REFERENCE BOOK OF A MECHANICAL ENGINEER IN 6 VOLUMES

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R001900100002-4
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 173
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 16, 2013
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: January 1, 1956
• Content Type: REPORT

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(Title Unclsssiiied)
A~.F'EAENCE nOOK OF A btECHANICAL ENGINEER
IN 6 VOLIIb[ES
(3pra~ochnik ~a~isostroitdpa, V Shesti Toa~kk)
by
E? A. Sitel'
ltoscowr, Vol. 5, 1l5i
Pales 1-8a
ec~hro~Dey per' ~.~~1'~U~
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 7 w~ ~ __,
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r?. ~ ?r: -w-a
fsfi~e~~
_~...n- ' Sands _"`...........~...
Clay content-in ~ by xeigt-t ~
r
- ----up._to 2_.~... .-.----
2-10
_~
Lean
_ Semi-fat
(T) ? -
(r) ~ "~ -'.. ~.,_.-
~`
- Fat ~ ~
(Zh)
10
' `
SPY
(OZh)
3x50
.
i2
.
~~;~
Clay (the clap component) is definod as particles up to 0.022 tsa in disaster.
,?,~~'_ .,~> _ ' t6 Quartz sands are divided into groups ~ grain size. Grain size is deteratined by
- __ 18 _acreening a saaple of satxi xashed free of clay through 11 standard screens (No. 6,
. , 20_.72, 20, 30, 40, 50, ?0, 100, 150, 200, 270. The grains passing all the screens go
- ~ - 22_into the pan (fraction No. 270). Tho l,argeBt sieve (No. 6) has square openings
,`~~;:..~:. -:~_- ` s 0.055 ar on a side. llot
'= ~~~~-- 2t g.36 mm on a side, xhile the finest (tlo. 2~0) has opening
_!
' '~' ~6 -leas than 70~ by xeight of a71 the grains of sand gust remain on three ad3oining
' ' r "'"'~ ~ 2II screens, and the number of the extremles of` these three screens serves to denote the
_ ,=~_~
~~ ~!?j~ :? .'., ..,.~ __~ _..-_.._ r.... ~vnnnl w_ the Drains of K 50/loo sand are concentrated mainly on
~`M. ?l SIE
{
~~'y~ J
'..'~i~a.-1CC v. ;..
`~;`~_~*, *~ ; The first
;;.. ~..,.~; ' :i~ Quartz sands are divided into Sour grades by chemical comoosition.
~,?:-.:r, ~ 3& grade contains not less than 97~ Si42 and not more than 0.5~ (x20 + tia20), l,o
,.. ,~;
,~ .~ _ t
,,,,.. _
.:w.;.
';:~e,.: - 38~-(C20 + ~), 0.75 Fa203? --
;;~'?? ?--'-'_~ "w ' 40 Sulfide sulfur is not alloxed. The second grade contains not less than 96p Si02
:~~~~^
~g-end not more than 1.5~ (N20 + t1a20 + Ca0 + Mg0), 1.5~ Fe203, 0.025 S (as su]Side).
ft ~e third grade contains not less than 9t,~+Sio2 and not more than 2% (K20 + Na20 + .
?~~ Ca0 + Mg0), ..1.5~ Fe203, 0.025 S (as s~.lfide). The fourth grade contains not
~~$~` ,??naininv impu{x'ities are not mentioned in the- standard. ~
leas -than S'0~ Si02, and the ~, ,
..:-~'50~ -- =- ~ enta of GOST 2138-51 is designatai by the
_ erT quartz mold sarxi meeting the requi
G~~' ~ ~ g for example ]iC 50/100;
'~?~~^ otter K, tho number of the gr,~rio and the k ymbol of the roup,
K~1flOf 340: i'or~eaeh'mark'of-sand`s-lower~~ itait-of-gas-peneeability-is.-presoribed.-=-
for-the coarse-sands-(1C-20/40)~,-it-
-25-unite
i
i
,
s
t~
~-the-finest ~anda~(K 270140)??
OTAT
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':~`- ;~:;. ;F~.:..'"w".'..?-"..:.,.~.-~~~.r.... sort are used in pouring
""a~ ' ~ steel aastings~ of the secotd sort
,ry. yy. ioias ..of ~ ;ttiea st E ..
?;; ~ ~;e ~' ;-:: ~,,. r; _ .~ ~,~ ' c':~~~'; - ` ~ . ~ Y ~ ' + -suitable-for-casting- al-
~. -:_..; -...~_: ~~.~ ... . ?.: -~? ~.. ,1~ of?the third-sort?are
~: its"powriiK" lron'~castic~s~-while ~ .
_ ~ ilu~dnve `aa9~esiua.
>:` loys'_of"~coppir~~ , _ __ -- -v-- -- - - ~
~`~'~,~' ?=`.~..:...~~_~._.,~.m.- ed b~-the letters F Zh or 0 indicating the degree of leanneaa~
~-
?:y="., ',liold.loaal is nark y ~
-`~~~ - ~%~~`>; ~,.`"~??~~ ~~-? ~ ? the bindin er of the loam, .
~== thi! nu~ibir of the grade, and a letter characterizing g P~ ,
!or example FO1C~ FZh28.
l2 on heating. A sharp
'The atrangth of sand-loam mixtures increases irregular]-Y
~ ~~ ~-i sco is and hydrate xater
-~-~increaae in strength is observed on removal of the hygro P_
i5 -) ace when the loam gives up its
?-~(etaporatlon).?A further increase in strength takes pl
!8 ~ loamy at 350-600?C ).
--water of crystallisation (bentonite loans at 120-2pdoC, ordinary
10.-~
.--,The fallowing period of increase in strength is in the tersperature range of decompo-
d't ~ .
,sition of the argillaceoua aubatancsa (?50-85d?C).
l ~ ._)
_. pn cooling, the strength of dried molds and cores decreases. The reduction
2a-~ ration water was removed in dry-
-?atrength is alight if only the hydroacopic and hyd
J `'..
-'ing, but it is great it the water of crystallization wag also removed from the logs
i~~~
-`in drying. In this cane the reduction in the strength of the surface layers oft e
3~~
-aolyds or cores is greatest, and they cr~ble atrong],y. The reduction in strength s
34~
;~--'sharper, the lean lean the loam, and the sore intense the cooling of the molds and
For thin reason the drying moat be conducted at t~araturas
~~ ores after drying.
1
~~~that do not cause the elimination of the water of crystallization, and the dried
--iwLds and cores maiat not be cooled too rapidly It is addaable to knock out the dry
R:~ ~ -
--isolds and corea~only after cooling. .
1 r,~ _
The loam mU' be added to the mold or core mixtures in the dry ground~atate or"
4{s
In the latter cane the beat
?? ~$ do the lots of a water auspenaion prepared in advance.
_., ation~of the loan; is reachedi but in usinE Breen sold nateriala, the additional ~
''..?~~?"~`~~~~i~;~'' ` taii-ed in the suspension ~ maki the adxturss too ~eoist.,
.~,. .''-. line-grained aetal structure-and;good-ae-~-- `}
.~G ._.,.,...~,_In_oirdr`~to-obtaia??castings.-with a ~
... ._. ~ 4
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. '~ Class .II ~-~Coree o1' intricate configuration xhi.ch have a coespact or e~ren n~ae-
,L : ~...?r ~ bu0_also_hi , Wore. exteaaire _core
~ry'~pjut v re..thin line bosses, or points, having_
.::;printi~than cores of Class I, and fonaing unaschine~`, inner cavitiea-of dtal impor-
~< twin the casting% f
Clue III - Csnter cores of sodium complexity not baring particularl,?thin parts,
Claaa I~1 - Coroa that are not of coccplex configuration] xhich form machines
~d -'~ those surfaces must be very clean. The
forcing unsachined cavltiea in 'the caatinga~
tv~ .
!coma 'roat on massive core prints.
t''~ unmchined cavities, xhere no spacial
-,inner cavities in the castings coma foradng
+ _-requirements are wade for the quality of the surface of such cavity, and also out-
_..side~isension coma of medium and lox complexity.
Clans Y - Haaaive cores forcing large inner cavities in a heavy casting.
Claaaification of Binding Haterials (Bib1.20).
The classification of binding ~saterials is based on txo main criteria (cf.
__ Table 3) ~ '
~ a) the nature of the material (organic or inorganic, nonaqueous binding mater-
? ~ iala ).
3c_ b) character of hardening (irreveraible~ intermediate, reversible).
;~_ The non-aqueous taateriala include materials insoluble in xater, and not xetted
~'' by it (tor instance oils); and aqueous materials xhich are soluble in xater or xetted
4=__by Crater (for example; `sulfite-alcohol ~vinasae). The irrevoraibly hardening mater- '
t
.~d~iaYa include those which as a result of a single heating during core drying, under-
RS~go irreversible chedcal changes leading~to the forsation of a strong files.
~g The reversibly hardening sateriala include aubatancea xhich under ropeatsd
still maintain their principal initial properties. Roain~?for eoc-
lin
d
d
gib
g
coo
an
-- te
= ~ ~ STAT
~"' ,asple~~ selte,in the core drier, coating the sand grains, and again hardens on cool- ; I
.-It is-t~sll-~lmown-that-cores-Bade-xith rosin are plastic at 160-20d??C-and-ac---~T
~~~~ _ ~
_... __
5~~~quireyetren~gth only- after solidifying. - ~
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--'used in the adxture.
~~'--~ In calculating the specific strength only the quantity of the binding material
.~~~
- itself, ~rithout the solvent, is taken into account. This calculation uses the tol-
! 6 -..I
Yowirig~formula
i ~3 _
-?rrhere E~~~ specific strength ink 1~^` ; Rt ~ tensile strength of dry specimens,
'?-=3,n kg/cm2; p ~ percent of binding material used in mixture; v -content of solvent
?- in binding material, in ~ by weight.
-~ The evaluation of binding materials by their nature and by the specific strength
~` alloxs their classification by the scheme given in Table 3.
3~~--. Binding materials in one ar-d the same group have related properties, and there-
;~'~`fore iiapart closely related technological properties to the core mixtures (Table 4).
r
~~- Binding materials in one arxl the same group can replace each other.
t
_~
r...-. _
I
;~~Field of AyQlication of Birdi_*+Q materials and Their Composition and Properties.
Group A 1 -The broiling aaterials of this group are used in making Class I and
ib- ?
3~". -~
;~ = Veg~tablesoila_used in the food industry should not be consumed in core making.
?~The bitxiing a~tterials in group A-1 have the following composition and properties.
rf ~ Binder P -oxidised Baku petrolatum, dieaolved in xhite spirit.
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C]larac-
ter of
hardea-
Irrerer-~
Bible
A?1 linseed
oil, boiled
oil, P; porRiered
bak,elite 4 QJ(r)
C]larac~
ter o
harden-~
1116
(Vane of
binding uaur-
ial
-Vaas of
binding a~ter-
ial
V-1,
taut glass
Inter- A-2, ~KZ) (p). Inter- B ~.3', ~? Irrerer-{
'mediate GIF, ZLS, SLK, r+~ediate hY, lkxtrin, aible
pectin mucilage
20;~ of tall oil. In this !STAY
ddi
ng
The properties of bindtr P are also iaprored ~ a
._ ,~
~'; ~ ~'? ~' :~~ ,.' ~, troLturtall oil ).
caie..th~_binder is called PT (pe ~
J + ,'~ ~ are afl followa:-~ appearance and ..
~--Its-properties-(aecordina-to-Q09T-55~-5k)
color;-unitor~-o~-llquid~of-light brain to dark broom color; riacosity at Sd?C,'
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'~~~ yoai-eatiorial ~(D~glir) 2:7-Ja. GA; specific gravity Y ~p ~ 0.820-0.880; saponification
:~,ro:....... ...- - 4
Table 4
' Basic Technological Properties of Core Hixtures
?Technological indices A H C A B C A B C
--~ lat group 2ra group 3rQ group
1~
r--,
iG Wy R > 5 kCi/c.2 li , 3+ S kG/ca2 R < 3 kC/cm2
_ spec ~ spec 1~ spec ~
1'S~ ~
- `Strength of green
~'~- ~ m3xturea 1 1 h 1 h+~ - mod# h# h#
~. -~ Fluidity of mixture ex ex mod mod g - mod mod 1
1""? Pliability x ex ex sl c - x c ~
~~ ? Strength of dry cores h h h av av - mod mod mod
'"- ~3ame after adding loam
Jt?~,
'-'hygroscopicity of cores sl sl mod sl c - sl c
3..,_,
?~" Core drying temperature h av h h 1 - h~ 1 1
3 ~?s ?._?
3~?,~
'~~ * Under condition of simultaneous introduction?of loam into mixt~.u~e.
}~,"~ ~t In cement mixturea~ excellent; in loam mixtures xeak.
~ *~* In nand-loam mixtures, considerable. In nand-cement mixtures, the moisture,
;~~;~~ oxina to the formation of hydrated compounda~ helps to strengthen the mix-
~ tore.
,~~~ e'Rosin~ as~a?reveraibly hardening material, requires a lox drying temperature.
; Rotation: 1. lox; ex excellent; x xeak; h high; dim diminishes; al alight;
?,~~~ g good; ar average; mod moderate; c.considerable; in increases.
tensile,strength of dry apeciseena not less than 8 kg/cm2.
STAT
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ler-P - 2 parts by xeibht
Mater 2.5 3.0 parts by weight
,Ttij specimens are dried for 1 hr 30 ad.n, at 220-240?C.
Bakelite powder is a Ground a-ixture of phenolformaldehyde resin with urotropine.
~- -
Ita properties (according to-GOST 3552-k?) ~sre as folloxs: tensile strength
IG -not less than 130 kg/cm2;
in screening,
not more than 2,~ reauiins on sieve xith mesh
IH _.~aide 0.095 nn (mark A); not more than ?.,~ on
aeive xith mesh aide 0.63 ma (mark B);
~~ on storage in hermetical]a- sealed container, must not lose free flowing quality or
~~ Morn lue~ps within one month from day of shipment frost suppliers factory. The method
'~ of asking control specimens and testing the differs frog that usuall,ry employed in
the foundry industry and are described in detail in the above mentioned COST.
Powdered bakelite is used in making shell molds. For this purpose, 6 to 8 parts
by xeight of powdered bakelite is added to every 100 parts by xeight of fine dry
''- quartz sand. (See belox for further details on shell molds).
? - Group A-2 - The binding materials of this group are used in making Class II and
- IIZ cores. In isolated cases they are also suitable for Class I cores.
GTF binder is the heavy fraction of generator shale tar xhich is a byproduct of
thersal refining of Estonian shales. This binder moat satisfy the folloxing specifi-
'~' cations (by GOST 5339-50): appearance arxi color, uniSorm oily liquid dark broxn to
`?~--black in color, specific gravity 1.10-1.03; (II~gler) viscosity at ScAC, 10 to 20?;
'~~--content of mechanical iapurities not over 2.5~; sulfur not over 1.5~; water not over
~C~3?S~; reaction of aqueous extract, neutral; tensile strength of-dry specimens not
5q ~.es than. 5.6 ka/ca2. ~ .
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-? Costpo~ition of Technological Sample
. ?-- ~
l00?_gw~irt: sand ?- - - - - 100 parts br_xe3aht
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LZ ~...~
Coanposition~of Technological Sample
96.1.
parts br weight
1.95
parts b~ xeight
1.95
parts bT xeight
The apecia~cts are dried for 1 hr 30 min, at 160-200?C.
ZIS Binder. ZIS-2 and ZIS-3 binders Have found practical use. They consist of
-~
-~~a mixture oY Batonian shale tar (GTF) anti Petroleum bitumen, both dissolved in e
I~: ^..
2Q_..
~=-
~~
composition of these
ZIS-2
Petroleum bitumen No.4
GTF binder
White spirit
Petroleum bitvaen No.4
G"TF binder
White spirit
The follox+.ng is the percentage
Composition of ?echnological Sample in ~
K ?0/100 quarts sand
93.5
4:0
ZIS 3 binder 2.5
epsciaene are dried at'250 C for 1 hr 45 ~?
JI characteristic feature is the use of ZIS binder in the composition of mix-
xater. In antgdroua mixtures ZIS?binder develo a co
ores not containir~ ________ ___ _ ~ _p ~naiderably
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~`' Properties: appearance, black liquid; specific gravity 0.95 x0.965; content
'~ of solvent 19-~+~. tensile strength of dry specimens > 15 kg/cm2.
a2_
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=Binder. SLK binder contains 5~ of OTP binder and 5C~ of pol~-~rit~-l-alcohol
r+ater;`struitth than in fixtures of the usual type.
PropirGieat
specific gravity 0.96-0.99; viscosity at 50?C, 2.5-3.3; acid value
Composition of Technological 3astple in ~
K ?0/100 quartz'sand
96.0
SLK binder
2.0
?he specimens are dried at 180-200?C Por 1 hour.
- BY Binder. Dmulsion of sulfite-alcohol-vinasse and polp~riny-1 alcohol. For
- stabilisation, shale tar (GTF binder) is added.
Composition of Binder in ~
Sulfite-alcohol vinasse
73-75
Vinyl alcohol
15-1?
FTF binder
6-~
Properties: appearance, uniform liquid of light broxn color; specific gravity
at 20?C 1.15-1.16; viscosity, deterained at 2d?C on BZ-4 apparatus 1.5-2 ~; ten-
wile strength of dry specimens over 12 kg/cm2.
Composition of Technological Sample
K 50/100 quartz sand ~ 100 parts by xeight
Group A 3 -Binding materials of thie~ Group are used in preparing Class III and
B1C binder ~ 5.0 parts by xeight
water 1 part by xeight~
Drying temperature for the apecimens:~ 200-220?C, dying time 1 hour.
-_1~ ~- ---~ -,t-- ~_ iL_ __--~~2LI..- w1' I'~w~v~e. ~1r~.tt7ti^ I~AT S1tA~ds A}l elli'tgCe dr4ina.
J~-.~..- --- --- -- ---- ---~ - -~ -, - ~ - _ ~ - - - - - STAT
~~ ~~. Wood pith is the residual product after distilling off .the oils from the tars
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 ~iobt~ined on the low-temperature carbonisation of wood. It is delivered in lussps. It
~~ i,ui~d:3u,poMder_So~ and.is ground at the foundrios theassetrea.
Properties: softening tessperaturea 80-110"C; aioieture not over 3~; tensile
..~ ~atrerigth of dt7 specimens not leas than 3 kS/ ?
aL,
Composition of Technological Sample
--t
tr -,
K 50/100 quartz sand
q7
parts by xeight
Ground pitch
3
parts by xeight
iiatar
3
parts by xeight
Samples dried at 220-?laCpC for 1 hour. '
KT binder is a suspension of peat pitch in an aqueous solution of sulfite~al-
cohol vinaaae in the presence of loam.
Composition: peat pitch 54-55~, sulfite~al.cohol vinasae (sp. gr. 1.27-1.3)
28 30,`~s mo],ding loam 15-~?
Properties (by GOST 5770-50): appearance, uniform hard rasa of dark color; on
dilution xith xater in arty proportion it should form a unifora suspension; on the
surface of the birder a film of thickness up to 2 mm is alloxed; tensile strength
of dry specimens not leas than 9 kg/cm2.
Composition of Technological Sample
K 50/100 quartz sand
100
parts by xeight
KT binder
6
parts by xeight
'dater
3
parts by xeight
~.l~_.
Specisena dried for 1 hour at 220-230?C.
?f~ ,
Group B-1 - Girding materials of this group are used in making Class I and II
~~~_____ ..a a.. .,,.,_ .~+..,*_ .1.rn f:laww TTT_ In the ll33R. urea-formaldehyde (carbaside)
~`'
thenw aetting'rsaina are used to prepare cores. Three birxiing~materiala based on
_.--',then bare been dereloped~ the HF-17, HSB and M binders (Bib1.28), (74 ).
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grades of dextrin
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:r~;.a~.._+rr,;.".i_ ?. p OZ film
~: ~;., ~p,~ d u; ;- a,``:~~~ - -~~;~ - ~ uid formation
,,~ 'e,~~~? ~'~ ~~,:`,,, ~``:~:;p~ratci~ ~riicouivunifona.liq of dark color
.. _ pei~biesi=a i ~
~} .=~:'`%;` _ "~=;:`.~: v?='~ ud ~: which' film on tai7cin$ Host di,saolve in general mass of liquid,
_ : ~ ~ ter,;. ~~_.;.:,-~,.. ,..:~"::.:.,~,~wa.:.......:....~.,._.?...w~"-"'"?.A 2 for SP and
is'illgiabl~)~~tensile strength of drT sp t imens~ not less than 5 ~~
`not' liss-thui?lU~ 1ca/ca~ for S3.
Cq~position oP Technological Sample
i?50/100 quarts sand
SP or SB binder
Pater
100
5.6
parts by weight
parts by weight
1 part by weight
a....
~ The specimens are dried for 1 hour at 200-220?C.
"~"'~ starch with dilute acids. Potatoes or corn
~ Dextrine is obtained by heating
~ 4 --;
--i~hich are food products, are used as raw materials for the manufacture of starch.
'~~''~"? material for cores must therefore be restricted as
The use of dextrin as a binding
~~--} or straw-colored.
-much as possible. Dextrin is white, yellow,
34 ~ ~
ilhite dextrin diasolres in water to the extent of more than 61. Sp of the ent re
32~
- sasple, straw-colored dextrin 93.5, and yellow dextrin 95~?
34..._~ x~te dextrin is about 25~ lower
-+ The strength imparted to a dry specimen by
3 G..~
--thaa that obtained b7 using yellow or straw-coloresd dextrin.
The following specifications are reca~aaended:
Straw-colored or
White dextrin ~ yellow dextrin
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~~~
STAT
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" '-hand ~is ttii~efore a substitute of equal value !or dextrin..
.1 , ?~:
--~~ ~--Aecording~:to-speeitieatioat-(No.?954)''llquid pectin xucilage contains-not-less
~~~'than t~8~ dr~- matter, and' the powdered mucilage not leas than 88~. The Ltter ie uau-
b t~ ~.... ~.:..._ _ - - - ~ -
`. ilk evaluated by the tensile strength of specimens (not leas than 10 1cg/cm2).
n
_ ~~
10:--.~ Composition of Technological Sample
1C 50/100 quartz sand
100
parts by weight
Pectin atucilage
2.5
parts by weight
l~atsr
The specimens are dried at 160-160?C for 1 hour.
4
parts by weight
Sulfite-alcohol vinasse: Sulfite liquors a by-product of cellulose production,
,: 1 ._
y~_ maT be processed b7 fermentation of the sugars it contains, yielding alcohol. The
'-residue from this process is sulfite-alcohol vinasse. It is delivered in three forms:
t~ _ .
`-L]CBZh~ foundry concentrates of liquid vinasae; LKBT, foundry concentrates of solid
i J ??-
J'irinasae; and 1CBP~ concentrates of pondered vinasse. The specifications are given in
-"Table 5?
3 __,
Composition of Technological Sample
Dry $K 50/1 quartz sand 9? parts by weight
Holding loam _ 3 parts by weight
Sulfite-alcohol, vinasae (ap. gr. 1.275) 5 p~'ts by weight
Pater .1 parts by weight
? The specimens are dried for 1 Yiour at 160-180?C. ?
RE Croup V-l. The binding material of this group (water glass.) is used in the
~~composition of ts~ing~ sands, for molds and in making III arx1..IV class cores:
52~ dater glass consists of block silicate dissolved in water.
,..,~
5~_ _ M n siolx 1.032 the"
'The q "iaQortariti :tor-~toii:idr~- work is the modulus N.=~
Sb~ .-.~....~._.....,.. _,~..._. _ -- -
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i,oam is ,used, in
~?~~"~ '?? ~ binding material in making Class V cores.
ed., a's the .principal .
`;' '~`~~ er COST 974-x+1) is used in
`C~nt:"; `"portlaiid cesaent. of mark 400 or high
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;~,~``...'-.--.;.,~,._._-~_. _~?~._m__._. - ~,- - 2.1 to 2.3, and the epeci.fic gravity, of xhich
~iiirdd `i~at~e of vRiich' is irosl . . ;
., ~
? j molds the modulus ranaea from
..~~r~;_.,~:;:? .,~ ?52 For -dryin i
'?~_ri~ed=ranat is?_1.4g 1? ;- se7.f 8
.~ .
Appearance
--~
~z --i Specific gravity
s not less than
dti~
Thick liquid lt3ss Powder
Dark broxn Dark broxn Light broxn
not
1.275 prescribed prescribed
-~ Substances insoluble in xater, , 0.55 0.75
k '--~ not less than
TAhlw S
Specifications for Sulfite-,1lcohol Vinaese
GosT 6632-53 cos'r 60~-5i
Dry matter, in ~, not less than
~~ _.~ ~
'''-- Ash in K of total dry matter,
--, not less than
_.:
Reducing substances in ~ by xeight
~"?~--; of dry natter, not more than
}x_. f Active aci~:ity, Fx~ ~ range
~3C?F~ Tensile strength of dry apocimens
-; in kgf cm's, not less than
4 U..,.
;~~ 1 to 1.5~ of a 10-20 caustic soda
glass is delivered by CAST
co
p
,4G~' - cifications by COST 9b2-41 ara given in Table 6.
962-~?1 or, 4419-t-8. The spe
~~=-=~~ y_3 Cement is used in the, composition of facing sands for molds.
u
?
G
solution fa added to the xater glass in the
? ~'~--~ sition of rapid drying mixtures (Bib1.28 ). Water
o
a
p ?
.
ro
.:. -
~? ?~ the composition of molding mixtures and core mixtures' The loam
~
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_ partaent aaat~jr use only a single raoldir-g iaix?
-,'?~ molds aril also in foundries xhere the process of
? ~ . }->??---In~?caetic~?in dry or drying ,
1.1 ? ~' backin Banda arc
--making and transporting th9 mixtures is not mechanizodj facing and 8
. ~juaually used, the fornser servins to font the layer of the mold in contact xith the ~.-
. ;~,-.~
'casting metal: and the socond for a~ald.r-g the rost of Lho cold.
~C;~-~ ~ sands xorked out by the
Tables 6-8 give the typical coapositi,ons of molding ,
i ~' ---; xork.
-~authors~?for cast iron-steal and nonferrous foundry
+~-- The quantity of loam or, as the case may be, of loa~v (T, P, Zh, OZh) and
. '" "'}
-?..quarty sands added to the mix, varios considerably according to the loam content of
~ a __.
--'the burned (floor) saw. For thin reason it east be determined froW a calculation of
~~? _~,
--`the total loan content of the aixture, as shoxn in the tables.
y- ~+ As a rule, green molds era used for casting cast-iron and steel articles xeigh-
`"-- Ben molds only where the config-
--.ing up to 5~ kg? Heavier articles are cast into gr
?' --?`uration is sitaple and the function is not of vital importance.
v ? dried golds is done mainly as a substitute for casting in drs
t,~ - Casting in part~Y
.~ ~9~ '
cen molds only on those cases xhere t ere
?;~ _ -r~lds. It is done instead of casting in gr
-??'--~ xashes and other defects due
~ ?
. ~ -~s danger of getting a defective casting dLe to dirt, , `~
?"
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- to the molds.
~~~
~- As a result of the fuol ecorc?v a.~xi shortening the drying tine, casting in
~ ~? d molds.
-partially dried molds is more economical than casting in ry
4 ~;__.
? Casting of cast iron in partially dried molds is still limited to castings up
r.`:
y~ 't? 3-5 tons in xoight.
~ 3tee1 casting in partially dried rsolds xith xater glass has given a good ac-
~G
count of itself tirith castings up to 40 tons. To avoid scabbing xith heavy carbon
sg - '' esite for the
it is expedient to use chrome iron ore or chromonagn
.~~ ~ steel caatinga~
:`~,+ lds ir:atead of sand. Chromomagneaite should likewise bo used for castings of vari-
~;' ~oua xoighta of, special steels (for4lnatanae, chromi~--nickel steel). __
5 r -i - ~`
to s of the mold preventing the
~~? ,To eli.adnate the danger of cracking oxing p~ .
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Table ?
? "??"`Typical Cosnpoaitions of 2~olding Sands for Iron Founding
_ sition of all-purpose molding sari, Parts by
a) Characteristic of castings; b) Coupo Weight; d) Characteristic of sazrl
wei ht? c) Caciposition of facing sand, F?arts by Fresh sand ;h) Floor
' g ' ~ e 'Reight in kg; f) Mall thickness in ~3 6) 1) Group A-3
? (single and .acing); ) F1?esh materials; k) Sawdust;
~'~~-_ Coal (PZh) (Semibituainous); 3) 1,iater glass sp?~??
'sand; i) 1 27_1.28? n)
?;w`.: binders; n) Sulfite-alcohol vinasspt ~a~? c~~sition; ) I.aon ~; r~ Moisture, ~;
_ti 1.1a8-1.50; o) NaOH, 10~ solution; 1 ss) Strength in kg~cm2+ t) ~'ecn specime0nr~,
;~~,_; s) Gas'per~?ab~tY ~ wet condition; ' th; v Green molds; w)
com essive strength; u) Dry specimens tensile stream ds, z) up to;_aa) over.
pr Self-dz'S~g
4?~~ molds; x) Molds with dried?surfaco; y)
(~ ~ - sand and loam, are taken in quantities corresponding_
~~~ 1) The_ fresh materials, i.e., iven in the corre-
to the calculation of the total loam content of tho tee' g Ceous sands ~P, ~,
een molds the use .of argillaceous sands (P Zh) is
~~,...~aponding col~? In sands for gr s u to 5 tons, arg;11A
molds xith.casting p Se~~ying molds
,.~ recomaetxied, for dI`y ' a heavier than 5 tons, or when using
6F~ OZh) or loam,?and for casting
or molds with dried surface, Quartz sand and loam.
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STAT.
1
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Table 8
Typical Compositions of Holding Sands for Stoel Casting.
' ~ Checked by residue on loxer sieves 200 * 270 + pan 30-1,0~.
~ On eompreaafon 24 hours after preparation.
a) Characteristics of castings; b) Cot~oaition of facing sand, parts by xeight;
e) C}yaracteriatica of nand; d) Strength in kg/ca2; e) Weight in kg; f) V+all thick-
' n~as in zm; g) Fresh asateriala~(oluartz sand and loam); h) Floor sand; i) Harshal-
lite; ~) Chrome iron ore; k) Chrosomagnesite; 1) Sultito-alcohol vinaaae, sp.gr.
~-' 1.2?-1.28; m) SB binder; n) Uwzter gLaaa; o) KaOH, 10~ solution; p) Cement; q) Grain
composition; r) Loam, ~; a) Hoisture, ~; t) Gas permeability, not less than;
~~--- u).Green specimens, conpreasive strength; v) Tensile strength of dry specimens,
'?--;not less than; x) Grsen molds; x) Dry moTda; y) Holds xith dried aurfaee; z) up to;
b
~-S
t
7gl
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Vii. ~ >
_ +e
~I;
i~
-N
7~-M
K-~
Typical Coa:poaitiona of Core Sands for Nonferrous Caat~.ng.
~~
/-
M-ICI
b-b
T~ ~
.s-~.
Z~
Tv J
~~a
~wlao
1011
SOII00
~~
~1)
r-lo
:-,.
{-{.
~ In casting magnesium alloys, 0.25-0.5~ uric acid and 0.25-1.0' floxera of sul-
fur are added to the composition of the sands.
a) Co6poaition of sand; b) Characteristics of sand; c) Granular part of nand, in ?~
by xeight; d) Binding a?ateriala, ~ of xeight of granular part of nand; o) Strength
in kg/ca2; f) Core class; g) Floor sand or core face; h) Gas permeability in xet
condition; i) Loam; ~) Ar ceoua nand; k) Fresh materials; 1} t~onaqueoua sater-
iala (in $ of binder base ; m) Sulfite-alcohol vinaase (sp.gr.1.27); n) S ecial
~? additi~ea; o) Group A-3 or SP and SB; p') Grain composition; q) Loam, ~; r~ Gas
~peimeabilit ,not leas than; a) Hoiature, ~; t) Green specimens, compressive
--;strength; u~ Tensile strength of dry specimens; v) Drying tesperature, ?C; x) For
;copper allon+; x) For alualinum and magnesium alloys.
,~
.+
.i
,;4a~ ~
~l ft
.,.y
i ?e. ~ ,. _. __ _ _
?,
STAT
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 Declassified in Part -Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/16 :CIA-RDP81-010438001900100002-4
Typical Compositione of Rapid-Drying Core Sande.
t
~
b
.
._
,
~
t
~
f
~~ '
~
'
r
s
t
u
v
y
,~
~ -
~
,~
t
,,,
N
o
r
~
w
x
. ~ ~ ~ r
'
1'
~=a
t:..
~~
-
-
f?
- I
- (
- I
- - I - 1
eora ( Ti 2
I is
~.3-I.S
.K-~
li
tM-
M
M~
I.F
-
-
1.3-7 -
( O,f~
601/00It.0-i~~
I.i-2.
.OFO.~
1~ 1!~
IMY
~
'
,~~?
~ ,~~
-
-
I - ~=?4-~.
-
(~+~
I ItNUO ~H.q
~
.W
.1
t7
:1:14
~~ ui:i
i~F-w-.
I
IY
~
t -
:i-s.
~_x:
_
s-~.
~.~-.~.
?i, o
igloo
~/~
.a~
u
r
>,
n~e~ta
~=.
f
`~
~~
trfi -. Z
.
~4~-y ~-
f
~.~;;
~;~ ter.
~-a ~
~-
,.
:.:~
* lOS oxalic acid solution, equal in quantity to 25~ the xeight of the binder is
added.
~ In casting magnesium alloys, 0.25-0.5 of boric acid and 0.25-1~ of floxers of
sulfur are added.
x: _ a) Caapoaition of nand; b) Characteristics of sand; c) Core class; d) Granular part
_'of seed, in K by xei~tlt; e) Binding matsriala, ~ of sleight of granular part of sand;
:1__f) Strength in ka/aa ; 6) Drying telnperatnre, oC; h) Floor sand; i) Quartz sand;
~~i~ Seai-oi1J sand; k) Loan; 1) MF-1? or 1SSB; m) H; n) tilater glees, ap.gr.1.48-1.52;
:'?__.j o; Caustic soda, ].Ox is aolutioa; p) Sulfite-alcohol vi.naaae (ap.gr.1.27);
_ ?q) Pectin 61us, by xeiaht 1.20-1.25; r) Nasut; s) Grain co>.poaition; t) ~.6illn_
~t~~~ceous sixturs in x; u) Cas perseability, not less than; r) I{oiature, 4; x) Green
_.~ speeiaeiu, in co>spcessive strength; x) Tensile strength of dry speciaena, not leas
5~ 'than; y) ~!or cast iron, steel and copper alloys; z) For alualirna sad magneaiua
5~ ~~?
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d.,~A storation ~Rettnneration~ of Holding Nateriela.
, d~..__ ._,_._The repeated use of spent coro sands considerably roducos the consumption of
--?
n-1fresh sands.
-~,
a) Composition of pastes parts by xeight; b) Symbol; c) Amorphous graphite; d) Wirtz
.n
-dust; e) Talc; f) Coke; g) Forgo charcoal; h) i~,arshallito; i) Hentonite; J) Binders;
?~,
Y.4_-k) Group II-2; 1) Group B-3; ~) Rater; n) Specific gravity of coating bofore use;
--~o) Castings for xhich used; p) S-~11, medium and heavy iron castings; q) Medium
~ ~,_.,
i
--'iron castinaa; r) Saall iron castings; s) Steel castings; t) Steel castings; u Steel
:L?_..~
?~caatinga; v) Bronze castings; x) Aluminum castings.
Spent core sands may be rexorked xith tho object of restoring (regenerating)
~~the original composition and properties or mrloy be used Mtithout restoration of the
'a'j'~po:~itidri, for-point introduction with fresh sand.
56 ~._.._.___..~.~~.__ _._, __ _._
Typical ?~~old Coating Compositions.
~
I
b
c
d
t
t
q
h
~
-
m
,~
?
1
k ~
f?-1
M
-
-
-
-
-
-
j,S
_
1r5 10
33
Z8
1.35-1.1
115-1.1
r
~t?2
~.5
~
-
-
-
-
-
3
5
10
29
l.1
1.3.i
~~~
11,14
l~.S
p
-
-
-
1T
?'
J1.6
.
J.S
- 10
Z1
=
7
~f.i
?.S
-
-
~-
J
l.5 -
15
i.{-1.5
s
3
10
1T
1.4-I.G
t
~?_
~
~
~
_
_
~
1
u
1.25-1.3
?
!,
~
~
q
_
-
-
?
?
3
J
u
1.35-1.{
w
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R~worldna Banda to reatoro (roganerate) Choir composition and proportiea. Spent
sand?-mt~- be rernerated by air eeparatioci~ eleotro aeparation~ hydro eeparation~
and also by the use of special vibration apparatus.
Air aoparation is effected by the scheme rollers - tnagrotic separator - screen -
--disintegrator -air separator.
l ~f - .~
1 _~_.
Eloetro separation is effected by the folloxing scheme: crusher rollers or
- vlectro separator. The yield of suit~blc sands
The consumptior. o~ electric poxer is 2.4-2.5 ~'~
~-~ ,sills - rsagnetic separator -
~+clrosoparation. In modern aech^nizod lourr3ries, the castings are clzaned
-^~-2~ydraulically and b; the sand-hydraulic method, xith which the hydroseparation o:
spent molding sands can be conveniently combined.
In this case hydroseparation ~ be etfecto3 by various schemes, analogous to
'- the existing schemes of xot concentration of minerals.
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 Declassified in Part -Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/16 :CIA-RDP81-010438001900100002-4
CASTING-BOXES AND PATTER2IS
o_ ri d exact
_ Coating boxes must be ae light as possible, sufficiently strong, gi , ,
_ interchangeable, and also convenient in operation.
_-_ Standard casting box dimensions. Pursuant to COST to 2133-43, the standard
_ dimensions of casting boxes are regulated by the normal size interval in length
(diameter), xidth and height. The size intervals of standard casting boxes is
given belox. For large series and mass casting xork, the canufacture of special
casting boxes Frith different dissensions is allowed. The sizes of removable
flasks are 1,00 x 250, 400 x 3~, 450 x 250, 1.50 x 3~ ~, xith a height ranging
from 75 to 150 am.
_.. ~:_
~ CaatinA Boxes
`( -
i
Size Interval of Casting 9oxes in rm
1
= ~
' - ~ i
~
Length
(diameter)
of casting
Size Interval
Width of
casting
boxes
Size Interval
Height of
casting
boxes
Size interval
-~ .4
300..500
50
z5a-4oo
So
sazoo
z5
r ? ;tam'
,:''
500-1200
100
400-1000
100
Sam
25
~~ - %- ; ~
1200-21,00
200
1000-1200
2O0
ovQr 200
50
y ~4
_
z50a-3~
z5o
1z5a3ooo
z5o
3000-5~
5~
> 3000
5~
The structural elements of integral-casting boxes should, it is recommended,
., ' follox GOST 2529-1+4?
---~
.._ '2zateriala for casting boxes. Depending on the dissensions and conditions of
+_~
_ utilisation, casting boxes are made of gray cast iron, cast steel, rolled steel,
~~~~ i ~ cast iron of marks SCh 15-32 and SCh 18-36,
_~ aluminum alloys, or lumber. From gray
y ,_...
-;cast and built-up casting boxes of any dimensions are made. The disadvantages of
1'i ..- ~ -.... ... .. _ _ ...
-~ cast iron canting boxes are their great weight and their liability to breakage from
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 d "`{blows during tors extraotion. Intiegrally cast steal casting boxes are considerably
~ _~ swore expensive than coat iron boxes and give good results in large serios and trasa
~.~; tar than cast iron casting boxes and are
,, ; produotion. They are Prom 20 to 25;~ ligh
~ r to OOST 977-53 is suitable
Steel of any mark according
able
d
.
ur
s more
sev~e:~l time for cast coating boxes; welded steel casting boxes are seldom us~i, since a special
;profile of the rolled product is required.
boxes o; aluminum alloys have given a good
In machine casting, hand casting
account of thesaselves. It is expedient to make pertrsnent casting boxes out of
wood (spruce, pine) only for loam casting and :n case of urgent need.
Removable flasks for cast aolding are trade of oak, beech or larch r,~od. In
this case the connecting frame is made of metal.
Storage of casting boxes. Casting boxes are stored in special casting box
warehouses located next to the foundries and equipped with cranes.
Casting Patterns and Pattern " pment
p pattern set may include the pattern itself, r~hich reflects rainly the ex-
ternal outlines of Lhe object being cast; co r? boxes, reflect`_rh the '_nner out-
lines of the object being cast (cavities, openings, depressions); a,olding ar.d
_ core patterns, which entirely or partly replace the pan erns or core boxes; the
molding board and other plates necessary for use o: the pattern on the molding
machine; patterns and conductors for control and assembly of molds and cores.
Table 15 gives a classification of patterns.
Characteristics of wooden patterns by classes of strength. Class 1 patterns,
_ which are the gnat important, serve for manual and rrachine molding with prolonged
~t'_-'use. The operating parts of the pattern, or the whole pattern, as well as the
~"-'' de hardwood; the thin parts of aluzinum. The wood is
_-boxes, are wade of high era ,
SU~-..~ - ointe are made with glue and wood
--iuaad after careful veneering. A11 non'm?ving 3
52-~
--? screws. .
~, a_ l,_. ~_..,.,._.._._..._ ._..:.. _ ._. - tterna are installed on metal wedges
di
a
ng p
` The removable parts in hand. mol
+G~_.____ .. _ _ - - -
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 Declassified in Part -Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/16 :CIA-RDP81-010438001900100002-4
Table 15 Claeeification of Patterns
Group Bard molding patterns
Metal -thin-walled, decorative (sic)
curvilinear for series production;
combination wooden and motel parts
ror aeries production
wooden, for individual and series
production
plaster, wax, skeleton-loam and others
for individual castings
Large, over 1500 mm
medium, from 500 to 1500 trm
wall, up to 500 nan
?~ondemountable simple
nondemountable for mold?ng wjth
recess or "counterfeits";
demountable and with reaovable parts
Hill - on entire outL?'ne of casting
Incomplete, with patterns and pieces
for large casting;
Skeletons, outline, for loam patterns;
mold and core str;ckles broaching and
grinding
Intricate-curvilinear outline w'_th a
large number of core boxes
tedium complexity -simple outline
with large number of core boxes;
Machine molding patterns
combination -metal ~tternB xith
wooden hoxos for large aer:os produc-
tion
tivoden, for sr:all aeries production
l.ondeanuntable one-sided;
nordemountable two-sided with "block?
demountable, two-sided
h'assi ve aetal, for stall castings;
hollow ssetal, ?or meciun and ?.arge
castings;
intesrally-cast pattern plates
Intricate-hollow, large with rand
finishinU or sachire finishing, and
with a largo nL:..ber of core boxes;
medium complexitq -stall, hand and
cachine finishing, with boxes;
sirxple - ~rachined for the most part
on universal sachines
..'?dovetails". The parts of the patterns and boxes subject to impacts are bound with
c. r.E
_.-`metal. The bases of the patterns are attached by bolts. Core boxes are made so
5' ~...
-they can be ahalcen out entirely, or built up, but cannot be taken apart. Patterns
.,.
--~of thin. and weak construction are attached to wooden molding boards. In patterns
., ~ _._,...___~k_ .. .. _ ~a
~_+and bores, the fillets along the parting must be notched in. Demountable
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v _! cotmectiona are made on strong pins of metal or hardwood. Clgaa I patter~a can
~ stand hundreds and even thousands of mold atrippinga. The surface of the pattern
~-,
is carefully t"iniehed and is coated with varnish not leas than 3 tines.
The lettor and figure earkera must b'e metal.
Class II patterns, used periodically, are employed for handmolding. These
_,'patterns are made of the usual woods (pine, alder, linden) with veneering and use
of nails and screws. The pattern is usually all wood, without metal binding and
bolt tie bolts. The removable parts are Cade of wooden wedges. The indi?ridual
parts are attached by glue and screws without rotchinF. The __*illets are likewise
glued on without notching in. The boxes are removable. For thin patterns, wooden.
panels under the models ("counterfeits~i) are jade, and the patterns are Cade with-
out dearountable points. The surface of the pattern ie well .finished and is cos?ed
with varnish not less than 2 or 3 times. Class II patterns can withstand tnes o?
_ mold stripgings.
Class III patterns, used a single time, are employed for hand molding. The;
_ are made of inexpensive species and grades of wood. S~thole patterns are .*.ot infre-
quently replaced by incoc~lete, skeleton and outline patterns. The re.:~o:able
parts are installed on pegs. The core boxes are reds as scull as possible, and a:e
made in the amplest structure. Such patterns suF be painted once. Class III cAdels
. are good only for a few castings.
~. For wooden patterns lv~ber (boards and beams) of evergreens -pine, larch,
?' ^ _
.. spruce -and deciduous species, birch, beech, maple, alder, linden, etc. are used.
.__~Pine is suitable for mediae and large patterns of any class, especially in binding
r, _...
.~'baaea (plates, boxes, frames). Larch is heavier and stronger than pine, and it is
~~ tj_. }
__. expedient to use it instead of pine in Class I patterns. Spruco is suitable for
SO_.~
- unimportant parts of Claaa II and III patterns. Birch is suitable for small
S?
?-~patterns and parts, especially if it is finished on the lathe. ,A birch facing is
;Q __ _ _ _
-fused for wearing parts on cl.aaa I patterns wade of pine. Beech is expediently
3?
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~ -~-- ttorne and for facing meth um class I patterns. Maple
'used for small olaaa I pb
~.~ atterna. It is expodipnt to use alder
shows a good resistance to wear in machine p
;.- ~ ama11 and medium class I and II patterns with an intricate complex outli.-:e and
` which are notched in by chisel. Linden has an analogous function for class III
~patterna.
The quality of evergreen lumber should correspond to selected grades 1 and 2
by 00.ST 3~-45, that of hard decidious species, to grades 1 and 2 by GOST 2695-4~+?
Alder and linden should be grade 1. For small rachine patterns it is exped+ent to
use 3~proved preeaboard, delta and bal,i,nite. The moisture in pattern wood must be
Pattern wood of high :.nisture content is unsuitable for the
between 10 and 12~.
work, since the form and dimensions of the pattern change or. dzying.
The cons~ption of wood for patterns depends or. the a:~ourt of use they get,
which corresponds to the degree of serves production o.* the casting. Wjth ar. s-
dividual repair, or experimental casting, the patterns d~ not perfora: long se:-vice,
and the consumption of ~,ood runs up to 0.1 m3 per ton of castt:.E. Ir. s:?~1 ser' es
production the consuupt:or. of shod runs up to 0.05 ~, wh`_le .n serves productior.
it is not ovor 0.02 m3 per ton of casting.
Alloys for metal pattor?.s. For thiirwalled ranual and rachine patterns gray
cast iron of cork SCh 15-32 by COST 11+12-54 is used. The chemical coepos-.ion of
the cast iivn, (1n ~), is as follows: carbon, 3.5-3.8; silicon 2.4-2.6; ranganese
0.7-0.9; phosphorus 0.3-0.6; sulfur, up to 0.1. For high patterns for machine
~ld~,ng, sub3ect to strong wear, the aluminvsrcopper alloy 'ark AL-12, by
OOST 2685-53, is recosmended. The melting point of this alloy is 640?C, its
'~'?1~ and its shrinkage 1.2~? For manual and machine patterns
_;apecific gravity is 2.9,
""- b C05T 2685-53 is suitable. Melting point 630?C,
_.~of z+ll sizes, Al-13 alloy Y
~~~--~I tterna in accordance with the workpiec?,
_Icp.gr. 2.8, shrinkage 1.~. For casting pa
'`'` attern alloy composed of 45~ lead and 55~ bismuth,
-~-,a nonshrinki-n8 and low melting P
' - -? -
?._~ia used.
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~ M by black oblique bands; risers, inlots for laboratory tests aro separated from the
:main body of the casting by a black band.
~_ ~
The pattorn corkers. Patterns and every individual or removable part of a
-_~pattern set tauat have the following markers: riumb4r of dotail to which pattern be-
? 'longs. on all parts of the set, aerial number of model set with letter F: on all
-- ~ - -
t~? -
;parts of set; number aP core boxes in srt, with letter 7a on pattern; ~*- er of
~:_,
core box according to sequence of insertion of given core in r..old with letter 'ia on
core boat; number of removable or insertable parts in pattern o:? ^_ore box with
letters OV respectively on pattern o: on box.
Flo of anrnir:g of a pattern of a deta'_ 1 A3l.1C1? ~: :''_ rat set, ~: to or.e bo~?
and two removable pa:-ts: for cwdel - 9?1.101~ - to-Yal-~ i'2; for bor. - .?L1C1? -
- Kl-Yal.
_ '"he narking is effected by scarping or punching the :.suer s'_gns or. the non-
working surfaces of the pattern. In large weeder. patte:r.s, narking xith paint is
alloxed.
Allowance on patterns for shrin}cage of castit;gs. ?he shrirJ:age o: '.he :ast-
ings taking place ir. connection with the decrease in the toli:s:e o the cxled wetal
is taken into account ..n giving the patterns a percertaee allotiance by the : o:?c~.ila
2~.aterials
F: in ~
Cray case iron
0.5-1
Yihite cast iron
1.5-2
--Pearlite xrought iron
1.2-2
Ferrite -wrought iron
1-1.5
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where al n initial size of casting or. solidification, corresponding to the size of
the aodel; a the final size of the cooled casting. ine followinE is the shrin}:a,?e
'allowance it for various cast alloys:
STAT
r
~r
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Fillets and rots dings. Fillets pre-
vent the forrnation of cracks and scab at
function points between the casting walls
and also facilitate moldmaking.
Fillets in wooden patterns are trade
by the following methods: application of
a filler on the undemourtable corners of
a Durability class at r < $ mm, and of a
pattern of Durability class III at
r < '8 tan; by gluing wooden cleats (Fig.2)
k2
_, Height of pattern
Up to 20
. ~ za 50
50-100
100-200
20Q300
3o4-Soo
Soo-800
800-1000
1000-1200
Over 1200
Table 1?
Pattern Draft (not Wore than)
Wooden patterns
Metal patterns Machine molding
a a
in ~
}land molding
a a
in asn
3? 1 3?
?
3?
0?1j5+ 2 l?lSt
2
1?lSt
0?j0+ 2.5 0?45t
2?S
C?45+
0?30, 3 0o?Or
~
po?Ot
0?30+ 1: 0030,
~
0?30+
- - -
5
0?30+
0??Or
a o?30+
;;r==_.; Fig.l~. Pattern drafts in patterns; a - on
._!
,12~i ~.__ ~.._..o _..__.......,...,_ ....~~ ., ......
~.,oS .casting.-on.inereaae and decrease; c
_t __ _w ..___._.~_._._draft on_. doereaee
i
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~~ on~the undemountable corners in patterns of Dunvbility class II for all radii, in
~? class ~I patterns for radii more Lhan 8 mm', and in class III models for radii of
t ";
-~~f
.. r
r _.. :
Fig.2. bSako-up of fillets: a -gluing
fillets along rood gibers; b -gluing
fillets transverse to xood fibers; c -
notching fillets into demountable corner
10 ma and more; by notching xooden cleats
ability classes I, II, and III. In metal
patterns, the fillets are made in the
metal, and in most cases b;; rrjlling. i'he
outer corners are rounded b~ rer. o?rirg the
material of the pattern. rro~ the corner.
Principles of pat'.ern desip-inE. _n
developing the desiE:: of patterns and the
procedure o.^ csking thew:, a number of
factors affectintr the xezr of the pattern
must be taken into account.
These factors include:
a) the surface rear in the xarking part o4 the patter:., ox:rg to the abras:?~e
action of the molding sand xhen the pattern is pressed home;
b) the xear of the working surface of the pattern due to the use o: a working
instrument in pressing it hose (booes o: the ram~er, pricks of the vent, wear fror:
the skimming rule at the boxes);
c) xear and failure due to stresses arising in the pattern under the action of
forces when the pattern is pressed home into the molding sand (swing of the
r, , _ ,
_,'xall~, destruction of the corners in boxes, etc.);
i~_y,!
~i
`l 4'...3
d) wear and destruction by the action of the forces
_,; bolting and *queezing;
a r~
releasing the patterns
the pattern owing to swelling and drying out of the wood.
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e) xear and destruction from pricking the patterns in
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. ~ The labor coaeumed on metal patterns amounts to 2-3 hours in mass fowiding
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o ~.. _
The action of thane faotora diffore under various conditions of production.
-, _
' Meaevrea to prevent their notion on the~patterna ahould.be taken in such a xay as
-} --- --
to have the wear of the pattern proceed unifo2mly, and the durability of the
??' patterns should ensure the assigned number of strippinga of the molds and cores.
_ The general durability of a pattern depends mainly on th6 structural founda-
~~~--
?a Lion, i.e., the baao, on xhich it is bui.l.t. The base is the principal part of the
~?? pattern xhich determines its dimensions and shape. It depends on the f'_rst place
on the configuration of the casting. All additions to the base in the"orm of
~~
core prints, do plates, ribs, bulbs, and other design elements, do not play as
great a role in detorcaining the life of a pattern as the base itseL? does. In
designing the pattern, the base is selected as the principal part of the casting.
It must be made as durable as possible iri the fog o: a bloc}:, box, ring, disk,
_ or frame. But not every casting has such a base. Soc:et:ryes a casting has an in-
tricate configuration, and all its elements are not lira enouEtr to attach then to
the base. In those cases it is necessary, for the durability of the pattern, :o
rake an artificial base in the fora of a molding board, strength rib, etc. For
xooden core boxes, the base consists of a :oundation connected :rorz the board in
the form of a box or ob?ained by veneering together pieces of ~+ood. The life o:
a pattern depends on Lhe design development of the pattern base and the durability
xith xhich it is s`ade. The saintenance o: the Pattern diaensions depends on Lhe
durability of the base.
Cost of patterns. The average coat of patterns amounts to 3 to 10,E of the
- total coat of the castings, and depends on the metal being cast and the degree of
-;utilization of the patterns. In iron founding, the cost of the patterns is 20-2~;~
.: ,
--~ higher than in steel founding, and 50-6U,G higher than in founding nonferrous
~9. _+
?-' alloys. The shop coat of patterns is made up of the coat of the basic materials
~r ,-',
"?(10-15~)~ the patternma}cerat paq (40 to 50,x), and overhead erpenaes (40-50;x).
r .'
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On Bolding machines: Mostly small
hand: N.ostly small
pneutmatic: Various
a) squeeze Various
b) dolt and Special
combination Various
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~~ ~~'boxypp`~d; they are mado of a sand-loam mix, or of a mixture of Band with various
~~ other binders (water glass, binder omulaions, artificial resins). Tho tern molding
--~ --?-
~ "~ is usually understood to mean the procosa of making temporary molds.
The Claaaification of Molding Mothods
! The following methoas of mold mailing are diayinguisncci: iintiu wviui+~~; ~~ ~r??
.molding, in which somo of tho molding operations are perforoed by the aid of
mochanisms; corn molding, moaning the assembly of the molds from individual cores
wade by hand or Bachine; shell Bolding, in which tho s~lds are built up out of
thin-xslled shells. +he selection of the cothod of molding depends on the out-
lines and dimensions of tho detail, the requ:.red accuracy, the character and
amount of the subsequent B:schining, and the degree of repetition of the castir.E.
Table 1.6 gives a classification of the methods of aold.^saking and their ca:r: Melds
of application.
Hand molding. Table 19 gives the methods o? hand holding.
;able 18
Classif icatlon o_? N.olding 2dethods
Principal aethod of holding P:ethods of mold{ng i~pical cast:r.,
Hand (in s.:all-sories and FroW patterns on
series production) floor and in bozos Various
On sxeep te~~plete Solids o? revolution.
On sreleton patterns Very large
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ay aid of stationary
and portable aand-
slingera
On sand-blast
uu.:;~i1~o6
In cores (in series and mass Building up of mold Complex configuration
production) ~ thout packet pnd
xith packet Various sizes
2.-,aking shell molds On `_nstallations with Small and medium
sanual control castings o: elevated
accuracy
~n single-Position
se~j -autoaati c
cachires The same
Cn zul.ti-position
autosatic machines The same
Hachine molding. In molding on machines the packing of the molding (^;Y in
the flask or the stripping of the pattern from the mold, o: both operations to-
gether, are aechanized. In individual cases, the char~rg of the r.~olding mix into
the flask is also mechanized.
The methods of squeezing the molding mix in machine molding are given in
~' sTable 20, and the methods of stripping the_mold from the pattern in Table 21.
!~'-~ Molding machines. There are hand, pneumatic, hydraulic, mechanical and
~"~- ~ electroma~etic molding aachines.
'~w'~ Modern roundrlea employ pneumatic ruolding machines almost excluaive],y, as
`??'`~~xell~ar mechanical molding machines that pack the molds by centrifugal force (sand
~.
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STAT
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jsmall-series production. ~
o~ "bad+~, soft and hard, andithe method of preparing them, are
courses on foundiy_p?'oductio~a.
I
4g -
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1G
is
14 _,
1
16
18~ 1. Placing of pattern 1 on "bed"# of Hold
._I
20__}xith leveled upper surface, made in floor
22 ~ oS shop, and driven home by light bloxs
2b--~xith a hamaer into the earth over the en-
tine height. Horiaontal position oz
half of pattern,placed
I:otation o` drag to-
gether with
catch-p?.ate by
lEC? and pos:-
~.g t =r.
t:or.' 1
lei: e: a: ~ 3 on
:'loo: ?: shop.
j~~ ~;~ J ~ L'7LCr
hal? o: pattern.
?p~ upper surface of pattern checked by Beans
gp.~of the level 4. Packing of oarth around
t1_~pattern and evening .. - ;'?~. ~ directly in the areas
_ `` -~ ,and inserted
-? ~: +- : ~ rods
i0 ~ ~ ~~1,~eL? t of accumulation of material (gig?11)?
t? ~ ':M:~:";`'. -_ , t ical cases of the
,r~.a? ? '` The folloxing typ
`
~ }~
~
:, ~
:,~.;;?? :
' ?"~ ' ~~ ~ ~ under
t ~ ~ R ,
_i 2) Coating; 3) Riaer; ~.I.~~ent of closed risers acting
o ~ Rod; ct to
Insulating 1'tatorial: 5) pressure, are possible nth reaps
IS _s b) Thertial
eased Air; 7) manometer;
-~6) Tube xith Comps' the casting:
t~~ etal plate; 9) a) the riser i8 placed on the same level
- ~ 8) K Flask.
12);
~7'" as the casting ~~8? 13)+
?'?s'-~, b) the riser is set up above the casting ~Fig?
,~-_ dual tended places of the casting, dependent risers are set,
c) at indivi
- ht levels.
3'~--~ Bch ~y be done at various heig
all the metal through the riser. ~
t?_ The pouring m~ take pl,t,ce by passing
xi11 be in the riser to~'ds the end of the p?~'
,? ---~ .
these cease. the hottest setal castings
These methods of feeding
3:: r. '
- t J a].lox high E?'ade steel castings of c?'m-
3~-` t ed xith a
~?- ~ ~ p].ex configuration to be obtain
~ ~;
--! ~ 1 p~ pnit of Coating; 2) Clog- him yield of suitable metal.
~s ~ _: Fig.ll -
a ~ ~!,-ed Riaer in the Forts of Rod; 3) ~s'Form-
~ T ~.,v,to?y of Knoclci Out and Cleani~
^ ?-'~ ing Rod. , o.,....---
k~"`~ the Caatin
$~---~ the eaatings after povr~g the
Tabu 26 gives the process sheet of working
,5
? - 5 scolds. states the regions of appli-
?Sh _.:. Tahls? 2'T--Eiris -the? principal" characteristics and
i 6 ~?eation-oi saehaniwas. to bzock out and clean the castings ?
STAT
~~~
~.
~~~
__ nded for use in all c?eee.
i confil~'ation. IL cinnot be~reootiie to be turned
tin7,'! siapl a oi_good quality_ -- i
castings iMllorr casting ,
preeee-t lsthods.,-oi.fs!~b ... unite' ~
....---.--~--?~- ~-?". ""-. ? . tc structural ieaturea of individual
~ out avuc- in eases where ioraerly, O1~ wae~not pea"aible: Covered
? , e i t-- _ '~ their casting
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i~,_~{echaniem
~, _.~ pnatmratio
_,~ vibrating
f;_.~ pcreen
t 0 ~~
~~;._?s
_~
t~:
;,; _ `Mechanical
_~vibrating
t, __ acreen
~`Antooatic
_~ `mold lwockout
purpoao and Ct~aracterietica Field of Application
Knocking nand out of_the flanks, which
are placed on abeam resting on the
vibrator heads. Ths aand;runa through
a suspended acreen, while the caatinx
resain on the acreen. Hechaniaoa re-
aeobling the bolting aechaniama of
molding machines are used instead of
vibrators for knocking out heavy
tl,aaka. Capacity of Irnockout acreena:
1 to 10 tone or more.
Foundry rrork . Frith
taechanized contimioua
transport of the mold-
ing nand
An eccentric or disbalance mechanism
produces the vibration. Florizontal or
inclined screens are used. With in-
clined screens, the sand sifts through
the acreena and at the samo tiiue the
castings descend along the acreen in
the direction of the elope. Capacity:
0.25 to 10 tons or more.
Consists of a mechanical vibrating
screen, onto which the contents of the
flanks - the castings and molding
sand - are forced out by means of a
pneuaatic knockout. The sand is sieved
dowmrard through the screen, while the
castings go to one aide along the slope
of the acreen. The molds for knockout
Foundries with convey-
orized transport oP the
molding sand. Powerful
mechanical knockout
screens of capacity up
to GO tons are used in
heavy machine-building
Foundries pouring molds
on conveyor xith flasks
of standard dimensions
and absence of
cross-pieces in loxer
flasks
are pnahed off the foundry conveyor un-
der the push-rod by a+eana of a pneumatic
knockout. The two pneumatic :xchaniams
are aucceaaive],y put into operation
automatically by means of an electric limiter
of the flank travel.
==-'p~atic Lifting of the cores remaining after the Series and mass produc-
.~`vibrating knockout, frog the mold into the casting tion
wb_-~aachiae for cavity. Ths casting is pressed in the
--;core knockout machine lietwsen the support and the pneu-
=;rj_t antic chuck. The vibrator Por knocking out
,~~ the core is then turned on.
~~~ ~~ -
~~-~Hydrsulic The cores are crushed and removed Eton Large castings with
Y'-1 ehaaber for the ~ th~aundsr . apcessuref of up toffy duaaliandcaeriea produc-
t cone extras- .--. __..~
-~Etion 125 ataoapherea. Advantages: abssnce of tion.
S~_....._?_._ ___.___ _ - dnat and~poaaibility of using the grater
STAT
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;.
.~ .1----
p r~
~..
.TMn - .
,~
~ ?t~
,,~t
l V -.-y
Hech_aniem
purpose and Characteriatica
for removing, and washing the sand,
which. after settling can be reused.
1~fhen a het of water msxen Kiof s~?
is used, effective ae~i~achioved
surface of the xithithe core removal
aimultaneoualy Tho cast-
(aand-hydraulic cleaning)
ings enter the chamber on trc~cle.
or are placed on a rotating
The surfaces of tho castings are
cleaned as a result of the friction
between the castings when the drum
revolves, and of the abrasive action
of the white iron hack stars placed
in the drum. The cleanin8 ttah}ocechar-
0.~2 hours (depen
actor of the castin6a)? Aapircleoan-
of the dust given off d o~gircular
ing is mandatory. Drums
and square cross section are used.
Cleaning surface of castings xith a
het of free-flowing abrasive mater-
ial - nand or iron shot -- under
pressure of compressed air. The sand
or shot is entrained ~'~ thoflther
chamber through the opening
cock by compressed air in a tube, and
passes through a hose inao Theo epeT
for cleaning the castin8
reserve of sand coming from the upper
chamber is always assured by means of
a system of valves in the lower cham-
ber. L'rY quartzite sand with sharp
gFaina 0.75 to 1.5 mm ~ size, or iron
shot, 0.5 to 1.5 ~- ~ size, is used
as the abrasive.
Field of Application
Cleaning castings of all
types and dimensions
xithin the limits set
by the size of the
drume
Cleaning castings of all
types and dimensions
The apparatus is used
in conjunction with
chambers ended ~s~?ich
various type ,
the castings to be
cleaned are placed.
_-pneuaatic two
--.chamber con-
,~_~tinuoaa-acting
'sand-and-shot
;; . ,blast apparatus
---
t 8-,:~b~abot
S~~chamber
~7.=y1'57.4
s,~~,~.~ ~rr'tl _
The castings to be cleaned ~'? placed
in the chamber on a trolley or a ro-
volving table,-and are cleaned by a
blast of sand (or shot) from a aand-
blast apparatus. The chamber is
ith mechanisms to return the
x
-,,~_~_____. ,____ ns~ ~ (or shot) to the nand-or-shot
blast app~'atua,'and with ventilation
.~._ ..._ - devices.
Individual and amall-
aeriea production of
medium and large cast-
iJlg6.
STAT
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?kchaniw~ _
Sandblast.__
tU
t _' Y~
;~ _,Ceatrilugal
___ shot sl.inger
t :~
t ; _,
_,Shot-slinging
Universal
-shot-slinging
-.chamber
_;
_..: action shot
4 ~-- slinging
-- chamber
5 C1
:i ?.,--~
S~~~.._..._,__ .,_~..___
Purpose and Charactiriatias Field of Application
I
The castings to be eleantd are placed Series production of
in the drvK, arxi are tussled when it small castings
rerolrea, being aub~ected at the same
time to the action of a iandblaat
frow aereral noaslea, cotuiected by
hose to Lhe sandblast machine.
The principal mechanism for centrifugal Cleaning castings of
shot-slinging clowning consists of trro small and aedium size
parallel discs with radial blades be- in chambers and drums
tweea them. The shot enters at the cen- of various designs
ter of the wheel. Nhen tho xheol re-
volves at x000-2500 rpm, the shot is
hurled by the blades, at high speed,
into the working chamber, against the
surface of the castings being cleaned.
The cavity of the drum is formed by a Series and Hass produc-
curved pLte conveyor, the front of tion of light and
which is covered by a removable cover. medium castings(up to
When the conveyor mores, the castings 250 kg)
in the drum are tumbled, and thou en-
tire surface becomes acceaaiblo to the
action of a continuous bleat of shot,
coeaing from above out of a shot slinger.
The duration of a cleaning cycle is
10-15 min.
The castings are placed on a revolving Individual and small
table and enter the chamber on it. There series production of
they are sub3ected to the action of a castings y~eighing up
bleat of shot from one or two shot sling- to x000 leg
era. After the castings have been cleaned
on one aide, exposed to the shot, they are
inverted aril then cleaned again.
The castings are hung on hooka from a Mara-production
horizontal endless belt suspension foundries
conveyor passing through the chamber.
Within the chamber the castings are
given a slow rotary motion and offer
their entire surface to the action of
the shot-blast free a row of shot
alingera installed along'ths chamber
-we11s.?~~?he-number of- shot :lingers
ranges frog 2 to 8.
7b
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~?;
;~~
o i
~~ +~ Table cont~d) Cleaning in ordinary drama is aidiff~icuslirgin8 e~quic~ont~(druma,
t ~ been displaced by cleaning
'-" operation, and has entrifugal force.
4'-"? ahaabera) rfiian throx tho abrasive by~~ ?~
~' a coneumea very much poxer, and is also harm-
6 ~-; ?- of oaating
~t~Sand-shot het cleanin8
-.?, ilii it^taal i.;lv ~ivw}ruiiti. Ji iiiuiib'rr'id'+. ~~~ :?r?C? ~' iL w w~l"n1 v bpin.?. diaDlace
shot-al.inging, xith centrifugal aPPlicabion of
~ `~' by other methods of cleaning -
the abrasive, and by the hydraulic method.
:~--,
t ~ ...;~
- TtiE HEI,TING OF CAST IRON (Bib1.1G,25,61,~+D)
i J .-.?
F'~uv-aces for Helt~*+~ Cast =I'cn
v'."
wing main factors:
folio
Tho selection of the typo of melting unit to obtain liquid iron depends on the
1) Chetaical composition, superheat temperature, and Purpose of the metal;
2) Conditions of operations of the shop;
3) volume of output;
4) Weight of castings;
5) Source of thermal energy, etc.
Hodern foundries vse the follo*dn8 types of
iLrnacos for melting iron: cupo~
~`~- aces electric furnaces,
furnaces, reverberatory Earn ,
~i~y arc and induction,
electric furnace (the so-
J . _~_
_ cupola itirnaces in con3unction xith a reverbera ory or
i i' --
J~_.called dual or duplox process).
The principal melting unit
everytirhere used in iron founding, is the cupola, a
,.,_ ._.
A Russian invention of the 18 Century
'
~1
~
?, ,._._.
.~
tG_princi
_s
4 E'
Rex Hateriala Uaed in Helt
The charge smtsriala.
Se~lilao rerelt) (COST 4832'49,
The metallic charge consists
of pig iron (sometimes
tr833-49, 4834-49, 805-49, k831-49;
'~~~Ci~!'I'fI 3432-53; ~ 3431'53), ~'?n ~'d 'tool scrap (COST
;y,, i~?r.returns (risers, gates, spoiled castings,
al]o7si
+G~ folloKing~-aPPro~~"ratio of the individual caeponents:
278?-54), various
3433-53;
shavings) observing the
pig iron 20-40~; ir'on
STAT
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. ~'t
4y
sera and foundry returns, "?~0=6076; steel 4crap up to ~, ~ Ferro-a11oYa according.
P
to ealeul.ation. The ?eta113a charge suet be properly preparod bofore melting.
b~ V Fuel. The fuel used for cupola furnicea is foundry coke, (GOST 33k~-k9),
4 - foundry anthracite (c;osr 18-G9) uid head ~g anthracite.
"^~ These"trpea of fuels map be rep7.acediby the following subetitutos: Blast-
1
t~ ~ tarmacs coke (G0.ST 513-54; ~Dll+'S3; 3132-46), peat coke, charcoal.
~' ^'~ The fuel for revesrberatory furnaces Consists of various kinds of brown coal
+ V~ and coal, as well as mazut (CAST 1501-Sz)? Vaz'ious fuel gases may be utilized as a
~~-~ the cu la or reverberatory furnaco. The Principal
aouree of heal in melting in Po
t~ ,'properties of fuel are given in Volume I, page 529?
;~ tits o n-hearth slag, are usod
Fluxes. Limestone, doloaito, fluorspar, spa , Pe
-~~~'aa fluxes in smelting iron. The Host widely used and cheapest fluxes are limestone
and open-hearth slag.
"`~_ The primary unction of fluxes is to convort into slag the ash of the fuel and
^~non-meta113c rsaterials included in the charge, as well as the products of oxidation
-- of the furnace.
of the melt and of the welted lining
-_ Refractories. For lining the working space of cupolas and reverberatory fur-
and 3272-46)
maces, grog brick of refractoriness not leas than 1670?C (COST 390-54
~~.--: 1?as and 11u~naces with a basic lining, magnesite brick or
__is mainly used. For cupo
r-?-
__.atabilized dolooito brick is used.
__
t :> ,?leltinR Iron in Cupolas
. The design of cupolas. The cupola is an ordinary shaft countercurrent furnace.
.,~ ss between lumps of fuel in the
'.`~ The molten iron and the sLg that fa formed, pa
t~~_
~-~r~coke bed, sad accumulate, until taPPed, in the well or the breast.
5t`~ .The cupola is the only welting unit that allows the continuous melting of
S sstal for many hours of foundry p~roductlon.
--~ L furnaces varies widely according to their
{.~~.~--. The-hourly-produotivity?of cupo
disKisions -tbe character of the raw ~oaterials, the quantity of air supplied, and
r6 ,
7$
STAT ~~,~ ~
I
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.the dealgn. Table 28 gives the chara,ctoristics of cupola furnaces.
Hain indexes of iron melting in cupola. Coke bed height, 600-1000 mn above the
bottoo row of tuyeres; coke charge height, ]30-150 Tan; consumption of coke per ton
of Tetallic charge, fray 10 to ltd; consumption of flux, from 25 to 35~ the weight
of coke; air blast pressure from 400 to 1000 rae of water; quantity of air per square
peter of cupola cross section in base belt 100-150 m3/Thin; temperature of superheat
of iron 1350-1b1a0?C. Nith a blast containing added oxygen, the temperature reaches
1500?C; the temperature of the stack gasps over the coke bed is 400-500?C; ratio of
CO2 to CO in exhaust gases from 50-50 to 70-30; time spent by metallic charge in
cupola furnace from moment of charging to melting, 25-45 ~n?
Pt~ysico-chemical features of the process of melting iron in the cupola furnace.
The main source of host for melting and superheating the iron in the cupola furnace
_is the combustion of the o~q~gen of the fuel, which follows the following reactions:
C+Pz~~~
C + 02 ~ C02;
CO + ~QZ ~ CO2.
Together with the reactions of o~ddation of the carbon of the fuel, which takes
place with the liberation of heat, the reaction of reduction of the carbon dioxide
gas by carbon, ~3th the formation of carbon monoxide, also takes place in the cupola.
The cupola may be divided arbitrarily into four zones, according to the char-
acter of the process of interaction between the carbon of the fuel and the oxygen
of the blast. The following processes take place in the several zones of the cupola.
1) Kell zone. There are practically no processes of oxidation. The gas phase
~~--t
-~~~coneiata aain]y of carbon monoxide. The liquid phase consists of metal and slag,
~~
-ythe solid phase, of incandescent coke.
>2-?~
2) The oxygen zone (local+:d above the tuTerea). Intense combustion of fuel.
;~_1 _.__ ...._ __.... _
-The gas phase eonsiate of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ox3rgen, and nitrogen.
i ~~' ..
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-~ Table 28
prinoipsl Characteristics of Cupolas (Bib1.3)
* Tthhe 1.argerrvalueaato such tfurnacesaxit~ aces~xitro-r systea of tuyeres res,
dote. When the cupola furnace is operating with a blast enriched by up to 30~
of oxs*gen, the relative productivity reaches ltheofo hrmula F m2. Tp.3 Foss.
section areas of the tu3rores is dotormined by tuy cup
The Stella for a cupola furnace are built with a capacity of half an hour to
one hour of its productivity.
-.a- Index; b- Cupola Ho.; o- * Hourly productivity in tons; d- Inside diameter of
:'~ _.?
- shaft in plane of tvyeres, in tom; o- Qutside diameter of shell, in ~-; f- Consume-
r,.; _ I
Poxer of fan motor, ~ HP; h- Diameter of air duct mm;
--~ tior. of air in m3/min; 6-
~~~.~ t of charge, a xithout well; k- b) with well.
--- i- Total rtsigh in tons; 3- )
i~~~
~~~ The iron is ralten.
50_ 3) Ths reducing zone. The reaction of redaction of carbon cii.oxide by carbon,
`'~ with formation of carboa~sotioxide, becomes yrideapread. The iron, heated in the
~"~ ~-, lourth? zone; hare-melts. - ..
~ of fuel
~~-~a?-----l~) The-zone of preparation and preheating of the charge. Preheating
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~a'~?- ~ - oducte -~aiid ~coeabuation, dolid -metal
`~'~~`=~=;.-~-. ~ . C ~ metal ahirga. Chemical-interaction bet Teen pr
s ~rt~..~,-~" J
~~.~-~~~~ 2 ehar~e, and fuel. Dissociation of the liy~eatone. _ _,? _
_t ~~ i,~: , ..
? ~ t
ether with the melting of iron in ;eupoLe, a high superheat of the iron moat,
'`~~ ~?~~ ~ '~ To
g
? ' ~ de ee of
- 6 faatora assuring the production of a high' gt'
., also be~attained. The principal i
? ~ t-~ P the ?...wwF~~~r ?P ~iw f^rC!'d into
superheat are the fncreasa (up to certain ? ?._-?ta) o. -,---. --,
~~ the?cnpola, and the increased conaumption'of fuel; the increase in the strength and
y;~, Y , .
~~z ~?...
eosobuatibility of the fuel; the utilization of coke of optimum size; the preparat on
~~- ' ,
~~ ~
~;~ w i
? _' su rheatin the blast air; conditioning the
~~'~!ature of over 1420?C ~Y bo obtained), pe 8
--~
iy ~',blaat air; proper preparation of the motel charge, and a literal conduct oft e
~~ __~ added o~ggen.
. __ melting process; melting xith the blast air containing
3?~ j
'"'~ During the process of melting the iron in the cupola, its chemical coaposition
,,- " ^'changea. Aa a result of this, some of the elements of the iron are burned out, -rhile
y
? ~~ ~ the content of others is increased. As a rule, the content of iron, silicon, and
~~. ~ ~~~ manganese in the metal are reduced during the process of melting.
~~ '
+ ?tt '
~"~ ? ? ? ~ ~ ~ '' ~"~ The most unfavorable factors area considerable increase in the sulfur' conten
~ .. '. ~ ~
'~ ?'~ ''~ ~~ ~~~ _ryof the metal, and a certain relatively stsall increase in phosphorus.
~? ~ ~ _~` . ?~, ~ that the sulilu' and phosphorus con-
~i._ k - .- ~si'_ ' - '
x t ~_, it is only in cupolas xith a basic lining
~. '` ~';~?~ _ tent can be reduced ursdfsr certain conditions of melting.
d a number of factors.
y/ The variation ih the carbon content depen s on
~~
_ ,~,' the ocess of cupola
The.factora favoring the increased carbon content during pr'
.
? ~~ ~'of the coke for the heat and its classification (in this ray an iron tapping temper-
~-'-?-{ tem nature increased consumption of
_.roelting are as folloxa: increase in melting pe ,
~<
_a.'coke, increased manganese content, high xell, lox content of carbon in the metal
i 6 --#
_.charge, and basic furnace lining.
~~~~~?'? ~ The factors tending to reduce the carbon content in the remelted iron are as
r~~t w~~ - r n j ~ ontent high
c
,
'mss ~ ~~folloxa: addition of steel scrap to the charge, increased s con
-- ~ - !initial carbon content. _
~,? . . -
t.~_..._.._.._._.-....~_ _.. __.~_..._,..-.._. ._
~;~~?~~ ~ The o~ddation losses of silicon, std ~anganeae rill be the greater, the higher
STAT
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.tom cones t ation of these elements in the instal charge. Tho value of tho relative
~~; ~ 0.
-~ ~- ~,_ ?~ aaeae, deponding on the conditions of
'~~' oxidatiaa losses of iron, silicon,. and muig
!,g 4 ~ the quality of the fuel, and the other condition, is as
ltina, the ihrnace linir-8, _ -
- ..... silicon lA-3d9~; ?g~-eae, 15-1-0~?
~ follows. iron, 0.~-].~; ?
t3 to elovated losses of these elements are a lox
The primary factors leading
t0 tion esenco of a considerabU quantity
Belting teaperature, decreased fool consunp , Pi'
tZ_+
~o! iron oxides in the metal charge. the suli~u'
'T~ De nding cn the sul.hu' content of the fuel during cupola melting,
Pe
tb--~ increase by 50-100?
_,content in the iron may
t8 ~
The factors leading to increased sulilu' content in the iron include xork
!4 _"' Pine sizes of fuel, lox melting teaperature, high
-with high-aulftu' fuel, using
~>
sells, and excessive height of the coke bed.
~,~ ! the high melting tem-
._.. The saturation of the iron by sulilir is counteracted by
'~~ a heated blast), increase of the
`" "`-" n enriched or pr -
-perature (operation on an ox3rge
~ 3___
Lanese content in the iron, as well as by increase of carbon and silicon,
'`~--~ o ations with basic furnace lininE and
--crease of manganese dioxide in the slag, Pte'
. -basic slags, increased lump-size of coke, forced operation of cupola.
`'i-- os onus of the metal charge passes completely
_~ In the ordinary cupolas, the ph ph
'~--~ ido is present in the fluxes and slag,
--over into the metal. If phosphorus anhydr
~'~"~' saes into the metal.
-?about 5~ of it is reduced and likewise pa
#`~--~ in cu las xith a basic 1;ni ~ xith
.--i The phosphorus content can be reduced only Po
~:~_; such molting con-
- i cold run of the melting and a low silicon content in the peak,
'+ ~:..~?
-~-`ditions are inexpedient.
35.._.i amounts to about 6-10$
_--~ SLg is a by-product of the cupola. The weight of slag
4II~-1 ala is formed as a result of the
- of the weight of the metal to be remelted. Cupola B
SU
S`' interaction of the fluxes with the wddea and the impurities: oxides of iron, s
ele'enta
~ "'icon and manganese forged as a result of tho~burn-off of the corresponding
-
~
r._..._.--~---~-._......... -__._._. ~
,
about 2x the weight of the metal), the oxides from the disintegrated lining (
STAT
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A cupola aoid slag usually contains about 5O~ of silica, 25~ of calcium oxide,
15{of alumitla, acid 74 of iron~oxidea. Thai baeic~elag contains about 35$ of silica,
8....j `
~45x of calcium oxides, 10~ of magnesia, ?,~ of alumina, and other substances.
the ispuritio? introduced frith tho metil~c2iarge (up to 2K), ariii~ tho !`uel ash up to
Design features of special cupola furnaces. Cupolas with preheated well. Cupolas
~
~~~;;with a troll usually yield iron at a temperature 50 to 100?C lower than the sage
~.,~eupolaa xithout a Drell under similar conditions. In order to compensate for the low-
!o
Bring of the iron temperaturo, wells heated by mazut, pulverized coal, or gas, or
~ "1
18~.~
_~heated by an electric current, may be used.
2 l~ ~:
-1 One variety of the ordinary cupola furnaces is a coabination of the cupola with
_~a hearth, heated :+y high i7requency currents.
2. ~..
Cupolas with soveral rows of tuyeres. Cupolas with two or three roxs of tu-
__yerea operate more eeonoeiicallq than thoso with only a single roe+.
~' `~---
_, Cupolas operating under a blast with added ox98en. Such cupolas differ little
~~~ '
-.fin design from the normal typos. Thoy era equipped with apparatus for supplying
.? _
__oxygen, the source of which may bo the gasification of licuid oxygen, oxygen gas ob-
i ~~ ___ i
_.tained directly from an ox3rgen plant, or oxygen from cylinders. Oxygen may be intro-
_.
yy--`duced into the cupola together with the air or separately, by means of pipes irt-
3 u--?
--`aerted in the tuyere openings.
Iron at a temperature of about 1500?C may be produced in cupolas with oxygen
added to the b].t~st air, which is very important for turning out malleable, modified,
44~ .
' 'synthetic, and other apeei.al. types of cast iron. Such cnpolaa trere first introduced
46~
~$~into founding on a large scale in the USSR industry.
It a high degree of superheat is required in a certain part of the metal. melted
and in .part the carbon, a rery high motel;temperature can be obtained. Such metal
S
by the cupola, oxygen mty be used. for blowing through the iron. in the breast or the
5 ~ '
troll.-In this case, o~ to the reactions of oxidation of the silicon, manganese
S~l_ ..,_..__~._._._.__ _._.. _~._. _...__ ~ _... _
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' ?, ? 2rr6~; sulfur, 0-5~? The content of iron in the iaet?1
p? ; y~anea ,
~s~--~ n, 2o=s~
~ When rotary reverberatory furnaces are used the oxidnt~.on lessen
tincreasas?s?b-y 1=?.~?
~'-'}or the elements are s~exhat loxer. ces
~d,datipn during a heat in reverberatory Earns
6~~..- ?.~--- ~
{ fie, total lose of 'material in ~dation losses of
- aid charge. yields the following
t~---~ A heat on a ~q
_.saonnta to 4 ?~? ~ ~g~eso, 5-~? Th? s~con, ~osPhorus,
~~ the elements of the iron: carbon, 15-~i
~ ~~and sulititr are practically unchanged.
~ ~, __Melt in Electric Flu`naces ade ~,l.oyed, lox-carbon and
cos are used ~ cases xhere a high gr
~`"_A Electric Earns
?+ lox aulitu' iron with a high superheat temperature is requiz'ed
aid charge. The
ither a solid or a liq
?~`
an electric mace can use e
~"` A heat in
- is more economical and is mere often used (tha iron is first melted
~?,_latter method and capacity
_ a cu ],a). For melting iron, electric arc furnaces xith an acid lining
Po D~4C maces, of capacity from
used. Less often, the type
,~-up to 10 tons are mostly
? used for producing n?nferrous castings, and
0.25 ~ 0.5 ~ 1 ton, xhich are usually to 4.0
enerator, of capacity up
duction furnaces xith a motor E
_._high frequency ~ are less often used
_:_Ytons, or xith a vacuum-tube generator, of capacity up to 60 kB,
~.
_~ for melting ircn? ives the smallest o~dda-
_< Features of the heat. A heat in an electric furnace B
~.:--? her than with aTMy other
quality of the mcstal produced is hig
;{~ Ttion loss, of metals Th? a in a tri-
tifeT when melting on a liquid charg
:~}_ metal. The consusPtion of electric Po
ce amounts to 130- KY~ Pte' ton of metal. 4It-en a solid charge is
,.;_'phase arc Earns
folloxs:
~ Lion of electric power is as
~L~uaed, the consusp
? _~
_r
48~
[Ay
~.iphase arc
1.5 ton
~ ton
Consumption of
electric power
5600 ycw-hr/ton
525-575 "
r
~S~STAT
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;~.+~- ~.
x
~~~
i~Q35: ??~,.,._._y.......,_
~?1'~f
fs ~!
~6 y
--- ?~ ?c
Ca cit Ar .. ._____
Nrnaca ~ ~~ ~ -
1
consumption or
electric po~.~ar
_
_
-_ 5 - ~
ton -- -__ 4w .., ~_.__--_
- 450-500 k~-hr~ton
0.25-1
~ ton
~-6~ "
10-30
~ kg
~-l~ "
60
k6
?00-800 "
100
kg
~-~ "
??i._,naces Kith a basic lint ~ 5-10 of silicon and 10-15 of the manganese is lost by
~~?
~.I
:~.. In i~u7saces xith a basic lining, tho consumption of electric poorer, is 30-b0
t
~~'_.2CWH higher than in furnaces Kith an acid lining. The o~ddation loss in heats in arc
_!
2 ,--'11u~rsaces Frith an acid lining is 5-lOp for carbon and 15-20 for manganese. In fur-
8
IBC type rurnace
10,
? High frequency with
1.1 ~ Pacumn-tube generator
~? _, High i~equency, xith
motor generator
16 --: -
The name
19 ~
^ ^ oxidation.
3.~,~ In high-frequency furnaces, up to 5~ of the carbon is lost by oxidation, up to
_: _10;>d or the silicon, and up to 10~ of the manganoso. The total oxidation loss does
.'s4 ttot exceed ~3p. With a liquid charge, the oxidation loss is practically unnotice-
-i
~~--8ble.
3=--i The duration or a heat in basic furnaces is 30-40 minutes longer than acid fur-
ti~-nacea.
+~~eltino or Malleable Cast Iron
'~'~-~ The process of melting ,in the production of ferrite malleable cast iron is de-
--~termii~ed by the content of the principal elemQnts, carbon, silicon, and manganese.
4b~
48.
.5,2.~3.2~; ailican, 0.9-1.45; manganese, 0.35-0.6~.
5%
optiatum ceapob~ition of the iron used in USSR industry is as folloxs: carbon,
e
The content of sulfiu' and pisoaphorus~is held Kithira minimum and practically
? a
S`~~~ttainabla Baits;~~,aultbr~-0.06-0.15~i Phosphorus, 0.06-0.15$. .
The-allosin~t~?elements,--chromium and nickel, are present in the malleable cast
STAT
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p __ -.......~-
~~,ron ao univoidable asaociatas in quantities not exceeding 0.1~ for nickel and
. 0.06-O.OT~ Tor ohraaium.
r-- -
' 'Irons Frith a higher chromium content than those indicated above are unsuitable
cess
d
t
.
pro
e
~ for the production of ferrite malleable cant iron by the usually adop
.. ! a A. 4-b?G~
Blas~~unace ferrosilicon marks FS-1 and FS-2
e most 3zaportant condition for obtaining 10'' carbon iron from the cupola is
Th assure the assip~ed
the selection oY a design and operating conditions that xi].1
intense m?lting and superheat of thcs iron.
carbon content of the iron, the content of air suPP~cd to the
is assured by increasing
Intense melting and consequently al3O re-
cupola. This also reduces the carbon content of the metal,
penetration by carbon.
c}uces retal . of melting increases, with de-
At aconstant air consumption, the intensity
coke consumption, ti+hi1Q the carbon content of the metal is also loY^sred.
creasing en allows
The design of the cupola, to Preheat the air and enrich it with oxyg ,
the intensity of melting.
cutting the fuel consumption and increasing
constant consumption of coke and air, the carbon content of the petal varies
At netration
~,~e1y r+ith the carb'~n content of the charge. The relative metal Pe
:: .. sed b carbon increases with the reduction of the carbon content a desi n s maY
eau Y 1 gn
of the existing cupo
:~~;--. In order to turn out lot. carbon irons, ~'
~ ,,"-"~ g only its hearth P~'t to d~i,nish the carburization of the 1.14ui-d
?? -be used, modif3~
~, ~ -~iaeta7-? out lorr carbon
The modification of the crown p~'t of the cupola for turning
~ `'--~ ton of the hearth,
_~ in the complete elimina i,
on consists of the folloxinB st?ps' a)
r.
hU_., c the tuyeres at the level of the solef b) in the considerable reduction o
~ lacement of part of the coke in the
the rep
54 he height of the hearth; and c in cement of the
the coaplote rep7~a
as--heated cupolas,
~~--' earth by a refractory plug. ~ g
material is possible.
. ~?~ coke?bed?in the hearth b3r'the refractory
56_? __-- thods swat wide],}' used are the reduction in the height of the hearth and
,fie ~ STAT
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 Declassified in Part -Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/04/16 :CIA-RDP81-010438001900100002-4
1 ? -~. ~~ C' 2tueber of tuyerea in first row ~
thndier of tuyeres in second rox 9
? ~~~~~
~~ _ . _ .
Croaa section of tuyeres in first row, tan ~ x 120
G~ -- --
(.doss section of tuyeres in second raw ; 70 x 100
r~s 0.325
Total cross section of tuyerea, m2
10
__~ Ratio of croea section of cupola to cross section of tvycres 7 1
~~_- Blast air consumption in tuyeres, m3/hour ~,~ #
Pressure of blast air at tuyores, ism meter 700
r:~ ---
Coke consumption per ton of :iron, in kg 130-140
Temperature of aetal at taphol@, in ?C 1390-1410
The cupola is equippod with a rotary mixer of ?-$ tons capacity. The charge
_ consists of 20~ of foundry iron I.1:-00 +~; 40-45 of carbon and low-alloy steel scrap;
and 40-35 of foundry returns. The cupola iron product contains 2.8-2.QN carbon;
~~:__0.?-0.9~ silicon; 0.35-0?i,p ranganeae; 0.1-0.12~ sulfur; 0.15-0?~ phosphorus; up to
?~' .-_0.0?~ chromium.
_ 3.T,$ of blast-furnace ferrosilicon, and apatite-rep.`:eline ore as required, is
:.__addc-d to the cupola.
..._ The cupola operates with an open slag hole. A t~-pical slag composition is:
~~.~-50~ Si02; 20~ A103; Sa CaO; l~ HgO; ~ Fo203; and 1~ P203.
The cupola is operated in two shifts of continuous operation.
Tho iron is uniformly collected from the cupola xith a ladle of 1.25 tor. capac-
'l~--ity and is routed to the electric furnaco, in which it is usually superheated to
~~-520-1560?C and brought up to 2.5-2.7~ carbon, to 0.9-1.1~ silicon, Frith the othor
~S-='sleisnts held at the level already givon for cupola iron. For this purpose up to
* The ma~daaam slow of the airblast is 20,000 m3/hour, pressure 1600 tan of water.
+~ Itr-id-aesilil-to--add pig of marks LK-0 to IX-1} with an~ appropriate addition of
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 '0. of b5l~ ferrosilicon, up to 0.25 of ?5~ forromanganose, itnd lox carbon stool
~acrap is added to the electric furnace.
The specifications of tho oloctric furnaces are as follows:
Capacity o~ furnace in tons
10
10
15
Productivity of furnace in tons/hour
15
15
15
wer in Kid
T~aneformer po
2000
2000
7800
Xorking voltage
lor+
1z0
log,
Diameter of shell in ffn
30b0
32~
3300
Diameter of electrodes, in mm
350
350
350
Consumption of oloctric powor in
175#
l~
~NH,/ton
120
The furnaces are lined xith an acid refractory, dinar, xith repair of the slope
once a day. A typical composition of the slag is as follows: 70p Si02; 10~ A1203;
_10.0 Fe203; 3.0~ ~: ~, traces.
_' The life of tho furnace lining is about 100 days of contiiruous operation. The
. i~tal is tapped uniforaly l5rom the 11u-naco in 1-ton ladles. The metal in the ladle
4_ is deo:ddized by adding 0.02 of alumina. From the tapping ladle the iron is repour-
,__ed into casting ladles of 100-250 1=8 capacity, and is then poured into the molds.
This process assures stablo production of malleable cast iron of tensile
~-.strength not leas than 35 kg/mm2 and elongation not less than 10~ with ~h~at-treat-
;.,,
--sent cycle of 72 hours for castings of cross sectional diameter up to rsa?
~:'._._~
_~~' The duplex process using a cupola with silicate bed and an oloctric furnaco,
3 'r__ .,
--intomobilo building. A cupola of productivity 10-12 tons/hour has the follo~ g
46_} .
-specifications:
~ 8~
lo-lz
54~; Productivity, tons/hour
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vq
~. ~
~~ ~
~'~ i*' t
~~_
~
Diaieter of oupola at throat, in stn
Cro~~ s~o~ioeal. area of cupoL, s2
- -
Useful height, in IeAI
1400
1~~//.~~4/3~~
Jw~
.-
. ;,~
b~ ~ -..~.~--
Nu^iber of first rox tuyarea
6
q ~
..~
6
_~
Nu~ber of second rox LuJerea
~
,.
,...~,
i
115 x 350
_W,
t ` ...
n ass
Cross section of first rox tuyerea,
65x115
_'
Cross-section of second rox tujrares, in mm
_,
Ratio of cupola cross section to cross section
6 1
t~ _,
~,: ~_.
of tuyeres
Blast air tc tuyerea in m3/hour
9b00-10700
r, __,
Praaaure of blast air at tuyerea in mm of xater
750-900
Iwvel of silicate bed from lower edge of tuyerea in mm
220
Height of bed Eros lower edge of first rox of
tuTarea, in a~
Haight of bed in kg
Height of aetallie bed, in kg
i~Teight of coke charge in kg
Weight of limestone in kg ~
__. Ketal tesparature at taphole in ?C 13b5-1390
__.~ The arrangesent of the silicate bed is dictated by the necesaitp of maintaining
.? a anfficient layer of coke on its surface to assure the melting of the residues of
__attal and to p??eneat the cooling of the liquid iron.
__` - ~ f f dr
iron of mark I.K-0 13-354 of carbon and
2
y
3 0 oun ,
-ge consists of
? - lo~alloy steal scrap, and 40-454 of foundry returns. The cupola iron contains
~~ _~
_`.5-2.bx carbonZ 0.9-1.2t silicon; 0.3-0.4x ~8~eae; 0.1?f-0.15x phosphorus; and
.s ~.~
---AOt,sore thaw 0.06-0.14 of chrosiua. 2.484 of blast-furnace ferrosiliaon and terro-
o~phorus ars added, if nicessary, to~the~cupola. Ths cupola operates xith an open
+r~slaa bola. ?ba ragiae of operatioa of the cupola is in txo shifts of continuous op-
-~irstion.
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The speeifieationa of the electric furruce are as folloxa:
Capacity of furnace in tons
Productivity of furnace in tons
iv
12-1-3
Transformer power in Ktif
2500
i~torking voltage
~
Disaster of shell in mm
3000
Diawetsr of elactrodea in mm
~
Conaimptian of electric power in KW/ton
~
The furnace is lined with an acid refractory, dinaae, xith repair of the slope
once a day. The metal is poured from the furnace unifnrm~y in 1 ton ladles, flroa
which, by weans of pouring ladles of 200-100 kg capacity, the metal is poured into
the solda. On removal from the electric furnace, the metal is deoxidized in the
ladle by adding 0.02$ of alumina.
This process assures the production of iron of considerably higher quality,
tdth a tensile strength of 3??4 kg/mm2, xith an average elongation of 15.6, and a
heat-treatment cycle of 55-b0 hours.
The duplex p?~ocbaa using a cupola and reverberatory furnace (in agricultural
' - aachine building). The melting of the iron by the duplex process is done in a cupola
~`_~
-of productivity 5-6 tone/hour, followed by transferring the metal direct] into a
.?t {1. 1
?--~rahortened reverberatory furnace xith lorered arch, xith a bath of capacity 10-11+
{:,,_1
t
'tons. The composition of the cupola iron is distinguished by an elevated 'content of
. ~..ia_.___._ .............._, ,.__~_.__ _ .
?---carbon sad silicon, as is given above. In the reverberatory furnace, the iron is
_! The iron is uniformly collected Eros the cupola ~rl,th a 1 ton ladle and is routed
._ f
~~ unto an el~etrie furnace, in which it is superheated to 1$15-1525?C, and the coapoai-
..
~ _:
?~tion of the eleNnta in it is brought up to 2.4-2.59 of carbon; to 1.2-1.35 silicon;
c?~~~to 0.35-0.45 ~a~eaes saintainin6 the remaining elements at the sass level as in
;the cupoL iron. For this purpose, up to O.t~ of k5p fnrrasil.ican, ~.d Lp to 0.3K of
~751< ferras~anganeae and lows-carbon steel scrap is added to the furnace.
,~
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STAT
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~~.2~ ~silicoa; up to 0.4-0.5x ~dansee; up to 0.12 phosphorus, and up to 0.7.E
superheated to 1SOOoC and is brought to a content of up to 2.45-Z?65~ carbon; up to
`-'srliln'
,~'" Tfie oiddatioa loss of. carbon in~the 11u'nace incrsaaaa Frith the superheat temper-
8~
attire aAd with the iron oadde content of the slag. The cupola burns 8.9-10.6 of coke
LQ~
r toe of aetal charge. Tha consuwption of fuel oil in the ilu~nace is 9.5 to 10~,
.~
~? ids ndina on the voluse of production.
Pe
Betore the iron is charged, the 1lirnace is heated to 1300-]1a00?C (in 1+0-60 min-
ty utes) attar which the metal is introduced under the taphole. The hourly productivity
~~-j d iron. The heat in the cupola is completed first,
of the unit is 6-6.5 tone of liqui
:,`J~
r~ is the following hours the natal remaining in the furnace is poured.
- The iron is tapped 1~'on the cupola at 1340-7,365?C. It is discharged tram the
~Y_.firnace at 1390-1415?C? ~'~8 the process of anperheating the iron in the reverber-
+_atory furnace a thin surface layer of metal is wddized, and as a result the carbon
y_ content in the following portions of iron discharged from the furnace is sharp]~y
~,_ _
_lowered.
_Special Processes in I{eltino pj],].eable Cant Iron.
J ice.-;
lihite iron, with a alight increase of the chromium content above the opt
_,
~~__
~ralue (0:05-0.0'T~) is entirely unsuitable for the production of ferrite malleable
;? ~
' ~ cast iron. The ehrod.~ retards particularly strongly the process of graphitization
~--in both stases o! annealing, sad the coaplate disaoeiation of both the structurally
~~~#
~t~ee and the eutectoid casntita is not accomplished.
48-4. established that a alight addition of boron to
It has bean experiaental]ar hilly
SO - lea of the usual
hrcaiuw iron assures its ~aphitisation daring annealing c7c
~"
--duration. 'fie aaounts of boron added depends on the chre~~ content of the iron sad
5d _-....V....____ .__. ...
-~ra~ oa 0.OO7t0.003x of the reight of the liquid metal.
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~'~Table~30 gi'~e the cowpositions of white cast iron and the additions of boron
~saary to produce blaok-heart s~al.].eabli cast iron !rave it.
'_
-~?~
Table 30
-
-~
`'~
b Y
- ~
Chewical AnalJraie of 1~ihite Iron, in ~
_~~`
B ~
Addition of
_
boron,
C .~
P
S
~,
g
in ~
~,~ _~
C
Si
~
08
0.001
0.002
~=
,. _
z.63
1,01
0.35
0.1
?'~
0.
0
~
o.ooz
o.004
-
,~;?~
2.7z
1.12
0.34
0.09
?'~
,
15
0
0.003
0.006
?
~ ~--
2.65
1.06
0.34
0.09
0.12
.
?+, ? ' is added by throwing a
"-? the crushed forts (gramme size 1 3 ~)
gerroboron in ce. The
i _?. it from the electric furna
~ _packsae on the bottos of the ladle before fillin8
? "~ f~oboron is added at the sage tis-e as the alumna
s xith ~ elevated chraaium content, modified
_ T'he use of a gate wade of casting
heats.
' does not giro unfavorable results for the following
~ ~ by boron, oducing ferrite
~,~. ! -~ ~g~se-wodified white iron is used in the process of PQ'
4 ~ Brent the aegi'egation of graphite in the cross sections of
= yoalleabls cast iron to pr line produc-
-~," ~ e-aeries and assembly
w*+~, t~~ued eaatinga. Under the condition of larg
~; - ~ the molds with iron melted in a single melting
~,~ `- tion, this measure allows po~ing
.~ ,.---
~?t' von above, the
- ~ ~-~ the du ex process gi
~" ~ Under the conditions of welting iron by ~ ~~ mm ~ sectional thick-
, ,' _--?production of high-gx'~e white cast iron foot castin8
saible by increasfn8 the manganese content to 0.5-~0.6~?
--boss is wads po
+~~--+ anaae of mark Hn-1 or Kn-2 is used. Its aaaiwi-
_,.~ got wodification, 757 f~'?~T~ at ?5~?
.~~~,
--+~ity depe~s on the wars of wetal in the ladle and fa takenth vestal, in tba ford
~ anise is added to the ladle before fillin8 it wi
-Tt-e ferrc~ana aness coa-
anules. The codification with wanaanese to increase the rang
- , ? ' Hof 1-3 ~_R' ,-~.._ -~ ---- -. ..- -. the oduction of pearlite
' , . " -~~ to 0.8-1.?,X ie also practiced in P~'
"~~ `"w~" tent in whits cast iron -
~~~~ r ~r, iF _ ._ ...... . ... .. .- .-. _
-:,,;~~ STAT
a~ ~-
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_brot~tt up to ].x and over.
`~. phosphorus i? introduced in the forte of high-content
_,tioa to the Ladle,' the phosphorus content of the iron tna,
G .,~,Y..-_. _
ALl the above enuttterated eletiwnta, in alti.ttg large quantities of alloyed
~ ^ --~
___w be expediently added directly to the charge. To produce relatively small quanti-
t ~~ ~_
ties of alloyed cast iron, it is expedient to add these elements to the ladle, or,
__ The best effect of atp modification is obtained Then the metal is melted in
cupolas operating on a blast with added o~grgen, or on a hot blast. The modification
._fa also auccesaitil when the iron is directly treated with oxygen (in the we21 or
.,
__.iron being produced, and ranges from 0.4 to 1.2~ of the weight of tho iron (in cal-
r,..> _ i
eulating for ferrosilicon of mark Si ?5) ? Smaller amounts of additive used in
~,_
_..producing lower grade cast iron and larger aaounta are used in producing higher
~5~:
made cast iron. With large additions of aodifiers, the superheat of the iron moat
4a,~~
--be hitter. '
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!1~ P a~i t ~ -of Grinding of the modifier varies. For small ladles of 50 kg ea-
t - ' additions aatat range free 2 to 5 ~; f~'
paciL7i,-tha grain-size of the modifying
~~ lOD kg ladl,as, 5 to 10 a, and for still larger ladles, from 10-20 mm.
~ Tbe~b~st structure and mechanical properties of the iron are obtained xhea it
~~
~: fig pad xithin txo to fire minutes after the and of the interaction betxaen t e
!~ ~agdii~ing additions and the liquid Iron.
be obtained by mixing ordinary liquid gray iron
1 6 - r
_f High.strength cast iron may
1; --:
~~xith liquid low-silicon iron. Hodification, either by lox-silicon iron or by mo ten
t~=--; eves the mechanical properties of cast iron.
_}ferroalloys, very effectively imps
t~ _; the a tization of iron, it is
-_ Together xith the use of modifiers causing ~' Phi
~1~-w' modifiers which are added to strengthen mild gray cast
-_~poasible to use atiabilisin8 ,
., ,
-~~ a tization are used as modifiers.
_limn. In thin case eleasnts inhibiting g=' Phi
2:--~ aodifiers such as ferroailicon, ferrochromium,
--~resulta are obtained from stabilizing
2:~; __.! i.n the mixture.
~'or copper containing 159 silicon, 25~ chranium and 30~ of copper
~~
_,This modifier is used in an amount of about 1~ of the metal.
a~-.`, a to is produced by modification of
__' High-strength cast iron with rounded gr phi
~'`?~ xith subsequent or simultaneous tnodifica-
_'eaat iron xith magnesium or its alloys,
;~:~_- ocess is lilce-
A feature of this pr
--:tion by silicon (ferroailicon) or ailicocalcium.
3`'--+ rheat of the iron (11+0a-1t+50~~)? The
--`xise the necessity for having a sui'ticient sups
~`=-~ 1~) assures the formation of graphite
-.'sagaeaium reoainin8 in the cast iron (0.01x0.
'~~--~ h stre hand plasticity.
--`of rounded foraa, and yields cast iron of hig ngt
92_,.E eaiua, depending on the method of its intro-
1 The percent of absorption of magn
~-~..~
duction, ranges from 5 to 40. The smallest absorption is observed on utilization of
a6-~ th fora of a rich alloy (with
This method of treating iron not onl~r improrsa a m
50 ~~rr--, ---
th chanical properties but
e
~,e ~smgnesiut ~d the lsrgeat when it is used in e
_."`~also stsarply reduces tine s~~ ~~==~o~~ .-- ---- - - -
Ari axeais of ciagne~ima in cast iron leads to cementite formation on part or all
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s! thi~surfaci, castins cavities, and brittlsnssi.
Trau~aodifi~d frith aagnssiua must bs poured xithout delay, since the effect of
tM aodifieatioa dsorsasss xith the paaaaas of tine, and then disappears entirely.
"` phi aaxiawt ties that the vestal resains in the ladle
itith ladles of up to 100 kg capacity
l~tith ladles of 100 to 5~ kg capacity
~iith ladles of 500 to 3000 kg capacity
ilith ladles of 3~ to 6000 kg capacity
titith Ldlea aver 6000 kg capacity
,_~~ Princiyal Raw Material (Bib1.50,60,8,23,24,59,51)
should not exceed:
3 minutes
5 minutes
10 minutes
15 minutes
20 minutes
The char6e materials in melting steel are coke steelmakers pig iron (COST
;!__
_805-49),
.,
f
ferrous metals (CAST
2787-54),
_:ious blast ibrnace, electrothersal and metallothormal ferroalloys.
charcoal ateeLaker~a pig iron (COST 4831-49), ~8h grade coke and charcoal
.. __,
_;iron (COST 805-49 and 4831-49), aecondatq
i
The ecaposition of the moat ~ridely used ferroalloys is proscribed by (GOST
-~~:L~15-k9) ?
t ~~~_:
s :' ~;
_~~pta~e o~q-gen, are used as oxidizers.
a ~_.,
._i Iron ors gust contain not leas
46_..~ '
of silicon, phosphoc~us, and sul.ilir.
Charts Materials.
iron ore, rust, manganese ore, air, and
than 80~ of Iran oxide, xith a minimum content
Its luap size must be 50-200 mm, its dust con-
tent nat over 10;x, and the ors siust bs dsy.
Rest. Must may be used as an inferior substitute for iron ore. The tireight of
'rust rsgnirsd is srnral bass sore than that of the ors it replaces, and
!Deer o! ooddation is dsL7sd.
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tdanaaneae ore is used when the cementation proceae must be conducted and man-
f_~ ?
_iaaaeae"iii the steel held high. 1~'hen it is used, the carbon cannot be rapidly burned
out. Qwitsg to the high percentage of gangue in manganese ore, it must be concentra-
.y`ted before use in steel founding.
e_
-' Flu~oaa. For the formation of slag both in acid and in basic processes of melt-
~~~ i '
__lit~, tlu~oea nacesaary for the formation of a slag of the assigned composition are
used. Limestone, lime, fluorspar, bauxite, chamotte scrap and Quartz sand are uaod.
Steel for figured casting is melted in converters, open-hearth, electric arc,
;__,aad induction furnaces, by the acid or the basic process. At the same tirse, in steel
-foundries with tsaas production, where an uninterrupted supply of liquid steel is
- required, a duplex or triple process of atoel making is used (cupola, converter,
'. electric furnace).
Table 31 given a short characterization of the processes of melting steel for
shaped founding.
The reaction of the basic process of melting steel is shown under numbers 4,
~ 6-14, 18-2b. The reactions of the acid process of Welting steel are shown by number
- k, b, 8-13, 15-1?, 26-29.
? ---The PhJaicoche=ical Feature of the Proceaa of Steel MalcinR
-- Oxidation of the inpuritiee. The teak of any process of steel production is
,to convert the fetal charged into the furnace into steel of an assigned mark. The
`?-~~caaspoaition of the charge, depending on the type of melting unit, the character of
---'the process, .and on the local conditions, may be varied, within the xideat limits,
~~~~
- -~+troa 1A0;~ of iron to 100 of atesl foundry returns.
,s,~.~.
,,_,"~ After a-elting the metal charge, and after the formation of slag, the character
..-.
jot the processes are detsrmined by the features of the ph~-aieoeheadcal interactions
v~
C~"}takit~ placs between these liquid phases in the high-temperature region. The oxide.-^T
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- ~ hies of the liquid laelel takes place according to reactions 11-13
a~tiaa o! the ice'
e ..~.~_. ~ . _. -
~- Short Characterization of Various processes of Helting Steel for Shaped Castings
~n.~
f
t ~. ?~
.__;
:; ;~_'
~--,c) Acid scrap
~~?--- process
~~
?a ?~
--
._..;III ffiectro-
~ ~?--:-?~} ?i 7 yrgieal
~a) Basic
~~~electric-arc
furnace
~4 ?
Main source Hain source Hain rax
of heat of o~grgen materials
physical heat O~g~ of
of aolten iron
O~ddation of
phosphorus and
carbon
Physical heat O~gen of Converter
of molten iron air iron
OXidatioa of
silicon and
carbon
Hest of
electric arc
products of Steel scrap
coabuation and solid
and iron ore iron
FLnction and
applications
Castings of aver-
age importance,
mostly xith lox
carbon content
Heavy castings of
carbon and alloy
steel xith lox
phosphorus con-
tent
The same Steel scrap Heavy castings of
and liquid carbon and alloy
iron steel with lox
phosphorus con-
tent
products of Steel scrap
cbmbuation
and iron ore
~.~ ~e Steel scrap Thin-xalled cast-
and iron inga of important
function out of
carbon and alloy
steel xith lox
sulfur content
Steel scrap Thin-walled cast-
ings of important
function out of
carbon and
lox-alloy steel
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? ~
' ? !
~ !
G='
,{~ ~'
:.:r1.~.a ~~
' ~ + __.Proces~ Hain source
-~ of heat
d
? ^~ is Induction
-" o) Bas electric
,.,_;~induction current
..~ itirnaces
4 !
1
i : ? -~ The same
,; d) Acid
;induction
_.,' furnace
_ ~ Reactions of Combustion and Oxidation Reactions of Oxidation of Iapurities by
the O~ggen of Ferrous Oxide
t. Cti~+ O! t+) ? CO! t+) ~' fil'>t t 110.
1 ~ co + ~ >pe.
~. COQ ~' ~ O! ~ '~ CO= '~' p 111 t 100.
~ ~-4'"" * ~? 1 q 110 f 100.
~_#
Hain rax Function and
^11-teriala applications
Steel scrap Production of
alloy steel and
alloys xith spe-
cial, physical
properties
The same The same
11.7h0+u ~ i10.+~~+?f/10.
1!. ~A+~ - MAO }!~ t>3~0.
IL Ca0+:+0. ? cssw.+i1~M too.
1~. 71A .. MRilO.? IIM 1000.
1~.~M~Op~~+C ~+x~
h. AGO
2~1. ~ O + A - G~e~ ~1N 0~ 10~.
?. +co ~ r,o. - G,~~lOb + ~ 000.
~. ?~' MA '? M~ +'~~ ells.
s_ 4c,, is recommended.
3 a'"'f~
4'}--~'or a steel casting, h _> 5c. Figure 41a givos the following variations of the allow-
12~able (right) and the recommended (loft) functions
~i1}~an +hn Ai PI'nwnn..^ {.. +L.^ .,.,11 Fti.i ..t......... S. _.__a ?~_ ----`----.'-- _^ `- _ 1
STAT
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_!the rato of solidification of the outside corners is higher than that of the inside
coxnera. The heat flu.~ces, moving perpendicularly to the casting xa118, irtersoct
~ l7 ~ i R////////(S4 ' /ii. t 1
...1 Fig.4? -Design of Junctions in
~y i
_I
tG -~
ca_1
id~;
?,
.... -i
~t
;s~?s
,'' _.;
~ ?:._
c~ I
: ~_
{
--~
s?'_;
s
~l]1oy Castings
:~% ~/,~Lt~l
tit the outside corners and form a kind of ,
tiot spot, which retards solidification. tits
the vertex of the corner, the thic}oless '
should be 20-25$ less than in the side xal.ls
Alum- (Fig. 50) .
The roundic~ of the walls at the points
o.* contact between the surfaces depends on
the sizo of these surfaces and on the angles
of contact (Sablo 55). In this case
(Fig.51) the basic dimension o.^ tT:e surface
is the dimension p perpendicular to the
Eenartrix of the cylindrical surface of the
rounding. In steel castinEs the radii
Fig.li6 -Application of the N!ethod
cavities which, owing to
possible internal
their configura-
tion, roquiro the use o:^ cores. Tho
of tho inner cavities formed without the use of cores de-
--ends on the position of those cavities in the mold (Fig.52)? The cavities formed
AL
_-~y parts of the mold located in the drag and standing on its base nay have the
ight H, reaching to the dimensions of the bass, the diamotor d, i.o., H
1
gE._} Radii of Roundin8s in Steel Castings
_~
3 L' ---~
4 0~
}-
~; Y: ~ 42 f
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 .~~ trans nation, and sha].],i also rri stand the orassure head of the
of bleak during Po a
quid-nwtal when the mold is poured.
te_; Cavities Formod by the Blocks"
20__.11 of the Hold
1'_' ~,
--the walls.
aa_.
t
The desiF of the details moat as far as
possib~o provj for the escape oP gases from
the co~e to tl top oP the casting.
The deci rn whether the opening shall be
i
cast or not a : be taken in accordance with the
character of a detail and of the technology of
its pr'oductic Table 68 gives the reco~nended
~ni~u2n diau~ rs of the cast openings formed
by the cores .s related to the thickness of
u-~
~
~
s
~
x~t
~
u
at-ton
ai
oe
a
~~
ao
a
+r,
dot-~so.
se
rt
~o
:?
e
e
u
b:
r4
w I
I~
i
I
_
= liio Ii~o lip ~i~ IOW
~ ~
~~
Thickness oT xall surrounding opening i
Table 69
Dig sions of Openings Forced by Green
arts of }'.old, in s~
#Taper of walls of openings 1:10.
. _. ti,1 Twnoth or Hei~cht of Opening in
STAT
~.?" ~
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accordan^?e with tho casting procoss.
~) Ma~dsman ptachining Allowance
;roup* ?
frow the innor cavities, and for the
careful cloaning of the cavitios loft by
the cores. Zf, owing to its function, an
innor cavity of a detail is to be a blind
closed passage, then special openings
must be provided during casting for tho
Aei.nforcing the walls ?of castings by .~crisaps at tho placos of cast openings is
_.16z
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~ ....~ ---- .---~---- -~ ~~_ __ s aro made whon their diameter is not loss than
In largo c,3,stings, cast opening i
~ M, .,-,nl l be not raoro than
5~-~, undesr_the_condition that thn thick leas of thn xalla
5 times the diamoter of the opening.
4~ _ ~ .- - - --~
6 ` ` - _ ~- ~ Table ?0
V~~{
__' t?{achining Al],oxances of Ad~oinin8
N7
~a-goo
201-~ .
~D1-~00
50t-i00
got-1200
1201-t/Od
le0l-l~OD
2~lOt-~
seoi-s 100
~ ~ s
~ b ~
6 ~ T
6 7 ?
t ~ !
~ ~ ~o
1o ro u
12 11
t~ ~~
_ ~~ tt
_ ~R ~
~ti__~
ac_i
1 A`~ # YTith openings longer
In the case rrttere the opening is
formed in the rrs]1 of the casting by
means of a Ereen part of the mold, the
ratio of the diameter to the thickness
are recoozaended according to the data
' of ';able 69?
The csachining alloxsrcos for the
openings diractly affect the question of
openings in castings. ;able 70 gives the
rsachining allotrar:ces _'or ~cetinE xails.
The :Zlorsnces :or r~achiring roncontaguous
openings, xhose position on the casting
is determined by the fret d~ensiors,
xi71 be found in Chapter VI.
A casting desipt should provide for
the reaoval of tho core .=i.x, frames, etc.
than 5 dismeters,
~~~he allowances for Groups 1-2 arc takon
Openings (oy GOST 1855-45)
ccording to the neat p~oup (2-3), ~1Q
1
E~Q~he allottar:ces for Group 3 ~'e increased
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 _ 1'b5_
~~;~
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~
~Anatiaa-oi the ribs. Accar ~ __a...., ~nntinRS, and a rin8 design of
__..ad at the points of in- ~,
f ~t~, ~lhould not be form
_ ~ b
ons o
Considerable aacumula ~ design ~ rib nntworka for
_a_checkerboard
d~y
~xill sti11 favor
!6 } h rib, xk-ic ,
-1 in that strengt
^,vide a cast openin8 casting.
!8 ' the production of a sound
?
t; ~` a) Checkerboard, contact ai
--t h without xeakeninR the structure,
i
t2- ~B?57 - ~;?ttin8 ~ ribs. corners whcro a pcrpondicu].z~z' stren
b) ~in6 th trro walls, it is desirable to pr
?- -- ---j--- ~ - _.,; - -l :r8" cAetings, is roceemen e ,
8' ~ ~ ~_~ `t' with c'.~ 2a lYZg.~ra~ ..-?- -
e1 tion of metal at those
!o ~ ~ ~I reduce tho accumula
' C h rib makes
Y6 --s
Fi~.59
3'--t sive pin and thin ~rslls? In this case:
s
t6 ,gigures 60-62 shox the cvua~ ___--
e selocted for desigx-s considerations; ~
~S-. hoxa a aged bushing, xhere iI and d ar
R -
;6~ H D 0.5n 0.25A
3 r3--~ ~ ~