure 4. The results indicate
that at this low frequency the sea ice (in summertime) acts not as an
intense scatterer but as a thin refracting layer against the near
perfect reflector of the air boundry. The top reflecting boundry is
not necessarily the physical topside surface of the sea ice because
of the porosity of the sea ice. At 1 Kc. the reflecting interface
is likely in the vicinity of the hydrostatic level of the sea within
the ice structure; hence) giving a uniform reflecting boundry
irrespective of large variation of height of ice above the sea
surface.
The obvious questions: what are the properties at other
frequencies? At what frequency does scattering take over? What
about changes:as freeze up sets in, autumn, winter and spring?
There is here a long term research of the physics of sea ice, its
growth and relationships to its acoustical properties.
In closing, I wish to simply mention other problems which
we face:
1. The mechanical and thermal properties of sea ice as a
function of growth, history and season so that we can design break
throUgh methods, thermal and/or mechanical.
2. The optical properties, including the amount of natural
light under ice, the transparency of the water and the amount of
light scattering, in order, for example, to estimate the assistance
to be expected from a TV camera during the last. 100 ft. of' ascent
into the,ice-canopy..
3. The electrical properties to determine, for -example.,
?
radid:transmission.characteristics dver sea ice with seasonal changes
in salihity,-ca,ceptibh of VLF under sea ice by a trailing floating
antenna. ? ?
4; Sea ice formation on wet surfaces, a problem somewhat
analagouss to icing on aircraft. For example, a most serious problem
146-are presently working on is the prevention of sea icing in
snorkel head valves 'when snorkeling undei.'winter conditions ofEir
suction temperatures below the freezing point and loaded with sea
spray. Other problems will appear in midwinter Arctic Ocean
operations when periscope, antenna, radar, or missile emerges from
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below ice into air temperatures of -356F.
5. Finally, a whole host of operational problems require
study, for example, the detection and attack of another boat under
ice, dr the weapon and attack method on surface ships when in ice,
or the use of mines uhder ice.
Perhaps, during 1957, the arctic submarine has come of age
through the advent of nuclear power. Five or six years ago, our
official position was that the transarctic submarine was still a
fantasy. Yet, today the Chief of Naval Operations should, perhaps,
consider adding a third force command to that of ComSubPAC and-
ComSubLANT, namely, ComSubARC.
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UNCLASSIFIED
' REQUIREMENTS IN MILITARY OCEANOGRAPHY
John Lyman
U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office
Washington 25, D. C.
The term "military oceanography" was proposed by Seiwell
(1, 2) with a rather restricted connotation, but I propose here to
give it a much broader one.
To begin with, we need a definition of "oceanography."
Some practitioners in the field during the last decade have wasted
what seems to me to be a great deal of effort in attempting to
settle whether "oceanography" is in itself a separate science, or
a group of sciences; or whether it is a fraction of each of a number
of inter-related disciplines; or whether perhaps it is not "oceano-
graphy" at all, but "oceanology" or "the marine sciences." I
prefer to define oceanography as the scientific basis of seamanship,
just as physics is the base of engineering, or nautical astronomy
of celestial navigation, or chemistry of soap-manufacturing.
"Military oceanography," then, is the scientific basis of
seamanship as it concerns military operations, taking the term
"military" in its most inclusive sense. Military oceanography
differs from the kind of oceanography commonly carried on for
purely civilian pursuits in that it involves consideration of factors
affecting devices such as sUbm. azines or ordnance., affecting problems
as-detection or secure communications, and affecting operation's
such as wholesale destruction or delivery of vast quantities of men
and material where no port facilities exist. On the other hand,
militany oceanography is for the most part unconcerned with much
of the scientific basis of fishery seamanship -- the plankton counts;
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analyses for dissolved gases, nutriehts, and trace elements; and
year-crass studies that currently occupy such an important place
in fishery investigations.
The most significant military use of oceanography lies in
its ability to predict occurrences in the sea. Some phenomena affect-
ihg the seaman have .been under observation for so long that-their
prediction is taken for granted. Both the mariner and the seaside
dweller have such confidence in the ability of the tide tables to
predict sea level to 2 or 3 feet -- only 0.02% or 0.03% of the
average depth of the ocean -- that -events like the North Sea flood
of January 1953 or Hurricanes Connie and Diane in New England in
1955 or Audrey in Louisiana in 1957 become horrible calamities.
Yet model studies, theoretical computations, and other analyses
made after the events have shown. that the extraordinary heights
of sea level reached in each of these cases have a firmly predict-
able basis. Unfortunately, these predictions cannot be issued a
year or even a week in advance, and the complexity of the organi-
zation required to produce storm-tide forecasts and the public
inconvenience that can result from a premature forecast that
fails to be verified are factors tending to hinder development
of comprehensive prediction services.
On the other hand, the tsunami warning service of the
U. S. Coast & Geodetic Survey in the Pacific, which is based on
the simple fact that earthquake waves arrive long before ocean
waves, is successful and valuable service, even though not every
potential earthquake seems to produce a tsunami, and thus occasional
warnings are distributed for waves that never materialize.
Two case histories from recent oceanographic operations
of the Hydrographic Office will further illustrate the value, of the
prediction approach in seamanship. The first example is connected
with the movement of cargo to the Arctic in connectibn with the
construction and maintenance of the DEW-Line and other polar
bases. When the -requirement for this movement was first laid
on the Military Sea -Transport Service in 1951-, so I am told, it
was accompanied by unseamanlike stipulations as to times and dates
at which certain deliveries had to. be made in the North. Although
the Navy and Coast Guard had been supplying weather stations
and the Petroleum Researve for several years, there was a prevailing
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impression that "ice is where you find it;" that nothing therefore
could be done about it; that schedules could ignore its presence;
and that the resulting damage had to be accepted.
However, ice damage to MSTS vessels and other costs
due to delay resulting from ice in 1951 reached the round total
of $17,000,000,. a sum which unfortunitely had not been provided
for in anyone's budget, and which even in the free-spending Korean
War days was unacceptable to comptrollers. The.subseq'uent de-
i.relopment by Hydro for MSTS of an ice-forecasting and recon-
naissance service with the expenditure of considerably less .than
$100;000 a year has been described by Bates, Kaminski, and Mooney
(3). In 1952, costs of ice damage and delay to MSTS vessels were
,cut to $6,900,000; in 1953 they were only about $1,000,000; and the
figure has stayed low in spite of greatly increased operations. In
1955, an exceptionally bad ice year, damage amounted to $4,800,000;
in 1956 it was $2,100,000; and last year it was around $1,000,000.
It would be ridiculous, of course, to claim that an expen-
diture of $100,000 annually on oceanography led directly to savings
of $10 or $15 million per annum. What manifestly has occurred,
however, is an awareness on the part of those laying down the
schedule requirements that it is no nore seamanlike to attempt
to take a ship from one port to another when ice conditions are
unsuitable along the route than to attempt to cross a bar in a ship
drawing 28 feet when there is only 26 feet of water on the bar. In
the latter case, we have the tide tables to guide us; in the ice situation,
the accumulated observations and experience of a century were
inadequate, and systematic reconnaissance by trained observers,
a special reporting net, and. scientifically-based forecasts drawing
on the principles of ice formation and drift, were required..
The second . example comes out of recent developments
by Hydro in methods for improving transoceanic crogsings by
surface vessels, from the standpoints of economy in time and fuel,
comfort of personnel, and minimization of damage to ships and
cargo. It is of -interest to point out that oceanography became
recognized as a science through Maury's dealing with this identical
problem 110 years ago (4). For sailing vessels Maury laid down
routes based on climatological averages which can scarcely be
improved on today (although some of the record voyages by sailing
UNCLASSIFIED
54
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ships were on routes that differed widely from his recommendations).
For steamers Maury was content to specify great-circle courses,
and great. circle courses have been standard to the present day,
far, far too long after the equipping of all ships with radio opened
the door to the possibility of continuously monitoring their passages
and furnishing guidance based on existing and predicted weather
situations.
At Hydro we have applied a technique for making wave
predictions to the five-day forecasts obtained from the Weather
Bureau, to produce long-range forecasts of wave conditions (5).
Knowing, from log book analysis, how various vessel types are
slowed down by wave ' conditions, we borrow a "minimum time-
track" technique from modern airline practice, to determine the
route which will get the ship to her destination most quickly (6).
We have furnished daily recommended routes to most MSTS sailings
for the past two winters; recently MSTS has cut one day off its
scheduled transatlantic passenger schedules. Here there can be
no argument as to the direct result of putting seamanship on a
scientific basis, and a saving of approximately 10% in time at sea,
with increased passenger comfort, is an achievement I am proud
to report.
What do we still need in military oceanography? Basically
we need an increased awareness in the Navy that good seamanship
,involves science just as much as do the design and functioning of
weapons, hulls, power plants, or communication systems. Specifically
we need overall direction for putting all aspects of seamanship
on a scientific basis. The Navy Once had -a Bill-eau of Navigation,
whose chief ornaments were the Naval Observatory and the Hydro-
graphic Office; but it turned into..a Bureau Of Personnel, and these
two scientific organizations ended up together with the Office of
Naval History . under the Deputy Chief of. Naval Operations for
Administration. A look at this week's program reveals significant
gaps in how other bureaus regard the ocean. Neither the bureau
that is responsible for seaplanes, for example, nor the bureau that
builds our docks and other underwater structures, appears to have
anything to say on basic or 'applied- science in this medium. And
a main complaint of the oceanographic contractors with the other
bureaus and with the Office ? of Naval Research -- or so it appears
to me -- is the intermittent way in which money for oceanography
55
...**??Mbinea???????od
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is ,turned off and on, so that long-term programs of investigation
cannot be carried through. The result is that these contractors,
the source of most of the country's trained oceanographers, are
discouraging any expansion in training, and are turning to non-. military
sources, such as the fishing industry, the IGY, and the great
foundations, for their support. With a constant quantity of competent
workers in the field expending an increasing effort on non-military
work, we can only look forward to a decreasing total of work on
military problems unless a firm policy is formulated at the top.
What else do we need in military oceanography? Analysis
of my two 'case histories of successful prediction operations shows
that in both programs the key was the obtaining of the necessary
data: In Arctic ice forecasting, existing systems for collecting
data were inadequate and we were required to establish our own
system of collecting and reporting. In ship routing, on the other
hand, we required nothing but a few hours of office time, since the
weather reporting and analysis system of the Weather Bureau was
already at hand, along with the Pierson-Neumann-James (7) method
of wave forecasting, and the key to their application to ship routing,
the effect of waves on ship speed, was available through analyses
of logbooks, where, in accordance with the dictates of prudent
seamanship, watch officers had regularly and religiously recorded
weather, course, and speed.
These examples both pertain to surface conditions, where
observations are made visually, and where experience at sea or
in the Air is the. best training for an observer.. For underwater
conditions, however, and where observations are made instrumentally,
other types of observer training are needed: Far too many pieces
of .naval underwater hardware are still being developed and tested
under conditions where no '.attention is paid to the oCeanography
Of the situation, and in environments such as Florida or the Caribbean
that have no resemblance to the areas where they are most likely
ultimately...to be used. The association of trained oceanographers
with these testing programs would not only provide infprmation on
the behavior of new hardware under varying ocean conditions, but
would assist those responsible for the tests in choosing areas most
suitable for the special requirements of tests, such as photography,
aerial observation, underwater recovery, and.the like.
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We need to recognize also that oceanic conditions vary-,
and that the average picture may not necessarily resemble the
instantaneous picture. For example, here is a portion of H. 0.
Pub. No. 225, showing average ocean surface temperatures in the
North Sea for December, and alongside it is a chart showing the
actual temperatures for December 1956. One is the climatic average
for the ocean -- the hydroclime; the other the synoptic picture of
the water 7-- the hydropsis.
The hydroclimic picture of the ocean is fairly well known,
and the IGY will add a good 'deal, particularly in areas not well
covered. For the hydroptic situation however, we still need to
develop faster means of recording, reducing, storing, and, above
all, recovering the data.
One final requirement of military oceanography concerns
reporting units. It will be observed that my two isothermal charts
of the North Sea show different thermometer scales. In these
cost-conscious days, military oceanography cannot afford the luxury
of having part of its data -- that taken by the military establishment
itself or by its direct contractors-- inBritish units, and part -- that
taken by scientists working as scientists, and by its foreign friends --
in metric units. The sometimes appalling complications that result
are too long to detail here, but I estimate that perhaps 25% of our
total oceanographic effort is wasted in making conversions between
the two systems, that training takes at least 50% longer and that
the overall reliability of our products is reduced at least 10%.
I am sorry to say that this .dichotomy was forced on the
Navy not by the Navy itself but by .the scientists, stemming from
a sacred cow attitude that simple seamen cannot be expected
to understand complex units like meters, grams, or degrees Celsius:.
This 'attitude sadly underrates the capabilities of the U. S. blue-
jacket. If boots and midshipmen can learn to call the floor the deck
and the drinking fountain the scuttlebutt, they can certainly master
the simple system of measurement units that not only is part of
the universal language of science but is. the everyday system
throughout all the world except that speaking English. When we
seek to standardize our naval operations, whether in NATO, _within
the Western Hemisphere, or among the independent countries of
Asia, we find ourselves out of step in our basic units.
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?
Once an overall direction for military oceanography is
established, one of its first moves should be to specify. that all
observations of the marine environment be expressed in metric
units. And the sooner we start. reckoning gunnery ranges in meters
instead of yards, submarine depths in meters instead of feet, and
oceanic soundings in meters instead of fathoms, the better off we
will be. Changes are expensive, and they are always resisted, often
merely because they involve something new; but even though this
country can afford to consider occupying the moon, I maintain
it cannot afford to continue the present wasteful system of duplicate
units.
In summary, the present requirements in military oceano-
graphy are:
I. An overall, coordinated program of investigating the
sea.
II. Expanded training of oceanographers.
III. Close association of oceanographers with all phases
of development and tests involving the ocean as an
operating environment.
IV. Development of data-collecting and handling systems
to serve as the basis of predictions of conditions.
V. Standardization on the metric system of units.
LITERATURE CITATIONS
1._ SEIWELL, H. R., General remarks on problems of military
oceanography, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 24(1); 246-247,
1943.
2. *SEIWELL, H. R., Military oceanography in tactical operations
of World War II, Trans. Amer..Geophys. Union, 27:' 677-681,
1946:
3. BATES,, C. C., H. KAMINSKI, and A. R. MOONEY, Development
' of the U. S. Navy's Ice Forecasting Service 194771953
and its geological implications, Trans: N. Y. Acad. Sci.,
2(16): 162-174, 1954:
4. LYMAN, JOHN, The centennial of pressure-pattern navigation,
Proc. U. S. Naval Inst., 74: 309-314, 1948.
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LYMAN
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5. SCHULE, J. J., and J. F. ROPEK, U. S. Navy Hydrographic
Office synoptic and prognostic wave charts, H. 0. Tech.
Rept. 16, 7 pp., 1955.
6. JAMES, R. W., Application of wave forecasts to marine navi-
gation, H. 0. Spec. Pub. 1, 78 pp., 1957.
7. PIERSON, W. J., G. NEUMANN, and R. W. JAMES, Practical
methods for observing and forecasting ocean waves, H. 0.
Pub. No. 603, 284 pp., 1955.
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UNCLASSIFIED
1
UNCLASSIFIED
MAN ANDTHE UNDERSEA ENVIRONMENT
L. G. Goff
Navy Department .
Office of Naval Research
Washington 25, D. C.
Whenever man's normal environment is appreciably altered,
almost the entire range of his physiological and psychological
functions becomes affected to a greater or lesser degree depending
upon the individual and on the severity of such alteration. This is
equally true of the young novice making his first underwater swim
across a pool, the deep sea diver or underwater swimmer, submariner,
aviator, or our anticipated space traveler. Whenever it becomes
desirable or necessary that man extend his activities into extremely
unfriendly environments, certain precautions must be taken and pro-
visions made to ensure that he will remain alive and operationally
efficient.
With this kind of general approach there is no real di-
chotomy of the environmental problem whether we are considering deep
sea or deep space operations. There is only a broad environmental
spectrum, a very limited portion of which' is i.eserved for man's
normal existence. Certain regions of this spectrum contain factors
which pose highly specialized problems but these do not severely
influence the broad general problem of. maintaining man outside his
assigned sphere..
?
The medical and biological sciences concerned with this .
problem have not always been aware of the close relationship which
exists among the various diyisionsof the environmental spectrum. .
Aviation Medicinel,Diving and Submarine Medicine, Space Biology',
and others have therefore evolved as highly specialized, and almost
as highly -isolated, fields of endeavor. Recently there has been a
growing *awareness within the Individual environmental specialties,
of the similarity of their problems and of the possible mutual
?
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6F.
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forearfewpwal
Goff
UNCLASSIFIED
benefits which could be derived from increased cooperation in the
exchange of ideas and information. At the present time a serious
attempt is being made by members of these groupsto effect a closer
liaison and coordination. If full cooperation among all of the
environmental specialists can be realized, the common problems will
fall into their proper perspective and be resolved more quickly,
leaving each group with only the special problems related to its
sphere of interest. While the discussion which will follow is
directed specifically toward the problem of man under the sea, it
could, with only slight modification, apply to almost any adverse
environmental condition.
Man is essentially a land-dwelling, air-breathing mammal
regulated to live between sea level and an altitude of approximately
15,000 feet and between the Arctic and Antarctic Circles. He is
designed to walk most efficiently on two legs with his major axis
perpendicular to his direction of locomotion, and must maintain a
body temperature within a narrow range centered around 370 C. As a
direct result of postural design, the most highly developed muscle
masses of the body are the so-called anti-gravity muscles of the
back and legs and the greater part of the total energy expenditure
is used in maintaining an upright position and working against
gravity.
The undersea environment can best be characterized by a
review of the unique properties of water shown in Table I. The
first five of these properties are responsible for the fact that
water is the one substance absolutely essential to all forms of
living material. The high heat conductivity and capacity and the
Table I: Unique Properties of Water
1. Highest Heat Conductivity
2. Highest Heat Capacity (except NH3)
3. Highest Latent Heat Of Evaporation
t. Outstanding Powers as a Solvent
5. Exceptional Catalyst
6. High Surface Tension
7. High Dielectric Constant
8. *Optically Transparent
9. Efficient Conductor of Sound
10. Highly Incompressible
11.- Standard Reference for Fluid Density
high latent heat of evaporation satisfy the necessary requirements
in maintaining body temperature, the solvent action promotes dis-
tribution of foods throughout the body and the elimination of wastes
62
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and, the ionizing potential provides a catalytic medium in which
metabolic processes can proceed at optimum rates. It is somewhat
of a paradox that man should find that water is so ideally suited to
his vital functions and yet, as a total environment, to be completely
incompatible with life itself.
In spite of this incompatibility man has chosen to invade
the undersea environment as early as 2-3000 B.C. Excursions into the
sea were for a-variety of reasons, not the least of which was for
military advantage. The accomplishments of military divers, sub-
marine forces, underwater demolition teams and small underwater
swimmer attack groups have established beyond question the need for
these activities in Naval operations.
With the advent of the diving bell and the subsequent
development of deep sea diving gear, submarines and, self-contained
underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA), water as an irrespirable
Medium was no longer of primary importance. Underwater, as in any
unfriendly surroundings, the problem is one of defining and main-
taining an acceptable internal environment. The solution in each
case will be unique to the individual man-machine system and its
assigned mission.
The individual swimmer or free diver represents the sim-
plest and most versatile of underwater man-machine systems. Table II
lists the activities in which divers and swimmers have established
competence. While these tasks are now performed routinely and with
Table II: Underwater Activities of Divers and Swimmers
Peace and War Time War Time
Salvage
Inspection
Damage Control
Explosive Ordnance Disposal
Underwater Demolitions
Mine Recovery
Bottom Surveys and Mapping
Photography -
Oceanographic Research
Clearing Occupied Enemy Harbors
Offensive Action Against Shipping
Harbor Installations
Other Shore Installations
Cloak and Dagger Operations
a high degree of success, very limited extension of these capabili-
ties can be visualized from within our present frame of reference
since man himself has become the major limiting factor in any con-
sideration for increasing the depth, time or distance requirements.
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Goff
UNCLASSIFIED
Many phases of underwater swimmer activities can be ex-
tended'by engineering developments' alone, but beyond a certain point,
the end product becomes the submarine whose problem is, in itself,
equally complex. It is therefore necessary that we obtain a complete
picture of man and his relationship to his environment as a point
of departure.
The first problem is that of something to breathe. At the
increased pressures encountered underWater any known respirable gas
or gas' mixture has certain inadequacies beyond certain sharply de-
fined depth-time relationships.-
With air as the breathing medium, the normally high con-
centration of nitrogen begins to exert a noticeable narcotic effect
at 100 feet and progresses to the point of incapacitation beyond
300 feet.' In'addition to its narcotic action, nitrogen dissolves
slowly in body tissues during a dive and sufficient time must be
allowed for nitrogen washout during decompression if the depth time
relationships shown by the bottom curve of Figure I are exceeded (1).
In deep sea diving these phenomena are not a serious handicap since
an inexhaustable supply of air is available and the depth-time
schedule is under the control of a surface tendei. who prescribes the
proper decompression procedure. SCUBA divers are not so tended and
have only a limited air supply. They must therefore exert consider-
able caution to avoid decompression sickness or "bends." Helium is
used in deep sea diving to obviate the difficulty of nitrogen nar-
cosis but it does not relieve the decompression requirement. Since
the exact relationships between solution and washout of inert gases
by the body are not sufficiently defined or understood, extrapolation
of the helium deep diving decompression tables into the "SCUBA zone"
or shorter-time, shallower-depth range is not feasible.
Figure 1. Nitrogen non-
decompression and oxy-
gen tolerance diving limits
for 55/45 nitrogen-oxygen
mixture (diving depth ver-
sus diving time). Drawn'
from Figure 116, p. 233,
NAVPERS 10838-A2.
DIV/#6 /WPM (fad
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041.411 (0T?01;
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NITROGEN htlfI?DECOIWRISSION
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DIVING LIMITS
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64
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- ? ?
:t4e,
UNCLASSIFIED
Goff
One method of extending the depth-time capability is
through the use of artificial gas mixtures such as a 45% 02-55% N2.
The advantages of such a mixture is shown by the shaded area of
Figure I. This technique however has certain limitations as indi-
cated by the crossover point for nitrogen and oxygen limitations
since oxygen itself becomes toxic at elevated partial pressures.
It has also been observed that oxygen tends to become toxic at
slightly lower partial pressures in the presence of nitrogen than
when breathed as a pure gas.
In spite of its high toxicity, pure oxygen has certain
advantages in military operations. Since there is no waste, a con-
siderably long gas supply can be carried, and with ample carbon
dioxide removal, no exhaust bubbles are released and the equipment
is quiet in operation. The limitations placed on the use of pure
oxygen are shown in Table III. The mechanism of oxygen toxicity is
not well defined and little is known about the quantitative effects
of such factors as CO2 and exercise which shorten the safe exposure
time.
Table III (1)
Depth-time limits for diving on
100 per cent oxygen
Depth
(feet)
Time
(minutes)
40
15
35
20
30
30
25
145
20
65
15
90
? 10'
120
The oxygen requirements for work underwater are also. quite
different from those for comparable work rates in air. Table IV
shows a.rough_compression of values (1). At least a part of the
increased requirement at rest may be attributable to a greater heat'
loss in water and to an increase in muscle tone, however, the oxygen
requirements in air and under water .for minimal exercise under iso-
thermal conditions is not measurably different (2). At higher exer-
cise_levels the increased oxygen consumption required for each
additional increment of measurable work is exceptionally high. .,,This
is evident from a comparison of drag data (3) (Figure II) with the
oxygen consumption values of Table IV. Calculations show that' the
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UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
N-
-
11\
cc% cvl
? ? ? ? ?
0 \ 0 00
r--4
DRAG STUDIES OF SELF CONTAINED
UNDERWATER BREATHING APPARATUS
Cr\
CO IC\ '0 CO IA C-- Cr\ LA CO O\ Crl -.7 .-1 IA
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? S ? ? ?
CYI \JO Cr\ Crl LA --1' Cr \ 1-4 Cr \ (NJ . N- c?i 0 H H
2 3 4 5
SPEED, FT/SEC
Figure .2. The exponential character of drag resistance curve
as a function of water speed indicates the rapid rate at which
any propulsion system will reach a limiting velocity. (1 ft/sec
equal 0.68 mph)
UNCIASSU'IED
UNCLASSIFIED
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Goff
UNCLASSIFIED
work efficiency in underwater swimming is only about 5 per cent (3)
as compared with 20-25 per cent for certain types of exercise in
air (4). It is not clear at this time why oxygen consumption cannot
reach the same maximum value in underwater work as in air regardless
of the types or level of exercise performed.
Table IV:
Oxygen Requirements
Basal - just "staying alive"
Quiet sitting
"Light" work - up to
"moderate" work - up to
""Heavy" work - up to
"Exhausting" work - up to
Resting under water
(just sitting quietly)
0.5 knot swimming
(painfully slow)
0.85 knot swimming
(about average)
1.2 knot swimming
(too fast)
0.25 liters per min.
0.4
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
0.33 liters/min.
0.8
1.4
2.5
The comparatively high oxygen requirements and poor work
efficiency have led to numerous suggestions that the mode of propul-
sion of fishes should be studied in order to obtain a more efficient
coupling of the human muscle masses to water. Table V is a summary
of the speed of fishes as reported by Gray (5) and of man as reported
by Passmore and Durnin (6). It appears that certain fish and aquatic
mammals are able to perform at a maximum rate of approximately 30
times that of man. If only a small portion of this difference can be
bridged, many operational advantages could be realized.
The major advantages to increased water speed alone whether
attained by man himself or through a mechanical aid would be the
ability to operate against fast tides and currents or to shorten the
time required to traverse a given distance. Increasing the range
capability at'present would not be a great advantage where totally
submerged navigation is required since the necessary navigational
accuracy is not now available in equipment which can be satisfac-
torily packaged for use by individual swimmers.
There are Many problem areas in the field of individual
underwater activities beyond those of a basic medical and physiolog-
ical nature and of navigation. These include penetration of high
turbidity, secure communications between individuals and with their
parent craft, detection and identification of swimmers, underwater
68
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Goff
UNCLASSIFED
blast, deterrence and/or destruction, miscellaneous persdnal equip-
ment, tools, etc. Most of these areas are more in the field of
engineering than in biology and are therefore outside the scope of
this discussion. However, no major daielopments should be under-
taken without complete consideration of the other auxiliary-equip-
ment, the mission and, especially the man who must carry out the
contemplated operatioh.
' - A summary of the total problem related to adverse environ-
ments in general indicates that operational capabilities are
extremely short of immediate goals, because of the limitations of
man himself. This Is largely the result of the recent rapid tech-
nological advances which have produced such devices as deep bottom
mines, the atomic submarine and artificial Earth satellites. Thus
we have entered an era where man's capabilities and limitations,
rather than those of the machine he operates, become the determining
factor in the success or failure of operational missions.
Prior to these recent major advances, increases in perfor-
mance capability were realized in only very small increments. The
operator, in this latter situation could be provided for by simple
extension of existing techniques for environmental control. An
entirely new approach to the problems involved in maintaining man
in the underwater environment has to be considered now that opera-
tional times and depths can be so greatly extended. The logical
steps which must be taken are: (1) a complete understanding of
man's normal environmental requirements, both physiological and
psychological; (2) an adequate definition of an acceptable opera-
tional environment; and (3) provision of the necessary instrumenta-
tion for environmental measurement and control within the limits
defined.
The realization of these steps will be greatly accelerated
when the various medical and biological disciplines concerned with
environmental problems have effeeted the close liaison and coordina:-
tion of effort now being attempted.: The ultimate goal of this com-
bined group will be to'define and establish the environmental con-
ditions which will permit man to conduct operations wherever and
whenever the need arises and to maintain operational efficiency for
the duration of any required mission.
69
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61.1.10.4.apppyi
Gof f
REFERENCES
Submarine Medicine Practice, Bureau of Naval Personnel
Publication MAVPERS 10838-A, Government Printing Office, 1956
Goff, L. G., H. F. bruback, H. Specht and N. Smith, "Effect of
Total Immersion at Various Temperatures on Oxygen Uptake at Rest
and During Exercise," J. APPL. PHYSIOL., 9: 59-61, 1956
Goff, L. G.,H. F. Bruback and H. Specht, "Measurements of
Respiratory Responses and Work Efficiency of Underwater Swimmers
Utilizing Improved Instrumentation," J. APPL. PHYSIOL., 10:
197-202, 1957
Handbook of Respiratory Data in Aviation, National Research
Council, Committee on Aviation Medicine. Report, 1944
Gray, Sir James, "How Fishes Swim," THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,
Vol. 197, No. 2: 48-54, August 1957
Passmore, P., and J. V. G. A. Durnin, "Human Energy Expenditure,"
PHYSIOLOGICAL BEVIES, 35: 801-840, October 1955
70-
UNCLASSIFIED
CONFIDENTIAL
INFLUENCE OF OCEANOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT
ON UNDERWATER DETECTION
E. C. LaFond
U. S. Navy Electronics Laboratory
San Diego 52, California
INTRODUCTION
The influence of the oceanic environment on underwater
detection becomes more important as sonar ranges are increased
and greater emphasis is placed on target classification. Greater
power in transducers alone cannot achieve the desired range and
signal quality. We must also learn to use the transmission medium
to our best advantage. This entails study of the underwater
phenomena that cause attenuation, scattering, focusing, noise,
and signal fluctuation.
The purpose of this discussion is to review briefly some
of the known environmental factors that affect sonar performance
and to speculate on others based on .recent NEL studies.
FAMILIAR ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Boundary Effects: the sea boundary effects are more ob-
.
vious than effects in the medium. The sea surface has been,ob-
served to reflect and scatter sound depending. upon its rough-
ness(1, 2, 3) and to generate ambient noise. (4) Likewise, 'the sea
floor feature's are important in- the reflection, absorption, and ,
scattering of sound. (5) The acoustic effects depend upon the char-
acteristics of the sea floor such as its roughness, grain size,
porosity, density, elasticity, and depth of sediment. (6,7)
Refraction: Probably the best-known acbuitic phenoMenon
of the medium itself is that of refraction. (8) When sound enters a
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thermocline or velocity gradient from above with a small downward
angle, it is refracted with a decrease in.intensity at sone range be-
low the gradient. (9) The returning echo is further attenuated by the
effect of the thermocline, thus making detection unlikely in a
shallow zone under strong negative gradients. This is sometimes
referred to as a "bad sonar condition" or "bad gradient" (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Lack of acoustic detection is frequently attributed to a
"bad thermocline".
Mine-hunting and even submarine -detection operations
have been curtailed because of the severe refraction imposed by
the thermocline: Even minute thermoclines or thermomicrostruc-
tures give undesirable' effects. Sharp gradient's of only 0.10
centigrade can cause fluctuation of ,as much as 20 db in a vertical
distance of only a foot or two when sound is transmitted at a low _
angle.. (1.0) .
Scattering: Scattering is also known to reduce the sound
level and ability of detection. In addition to the scattering that
takes place at the sea's surface and floor, layers of scatterers and
even globs or patches have been observed. The most common of
12
11, )
these is the deep-scattering layer. ( This layer is becoming
operationally more important because 'of dee'per targets and because
of the increased use being made of the sound-channeling principle,
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(
which requires deep sound paths. (13, 14) Studies have shown that
the deep-scattering layer undergoes diurnal migration and is most
probably of biological origin. (15, 16)
Shallow scatterers are also present,, especially on the
thermocline. (17, 18) These turbid layers reduce both visual and
acoustic detection. (19) As yet, few quantitative measurements have
been made on the layers.
Noise: Ambient noise affects acoustic detection. The sig-
nal to be detected must be stronger or have a different characteris-
tic than the background interference; consequently, a knowledge of
ambient noise conditions is essential for assessing the detection
potentials of a particular location at a particular time.
It is known that ambient noise is a function of the wind
speed or sea state. Many of the denizens generate characteristic,
identifiable sounds. However, not all the unwanted sounds have been
satisfactorily explained. (4)
RECENT STUDIES OF ACOUSTIC VARIABILITY
The known environmental factors by no means account for
all the vagaries of underwater acoustics. Much of the sound fluctu-
ation experienced in acoustic detection cannot be adequately explain-
ed at the present time. (20, 21, 22, 23) Indeed, fluctuation has been
referred to as "perhaps the most constant characteristic of sound
in the sea. ,,(24)
One notable example of acoustic fluctuation is that recently
reported by Pinkston and others working in Chesapeake Bay. (25)
Here, transmissions were. recorded of 100-kc sound over a path of
250 feet in shallow water. They showed large short-time fluctua-
tions in signal strength. The coefficient of variation of the sound
intensity was commonly as high as 0.5.
Urick and Knauss,
(26) also working in Chesapeake Bay, en-
countered short-term fluctuations in acoustic intensity as well as
gradual' fading of-the signal. ,The short-period fluctuations were
attributed to microtemperature structure changes, but the cause of
the fading was not clear. ,Many false targets, called "angels,"
appeared during these tests. These targets were believed to be
fish.
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Other examples of extreme variability have been reported
by Garrison and Shaw in Dabob Har;(1?) by Sagar dff New
Zealand;(27, 28) by Nanda in India; 29) and many others.
Blackout: Probably the best example of acoustic variability
is that of blackout. This acoustic phenomenon, reported by Carsola
and others of this Laboratory, is a condition in which the signal is
attenuated or scattered to the extent that there is a near or complete
loss of return. (30)
Blackout has frequently been noted off Mission Beach, San
Diego, California, when using the AN/UQS-1 (100 kc' mine-hunting
sonar) at a depth of 10 feet with bottom-mounted targets in about 60
feet of water. Here signal loss was observed for at least a few
minutes during nearly every one of 20 days of operation spread over
a period of nearly a year. The duration of reduced intensity was
from less than a minute to nearly an hour. One extreme loss amount-
ed to more than 80 db with the target 50 feet from the hydrophone.
Many of the short blackout periods were preceded or accompanied by
intense scattering lines. Another interesting feature was that black-
out occurred more frequently at night than during the day.
Although numerous unpredictable blackouts developed, only
a few examples of the most distinct ones are compared with the
water structure in Figures 2.A to E. For example on 11 February
1955 blackouts occurred periodically, some intermittent and others
more consistent, for several minutes. These are compared with
the temperature and turbidity structure over a 4-hour period in
Figure. 2A.
. At this time the water off Mission Beach had only a 2-degree
Fahrenheit gradient from surface to bottom, yet numerous periodic
blackouts were observed. Oscillations in the temperature structure
are apparent,, with maximum displacement of the middle of the ther-
mocline as much as 10 to 15 feet. Although; there is a slight rise in
the thermocline there does not seem to be any abrupt changes in the
water mass. The transparency too, from less frequent observations,
is rather Constant with slightly more turbid water at the bottom dur-
ing the blackout peridd.
In another example, shown in Figure 2B, the only blackout
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1930
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2000
2030 2100 HOURS 2130
Figure 2B.
'Comparison of the time of acoustic,blackout (represent-
ed by a vertical. shaded band) with (A) the change of
vertical temperature structure (?F) with time, and (B)
the change of transparency (%) with time at the projec-
tor-for two and one-half hours on 14 March in 60 feet
of water off Mission Beach.
76
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of the day (14 March) occurred between 2030 and 2045. The water
transparency changed to a weaker gradient but the observations were
made so infrequently that sharp changes were not apparent. The
temperature recorded at 6 levels, ,on the other hand, showed a deep
thermocline virtually on the bottom. Then 45 minutes prior to the
blackout large vertical oscillations of the thermdcline took place.
The isotherMs were displaced as much as 30 feet in 5 minutes. Four
-giant wave-like oscillations occurred under thes receiving ship. Then
came a period of total and partial blackout, followed by smaller
thermocline oscillations at a higher level in the water. The water
structure would indicate ?that both a vertical and a horizontal water.
boundary with turbulence, at least in the form of vertical oscillations
at the interface, was passing the ship at the time of blackout:
Figure 2C shows other examples of the total and partial
blackouts which occurred on 25 April. During the blackout period
strong scattering lines were observed on the scope. The vertical
motion as indicated by the temperature structure amounted to as
much as 20 feet in only 60 feet of water. The entire thermocline
appeared to rise and rather suddenly drop off, as if this section
represented the boundary between two water masses. The turbidity
also implies that the water at depth is more turbid after than before
2000, another suggestion of a change in water type.
The temperature and transparency conditions for a 2-hour
period on 20 June are shown in Figure 2D. On this day numerous
blackouts were observed but only one distinct example is reproduced.
It occurred at the same time that a giant internal wave passed the
transducer. The abrupt.drop in the. thermocline was as much as 30
feet in 3 minutes. The following rise was nearly a's rapid. Subse-
quent oscillations gradually became smaller. The limited.transpar-
ency data taken during this 7-hour period indicate a reduced strati-
fication of the water and a tendency of mixing- at the time of maximum
waves.
The' last example is a series of distinct blackouts which
-occurred around midnight between 19 and 20 July, as shown in
Figure 2E. Here the strong shallow thermocline was fairly constant
until 2220 when the thermocline suddenly oscillated at a rate of as
much as 10 feet per minute. Three 15-foot oscillations took place
in succession followed by-oscillations at reduced'aniplitudes. ? The
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? CONFIDENTIAL
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Figure 2D. Comparison of the time of acoustic blackout (represent-
ed by a vertical shaded band) with (A) the change of
vertical temperature structure (?F) with time, and (B)
the change of transparency (%) with time at the projec-
tor for two hours on 20 June in 63 feet of, water off
Mission Beach.
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the rmocline was 5 to 10 feet lower after the disturbance than before.
The dense turbid layer became lower and less Concentrated after the
burst of internal waves.
Blackout has been observed only in the presence of internal
waves. Many of the blackouts were accompanied by scattering lines;
however, the presence of scattering lines did not always result in
blackout.
POSSIBLE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
, In view of the above-described phenomena, this Laboratory
has been exploring possible causes of acoustic loss, including both
familiar and little-known environmental factors. Among the latter
are internal waves, bubbles, sea-surface slicks, and plankton.
Internal Waves: One feature of the environment observed
during all periods of blackout has been the presence of large vertical
oscillations known as internal waves. (31, 34)
Internal waves consist of complex vertical displacements of
the isotherms which appear to travel at different speeds and with
changing patterns. They have been observed in all oceans with wide
ranges of periods and amplitudes. (33, 34)
In the southern California area distinct internal waves have
heights of 20 feet and a period which is frequently of the order of
10 - 15 minutes. However, many other shorter and longer periods
are present. The waves have been observed to travel with speeds
up to 0. 5 knot with wave lengths of about 20 - 240 yards.
In several, instances off Mission Bea,ch, San Diego, the
waves .moved shoreward while decreasing in amplitude. It is even
conceivable that they may break, as indicated by occasional positive
. temperature gradients: In any case the wave length and?pericid of
internal waves are variable and more than one could easily occur
in the normal mine hunting range. Thus, the absence of waves .at,
the projector does not preclude their presence in the target field.,
The problem of refraction by internal...waves was -considered
theoretically by assuming a typical three layer internal wave water-
structure. (-55,36) From temperature data shown in Figure 2 a
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typical internal wave was considered having the following charac-
teristics.
Depth of Water 60 ft
Depth of projector 10 ft
Top layer (depth) 0 to 30-8 sinL._..rx (Av. 30 ft) where x =
' L range and L = 300
Middle layer (depth) 30-8 gi/i12E (Av. 30) to 40-9.1 ____
(Av. 40 ft)
Bottom layer (depth)40-9.1 sin21rx Av. 40 to 60 feet
Top layer (gradient) 0 ft/sec/ft
Middle layer -4.8 ft/sec/ft
Bottom layer -0.6 ft/sec/ft
Wave length at interface 300 ft
Beam pattern -10 db at ? 80
The interfaces of the thermocline are seen in Figure 3 to
form two different sine curves. All acoustic ray paths passing
through them are refracted by an amount which depends upon the
angle of approach of the rays and the velocity discontinuity at each
interface. For this particular problem the rays are considered to
be traveling in a plane which is parallel to the direction of propaga-
tioh of the infernal waves. Total reflection is assumed at the sea
surfade and all sound energy reaching the bottom is, assumed to be'
absorbed. This rep.resentation is an ideal situation, but it approxi-
mates the natural sea. velocity structure more closely than any
previously considered. Even in this ideal medium a great deal of
computation was required for the multiple refractions and reflections
?ior'each 0.10 ray. This was nicely handled by the Electronic
Computer Division of the Bureau of Ships. The detailed computation
was carried on by means of the UNIVAC at DTMB.
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001Cr-Tel=g?Its
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Acoustic intensity of sound fpr each 10-foot interval of range
and each 1 foot interval a depth were computed and contoured. The
intensity at any point in the X, Z plane is based on an intensity of
unity at one foot along a horizontal from the source. The values of
the isolines have been multiplied by 106 to avoid very small numbers.
Above the thermocline the sound intensity decreases with
distance from the source. Below the thermocline refraction focuses
the sound rays as they pass through the internal wave into alternate
high and low intensity zones. The divergence and convergence of
. the rays is directly related to the sinusoidal nature of the internal
wave.
In this example, there is one high and one low intensity
zone for each interval of one wave length. The high-intensity zones
become narrower with increasing range, whereas the low-intensity
zones become wider. This variation with range is caused by waves
near the source acting as a barrier for those farther away, i.e.,
fewer and fewer rays strike the waves farther and farther away
from the source.
Under similar situations of internal waves off Missions
Beach the AN/UQS-1 gave a return signal in the form of a banded
presentation on the scope, as shown in Figure 4A. The light portion
represents stronger signals. Note that the bands near the projector
are wider.
Figure 4B shows another scope presentation with more
detail. The indicated zones of high and low intensity are believed to
be the result of the returning signal from sound focused on the sea
floor at. that time. ? Targets are obscured in the high intensity zones
and thus detection possibilities aie greatly reduced.
These bands o'f high sound level, believed to be caused by _
internal waves, also 'decrease in intensity with distance from the
- source due to spherical spreading of adjacent rays. Therefore the
focusing effect of internal waves may be better demonstrated by
anomalies in sound level which correct the previous computations for
spherical spreading. These levels are expressed in db's; the refer-
ence distance is 1 foot.
84 _
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Figure 4. Examples of hands of .high and low pound intensity 'sh.own
on the ?seOpe of AN/UQS-1 at, times of high internal 'via.Ves.
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Figure 5 again demonstrates the zonal concentrations (with
negative anomalies) which are caused-by sound focusing in internal
waves and reflection from the surface. The tranSmission anomaly
is expressed in db above and below the loss expected of normal
spherical spreading. False targets are easily produced by such
sound focusings. In nature moving internal waves of different sizes,
as shown in Figures 2A through 2E, thus appear to be a major factor
in acoustic detection by producing great variability in the return
signal. Additional studies are underway.-
?
Bubble Effects: Another environmental factor suSpe.cted of
causing' acoustic variability' is small, even microscopic, bubbles.
Laboratory stuaies indicate that gas bubbles can produce a great loss
of sound energy if they are of the proper size in relation to the sound
frequency. Fox, (37) for example, reported sound absorption due to
gas bubbles about 0.11 mm in diameter to be as much as 30 db per
cm at frequencies around 90 kc when the bubbles constituted only
0. 02% of the volume. These bubbles are visible; in fact experiments
in the Laboratory and at sea indicate that divers can visually distin-
guish individual bubbles as small as 0.06 mm in diameter. Iowever,
under, normal conditions at sea no visible bubbles were observed to
persist-in the water column. They rose towards the surface, increas-
ed in size on reduction in pressure, and usually burst at the surface.
Visible bubbles very near the sea's surface are caused
principally by the entrainment of air from breaking waves. In
addition to visual observation, they have been recorded during periods
of high:winds with.a.N.K7 echo sounder mounted on the .bottom and
directed upward in shallow Water: (38) Other-minor causes .of the
formatiOn of bubbles in shallow water ate sea-floor as seepage,
fish burps, and' decomposition of bottom detritus. (39'10) These
'visible.bubbles are all trarisient in nature.,
The best evidence of attenuation by still smaller, invisible,
bubbles cs from Warner of NMDL. (41) He used the AN/PQS-1 in a
tank with induced bubbles. After 'the water had cleared the sonar
still could not receive echoes from the side of the tank only 5 feet
away. This condition lasted for two hours. From this significant
discovery it appears that invisible gas bubbles can persist and cause
attenuation for long periods of eime. It is at least theoretically
possible that such long-lived invisible bubbles exist beneath the sea
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Bubble Production: .'0.ne approach to the problem of bubble
generation is throug4 the study.?Of the-oxY'gen saturation of the water.
Oxygen' concentration at,vaiious depths and its relation to tempera-
ture struCture and water transparency were investigated off Mission
Beach.
The oxygen content of thewater in summer was found to be
maximtiMbelmv the surface and above the densest turbid layer in
all cases, as shown in Figure 6. However, when the per cent satu-
ration was- determined for in situ conditions, that is, when the solu-
bility Wag- corrected for pressure, temperature, and salinity, the
vertical saturation cur'ves differed from the oxygen content curves.
Figure ,6. Vertical distribution of dissolved oxygen (content m1/14,
saturation of oxygen., (%).
The Calculations for in situ conations, assuming nitrogen saturation
at all levels, showed that the Upper 12 to 14,feet were supersaturated_
with oxygen.. The maximum supersaturation, which occurred at the
surface, ranged from 120 to 148%. This high oxygen. layer, probably
derived from photosynthesis of plant organisms, occurred on the
upper side of the layer. The increased light at the shallower depths-
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facilitates a higher rate of photosynthesis, and therefore a greater
potential oxygen production at this level.
Unusually high oxygen content is not surprising under condi-
tions of high phytoplankton production. For example, during periods
of high plankton blooms the waters near San Diego were observed to
have an oxygen saturation as high as 200 per cent. (43) Pickard(44)
reports that oxygen in the waters of the British Columbia inlets may
be supersaturated as high as 170 per cent due to .the action of large
concentrations of phytoplankton. The significant thing is that
supersaturation of water samples can be reduced by shaking, indicat-
ing the instability of the oxygen in the water.
Under high supersaturation conditions, a small bubble
introduced either by organisms in the water column or from the
surface may actually grow. However, these bubbles will tend to
rise at increasing speed and be lost at the surface. Thus, per-
sistence of these bubbles over long periods of time cannot be ex-
pected, unless either some mechanism exists for keeping them
submerged or there is a source at depth. One possibility is that
the particles responsible for the high turbidity of the water might
attach themselves to extremely fine bubbles, thereby preventing or
retarding their rise to the surface. Another possibility is that
bubbles may continually or periodically generate in the water column.
The action of internal waves is still another mechanism by
which oxygen bubbles may be produced. If supersaturated or nearly
supersaturated water is brought up from one depth to a lesser depth
the per cent saturation increases.- The vertical displacement may
amount to at least 30feet as demonstrated by the height of the
observed internal waves. Similar. changes in pressure on oxygen-
saturated water caused it to release bubble in laboratory experi-
ments which were performed in a pressure 'chamber by bubbling
oxygen through water," releasing the pressure, and noting the forma-
' tion of bubbles.
In addition to the reduced pressure on the crest of internal
waves there is usually some turbulence associated with the therm.o-
-cline as indicated by the visual distortion of objects when viewed
through it, and the distortion of the vertical colored path made by
dye marker when dropped through the water. (45) It is believed
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possible' that this tuTbulence and the reduced pressure caused by
dominant internal waves are of sufficient influence on supersaturated
water to free some of the oxygen and other gases in the form of small
bubbles-in- the sea.
Slicks: Several observers have indicated a strong correla-
tion lietween the presence of slicks (glassy patches or lines on a
rippled sea) and fluctuations in acoustic transmission and detec-
tion. (46,47) Acoustic echoes are frequently obtained from water
near slick lines. Sound transmitted toward some slick zone ? is
sometimes completely absorbed or scattered, thus producing an
acoustic barrier. 'Also unusually high readings are obtained on the
AN/UQQ-1 wake (bubble) indicator when it is towed through a
slick. (48)
Many types of slicks are developed in oceans, lakes, and
harbors. (49, ()) (Figure 7). They result from the various water
motions, wakes of ships, and local wind-induced motion. They may
also result from contaminants, such as fresh water, organic
material, oil, and foam concentrated as a thin film at the surface. (39)
The concentration of contaminants in the San Diego region takes place
primarily as a result of convergent motion set up by internal waves.
Hence, slicks may provide a visual indication of the presence of
internal waves.
The thermal structure of the water associated with slicks
was investigated. With BTs and towed thermistors it was found that
the surface water temperature in slicks was higher than the tempera-
ture between slicks by an average of 0. 3? F in?April and 2.0? F in
August, with a maximum of 2. 8?F. Assuming that higher tempera-
tures are found at the immediate surface in spring and summer, this,
result would indicate that the immediate surface waters were moving
toward and'concenfratin.g in the slick bands. (50,51)
The .oxygen and other gas saturation was found to be highest
at the surface. Under a heating of 2?F the saturation of all gases
will increase and some of the gas may be forced out of solution in
13ecause of the high organic concentration', the bubbles thus
fcirmed can persist at the surface as foam. In some slicks during
quiet weather, bubbles have been seen to suddenly emerge from the
water, temporarily remain at the surface; and then burst. These
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Tigiire 7. Sea surface slicks.
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apparently are derived from the heating- of gas-saturated water.
The vertical and horizontal temperature structure normal
to slicks is shown in Figure 8. Note that the isotherms are de-
pressed under nearly all of the slicks, and this depression may be
as much as 30 feet.
. SURFACE ? SLICKS
It 03 FEET 2500
Figure 8. Relation of sea surface slicks and internal waves off
Mission Beach.
The transparency of the water near slicks was also
examined by towing a hydrophotometer at a constant depth under a
series of slicks. Unusually high-turbidity zones were encountered
under the slicks, is' shown. in Figure 9. In the relatively clear
water between slicks about '60 to 70 per cent of the light was trans-
mitted through a meter i)ath, 'whereas under the slicks only 10 to 40
per cent was transmitted. These turbidity zones appear to be the
result of surface convergence in the slicks.
The material causing the tp.rbidity zones near the surface
was,foundto be mainly organic. Some turbid Water caused by
plankton Populations develops in situ. Other turbid water appears
to originate frozn the shallow nea.rshore region. Net hauls and '-
diver-collected samples of the material causing a shallow turbid
layei? were analyzed and found to be phyto and zooplankton alive and
in varying stages of decomposition.
RFACE
SLICKS
I
)_
ii..
4
\ .......
a
Al
V
.
,
f
c.
0 ' "
1
.
j$
J
,.
?.
.?,
...,
_
Figure 9. Relation of sea surface slicks and water transparency at
6 feet depth off Mission Beach.
Plankton: The ability of plankton to attenuate or scatter
sound in turbid zones and in the open sea has not been definitely
established. However, new evidence indicates a relationship between
the seasonal cycle of reverberation and the presence of plankton.
The production of plankton is not uniform throughout the
year. In the nearshore southern California area the greatest pro-
duction is in the spring. (52) This probably also holds true for the
offshore regions, where acoustic scattering measurements have been
made from 1953 - 55. (53' 54) During the early Lorad studies the
reverberation was measured for the entire annulus of the ,.first 30
mile convergence zone., These data were plotted in Figure' 10 by
Mackenzie. (55) When the seasonal trend of this acoustkO measure-
ments is cornpared with the seasOnal trend of plankton production
for previous* years there is a rea.sonable agreement. This would
suggest a correlation between plankton in the sea and the higher
reverberation observed in spring. Thus, plankton may be, one of the
many environmental factors which affect acoustic detection.
The preceding discussions point out various features of the
environment which may affect detection. The problem, then, is to
find ways and means of overcoming adverse environmental factors
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SO 'NO I 101.10301:Id 11101VICI 3A 1.1V131:1
(i)
Li-
`C-11:1Z) 13A31 NOI .1..V1:1391:13A31:1 1VNOZ
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so as to realize fully sonar equipment capabilities.
UTILIZING THE ENVIRONMENT
The possibility exists of modifying the oceanic environment
so that it becomes more suitable for acoustic detection. In harbors
or limited areas this may be appropriate. However, in the more
strategic open sea, techniques of making these changes are still
obscure. The more likely solution is to use equipment where it will
utilize the environment to best advantage.
Variable Depth Sonar: One example of using the environ-
ment to best advantage is by the variable depth principle. By lower-
ing a transducer below a marked thermocline (or velocity gradient)
the range and probability of detection are greatly increased. (56)
When the sound source and the target are below the thermocline, the
-refraction between the transducer and target is reduced. In fact,
certain areas may be intensified by sound focusing above that, of the
normal spherical spreading of rays. Under these conditions, the
thermocline may be a help rather than a hindrance in acoustic detec-
tion by VDS (Figure 11).
3
Figure 11. Avoiding the "bad thermocline" effects by use of YDS
detection equipment.
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The VDS not only combats the adverse velocity profiles
but effects a decrease in grazing angle. When the sound rays strike
the bottom at lower grazing angles the scattering coefficients are
reduced. (57) The greater receiver depth aids detection because of
the lower background noise level due to greater separation from the
surface and ship noises. Even variability of temperature, salinity,
and resulting refraction is reduced below the thermocline. Also,
the effects of near-surface phenomena such as air content of water
And micro-organisms are minimized. It is evident that the. VDS
? effectively utilizes the environment to better advantage that the
similar conventional hull-mounted gear.
Topography: For longer ranges topographic features can be
utilized. Greatest ranges are attained when the sound makes the
fewest reflections from the surface and bottom. This require the
least spreading of the rays and the deepest water. A desirable
topography for long-range detection is a relatively steep continental
slope and a flat reflecting floor. Each desired detection site must be
surveyed for velocity structure and detailed topography. Off the
San Diego area a suitable detection site would be near the bottom on
the edge of the continental slope. Under the usual downward refrac-
tion in this region a direct-ray insonified zone could be produced
which would bend down the slope, reflect from the bottom once, and
retain sufficient energy to return a signal from a target located at
or neai the surface another 9 miles further out. Thus, the selection
of proper environmental sites for detection equipments can
materially increase detection ranges.
?Sound Channels: For still longer ranges in deep water the
channeling .of sound energy by the refractive structure of the water
can be utilized'. Here the physical properties of .the water column
, .
that control the sound velocity become increasingly important. The
vertical band of sound .r.ays leaving a shallow sound source are re-
fracted downward by the permanent thermocline. Near the bottom
the soprid rays are refracted upward by thelhigher pressure and to
some extent by the increased salinity at great depths. The band of
sound Kays reappears in annular zones near the surface at a dis-
tance of about 27-33 miles in the Pacific (Figure 12).
Sound transmission studies have shown that such cycles are
repeated out to several-hundred miles. (58) With suitable high-power,
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61
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ANNULAR IN3ONMED 2014ES
SOUND.,L,
VELOCI.TY
RANGE IN RULES, ?
2010
, z?;
Figure 12. Utilization of sound velocity structure for sound
channeling and longer detection ranges.
low-frequency active sonar such as Lorad, detection of targets in
bands at ranges of about 30, 60, and 90 miles has been achieved. (59)
Topographic highs, if they protrude into the insonified zones, will
obstruct the sound path and restrict the detection range. (60) This
method of utilizing the environment has resulted in reception of
echoes from submarines at ranges over ten times as great as with
conventional sonars. When both the sound source and receiver are
at a depth near the axis of minimum velocitrin the deep sound
channel, one-way "SofaK" transmission ranges of thousands of miles
62
61, )
have been achieved. ( Near-surface channeling of sound rays
is also possible when the proper velocity structure is present and
the surface is relatively smooth. (63)
?
Deep Water:. Still another technique is to operate detection
equipment at great depths where the background levels are very low
and therefore detection potentials are greater. The bathys'caPh or ,
similar deep submersible could be-adapted for this purpose.
Sound Velocity: A precise knowledge. of sound velocity would
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make it possible to determine accurately long sonar ranges. Accu-
rate range information is necessary if a dis.tant submarine is to be
attacked by an air missile or if the loCation of water entry of a
missile at Very long range is to be determined. Generally, sound
velocity has been computed by theoretical methods using ancient
informatfon on the physical properties of water. (64, 65,-66) However,
some. recent measurements have been made to determine .the average
velocity over a long path and compare this with precise oceano-
graphic measurements. (67)
Other Possible Means: This discussion has dealt largely
with sonar detection. Other methods of detection may use the
electrical, magnetic, or pressure fields set up in the water.
Changes in environment detectable by infrared means or ionic
68)
changes in the ocean may be possible. (There niust be still
other properties of the sea which are not yet investigated which
would make a suitable indicator of detection.
SUMMARY
In summary, there are many components in the oceanic
environment that affect detection. As yet, from an acoustical stand-
point only refraction and some scattering properties of the medium
are known to any degree. In many instances, the causes of fluctua-
tion in acoustic detection cannot be adequately explained on the basis
of present knowledge. This points up the need for extensive funda-
mental studies of processes in the ocean.
Some. possible environmental factors affecting acoustic
fluctuation and detection are speculated to be (1) refraction in
internal waves, (2) the presence of minute bubbles in the sea, (3)
the near-surface boundary effects associated with sea surface slicks
and (4) plankton.
Further investigations of these subjects should take into
account the detailed spacial distribution.of watei. properties., the re-
lationship of the many oceanographic variables to each other, and
short-period time fluctuations.. The knowledge thus gained should
allow acoustic conditions to be predicted and the oceanic environ-
ment used to fullest advantage.
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REFERENCES
1. Navy Electronics Laboratory Internal Technical Memorandum
112, Correction of Hydroacoustic Output Measurements for
Effects of Surface Reflection Under Specific Refractive Con-
ditions, by F. A. Dahm, (Unpublished), 15 Nov. 1953.
2. Urick, R. J., "The Processes of Sound Scattering at the Ocean
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3. Pennsylvania State University Ordnance Research Laboratory -
Serial NOrd. 16597-24, Sound Back-Scattering in the Ocean
at 25 and 60 kc, by R. M.. Hoover and F. E. Kaprocki,
?CONFIDENTIAL, 15 Mar. 1957.
4. Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 486, A Survey of Contem-
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F. A. Dahm, CONFIDENTIAL, 23 April 1954.
5. Office of Naval Research, A Summary of Underwater Acoustic
Data, Part 4: Reverberation, by R. J. Urick and A. W.
Pryce, CONFIDENTIAL, February 1954.
6. Hamilton, E. L. and others, "Acoustic and Other Physical
Properties of Shallow-Water Sediments off San Diego",
Acoustical Society of America. Journal, v. 28, no. 1,
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7. Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 803,
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W. E. Batzler, M. D. Ward, and J.
. DENTLAL, 13 August 1957.
?
Acoustic Scattering
5. 5 and 8. 0 )cc: , by
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8. National Defense Research Committee- Division 6 Summary
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to Subsurface Warfare, p. 1-103, 1946.
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Factors of Major Importance in Submarine Detection, by
L. Y. Shakt, p. 1-24, CONFIDENTIAL, June 1957.
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?
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10. Washington University Applied Physics Laboratory
APL/UW/TE/55-50, Oceanographic Investigation; Report
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11. Raitt, R. W. , "Sound Scatterers in the Sea", Journal of
Marine Research, v. 7, no. 3, p. 393-409, 1948.
12. Johnson, H. R. and others, "Suspended Echo-Sounder and
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13. .Scri,pps _Institution of Oceanography Marine Physical Laboratory
S. I. 0. Reference 53-36, Wide Band Sound Scattering in the
Deep Scattering Layer, by V. C. Anderson, 1953.
14. Hersey, J. B., and others "Recent Findings About the Deep
Scattering Layer," Journal of Marine Research, v. 11, no. 1,
p. 1-18, 1952.
15. Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 334, Sonar Studies of the
Deep Scattering Layer in the North Pacific, by W. E.
Batzler and E. C. Westerfield, 8 Jan. 1953.
16. Johnson, M. W., "Sound As a Tool in Marine Ecology",
Journal of Marine Research, v. 7, no. 3, p. 443-458.
17. Trout, G. C. and others, "Recent Echo Sounder Studies",
Nature No. 4315, v., 170, P. 71-72, 12 July 1952.
18. LaVond, E..C. and D. W. Pritchard, !'Physical Oceanographic
Investigations in the Eastern Bering and Chukchi Seas Dur-
ing the Summer of 1947", Journal of Marine Research, ,
v.. 11; no. 1, p. 69-86, 1952.
19. .Burd, A. C. and A. J. Lee, "The Sonic Scattering Layer in the
. Sea", Nature NO. 4251, v.. 167, p. 624-626, 21 April 1951.
100
4
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20. Pennsylvania State University Ordnance Research Laboratory,
TM 7. 3366-35, Recent Acoustic Observations of a Near-
Surface Layer of Scatterers in the Sea, by R. J. Urick,
CONFIDENTIAL, 23 April 1956.
21. Canada Pacific Naval Laboratory Interim Report PIR-7
The Fluctuation of Sound Transmitted in the Ocean, by
R. W. Stewart, H. L. Grant, W. N. English and C. D.
Maunsell, 1 August 1955.
22. Naval Mine Countermeasures Station Data Report 5415
(GD-5)15, Statistical Analysis of the Effect of Oceanographic
Variables on the Probability of Detection of Ground Mines by
the AN/SQS-15 Variable Depth Sonar, by J. N. Boyd,
CONFIDENTIAL, 22 June 1954.
23. Texas University Defense Research Laboratory Report
DRL-A-79, Analysis of Tape Recordings Made During the
Evaluation of the XHB Mine Hunting Sonar, by L. A. Jeffress,
CONFIDENTIAL, 19 July 1954.
24. National Research Council Committee on Undersea Warfare
Serial NRC:CUW:0027, Basic Problems of Underwater
Acoustics Research, Chapter 7: Fluctuations of Sound in
the Sea, by C. Eckart and R. R. Carhart, CONFIDENTIAL,
1 Sept. 1948.
25. Chesapeake Bay Institute Reference 57-6, Sound Fluctuations
and Related Oceanographic Parameters in an Estuary, by
E. R. Pinkston, ?M. J. Pollak, and J. R. Smithson,
September 1957..
26. Naval Research Laboratory Report 4530, A Descriptive Study
of the Acoustic Fading of Mine Targets, by R. J. Urick
and J. A. Knauss, CONFIDENTIAL, 5 May 1955.
27. Sagar, F. H., "Fluctuations in Intensity .of Short Pulses of ?
, 14. 5-kc Sound Received?from a Source in the. Sea";
Acoustical Society of America. Journal, v. 27, p. 1092-
1106, 1955.
101
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28. Sagar, F. H., "Comparison of Experimental Underwater
Acoustic Intensities of Frequency 14.5 kc With Values
Computed for Selected Thermal Conditions in the Sea",
Acoustical Society of America. Journal, v. 29, p. 948-
965, 1957.
29. Nanda, J. N., "On Origin of Fluctuations of Sound Trans-
missions in the Sea", Indian Journal of Meteorology and
Geophysics, v. 8, no. 3, p. 325-328, 1957.
30. Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 785, Some Major Environ-
mental Factors Affecting AN/UQS-1B Sonar Performance,
by A. J. Carsola, R. F. Dill, G. P. Schumacher and
H. W. Volberg, CONFIDENTIAL, 10 June 1957.
31. Sverdrup, H. U. and others, The Oceans, Prentice-Hall,
p. 585-602, 1942.
32. Ufford, C. W., "The Theory of Internal Waves", American
Geophysical Union. Transactions, v. 28, no. 1, p. 96-101,
1947.
33. Ufford, C. W., "Internal Waves in the Ocean", American
Geophysical Union. Transactions, v. 28, no. 1, p. 79-86,
1947.
34. Ufford, C. W., "Internal Waves Measured at Three Stations",
American Geophysical Union. Transactions, v. 28, no. 1,
p. 87-9.5,. 1947.
35. Navy Electronics Laboratory Technical Report 760, -An Example
of Sound,LRay Focusing by Internal Waves, by C. R. Sparger,
'CONFIDENTIAL, 25 January 1957.
- 36. Lee, Owen S., Sound Focusing by Internal Waves, (Manuscript)..'
37. Fox, F. E. and others, "Phase Velocity. and Absorption Mea-
surements in Water Containing Air Bubbles," Acoustical
Society of America. Journal, v.- 27, no. 3, p. 534-539,
1955.
CONFIDENTIAL
102 .
4,?
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CONFIDENTIAL
38. Morse, L. L., Effect of Wind on Attenuation of 14 kc Sound
in Shallow Water (Manuscript).
39. Navy Electronics Laboratoni Report 828, Slicks and Related
Physical Properties of Near-Shore Waters, by R. F. Dill
and E. C. LaFond, CONFIDENTIAL, (In press).
40. Navy Electronics Laboratory Technical Memo. 259, Do
Invisible Bubbles Exist in the Sea?, by E. C.? LaFond and
R. F. Dill, 4 September 1957.
41. Naval Mine Defense Laboratory Technical Paper No. TP111,
A Report of Blackout of the AN/PQS-1 Diver's Hand,-Held
Sonar, by H. L. Warner, CONFIDENTIAL, July 1957.
42. Ramsey, W. L., Dissolved Oxygen in Sweetwater Lake and
Near-Shore Waters of San Diego, California. (Manuscript).
43. Nusbaum, I., (Personal Communication), California Water and
Pollution Board.
44. Canada. Fisheries Research Board of Canada Progress Re-
ports of the Pacific Coast Stations Issue No. 99, Oceano-
graphy of British Columbia Mainland Inlets, Part IV:
Dissolved Oxygen Distribution, by G. L. Pickard, p. 9-11,
July 1954.
45. Navy Electronics Laboratory Technical Memorandum 203,
. "Shimmering", The Visual Distortion of Objects Underwater
at Thermal Boundaries, by R. F. Dill, 1.8 Sept. 1956.
46. Navy Electronics LabOratory Report 151, High-power short-
- pulse echo -ranging, by L. R. Padberg, CONFIDENTIAL,
24- March 1950.
47. Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 476; High-Power Short-
Pulse Eeho-Ranging Sonar, by' L. R. padberg and. F. D.
Parker, .CONFIDENTIAL, 19 April 1954. ? -
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CONFIDENTIAL
48. University of California, Marine Physical Laboratory, Towed
Hydrophone-Model 2, Revised Preliminary Operating In-
structions, Revision 1, CONFIDENTIAL, 1 Dec. 1950.
49. Ewing, G., "Slicks, Surface Films and Internal Waves",
Journal of Marine Research, v. 9, no. 3, p. 161-187,
1950.
50. ? Dietz, R. S. and E. C. LaFond, "Natural Slicks on the Ocean,"
Journal of Marine Research, v. 9, no. 2, p. 69-76, 1950.
51. LaFond, E. C., "Factors Affecting Vertical Temperature
Gradients in the Upper Layers of the Sea", Scientific
Monthly, v. 78, no. 4, p. 243-253, April 1954.
52. Ricketts, Edward F. and Jack Calvin, Between Pacific Tides,
3rd ed., p. 345-374, Stanford University Press, 1952.
53. 'Navy Electronics Laboratory Technical Memorandum 110,
Spectrum Studies of Sonar Reverberation From Surface
Convergence (LORAD) Zones, by E. C. Westerfield,
K. V. Mackenzie, M. K. Brandon, J. A. Whitney and
N. S. Young, CONFIDENTIAL, 23 May 1955.
54. Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 698, LORAD Summary
Report, Lorad Reverberations Part II, Article 6, by
K. V. Mackenzie, p. 1142-1161, CONFIDENTIAL, 22
June 1956.
55. Mackenzie, K. V., "Seasonal Variation of LORAD Reverberation
and a Possible Correlation with Phytoplankton-Production",
U. S. Navy Journal of Underwater.Acoustics, CONFIDENTIAL,
(Manuscript).
56. Naval Mine Countermeasures Station Data Report 5417(GD-5)-
. 16, Probability of Detection During the Norfolk Variable
Depth So.nar Test, by H. P. Williams and J. N. Boyd,
CONFIDENTIAL, 20 August 1954.
57. Navy Electronics Laboratory Technical Report 554, Sonar
Echo and Bottom Reverberation Studies Related to the
104
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Mine Countermeasures Program, by W. E. Batzler, C. A.
Turner and M. D. Ward, CONFIDE/4TIAL, 24 Nov. 1954.
58.. Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 559, Results of a Long-
Range 530-cps Underwater Sound Transmission Experiment,
. by M. A. Pedersen, E. R. Anderson, J. F. Kidd, and
R. M. Lesser, CONFIDENTIAL, 17 January 1955.
59. Hale, F. E., "Results of Recent LORAD Tests". Presented at
the 15th Navy Symposium on Underwater Acoustics 28-30
October 1957, CONFIDENTIAL.
60. Saur, J. F. T., and H. W. Menard, "On the Probability of
? Successful Convergence Zone Transmission Over an
Irregular Sea Floor", U. S. Navy Journal of Underwater
Acoustics, v. 4, no. 4, p. 99-114, CONFIDENTIAL,
October 1954.
61. Anderson, E. R. "Distribution of Sound Velocity in a Section
of Eastern North Pacific," American Geophysical Union
Transactions, v. 31, no. 2, p. 221-228, April 1950.
62. Navy Electronics Laboratory Report 175, Sofar Research Group,
1950. Triangulation tests of the northeast Pacific Sofar
network, UNCLASSIFIED.
63. Navy Underwater Sound Laboratory Technical Memorandum
1110-56-56, Propagation of Acoustic Waves ip Surface
Sound Channels, 0.1-5 kc: Part 1, by M. R. Powers.,
30 June 1956. -
64. Kuwahara, Susumu, "Velocity. of Sound in Sea Water and Calcu-
lation of the Velocity for Use. in Sonic Sounding",
Hydrographic Review, v. .16, no. 2, p. 123-140, 1939.
65. Beyer, R. T., "Formulas for Sound Velocity in Sea Water",
JOUrnal of Marine Research, v. 13, p. 113-121, 1954.
66. Naval Research Laboratory Report 4002, The Velocity of Sound ?
Iii Sea Water at Zero Depth, by V. A. Del Grosso, 11 June
1952.
105
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67. Mackenzie, K. V., Formulae for the Computation of Sound
Velocity in Sea Water, (Manuscript).
68., Navy Electronics Laboratory Technical Memorandum 249,
Can a Deep Running Nuclear Submarine be Detected by
Infrared?, by Karl F. Herzfeld, CONFIDENTIAL,
p. 1-10, 12 June 1957.
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MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE OCEAN AS IT RELATES TO THE
TRANSUSSION OF ULLDFitWATER SOUND
D. S. Potter
Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington
Seattle, Washington
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to discuss some of the limitations
imposed on the applications of underwater acoustics by the presence
of small inhomogeneities in the volume of the sea. Although the in-
homogeneities 'are extremely small and result in sound velocity changes
of the order of 1/100 of 1%, the continuing action of these "scat-
terers" over long ranges results in large anomalies in sound propaga-
tion. In sound transmission, the effect of these inhomogeneities can
yield a large fluctuation in signal intensity, as well as a "wander-
ing" of the direction of sound energy propagation. Similar inhomo-
geneities in the earth's atmosphere have shown the feasibility of
long-range, high-frequency radio transmissions which extend well
beyond the normal limits imposed by the earth's curvature.
A great deal of effort, of course, has been expended in radio
and radar studies of the effect of .atmospheric and tropospheric
"scatterers". So, too, in the acoustic field, problems' of this
general character have received increasing attention since World Aar
II. In spite of this activity, from the designer's point of view, _?
the information currently available, on both the occurrence of such
inhomogeneities in the oceans and the detailed effeet on acoustical
transmission is only now .beginning to be understood._ Hence, there
has been little attempt to take such factors into account' in the
design of underwater weapons systems.
In the' period immediately 'following World War II, considerable
attention was paid to the problem of fluctuating' sound levels.
ocean measurements there are, of course-, many easily found reasons
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for the production of flucttating levels - interference from the sur-
face boundary, ship motion producing a misorientation of transducer
patterns, etc. - which explain the bulk of these early observations.
However, when careful experiments are performed which eliminate,
insofar as possible, all of these obvious causes, there still remain9
a fluctuation in intensity wnich finally must be attributed to the
'medium itself. At about the same time, it was noticed that small
temperature deviations were present in the ocean. .There was a great
deal of hope that these temperature deviations might, in the final
analysis, be responsible for the residual hard core of intensity
fluctuation, which had to this point found no other explanation.
For example, an early paper of P. G. Bergmann (1) in 1946
-develops tne theory of scattering of sound energy in a random inhomo-
geneous medium in the ray limit. jbcperimental work was carried out
by Sheehy (2) in which he made direct measurements of the intensity
fluctuation in direct transmission between two deep transducers. In
addition, Liebermann (3) made a series of measurements in 1951 of the
temperature deviations of the sea, using a submarine cruising hori-
zontally at constant depth as a platform. In 1953 and 1954, Mintzer
(4,5,6) published a series of papers concerning sound scattering in
a statistical medium much as Bergmann envisioned, except that Mint-
zerts work was done in the wave limit of acoustic propagation. In, a
later paper by Potter and Murphy (7), the solution of the scattering
problem for a particular statistical distribution, valid in both the
ray and wave limits, was obtained. This work was entirely concerned
with sound scattering in a medium which could be described on the
basis of a fairly simple statistical modelli More recent work reported
by Skudrzyk (8) of gem has extended the statistical model to the case
of a medium exhibiting Kolmogorov turbulence. Tne statistical model
is an attractive one from both the theoretical and expetimental
points of view, since it reduces -a tremendously complioated structure
to a few simple parameters which now describe only the average
properties of the medium. However, like all, statistical averaging
processes, simplicity is purchased at the'expense of eliminating
knowledge of what occurs over short times. Thus, for an acoustic
experiment lasting for a short enough time, the statistical model
gives little information. In the language of statistical mechanics,
the question is, "What time is required to assure the application .
of an argotic hypothesis?"
Although, in some instances, .the direct acoustic experiments
have tended to support the theoretical conclusions on the basis of .
the various statistical models, there have been some notable failures,
which lead one to the inevitable conclusion that, because of the
various diverse mechanisms responsible for-temperature changes and
acoustic fluctuations, there are, in fact, several quite-different
models which must be employed.
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DESCRIFTION OF MICROSTRUCTURE
The term "thermal microstructure" must be defined.. In the great
bulk of thermal observations made in these% the .fundamental instru-
ment has been the batnytnermographl Which records temperature to
about 1/20 F as a function of water depth. Hence, for present pur-
poses, we will define thermal microstructure as temperature structure
occurring in the volume of the sea whose deviations from the immedi-
ately surrounding water are of the order of a few hundredths of a
degree Centigrade..
The Statistical Model
The statistical model used in most of these studies follows very
closely the one developed by Liebermann on the basis of a series of
measurements of the temperature deviations made on cruises in the
coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean from San Diego to Alaska. The
resulting record Of the temperature deviation from the average as a
function of horizontal displacement was random in appearance, and
gave support to a statistical model of the thermal microstructure of
the medium. It turns out that the medium may be described suffi-
ciently well for fluctuation calculations on the basis of two para-
meters, if one i willing to make certain assumptions. The first
parameter is the spatial autocorrelation of the temperature deviations.
This is a measure of tne intuitive nation that the deviation from the
mean temperature at two points in tne water which are close together
mould be expected to be about the same, while temperature deviations
at widely separated points would be expected to bear little relation-
ship to each other. The distance, "a", over which such correlations
exist was found to be about 60 am in the horizontal direction for this
data. The second parameter, the root-mean-square deviation of the
temperature from the average, is. a statistical measure of the magni-
tude of the deviations.. The experimental value for this parameter
was about 6.05? C which whenconverted to the sound velocity change,
was of the order of 10.
The existence of a correlation distance nas resulted in a tend-
ency to think of the temperature deviations as if they. were "patches"
of warmer or colder water. These patches naturally have, an ill-
defined shape, and no true boundary exists between one "patch" and
another on the basis of tnis viewpoint. 'A sophistication of this
model?is achieved by allowing the correlation distance in the hori-
zontal and vertical directions to be different. It is, of course,
necessary to establish the correlation function, but, except for
back-scattering, its form, is not critical.
_
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The Layered Model
As a result of an extensive study of the thermal structure and
acoustic properties of Dabob Bay and the waters of Puget Sound by
the Applied Physics Laboratory, a very different model was found
necessary for describing the thermal microstructure of this area.
In substance, the findings were as follows:
DEPTH, FEET
NEW HIGH-SENSITIVITY
THERMISTOR PROBE
8.4 8.6
8.8 9.0 9.2
TEMPERATURE, ?C
BATH 0TH ERM
PROFILE
9.4 7 8 9 10 11
Figure 1. A Comparison Between the High?Sensitivity
Probe and a Bathythermograph.
First, it was necessary to gain some idea of the detailed tem?
perature structure not shown on bathythermograph readings. Figure 1
showa aoomparison.between two different instruments for recording .
temperature as a function of depth. The curve shown: on the left was
obtained utilizing a. temperature probe with resolution better than
06010 C. The extreme temperature range covered by this Profile is
1 C; the bumps-and wiggles, which are readily resolved, are of the
order of a few hundredths of a degree C. The corresponding bathy?
thermograph profile drawn to its usual scale is ShOW11 on the right.
Thnslan absolutetemperature measurement as a function of depth,
akin to a bathythermograph record but sensitive now to 0.010 CI
revealed the existence of horizontal thermal layers. Within each
layer, the temperature deviatedl in general, from that of the water
immediately_ above and below by about 0.1? C or less. The vertical
110
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thickness of these layers varies from a few feet to tens of feet.
The most remarkable characteristics of this layered structure are the
horizontal extent of the layers and their time stability. Ektensive
measurements in Dabob Bay show that such layers extend for hundreds
of yards in the horizontal direction with the vertical temperature
distribution substantially unchanged. We also find that such struc?
ture is, in general, very stable with time, remaining for many days
once it is formed. Thus, we are led to an oceanographic model for
- N BUOY 20 YDS N .40 YDS N 60 YDS. N 80 YDS N 100 YDS N 120 YDS N 140 YDS N
TIME 1100 1108 1116 1124 1132 1140 1148 1156
' 50
41 100
LiU.

I-
0.
Li
0 150
200
8.40 8 45 8 40 845 8.40 845 84Q 8.45 8.40 8.45 8408.45 8.40 845 8.40 8.41,
TEMPERATURE, CC
Figure 2. Variation in Temperature Profile Over
a Distance of 140 Yards.
this region wnich treats the tnermal microstructure as strictly
horizontal layers extending througnout the transmission region.
The evidence supporting the layered model as being representative
of the actual conditions existing in Puget Sound and in some areas
of the North Pacific Ocean appears to be convincing. The spatial
extent of promontories on the temperature vs. depth plot can readily
be seen in figure 2. The eight measurements snown in this figara
were spaced 20 yards apart, covering a total distance of 140 yards.
The impressive thing here is the fact that-the promontories are
clearly defined and are recognizable across this entire distance. As
can be seen, there is a tendency for the shape of the temperature
profile to cnange with distance.
Since the eight measurements'invoIved were made consecutively,
tne time variations must also be considered. Figure 3. is the result
of a series of measurements carried out at one location. This loca?
tion was fixed by mooring to a buoy in Dabob Bay. The temperature'
drops, which were made every five minutes, give an excellent history
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Potter
Potter
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of tne changing profile with time. There is some gross water motion
in Dabob Bay because of the tidally excited seiches, whicn account
for,the gradual change in depth of some of the promontories. It is
naturally very difficult to obtain such Measurements in the open
ocean, where mooring buoys are'not available. However, some temper-
ature-depth curves taken off the coast of Alaska, unfortunately at
widely separated stations, bear a remarkable resemblance to those
found where layering is known to exist. Five of these are shown in
figure 4.
TIME: I133 1138 1143 1148 1153 1158 1203 1208 1213 1218 1223 1228 1233 1231112431244 1253 1254
250
ma
r.
300?
X
1303 1308 1313 1318 1323 1328 1333 1338 1343 1348 1353 13581403 1408 1413 1418 1423 1428
The formation of layers of water has been studied quite exten-
sively and is somewhat better. understood. The major requirement for
the production of such anomalies is the following: Imagine two large
bodies of water which join at a common interface. Imagine that one
body of water has a temperature and salinity distribution which gives
rise to a monotonically increasing density wttn increasing depth
(necessary. for equilibrium). Now, if the second body of water is
o-
100-
200-
TEMPERATURE,?C
5 6 6 7 6 7 7 8 8 9
I
DA808 BAY
3 AUGUST 1855
Figure 3. Change of Temperature Profile with Time.
FORMATI0N OF MICROSTRUCTURE
The formation of a thermal microstructure following a statisti-
cal model is quite difficult to understand unless one has available
large energy sources for the continued'formationtsuoh as would be
available in a shoaling area off a coast. The reason for this is
tnat the patches of water quickly dissipate unless they are in equil-
ibrium. .Skudrzyk has.proposed an interesting mechanism for the con-
tinued generation of patches, whereby the required energy is avail- '
able because of the induced turbulence Of the shoaling water.
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500-
600-
700-
800-
NO. 38
63 MI. FROM
SITKA
I APR 1957
0200
NO. 39
334 MI.
4 APR 1957
1030
NO. 41
368 MI.
4 APR 1957
1550
NO. 42
485 MI
5 APR 1957
0940
NO. 43
575 MI.
5 APR 1957
1640
Figure 4. Temperature Structure in the Ocean 20 Miles
off the West Coast.
essentially isosaline and isothermal, and if its density is equal to-
tnat of the first body of water at some depth, then there will be an
exchange of water between the two bodies of water.
The intrusion of water from one zone to another produces large
eddy currents, and,these eventually appear as long, tnin layers of .
water, different in temperature and salinity from the surrounding
water. The end requirement of a monotonic density distribution,
essentially independent in a horizontal direction is, of course, comp-
plied with, since tne. process is only stopped when mecna4cal equi-
librium is reacned. If tie density profiles are not so idealizedl
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?vcol?'?1\
NW` .
sk:???????? ...... ....... ?
.
? ?
.... . . . ... .. .... ... ......... . . ?????? :s ? .... ;;/'
111111011 . f 111111111R111111111F
1111111111111111111111111111111111111111
8.5 -9.0 ?C
111.1 SURFACE TEMP
14-16?C
17 MAY 1957
NORTH BUOY TGT BUOY. SO. TOWER TSKUTSKO OAK HEAD FISH HAZEL PT
PT HBR
/M 10.0-10,5?C
10 5 -11 0?C
WEE OVER 110?C
TGT BUOY SO. TOWER TSKUTSIKO OAK HEAD FISH HBR. HAZEL P.
1,11111iiiitomon
Ilia .ll11111111111111111111010111111111111111111110 11110mh
"' .......................... 1910"
IllelM111111
ql lotto%
\\\\ 11144
7.0-7.5?C
1779 7.5 -8.0?C*
kaid
8.0-8.5?C
8.5-9.0?C
9.0 -9.5?C
MEM 9.510:0?C
? .
M110.0 -10.5 ? C
1111110.5 -11.0?C
SIMI OVER 11.0?C
Figure 5. Isothermal Diagrams Showing Initial
Stages of Flushing.
then there will be many layers formed. The dynamic process is quite
rapid when compared with the thermal process; hence,- the assumption
of such an interface leads to a stable, layered water structure.
7 0 - 7 5 ?C
7,5 -8 0?C
EF,I?A 8 0 - 8 5?C
E121 8 5-9 0?C
9 0-9 5?C
MI 9 ,5 -10 0?C
?Mj 10.0-.10 5?C
:10.5-11.0?C
ME 11.0 -II 5?C
TGT. BUOY SO.TOWER. TSKUTSKO PT. OAK HEAD FISH. HBR. HAZEL PT
? Figure 6. Isothermal Diagrams Showing Final
' Stages of Flushing.
The. formation of layers in Dabob Bay is well illustrated by the
isothermal diagrams for Dabob Bay and HoOd Canal shown .in'figu.res 5
and 6. The first diagram of figure 5 is a late spririg- Condition _-
which, in general, gives a monotonically decreasing temperature
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profile. The -isurfabe,mater,marms,,considerably in midsummer. 3.n. Hood
Canal;; there is sufficient turbulence: caused by the .'1argetidal'act4on
so that the, -.7rater:3,1fiecomes-,--.*611::iixed",eridNherice warmed ?throughi*t::.
Acrose;',tlieiriterface? between.HOOdf Canal irids Dabob Bay there are' now
large liorizondensiti-gradie.i:Its:, The Hood Canal water intrudes
into Dabobi.Hay:;:asi,erio*i in figure 6, and, even _op the?coarse,scale of
these figures, produces a:well,,defined? layering ,',effect. V?iher,i;.:e)0211-
hied irr','-detaili,..3,it,'"4:6',:fo4nd::tnat:4,neie 3.4sr.*!4 are from a few feet
tens of:::,..feetrltnick;'..and::,c4-044.17i1Yfei'e seV`eral.::hundred.';.yards..-ins.s.hari-
zontal extent;-thei teurPeratUre` differenae;:beingfa'-few::Iiiindiedths of
a degree Centrigrade.`"?-lir',thefirst' few jiOntiii, the ttiin layers seem
to
to fade away, leaving a residue - Of 'rather. thick..:rayers. At the'end
of six months, the layering is considerably redliced, and at this time
the process is? repeated; except that in the winter the intruding
layers are coldert,han the existing water.
One of the outstanding features of this layered structure is the
remarkable time stability of the structure. Once formed, such layers
are in static equilibrium and, in the absence of sources of large
mechanical energy - e.g., currents produced by waves - they remain in
position. .The,mechanism ,remaining for .dissipation is thermal ,conduc-
tivity. ',"?-KOrr!,I4erk'br'-Patche'S'':Cff'S4:;Size (a yard. Or more:, in extent)
the
the prO`des-e'?:,.8for:clirip.ry.- heat condu.ction is very slow. Calculations
show f,fia a'year 'or more .may be required before the temperature
fferende becomes immeasurable. ?
?--
One might speculate that a_mechanism.,,equivalent to that in .Dabob
Bay is present in the open 'ocean. Thiscould be the intrusion of
water at the interfaCe, oft. an Ocean .current = with the remaining water.
This local production of anomalies in riot, be..?yell defined, since the
ocean currents are?imown to limeander"..quite':)51t, thus producing
anomalies over a wide expanse. This; coupled with the- long inherent
life of the large layers, could cause a generally widespread. occur-
rence of such anomalies. Some ocean measurenierits have been ina:de.:by
this Laboratory,, as ',well as other groups, and strong evidenCe of
layering has been found oft the Alaskan coast, off Oregon, and in the
San Diego area. Unfortunately, there :is almost no information avail-
able in any other area and, except for.Puget_Scund, the present data
is too meager to permit any analysis.
EFFECT ON SOUND TRANSMISSION-
A
J???9,.. ??? ?
,.?
, Of all of the effects which the thermal microstructure of the
medium has on ,acoustic transmission, the most extensively studied has
.been4that of intensity fluctuation. Figure 7 ?ShOys.,..1,he experimental
arrangement 'employed lay A?r, in Studyingithis pnenonenbri. In these '
measurements, an acoustic' tran?itter witru a unif'orm-azimuthal'pattern,
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100
? ?
400
500
TEMPERATURE ? C
7.5 80 85
Potter
100
400
500
60 600
Figure 7. Experimental Arrangement for Sound
Transmission Measurements.
SOUND LEVEL
1-1
10 DB
Tr>
is lowered to a convenient water depth. A receiving hydrophone, also
with a uniform pattern in tne horizontal plane, is used to probe the
sound intensity of the directly received pulse as a function of depth.
A fairly typical intensity-depth profile is shown on the right of this
figure. As can be seen, intensity fluctuations can be in excess of
10 db. Figure 8 snows a fairly typical set of intensity-depth *pro-
files taken at varying ranges from approximately 80 to 500' yards.
These measurements were made in Dabob Bay in the presence of a layer
approximately 20 feet thick having a temperature change of 0.10 C.
? One finds that the primary intensity fluctuations are concentrated at -
approximately the depth of the layer. The depth of the transmitter
is indicated on the figure by T. If the medium exhibits essentially
statistical properties, it is only possible to determine statistical
properties. of the intensity fluctuations. However, in the layered
model it is tempting to try to calculate this intensity variation.
Such a calculation is -readily made in the ray limit.
Figures 9 and 10 are two examples of such a carculation,.obtained
utilizing a ray perturbation calculation applied to the actual
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RANGE, YDS II 109 137 175 210 310 423 491
TIME 1150 1200 1206 1211 1229 1245 1252
ACTUAL SOUND LEVEL
..... cACTUAL CURVE
200 ............
:"."::. APPROXIMATION
FORMED BY A
SERIES OF GAUSSIANS
PREDICTED
SOUND LEVEL
TEMPERATURE
1--I
' 0.I?G
SOUND LEVEL
250
Ui
Ui
a.
Ui
300-
SOUND LEVEL
I---1
5DB
DABOB BAY
17 MAR 1955
5 AUG 1955
DABOB BAY
RANGE 520 YDS -
Tx DEPTH 240 FT
Figure 8. Effect of Temperature Layer on Sound
Transmission at Several Ranges.
I I
8.5 8.6 8.7
TEMPERATURE, ?C
SOUND LEVEL
---0PREDICTED
There is a great deal of data on intensity fluctuation, but it
ACTUAL is probably sufficient merely to note that this is a well established
effect of the tnermal microstructure, and .that the present theories -
are able to account in large measure for the magnitude ob?erved. It
is unfortunate that these measurements have been carried out in only
a few selected areas and that little in a quantitative. may is known
about this effect in the open ocean.
Figure 10. Comparison of Measured Sound Level Profile
with Predicted Profile.
temperature profile. The experimentally measured sound level is
shown along with the calculated profile. As can be seen, this type
of calculation does predict both the magnitude and general trend in
sound intensity., but by its very nature, of course, it cannot account
for the rapid fluctuations. Although the magnitude of fluctuation is
seen to be in excess of 20 db in one of these examples, this is a
rather extreme case for such a short range (520 yards).
' Pigure 9. Comparison of Measured Sound Level Profile
with Predicted Profile.
In the design for current and future weapon systems, the problem
of bearing wander of sonar information is at least equal in import?
ance to that of intensity fluctuation. In this area, however, very
little has been done. Several calculations nave been made concerning
the magnitude of the bearing wander due to a thermal microstructure
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0-
100
300-
400-
TEMPERATURE
1.0?C
Potter
RANGE 350 YDS
TARGET SIZE, DB
10 DB
Tgt
0 START OF SUCCESSFUL ATTACK
A START OF UNSUCCESSFUL ATTACK
L LOSS OF TARGET
rI
100 200 300 400 500
RANGE, YARDS
DABOB BAY
SEPTEMBER 8, 1955
Figure U. Effect of Temperature Layer on
Performance of Mark 143 Torpedo.
under the assumption of a statistical model, although very little has
appeared in the published literature. Because of the long ranges
at whicn such an effect becomes important; it is no longer profitable
to .consider the idealized layered model given earlier. This comes
about because tne layers are probably between 3.00 and 1000 -yards in
extent, well less than interesting sonar ranges today. This model ?
can be handled as a rather bizarre case of a statistical model in
which the vertical 'and horizontal correlation differences differ by
a factor of approximately 100. The only direct experimental measure-
ment of this important effect was, made recently at the Naval Under-
water Sound Laboratory. The preliminary results neither agree nor
disagree with previous theoretical calculations. This unfortunate
situation arises rather naturally because of the almost complete
lack of information concerning the properties of the ocean in the
test area. Based on the best available information, tne bearing
wander can be expected to be of the order of 1/2? at 10,000 yards,
120.
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rising to perhaps 1o at 401000 yards, at least in those Select areaSo;-?
?
of -the ocean where information is available: ? ' ?
? ;
EFFECT ON WEAPON :PERFORMANCE
The single case in which weapon pei?formanee Was degraded -by- the -?
thermal microstructure of the medium was observed with Mark 143 tor-
pedoes in Dabob Bay. In tnis case, the torpedoes failed 'to hdme -on
a ?simutated acoustic target because of the loss, of ebhd?Signal:
loss of tartet, termed an aborted attack.? occurs primarily at the':
time of year when a strdng layering situation- exists iir-the bay: The'
Mark 143 torpedo has a vertically stabilized transducer, and for this- '?
reason can tell only if- it is above or below the .target. Because' its
normal homing trajectory is such -as- to bring it to target depth -as ?
rapidly as possible,- it, usually arrives at target- depths at ranges
excess of 200 yards.- As indicated earlier, the intensity fluctuation-
caused by a layered -structure will be at a maximum when-both trans,
mitter and receiver are in the immediate 'area of:the layer. -The
acoustic "holes" .arisingifrom the layers were-found to be directly
responsible for the aborted attacks. In order to demonstrate tnis
point; the following experiment was run: A- temperature measurement'
was made in the operating' area, and from this a target depth was-
chosen which was predicted to give aborted attacks. Figure 11 shows
the result of this experiment. The temperature profile is -shown - oil'
the left. The center curve is the profile of the equivalent acoustic'
target size. The predicted acoustic "hole" at a depth of 200 feet -
is seen to have a magnitude of almost 10 db at a range of 350 yards.'
The trajectories of four torpedoes are shown at the right. As can
be seen, in every.case the torpedo lost the target on its first pass.
This problem became so acute that it was necessary to provide-the '
torpedo station with acoustic services during this critical period
so that proofing could be continued. Although tnis is the only sub-
stantiated case of weapon degradation arising from the thermal micro-
structure, there have undoubtedly been many-other unrecognized pro-
blems.
,The implications to future weapon systems of the acoustic pro -
blems'discussed in this paper are fairly obvious-butl-becauselofthe-.z-
lack,of.:detailed information, the proper-remedial action-LS-not''So -
obvious. The fluctuation-in intensity results, .of cbursel in lost ,
information. .The amount of information whicn is lost, and the manner1:1
of-loss, depends-upon the magnitude of-the fliictUation and aide On the
mechanism. If one Considers .only the statiStical model; the -flue.=
t,uation from ping to ping' ofan active Sonar system is randOnf
(assuming some motion of the submarine) and, as a result, one can
readily calculate the .,statistical quantities which have hearing-on the
problem. These will include tne net information rate, -the probability
of losing two or more consecutive pieces of information, and so on.
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With tne assumption of a _random process, the method of analysis for..
optimum weapon performance is. available and can be utilized. On the
other hand, if, as seems more likelY, the open ocean tends more nearly
to the layered model, then the problem is greatly complicated. ,In,
this cases the high spatial correlation of the fluctuations (in the
horizontal direction) means _that the loss, of one ping makes the pro-
bability of the loss of several, additional pings high. It is as if
there mere ."dead zones"..in.the water. The requirements on the
remainder of-the system are then made much more difficult, since in,-
formation maybe lost tor relatively long periods. If it turns out
that the .Layer-type problem?ip_bf,major,poncern, then a quite soph-
isticated.systemrwill be required .to give a reasonable operability.
Similarly,,the effect on, fire control sonar mill be more serious for
the layered model. The possibility of losing .contact with the target,
for fractions of a minute may rule-out-certain weapon systems, or may
call for an.even;more Sophisticated missile. Weapons are now failing
to perform bedause of information loss, and with the necessity for, ,
increased homing ranges, a major cnange. in homing philosophy willbe
required before satisfactory. performance is obtained. Such a change
would be in the direction of providing a better "memory"; then, when
homing information is, lost, the torpedo can continue Along, a most .
probable course instead of breaking off ,the attack and returning to
a searchphase. Naturally, .additional _functions which must be per-
formed by the missile make tne system more liable to equipment mal-"-
function. As viewed from the overall system viempoint, it may be.
desirable not to ask_more.of the missile, but to require more from
the., launching vessel, where human judgment is available.
??
. The problem hof fire control errors can receive no more than a
superficial treatment at this point, since.the fundamental data con-
cerning-bearing errors is not available. In principle, however, there
are several basic weapon systems, differing in communication require-
ments between launcher and missile, which can avoid some of the pro-
blems connected with fire controkerror. .
-
The weapon system making the most severe requirement on the fire.
control data is the 'classical predicted intercept weapon,, In. such a
System, tne target motion is' presumed to be known and a predicted,
intercept point is caldulated,-taking into account tne travel time of-
the weapon. The %r9ri_dlYar II torpedo ,firing system is, of course,
an exdellentexample of tnis.- At relativeiy short ranges, this
weapon system is very effective, but as the, range increases, the pro-
bability of success is greatly diminished. The .principal reasons '
for the decrease in performance are:: .
? .(1),: increased error in.the target motion; which leads to
6.. ? ?
,
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(2) increased error of predicted intercept position, which, in
. .
turn; leads to.
(3) larger error in weapon delivery, and
. (4) increased flight time, which makes evasive'maneuvers very
effective.
The most obvious way of regaining a nigh hit probability is to. ?
increase the radius of ethality of the warhead, either by adding
homing or a special warhead. This change is effective' for non-evading
targets at ranges up to about 10,000 yards, but beyond that point it
loses effectiveness because of the fire control errors of present
sonar systems. The next step may be made in eitner-df,twO-directiOnsi
decrease tne flight time of the Missile or communicate with it to give
in-flight corrections. The decrease in flight time is extremely ?
effective at' shorterranges, but beyond 10,000 yards it appears that
it will still be necessary to predict the target course. It is not
possible to estimate tne effective range with the added feature of
predicted intercept; however, with present sonar accuracies, and with
an evading, high-speed target, the upper limit of useful range may
be considerably less than 20,000 yards. In addition to ail of the
data concerning the missile characteristics, it will be necessary to
know the minimum errors in the fire control sonar system before eval-
uating the potential of this weapon system.
Anotner alternative, in-flight correction to tne missile, is
beset with similar difficulties, and to these must be added the
additional complication of a prolonged loss of information at a cri-
tical time. Information loss, although disturbing in the other sys-
tems, is not critical, since the firing time can be delayed until
adequate information is available; however, if in-flight correction
is necessary, then adequate information during the flight is most
important.
Additional weapon functions ma Y readily 'be imagined, 'each de-
-signed to overcome some failing, but each, ,because of the increased
complexity, tends to lower tne reliability. The above situations
serve to illustrate the cnoices:whicn must be made.' The choice of.
decreased flight time versus in-flight corrections will depend to
a great extent upon the probability of obtaining adequate fire don-
trol information: For the short-travel-time missile, the'require-
merit is 4gh accuracy, witn information loss being allowable; for
the correctable missile, the major requirement is continuous infor-
mation, witn less accuracy allowable.
?
coNauslaas
In considering the effect of thermal inhomogeneities on both
acoustic, weapons and fire control sonar, it has been impossible to
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Potter
? state with real assurance, what the limitations are, except to say that
trielimitations most certainly exist. :The almost complete- lack of
experimental data on tne aspects of the temperature structure of the
ocean, that..a.Fenimportent in tnis problem, plus the. absence of a'tneory
of 'bearing erio'r, ineane that no 'autnoritative statement of tne real
effect on our weapons and weapon systems can be given. In the long-
range underwater _missile program,. it now appears that the virtually
unexplored fie1d of sonar bearirig error will 'assume great importance
because .of the *Pact of tnis one parameter on weapon system per7.
'farmer:ice.
.pan be seen, .,the present 'state of Imowledge is quite ina.de-..
quate toT answer the pressing question,, of the syst.ein designers.
Enough..explo. ratory work nap been done, however, to show the nature
of tne problem, and to offer guidance for a thoroughgoing research
effort.-
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Potter
REFERENCES
.
1. P. G. Bergmann, Phys. Rev. 1.2, 486 (1946)._ ,
2. M. J. Sheeny, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 22, 214. (1950).
3. Leonard Liebermann, J. Acoust.. Soc. Am. 311 563 ( 1951).
14. D. Mintzer, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 25 822 (1953).
5. D. Mintzer, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 25 1107 (1953).
6. D. Mintzer, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 26 186 (19514)?
7. D. S. Potter and S. R. Murphy, J. Acoust. Soc. Am.-12, 197 (1957).
8. Eigen Sku.drzyk, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 29, 1124 (1957)..
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THE PAST, .PRESENT AND FUTURE OF UNDERWATER
CLASSIFICATION
A. J. HILLER
U. S. Naval ReseaTch Laboratory
Washington, D. C.
Where have we been; where are we how, and where are ?
we.going.in the field of sonar classification? The following covers
t1 highlights on these questions and show the several paths which
may be taken that offer the most promise in polving the. problem
at hand.
First a little background. Statistics obtained from World
War II data and more recent frustrations during ASDEVEX ex-
ercises emphasized the existence of a real problem. From one
viewpoint the inability to determine, with a high degree of accuracy,
whether or not an underwater object is submarine or non-submarine
causes problems in logistics and tactical diversion. A classificaticn
systexn of low accuracy leaves sufficient doubt as to the immediate
threat of a possible submarine. that the general doctrine was to shcct
anyway. This combined with the general ineffectiveness of ASW
weapons resulted in .a high weapon expenditure on many contacts of
which few were real submarines .and resulted in an early logistic
shortage of weapons.
Today, however, with the increased threat of the sub-
marine considered in mOre gross terms such. as the exchange of
coastal cities and industrial complexes for the lack of a successful
detection and kill, one may consider again the shoot first philosophy.
Such circumstances require that the accuracy of classification need
not be high. In summary we see that the degree of solution of the
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classification problem required is closely interwoven with consider-
ations of weapons and economics.
However, since it has been shown that consistent high ac-
curacy of classification has not been possible in the past, a Classi-
cal scientific problem did (and still does) exist, and is therefore a
challenge deserving of an intensive research effort.
The term. "consistent high accuracy" is quoted since there
have been and still are situations where evidence indicates it is
achieved. These are the cases of the selected few experienced
sonarmen who seem to have a mysterious sixth sense which en-
ables them to sort out the subtle characteristics of a submarine by
aural methods. Thus one concludes that a general solution is to
find out how the classification mechanism of the human mind works.
It also appears that the sonar signal may contain sufficient infor-
mation which, if properly analyzed and presented, could in itself
result in satisfactory classification.
Under the leadership of the Bureau of Ships, the classi-
fication problem was tackled on a broad front. In addition to the
Bureau laboratories, the U. S. Naval Research Laboratory and
numerous University groups under contract were coordinated
through a classification committee. The approach taken was classi-
cal - to first obtain data on submarine and non-submarine contacts
from which differences, no matter how subtle, could be measured
and studied. Several extensive classification cruises were planned
and organized by the U. S. Navy Underwater Sound Laboratory for
the purpose of collecting data and evaluating the various classifi-
cation devices of the laboratories. It was soon-realized that the
returns of a.30 day cruise viere meager as far as sample size was
concerned and that a much more extenive effort involving the-
operating forces as data collectors was required.-
Although cooperation of the Fleet Commanders -was given,.
the conditions of non-interference with.operations. made the task
nigh-impossible and the laboratories retuined again to their own
ships and tape recordings. Also at this time, the various labora-
tories changed their emphasis toward the then rnore urgent long
range detection problem. Today we find Only a moderate but
balanced effort directed toward a problem which once again is
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coming to the front.
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A logical approach to classification by sonar is to examine
what information the acoustic information can reve al about an
underwater contact. The tabulation below lists the acoustic
parameter and the information it contains.
Acoustic Parameter Information
_1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
a. Size of object
b. Str tictur al highlights
c. Double echo effect
a. Motion of object by
doppler
b. Motion of medium in
vicinity of object by
doppler
Phase a. Location of object in
sound beam
b. Shape'
and size' of object
c. Heading of object
d. Reflection highlights
? e. Double echo effect
Thus We see that the sonar echo can reveal the size,
shape, motion and unusual echo effects of underwater Objects. A
'road survey by .11RL, of researchers in various fields, verified
'this conclusion and resulted in the recommendatiOn that an ex-
tensive effort be devoted to techniques and devices for analyzing
the sonar echo. This was.done and each government laboratory or
contractor contributed one or?more devices for this purpose. The
NEL High Power Short Pulse sonar, the MIT -.ACIM, and the NRL
Echotrap and SSI are a few examples.
_ . ?
Figures 1 through 4 illustrates the informatiOn that some
of these devices a.re capable of displaying. It is shown that the
sonar echo ,can be. used to show the shape, size and m9tion of
underwater objects and present such positive cue's as highlights,
wake effect and near beam double echo. Unfortunately, however,
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the illustrations show only -what -happens. with good echoes at -rela-
tively.short range.
?Consider now several classification teChniques that-do -not
rely on sonar. One clever method used.by the Japanese during
World War II was to dump overboard a load of gravel and listen-to'
the rattle on the submarine hull. MAD (Magnetic Anomaly Detector)
is being continually improved and UEP (Underwater 'Electric Po-
tential) research is progressing. Many ideas-have been suggested
and some:have been put in practice. An example is-theNavy -Under-
water Sound Laboratory's homing -drone which -seeks out-the sub-
marine and magnetically attaches 'itself to the hull. Another tech-
nique is the use of an MAD in a launched or dropped device, which,
if placed close enough to the submarine, will send out a modulated
tone received by the sonar. The -problem of getting close may have
a solution in a developmental attack system called LORELI now
being developed by-the Naval Research Laboratory.
? "Training-may be used to?improve classification-potential.
This has been demonstrated by the 'Navy 'Electronics -Laboratory
and its contractor Human TactorsResearch. Using a selected
group :of submarine and non-submarine recordings, training methods
have resulted in producing a-high-efficiency in classification. The
various classification aids and.black boxes _Should be-thoroughly
evaluated and their relation to training considered. An example is
the Echotrap, figure 5, which proved-to be of little value to -the
operator for the conditions under whichtested. 'The short range ,df
th.e.-echoes precluded the trapping :of ,an'"average echo" and-the
limitations of-the rec9rder prevented accurate doppler mea-suremeit.
However, -the-echotra-p -philosophy is being -revived for long range
sonars where the dead time between echoes'is la-rge. Also, ne:w
digital recorders under development'-would be compatible with the
measurement of doppler at the low frequencies of-the long-range
sonars.
The rather narrow objective of-the -black 'box.for
classification caused NR-L -to take abroad look-at-the -prciblero:
was decided that perhaps an approach would be to take advantage
of all available experience -and devise -a.sirriple computer which
would consider all factors involved. This was the'Classification
Guide Rule illustrated in figure 6. It is a probabalistic-additive
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computer, havirg a, weighted yes-no undetermined output:' It was ?
sent to various training commands for comment and suggestionls as
to the weighing factors to be used. In general, the
quite varied but suggested application as a training
off list rather than something to be used during the
process.
comments were
aid. and check-
classification
The idea, of the coMputer persisted and NRL, with the
cooperation of NEL, worked out the arrangements for a logical
computer using a subtractive process and based on NWIP 24-.1 the
Fle_et Classification Manual. The reasoning behind the computer is
shown in. figures 7 and 8. Thus the training (storage) and decision
making (logical computation) have been transferred from .man to
machine. .,The computer is illustrated in figure 9.
100 of the computers were sent to Atlantic and Pacific
fleet destroyers and destroyer escorts for evaluation' and others_
were sent to Operational Development Force and several labora-
tories for comment, The results were varied but several general
conclusions can be made. The fleet saw little value in it for solving
the classification problem but did consider it as a valuable training
aid. An evaluation by a contract laboratory implied the computer
idea valid but suggested that the probabalistic - additive mode of
operation should be used.
The classification potential of existing sonars such as the
SQS-.4 may be improved by the so-called integrated detection -
classification station. The use of pre-formed beams and integratirg
multiple styli recorders with echo analyzing displays, such as the
gated. A-.scan and tactical range recorder are under current develop-
ment-by NEL and NRL, figure 10.
_In,summary it has been shown that there are ?devices that
can classify at short ranges under good sound conditions. We
also know that training can improve proficiency in classification
and that the fundamental concept of the computer is sound. It
therefore seems that the, future course to take is:
1. Implement an extensive data collection program in-
volving the operating forces.,
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2. Develop training devices so that operators can get
more "on target" time with the sonar.
3. Install in quantity, in fleet ships, those devices that
show classification potential (SSI, gated range recorder).
4. Develop a new classification computer based on the
experience gained and send out to the fleet for evaluation.
5. Review the existing classification manuals to include
up-to-date and correct information.
6. And finally consider the integration of classification
devices with new and developmental systems that are capable of
localizing the target within effective range of these devices.
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SUBMARINE - SHOWING POSITION
IN SOUND BEAM AND LENGTH
SUBMARINE -RECEIVER ADJUSTED
TO SHOW HIGHLIGHTS ?
SHORT RANGE SECTOR SCAN
RECEIVERS DISPLAYS
Figure 1
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NEAR BEAM
Hiller
SURFACE
ECHO
TARGET
BEAM
SSI SURFACE ECHO PRESENTATIONS
????
I
SUBMARINE AND TRANSPONDER -
SHOWING RELATIVE POSITION OF
SUBMARINE AND ATTACKER
PULSE LENGTH'
RANGE:
*. QUARTER
QUARTER?
STERN
NEAR BEAM- WITH
SURFACE ECHO
132
S S I ASPECT
PRESENTATIONS
Figure 2
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?
3-5 MILLISECONDS
500 YARDS
Figure 3
Figure 4
133
ECHOTRAP
PRESENTATION
Frequency
Arniplitude
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CLASSIFICATION BY TRAINING AND INTERPRETATION
NRL ECHOTRAP
Figure 5
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CLASSIFICATION. BY MEASUREMENT AND LOGICAL COMPUTATION
SOOLI T11211Cii
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NOISE
AND EXPERIENCE
IN NAVY
STORAGE
AND '
LOGICAL -
COMPUTATIOD'
,
RADAR ECM LOOKOUTS ETC
Figure 8
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Hiller
.'0UALITY, ?STONGTH -
'
MU NY 6 RIP ST MED
DEPTH-RECORDER
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Figure 3
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WATER DEPTH
(FATHOMS)
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WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS)
Figure 4
101
00
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SECRET
SLOPE (DB / OCTAVE )
-10
-9
-8
-7
6
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Frosch
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WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS)
Figure 6
102
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SOUND PRESSURE
AVERAGE
(20-100 CPS) ( DB
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70
60
50
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4 6810 20 30 40
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS)
Figure 7
103
1. IlICIMAN V
100
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Frosch
1 -10 0-20 -10 0-20 -10 0-20 -10 -20 -10 -20 -10 -20 -30 -20 -10-30 -20
144 C/S 258 C/S 5.10 C/S 10A C/S 19.2 C/S 33.4C/S 93.0 C/S 160 C/S 1 295 C/S
,
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35
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1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1
OBSERVED MEAN SQUARE SOUND PRESSURE PER CYCLE BAND
WIDTH AT 100 CPS
MEASUREMENTS MADE WITH DEEP MOVING COIL HYDROPHONE
AT SAN JUAN PR FROM 11/13/53 ? 11/27/53
MEAN LEVEL ? 24 DB
VARIANCE ? * 5 3 DB
-8 -10 z.12. -r4 -16 -II 20 26 -28 30 32 -14 36 -38 ?4c - 4-
Figure 9
OBSERVED DISTRIBUTION OF AMBIENT NOISE LEVELS
AT 100 CPS USING BOTTOMED HYDROPHONE IN
750 FEET OF WATER LAKE PEND OREILLE IDAHO
iiiiiii I I I
-3/ -33 -AK -SS -SS -37 -31 -IS -40 -41 -42 -43 -44 -45 -41 -4? -44 -48
08 LEVEL
Figure 10
105
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Frosch
AMP
AMP
RECORDING
SYSTEM
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FILTER
CLIPPER
-1--,
FILTER - CLIPPER
MULTIPLIER
Fig. 11 - System to Measure Expectation Value of
COS (2P
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VERTICAL NOISE CORRELATION phj
AS A FUNCTION OF DELAY Ger FOR
AMBIENT NOISE FREQUENCY BAND
74-108 CYCLES T1ME:0325 8-13-56
CORRELATION CURVE FOR
OFNCOECTIONAL NOISE
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Frosch
CORRELATiONAVE FOR A
# DISTRIBUTION
LEAST SQUARES FIT TO EXPERIMENTAL DATA
USING Als)?.0407?2912 ??? I ? 7017 TuTTE
CORRELATION CURVE FOR A
mxT I DiSTRIBUTION
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
OF ARRAY MOUNTING
..Eigur.e 13
MARKER LAXWATORY
BUOY SHIP
SUBSURFACE
FLOAT
PLOUGH
STEEL
CABLE LONG LIGHT
SIGNAL WIRE
TYPE WCII/TT
.sAY ELEMENTS
RECEIVING ELEMENTS
ADDER CIRCUITS AND
FREQUENCY M:OULATCRS
Figure 15
ANGULAR DISTRIBUTION OF AMBIENT NOISE
AS DETERMINED BY CORRELATION METHOD
TIME:0325 8-13-56 40. 20'N 72.18'W
BOTTOM
Figure 14
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ANGULAR DISTRIBU TION OF AMBIENT NOISE
MEASURED FROM SOUND CHANNEL AXIS
5 MAY 1955 17? 5 N 6442.8 W
2165 FATHOMS 106 - 150 CYCLES
Figure 16
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SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF CONES OF RECEPTION OF
VERTICAL ARRAY POSITIONED AT AXIS OF SOUND CHANNEL
SURFACg
.?,3600 FT
-.12000 FT
OR MORE
CRITICAL
RAY SURFACE
RECEIVING ARRAY
CRITICAL.
RAY BOTTOM _
//2?T7////////////
EXTREME
GRAZING RAY
Figure 17
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SOUND PROPAGATION MEASUREMENTS
J. B. Hersey
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
'Woods Hole, Massachusetts
INTRODUCTION
Several contributors to naval science early recognized
the value of high explosive economical and versatile instruments
for underwater acoustics research. Many of these scientists
were influenced in their choice by their previous experience in
commercial seismography where explosives were well established
as a routine tool in seismic prospecting for oil and in related
geophysical research by the mid 1920's. Furthermore the thread
of awareness of the potential of explosives as sound sources
has gone very pearly full circle, since a number Of the early
commercial prospectors had gained their own early experience in
seismography while devising systems for locating heavy enemy
artillery by detecting seismic waves in the ground and sound
waves in the air from the big guns of World War I.
Previous to these comparatively modern uses, explosions,
usually gunpowder, have been employed off and on for well over
a hundred years as sound sources both in air and under water.
Thus several European scientists of the 17th century timed the
passage of sound over a known distance from a gunpowder shot to
measure the speed of sound in air, while Maury in 1854 fired
gunpowder under water in an unsuccessful attempt to measure
water depth by echo sounding. There are several other similar
records prior to World War I.
So far as I am aware, the first extensive use of
explosives under water for science or engineering was the
program of radio-acoustic ranging carried out by engineers of
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the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey during the 20's and 301s. They
measured the travel time of acoustic waves from a dynamite shot at
an echo-sounding survey ship to an anchored radio-sonobuoy and
back by radio waves to the ship as a means of measuring distance
to the buoy for precise navigation. The research attending their
development led them to an appreciation of many of the effects
subsequently studied extensively in naval underwater sound research
(cf. Dyk and Swainson, 1953). Few people recognize the fact that
this high precision navigational aid was used by many survey ships
for several years.
Since 1937 Prof. Maurice Ewing and his co-workers have
carried out extensive research with explosives at sea which led
directly to SOFAR and made relatively easy the discoveries of
acoustic peaking in the ocean and general appreciation of the
possibilities of long range sound propagation at low frequencies.
Similar research has led them and several other research groups
to extensive findings about the structure of the earth's crust
beneath the oceans, and within the continents as well. Likewise
the work by the California Division of War Research under the
leadership of Dr. Eckart employed explosives extensively in their
studies of underwater sound propagation, as described in Volume 7
of the NDRC Summary Volumes, "The Principles of Underwater Sound".
The story of the past is all very well, and is exciting and
inspiring to many of us in the present. However, explosives have
remained a most durable instrument in naval science to the present
day and show no indication of falling into disuse. I believe the
reasons for this circumstance are significant and important to
the research of the foreseeable future.
Explosives were relied on initially because the chemical
reaction of a high order detonation releases so large an amount
of energy in so short a time. Hence high peak power. A further
advantage is the broad spectrum of an explosion. The shock wave
of an explosion under water contains adequate energy for a wide
range of acoustical problems for frequencies between a few
cycles per second and, say, 100 kc/s. A third advantage is
that the initial shock is very short, and for the higher
frequencies is the only considerable radiated energy. At
frequencies below a few kc/s subsequent oscillations of the
gas globe send out pulses which can be either confusing (if
you confuse easily) or can be a distinct advantage in some
research. For example, the time interval between the peaks
of the shock wave and the first bubble pulse is an excellent
measure of the depth of detonation for a given weight and
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type of explosive.
The short, intense shock wave provides very high resolving
power which has proven very useful in determining the exact trans-
mission paths that are effective in both passive and active
detection systems. As many of you know explosives have been used
extensively in assessing passive detection paths in various parts
of the ocean by a very simple technique of correlating pulse
arrivals at short range where interpretation is unambiguous to
longer ranges where identification of paths would otherwise be
uncertain at best. Fig. 1 is an example of such a correlogram.
It consists of a series of recordings of arrivals from a
shallow shot to a shallow hydrophone at gradually increasing
range. The records near the top are taken at so short a range
that the paths may be certainly identified as associated with a
direct transmission, single, double, triple, etc. reflections
from the bottom or refractions in the outer part of the SOFAR
channel. As the range increases the direct transmission path
commonly deteriorates and consequently the first arrival weakens
and disappears. At still longer range the first bottom reflec-
tion similarly disappears, and the second, third, and so on.
From the manner and range of these disappearances in different
parts of the spectrum we have been able to verify many theoretical
predictions about acoustical transmissions, and we have been led
to the discovery and understanding of new and important effects
which, while not unsuspected in most instances, nevertheless were
not properly appreciated at the outset.
Another example which illustrates the powerful resolution
of explosion technique was a study of sound transmitted from deep
water to the sloping side of an oceanic island. Here reception
at a bottomed hydrophone had been observed to be approximately
one-fourth as effective for steady state transmissions from one
azimuth as another. By a simple extension of the correlation
technique just described it was possible to show that in the
"poor" direction a submerged hill acted as a screen to cut out
exactly three-fourths of the total available transmission paths,
whereas in the "good" direction there was no such difficulty. -
Examples of this sort are legion, both in naval science and basic
research in submarine seismography (cf. Hersey and Officer, 1952;
Officer, 1955; Rinehart, 1955; and Anderson et al:, 1957).
The broad spectrum of the shock wave gives a peculiar
advantage for certain aspects of acoustical transmission studies.
It is commonplace to students of sound transmission to observe
very large short term fluctuations in received pressure levels
114
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Hersey
from continuous sinusoidal sources which result from interference
between wave trains following different paths. This sort of
fluctuation is virtually eliminated when levels from an explosion
in the frequency band of interest are measured through a moderately
broad band-pass filter. Thus explosives are time-saving as a
statistical tool. This effect was demonstrated constantly during
an extended sound transmission study where a single frequency
source was towed from the same ship that dropped explosives.
The shot results proved to represent an excellent smoothing of
the continuous transmission data.
Such questions as the accuracy of our knowledge of the
energy. radiated by explosions and its reproducibility have often
been raised. The question has been studied intensively by a
number of groups interested in underwater explosions for
ordnance purposes. They regard properly engineered explosives
as being very reproducible indeed and our own experience with
them at Woods Hole certainly indicates the same. Ordnance
investigators have carefully investigated the scaling laws,
have measured peak pressures and the shapes of pressure-time
curves; further they have shown that the.radiation from simple
spherical charges or rectangular blocks which are short compared
with the wave length can be predicted with quite adequate
accuracy for acoustical research from a knowledge of a few
straightforward characteristics of the individual explosive.
The only qualification to this statement is with respect to
small charges, say of the order of half a pound or less of
certain explosives, notably TNT and C3. Thus spherical charges
or rectangular blocks such as the various standard demolition
blocks heavier than 0.5 lb. are acoustical instruments of known
accuracy when properly employed.
Directional effects of explosives at range comparable to
the dimensions of the charge are striking and moderately well
known, and in addition the ordnance scientists know much about,
tricks of producing special pressure-time variations with
shaped charges. However, the directionality of explosives
at several thousand yards is just beginning to be appreciated
and studied intensively. We have used a simplified theory
of radiation from arrays of sources to predict the directionality
of linear arrays of charges, and have demonstrated qualitative
agreement in practical tests at sea. While it is too early
to tell how useful such devices can be, nevertheless it is
certainly practical to concentrate energy of an appreciable
part of the spectrum in preferred directions for long range
proPagation, echo ranging, and reverberation studies.
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Hersey
Observational Techniques
As explosives have been used for more and more different
purposes a rather special set of observational and analysis
techniques have been developed. The interpretation of any
analysis of shot data must take suitable account of the character-
istics of the hydrophone, the filters and the recording system
employed. When this has been done, meaningful results can be
obtained. Examples of such analyses are discussed in detail by
Johnson, Bradshaw and Hersey (1957) for a directional charge
investigation and by Machlup and Hersey (1955) for special studies
of the deep scattering layers of the open ocean.
.The earliest recording of energy transmitted over long
distances was on an photographic oscillogram or some sort of
direct writing recorder. Recordings were compared with accurate
timing so that apparent travel times or differences in travel
time between recognizable events could be read. As we started
to employ explosives for measuring the amplitudes of wave trains
over different paths we first relied on measurements of peak
amplitude. The folly of this procedure has long been recrized.
Subsequently experiments with an analog computation of p2dt
over the desired pulse or pulse train gave consistent results
and has been widely used for the past four or five years.
Results from such analyses of magnetic tape-recorded signals
have been shown to compare favorably with comparable measurements
from pressure-time curves of shock waves at short range recorded
by ordnance scientists by.means of high speed photographing of
oscilloscope traces (Weston, 1957; Hersey, 1957). In Fig. 2
are shown such comparisons from work of Weston at the Admiralty
Research Laboratory and independent studies in this country.
When very short pulse arrivals are being studied the more
complex analog computations can be substituted by.calibrated
recordings with a rectifier' feeding a galvanometer, the response
of which is slow compared with the pulse length. This method
must be used with due Caution as it is reliable only when this
condition is 'satisfied.
A number of interesting investigations of transmission
and Scattering phenomena have been made by playing 'tape
recordings of explosions to a sound spectrograph such as the
Kay Electric Vibralyzer. Thus, as in Fig. 3, the upper limbs
of the group velocity dispersion curves of the normal- modes
r
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11
1.????
Hersey
SECRET
familiar to students of 'shallow water transmission are beautifully
displayed by a recording of a shot arrival to this instrument.
One of the important future problems of sound transmission
is the accuracy of sonar data, which, in turn, requires that we
know the long and short term stability of transmission paths.
One proposal for such a study is to establish a suitable source
and receiver well separated from one another, and transmit
pulses from one to the other on a regular schedule for a year
or more. Explosives would make an ideal sound source for this
work except for the mechanical difficulty of placing successive
charges reliably in the same place by a simple, economical
method. The difficulty of identical repetition of explosive
tests which this points up is perhaps the greatest shortcoming
they have for work in open water. For such purposes we are
seeking means of generating accurately timed, very intense
short pulses. In this search various groups have tried spark
sources, mechanical impulse sources, guns shot under water,
and other schemes. All prove useful to a degree, but all so
far have fallen orders of magnitude short of what is already
available in the energy of a small block of TNT.
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Hersey
Literature Cited
Anderson, E. R., E. L. Hamilton and R. M. Lesser, 1957,
Oceanographic and geologic factors influencing low-frequency
acoustic transmission off northeast Oahu, Hawaii. USNEL
Rept. 763, 76 pp. Confidential.
Dyk, K. and O. W. Swainson, 1953, The velocity and ray paths of
sound waves in deep sea water. Geophysics, vol. 18,
pp. 75-103.
Hersey; J. B., 1957, Comments on D. E. Weston's "Underwater
explosions as acoustic sources". Jour. Underwater
Acoust., vol. 7, pp. 135-137. Confidential.
Hersey, J. B. and C. B. Officer, 1952, Transmission tests
at USNEF, Eleuthera, July-August 1952. WHOI Ref. No.
52-100, 20 pp. Secret.
Johnson, H. R., 1955, A 320 mile sound transmission run SE
from Bermuda. WHOI Ref. No. 55-27, 5 pp. Confidential.
Johnson, H. R., A. Bradshaw and J. B. Hersey, 1957, Three types
of directional explosive sound sources. WHOI Ref. No.
57-21, 25 pp. Confidential.
Machlup, S. and J. B. Hersey, 1955, Analysis of sound-scattering
observations from non-uniform distributions of scatterers
in the ocean. Deep-Sea Res., vol. 3, pp. 1-22. -
Milne, Allen and J. B. Hersey, 1958, Sound Transmission to the
Cove Point Geophone at the U. S. Navy Bermuda Sofar Station.
WHOI Ref. No. 58-5, 29 pp. Confidential.
Officer, C. B., 1955, A deep-sea seismic reflection profile.
Geophysics, vol. 20, pp. 270-282.
Officer, C. B., L. C. Davis, and J. B. Hersey, Transmission
tests at USNEF, ELEUTHERA 29 July to 1 August 1952,
Part III. WHOI Ref. No. 54-49, 10 pp. Secret.
Rinehart, M. C., 1955, Low frequency sound propagation studies.
Project MICHAEL, Tech. Rept. No.. 38, 109 pp. Confidential.
Weston, D. E., 1957, Underwater explosions as acoustic sources.
Jour. Underwater Acoust., vol. 7, pp. 107-134. Confidential.
,5;7=4..,Ams=1".:Isceramsa.
118
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3
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Hersey
Fig. I - Correlogram of Shot
Arrivals for a 330-Mile Trans-
mission Run SE of Bermuda
119
"5
'75.
71 11-
1 41
9840
118 14-
137.2
141 SI
144.42
141.2
4104
201.2
20545
211.34
1111.5
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251.70-
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211119
313.9)? ? ""
315,60
333 01-12?=-Lj4"..42.7...
341 I 4
551 72 !
375
41414
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421, 25-
4 )4.95 ? ? ? ??? , ? - ;
454.71? I
492.53
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507.30-
1521.51-
555.5,-
515,29
540.24
1141.2,-
449 58 '
MA N$( IN K/LOYANDS
cc)
67 % % I0 en 812
SECRET
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/08/02 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002200220009-0
SECRET
.0
20
10
0
?10
20
Hersey'
ENERGY
SPECTRUM
LEVEL
9 QUEEN}
X NAN W.H.0.1.54-49
lil JOHNSON. 1955
IN
DS
RE
i UPPER EXTREM
MEDIAN MEDEA
LOWER EXTREME
? I
.?.?
ERS/CM2/C/S
AT
FOR
OF
100
TNT
YDS.
I LS.
?
SOURCEt
I
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ElX
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El
...
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Y. KILOCYCLES
_____1
PER
SECOND
I L
0.01
0.1
10
Fig. 2 - Shot Spectrum Inferred from Long-Range
Transmission Compared With Short-Range Meas-
urements.
N...
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SECRET
120
4
SECRET
'04000
c.)
N.3000
,42 2000
1000
0--
(..)4000
Q.
2.3000
33
10 2000
.000
12 5 KYDS.
0 67 KYDS.
9 5 KYDS.
2 4 KYDS.
Hersey
CLOSING
RANGE
4000
?
3000
^
.2000
1000
5.(:KYDS.
3 2 KYDS.
2
4 KYDS
1 47 kYOS.
OPENING
RANGE
4000
3000
?
2000
?
1000
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7 6 KYDS
0 02 04 06
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r/ME IN SECONDS
9 3 KYDS.
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Zig. 3 - Sound Spectograms of Shallow Water Shot Arrivals
121
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/08/02.: CIA-RDP81-01043R002200220009-0
A
t?
Waal,
UNCLASSIFIED
Office of Naval Research. ONR-3 Supplement(SECRET]
A Symposium 7 THE OCEAN AS THE QPERATING ENVIRONMENT
OF THE NAVY "Unclassified Titlej? 121 pp. and figs.,
March 1958.
The Office of Naval Research, in sponsoring annual
symposia on basic and applied science in the Navy, has
in March 1958 covered the subject of the oceans ind
many topics related to the seas. Twenty?five papers
were presented on topics of navy?wide interest such
as hydrobiology, buoys, Arctic oceanography, under?
water acoustics, radioactivity in the seas, marine
propulsion-devices, hydrodynamics, and underwater
ordnance. Presented in this volume are seven techni?
cal papers covering the secret presentations.
UNCLASSIFIED
1.
2.
3.
Oceanography
Underwater sound
Marine biology
4. Underwater
ordnance
5. Hydrodynamics
UNCLASSIFIED
Office of Naval Research. ONR-3 Supplement[SECRET]
A Symposium 7 THE OCEAN AS THE QPERATING ENVIRONMENT
OF THE NAVY "Unclassified Titlej. 121 pp. and figs.,
March 1958.
The Office of Naval Research, in sponsoring annual
symposia on basic and applied science in the Navy, has
In March 1958 covered the subject of the oceans and
many topics related to the seas. Twenty?five papers
were presented on topics of navy?wide interest such
as hydrobiblogy, buoys, Arctic oceanography, under?
water acoustics, radioactivity in the seas, marine
propulsion devices, hydrodynamics, and underwater
tordnanci. Presented in this volume are seven techni?
cal papers covering the secret presentations.
UNtLASS1FIED
. Oceanography
. Underwater sound
3. Marine biology
4. ? Underwater
ordnance
. Hydrodynamics
UNCLASSIFIED
, Office of Naval Research. ONR-3 Supplement[SECRET]
A Symposium 7 THE OCEAN AS THE QPERATING ENVIRONMENT
.OF THE NAVY "Unclassified Titlej. 121 pp. and figs.,
AMarch 1938.
The Office of Naval Researchl in sponsoring annual
symposia on basic and applied science in the Navy, has
:in March 1958 covered the subjectof the oceans and
tmany topics related to the seas. Twenty?fivo papers
were presented on topics of navy?wide interast such
as hydrobiology, buoys, Arctic oceanography, under?
'water acoustics, radioactivity in the seas, marine
,propulsion devices, hydrodynamics, and underwater
ordnance. Presented in this volume are seven techni?
cal papers covering the secret presentations.
UNCLASSIFIED
1. Oceanography
2. Underwater sound
3. Marine biology
4. Underwater
ordnance
5. Hydrodynamics
UNCLASSIFIED
Office of Naval Research. ONR-3 Supplement[SECRET]
'A Symposium 7 THE OCEAN AS THE QPERATING ENVIRONMENT
OF THE NAVY 'Unclassified Titlej. 121 pp. and figs.,
March 1958.
The Office of Naval Research, in sponsoring annual
symposia in basic and applied science in the Navy, has
in March 1958 covered the subject of ihe oceans and
tmany topics related to the seas. Twenty?five papers
were presented on topics of navy?wide Interest such
as hydrobiology, buoys, Arctic oceanography, under?
water acoustics, radioactivity in the seas, marine'
propulsion devices, hydrodynamics, and underwater
ordnance. Presented in this volume are seven techni?
cal papers covering the secret presentations.
UNCLASSIFIED
1.
Oceanography
2. Underwater sound
3. Marine biology
4. Underwater
ordnance
5. Hydrodynamics
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/08/02 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002200220009-0