SOVIET SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING MANPOWER AND EMPLOYMENT IN R&D

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• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: September 1, 1972
• Content Type: REPORT

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DIRECTORATE OF
INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence Report
Soviet Scientific and Engineering Manpower
and Employment in R &D
ER IR 72-11
September 1972
Copy N2 114
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WARNING
This document contains information affecting the national
defense of the United States, within the meaning of Title
18, sections 793 and 794, of the US Code, as amended.
Its transmission or revelation of its contents to or re-
ceipt by an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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CONTENTS
Page
Summary ............................................................ 1
The Stock of Scientific and Engineering Manpower .................... 5
Natural Scientists ................................................. 5
Engineers ....................................................... 6
US-USSR Comparisons ............................................ 8
The Allocation of Scientific and Engineering Manpower to the R&D Effort 10
The Soviet Official Series ......................................... 10
Trends in Employment in R&D in the USSR ........................ 12
Military Scientists ................................................ 13
Trends in the Allocation of R&D Manpower ........................ 14
Occupational Structure of R&D Employment ........................ 16
US-USSR Comparisons ........................................... 19
Comparison with Other Estimates .................................. 21
APPENDIXES
Appendix A-Estimates of Employment in US and Soviet R&D Activity,
1950-70 ............................................... 23
Appendix B-Occupational Content of the "Scientific Workers" Category as
Defined in the Soviet 1970 Census ...................... 31
Appendix C-Occupations and Duties Associated with Soviet R&D ....... 35
TABLES
1. United States and the USSR: Average Annual Rates of Growth of Science
and Engineering Manpower .....................................
2
2. USSR:
Distribution of Natural Scientists, by Field ...................
6
3. USSR:
Distribution of Engineers, by Place of Employment ..........
7
4. USSR:
Employment in R&D .......................................
12
5. USSR:
Average Annual Rates of Growth of R&D Manpower ..........
12
6. USSR:
Advanced Degree Holders as a Share of Natural Scientists, by
Field
.......................................................... 13
7. USSR: Jobs Performed by "Scientific Workers" in "Scientific Research
Institutes" ...................................................... 13
8. USSR: R&D Performed by Industrial Ministries ..................... 15
9. USSR: "Scientific Workers" in Industry ............................ 15
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Page
10. Actual and Recommended Staff Positions in Laboratories of the Research
Institutes of the Soviet Ministry of Instrument Making ............... 18
11. USSR: Staff Positions in Design Bureaus as a Share of Total Professional
Employment .................................................... 19
12. USSR: Employment in R&D ....................................... 24
13. United States: Employment in R&D ................................ 25
14. USSR: Annual Graduations in Engineering, by Field ................. 27
15. United States: Distribution of Natural Scientists, by Field, and Number
of Engineers ................................................... 29
CHARTS
Figure 1.
United States and USSR: Employment in R&D, by Type of Or-
ganization ...............................................
2
Figure 2.
USSR: Annual Graduations of Engineers, by Field ............
8
Figure 3.
United States and USSR: Comparison of Natural Scientists, 1966.
9
Figure 4.
Coverage of the Two Published Soviet Series on Science Employ-
ment ...................................................
11
Figure 5.
United States: R&D Employment, by Occupational Category ...
17
Figure 6.
Comparison of Estimates of Employment in Soviet R&D .......
22
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CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Directorate of Intelligence
September 1972
SOVIET SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING
MANPOWER AND EMPLOYMENT IN R&D
SUMMARY
1. Stimulated by competition with the United States in the military field and
in technology generally, the USSR has increased its stock of technically trained
manpower enormously since 1950. In 1970 the number of natural scientists was
four times the 1950 level and the number of engineers six times. At the same
time, employment in research and development grew almost fivefold. Two-thirds
of the natural scientists and about one-fourth of the engineers are employed in
research and development (R&D)' together with a much larger contingent of
supporting personnel. By 1970 the employment in R&D in the USSR was more
than 2i times that in the United States (see Figure 1).
2. During the last two decades the United States matched the Soviet rate of
increase in the number of natural scientists and, in 1970, had a two-for-one
edge over the USSR in the stock of natural scientists. In contrast, the number
of engineers in the USSR grew much faster than the number of engineers in
the United States. Although there are difficulties in determining the number
of engineering graduates actively working as engineers, the USSR clearly has
a wide lead in this regard (see Table 1).
'As a working definition for this report, research and development is taken to include basic
and applied research in science and engineering and the design and development of prototypes
and processes. (Basic research is original investigation for the advancement of scientific knowl-
edge; applied research is directed toward discovery of new scientific knowledge with specific
product objectives; development is actively concerned with problems encountered in translating
research findings or other general scientific knowledge into specific products.) The concept of
R&D as used in this report also includes testing and evaluation, and thus is equivalent to the
US concept of research, development, testing, and evaluation (RDT&E).
NOTE: This report was prepared by the Office of Economic Research and coordinated
within CIA.
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Figure 1
United States and USSR: Employment in R & D,
by Type of Organization *
Thousand Persons
USSR
3,116
**In the United States, government institutes include federal government and other
nonprofit institutions. The latter group employed 6,500 people in 1950 and
40,500 in 1970.
- Government
Institutes*
Universities
Industry
-
1950 1970
*See tables 12 and 13, in appendix A.
United States and the USSR: Average Annual Rates of Growth
of Science and Engineering Manpower
1951-55 .....
........
...
7.3
5.7
8.1
8.4
1956-63 .....
.........
...
6.9
8.9
5.5
11.4
1964-70 .....
........
...
8.0
6.3
2.6
8.3
1969-70 .....
........
...
NA
5.3
NA
7.1
1951-70 .....
........
...
7.4
7.2
5.1
9.6
3. Employment in the R&D sector in the USSR rose from 528,000 in 1950 to
3.1 million in 1970. During the 20 years 1950-70, the average annual growth was
9.3%, compared with a growth of 6.3% per year in employment in R&D in the
United States. Growth was particularly rapid in 1956-62 when Soviet missile
and space programs were going into high gear. Since 1962 the rate of annual
additions to R&D manpower has been less than half the rate achieved earlier.
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4. Compared with other estimates of employment in Soviet R&D, the esti-
mates prepared for this report show a substantially higher rate of increase. For
example, this report estimates that, during 1958-66, employment in R&D in-
creased almost 12% per year. The USSR reported an increase of 93/2% per
year in employment in "science and scientific services"; an OECD report esti-
mated the rate of increase to be nearly 10% per year in the same period;
and an alternative estimate holds that R&D employment grew by 63 % per year.
5. Although Soviet R&D employment is more than 21/2 times as large as
in the United States, a number of problems of comparability prevent a direct
comparison. For example, the number of scientists and engineers conducting
or managing R&D in the USSR is estimated at 494,000 in 1970, compared
with 545,000 in the United States.2 Another significant difference in R&D
employment in the two countries involves the support personnel in R&D. In
the USSR there are approximately 51/3 support workers per scientist and en-
gineer conducting or managing R&D, compared with a ratio of about 11 to 1
in the United States. Finally, three-fourths of the people employed in R&D
in the United States are in private industry (see Figure 1). R&D employment
in government and other nonprofit institutions in the United States amounts
to only 16% of the total, in sharp contrast with the Soviet arrangements.
6. In the USSR, R&D is carried on primarily in institutes and facilities sub-
ordinate to government ministries. About 50% of the R&D establishments and
88% of the R&D employment are in this category, and most of them are tied
to industrial ministries. Most of the remaining establishments and employees
are in the Academies of Sciences, which employ 85,000 scientists and carry out
much of the basic research performed in the USSR. The bulk of the develop-
mental work is carried out in institutes attached to ministries. Research depart-
ments attached to enterprises play a relatively minor role, and university re-
search is not nearly as important as it is in the United States.
7. As the scale of Soviet R&D increased, so did dissatisfaction with its per-
formance. To some extent, manpower policies have been at fault. The propor-
tion of the research talent allocated to universities and to Academies of Science
is too large, and too little is allocated to the ministerial research institutes, which
do the bulk of the applied research. Fundamentally, however, the fragmented
organization and misdirected incentives of Soviet R&D have been at fault. The
supply of trained manpower in general has been adequate.
'This is an estimate of the number of scientists and engineers employed in R&D in a
capacity that requires use of their technical education, including scientists and engineers who
manage research and development programs.
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INTRODUCTION
8. Western attempts to quantify the inputs of men, money, and materials
channeled into Soviet R&D have been frustrated by the paucity of data. In par-
ticular, the number of workers engaged in either civilian or military R&D is
not reported. The USSR, however, does publish information that bears indirectly
on the R&D effort, such as the number of workers with engineering degrees
and the number of persons classified as "scientific workers." Some Westerners
have accepted these data at face value as a measure of Soviet technical man-
power and have used them to make US-Soviet comparisons. As a result, Soviet
achievements and capabilities vis-a-vis the United States have been overstated.
9. Soviet statistics carefully used, however, do provide a basis for making
estimates of the level and rate of growth of engineering and scientific man-
power in R&D. Other Soviet data can be used to estimate total R&D employ-
ment (scientists, engineers, and support personnel) and, to some extent, the
occupational structure of the R&D labor force. These estimates are perhaps
the best available representation of trends in Soviet R&D, and they permit
guarded comparisons of Soviet and US employment in R&D.
10. This report presents estimates of the size and trends of total Soviet en-
gineering and scientific manpower and the share employed in R&D activities.
In addition, US-Soviet comparisons in these areas of activity are presented.
Finally, the qualitative and organizational aspects of Soviet R&D manpower
are examined.
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DISCUSSION
THE STOCK OF SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING MANPOWER
11. Soviet leaders have long realized that natural scientists and engineers
were critically important to the primary Soviet military and economic goals.
High wages, preferential housing and other special privileges, and compulsory
job assignments have been used to direct the best talent toward employment
in R&D. Ensuring an adequate supply of this talent has been a basic goal of
the regimes' educational policy. Students receive early and comprehensive train-
ing in science and mathematics, and universities concentrate on turning out
scientists and engineers.
12. The supply of scientific and engineering manpower has grown enormously
since 1950. At the same time, substantial changes have occurred in the occupa-
tional composition of this technical elite, reflecting shifts in demand since the
mid-1950s, most notably for skills associated with R&D in the weapons and
space sector. Although the forced pace of development of a technical elite has
involved some diminution in training standards, the quality of Soviet training
and the caliber of leading scientists in many fields is as good as in the West.
Natural Scientists
13. Since R&D draws overwhelmingly from the natural sciences and from
engineering fields, only these categories have been included in the discussion
below. The Soviet Union does not publish data on the number of scientists
as generally defined in the United States. The Soviet term "scientific workers"
(nauchnyye rabotniki) is considerably broader in concept than the correspond-
ing term used in the United States. Under the Soviet rubric, all employees
with advanced degrees from universities, wherever employed, and all persons
conducting research, regardless of educational background, are counted as
scientific workers. More rigorously defined, scientific workers include:
(a) academicians who are full or corresponding members of an
Academy of Science;
(b) all persons who have an academic degree of doctor or candidate
of science, or an academic title of professor, docent, research associate,
or assistant regardless of the place or character of work; and
(c) other persons conducting research work in scientific institutions,
industrial enterprises, and design organizations (moreover, the Soviet
definition of "scientific workers" includes fields such as law and art
which are not classified as "science" in the United States ).3
14. Between 1950 and 1970, while the total civilian labor force was expanding
by only 31%, the number of natural scientists increased 3 times (see Table 2),
reflecting the relatively high priority given to scientific manpower. The rate
of growth in the number of natural scientists rose markedly during the late
1950s and early 1960s, followed by a decline by about two-fifths at the end
of the decade (see Table 1). Within the natural sciences, the number of per-
sons in the fields of physics and mathematics-essential in military/space
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CONFIDENTIAL
Table 2
USSR: Distribution of Natural Scientists,a by Field b
Thousand Persons
Total
Physicists
Geologists
Natural
and
and
Scien-
Mathema-
Biological
Mineral-
Agricultural
Medical
Year
tists
ticians C
Chemists
Scientists
ogists
Scientists
Scientists
1950
70.9
10.2
12.9
8.6
3.6
14.1
21.5
1955
93.5
20.1
16.2
11.0
5.7
15.2
25.3
1958
112.5
22.6
20.2
13.2
8.2
18.6
29.7
1959
121.3
24.8
22.7
13.6
9.0
20.2
31.0
1960
134.4
29.0
26.2
15.1
10.7
21.2
32.2
1961
153.6
35.1
32.3
16.2
12.0
23.8
34.2
1962
167.7
48.3
25.4
21.6
13.4
25.5
33.5
1963
185.3
54.9
28.8
23.9
15.1
28.0
34.6
1964
195.1
58.2
31.6
25.7
15.4
29.1
35.1
1965
208.2
63.9
33.5
27.1
16.4
30.6
36.7
1966
225.8
70.8
36.7
29.8
17.5
31.7
39.3
1967
239.7
77.1
39.0
31.8
18.4
31.9
41.5
1968
256.0
83.0
41.7
34.1
19.3
33.3
44.6
1969
271.5
89.0
44.0
36.4
19.6
34.8
47.7
1970
284.1
95.3
45.8
37.3
20.3
35.4
50.0
a Enumerated under "Scientific workers."
Same sources as for line 5 of Table 12, in Appendix A.
Including geophysicists.
research-has grown by more than 8 times since 1950. In contrast, the number
of agricultural scientists has increased 1% times during this period. As a con-
sequence, physicists, mathematicians, and chemists as a share of all natural
scientists rose from one-third in 1950 to one-half in 1970.
Engineers
15. Soviet data on engineers (see Table 3) must be used cautiously, par-
ticularly when making comparisons with the United States. Soviet figures report
the employment of persons with engineering degrees but overstate substantially
the number of persons actually working as engineers. First, according to the
1959 census, about half of the employed persons with engineering degrees ac-
tually worked in managerial, administrative, or other non-engineering occupa-
tions.4 For example, Leonid Brezhnev holds a degree in metallurgical engi-
neering and therefore is counted as an engineer in government and admin-
istrative institutions. Second, 10%-15% of the engineering categories in the
USSR are not counted as such in the United States. Geodesy and cartography,
for example, are considered engineering occupations in the USSR but not in
the United States. Third, since the late 1950s the Soviet Union has greatly
expanded part-time education. Perhaps one-third of all engineering graduates
since 1960 have received abbreviated, below-standard instruction in this system.
Such graduates would not be considered to be professionally trained engineers
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CONFIDENTIAL
Table 3
USSR: Distribution of Engineers, by Place of Employment a
Thousand Persons
Industry and Science and
Total Construction Science Service Other b
1950 ....................... 400.2 212.5 58.5 129.2
1955 ....................... 597.8 319.8 89.4 188.6
1957 ....................... 832.2 427.4 174.4 230.4
1960 ....................... 1,135.0 600.1 264.4 270.5
1961 ....................... 1,236.0 653.3 292.6 290.1
1962 ....................... 1,325.1 687.2 324.3 313.6
1963 ....................... 1,420.5 727.7 360.2 332.6
1964 ....................... 1,497.5 753.4 391.2 352.9
1965 ....................... 1,630.8 824.5 419.7 386.6
1966 ....................... 1,789.0 897.4 469.2 422.4
1967 ....................... 1,960.0 NA NA NA
1968 ....................... 2,168.0 NA NA NA
1969 ....................... 2,400.0 NA NA NA
1970 ....................... 2,486.5 1,282.9 617.8 585.8
a Sources
1950-66-Trud v SSSR, Moscow, 1968, p. 268-269.
1967 -Narodnoye khozyaystvo SSSR v 1968 godu, Moscow, 1969, p. 175 (hereafter referred
to as N. kh.).
1968-69-N. kh. 1969, p. 134.
1970 -Narodnoye obrazovaniye, nauka i kul'lura v SSSR, Moscow, 1971, p. 238.
b Including agriculture, transportation, communication, education, and government admin-
istration.
in the United States. Nevertheless, despite the incomparabilities, Soviet data are
believed to show reasonably well the trends and areas of emphasis in allocating
engineering manpower.
16. The pattern of growth of engineers resembles the growth of natural
scientists: rapid growth since 1950 with the greatest increase in the 1955-63
period, followed by a marked slowdown in the late 1960s (see Table 1). Be-
tween 1955 and 1970 the number of employed persons with engineering degrees
quadrupled. Although the number of engineers increased greatly in all sectors
of the economy except agriculture, science and scientific service organizations
were particularly favored. During 1956-70 the number of engineers employed
in science and scientific services increased by 6 times. Between 1955 and 1970
the proportion of engineers found in scientific institutions rose from about
15% to 25% of all engineers.
17. The relative priorities attached to the various engineering specialties can
be inferred from the data on the annual graduations shown in Figure 2. Primarily
because of defense requirements, growth of engineering employment was most
rapid in the fields of machine building and instrument making, electrical and
electronic equipment, and radio technology, areas of specialization which are
engaged heavily in the support of military and space programs. In 1970, gradua-
tions in these fields were 5 to 28 times greater than in 1950. At the other end of
the scale, graduations in the fields of geology and survey of mineral resources,
hydrology and meteorology, geodesy and cartography, and food technology
were only 2 times greater.
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USSR: Annual Graduations of Engineers, by Field
1970 as a Percent of 1950
Hydrology and Meteorology L 275
Geodesy and Cartography
Technology
of Food Products
Power Engineering
Technology
of Consumer Goods
Exploitation of Mineral
Resource Deposits
Agriculture
Forestry Engineering
and Technology
Transport
Construction
Chemical Technology
Total Graduations
Machine Building and
Instrument Making
Radio Technology
and Communications
Electrical Engineering and
Electro-Instruments
Figure 2
US-USSR Comparisons
18. Conceptual differences in statistical reporting hinder meaningful, direct
comparisons of natural scientists in the United States and USSR and prevent
altogether comparisons of engineering employment. Because the definition of
scientist and engineer is narrower in the United States than it is in the USSR,
Soviet engineering and scientific manpower is overstated relative to that in the
United States.5 Bearing in mind the limitations imposed by the data, comparisons
In the United States, engineers represent all persons actually engaged in chemical, civil,
electrical, mechanical, metallurgical, and all other types of engineering work at a level which
requires knowledge of engineering, physical, life, or mathematical sciences equivalent at least
to that acquired through completion of a four-year college course with a major in one of these
fields. (An engineer need not hold a college degree in the field.)
Functionally, persons with the above qualifications are included if they are in research-
development, production, management, technical service and sales, and other positions which
require them to use the indicated level of knowledge in their work. Excluded are persons trained
in engineering but currently employed in positions not requiring the use of such training.
8 CONFIDENTIAL
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of scientific and engineering manpower in the two countries nevertheless provide
some insight as to Soviet strengths and relative priorities.6 The following points
stand out when such comparisons are made:
(a) Between 1950 and 1970 the rate of growth in the number of
natural scientists in the two countries was about the same.
(b) In 1966 the difference-in the number of natural scientists in the
two countries was most pronounced in chemistry and least in geology
(see Figure 3).
(c) Fluctuations in the rate of increase of scientists and engineers have
been less pronounced in the United States than in the USSR, and the
missile-space buildup in the late 1950s and early 1960s is not nearly as
apparent in the United States as in the USSR. Since the 1950s the United
States has witnessed a decline in the rate of growth of engineering
manpower (see Table 1).
(d) Unlike the situation in the USSR, the rate of growth of natural
scientists in the United States has exceeded the rate of growth of
engineers.
United States and USSR:
Comparison of Natural Scientists, 1966*
Figure 3
Physicists and
Mathematicians
Chemists
Biological Scientists
Geologists
Agricultural Scientists
Medical Scientists
j 24
18
? The number of persons in the United States employed in science and engineering positions
is shown in Table 15, in Appendix A.
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(e) In 1950 there were more than twice as many natural scientists
in the United States as in the USSR and by 1970 the gap between the
two countries still had not narrowed appreciably. Nevertheless, the
United States, which had about 31/2 times as many physicists, mathema-
ticians, and chemists as the Soviet Union in 1950, had only twice as many
by 1966 (the last date for which US data are available), as shown in
Table 2, above, and Table 15, in Appendix A.
(f) The rate of growth in the number of engineers in the United
States between 1950 and 1970 has been only about one-half that recorded
for the USSR during the same period.
THE ALLOCATION OF SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING MANPOWER TO
THE R&D EFFORT
19. Although the Soviet Union regularly reports the employment of persons
with science or engineering degrees, some detective work is needed to determine
how many of them are working in research and development.
20. Two published series on employment-"science and science services"
and "scientific workers"-together include most persons engaged in R&D, but
they also contain many people not involved in R&D. The coverage of these two
series is depicted in Figure 4. In terms of organizations included, the definition
of "scientific workers" is broader because it counts the administrative and pro-
fessional staffs employed in all of the institutions conducting R&D-scientific
research organizations that are subordinate to ministries or the Academies of
Sciences,' enterprises performing their own research, and universities. The series
"science and science services," on the other hand, covers only persons employed
in scientific research organizations but includes all of the people employed in
these organizations-administrative staffs, researchers, and lesser-skilled support
workers. Thus the two series overlap in that both include the administrative
and professional staffs at scientific research organizations, and each fails to
cover completely all persons actually engaged in R&D."
21. Incomplete coverage, however, is not the whole problem. Both series
also report many persons who are not involved in R&D as it is usually defined.
The "science and science services" category includes, for example, meteorologists
' Including employment in the following main categories of organizations: (a) scientific
research establishments (specifically, academies, institutes, observatories, archives, botanical
gardens, museums, and libraries engaged in scientific work and, in addition, all computer
centers); (b) surveying and geological exploration; (c) independent design organizations and
selected experimental stations; (d) "establishments of the hydrometeorological service"; and
(e) auxiliary establishments serving scientific organizations such as machine-testing stations
(N. K. Sazanovich (ed), Metodicheskiye ukazaniya k sostavleniyu' gosudarstvennogo plana
razvitiya narodnogo khozyaystva SSSR, Moscow, 1969, p. 757-759).
s Professional staff is defined to include researchers and technicians performing jobs requiring
the equivalent of a college education; the nonprofessional staff includes clerical and other service
workers performing tasks not requiring a college education.
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assigned to weather forecasting, and holders of advanced degrees are counted
as "scientific workers" whether they work in R&D or work full time in adminis-
tration or university teaching.
22. Despite these limitations, the published employment series can be refined
to provide reasonably accurate estimates of employment in Soviet R&D. These
estimates describe a development of the Soviet R&D effort that is different from
either of the official series and from other independent estimates.
23. The estimates of Soviet R&D manpower used here were derived through
adjustments to the two published manpower series on science workers (as sug-
gested in Figure 4) and by making estimates for those R&D workers not covered
by either series. Briefly, R&D manpower was estimated as follows. First, persons
who are included'in the two series but who are not engaged in R&D were elim-
inated, workers in the geologic and hydrometeorological services were deleted
from the "science and science services" series, and social scientists were deleted
from the "scientific worker" series. Second, estimates were made of R&D support
personnel not included in either series. Summing the results of these procedures-
avoiding double counting where it occurs-yields estimates of total R&D em-
ployment in the USSR.9
Figure 4
Coverage of the Two Published Soviet Series
on Science Employment
Scientific
Research
Institutes
Geologic and
Non R & D -Hydrometeorological
Services
Non R&D
Covered by
L "Science and Science Services"
"Scientific Workers"
O Both
For details of methodology and for sources, see Table 12, in Appendix A.
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Trends in Employment in R&D in the USSR
24. During the past two decades, total employment in R&D in the USSR grew
from an estimated 528,000 in 1950 to over 3.1 million in 1970 (see Table 4). This
fivefold increase includes the employment of all those associated with R&D-
researchers, administrators, laboratory technicians, clerical staff, char force, and
others. As a share of the country's total labor force, R&D employment rose
from 0.5% to 2.5%. between 1950 and 1970.
25. The rate of growth in R&D manpower has fluctuated sharply since 1950
(see Table 5). The tremendous rate of growth in total R&D manpower between
1955 and 1962 supported the burgeoning aircraft, missile, and space programs.
Since 1963 the rate of increase has returned to roughly the pre-1955 level. The
more highly educated component of the R&D labor force did not grow at the
same pace as all R&D manpower or even that part of it possessing the equivalent
of a college education. Holders of advanced degrees increased very rapidy in
1951-55. Then in 1956-62, the graduate schools could not keep up with the
general expansion in R&D employment. As the graduate school enrollments
climbed, however, the rate of increase of advanced degree holders employed
in R&D made a marked recovery in 1963-70. Thus, considering quality, the rate
of expansion of R&D manpower was somewhat slower before 1963 than indicated
by total employment and faster after 1963.
26. The end result of these fall-behind and catchup phases of graduate edu-
cation was probably some decline in the share of physicists, mathematicians,
geologists, and biologists and an increase in the proportion of medical scientists
having advanced degrees in R&D employment. At least this was true of the entire
stock of natural scientists (see Table 6).
Table 4
USSR: Employment in R&D
Thousand Persons
528 704 1,458 2,317 3,116
Average Annual Percentage Rate of Growth
Table 5
USSR: Average Annual Rates of Growth of R&D Manpower
Percent
Period
Total
Non-Profes-
sional Staff
Total
With
Advanced
Degrees
1951-55
............
5.9
6.0
5.5
10.4
1956-62
............
15.4
15.8
13.8
7.3
1963-70
............
6.2
5.9
7.5
9.6
1951-70
............
9.3
9.3
9.1
9.0
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Table 6
USSR: Advanced Degree Holders
as a Share of Natural Scientists, by Field
Net Change
1955
1962
1970
1955-70
Physicists and mathematicians .........
30.8
20.7
26.3
-4.5
Chemists ...........................
32.0
32.2
31.9
-0.1
Biological scientists ..................
59.0
46.3
52.8
-6.2
Geologists and mineralogists ..........
48.5
35.8
43.4
-5.1
Agricultural scientists ................
44.6
34.2
44.9
0.3
Medical scientists ...................
60.1
55.4
67.0
6.9
27. Data from the "scientific workers" series indicate that, in 1950-60, about
four-fifths of the college graduates associated with state "scientific research insti-
tutes" were actually conducting or managing research and development (see
Table 7). Projecting this relationship forward and adding the scientific workers
Table 7
USSR: Jobs Performed by "Scientific Workers" in "Scientific
Research Institutes" a
Total
With
Advanced
Degrees
Total
With
Advanced
Degrees
Total
With
Advanced
Degrees
All jobs b .............
70.5
20.8
96.5
31.1
200.1
44.8
Administrators ......
20.2
8.9
22.1
10.8
40.9
16.7
Researchers.........
37.1
11.3
53.4
19.2
104.0
27.1
Others .............
13.2
0.6
21.0
1.1
55.2
1.0
a Vyssheye obrazovaniye v SSSR, Moscow, 1961, p. 208-209. Data are from the "scientific workers"
series.
b "Scientific research institutes" employ approximately one-half of all college graduates
associated with R&D. College graduates are also employed in R&D activities at higher education
institutions and at industrial enterprises.
c Including technicians and laboratory assistants.
performing R&D at universities and industrial enterprises indicates that, in 1970,
approximately 494,000 of the 622,000 scientific workers employed in R&D were
either performing research and development or managing R&D programs.'?
Military Scientists
28. Of the scientists associated with R&D, military scientists deserve special
mention. This group (classified as "other" scientists in Soviet statistics) includes
scientists from various fields whose specialty is the application of their training
10 In 1970, there were 128,000 scientific workers performing or managing R&D projects in
industrial enterprises and 57,000 in universities. In addition, 10,000 graduate students per-
formed R&D. It is estimated that 30% of the 427,000 scientific workers in "scientific research
organizations" worked as technicians and laboratory assistants, leaving 299,000 scientific workers
conducting or managing R&D projects.
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to military requirements.11 In 1950, about 98% of this group of 3,600 were
teaching in military academies. In a real sense, these academies are not only
military establishments but also institutions for training the professionals in the
armed forces who conduct military R&D and direct and supervise the design,
development, and procurement of weapons and military equipment.12 By 1962
the number of military scientists had doubled from the 1950 level, reaching 7,176.13
In 1963 the number of military scientists was given as twice the 1962 level,
without explanation 14 ; the category apparently was redefined that year to include
military scientists heretofore not counted. Most likely, the additions included
military scientists working in military research laboratories. Since 1963 the num-
ber of military scientists has grown at an average annual rate of 10.3%, compared
with an average rate of 6.2% per year for all R&D employment.
Trends in the Allocation of R&D Manpower
29. Although bafflingly complex and shrouded in secrecy, Soviet R&D is
carried on in roughly three areas: (a) specialized R&D institutes, design or-
ganizations, and experimental testing facilities (these are subordinate either to
the Academies of Sciences or to government ministries), (b) higher education
institutions, and (c) industrial enterprises.
30. The institutes and facilities subordinate to government ministries are the
bedrock of the Soviet R&D effort, accounting for about 50% of the nearly 5,000
science establishments in 1970,15 and 86% of all R&D employment. In 1950 this
sector of R&D accounted for one-third of the science establishments and 81%
of R&D employment. The remaining R&D employment was found at enterprises
and universities. R&D conducted by ministries is heavily weighted toward in-
dustry: About 40 of the nearly 60 Soviet ministries are industrial ministries which
employed over 1.1 million R&D workers in 1968, or about one of every three
persons engaged in R&D (see Table 8). If the R&D work force in industrial
enterprises is lumped with the R&D employment in institutes subordinate to
industrial ministries, total R&D employment associated with industry rises to
about one-half of all R&D employment.
31. Between 1961 and 1968, R&D employment in industrial ministries rose
at an average annual rate of 5.9%. Unlike other areas of R&D, the growth of
employment in industrial R&D performed by institutes subordinate to ministries
was particularly rapid in the late 1960s, rising at an average rate of more than 10%
from 1965 to 1968. At these institutes, approximately one-half of the R&D
personnel were engaged in testing and evaluation work, 30% were in research,
and the remaining 20% were in development.
32. Few data are available on employment in R&D, by branch of industry.
More specifically, no data ? are available on the magnitude of employment in
defense-related R&D in industry. in 1968, in-
11 Byulleten', ministerstva vysshego i srednegospetsial'nogo obrazovaniya SSSR, no. 9, 1963,
p. 8.
"Nicholas DeWitt, Education and Professional Employment in the USSR, Washington, 1961,
p. 221.
" N. kh. 1962, p. 583.
14 N. kh. 1963, p. 590.
"Narodnoye obrazovaniye, nauka i kul'tura v SSSR, Moscow, 1971, p. 243.
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Table 8
USSR: R&D Performed by Industrial Ministries
Laboratories (research) ........
Design organizations (develop-
ment) .....................
Testing-experimental organiza-
tions (testing and evaluation).
Total industrial R&D (narrowly
defined) c .................
Total industrial R&D (including
enterprise R&D) d ..........
Employment (Thousand
Number of R&D Units Persons)
1961
1965
1968
1961
1965
1968
23,644
25,788
33,000
236.4 a
257.9 a
330.0 a
11,227
13,378
15,000
120.2 b
148.5
223.0
NA
NA
NA
397.4 b
434.0
573. 1
NA
NA
NA
754.0
840.4
1
;126.1
NA
NA
NA
883.0
996.4
1
3712,.l
a Estimate based on the number of employees and number of laboratories in several republics for
several years.
b Data for 1960. B.F. Zaytsev and B.A. Lapin, Organizatsiya planirovaniya nauchno-teknicheskogo
progressa, Moscow, 1970, p. 15.
c Excluding employment of persons in R&D activity if carried on in industrial enterprises on their
own account.
d Including enterprise R&D from line 17 of Table 12, in Appendix A.
dustry employed nearly 426,000 "scientific workers" 16-the highly trained
segment of the R&D'work force (see Table 9). Of this total, three out of four
USSR: "Scientific Workers" in Industry a
1965
1968
Total scientific workers in industry b .................... 356,810
425,992
Of which:
Machine building and metalworking ................. 247,625
302,170
General machinery, instrument making, electrical-techni-
cal, and radio-electronics .........................
73,293
NA
Chemicals .......................................
50,791
62,096
? Based on N.B. Vornin (ed), Ekonomicheskiye problemy effektivnosti nauki, Mos-
cow, 1971, p. 77, 79.
? Employed in the various categories of industrial R&D shown in Table 8.
were employed in the machine building and metalworking branch (MBMW).
Since MBMW employs one-third of the total industrial labor force and is re-
sponsible for about 30% of industrial production, its share of the R&D effort is
disproportionately high. Moreover, military hardware constituted a substantial
share of total MBMW output in the 1960s; therefore, much of the R&D labor
force in this branch was undoubtedly working on military R&D. Ministries not
related to industry-such as the Ministries of Agriculture, Construction, Health,
Education, Communications, Defense, and the like-also employ upwards of
one-third of the total R&D work force in their research facilities.
'These workers are scattered among the various categories of industrial R&D employment
shown in Table 8.
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33. Next in importance is employment of over 85,000 scientists in 20 academies
of science, the most prestigious science institutions in the country.17 These
academies, the oldest of which was established in 1725, are engaged primarily
in basic research and have no counterpart in the United States. In the USSR
Academy of Sciences, in 1965, there were 4,978 scientists in the physical-tech-
nical and mathematical sciences departments supported by 12,560 auxiliary
workers. In the chemical and biological sciences departments there were 5,132
scientists and 11,361 auxiliary workers.18 The academies of science restrict their
activities largely to basic research, leaving the development phase to institutes
of the ministries and to enterprises.
34. R&D performed at universities is not nearly as important in the USSR as
it is in the United States. In 1970, Soviet universities accounted for only 2%
of the total R&D work force, compared with about 10% in the United States..
There are 51 research institutes located in Soviet universities, but these are either
small scientific organizations or institutes operating on a volunteer basis.19 Uni-
versity research has been characterized by one Soviet source as being "performed
by the academic departments' instructors during the so-called `second half of
the working day.' Research departments and sectors play a purely administra-
tive and managerial role. It is not surprising that many years of attempts to con-
duct integrated research using the forces of a group of departments have pro-
duced virtually nothing." 20
Occupational Structure of R&D Employment
35. The Soviet policy of maintaining a high degree of central control is
evident in the organizational structure of R&D, as the most important R&D is
performed not at the production level (enterprises) but rather at the admin-
istrative level (ministries). The highly formal structure of R&D is carried down
to the occupational level with duties and responsibilities carefully spelled out
(see Appendix C).
36. Both Soviet and Western experts have stressed the importance of having
a proper mixture of administrators, researchers, technicians, and auxiliary workers
in achieving a productive research program. Data on the structure of employ-
ment in R&D in both the United States and USSR are sketchy. In 1970, there
were approximately 494,000 scientists and engineers conducting or managing
R&D programs in the Soviet Union, supported by about 21/2 million other
workers. In contrast, the United States had approximately 545,000 researchers
(scientists and engineers) supported by about 700,000 other workers in 1970
(see Figure 5).
37. The abundance of support personnel, however, masks a severe shortage
of professionally trained technicians. A series of surveys of research institutes
subordinate to the Ministry of Instrument Making, while perhaps atypical, pro-
vides some insight into the structure of employment in R&D. Approximately
17 Narodnoye obrazovaniye, nauka i kul'tura v SSSR, Moscow, 1971, p. 245.
D.I. Valenty and I.F. Sorokin (eds), Naseleniye trudooyye resursy SSSR, Moscow, 1971,
p. 284.
19 Izvestiya, 22 January 1972, p. 5.
?? Ibid.
16 CONFIDENTIAL
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Figure 5
United States: R & D Employment, by Occupational Category*
Thousand Persons 1,244
Scientists
and Engineers
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970
`See table 13, in appendix A. Because of rounding, components may not add to the totals shown.
514234 8-72
one-half of the staffs of the institutes was composed of workers classified as
engineering-technical personnel and divided by occupation as follows 21 :
Researcher ............................................ 56.2
Designer ............................................. 25.6
Technologist. ......................................... 5.0
Supply and service personnel ............................ 13.2
Technologists are responsible for translating blueprints and technical documents
into production models.
Thus, in these institutes, the researchers constituted about one-fourth of the
entire staff, and the ratio of researchers to support personnel was approxi-
mately 1 to 3.
38. Soviet experts argue that shortages of technicians, the skilled manpower
which performs routine but technical jobs that otherwise must be done by
researchers, foster inefficiencies in R&D. From scattered data, it appears that
the ratio of researchers to technicians is not more than 1 to 0.3, compared with the
ratio of 1 to 1.5 or 1 to 2 that is deemed optimal by a Soviet expert.22 Moreover,
one expert claims that the majority of Soviet research labs employ' only one-fifth
as many technicians as analogous labs in the United States, Switzerland, and West
'P.N. Zavlin, A.I. Shcherbakov, and M.A. Yudelevich, Trud v sfere nauki, Novosibirsk,
1971, p. 319.
"Ibid. p. 304.
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Germany.23 Workers in prototype construction are also fewer than desired and
average less than one for every five researchers, compared with the goal of one
per four to five researchers.
39. Surprisingly enough, the Soviets also assert that they are short of unskilled
and semi-skilled workers in R&D. The results of a study of 66 laboratories
instrument making research institutes (see Table 10) indicated shortages
workers ranging from one-half to three-quarters of recommended levels.
Actual and Recommended Staff Positions in Laboratories
of the Research Institutes of the Soviet Ministry of Instrument Making a
Director of laboratory ...............................
1.0
1
Deputy director of laboratory ........................
...
1
Head engineer ......................................
2.5
2-3
Senior engineer .....................................
4.5
4-5
Engineer ...........................................
7.5
8-10
Technician .........................................
4.5
15-20
Auxiliary worker (lab assistants, secretaries, etc.) ........
0.2
2-3
Total ...........................................
20.0
35-45
40. Some design work is performed within research institutes. Five to six
percent of the workers in the surveyed research institutes were designers.24
The majority of design work, however, is carried out by separate design or-
ganizations which are responsible only for design and development work. Design
bureaus account for approximately one-fifth of total R&D employment by in-
dustrial ministries (see Table 8). As in research labs, there are serious shortages
of technicians in design bureaus, and the situation worsened during the early
and mid-1960s (see Table 11). In 1966, there were 0.7 technicians per engi-
neer in design organizations compared with a recommended ratio of 3.4 tech-
nicians per engineer.25
41. One-half of the R&D employment in industrial ministries is in testing-
evaluation organizations (see Table 8). The responsibilities of these organiza-
tions and the composition of their staffs are not known.
42. Soviet progress in R&D has been retarded by numerous factors, including
shortages of laboratories and equipment and enterprise managers who have
tended to resist innovations because of the nature of the incentives set for them
by the central authorities. Even if these faults were corrected, however, the
organization and structure of Soviet R&D would remain a major defect. Ac-
cording to Soviet reports, the artificial organizational separation of establish-
ments performing research, design, and. testing, and particularly the limited
amount of R&D performed by industrial enterprises, results in bottlenecks and
failures of coordination.
" Ibid. p. 303-304.
=' Ibid. p. 323.
Ibid. p. 326.
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Table 11
USSR: Staff Positions in Design Bureaus
as a Share of Total Professional Employment a
Administrator ..........................................
1.3
1.9
Head designer .........................................
7.3
9.8
Senior engineer ........................................
12.9
18.8
Engineer ..............................................
23.3
28.1
Senior technician .......................................
27.3
24.1
Technician ............................................
19.6
14.3
Draftsman .............................................
8.3
3.0
Total ...............................................
100.0
100.0
Ratio of engineers to technicians ......................
1:1.2
1:0.7
43. One aspect of the organizational problem involves the misallocation of
R&D manpower. Forty percent of all advanced degree holders are employed
by universities, but they account for only 4% of science research.26 In large part,
R&D in Soviet universities is starved for equipment and. materials. In 1965,
expenditures per R&D worker in universities for these items was only one-fourth.
the amount spent in research institutes.27 A 1966 decree ordered that the situation
be corrected, but reportedly nothing yet has been accomplished.28 Ministerial
research institutes, on the other hand, have relatively large amounts of equip-
ment and materials but are short of people with advanced degrees or even with
a university education: in 1966 only 43% of their professionals (administrators
and researchers) had a higher education.29
44. Although universities and ministerial research institutes have their prob-
lems, the enterprise research institute, which lacks both men and money, is
in the worst shape of all Soviet R&D elements. Through at least the late 1950s
and early 1960s, moreover, the situation at enterprise laboratories deteriorated
as the higher paying scientific research institutes attracted qualified personnel
employed in industry. (Between 1960 and 1966 the share of engineers with a
higher education employed in industry laboratories declined from 15.8% to
14.6%.)30 Between 1955 and 1966 the average number of people employed in
the design and research labs at enterprises declined from 24 to 17 and the number
of university trained engineers, from 10 to 6.31
US-USSR Comparisons
45. As long ago as 1950 the number of persons working in Soviet R&D was
half again as large as the number working in R&D in the United States
(see Figure 1). During 1951-70 the USSR enlarged its R&D labor force at
40Izvestiya, 22 January 1972, p. 5.
"Zavlin, Shcherbakov, and Yudelevich, op. cit. p. 58.
" Ibid.
' Voprosy ekonomiki i planirovaniya nauchnykh issledovaniy, Moscow, 1968, p. 69. (tr by
Air, FTD)
' Zavlin, Shcherbakov, and Yudelevich, op. cit., p. 59.
" Ekonomika i organizatisya promyshlennogo proizvodstva, no. 4, 1971.
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a substantially greater rate than did the United States-9.3% per year com-
pared with 6.3% per year. As a consequence, total R&D employment in the
USSR grew to more than 2% times the US level by 1970. The Soviet commitment
to R&D can also be traced in the rising share of the labor force engaged in
R&D, which increased from 0.6% in 1950 to 2.6% in 1970. In the United States,
R&D employment accounted for 0.6% of the labor force in 1950 and 1.4%
in 1970.
46. There is, however, no Soviet advantage in the number of scientists and
engineers conducting or managing R&D projects. According to the estimates in
paragraph 36, the USSR had 494,000 of these people in 1970 while the
United States had 545,000.
47. In addition, the organization and structure of Soviet R&D prevents the
USSR from making the most of its manpower. The lack of attention paid to
enterprise research in the USSR has hindered technological development. Only
12% of R&D workers are employed in industrial enterprises, a situation very
different from that in the United States 32 (see Figure 1). On the one hand,
plants facing day-to-day problems with production are best able to see problems
and opportunities. With little or no R&D capabilities, however, these plants must
rely on outside help. On the other hand, research institutes, unfamiliar with the
capabilities and problems of the plants they serve, tend to develop solutions
that cannot be implemented. For example, "up to 40% of the plant designers
are occupied in unproductive work in correcting projects developed by research
institutes that do not meet the plant's production capabilities." 33 As a result, the
average time from research to production in Soviet industry is five to ten years,
whereas more than 90% of the research projects in US industry are completed
in less than five years 34
48. Although the people concerned with Soviet R&D have long recognized
the importance of beefing up enterprise R&D, not much has been done in this
area. A comparison of the growth of employment in major organizational com-
ponents of R&D shows a sharply contrasting development in the United States
and the USSR. In the USSR, employment in government institutes ("scientific
research institutes") grew much faster during 1951-70 than employment in R&D
at enterprises (see Figure 1). In the United States,. however, growth of R&D
employment in government was only about two-fifths that in enterprises.
49. The USSR's R&D effort during the past two decades has resulted in
technological progress matching the progress of the developed West in most
areas. In making these gains, however, the USSR has had to employ substantially
more R&D workers than the West. This relative inefficiency stems from the
factors discussed above and other factors outside the sphere of R&D related
to the organization and management of the economy.
" In terms of quality, the share may be even smaller because a wage differential of 20%-40%
draws the better researchers out of industry and into higher-paying institutes. (Pravda, 15
January 1972, p. 3.)
? Voprosy ekonomiki i planirovaniya nauchnykh issledovaniy, Moscow, 1968, p. 13. (tr by
Air, FTD)
" Zavlin, Shcherbakov, and Yudelevich, op. cit. p. 133-134.
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Comparison with Other Estimates
50. Few estimates have been made by Westerners of the overall employment
in Soviet R&D. In 1969 the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Devel-
opment (OECD) published estimates for total R&D employment in 1957, 1962,
and 1965-66.36 In 1970, DIA estimated R&D employment for 1955-66.38 Most
frequently, the Soviet official series on employment in "science and science
services" has been used as a surrogate for R&D employment. This series, as
noted earlier, includes many persons not working in R&D who should be excluded
from an R&D estimate, and some persons who are engaged in R&D are not
included in the series. The net result is that the Soviet official series grossly over-
states R&D employment in the 1950s and continues to the present time to over-
state R&D employment but to a lesser degree (see Figure 6).
51. The OECD and DIA estimates of R&D employment and the estimate used
in this report (New) are similar in that they are all based on the Soviet official
series for "science and science services," attempting to net out non-R&D related
employment and add in estimates for R&D employment not covered in the official
series. The estimates differ primarily in assumptions made and sources used to
make estimates of R&D workers not counted in the official series. The most sig-
nificant differences between the OECD and DIA estimates and the New estimate
follow.
OECD and New Estimates
(a) OECD does not exclude social scientists from the "scientific
worker" category, whereas the estimate used in this report excludes social
scientists.
(b) After deducting geologic and hydrometeorological services from
the "science and science services" category, OECD subtracts, alterna-
tively, an additional 20% and 40% of the remaining workers as not
being engaged in R&D activity. This is the basis for OECD's low and
high estimate of R&D employment and tends to offset the failure to
delete social scientists.
(c) OECD does not adjust data for the Soviet redefinition in 1962
that added about 30,000 workers to the Soviet R&D rolls. The New
estimate adjusts Soviet data of before 1962 to account for these un-
registered R&D workers.
DIA and New Estimates
(a) DIA makes no estimate of R&D workers engaged in enterprise
R&D activities.
(b) DIA makes no adjustment for the Soviet redefinition in 1962.
(c) Although DIA estimates that the number of researchers more
than doubled between 1957 and 1962, the number of support personnel
is estimated to have declined.
"E. Zaleski, J.P. Kozlowski, H. Wienert, R.W. Davies, M.J. Berry, and R. Amann, Science
Policy in the USSR, Paris, 1969, p. 501-534.
"Thomas P. Kridler, Soviet Professional Scientific and Technical Manpower, DIA,
ST-CS-01-48-70, February 1970, p. 77-84, UNCLASSIFIED.
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Except for DIA's calculation, the estimates indicate a very sharp rise
in R&D employment between 1957 and 1962, followed by slower growth
to 1966. The relatively slow growth in the DIA estimates for 1957-62
seems clearly inconsistent with the known trends in Soviet R&D during
this period.
Comparison of Estimates of Employment in Soviet R & D
Average Annual Rate of Growth (Percent)
1958-66
1958-62
1963-66
Official*
9.5
12.9
5.5
New**
11.7
16.4
6.1
OECD***
9.9
12.8
6.4
DIA****
6.3
5.1
7.9
*
Official 2,741
Figure 6
V A' 2,465 OEC
***
imate
`Employment in Science and Science Services: N. Kh. 1963, p. 476; N. Kh. 1958, p. 659; N. Kh. 1968, p. 541.
"See line 20 of table 12, in appendix A.
"`OECD, Science Policy in the USSR, Paris, 1969, p. 502.
"""Thomas P. Kridler, Soviet Professional, Scientific, and Technical Manpower, DIA, ST-CS-01 -49-70, February 1970,
p. 81 and Table XXXVI, p. 149.
22 CONFIDENTIAL
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APPENDIX A
Estimates of Employment in US and Soviet
R&D Activity, 1950-70
Neither the United States nor the USSR publish data on total employment
in R&D activity. Other data, however, are published that allow the construction
of such estimates. Although the series for the two countries were made as com-
parable as possible, the wide differences in reporting in the two countries and
ambiguities in Soviet reporting require caution in making direct comparisons.
In particular, a number of persons are included on Soviet R&D rolls who are
not counted in the United States. It is suspected, therefore, that the estimate for
total employment in Soviet R&D may be significantly inflated when compared
with the estimate for the United States. On the other hand, it is believed that
the two series do reflect with considerable accuracy the trends in R&D activity
in the United States and USSR between 1950 and 1970.
The estimates of total Soviet R&D manpower shown in Table 12 were derived
through adjustments to the two published manpower series on scientific workers
(see Figure 4). Briefly, the estimates were derived as follows. First, employment
in geologic-prospecting and hydrometeorological services was deducted from
total "science and science services" employment. Second, social scientists were
deducted from the "scientific worker" category. Third, the number of scientific
workers at academic institutions is reported, but only part of their time is spent
in R&D activity. all persons in research in higher
education establishments should, for purposes of accounting, be counted as only
one-third. This coefficient was used to derive the estimate for academic research.
Finally, estimates were made for the number of persons engaged in R&D
activities in industrial enterprises. In sum, the estimate includes (1) all persons
employed at scientific research institutes (less geologic and hydrometeorological
organizations and social scientists) and project and design organizations and (2)
an estimate of full-time equivalent research being conducted at higher educational
institutions and at enterprises.
Data on the number of scientists and engineers engaged in R&D activity in
the United States, by sector, are published for selected years between 1950 and
1970 (see Table 13). Estimates were made of the number of technicians and
other support personnel in order to make the US data comparable with
Soviet data.
Tables 14 and 15 present detailed data that bear on the R&D effort in the two
countries. All data in the two tables are from official government sources in the
United States and USSR. As discussed in the text, differences in definitions
and coverage make it impossible to compare data directly on engineers in the
two countries.
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Table 12
USSR: Employment in R&D a
1950
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1986
1967
1988
1969
1970
I. Total "science and science services" employment ......
714
992
1,094
1,208
1,326
1,462
1,763
2,011
2,213
2,370
2,497
2,625
2,741
2,850
2,990
3,128
3,238
2.
Geologic and hydrometeorological services..........
277
398
421
427
445
440
436
427
434
453
465
465
467
470
475
479
484
3.
Employment at scientific research institutes .........
437
594
673
781
881
1,022
1,327
1,584
1,779
1,917
2,032
2,160
2,274
2,380
2,515
2,649
2,754
4.
Total "scientific workers............................
163
224
240
262
284
310
354
404
525
566
612
665
712
770
823
883
928
5.
Social scientists. . . ...............................
46
62
66
68
72
75
83
93
110
119
130
138
153
166
178
192
203
(i.
Natural scientists, military scientists, and engineers..
117
162
174
194
212
235
271
311
415
447
482
527
559
604
645
691
725
7.
With advanced degrees .........................
37
62
66
71
75
79
82
86
90
97
104
113
129
144
159
175
192
8. Total "scientific workers" at research institutes ........
71
97
106
122
141
165
200
239
299
327
357,
390
397
428
457
487
516
9.
Social scientists. . . .............................. .
II
18
20
21
23
25
28
33
40
44
49
54
61
68
75
83
89
10.
Natural scientists, military scientists, and engineers..
60
79
86
101
118
140
172
206
259
283
308
336
336
360
382
404
427
11 . Total "scientific workers" at universities .............
87
119
125
132
136
138
147
158
180
197
208
222
264
284
284
284
284
12. Social scientists ..................................
35
44
46
47
49
.50
55
60
70
75
81
84
92
98
103
109
114
13. Natural scientists, military scientists, and engineers..
52
75
79
85
87
88
92
98
110
122
127
138
172
186
181
175
170
14. Performing R&D ....................... :......
17
25
26
28
29
29
31
33
37
41
42
46
57
62
60
58
57
15. 'T'otal "scientific workers" at enterprises ..............
27
33
35
36
38
39
41
43
46
42
49
52
52
58
82
113
128
16. Support workers assisting R&D in enterprises.........
54
66
70
72
76
78
82
86
92
84
98
104
104
116
164
226
256
17. Total R&D employment in industry .................
81
99
105
108
114
117
123
129
138
126
147
156
156
174
246
339
384
I8, Full-time graduate students at R&D institutes........
7
8
7
6
7
8
10
11
14
15
17
18
18
19
19
19
19
19. Graduate students performing R&D. . ... .. .. .. .. .. ..
4
4
4
3
4
4
5
6
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
10
10
20. Total R&D Employment.. ................. ....
528
704
788
899
1,005
1,147
1,458
1 ,719
1,921
2,048
2,179
2,317
2,435
2,558
2,756
2,973
3,116
21. "Scientific workers" ..............................
108
141
151
168
189
212
249
288
349
374
406
443
454
490
534
585
622
22. "Scientific workers" with advanced degrees.........
25
41
44
48
53
58
62
67
67
73
79
86
94
105
116
126
139
? Sources and Methodology
Line I
1950-58-:V. kh. 1958, p. 658-659.
1059 -N, kh. 1959, p. 589.
1960-66-Trud e SSSR, Moscow, 1968, p. 24-25.
1967-68-N. kh. 1963, p. 549.
1960-711-N. kh. 1970, P. 511.
Line 2:
1950 58-N. kh. 1958, p. 658-659.
1959 -Interpolated.
1900-117-Trud v 5SSR, Moscow, 1968, p. 24-25.
1968-70-During 1963-67 the rate of increase was I"/,,.
It is assumed that this rate was maintained during
1968-7(1.
Line 3:
1050-70-Line I minus line 2.
Line 4:
1050-58-h'. kh. 19.58, p. 843.
1959-62-N. kh. 1,960, p. 582.
1983-04-N. kh. 1964, p. 699.
1065-67-Trud v SSSR, Moscow, 1968, p. 247.
1968 -N. kh. 1969, p. 694.
1969-70-N. kh. 1970, p. 656.
Line
Social scientists include historians, philosophers, econo-
mists, philologists, geographers, jurists, pedagogists,
artists, architects, and psychologists.
1950 - l'yssheye ohrazovaniyc v SSSR, Moscow, 1961,
p. 204.
1955-57-Interpolated.
1958 -N. kh. 1958, p. 845.
1959 -N. kh. 1959, p. 756.
1960 -N. kh. 1.960, p. 784.
1961 -N. kh. 1961, p. 703.
1962 -N. kh. 1960, p. 583.
1963 -N. kh. 1,968, p. 590.
1964 -N. kh. 1904, p. 700.
1965 -N. kh. 1965, p. 710.
1966 -Trud v SSSR, Moscow, 1968, p. 248.
1967 -N. kh. 1967, p. 810.
1968 -N. kh. 1968, p. 696.
1969 -N. kh. 1969, p. 695.
1970 -N. kh. 1970, p. 657.
Lin, ti:
Natural scientists include physicists, mathematicians,
chemists, biologists, geologists, agronomists, veteri-
narians, medical and pharmaceutical researchers,
and research engineers.
1950-70-Line 4 minus line 5.
Line 7:
1950 -Vestnik slatistiki, No. 4, 1962, p. 66 and
N. kh. 1960, p. 784.
1955-70-Same sources as for line 5.
Line 8:
1950, 1958, 1960, 1964-65-N. kh. 196.5, p. 709.
1955. 1959-N. kh. 1960, p. 782.
1956-57-N. kh. 1959, p. 754.
1961-N. kh. 1962, p. 582.
1962-63-N. kh. 1968, p. 589.
1966-Vornin, op. cit., p. 214.
1967-A.A. Zyagin and V.N. Mosier, Plani,ovaniye truda
i zaraholnoy platry v N11 i KB, Moscow, 1969, p. 3,
reports combined employment in Scientific Research
Institutes (NIIy) and Instutions of Higher Education
(VUZy). V.P. Yelyutin (ed) Vysshaya shkola SSSR za
50 let, Moscow, 1967, p. 144, reports 263,200 science
workers at VUZy in 1967.
1968-69-Interpolated.
1970-Zyagin and Mosin, op. cit., minus 263,000 assumed
to he at universities.
Line 9:
1950, 1960-I'yssheye ohrazovaniyc v SSSR, Moscow,
1961, p. 204.
1055-59, 1961-70-The share of "scientific workers" in
the social sciences employed in scientific research
institutes increased from 23.9% in 1950 to 33.7% in
1960 (line 9 as a percentage of line 6). It is assumed
that the increase occurred at I percentage point per
year during the 1950s and continued at that rate in the
1960s. The shares are applied to the number of social
scientists reported in line 5.
Line 10-
1950-70-Line 8 minus line 9.
Line 11:
1950-67-Same sources as for line 8.
1968-70-Assumed to remain at 1967 level.
Line 12:
1950-70-Line 5 minus line 9.
Line 13:
1950-70-Line I I minus line 12.
Line 14:
1950-70-Reportedly, about one-third of the time of
Soviet scientists employed by universities is spent
performing research. N.A. Chinakal et al (eds), Pufi
poepsheniyu effektienosti nauchnogo truda, Novosibirsk,
1966, p. 81. Line 14 is 33.3% of line 13.
Line 15-
1950-61-Beginning in 1962 the definition of "scien-
tific worker" was adjusted to include technicians
without a graduate degree carrying out scientific
work at industrial enterprises and in project-design
organizations. To the datreported for 1950-61,
which is derived as a residual (see lines 8 and 11), was
added an estimate for the reported category. It is
assumed that the rate of growth for this category
during 1962-65 (4.4% per year) prevailed during
1950-61.
1962-70-Derived as a residual; total scientific workers
minus those employed in research institutes and
universities.
Line 16-
1 950-70-Assumed to he twice line 15.
Line 17:
1950-70-Sum of lines 15 and 16.
Line 18:
1950, 1960, 1965, 1969-70-.N. kh. 1971, p. 661.
1955 -N. kh. 1958, p. 848, adjusted.
1956-59-N. 69. 1959, p. 760.
1961 -N. kh. 1961, p. 707.
1962-63-N. kh. 1963, p. 595.
1964 -N. kh. 1965, p. 715.
1966-68-N. kh. 1968, p. 700.
Line. 19:
1050-70-Assumed to be one-half of line 18.
Line 20:
1950-70-Line 3 plus lines 14, 17, and 19 less line 9.
Line 21:
1050-70-The sum of lines 10, 14, 15, and 19.
Line 22:
1950-70-It is assumed that the proportion of all
natural scientists, military scientists, and engineers
with advanced degree (line 7) working in scientific
research institutes is the same as the proportion of
naturalscientists, military scientists, and engineers-
irrespective of degree held (line 10)-to the total
number of natural scientists, military scientists, and
engineers (line 6). It is assumed further that those
natural scientists with advanced degrees not employed
in scientific research institutes are employed at
universities and spend one-third of their time engaged
in R&D. Thus, line 22 is obtained by the following
formula:
line 10 Ir line 10
Line 22 =line 6 (line 7) + 0.33[line 7 - line 6 (line 7)
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Table 13
United States: Employment in R&D a
1.
Federal Government ...............
86.7
102.4
106.0
96.1
147.7
160.5
2.
Scientists and engineers...........
37.7
44.5
46.1
41.8
64.2
69.8
3.
Technicians .....................
11.3
13.4
13.8
12.5
19.3
20.9
4.
Support personnel ................
37.7
44.5
46.1
41.8
64.2
69.8
5.
Industry b ........................
239.8
427.8
640.2
671.0
846.6
919.6
6.
Scientists and engineers...........
95.9
171.1
256.1
268.4
348.4
372.3
7.
Technicians .....................
48.0
85.6
128.0
134.2
149.8
175.0
8.
Support personnel ................
95.9
171.1
256.1
268.4
348.4
372.3
9.
Universities and colleges b...........
33.2
50.8
69.3
93.8
99.9
123.3
10.
Scientists and engineers c .........
21.5
32.8
44.6
60.8
64.5
80.0
11.
Technicians .....................
0.9
1.6
2.4
2.6
3.2
3.3
12.
Support personnel ................
10.8
16.4
22.3
30.4
32.2
40.0
13.
Other nonprofit institutions b........
6.5
10.7
14.3
17.9
34.9
40.5
14.
Scientists and engineers...........
3.6
5.9
7.9
9.9
19.4
22.5
15.
Technicians .....................
1.1
1.8
2.4
3.0
5.8
6.8
16.
Support personnel ................
1.8
3.0
4.0
5.0
9.7
11.2
17.
Total employment in R&D.........
366.2
591.7
829.8
878.8
1,129.1
1
,243.9
18.
Scientists and engineers...........
158.7
254.3
354.7
380.9
496.5
544.6
19.
Technicians .....................
61.3
102.4
146.6
152.3
178.1
206.0
20.
Support personnel ................
146.2
235.0
328.5
345.6
454.5
493.3
a Sources and Methodology
Line 1:
Sum of lines 2, 3, and 4.
Line 2:
1958, 1965, and 1970-National Science Foundation, NSF 72-300, National Patterns of R&D
Resources, 1953-72, p. 34.
1960-Hugh Folk, The Shortage of Scientists and Engineers, Lexington, Mass., 1970, p. 69.
1950 and 1955-Derived as a residual, line 14 less lines 6 and 10.
Line 3:
Relationship derived from 1962 data in National Science Foundation, NSF 64-28, Scientific
and Technical Manpower Resources, p. 65.
Line 4:
It is assumed that for each scientist or engineer performing R&D there is one clerical or other
type of support worker.
Line 5:
Sum of lines 6, 7, and 8.
Line 6:
1958, 1960, 1965, and 1970-Same methodology as for line 2.
1950 and 1955-The number of scientists and engineers primarily employed in R&D was
adjusted to a full-time equivalent basis using the relationship derived from 1954 data in
National Science Foundation, NSF 68-30, Employment of Scientists and Engineers in the
United States, 1950-66, p. 22, and NSF 72-300, National Patterns of R&D Resources, 1953-72,
p. 34.
Line 7:
1950, 1955, 1958, and 1960-Based on the relationship derived for 1962 from National Science
Foundation, NSF 64-28, Scientific and Technical Manpower Resources, p. 60.
1965-Based on the relationship derived for 1966 from Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bul-
letin 1609, Scientific and Technical Personnel in Industry, 1961-66, p. 58.
Line 8:
Same methodology as for line 4.
CONFIDENTIAL 25
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Table 13
United States: Employment in R&D (Continued)
Line 9:
Sum of lines 10, 11, and 12.
Line 10:
1958, 1965, and 1970-Same as methodology as for line 2.
1960-Same methodology as for line 2 for scientists and engineers (including graduate
students) employed in R&D at universities and colleges.
1950 and 1955-Same methodology as for line 6 for scientists and engineers (including
graduate students) employed in R&D at universities and colleges.
1950, 1955, and 1960-Number of scientists and engineers employed at federally funded
research and development centers (FFRDCs) computed using the average annual rate of
growth for 1955 to 1958 derived from National Science Foundation data for 1950 and 1955
and the average annual rate of growth for 1959 to 1961 for 1960. The number of graduate
students employed at FFRDCs in 1950 and 1955 is assumed to be the same as in 1954, and
the number in 1960 is assumed to be the same as in 1961.
Line 11:
The number of technicians employed in universities and colleges is assumed to be negligible
because of the use of graduate students as technicians. The number of technicians employed
in FFRDCs is based on the relationship noted in line 3.
Line 12:
It is assumed that for every two scientists or engineers performing R&D there is one clerical or
other type of support worker.
Line 13:
Sum of lines 14, 15, and 16.
Line 14:
1958, 1965, and 1970-Same methodology as for line 2.
1950 and 1955-Computed using the average annual rate of growth for 1955 to 1958 derived
from National Science Foundation data.
1960-Computed using the average annual rate of growth for 1959 to 1961 derived from National
Science Foundation data.
Line 15:
Same methodology as for line 3.
Line 16:
Same methodology as for line 12.
Line 17:
Sum of lines 18, 19, and 20.
Line 18:
1958, 1965, and 1970-Same methodology as for line 2.
1950 and 1955-Same methodology as for line 6.
1960-Sum of lines 2, 6, 10, and 14.
Line 19:
Sum of lines 3, 7, 11, and 15.
Line 20:
Sum of lines 4, 8, 12, and 16.
b Including professional R&D personnel employed at federally funded research and development
centers administered by organizations in the sector.
C Including graduate students. The full-time equivalent of graduate students employed in R&D
at universities and colleges and at federally funded research and development centers was 7,500 in
1958, 13,400 in 1965, and 18,700 in 1970.
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Table 14
USSR: Annual Graduations in Engineering, by Field a
Thousand
Persons
Percent of
Total
Graduates
Thousand
Persons
Percent of
Total
Graduates
Thousand
Persons
Percent of
Total
Graduates
Thousand
Persons
Percent of
Total
Graduates
1970 as
a percent
of 1950
Total graduations ...............................
37.0
100.0
120.0
100.0
170.0
100.0
257.0
100.0
694.6
Geology and survey of mineral resource deposits....
1.7
4.6
3.9
3.2
3.2
1.9
5.1
2.0
300.0
Exploitation of mineral resource deposits ...........
1.4
3.8
5.3
4.4
4.0
2.4
6.3
2.5
450.0
Power engineering ...............................
2.4
6.5
8.4
7.0
7.0
4.1
10.5
4.1
437.5
Metallurgy ......................................
1.4
3.8
3.9
3.2
4.8
2.8
6.5
2.5
464.3
Machine building and instrument making ..........
9.1
24.6
30.6
25.5
46.0
27.1
69.0
26.8
758.2
Electrical engineering and electroinstrument making.
1.4
3.8
8.1
6.7
24.6
14.5
40.5
15.8
2,892.9
Radio technology and communications .............
1.4
3.8
6.3
5.2
14.0
8.2
19.8
7.7
1 ,414.3
Chemical technology .............................
2.6
7.0
5.7
4.7
10.1
5.9
16.1
6.3
619.2
Forestry engineering and technology of woods,
cellulose, and paper ............................
0.7
1.9
3.7
3.1
2.9
1.7
3.3
1.3
471.4
Technology of food products ......................
2.3
6.2
3.5
2.9
4.8
2.8
7.9
3.1
343.5
Technology of consumer goods ....................
1.2
3.2
3.1
2.6
3.2
1.9
5.4
2.1
450.0
Construction ....................................
4.9
13.2
17.7
14.7
21.3
12.5
30.3
11.8
618.4
Geodesy and cartography .........................
0.3
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.9
0.5
1.0
0.4
333.3
Hydrology and meteorology ......................
0:4
1.0
0.7
0.6
1.0
0.6
1.1
0.4
275.0
Transport (operations) ...........................
3.1
8.4
6.6
5.5
9.6
5.6
14.9
5.8
480.6
Agriculture .....................................
2.7
7.3
11.9
9.9
12.6
7.4
19.3
7.5
470.7
a Total graduations are from N. kh. 1970, p. 119. Other data are from N. kh. 1970, p. 646, and previous annual issues. Data for agriculture are derived as a residual.
Because of rounding, components may not add to the totals shown.
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United States: Distribution of Natural Scientists, by Field, and Number of Engineers a
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Thou-
sand
Persons
Per-
cent
Total natural scientists and engineers n..
550.8
100.0
806.3
100.0
995.1
100.0
1,051.3
100.0
1,097.3
100.0
1,245.5
100.0
1,204.3
100.0
1,273.5
100.0
1,320.1
100.0
1,361.3
100.0
1,412.8
100.0
1,543.2
100.0
1,577.3
100.0
1,710.0
100.0
Natural scientists ...................
Of which:
146.3
26.6
208.5
25.9
268.9
27.0
287.5
27.3
300.5
27.4
316.0
25.4
334.8
27.8
355.1
27.9
378.8
28.7
395.5
29.1
416.8
29.5
NA
NA
494.8
31.4
610.0
35.7
Physicists and mathematicians.. .
27.2
4.9
40.2
5.0
53.7
5.4
59.0
5.6
62.7
5.7
66.1
5.3
71.7
6.0
77.3
6.1
83.5
6.3
87.9
6.5
92.8
6.6
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Chemists ......................
51.2
9.3
72.8
9.0
89.3
9.0
94.3
9.0
98.4
9.0
101.6
8.2
105.6
8.8
108.7
8.5
113.5
8.6
116.0
8.5
119.3
8.4
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Biological scientists .............
19.9
3.6
27.3
3.4
39.0
3.9
42.5
4.0
44.7
4.1
46.9
3.8
48.9
4.1
51.3
4.0
54.3
4.1
55.6
4.1
56.8
4.0
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Geologists and geophysicists.....
11.2
2.0
15.3
1.9
18.4
1.8
19.1
1.8
18.5
1.7
18.7
1.5
19.2
1.6
20.4
1.6
21.5
1.6
23.6
1.7
24.4
1.7
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Other physical scientists c.......
9.7
1.8
16.5
2.0
19.7
2.0
20.5
1.9
21.2
1.9
22.8
1.8
23.3
1.9
24.4
1.9
25.5
1.9
26.2
1.9
28.3
2.0
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Agricultural scientists...........
17.2
3.1
22.6
2.8
27.7
2.8
29.9
2.8
30.9
2.8
32.8
2.6
35.8
3.0
39.0
3.1
42.1
3.2
44.7
3.3
47.6
3.4
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Medical scientists ..............
9.2
1.7
12.9
1.6
19.6
2.0
21.1
2.0
22.7
2.1
25.5
2.0
28.8
2.4
32.7
2.6
37.2
2.8
40.9
3.0
46.2
3.3
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Engineers d ........................
404.6
73.5
597.8
74.1
726.1
73.0
763.8
72.7
796.7
72.6
929.5
74.6
869.4
72.2
918.3
72.1
941.3
71.3
965.8
70.9
996.0
70.5
NA
NA
1,082.5
68.6
1,100.0
64.3
a Sources
1950-66-National Science Foundation, NSF 68-30, op. cit., p. 20, passim.
1968-70-Estimated at the National Science Foundation.
b Because of rounding, components may not add to the totals shown.
c Including metallurgists and other specialties classified by the USSR as engineering.
d Including all persons working in engineering positions, irrespective of degrees held.
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APPENDIX B
Occupational Content of the "Scientific Workers" Category
as Defined in the Soviet 1970 Census'
Directors and all faculty members of Insti-
tutions of Higher Education (VUZy), ex-
cept teachers of physical culture
Directors of scientific-research establishments
Agroclimatologist-agronomist
Agroclimatologist, other
Agrometeorologist-agronomist
Agrometeorologist, other
Agronomist scientific worker
Agrochemist scientific worker
Academician (Akademik)
Academician-department secretary
Anthropologist-physician
Anthropologist, other
Archeographer scientific worker
Archeographer, other
Archeologist scientific worker
Archeologist, other
Archivist scientific worker
Architect scientific worker
Graduate student (aspirant)
Assistent ' agronomist
Assistent architect
Assistent physician
Assistent of clinic
Assistent of laboratory science
Assistent artist
Assistent other than above, in scientific re-
search establishments
Astronomer scientific worker
Aerologist engineer
Aerologist, other
Bacteriologist physician scientific worker
Bacteriologist scientific worker
Bacteriologist (in scientific research institu-
tions )
Bibliographer scientific worker
Bioclimatologist scientific worker
Biologist-agronomist
Biologist-physician
Biologist-laboratory worker
Biologist scientific worker
Biologist, other
Biophysicist
Biochemist-physician
Biochemist laboratory worker
Biochemist scientific worker
Biochemist, other
Botanist laboratory worker
Botanist scientific worker
Botanist, other
Virologist-bacteriologist
Virologist-physician
Virologist, other
Vice President, Academy of Science
Orientalist
Physician scientific worker
Geneticist
Geobotanist
Geographer scientific worker
Geologist scientific worker
Geometrician
Geomorphologist
Geophysicist scientific worker
Geochemist scientific worker
Hydraulics scientific worker
Hydrobiologist
Hydrogeologist scientific worker
Hydrographer scientific worker
Hydrodynamics scientific worker
Hydrologist scientific worker
Hydroreclamation scientific worker
Hydrometeorologist
Hydromechanics scientific worker
Histologist
Active member of the Academy of Sciences
Doktor Nauk (persons with title Doctor of
Science), except in VUZy
Candidates for the degree Doktor Nauk
Reclamation scientific worker
Metallurgist scientific worker
Meteorological engineer
Meteorological laboratory worker
Meteorologist scientific worker
Meteorologist, other
Mycologist scientific worker
Holders of title "Honored Scientist"
Zoogeographer
Zoologist laboratory worker
Zoologist, other
Engineer scientific worker
Art critic
' The categories listed in this Appendix are those given in Sistematicheskiy slovar' zanyatiy,
Moscow, 1969, p. 59-62, and are given in the same order as they appeared in that publication.
n Assistent is a scholarly title analogous to the title "Assistant Professor" in the United States.
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Researcher scientific worker
Researcher, other (at scientific research estab-
lishments)
Historian archivist
Art historian
Research historian
Literature historian
Historian scientific worker
Historian, other
Ichthyologist
Kandidat Nauk (persons with Candidate of
Science), except at VUZy
Cinematographer
Climatologist
Consultant on scientific disciplines (except at
VUZy)
Linguist
Literature specialist
Lithologist
Magnetization engineer
Magnetization, other
Mathematician scientific worker
Paleontologist-geologist
Paleontologist, other
Pathophysiologist
Petrographer scientific worker
Microbacteriologist
Microbacteriologist physician (at scientific re-
search institutes)
Microbacteriologist laboratory worker
Microbacteriologist (at scientific research in-
stitutes )
Mineralogist
Museum operator
Musicologist
Scientific worker laboratorian
Scientific worker, other
Scientific worker reviewer (academies, scien-
tific research establishments)
Scientific worker-director
Scientific worker-associate
Oceanographer
Orientalist scientific worker
Ornithologist
Seismologist
Synoptical scientific worker
Sociologist
Theatrical specialist
Technologist scientific worker
Toxicologist scientific worker
Scientific secretary
Scientific curator of museum
Scientific expert
Pharmacologist physician
Pharmacologist, other
Physicist scientific worker
Physiologist physician
Plankton specialist
Soil scientist scientific worker
Professor-consultant
Professor (except at VUZy)
Chairman, Department of the Academy of
Sciences
Chairman, of the Presidium of a branch of
the Academy of Sciences
President of the Academy of Sciences
Psychologist
Psychophysiologist
Radiophysicist engineer
Radiophysicist, other
Roentgenologist scientific worker
Roentgeno-radiologist scientific worker
Director, agrobiological station (scientific)
Director, Academy (scientific research)
Director, of independent archives (in re-
publics, krays, oblasts, districts)
Director of archival preservation
Director of aspirants (except in VUZy)
Director of biological science stations
Director of botanical gardens
Director of bureaus of science
Director of computer centers (science)
Director of hydrometeorological station (ex-
cept stations associated with transportation)
Physiologist laboratory worker
Physiologist scientific worker
Physiologist, all other
Philologist
Director of group, laboratory, or office (at
scientific research and design establishments
except those serving construction)
Director of National Forest
Director of zonal scientific research stations
Director of zoos
Director of scientific research institutes
Director of institutes for scientific information
Director of design institute (except those serv-
ing construction)
Director of the Cabinet (at scientific research
institutes and design organizations except
those serving construction)
Director of design bureau (except those serv-
ing construction)
Director of scientific research laboratory (at
enterprises and establishments)
Director of problem laboratory
Director of laboratory (at scientific research
institutes and design bureaus except those
serving construction)
Director of meteorological station
Director of scientific administration for the
preservation of nature
Director scientific research
Administration
Director of observatory
Director of experimental station (independent)
Director of experimental economic research
administration
Director of a department (holding a scientific,
technical, or production specialty) at scien-
tific research or design establishments, ex-
cept those serving construction and VUZy
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Director of a department (without a specialty)
at scientific research or design establish-
ments, except those serving construction
Director of independent design bureau except
those serving construction
Director of radiometer station
Director of radiometeorological station
Director of academic branch at scientific re-
search institute
Director of branch institute at scientific re-
search institute
Director of land slippage station
Philosopher
Phytopathologist scientific worker
Chemist biologist
Chemist scientific worker
Curator of funds scientific worker
Corresponding member of the Academy of
Sciences
Economic geographer
Economist scientific worker
Electrophysicist scientific worker
Embryologist
Endocrinologist husbandry specialist
Power engineering scientific worker
Entomologist scientific worker
Ethnographer
Linguist
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APPENDIX C
Occupations and Duties Associated With Soviet R&D'
Senior research worker:
Doctor of Science .............. Independently formulates large basic and applied
research ideas, goals, principles, and methods of
solution; directs branch development; actively
guides the preparation of cadres; is involved in
creative literature activities; leads scientific-tech-
nical participation in deciding most work goals in
research and design; carries out especially complex
calculations; consults with other institutions on
scientific-technical questions.
Candidate of Science Does the above but in a narrower scientific area;
writes complex accounts and works competitively
on complex technical goals.
Junior scientific worker:
Candidate of Science Participates in carrying out basic and applied research
or design work under the direction of a senior
scientific worker or laboratory head; independently
solves narrow (single) theoretical questions; works
out the methods to be used in experiments; writes
up sections of accounts and of technical docu-
mentations.
Engineer ................... .... Conducts research and design work under the direc-
tion of a junior scientific worker or senior engineer;
independently carries out calculations of measuring
methods; writes up sections of accounts and of
technical documentations.
Head designer, chief specialist ........ Independently works on design goals or large sec-
tions, directs research, writes up the most complex
sections of technical documentations; enters into
agreement on scientific questions with other in-
stitutions; works out technical goals for subdivision.
Head engineer and engineer-designer- Independently or as the head of a group of workers
Category I engages in a narrow part of applied research or
design in connection with a stated goal; designs
and calculates more complicated elements of meas-
uring methods; chooses scientific-technical solu-
tions within the limits of stated goals; parcels out
the work for the group; compiles accounts for the
completion of work and for technical documenta-
tion.
Senior engineer and engineer-designer- Independently or as the head of a group of from
Category II three to six persons, conducts applied research or
design within the limits of technical knowledge;
writes sections of accounts; turns out simple tech-
nical documentation and presents it for the ex-
amination of head engineers or designers (category
I); designs more complex documentation.
' Ye.I. Kissel', Organizatsiya truda v issledovatel'skikh i proyektnykh uchrezhdeniyakh, Mos-
cow, 1969, p. 173-174.
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Engineer and engineer-designer- Works out simple diagrams, designs, and processes
Category III under the direction of a more qualified specialist;
carries out simple calculations for the majority of
experiments, tests, and measures.
Senior technician .................... Under the direction of an engineer, executes simple
diagrams and designs; regulates measuring and
test equipment; participates in the preparation of
prototypes; has excellent knowledge of measuring
techniques and methods of measuring; registers the
results of experiments.
Technician ......................... Participates in the preparation of prototypes and
testing and tuning simple equipment; has a knowl-
edge of measuring devices, regulates their use, and
registers the results of measures.
Laboratory assistant (without specialized Helps more highly trained science workers, providing
education) them with needed accessories (materials, com-
ponents, technical documents, literature, measuring
instruments, etc.); moves equipment and instru-
ments, etc.
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Confidential
Confidential
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