TRANSLATION NO. 2 ARTIFICIAL EARTH SATELLITES

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• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 158
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 4, 2014
• Sequence Number: 6
• Publication Date: September 4, 1959
• Content Type: REPORT

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STAT
TRANSLATION NO. 2
TIFICiAL EARTH SATELLITES
MJET PROPULSION LABORATORY
D= ALIF OR NIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
STAT
SEPTEMBER 4, 1959
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"
National .Aeronautics and Space Administration
Contract No. NASw-6
ASTRONAUTICS INFORMATION
Translation No. 2
ARTIFICIAL EARTH SATELLITES
Results of Scientific Investigations
Obtained with the Help of the Third
Soviet Artificial Earth Satellite
Publication of Academy of Sciences, USSR
Moscow, 1958
Translated by Joseph L. Zygielbaum
JET PROPULSION LABORATORY
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena 3, California
September 4, 1959
STAT
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Li
71INJ
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JPLAI/Translation No. 2
CONTENTS
Page
1. Sedov, L. I., "The Dynamic Effects on the Motion of
Earth Satellites" 1
2. Shvidkovsky, E. G., "Certain Results of Measurements of
Thermodynamic Parameters of the Stratosphere Using Help
of Meteorological Rockets" 15
3. Mirtov, B. A., "Perturbations of the Gas Environment
Caused by a Flight of a Satellite" 24
4. Michnevich, V. V., "Preliminary Results in Determining
the AtmoSpheric Density Above 100 km" 44
5. Istomin, V. G., "Investigation of the Ion Composition
of the Earth's Atmosphere with Rockets and Satellites", . 57
6. Krasovsky, V. I., "Soviet Investigations of the
Ionosphere with the Help of Rockets and Satellites" . . . 65
7. Dolginov, S. Sh., Zhuzgov, L. N., and Pushkov, N. V.,
"Preliminary Report on Geomagnetic Measurements by the
Third Soviet Earth Satellite" 91
8. Komissarov, O. D., Nazarova, T. N., Neugodov, L. N.,
Paloskov, S. M., and Rusakova, L. Z., "Investigation of
Micrometeorites with Rockets and Satellites"
99
9. Krasovsky, V. I., Kushnir, Y. M., Bordovsky, G. A.,
Zacharov, G. F., and Svyetlitsky, E. M., "Discovery of
Corpuscles with the Help of Sputnik III" 109
10. Vyernov, S. N., Vakulov, P. V., Gorchakov, E. V.,
Logachev, Y- I., and Chudakov, A. E., "The Study of
Soft Components of Cosmic Rays Beyond the Limits of
Atmosphere" 113
11. Kurnosova, L. V., Razorenov, L. A., Fradkin, M. I.,
"Heavy Nuclei in Primary Cosmic Radiation" 129
12. Vavilov, V. S., Landsman, A. P., Subashev, V. K.,
"Solar Batteries" 137
13. Isakovich, M. A., Roy, N. A., "Acoustical Method for
the Measurement of Mechanical Parameters of
Meteorites" 150
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1. THE DYNAMIC EFFECTS ON THE MOTION OF
ARTIFICIAL EARTH SATELLITES
L. I. Sedov
At the present time, the laws of motion of artificial Earth
satellites are investigated experimentally by optical means and radio
observations processed on the basis of theoretical orbital calculations
and general statistical procedures relating to large numbers of
measurements. Data concerning the laws of motion of a satellite in
orbit are necessary to correlate scientific measurements to points in
space for the purpose of forecasting satellite position and life span
and for solving certain geophysical problems (revealing and accurately
defining anomolies in the Earth's gravitational field, determining
density distribution in the atmosphere, etc.). Data on the rotation
and orientation of a satellite in space are very important for many
research problems.
The theoretical calculation of a satellite's orbit and its motion
around the center of gravity is connected with an analysis and
calculation of forces acting on the satellite which are conditioned
by the Earth's attraction, by the satellite's interaction with the
atmosphere surrounding the Earth, and by the Earth's electromagnetic
field. Results show that the perturbing effects of the Sun, the Moon,
and meteoric particles on the motion of a satellite are quite small,
and at the present time it is not necessary to take them into account.
The problems of satellite motion, taking into consideration only
the Newtonian gravitational forces, have been for a long time a well-
studied problem of celestial mechanics and are analogous to the
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problems of the motion of the Moon and the planets. The orbit of a
satellite in a system of coordinates moving progressively relAtive
to the stars and the center of the Earth is, to the extent of one
turn, close to an osculating ellipse at each investigated point of
this turn.
The location of an osculating ellipse having its axis at the
center of the Earth can be determined by the longitude of the
ascending loop Q, by the angle of inclination of the elliptic plane
to the plane of the equator (inclination of orbit i), and by the
distance of the perigee from the loop m (see Fig. l). The major
semiaxis a and the eccentricity e may be used in the capacity of
parameters for the definition of the ellipse. The law of motion
pertaining to one turn is almost analogous to Kepler's...law of motion
for an osculating ellipse.
Because of the Earth's oblateness and gravitational anomolies,
the indicated parameters of an elliptical orbit are subjected to
perturbations and are slightly changing with the passage of time.
The perturbations are characterized by the average of secular
deviations, which are nonzero, and by certain small oscillations.
As is known, the basic secular effects of the Earth's oblateness
lead to proportional variations of Q and w. For the first Soviet
artificial satellites, the angle Q varied by approximately 3 deg
from east to west, and the longitude of the perigee w descended by
approximately 0.4 deg in 24 hours.
Under the influence of Newtonian gravitational forces, the
potential qualitative and characteristic properties of the satellite's
motion, and also' that of a solid body can, insofar as the center of
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gravity is concerned, be traced on the basis of classic examples of
lunar or terrestrial motion. The construction of a quantitative
theory for satellites is essentially connected with a variety of
initial conditions and with a possible difference in the satellite's
moments of inertia in relation to its central axis. New essential
effects are connected with the consideration of forces of the
satellite's interaction with the atmosphere and the Earth's electro-
magnetic field.
A large number of papers (Refs. 1-5) dedicated to the study of
problems involving air resistance and its effect on satellite motion
have made some conclusions concerning the influence of these forces.
However, until recently, a fundamental difficulty has been the absence
of data pertaining to properties of the atmosphere at high altitudes.
Since the linear velocities of the rotation of the satellites in
relation to the center of gravity are small in comparison with the
velocity of the center of gravity in relation to the atmosphere, the
influence of rotation becomes essential only through the changing
orientation of the satellite in relation to the
center of gravity.
In published works the influence of higher dynamic forces has
been analyzed on the assumption that the effect of the air is reduced
to the resistance force W, which is directed against the velocity of
the center of gravity. The definition of the resistance W is reduced
to the definition of the coefficient Cx in the formula
velocity vector of the
Sv2
'W = C p
x 2
(1)
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where p is the density of the atmosphere in the vicinity of the
satellite's flight, S is the overall area of the external surface,
and v is the velocity of the satellite.
At the present time, the coefficient Cx is determined theoretically
by calculations employing methods of molecular aerodynamics. Generally
speaking, this coefficient depends on the atmospheric temperatures, the
satellite's velocity, and the interaction of molecules and atoms of
the atmosphere with particles which make up the surface of the
satellite. At the same time, the magnitude Cx can essentially depend
on the geometric form and orientation of the satellite in relation to
the velocity vector of the center of gravity. A theoretical analysis
which was conducted in regard to the Soviet satellites, taking into
consideration information on the satellites' rotation around the
center of gravity, leads to the numerical values of Cx, which may differ
from the initial values or change in the course of time to the extent
of 30, 60, and 30%, for Sputniks I, II, and III, respectively.
During the movement of a charged satellite through a plasma,
additional resistance is formed which, by large negative charges
(about 30 volts) in the presence of a satellite of small dimensions
and at high altitudes, can increase Cx by two times (Ref. 6). In the
case of satellites with large dimensions, this effect apparently does
not exist. Evaluations which were carried out indicate that the
resistance force which is stipulated by the interaction of the
satellite with the Earth's magnetic field is not essential.
At altitudes of about 230 km, the resistance force is very small
since the atmospheric density p is small. According to recently
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obtained data, the density of such altitudes is on the order of
3 x 10-13 g/cm3. In the case of Sputnik III, the resistance force
in the perigee is on the order of W = 4 grams and W/G 3 x 10-6
(where G is the weight of the satellite).
Published theories on satellite motion which take resistance into
consideration were developed with the assumption that Cx = constant
and that the density decreases with altitude according to a given law.
Particularly, the following law of density drop is widely used in
practice:
where po is the density at the altitude z0' and z is the altitude
reckoned by a standard from the surface of the Earth's sphere. The
quantity H may be considered a constant for the isothermic regions of
the atmosphere.
Observational data and calculations of resistance for nonoriented
satellites of nonspherical shape indicate the necessity of taking into
account the variation Cx as a result of rotation of the satellite in
relation to its center of gravity.
An analysis indicates that the presence of the resistance force
W leads to secular variations of the orbit which are expressed by the
decrease of eccentricity and the drop of the perigee for an osculating
ellipse, whereby a decrease in the period of revolution T occurs. The
perigee drops slowly and the apogee drops more rapidly.
If the difference in altitudes of the apogee and perigee is
considerably larger than H, then the initial retardation takes place
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in a small region around the perigee, where the density is greatest.
It should be mentioned that in this case the effects of aerodynamic
moments on the rotation of the satellite are also exerted in the
vicinity of the perigee. We assume that a satellite is limited by the
plane of rotation and is dynamically symmetrical in relation to the
axis of rotation. In the absence of perturbing moments relative to
the center of gravity, it is known that the moment vector of the
quantitative movement remains constant while the rotation axis of the
satellite completes a regular precession around the moment vector of
the quantitative movement.
It is obvious that the aerodynamic forces create a small
perturbing motion. The resultant of aerodynamic forces applied to the
axis of the satellite's rotation--other things being equal, this occurs
for a mirror-position location of the axis of rotation of the satellite
in relation to the plane v, which passes through the velocity vector
of the center of gravity and the moment vector of the quantitative
motion--is expressed by vectors which happen to be specular images of
each other in relation to the plane v. Hence it follows that the
moment vector of aerodynamic forces in relation to the center of
gravity, over a period of one precession, is perpendicular to the
plane v. If the essential values of aerodynamic moments are effective
only in the region of the perigee, then it follows from the preceding
considerations that the secular part of the perturbed rotation
represents a slow precession of the moment vector of quantitative
motion relative to the tangent to the orbit at the perigee. This
assumption was also established in Ref. 7 by means of a more detailed
investigation of perturbed motion.
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The analysis shows that in the case of the second satellite the
perturbing moments of gravitational forces are comparable to aero-
dynamic moments. As is known, the gravitational moments cause a
precession of the moment vector of the quantitative movement with
reference to a standard of the orbital plane.
In Ref. 7, the simultaneous effect of aerodynamic and gravitational
moments as well as the specification of the nature of perturbed
motion, with xelation to orbital regression, were also made subject
of discussion.
The interaction of the Earth's magnetic field with the rotating
metallic body of a satellite generates Foucault currents in the body
of the satellite and precipitates retardation moments in the rotation
of the satellite near the center of mass. This must be taken into
consideration when investigating the rotation of a light, non-
stabilized satellite. Obviously, in some cases, the law of rotation
which was altered under the influence of the magnetic field can,
through an alternate orientation, exert an influence on the magnitude
of resistance and hence on the life span of the satellite.
Since the moments of inertia relative. to the central axis of the
carrier rocket of Sputnik I vary significantly, it may be assumed,
as a result of the casual character of the initial disturbances, that
the angle of nutation must be close to 90 deg. The resulting motion
resembles a condition of "tumbling". Observations confirm this
conclusion. Analysis of experimental results of the investigation
of solar radiation permits some conclusions to be drawn on the
movement of Sputnik II around the center of mass in the beginning
of its existence (November 3, 1957). The parameters of motion around
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the center of mass proved to be as follows: the precession period is
206 ? 10 sec; the rate of precession is 1.7 deg/sec; the angle of
nutation is 86 ? 1 deg; the angle between the vector of the kinetic
moment and the orientation towards the Sun is 90 ? 5 deg.
Optical observations of the variations in brightness of
Sputnik II were conducted at various locations in January, 1958. The
strong variation of brightness intensity can easily be explained by a
state of movement near the center of mass which resembles tumbling.
The period of precession of the satellite will equal twice the period
of the satellite's brightness variation, and optical observations of
Sputnik II have confirmed that the indicated period exists. According
to optical observations of Sputniks I and III, the precession period
of their respective carrier rockets lasted, respectively, about 80 sec
and less than 15 sec.
The orientation of the third satellite was determined with the
help of data obtained through the processing of readings taken from
instruments which fix the position change of the magnetometer housing
per unit of time. Preliminary results have shown that the motion
pattern of Sputnik III was also close to a pure tumbling pattern.
The precession period appeared to last 125--135 sec. The period of
the satellite's own rotation proved to be considerably longer.
Orbital data of the satellites were determined on the basis of
processed results from a large amount of observation. In the case of
Sputnik I, 60,000 radio measurements and 400 optical observations
were processed. In the case of Sputnik II, 12,800 radio measurements
and 2,000 optical observations were made. In addition, 124 photographs
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were utilized. By July 7, 1958, 52,750 radio measurements and 1,260
optical observations were processed relating to Sputnik III.
These data were processed by electronic computers. Table 1
presents the parameters of the orbit at the beginning of motion.
The orbits of satellites which passed through the upper
atmosphere are very convenient for observation, except for small areas
in the vicinity of the poles. Figure 2 presents the graphs af the
variations of the satellite's rotation period around the Earth.
Figure 3 gives the graphs of the variation of the perigee hmin, and
in Fig. 4 the variations of the apogee Hmax, for each of the three
satellites are indicated.
The processing and prediction of an orbit are very complicated
and always difficult operations, since it is necessary to process
large numbers of measurements and maintain great accuracy. A short
time after data from measurements have been obtained, it becomes
necessary to make a prediction. Of significance in facilitating
this is a special method of processing observational data which
allows one to obtain accurate ephemerides rapidly. Methods for
accurate operational predictions were worked out and used successfully
in practice.
Observation data on the evolution of the satellite's orbit can be
used to determine the atmospheric density. From the equations of
motion of the satellite's gravity center, it is possible to derive
the following approximate formula for AT variations of the rotation
period of the satellite for one turn:
AT ? 3u-Sa2 cx pv,12vH f a, H
(3)
TtiTe ae
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where ? equals 3.98600 x 1?20 cm3/sec2; m is the mass of the satellite;
a is the major semiaxis of the osculating ellipse; f (e, & is the
known function of its arguments; e is the eccentricity determined for
each moment of time from the orbital data; and pr is the density at
the perigee.
With small values of the eccentricity e and values of the
parameter H/ae < 1/4, the asymptotic value of the function f equals
one (Ref. 8).
The volume AT, the eccentricity e, and the semiaxis a are
determined from observations, and the value H can be evaluated through
the temperature of the atmosphere in the vicinity of the perigee. By
taking advantage of these and theoretical data pertaining to
coefficient Cx, it is possible to determine the density pr. The
accuracy of such a calculation depends on the reliability of the
adopted values for Cx and H.
It is also possible to determine the volume H with the help of
orbital data; however, for this purpose, it is necessary to determine
the extremely small volume of A hmin with great accuracy, which makes
it difficult to obtain a reliable result.
When H = 25 km and Cx = 0.525, the following values of density
were obtained for h = 225 km (Refs. 8 and 9):
The obtained density values should be regarded as mean air density
values at the latitude of the perigee from many points uniformly
distributed along a parallel.
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In calculations which were carried out by using data on orbit
evolution, attention has been paid to the systematic reduction of the
fixed altitude of the product Cx pr during the perigee transitions,
which is a result of the orbit regression from day to night. This
effect has been noted in the case of all satellites. Hypotheses have
explained this to be due to a drop in atmospheric density at an
altitude of 225 km during the transition from day to night.
The above indicated values for density agree well with some
data on density obtained from rocket measurements.
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REFERENCES
1. Ochotsimsky, D. E., Eneyev, T. M., and Taratynova, G. P., UFN, 63
(1a):33, 1957.
2. Taratynova, G. P., UFN, 63 (1a):51, 1957.
3. Yatsunsky, I. M., UFN, 63 (1a):59, 1957.
4. Krause, H. G., "Secular and Periodical Perturbances of the
Trajectory of an Artificial Earth Satellite", Reports on the VII
International Astronautical Congress:523-578, Rome, 1956.
5. De Sike, J., "The Effect of the Earth's Oblateness and Atmosphere
on a Satellite Orbit", Proceedings of the VII International
Astronautical Congress:507-522, Rome, 1956.
Jastrow, R., and Pearse, C. A., Journal of Geophysics Research,
63(3), 1957.
Lidov, M. L., Artificial Earth Satellites, 1st ed, AN USSR, 1958.
Page 12
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Table 1. Dynamic Effects on the Motion of
Artif;pial Satellites
Sputnik I
Sputnik II
Sputnik III
Period of rotation about
the Earth T, min
96.17
103.75
105.95
Minimum altitude hmin, km
226-228
225
226
,
Minimum altitude hmax, km
947
1.671
1.881
Orbit inclination 1, deg
65?.129
65?.310
65?.188
Daily longitude departure
of ascending node AQ,
deg
-3?.I57
-2?.663
-2?.528
Daily shifts in distance
of perigee from Angle
-0?.432
-0?.407
-0?.326
Aw, deg
Daily period variation
1.8
3.08
0.75
AT, sec/24 hrs
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Fig. 1. Diagram for the
Determination of
Orbit Position
h min Of
230
Ili
1:1
1,2
--
,
17 WOO 2000 K
Fig. 2. Period of Satellite
Revolutions in Relation
to the Number of
Turns
SOO 1000 MO 2000 2500 N
Fig. 3. Height of Satellite
Perigee Depending upon h MAX, km
Number of Turns mag
SOO 1000 MO 2000 2500 N
Fig. 4. Height of Satellite
Apogee Depending upon
Number of Turns
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2. CERTAIN RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS OF THERMODYNAMIC
PARAMETERS OF THE STRATOSPHERE USING
METEOROLOGICAL ROCKETS
E. G. Shvidkovsky
The program of rocket research of the upper layers of the
atmosphere which is being conducted at present in the Soviet Union
includes the study of the thermodynamic parameters of the stratosphere
(the region of the atmosphere which stretches from the tropopause to
the region of minimum temperature, which is located at an altitude of
around 80 km) in the polar, arctic, and antarctic regions and in the
mean latitudes of the Soviet Union. Arctic investigations are being
conducted on Heiss Island (Franz-Josef Land Archipelago); antarctic
investigations of the lower and mean stratosphere are conducted
aboard the diesel-electric ship "Cb," which is completing various
works under the program of the IGY.
The accumulated materials of experimental observations have not
yet been completely processed. Particularly, this report does not
include information obtained from the ship "Ob." Therefore, this
report should be considered as of a preliminary character.
The scheme of the rocket experiment adopted for stratosphere
investigation during the IGY consists, in general, of the following.
Atmospheric temperature is measured by resistance thermometers in the
form of thin tungsten filaments. Pressure is measured by manometers
adjusted to the necessary range of pressure change. Measuring
elements of the instruments are mounted on a slender spire which is
fastened to the head section of the rocket. The remaining measuring
equipment is located in various compartments of the head section.
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At a predetermined altitude the head section, with the measuring
apparatus, separates from the body of the rocket and descends by
parachute to Earth. Basic measurements are usually made during the
period of descent. Instrument readings are transmitted to Earth by
means of radio telemetering systems and are recorded on photographic
film.
The theory of the methods for measuring'temperature and pressure
in the experiments described above introduces a number of questions
relating to the problem of interaction of the instruments with the
surrounding environment. This theory permits the calculation of the
parameters in free atmosphere which are strongly influenced by the
movement of the head section of the rocket. At the same time, the
interaction of the instruments with the atmosphere is changed from
conditions corresponding to a free, regular flow to a flow tending
toward conditions of continuous aerodynamics.
Processing of telemetering data gives pressure and temperature
values which are fixed by the instruments as time functions. The
utilization of the equation for the state of an ideal gas, a baro-
metric formula, the laws of molecular and gas dynamics, and the
results of preliminary laboratory tests makes it possible to find the
pressure, temperature, and density of the free atmosphere as a function
of altitude. At the same time, other important factors, e.g.,
radiation transfer and the deviation from thermal and dynamic
equilibrium between the instruments and the gas directly adjoining
them, are also taken into consideration.
The design and processing of the experiment do not, in principle,
require tracking the trajectory of the rocket head section. The
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4
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
system is almost entirely suitable for the accumulation of systematic
data in the fields of thermodynamic parameters of the free atmosphere,
with an altitude restriction to the region of the middle part of the
stratosphere.
During the investigation of the upper stratosphere, the increasing
effect of rarefaction of the atmosphere leads to a sharp increase of
side effects and makes trajectory tracking essential. In the opposite
case, experimental errors in determining the parameters of the state
of the atmosphere become excessively great. In these cases, tracking
is accomplished by optical and radio methods.
Prior to the IGY, parameter measurements of the state of free
atmosphere up to an altitude of 80 km were conducted in the middle
latitude of the territory of the Soviet Union. Since these results
were published (Ref. 1) in the form of mean distribution curves of
temperature, pressure, and density during the fall-summer season, we
shall discuss them briefly.
First of all, it should be mentioned that on all levels of
altitude within 80 km of the Earth's surface a good correspondence can
be observed between the thermometer readings. Such a comparison was
made by tracking the head section of the rocket. This achieved
agreement was the experimental basis for starting investigations of
the lower and middle stratosphere without trajectory tracking, which
simplified the experiment considerably. The reliability of the
obtained data is supported by the fact that the error of individual
temperature measurements at an altitude of 75-80 km does not exceed
15?C. The temperature curve which we have obtained closely resembles
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the known curve of temperature distribution in the stratosphere as
proposed by the U.S. However, there are several differences in the
basic extreme points of both altitude and temperature values.
In the following part of this report, we will examine the
characteristics of seasonal changes of the temperature field in the
middle and lower stratosphere, relying on the results of the rocket
investigations in the arctic and in the middle latitudes of the
Soviet Union. For that reason, the material presented hereinafter
will pertain to altitude regions of-up to 45-50 km.
We will not present any pressure distribution curves because of
their insignificant value. However, we will mention that the general
appearance of these curves gives the basis to the assumption that the
pressure decreases during the seasonal change from summer to winter.
The pressure changes in the north are expressed somewhat more strongly
than those in the middle latitude.
In Figs. I and 2 are presented the temperature regions as
recorded for several months on Heiss Island and in the middle latitudes
(of the Soviet Union). An analysis of reduced data permits us to make
a series of preliminary conclusions.
The temperature of the lower stratosphere in the altitude region
of 20-25 km decreases with the transition from summer to winter. The
lowest temperatures occur during the months of December and January.
In the altitude region of 40-50 km this rule does not apply.
This is the region of the stratospheric maximum temperature and, as
can be seen from the curves, it is situated higher in the north than
in the middle latitudes.
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If we would compare the curves relating to the northern and middle
latitudes, we might note that an almost isothermic layer in the polar
regions reaches a higher altitude from the tropopause than in the
middle latitudes. This indicates that, between October and January,
the altitude of the lower level of the atmospheric layer increases
from 26 to 32 km with the positive temperature gradient in the polar
region. In the middle latitude a corresponding change takes place
within the limits of 21-26 km.
The mentioned circumstances are possibly connected with the fact
that in the polar regions the ending of the polar night affects the
temperature of the middle stratosphere so that the temperature curve'
which is characteristic for the latitude of Heiss Island already gives
evidence of the heating of the stratosphere under the influence of
sunlight at an altitude of 40 km. Owing to this effect, the temp-
erature gradient for the north, in the region up to the stratospheric
temperature maximum, changes from 1.5 to 5.5 deg per km during the
transition from the beginning to the end of the polar night. Contrary
to the above-mentioned phenomena, the temperature gradient of the
indicated region remains almost unchanged and equal to about 2 grad/km
in the middle latitudes.
Temperature fluctuations in the middle latitudes near the
stratospheric maximum lie between 260-280?K. In the north, they are
confined apparently to within 270-310?K. Thus, the mean stratosphere
in the northern regions is not only somewhat warmer than in the
southern regions, but also the seasonal fluctuations of temperature
HI
in the mean stratosphere of the regions which are located beyond the
polar circle are expressed more strongly than in the middle latitudes.
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The following fact speaks in favor of the assumption that the
described changes of the temperature field in a given place are of a
seasonal character and do not occur simply as a consequence of
synoptic changes. We will concern ourselves with the character of
the annual temperature variations at various altitudes of the strato-
sphere. In Fig. 3 are presented the corresponding .results for the
mean latitudes. In the lower stratosphere, at altitudes of 26-34 km,
a distinctly expressed temperature maximum is observed which takes
place during the summer period. These curves are like fluctuations
having an annual period. For the indicated altitude region the
amplitude of the fluctuations equals approximately 13 deg. With the
increase of altitude the amplitude decreases insignificantly, and, in
the regions of 45-50 km, it equals approximately 10 deg. We might
mention here that if, at an altitude of 45-50 km, the temperature
maximum in the middle latitudes coincides favorably with the moment
of the summer solstice then, at lower altitudes of from 26-34 km it
occurs during July. The given results for each month are not average
values obtained from large amounts of observational data, as is the
case in meteorology; to a certain degree they preserve the outlines
of separate measurements. Consequently, the observation of annual
fluctuations of the temperature in the stratosphere cannot be of a
pure synoptic nature but should reflect the seasonal variations of the
condition of the atmosphere.
From the results of separate rocket probes, shown in Fig. 4, it
is evident that the temperature field in the lower and middle
stratosphere can be thin. The presented curve was obtained at Heiss
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
Island. A similar temperature distribution was more than once
observed during separate rocket launchings.
Though the generally observed temperature changes are small and
reach values of 10, 15, and sometimes 20 deg, they lie outside the
error limits for the experiments. The cause of such temperature
stratifications may be the presence of a large-scale turbulence.
However, the temperature stratifications may also be of a more stable
character. In any case, the experiment suggests that the hypothesis
concerning a single and double tropopause is too approximate. Actually,
in many cases the temperature field is of a more complicated character
above the tropopause; this is due to series of extremes in the altitUde
function.
The above-described peculiarities of the temperature field of the
lower and middle stratospheres require further specifications, of
course. This can be achieved with a great amount of experimental
data and a more detailed analysis of such data. There is no doubt,
however, that we have here a series of problems which require serious
at
REFERENCE
1. Meteorologya i Hydrologya, (8), 1957.
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
/
...%
/
f
,
.
I
i
/-
%
/e
/
.
A
.
../.
/
14/
I 11
/I 2
i .I I a
(1 f
\:
/ 11
.\ 3
,
/ \ 1
\ Ill
? '
,
\
..4_
N
-\\
\
Fig. 1. Temperature Distribution
According to Altitude Above
Heiss Island
(1-October 1957; 2-November 1957;
3-December 1957; 4-January 1958)
?
:
...
/,
?,(1
/-
, ./
1 a.
Li
! I
i f : ? -
.
8
: .
?
?
? ?
.
.
.
f
J
'
1, '1
2
s 4 A
i I .1\
I ? \I
N
N
1
%
Fig. 2. Distribution of
Temperature According
to Altitude in the
Middle Latitudes
(1-May 1957; 2-June 1957;
3-July 1957; 4-August 1957;
5-September 1957; 6-October
1957; 7-December 1957; 8-
February 1958)
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210
ZOO
290
ZZO
JPLAI/Translation No. 2
W
riakilEli
5VI-
- - ;--
AIES
milau
.
NM
ii
MisillEigit
0
-
,!=-
---111111i---
.
---
I;
iii
. ,
..:..---
...u.
MONTH
Fig. 3. Annual Variation of Temperature
in the Stratosphere, Middle Latitudes
(Roman numerals at botton of figure
refer to months of the year)
(1-36 km; 2-38 km; 3-40 km; 5-44 km; 4**
6-46 km; 7-48 km; 8-50 km) SO
Fig. 4. Temperature Field above
Heiss Island According to Data
from Rocket Probes
(Launched 10:55 a.m., November, 1957;
Earth Temperature To = 254?, 6K; Data
Obtained During Descent)
YO
SO
20
10
200
2J0
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.70077A
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Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPLAI/Translation No. 2
3. DISTURBANCES OF THE GAS ENVIRONMENT
CAUSED BY A FLIGHT OF A SATELLITE
B. A. Mirtov
During flight through a rarefied gas environment, a satellite
generates fluxes of molecules which travel with the satellite at high
velocities in relation to the molecules of the surrounding environment.
We should distinguish two types from among these fluxes: fluxes of
molecules which are discharged by the satellite itself (due to super-
ficial distortions and leaks from the inside of the satellite) and
fluxes of molecules of the environment which are bounced off the
satellite in accordance with the laws of elastic collision. The first
fluxes possess a mean molecule velocity of 8.5--9.km/sec, the second
fluxes possess a mean molecule velocity of 13--16 km/sec. Owing to
these fluxes, the environment surrounding the satellite undergoes
perturbations which are caused, first, by the effect of violation of
their density and, second, by the fact of thermochemical reaction and
ionization which takes place during the collision, since the molecules
which are produced by the satellite possess sufficient energy for this
purpose. Furthermore, since the velocity of the satellite exceeds the
thermal velocity of the molecules of the environment, a "rear cone" of
molecular umbra is formed in the wake of the satellite which can be
penetrated only by very fast moving molecules of the surrounding
environment.
Therefore, when conducting such satellite experiments as the
measurement of the ion contents, the ion concentration, and the air
density, it is quite possible, for the above-mentioned reasons, to
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record false results which do not correspond to the actual state of
the measured parameters of the undisturbed atmosphere. The purpose
of this paper is to evaluate Eome disturbing factors which might
have an effect on the measurements of the indicated values.
A. Preliminary Remarks
1. During the collision of a molecule escaping from the surface
of the satellite with a practically stationary molecule of the
environment, the first molecule loses an average of one-half of its
velocity if the collision is deflective; during a non-deflective
collision, the velocity decrease is even greater. Therefore, this
molecule will either depart from the satellite if the collision
occurs near the satellite and the molecule has time to catch up with
the head section of the satellite, or it will settle again on its
surface.
2. During the evaporation of the molecules from the surface of
the satellite, densities of the evaporating molecules can be such
that, in spite of their enormous number, they will not collide with
each other. Their trajectories roam in straight lines until a
collision with molecules of the surrounding environment occurs.
This condition is well-known from experiments with clusters of
molecules (Ref. 1) and exists even in the event of very high
evaporation densities.
3. If the evaporation of molecules emanates from a stationary
body, then the period of free coasting will be the distance which the
molecule travels from that body to the first collision with a
stationary molecule of the environment. This does not apply if the
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evaporating body itself is in a state of rapid motion. In such a
case, the molecule which depar-,:ed from the forward hemisphere has less
distance to travel before it encounters its first collision, since
the body itself follows the departing molecule. We will define the
distance which the molecule will eventually reach after its departure
from the moving body as "escape" and we will define it as X*. We
will define the density of collisions at various distances from the
moving body by the escape value X* and not by the mean free pass.
It can be proven by the following correlation that the escape
is related to the length of the period of a free run of the environ-
ment through which the satellite travels:
X* = kX sr (mean free pass)
The coefficient k depends on the velocity of the satellite vc,
on the velocity of the departing molecules vm, and on the angle (ID,
which is composed of the velocity vectors of the satellite and the
molecules. In general, this function can be sufficiently well
approximated by the following expression:
(1)
vmvm
k - vm vc cos2 * + sin2 * (2)
+ v2c
where, for the angle *, the following standardization is introduced:
4p2
tg2* - 2
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For extreme values (y = 0, y = 21) formula (2) will read
2
correspondingly:
Vm
k0 v + v
m c (3)
Vm
ky/2 (4)
In the case of evaporating molecules, when vc ? vm, expressions (3)
and (4) practically coincide; they differ in the case of molecules
deflected from the satellite with large velocities. In this case,
k0 = kw/2 -,/5: (v= vm )
c
In order to simplify the calculations, we will consider that
equation (3) will fulfill the requirements in every case. It should
be mentioned that when vc = 0 (stationary body) equation (2) will
yield k = 1 and, consequently,
4. We will now make a final remark: In a free atmosphere, at
altitudes of 200--700 km, the Maxwell distribution of molecules vs
velocities is preserved according to velocities, and the free run of
molecules at these altitudes is determined by the usual exponential
law.
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B. The Influence of Evaporating Molecules
In addition to the increased concentration of molecules around
the satellite, the evaporating molecules, which possess an energy of
about 10 ev, may alter the composition of the surrounding gas, since
they have sufficient energy to cause the disassociation of an
encountered molecule or ion during a collision, or to enter into a
chemical union with that molecule. Therefore, taking into consid-
eration the above-mentioned facts, we will discuss the question
of how the concentration of molecules and the frequency of their
collisions in the vicinity of the satellite change as a result of gas
desorption from its surface.
With increased distance from the satellite, the concentration of
evaporating molecules (in units/volume) should decrease for two
reasons:
1. As a result of the influence of the law of collisions
which separates the molecules from the flux.
X*
N = Ne
x 0
(5)
where No is the number of molecules which have departed
from the surface of the satellite per unit of time, Nx
is the number of molecules, from the original number,
which have traveled the distance x without collisions,
and X* is the escape.
2. As a result of volume increase, which should be due to
the evaporating molecules. (Actually, at distances
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Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPLAI/Translation No. 2
close to the surface of the satellite, the density will
correspond to the law of dilution, 1/2 (1 -
however, for our evaluations we may accept the law 1/R2
without committing too much of an error.)
Let us assume that the satellite is a sphere having the radius R.
We will investigate the additional concentration created by the
evaporating molecules in a thin spherelike envelope d located at
distance x from the surface of the satellite. The additional concen-
tration of such.molecules in the envelope equals
Nd
vx VV
(6)
After calculating the volume of the envelope V and substituting
it in equation (6), we obtain, with consideration of equation (5),
Px
X*
NO e
477-vm (1,1+x)2
When R, No, vm, vc, and Xsr are known, it is possible to
calculate, with formula (7), the concentration which is created by
(7)
the evaporating molecules on the given distance x from the satellite.
This includes all molecules which have penetrated into the envelope d.
Since the evaporated molecules are distributed along radial
lines and very seldom collide, they can hit the measuring device only
from that solid angle by which the outlet opening of the instrument
"sees" the irradiating surface. If no collisions would occur between
the radiating molecules of direct action and those of the environment,
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then the corresponding orientation of the entrance opening of the
device would be fully capable of protecting the device from "radiating"
surfaces. However, collisions do take place (they are proportional
to the density of the surrounding gas environment), and, therefore,
the instrument can be hit by molecules deflected during collisions
with particles of the surrounding gas. It is quite simple to protect
the instrument from molecules of direct action, but it is impossible
to protect it from molecules of back action which appear as a result
of collisions. Therefore, it is necessary to concern ourselves with
a calculation of the number of collisions capable of returning the
molecules to the measuring device.
The number of molecules of direct action crossing the inner
limits of the envelope d per unit of time will conform to equation
and have the appearance
Because of outward collisions from envelope d, a molecule will emerge:
we will receive
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The difference between equations (8) and (9) gives the total
number of molecules which were subjected to collisions within the
envelope and were, as a result of this, transformed into the molecules
of back action
X* i
N* = Noe
X*
?
By taking advantage of the correlation which is analogous to
equation (6) together with the obtained values for N*, and with the
consideration that the velocity of the returning molecules ve will
differ from the velocity of the molecules of direct action vm, it is
easy to calculate the number of molecules of back action which are
created per unit of volume in distance x from the satellite. However,
contrary to the case of molecules of direct action, wherein a
corresponding concentration is determined by "one" source of molecules
namely, the surface of the satellite, the concentration of molecules
of back action will be determined by the space source, since these
molecules are born wherever molecules of direct action penetrate.
Therefore, in order to obtain a full concentration of deflected
molecules for a certain distance a from the surface of the satellite,
it is necessary to summarize all returning molecules which originate
within a column of an individual section extending from a to infinity.
(Measurements conducted with a satellite are endangered only by those
molecules of back action which are created in front of it in a column
with radius R, the longitudinal axis of which coincides with the axis
of the satellite's motion. At the same time, we neglect the effect
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of dispersion and consider that all molecules which were created in
the indicated column of air are impinging on the satellite and are
"destroyed." Obviously, such an assumption will not lead to any great
errors, since the loss of molecules through the sight surface of the
column will be compensated for by a similar increase of molecules from
the outside.) In this manner, the concentration of molecules of back
action pa on the level a will be
00
x*
No
Jr e
Pa =- 4Tri;X* 0 dx
(R+x)'
a
(10)
Insofar as the absolute volume is concerned, in the system of
coordinates characteristic of the satellite, the velocity of molecules
of back action vi considerably surpasses the velocity of the molecules
of direct action created by them. Therefore, we may assume that
=n
where n> 1.
If the measuring device is located near the surface, then the
integration should be conducted from 0 to infinity:
00 -
X*
f e
(R+x)2
0
eX*
dx
R X.*
- X*
_ 1
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For altitudes of 200 km and more, where X* > R, we may disregard
the second item of equation (11). In this case, equation (10) will
have the following form:
Po
No 1
471-nvmX* R
The ribmber of molecules of direct action near the surface of
the satellite conforming with equation (7) will equal
N 1
PO ? 47.vm R2
By securing the relation of equation (12) and (13), we will obtain
PO_ vmR
(12)
( 1 3 )
( 1 4 )
The relation of equation (14) indicates that the number of
molecules of back action depend on the radius of the satellite and the
relation of velocities and escape. Other things being equal, a
satellite with a smaller radius should yield a smaller percentage of
returning molecules.
Table 1 represents the variation in the relationship of po/po
with altitude (for R = 100 cm, and n = 10). On the basis of the data
from Table 1, it is possible to make the following conclusions:
When determining the' density or chemical composition of the
surrounding gas, the distorting influence of molecules of
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back action at altitudes above 200 km may be disregarded
as compared with the influence of molecules of direct
action. Measurements made by the satellite will be
dependable until the concentration of molecules of back
actions occurring near the surface of the satellite
becomes commensurable with the concentration of particles
from the free atmosphere at the given altitude. It
should be mentioned that by the given constant of
concentration po, the relationship po/p atm is the
constant value for all altitudes (patm is the concen-
tration of molecules in the free undisturbed atmosphere).
2. Below 150 km a different picture can be observed: a
noticeable number of evaporating molecules collide with
each other in the immediate vicinity of the surface and
may again return to the satellite.
C. Some Numerical Calculations
For appropriate calculations, it is necessary to adopt some
intelligent assumptions concerning the number of molecules N which
were carried by the satellite into the upper layers of the atmosphere.
In addition, it
these molecules
Assuming that 1
is polymolecular
over-all surface
is necessary to deal with the evaporation period T of
which emanate from the surface of the satellite.
cm2 may carry 1015 molecules and that the absorption
and equal to, let us say, 50 layers, whereby the
of the satellite is 106 cm2, we will obtain the
over-all number of sorbent molecules:
N= 1015 x 106 x 50 = 5 x 1022
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We will limit the desorption period T to one revolution of the
satellite around the Earth, which equals about 5,000 sec. We will
consider that the absorption takes place uniformly. Actually, this
is not the case. However, the made assumption rather strengthens
the effects connected with gas discharge and does not weaken them.
N 9
N0 = ? = 10 mole/sec
T
For the solution of equation (7) we have, in addition, R = 102 cm,
vm = 4 x 104 cm/sec, vc = 8 x 105 cm/sec, and k = 5 x 10-2.
The evaporating molecules of direct action create a peculiar
"halo" around the satellite. The illustrated graph (Fig. 1) shows
the density variation of this halo as a function of the distance from
the surface of the satellite and the altitude of its flight. (As an
example, three altitudes were considered: 100, 150, and 300 km.) It
is obvious from this graph that with the increase in flight altitude,
the density of the halo or cloud drops more slowly during its escape
from the surface of the satellite. Therefore, at an altitude of 300
km, the concentration of the evaporating molecules remains extremely
high and practically unchangeable within the metric layer of space
which surrounds the satellite. On lower altitudes, this layer
decreases considerably.
The illustrated graph permits making some recommendations in
regard to the distribution of measuring equipment in the satellite.
There is no point in placing instruments at a distance of less than
2-3 meters from the surface of the satellite if the satellite is to
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attain an altitude of 250 km or more. As we have previously indicated,
the correct orientation of the instrument should be guided by the
efforts to protect it from the evaporating molecules and be oriented
with the entrance opening pointing to the outside.
Entirely different is the situation with the always dangerous
back action molecules. In order to decrease their harmful influence,
it is extremely important to place the measuring instrument far away
from the surface of the satellite. According to equation (10), each
10 cm which separates the surface of the satellite from the inlet
opening of the instrument (the distance a in equation (10)) shows a
noticeable drop in the concentration of deflected molecules, since
the entire region between the satellite surface and the instrument--
the region which contains the most deflected molecules--is excluded
from the sphere of measurement. For an ideal case, the instruments
should be moved from the surface by a distance approximately equal
to the radius of the satellite R. In this case, the entire basic
mass of deflected molecules will be formed "behind" the instrument
and will be "destroyed" on the surface of the satellite without
causing any more harm to the conducted measurements.
Simultaneously, with the calculation of gas discharges from the
surface of the satellite, calculations can be made in a similar manner
of the tolerable fluxes (gas losses from within the satellite), which
also allow measurements of the undisturbed parameters of the
atmosphere. Assuming that all fluxes exerted on a satellite are
concentrated on I m2 of its surface and the instruments are located
at the center of this surface, the permissible fluxes would, in
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
accordance with equation (7), measure about 1019 molecules/sec. As
was indicated above, the value of permissible fluxes at a constant
gas discharge will be constant for all altitudes. The indicated value
of fluxes is permissible only in that case when the instrument is not
hit by molecules of direct action. If the instrument is not protected
against such molecules, the errors of density measurements may be very
considerable and will increase proportionally to the density decrease
of the surrounding environment. Thus, by taking the indicated
precautions, the gas discharge from the satellite will cause no
noticeable changes in the measurements of the density and the nature
of the surrounding gas, even in the presence of considerable and
constant leaks.
D. The Influence of Molecules on the Surrounding Environment
According to the law of deflective collisions, the surrounding
gas environment is most actively affected by molecules which collide
with the satellite and are deflected from its surface. These
molecules, having a velocity of 15--16 km/sec and an energy of about
30 ev, might easily cause ionization as well as effect other changes
in molecules which they encounter. In order to calculate the
concentration of rapid molecules, which are deflected to a distance
x from the surface of the satellite, one may apply equation (7),
considering that the surface emits rapid molecules, the number of
which varies proportionally to the variation and density of the
surrounding environment. During an appropriate calculation in
formula (7) the numerical value of the coefficients No, Vm, and k
should be changed. Should one investigate the altitude at 200 km,
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
where the concentration of gas v = 1010 mole/cm3, then, during a period
of 1 sec, a satellite with a cross section of 3 m2 will bring into
motion No = 1010 x 105 x 8 x 3 x 104 = 2.4 x 1020 mole/sec. (In this
case, vm = 8 x 105; K = 1/,/2 1.) By substituting the indicated
values in equation (7) and doubling this value (in this case, the
molecules expand only along the forward hemisphere)., we will obtain
an additional concentration created by deflected molecules, which, at
an altitude of 200 km, will amount to 2 3 x 109 mole/cm3 near the
satellite's surface.
This concentration will drop with the increase in altitude.
However, the relation of the concentration of deflective molecules to
the concentration of molecules of the undisturbed atmosphere should
remain constant. Consequently, the change in density of the
surrounding space due to the rapid (deflective) molecules of direct
action is even more insignificant than in the case of slow (evaporated)
molecules.
If the molecule which has deflected from the satellite possesses
a velocity of vm = vc = 8 km/sec, then k = 1 and X* =
Xsr
(considering
that after a nondeflective collision of a rapid molecule with a
molecule of the environment, it loses a considerable part of its
velocity). For an altitude of 200 km, where Xsr = 104 cm and n cz-J 1,
we will have, according to equation (14), pobo - 10-3; that is,-a
concentration of back action particles near the surface of the
satellite is po = 2 x 106 mole/cm3.
With the increase in altitude, this concentration will drop more
rapdily than the concentration of the surrounding environment.
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
We should evaluate the danger of these collisions to the
measurements conducted by the satellite on the ionization, content,
and density of the undisturbed atmosphere. If we assume, with
Herlofson (Ref. 2), that the coefficient of ionization during similar
collisions is a = 10-4, we will find that nearly a hundred additional
ions may be created within 1 cm3 near the surface of the satellite,
which is negligible in comparison with the natural ionization
(105 - 106 ion/cm3). Even if we assume that the section of these
processes is proximate to a unit, the occurrence of a thermochemical
reaction is also very unlikely. Consequently, it is impossible to
anticipate any noticeable changes in the composition of the surrounding
atmosphere because of the collisions which take place. Finally, even
at an altitude of 200 km, the change in density of the surrounding
space due to deflective molecules will be insignificantly small
(2 x 106 mole/cm3 at 1010 mole/cm3 being present in the atmosphere).
E. Conclusions
Within the limits of the hypotheses, the discussion on the
question of the influence of disturbances caused by the satellite in
the upper layers of the atmosphere indicates that,these perturbances
cannot noticeably change the results of the conducted measurements
on density determination, ion contents, and concentration of positive
or negative ions.
We think that the results of two experiments conducted with the
satellite can serve as a confirmation of these assumptions: the
experiment to determine the density (Ref. 3) and the experiment to
determine the chemical composition of the ionosphere (Ref. 4). In
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
the first case, a small, excessive concentration of molecules
occurring during the period of the first revolution of the satellite
can be explained (1) by a certain possibility of a collision between
a molecule of direct action with the measuring instruments, and (2) by
the large amount of absorbed water which was distinctly registered by
the mass spectrometer (Ref. 4).
Furthermore, the absence of ions of absorbed molecules of
nitrogen and oxygen in the mass spectrum of a mass spectrometer
testifies to the fact that the ionization of the molecular bombardment
is extremely insignificant.
The presence of ions of water in the mass spectrum of the
instrument (Ref. 4) is quite conspicuous. The results of preliminary
processing of the obtained data do not leave any doubts that the water
is created by the satellite itself (desorption from the surface). The
difficulty seems to be confined to the clarification of its ionization,
since the presence of ions of water cannot be explained by the
mechanism of collision (water is registered also in the region of
molecular umbra where there are no collisions) or by the mechanism
of photoionization (a negligible potential).
This interesting phenomenon should be explained either by the
presence of an additional ionization agent in the upper layers or by
some processes which take place on the surface of the satellite.
(Additional ionization in the upper layers of the atmosphere is
confirmed by the recently discovered, quite intensive radiation,
Refs. 5--7, the study of which is being continued at the present
time. It should be mentioned that the effect and density of the new
radiation should be very large.)
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JPLAT/Tranqlatinn Nn
In conclusion, I would like to express my gratitude to the
Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, B. Y. Levin.
REFERENCES
1. Esterman, M., "The Technique of Molecular Clusters," UFN,
33(1), 1947.
2. Herlofson, N., Physical Society Report on the Progress of Physics,
11:444, 1948.
3. Michnevitch, V. V., Article 4 of this publication.
4. Istomin, V. G., Article 5 of this publication.
5. Van Allen, J., paper delivered at Fifth Reunion of Special IGY
Committee, August 8, 1958.
6. Vyernov, S. N., Vakulov, P. V., et al, Article 10 of this
publication.
7. Krasovcky, V. I., et al, Article 9 of this publication.
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H, km
%sr, cm
X*, cm
POO
500
106
5 x 104
2 x 10-4
300
105
5 x 103
2 x 10-3
200
104
5 x 102
2 x 10-2
150
2 x 102
102
10-1
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Fig. 1. Change in Density of
Molecule "Cloud" as a
Function of Distance
from the Earth's
Surface
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
4. PRELIMINARY RESULTS IN DETERMINING THE
ATMOSPHERIC DENSITY ABOVE 100 KM
V. V. Michnevich
The study of the structural parameters of the atmosphere using
rockets and satellites occupies a prominent place in the IGY program.
In the U.S.S.R., these investigations are conducted up to an altitude
of 80 km with the help of meteorological rockets, and to higher
altitudes by means of geophysical rockets and satellites.
For the measurement of pressure and density of the atmosphere,
various types of manometers are used which permit the measurement of
pressure from the atmospheric level and up to 10-9 mm Hg. Pressure
measurements between the limits of 10-5 to 10-7 and 10-5 to 10-9 mm
Hg are conducted by special magnetometers and thermoionization
manometers, respectively.
It is impossible to utilize the ordinary ionization manometers
for the measurement of pressure within specified limits in an ionized
environment since the currents formed in the manometer by ions and
electrons present in the free atmosphere are comparable to the
currents of manometers, which are a measure of pressure. Therefore,
in the ionization manometers which are used for the measurements of
pressure and ionization of the environment, a separation of these
currents is accomplished with special screens and traps, and only
these currents are measured which happen to be the standard for
pressure.
In Figs. 1 and 2, the above-mentioned thermoionization and
magnetic manometers are schematically reproduced. In order to
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decrease the photo current from the collector into the thermoionization
manometer, the collector is made in the form of a thin wire (Figs. 1
and 2). With the help of an additional screen placed between the
cathode and the anode (Figs. 1 and 4) the self-stabilization of the
emission current is established.
The manometer current is amplified by a dc amplifier and fed to
the telemetry input. A block diagram of this instrument is shown
in Fig. 3. The manometer is launched into the upper layers of the
atmosphere in an evacuated state and is uncovered at a specified
altitude. During the entire flight period, the ion flux of the
manometer is continuously registered; periodical calibrations of the
amplifier and the manometer emission currents and also the temperature
of the manometer walls are measured.
The measurement of pressure and density of the atmosphere at
high altitudes is an extremely complicated problem and, until the
completion of the experiment, even debatable.
During the measurements of low pressures, such as 10-6 to 10-9
mm Hg, a series of problems arose:
I. What is the photoemission of the manometer electrodes
which is caused by short-wave solar radiation?
2. Will it be possible to conduct correct measurements of
the gas discharge pressure of the surfaces of rockets
and satellites?
3. How should the manometer be placed?
4. Is it possible to measure the pressure in an ionized
environment with ionization manometers?
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EL
,..,;--; , ,,
?
,,,
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JPLAI/Translation No. 2
5. What is the composition of gas and temperature in the
upper layers of the atmosphere, and how can a probable
change of composition and temperature affect the readings
of the manometer?
6. What is the dynamic effect?
Atmospheric pressure and density for periods of free runs of
molecular gas, in the case of large-dimension manometric inlet
openings, are a complicated function of pressure or density measured
with a manometer, of angle of attack, and of velocity of the object
111111 on which measurements of composition and temperature of gas in the
1
111
atmosphere and in the manometer are being made. In the case of large
velocities of the object (in comparison with the molecular velocity
of gas in the atmosphere) and in the case of large attack angles it
is not necessary to know the temperature of the environment in order
to determine the atmospheric density.
In 1957 (Ref. 1) possible errors in the determination of pressure
and density of the atmosphere were investigated with the help of
manometers placed on a satellite. We will concern ourselves only with
these cases which were not described in detail in the above-mentioried
work.
A. Gas Discharge
It was shown by the works of Soviet investigators (Ref. 2) that
with the execution of proper hermetization (gas escape from rockets
or satellites should not exceed 1 cm3/sec at atmospheric pressure)
and the choice of construction materials which have a low vapor
tension, the gas discharge by a rocket or satellite has practically
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111111-1
&
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
no effect on the pressure or density measurements of the atmosphere
if the barometer is protected from direct contact with the escaping
gas.
During the construction of a satellite, very extensive work is
done on the determination of vapor tension of various construction
materials at temperatures from 20--3000C and likewise of the degassing
period of various materials which had remained under atmospheric
pressure for a long period of time. For the construction of a
satellite, only such materials were used which satisfied the
requirements specified above.
B. Change of Air Composition
Above 100 km the atmospheric composition changes with the altitude
as a result of disassociation and defusing separation. At the present
there are no precise data available on the level of diffusing
separation and the character of disassociation of oxygen and nitrogen
with altitude.
It seems to us that the level of diffusing separation is not
stable and depends on the thermodynamic state of the atmosphere.
This was indicated by the investigations of the determination of the
level of diffusing separation which was carried out by the Naval
Research Laboratory of the United States of America with the help of
high-frequency mass spectrometers of the Bennett type (Refs. 3 and 4).
Thus, data pertaining to the launching of the NRL-13 Aerobee on
February 12, 1953, in New Mexico, disclose the absence of diffusing
separation at least up to an altitude of 137 km. The results of
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investigations of the NRL-18 Aerobee-Hi at Fort Churchill, November
20, 1956, make it possible to ascertain that, within the region of
112 - 150 km, a diffusing separation of argon and nitrogen is taking
place.
Even though it can be considered as established that the
disassociation of oxygen begins above 90 km, it is not precisely
known at what altitude molecular oxygen disperses. The quantitative
distribution of atomic and molecular nitrogen in relation to altitude
is also presumable. What, then, is the error which occurs because of
the change of air composition when the atmospheric density and '
pressure above 200 km are determined with the help of manometers, the
graduation of which was made under ordinary air conditions?
For the evaluation of this error, we availed ourselves of a
sample of atmosphere as suggested by Miller (Ref. 5). At an altitude
of 200 and 500 km, the magnitude of the error is on the order of 20
and 60%, respectively.
A preliminary analysis of all errors, including the errors
obtained in determining altitude, velocity, calibration, and
telemetry, and also in the basic assumptions during the interpretation,
yields a maximum error during the determination of density in excess
of 200 km at separate points, amounting to about 200%. Further
processing of measurement results together with the consideration of
data obtained from rockets and satellites and including also data on
the atmospheric composition of these altitudes will make it possible
to decrease these errors.
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C. Results
In February of 1958, a geophysical rocket equipped with mano-
meters was launched during the daytime, and density measurements of
the atmosphere were carried out to altitudes of 260 km.
Concurring with other rocket experiments (Ref. 8), the results
of which are given in this paper, the launching of this rocket took
place in the middle latitudes of the European part of the USSR.
One magnetic and two thermoionization manometers were inqtalled
aboard the third Soviet Satellite, which was launched on May 15, 1958.
When the satellite entered its orbit, a special mechanism uncovered
the manometers and switched on the measuring instruments. In
compliance with the program, measurements were conducted over a
period of one week. Pressure and density at various latitudes,
longitudes, and altitudes were measured during this period.
Since the processing of measurement results is very complicated
and difficult, we have at our disposal at the present time only some
results from several points along the satellite's fifteenth orbital
revolution.
Figure 4 and Tables 1 and 2 show the results of density measure-
ments made with rockets and some preliminary data on atmospheric
density obtained with the satellites (curve 6, in the region 10-13
to 10-14 is added by approximation). For comparison, we feature in
the graph the standard atmosphere of the USA for 1956 (Reg. 6), the
results of measurements conducted with the Viking 7 (Ref. 7), and
data on density obtained during satellite deceleration (Ref. 9).
The calculation of atmospheric density by pressure as measured
inside the manometer was conducted according to the formula
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
1 1
N = PI
2.ffmK T1v sin 0
(1)
where P1 is the pressure inside the manometer, T1 is the temperature
of gas inside the manometer, v is the velocity of the satellite or
rocket, 0 is the angle between the vector of velocity and the plane
of the manometer opening, k is the Bolzmann constant, and m is the
mass of the molecule (adopted from Ref. 5).
An examination of the measurement results points to an increase
in height of the homogenous atmosphere as a function of altitude.
As is obvious from the illustrated formula, the volume of
pressure inside the manometer depends on the orientation of the
satellite. Figure 5 shows the comparable character of the change of
pressure in the manometer, depending on altitude and orientation of
the satellite. The time of measurement is indicated on the abscissa
axis and the inside pressure of the manometer on the ordinate axis.
The antennas, ion traps, etc., were located on the satellite
in such a manner as to allow the gas escaping from them to strike
the manometer opening directly (the manometer "sae the antenna,
trap, etc.). Therefore, the minimum pressure which was recorded
by the manometer varied with time. The first day, during the first
revolution, the volume of minimum pressure was about 1 x 10-7 mm Hg.
The second day'it was 1 x 10-8 mm Hg; the third day, 1 x 10-9 mm Hg.
A large number of scientists have taken part in the determination
of atmospheric density above 100 km using rockets and satellites;
their work has included the creation of instruments, the theoretical
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interpretation of obtained data, and the preparation and conduct of
experiments. The greatest contributions were made by the following:
E. N. Goshchitskava, A. M. Grigorev, B. S. Danilin, E. V. Meizerov,
A. I. Repnev, V. A. Sokolov, L. P. Khavkin, and E. G. Shvidkovshy.
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REFERENCES
1. Danilin, B. S., Mikhnevia, V. V., Repnev, A. I., and Shvidovskiy,
Ye. G., "The Problem of Pressure and Density Measurement of the
Upper Layers of the Atmosphere With The Aid of an Artificial Earth
Satellite," UFN (Progress in Physical Sciences), 63 (1), 1957.
2. Mirtov, B. A., "Disturbance of the Gas Medium Caused by Satellite
Flight," Article 5 of this publication.
3. Townsend, J. W., Jr., Meadows, E. B., and Pressly, E. C., Rocket
Exploration of the Upper Atmosphere, by R. D. F. Boyd and M. J.
Seaton, Interscience Publishers, New York, 1954, pp 160-168.
4. Meadows, E. B., and Townsend, J. W., Jr., "Diffusive Separation
in the Winter Night Time Arctic Upper Atmosphere 112 to 150 km,"
Annales de Geophysique, 14 (1), 1958.
5. Miller, Lewis E., "Molecular Weight of Air at High Altitudes,"
Journal of Geophysical Research, 63 (3), 1957.
6. "International Civil Aeronautics Organization," Jet Propulsion,
26 (12), 1956.
7. Horowitz, R., and Lagew, N. E., "Upper Air Pressure and Density
Measurements from 90 to 220 Kilometers with the Viking 7 Rocket,"
Journal of Geophysical Research, 62 (1):57, 1957.
8. Mikhnevich, V. V. "Measurement of Pressure in the Upper
Atmosphere," UFN (Progress in Physical Sciences), 63 (1):197,
1957.
9. Lidov, M. L., Artificial Earth Satellites, 1st ed, AN SSSR, 1958.
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
Table 1. Atmospheric Density as Determined
by Containers (Ref. 8) and Rockets
Height, km
Density, g/cm3
Height, km
Density, g/cm3
60
3.9 x 10-7
170
6.4 x 10-13
70
1.36 x 10-7
180
. 4,4 x 10-13
80
2.9 x 10-8
190
3.3 x 10-13
90
3.3 x 10-9
200
2.7 x 10-13
100
4.10-10
210
2.3-13
110
9.8 x 10-11
220
1.6 x 10-13
120
2.2 x 10-11
230
1.25 x 10-13
130
7.4 x 10-12
240
1.1 x 10-13
140
3.2 x 10-12
250
150
1.6 x 10-12
260
6.9%110401-14
160
9.5 x 10-13
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Table 2. Comparison of Measurement Results of Atmospheric
Density Obtained by Various Methods and Authors
USSR Containers
and Geophysical
Rockets
2.4-3 x 10-13
(based on drag, USSR)
1.10-13
(based on manometers,
USSR)
8.8 x 10-15
(based on manometers,
USSR)
1.4 x 10-15
(based on drag, USA)
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It
Fig. 1. Heat Ionization
Manometer
(1- Accelerating grid-anode;
2- Collector; 3- cathode
filament; 4- emission stab-
ilizator grid; 5- trap)
Yfl T
TMC
Fig. 3. Block Diagram
(M-manometer; UPT - DC
amplifier; PB-power
supply block)
Fig. 2. Magnetic Ionization
Manometer
(1- frame-anode; 2- plates-
cathode; 3- trap)
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.700
700
Ix
0
Vii Z V Stry: V St10-4Z f SlArift $I .4,2 SloolZ 44 ittit 61/012 41 6.1
11174 f0 10
p,r/ems
1 1 t_ Li I i_t Li I _I t Li I t I t_ I Li t
It I
Fig. 4. Atmospheric Density According to Rocket
and Satellite Measurements
Fig. 5. Pressure Change
Inside the Manometer in
Relation to Altitude
and Satellite Orien-
tation (Example)
SO if St SS S4 SI St 37 Si SS SO 8f a a 54'
t, min
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5. INVESTIGATION OF THE ION COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH'S
ATMOSPHERE WITH ROCKETS AND SATELLITES
V. G. Istomin
Investigation of the ion composition of the Earth's atmosphere
began in the Soviet Union in 1957. Work on the construction of suit-
able instrumentation has been conducted since 1955..
A. The Method of Measurements
A 705-cycle version of the Bennett-type radio frequency mass
spectrometer is used at present for investigation of the ion composi-
tion of the Earth's atmosphere. The spectrum of positive ion masses
within the range from 6 to 50 atomic mass units (amu) is being
investigated.
The schematic of this device and the principle of operation are
sufficiently well known (Ref. 1). Therefore, we will concern our-
selves only with some specific features of this instrument and its
method of application.
The basic characteristics of this instrument are as follows:
range of mass is 6-50 amu; period of measurement in the range is 1.7
sec; resolution in the region of the mass number M = 28 is equal to
R = M/AM 28, where AM is the width of the peak as measured at its
base in amu. The input resistance of the dc amplifier is 1010 ohm.
The amplifier has two outputs: one of high and the other of low
sensitivity, with voltage amplification coefficients of about 0.8
and 0.05, respectively: The amplifier characteristic is linear up to
an input intensity of about 110 volts..
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
The mass spectrometer tube of the instrument is of demountable
metal and glass construction. The all-metal radio frequency analyzer
is coupled with an ion source by means of a vacuum shield and a copper
gasket. The flask of the analyzer is made of stainless steel. Single
row grids made by winding tungsten wire around kovar rings are used in
the radio frequency analyzer and ion source. The grid threads are
welded to the ring. The thickness of the grid threads is 18 microns,
and the winding interval is 0.5 mm. The operating diameter of the
grid is 30 mm. The use of single row grids simplifies and reduces
the cost of design of the mass spectrometer tube without decreasing
the operating quality of the instrument. In particular, the resolution
of the tube with a single row grid is somewhat higher than in a similar
tube using a net grid (Ref. 2).
The mass spectrometer tube with a coupled ion source is degassed
by being heated to 400?C; it is then filled with a mixture of argon
and neon under a pressure of around 3 x 10-5 mm Hg and separated from
the vacuum apparatus. After this, the gas absorber is dispersed
within the tube. In such a manner, the tube can last for a long time
and retain its operating abilities without requiring the vacuum
apparatus for its evacuation.
It is more convenient and of greater advantage to work with a
sealed tube filled with a mixture of known inert gases. Above all,
it is possible, at any stage of the preparation of the experiment, to
record the known mass spectra with the help of a radio-telemetry
system and thus obtain a record by which it will be possible to
construct a calibration characteristic according to masses along the
entire link between the mass spectrometer and radio-telemetry system.
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This makes it possible to avoid all intermediate stages of calibration
and consequently increases the accuracy for determining mass numbers.
The calibration characteristic is established according to five datum
points on the mass-scale: A40, A36, Np, Ne22, Ne20. The presence
of the stable filler in the mass spectrometer tube makes it possible
to tune the instrument quickly, establishing the desired operating
regime (resolution) according to the neon peaks Ne2? and Ne22. In
order to obtain comparable results, all instruments are tuned uniformly
up to the value of resolution R = 20 according to the peak in the
region of masses 20--22 (at the peaks
by using the tube with the filler, it
fully the operation of the instrument
and operating regime have not changed.
The unsealing of the tube (disconnection of the ion
is always possible to check
and ascertain that its adjustment
source) took
place immediately before its installation in the rocket or satellite.
With the help of the radio-telemetry system, the voltage at the
output of the dc amplifier, the sawtooth-like voltage of the mass
scanning, the retardation potential, and a series of other controlling
parameters were registered.
Decoding of the peaks on the recording was accomplished by
determining the value of the sawtooth voltage, which corresponds to
the appearance of the crown of the peak, and by comparison with the
calibration characteristic.
B. Results
I. Vertical ascent. The first ascent of a radio frequency mass
spectrometer was accomplished in a cylindrical instrument container
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
which was delivered by a rocket to a high altitude. The purpose
of the experiment was to check the instrument under actual operating
conditions.
The launching was made on September 9, 1957, after sunset. The
descent of the Sun at the moment of launching was 6 deg, which
corresponds to the height of the Earth's shadow of about 60 km.
Data on ion composition were obtained from an altitude of 105 to 206 km.
A total of about 70 spectra recordings was obtained. Ions with two
masses (mass number 16 and 30) were registered. Data were obtained
on the distribution of these ions relative to altitudes. The results
of the experiment show that ions with a mass number 30 predominate
at altitudes of 105 to 206 km. Ions with other mass numbers are
present at altitudes of 105 to 190 km in quantities which do not
exceed 20% of the maximum ion concentration with a mass number of 30.
Figure 1 shows the change with altitude of the mass spectrum of
ions which were registered during this flight. The peak amplitude
of ionic current on a telemetry recording is projected on the
abscissa axis, and the altitude, in km, is projected on the ordinate
axis. This graph shows a distinctly registered layer, with its
maximum at an altitude of 143 km, formed by ions with a mass number
of 30 (presumably nitric oxide, Nal). Data obtained during the
ascent and descent match favorably for altitudes of 105 to 175 km.
Ions with mass number 16 (presumably atomic oxygen) were recorded
only during the ascent from 192 to 206 km. No discovery was made
during the experiment of any kind of systematic shifting of peaks on
the mass scale which could be attributed to the influence of the
container charge. On the basis of an analysis of the experimental
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results it can be stated that during the experiment the potential of
the container remained constant within the limits of ?2 volts. (This
follows from the fact that the shifting of peaks on the voltage scale
which exceeds ?0.5% would have been discovered during processing.
The displacement of ?0.5% corresponds to a drop of the peak on the
mass scale by ?0.34 amu, or, if we consider the value of the constant
of the instrument to be 6.5 volts/amu, it will correspond to a shift
of ?1.9 volts on the voltage scale. At the same time the whole-number
value obtained of mass numbers indicates that the potential of the
container equaled 0 ? 2 volts, since it is difficult to expect
potential values on the order of 6.5 ? 2 volts.)
2. Mass spectrometer investigation with Sputnik III. A radio-
frequency mass spectrometer was installed on Sputnik III. During the
operation of the instrument, several thousand mass spectra of positive
ions of a large altitude range were obtained. It was, of course,
impossible to include in this report an exhaustive analysis of the
obtained results, since even the initial processing of the material
is far from being completed.
Preliminary processing results of data from some of the first
spirals of the satellite can be reduced to the following. At
altitudes from 250 km on the basic (predominating) components are
ions with a mass number of 16, which are ions of atomic oxygen 0+.
These ions were registered at altitudes of 230--885 km. Ions with a
mass number 14, which are ions of atomic nitrogen N-1-, form the second
component of the ionosphere. The ion current with a mass of 14
constitutes 3--8% of an ion current with a mass of 16, with a
tendency towards an increase of this percentage with altitude. The
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corresponding dependence (based on data from two spirals) is shown
in Table 1. The operating regime of the instrument along the first
spiral differed from a normal one because the satellite had a negative
potential of about -5 volts. Data on the satellite potential were
obtained from an experiment during which the concentration of positive
ions was measured (Ref. 3). These data are confirmed by the presence
of harmonic peaks in the mass spectra. The level of the lower
harmony of mass-number 16 is about 0.10 - 0.12.
The maximum current value at the collector of the mass spectro-
meter tube as registered on the first spiral is 200 x 10-1?a(at 250
km altitude). The minimum recorded current has a magnitude of about
0.1 x 10-10a. The maximum altitude on which mass spectra were obtained
is 885 km. At this altitude the ion current with a mass of 16 is
Besides the peaks, which correspond to the ions al- and 10- in the
spectra obtained during the first spiral, there are peaks present
which, according to the character of their intensity, may eventually
be attributed to contamination.
The maximum ion current with a mass of 18 is 3 x 10-1?a. Ions
with a mass of 18 (besides the first spiral) were recorded on the
third spiral, wherein the current was about 0.5 x 10-10a. Ions with
a mass number of 18 were not observed in further spectra.
Concluding, the author expresses his gratitude to E. A. Mirtov,
director of the laboratory, for his constant interest in this work and
for his help in evaluating the experimental results, and also to the
co-workers of the laboratory: the junior scientist R. P. Shirshov,
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
senior engineer L. T. Chulkin, technical constructor 0. V. Rodionov,
and the laboratory technicians, A. A. Perno and S. V. Vasyukov, who
have done a great job on the construction and testing of the
equipment.
REFERENCES
I. Bennett, W. H., Journal of Applied Physics, 21:143, 1950.
Mirtov, B. A., Istomin, V. G., UPN, 63, edition lb, 227, 1957.
2. Istomin, V. G., Instrumentation and Technique of an Experiment,
2: III, 1958.
3. Krasovsky, V. A., Article 9 of this publication.
Alltude,
230
250
255
285
385
460
650
750
0.037
0.03
0.035
0.045
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.06
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
013
?
''''
41
e t
8
?xx
?)cit
??
x ?
xx .
??
?
?
x 4, 1
?
f . .x
4
x
i
? ?
6
oe
,
_
/
XX.
K2L_rs______.
X
.___x______"_?_,---
1 x
x
Fig. 1. Change with Altitude of
the Number of Ions Which Were
Registered by the Mass-Spectro-
meter During the Launching of the
Rocket on September 9, 1957.
(On the Abscissa axis is shown
the amplitude of peak A as
recorded in corresponding units;
on the axis of the ordinate is
shown the altitude H in km above
the surface of the Earth. Ion
measurements with a mass number
of 30 (MO) during ascent are
indicated by points; during
descent they are indicated by
crosses. Ion measurements with
a mass number of 16 (0) during
ascent are indicated by circles.
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6. SOVIET INVESTIGATIONS OF THE IONOSPHERE WITH THE
HELP OF ROCKETS AND SATELLITES
V. E. Krasovsky
The methods for investigation of the ionosphere may be divided
into four groups.
1. The investigation with the help of radio waves refracted
from the ionosphere by surface radio transmitters.
2. The investigation of radio emission which passed through
the ionosphere from sources lying beyond the Earth (the
Sun and radio sources) and the investigation of emission
from ground sources using the Moon for radio location.
3. The investigation of radio emission from sources which
travel through the ionosphere with the help of rockets
and artificial Earth satellites.
4. The investigation with the help of devices which directly
determine the characteristics of the ionosphere in the
vicinity of rockets or satellites (Langmuir-probe
technique, ion traps, mass spectrometers, etc.), data
of which are transmitted to Earth by means of radio-
telemetry.
Until recently, basic information on the ionosphere was obtained
by investigating the radio waves with the help of ground equipment.
Only the method of inpulse-radio probing of the ionosphere was widely
used. However, the study of signals reflected from the ionosphere
could not basically solve the problems of distribution of the electron
concentration along the entire vertical section of the atmosphere,
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
since it is impossible, with this method, to perform an exhaustive,
investigation of the wide layer of ionosphere in which the ionization
density decreases with respect to altitude, or does not exceed the
ionization density in the lower regions. Indeed, if the analysis
of a group delay of radio-wave impulses of various frequencies mhich
are reflected from the F region allows certain conclusions on the
electron concentration above the maximum ionization of the E region,
it follows that the region which is located above the maximum of the
highest (ohserved with the help of reflected radio waves) could not
be investigated by the before-mentioned method.
Through an investigation of the ionosphere by means of radio
emission from sources beyond the Earth which pass through the entire
thickness of the atmosphere, the integral content of the electrons in
its entire vertical column can be determined. By comparing these
data with the observations of ionospheric stations, some conclusions
can be made concerning electron concentration of the ionosphere's
regions above the maximum of its layers. However, this method does
not permit one to obtain detailed data on the original distribution
of electron concentration according to altitude.
Thus, with instruments located on the Earth's surface, it is
impossible to obtain exhaustive data on the distribution of electron
concentration throughout the entire vertical section of the atmosphere.
This problem might be solved by means of radio methods only under the
condition that the sources of emission of radio waves of frequencies
exceeding the critical frequencies of the ionospheric layer will
drift vertically through the altitude within the ionosphere itself.
Here it is of great importance that the vertical shifting of the
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since it is impossible, with this method, to perform an exhaustive,
investigation of the wide layer of ionosphere in which the ionization
density decreases with respect to altitude, or does not exceed the
ionization density in the lower regions. Indeed, if the analysis
of a group delay of radio-wave impulses of various frequencies Which
are reflected from the F region allows certain conclusions on the
electron concentration above the maximum ionization of the E region,
it follows that the region which is located above the maximum of the
highest (observed with the help of reflected radio waves) could not
be investigated by the before-mentioned method.
Through an investigation of the ionosphere by means of radio
emission from sources beyond the Earth which pass through the entire
thickness of the atmosphere, the integral content of the electrons in
its entire vertical column can be determined. By comparing these
data with the observations of ionospheric stations, some conclusions
can be made concerning electron concentration of the ionosphere's
regions above the maximum of its layers. However, this method does
not permit one to obtain detailed data on the original distribution
of electron concentration according to altitude.
Thus, with instruments located on the Earth's surface, it is
impossible to obtain exhaustive data on the distribution of electron
concentration throughout the entire vertical section of the atmosphere.
This problem might be solved by means of radio methods only under the
condition that the sources of emission of radio waves of frequencies
exceeding the critical frequencies of the ionospheric layer will
drift vertically through the altitude within the ionosphere itself.
Here it is of great importance that the vertical shifting of the
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
radiation surface should significantly exceed the horizontal shifting.
This condition prevails during the vertical launching of high-altitude
rockets. Rockets and satellites offer great possibilities for the
investigation of ion and electron concentrations by utilizing direct
measurements.
The United States of America published in recent years a series
of materials dealing with the measurements of electron concentration
in the ionosphere with the help of rockets (Refs. 1-7). The majority
of these papers (Refs. 1-5, 7) are concerned with regions above 200
km, and only one of them deals with an altitude up to 380 km (Ref. 6).
In the Soviet Union, the exploration of the ionosphere by means
of rockets and satellites is considered to be a problem of prime
importance. We will concern ourselves first of all with the
investigation of the ionosphere, based on the study of radio wave
propagation. We consider the most important investigation in this
field to be the measurement of electron concentration in the ionosphere
by means of a dispersion interferometer. These investigations were
conducted since 1954, while the launching of geophysical rockets of
the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was under way (Ref. 8). The
method of a dispersion interferometer is one of the radio inter-
ferential methods for the investigation of radio wave propagation
proposed by the academicians L. I. Mandelshtan and N. D. Papaleksi
more than twenty years ago. As far back as 1936 this method was
applied to the study of ionospheric radiations of the optical traces
of radio waves with a length on the order of hundreds of meters
?
(Refs. 9-11), whereby the radio transmitting and receiving parts of the
interferometer were located at various points of the Earth's surface.
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During the flight of Soviet artificial satellites, mass
measurements of the level of signals received from radio waves of
the satellite were conducted. The processed results of these
measurements have yielded interesting conclusions about the pro-
perties and content of the ionosphere.
Y. L. Alpert and others (Ref. 12) have conducted these measure-
ments in order to establish a possible use of the phenomena of
"radio dawn" and "radio set" of the satellite in order to obtain
data on the structure of the ionosphere. A. N. Kazantsev and others
(Ref. 13) have treated the results of the measurements from the
standpoint of determination of absorption of radio waves above the
maximum of the F2 layer. We shall discuss each of these works.
As a basis for the determination of the electron concentration,
measurements were used of dispersion of radio waves emitted from a
rocket by means of a dispersion interferometer. Tests were conducted
as follows. Aboard a rocket launched under a small angle to the
vertical, transmitters were mounted having coherent ultra-short-wave-
range radio waves of two frequencies, one of which was several times
higher than the other. This was accomplished by a variable frequency
multiplication of the generator, which was stabilized with quartz.
During the rocket's flight, radio waves from the above-mentioned
transmitters were received at two points on the Earth's surface. The
phase-variation as well as the intensity of the received oscillations
were recorded continuously. At the same time, measurements of the
rocket's coordinates were conducted by means of optical and radio
technical methods. Radio probing of the ionosphere with panoramic
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ZELAInsansisillon-lai-2
ionospheric stations located near the launching site was also
conducted. In order to increase the phase surface discrimination of
receiving devices, subsequent multiplication of frequencies and
heterodyning were employed. The registration of phase differences
was accomplished in two ways: by a continuous photographing of the
characteristic points of the Lissajous figures from the cathode tube
of an oscillograph, using the method as described by E. Y. Shchegolev
and others (Ref. 14), and by recording the interferential frequency
oscillations which are formed after the detection of the sum of both
received signals. In the last case the signal of the low frequency
was preliminarily multiplied according to frequency as many times
as this frequency was smaller than that of the high-frequency signals.
A photographic picture of the instrumentation and examples of
recording patterns are illustrated in Figs. 1 to 4.
Appendix A gives the final formula for calculating the mean
electron density at a given altitude and shows the development and
the assumptions made at the same time.
All above-mentioned launchings of geophysical rockets of the
Academy of Sciences of the USSR were carried out in the middle
latitudes of the European part of the Soviet Union. During the
construction of the graph on the distribution of the electron
densities, which are independent of altitude, data were used which
had been obtained only from the ascending parts of the rocket tra-
jectories.
During the rocket launchings of 1954--1957, 48- and 144-mc
frequencies (with a three-fold multiplication of the smallest
frequency) were used. During the experiment on February 21, 1958,
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additional registration was made of phase differences of 144-mc radio
waves and of the coherent 24-mc waves which are also emitted from the
rocket. During this launching, registration was made of the rotation
of the polarization plane for all received radio waves, which occurred
because of the magnetic splitting in the ionosphere. The final
processing of the data for 1958 has not yet been completed, and the
quoted data represent the average along approximately 10-km intervals
of altitude. Of great importance is the fact that the geophysical
rocket which reached an altitude of 475 km was stabilized in relation
to three possible axes of rotation after rocket engine cut-off.
Results of some experiments are shown in Figs. 5--7. Local
time is used in the legends under these illustrations. The data for
1957--58 allowed a conclusion that no other strongly pronounced layers
exist at the observed altitudes, except in the F region. The
ionosphere consists of very many small electron concentrations on
the general background of a continuous increase of electron concen-
tration up to the maximum of the F2 layer. All this agrees with
American data (Refs. 1--7). However, the measurement results conducted
on February 21, 1958, on the maximum ionization of the F2 layer
disagree considerably with Berning's data (Ref. 6), according to
which the electron concentration above the maximum layer drops rapidly
and becomes very low at an altitude of 378 km. In our experiments this
concentration varies from 1.8 x 106/electron/cm3 to 106 electron/cm3
at an altitude of 290 and 473 km, respectively. It should be mentioned
that during these experiments the cycle phases of solar activity,
seasons, and days were fully comparable in the United States and the
Soviet Union.
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The results of 1957--58 were comparable with the simultaneous
measurements of the ionospheric stations located near the launching
site of the rocket. At the same time, it appeared that the altitude
registered by the ionospheric stations in the F regions actually
exceeds the altitude which is obtained with the help of a dispersing
interferometer by 50-150 km.
Extensive material and signal reception from the satellites and
the level of intensity of these signals were accumulated during the
existence of the Soviet artificial Earth satellites. This material
is still being processed. Only selected investigations have been
made so far.
The signal levels of the satellites' 20.006-mc-frequency radio
transmitters have been investigated. By comparing the mean field
intensity of actual signals with the intensities calculated by the
formula of ideal radio transmission, radio-wave absorptions for
various positions of the satellite were determined. Comparison of
the absorption of radio waves when the satellite is located above
the maximum ionization and below the maximum F2 layer permits
evaluation of the change of the ionospheric density above the maximum
F2 layer. According to these evaluations the drop of electron
concentration above the maximum layer takes place considerably more
slowly than the increase during the approach to the minimum from
below.
It was noted in a number of cases that the radio waves pass the
receiving point not along the shortest distance but by way of circling
the Earth's sphere along a greater curve of a large circle. In some
cases the measurements of the volume of field intensity proved to be
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larger than had been calculated by applying the law of inverse
proportion of the first distance stage, which obviously gives
evidence of the propagation of radio waves, in these cases through
some peculiar channels of the ionosphere.
Furthermore, the "radio dawn" and "radio set" were investigated
during the reception of radio signals from the satellite on the
frequency of 40 mc. In several cases, we succeeded in observing the
"radio dawn" and "radio set" of satellites in a pure form and in fixing
the corresponding moments of time. The radio ray is subjected to a
very strong distortion in the ionosphere. The delay of the actual
"dawn" as compared to the actual "set" makes it possible to determine
the value of the bending or distortion of the radio beam. Since the
bending of the radio beam in the ionosphere depends on the change of
the electron concentration with altitude, it is possible, by studying
various laws of change of electron concentration, to choose, with a
certain degree of uncertainty, such a distribution of electron
concentration vs altitude which gives the time of "radio dawn" and
"radio set" as is actually observed. To a certain extent, the effect
of the lower layers can be taken into account on the basis of the
direct measurements, which are carried out by the ground stations.
Data obtained during the observation of radio signals from the
first two satellites allowed one to assume that the volume of electron
concentration in the outer ionosphere decreases with increased altitude
much slower than its increase below the maximum. Thus there exists
a qualitative correspondence of such evaluations of the electron
content in the ionosphere with those obtained by dispersion radio
interferometers in rockets.
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In addition to the utilization of radio waves emitted by the
satellite for the investigation of the ionosphere, Sputnik III is
equipped with an instrument for direct measurement of the concentration
of charged particles in the ionosphere and the transmission of the
readings of this instrument through the radio telemetry system. A
special feature of this type of experiment is the independence of the
measurement results from the characteristics of the entire ionosphere
between the earth and the satellite and other processes which take
place in it.
The experiment carried out by Sputnik III was proposed by
K. I. Grinhauz and M. Zelikman (Ref. 15).
The ionosphere is quasi-neutral in that it may be considered that
the concentration of positive ions equals the sum of electron
concentration and negative ions. Therefore, the entire concentration
of charged particles equals the double volume of concentration of
positive particles. By measuring the latter the first can be
determined.
The device mounted on Sputnik III for measurement of positive
ions consists of two spherical perforated ion traps (Figs. 8-10)
which are fastened to thin bars and mounted on diametrically opposite
sides of the satellite (Fig. 9) and also of an electronic unit which
contains two amplifier converters and a generator of sawtooth-like
voltage impulses (Fig. 8). Each of the ion traps has the shape of a
perforated sphere with a diameter of 10 cm (Fig. 10). There is a
spherical collector in the center of each to which a negative potential
is fed relative to the perforated cover (? -150 volts). With this,
the electric field inside the traps gathers on the collector all
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positive particles which fall into the trap and expells all negative
particles from it.
The collector (Fig. 8) is connected to the conductive surface
of the satellite through resistance. The current of positive ions
gathered on the collector runs down to the surface of the satellite
causing a corresponding increase of electron current from the
surrounding environment to the surface of the satellite. The voltage
from the input resistance advances towards the amplifier input, the
output of which is connected to the radio telemetry system, which
transmits the instrument readings to Earth.
The concentration of positive ions can be determined according
to the formula given in Appendix B.
Because of various factors (velocity difference of electrons and
ions, photoemissions of ions from the satellite's surface, etc.) the
satellite may acquire an electrical charge as a result of which the
potential of the perforated cover of the trap will differ from zero
in respect to the surrounding environment. In order to calculate
the influence of the satellite's electrical charge on the results of
measurements, advantage is taken of the sawtooth voltage impulses
which are fed to the perforated cover with respect to the body of
the satellite.
During the moments of sawtooth impulse feed a simultaneous
telemetrical record of the trap collector currents and the potential
between the surfaces of the trap and the surface of the satellite
permits one to obtain the volt-ampere characteristics of the current
on the collector in relation to the variety of potentials between the
perforated trap cover and the body of the satellite. The expected
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characteristic is shown in Figs. 11-15. The point A at which the
drop of the collector current terminates during the potential increase
of the perforated trap cover in relation to the surrounding environment
corresponds to the potential of the decelerating ions that can be
determined on the basis of the well-known expression given in
Appendix C. Knowing the amplitude of the generator' impulses and the
decelerating potential of the ions, it is possible to find, on the
curve of Fig. 11, the point which corresponds to the condition by which
the potential of the perforated trap cover in relation to the
surrounding environment will equal zero. Then the density of the ion
flow through the trap represents their actual density in the iono-
sphere. This permits one to determine the actual value of the ion
flow over a period of time between the two neighboring sawtooth
impulses. The flow which corresponds to the deceleration potential
is a summaric current created by parasitic processes.
The recording of collector currents during the absence of voltage
inpulses on the traps permits one to measure the dimensions of small-
scale nonhomogeneities of ionization.
At present, the processing of these experimental results is only
in its primary stage, and, therefore, only some preliminary infor-
mation characterizing the conducted measurements can bereported. We
will limit ourselves to the discussion of measurements taken at two
points of the satellite's orbit during the first day of flight. These
results are typical, although other values were observed.
Every 2 sec, bi-polar intensity impulses in relation to the body
of the satellite with an over-all length of 0.2 sec (Fig. 12), were
fed to the perforated cover of the ion trap.
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Figure 13 shows volt-ampere characteristics of the dependence
of the collector trap currents on the intensity of the spherical trap
covers at an altitude of 795 km on May 15, 1958, over a period of
5--6 hours in the afternoon at middle latitudes. The character of this
dependence is as was anticipated (Fig. 11, Ref. 15). At the moment
under discussion, one of the ion traps was located in the rarefied
region formed behind the satellite, which caused the ion current in
this trap to be very small. Full retardation points of positive ions
may be noticed in these characteristics. If we consider that at this
altitude the heaviest ion Mmax is the ion of atmospheric oxygen
(mass 16) and that, consequently, the kinetic energy of ions at the
moment of total retardation is ET =(Mmax x v5F))/2e r\-, 5.1 ev, it
can be determined on the basis of the characteristics in Fig. 13
that the potential of a trap cover equals the potential of the
surrounding plasma when it is fed with a voltage of +6.4 volts in
relation to the body; consequently, the negative potential of the body
of the satellite in relation to the plasma equals 6.4 volts. Such a
potential of the satellite (even without consideration of the influence
of a photo effect) may take place at an electron effective temperature
on the order of tenths of thousands ?K, i.e., at such a temperature
which, in the case of a Maxwell velocity distribution of electrons,
leads to the indicated negative potential of the body without
accounting for the influence which the photo emission from the surface
has on it. The concentration of positive ions, which is determined
by the current corresponding to the zero potential of the trap cover
in relation to the plasma, equals 1.9 x 105 ion/cm3.
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The perforated trap cover actually appeared to be connected
in parallel with spherical Lanquir probes when the voltage impulses
were fed to them. During the passage of a positive voltage impulse
through the trap cover in relation to the satellite body, the
electron flow of these probes sharply increases, causing the drop
of voltage on the output of the generator of sawtooth-like impulses.
Taking advantage of the fact that the difference in the form of
positive voltage impulses from its undistorted form is known, it is
possible to construct the following probe characteristic
lg 13 = f(V)
where 13 is the sum of the current exerted on both trap covers. By
it is determined the point at which the potential of the satellite
equals the potential of the plasma and also the electron temperature.
Figure 14 represents the dependence of the summaric current in
both perforated trap covers on the potential (probe characteristic)
for the same experiment, as in Fig. 13 (H = 95 km, May 15, 1958).
The potential which was determined by this characteristic corresponds
to the potential of the plasma, which is close to the one determined
by the volt-ampere characteristics of ions flows, and the electron
temperature is not less than 15,000?K.
In many cases (at lower altitudes) the positive voltage impulse
decreases as a result of the voltage decrease caused by the electron
currents on the perforated trap cover to such a degree that the full
deceleration of positive ions does not take place. For example, one
may point to the volt-ampere characteristics obtained at an altitude
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of 242 km, on May 15, 1958, over a period of 1 to 2 hours before
noon in the middle latitudes (Fig. 15). In order to determine in these
cases the point at which the potential of the perforated cover equals
the potential of the plasma, it is necessary to use only the probe
characteristics. Two curves represent the current at various
collectors. In the given case, at an altitude of 242 km, the
concentration of positive ions proved to be 5.2 x 105 ions/cm3, the
negative potential of this satellite being approximately 2.0 volts
and the effective electron temperature being approximately 7000?K.
The ion content of the upper atmospherg was also determined by
rockets and by Sputnik III.
CONCLUSION
1. Observations of radio waves emitted from artificial Earth
satellites and recorded during various positions of the satellite in
relation to the maximum ionization layer F4 can serve as sources of
valuable information on the properties and content of the ionosphere.
In the future the scope of these observations should be widened. It
is particularly necessary to study the simultaneous passage through
the ionosphere of radio waves of various frequencies.
2. In the meantime other investigations of the ionosphere
conducted in the Soviet Union with the help of rockets and ai.tificial
satellites make it possible to obtain the following results:
a) The ionization above the maximum of F2 layer drops very
slowly with altitude, which indicates a very large
altitude scale for ionized particles of the ionosphere;
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on February 21, 1958, at an altitude of 473 km, an
ionization of about 106 electrons/cm3 was discovered;
on May 15, 1958 at an altitude of 795 km, a concentration
of positive ions was measured which reached 1.9 x 105
ions/cm3.
b) The effective electron temperature in. the F regions and
higher is many times larger than the temperature of the
environment.
c) It was confirmed that the ionosphere below the maximum
F region, contrary to the pattern which was established
on the basis of data from an ionospheric probing from
the Earth, does not possess any sharply expressed
layers and is characterized by a series of small maxima
with a monotone growth of electron density upwards to
the maximum of the F layer.
d) It is confirmed that the maximum of the F2 layer, and
ionization in general below the F region, is located
at 50 to 150 km below the values which were obtained
from data of usual ionospheric probing from the Earth.
The obtained material is of great interest in the physics of the
upper atmosphere. The large altitude scale for electrons above the
maximum of the F2 layer and the high effective temperature of
electrons correspond favorably with the conception of an intensely
heated upper atmosphere with a large altitude scale. This is a
result of observations of deceleration of artificial Earth satellites.
Of very great interest is the absence of the thermodynamical equilibrium
between the electrons, ions, and other particles of the upper
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atmosphere. It is quite possible that electrons of the outer
atmosphere are accelerated in the short cycle variable geomagnetic
fields, where they are created by the circulation of the atmosphere
or interplanetary environment and are causing the upper atmosphere
to heat up.
The structure of the ionosphere (which consists of many finely
stratified layers below the maximum of the F2 layer) and the fact
that its location is lower than was originally assumed on the basis
of direct radio probing from the Earth require a serious review and
correction of old assumptions. Obviously, an ordinary ionospheric
probing gives a less clear picture of the ionosphere than an
investigation facilitated by rockets and artificial Earth satellites.
It is evident that all this does not detract from the practical value
of ionosphere probing, which was and is a practical means for obtaining
effective parameters of the ionosphere. However, an exhaustive
and thorough investigation of the ionosphere is posesible only with
the help of rockets and artificial Earth satellites. We have made
significant progress in this direction. Before us are fascinating
perspectives to investigate the upper, outer atmosphere at greater
and greater distances from the surface of the Earth.
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Fig. 1. View of Receiving Antenna During
the Test with an Ultra-Short-Wave
Dispersion Interferometer
Fig. 2. Phasometric Receiving
Installation of the Dispersion
Interferometer
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Fig. 3. Register Oscillographs of the
Dispersion Interferometer
(1- Repeating oscillograph; 2- tube for
the registration of characteristic
points of the Lissajous figures; 3-
photo recorder)
Fig. 4. Recording Samples
(a- Transposition of charac-
teristic points of the
Lissajous figures; b- Trans-
positions of interferential
frequencies)
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hkn
106
101/
/02
100
98
SS
941
82
SO
0 2 6'
Ne? 10 -41 ELECTRON/cm3
Fig. 5. Distribution of
Electron Concentration
with Altitude,
5:24 p.m. May
26, 1954
8
10
12
4180
4120
310
3419
300
280
228
fie
fee
0 11 1 12 18 20
Ne ? 107,1 ELECTRON/cm3
fit
Fig. 7. Distribution
of Electron Concen-
tration with Altitude,
11:40 a.m. February
21, 1958
gm
rso
V20
%IV
-----,T7
'Jo
AV
\.
fW
SOO
(1.1?
41
1 12 It 20 Zf 2E
N 107 ELECTRON/cm3
Fig. 6. Distribution of
Electron Concentration
with Altitude
(1- 6:18 a.m. May 16,
1957; 2- 6:27 a.m. August
26, 1957; 3- 7:54 p.m.
September 9, 1957)
Ha RTC
Ha PIC
Fig. 8. Diagram of the
Experiment with Ion
Traps
(1- surface of satellite;
2- isolator; 3- instal-
lation of screen tubes)
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Fig. 9. Diagram of Location of Traps
on the Satellite at the Moment
of the Satellite's Separation
from the Rocket Carrier
(1- Sputnik III; 2- rocket carrier;
3- separating protective cone; 5- ion
traps)
.-
Fig. 10. Over-all
View of an Ion
Trap
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FAZto
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JPLAI/Translation No. 2
di
JR
i?41-910
A
fn rn
r, f r DRAG
L
91Artil t,se,
r ?
L,Aika
2
Fig. 11. Shape of
Sawtooth Voltage
Impulses (Upper
Curve), Which are
Fed to the Per-
ferated Trap Cover,
and the Form of
the Anticipated
Signals (Lower
Curve)
???=, .1?? isir mm, am. mom. am.
0,2 sec
2 sec
Fig. 12. Supply Diagram of
Sawtooth Impulses per
Time
x* I
1_1_1i I t
? 41 ?3 ?2 ?1 0 f 2 3 44 S Si 71.9 10 11112 1314' 15 /6"
Fig. 13. Example of the Dependence of Collector
Currents of the Ion Traps from the Potential
of the Perforated Cover
(1- the current of the first collector; 2- current
of the second collector)
o
x2
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14-2?5.20
Jet
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JPLAI/Translation No. 2
114
-
-
-
g9
0,8 -
0,7 -
qa?
oss
0,1/ -
0,3 -
0,2 --
0,1 -
I
f 234'
-0,3
1
?
? ?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14' 15 16 ,f if
Fig. 14. Probing Characteristics
Z 7 Si 58 7 81'B
Fig. 15. Dependence of Ion Current on the Retarding
Voltage
(1- current of first collector; 2- current of second
collector)
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APPENDIX A
It is assumed that
where nf is the refraction coefficient in the ionosphere for the
frequency f, N is the effective concentration in electrons/cm3, and
e and m are, respectively, the charge and mass of an electron.
Because of their dispersion (referred to higher frequencies)
the phase difference T at the receiving point of two radio waves can
be expressed as follows:
L
2vpf f
c
(npf - nf)d1
where L is the distance between transmitter and receiver, p is the
relation of radio wave frequencies of a higher frequency with a radio
wave of a lower frequency, and c is the velocity of light in cm/sec.
The change of AT during the change of L from L to L + AT, taking
equation (1) into consideration, is represented as follows:
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and the mean value of N along the track of AL is
L+AL
NdL =
It is assumed that during the changing period of L to the volume AL
the volume of f NdL does not change. The difference of AL from Ah,
0
which is the altitude increase above the Earth's surface, is taken
into account during the processing of the measurement results.
APPENDIX B
If the ion trap is located within a flow of ionized gas, the
measured collector current will be
where e is the electron charge, r is the radius of the perforated
superficial trap, a is the coefficient of its transparency, vsp is
the velocity of the satellite, and TL is the potential of the perforated
trap cover in relation to the surrounding environment.
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APPENDIX C
The deceleration potential can be determined from the relation
ecpT
M. V2
max sp
2
where e is the electron charge, Mi max is the mass of the heaviest
ion falling into the trap, and vsp is the velocity of the satellite.
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REFERENCES
1. Seddon, J. C., Journal of Geophysical Research, 58:323, 1953.
2. Jackson, J. E., Journal of Geophysical Research, 59:577, 1954.
3. Seddon, J. C., Journal of Geophysical Research, 59:463, 1954.
4. Seddon, J. C., Pickar, A. D., and Jackson, J. E., Journal of
Geophysical Research, 59:513, 1954.
5. Lien, J. R., Marcon, R. J., Venrick, J. C., Aorons, J., and
Morrow, M., Rocket Exploration of the Upper Atmosphere, London,
1954.
6. Berning, W. W., Journal of Meteorology, 8:175, 1951.
7. Hok, C., Dow, W., Rocket Exploration of the Upper Atmosphere,
London, 1954.
8. Grinhauz, K. I., DAN USSR, 120(6):1934, 1958.
9. Papalexi, N. D., "Works of the Expedition for the Observation of
the Solar Eclipse of June 19, 1936", AN USSR, 1:115, 1937.
10. Mandelshtam, L. I., and Papalexi, N. D., (editors), "Recent
Investigations of Radio-Wave Propagation Along the Surface
of the Earth", Gostechizdat, 1954.
11. Shchegolev, E. Ya., Science and Life, (4) 1937.
12. Alpert, Y. L., Chudesenko, E. F., Shapiro, B. S., UFN, 65, 2nd
ed., 161, 1958.
13. Kazantsev, A. N., Romanova, G. S., and Klementenko, A. Y.,
article to be published.
14. Shchegolev, E. Y., Viller, K. E., and Borushko, I. M., "Recent
Investigations of Radio-Wave Propagation Along the Surface of
the Earth." Gostechizdat, p. 45, 1954.
15. Grinhauz, K. I., and Zelikman, M. Kh., UFN, 63 (ed. 1b):239,
1957.
16. Istomin, V. G., Article 5 of this publication.
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7. PRELIMINARY REPORT ON GEOMAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
BY THE THIRD SOVIET EARTH SATELLITE
S. Sh. Dolginov, L. N. Zhuzgov, H. V. Pushkov
Geomagnetic measurements with artificial Earth satellites were
part of the program of scientific research of the national committees
of the US and the USSR for the IGY. The scientific value of these
measurements has been discussed by American authors in a number of
articles (Ref. 1). Of the Soviet papers devoted to this question,
the ones by N. V. Pushkov and S. Sh. Dolginov (Ref. 2) are worth
mentioning.
In accordance with the plan of scientific investigations during
the IGY, the first geomagnetic measurements were planned and
accomplished with the third Soviet artificial Earth satellite.
Other geophysical experiments having a direct relationship to
magnetic and electrical phenomena in cosmic space were planned and
carried out simultaneously with geomagnetic measurements, using the
third Soviet artificial satellite. The large number of instruments
which were installed on the satellite created additional difficulties
in regard to accurate measurements of the magnetic field intensity
which is due to the magnetic deviation caused by the satellite's
instrumentation. As a result of an examination of the conditions for
magnetic measurements to be made with the satellite, it was decided
to conduct these measurements with the help of a magnetometer with
magnetically saturated elements which can be automatically adjusted
to the direction of the field vector.
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4WD
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Magnetometers of this type are comparative instruments and are
less accurate than precision proton magnetometers; however, they have 1
the following advantages:
1. These magnetometers are less sensitive to the hetero-
geneity of the magnetic field and variable magnetic-
electrical disturbances. Field heterogeneity and
variable disturbances affect only their operating
stability and accuracy but do not hinder signal
formation.
2. With the help of these magnetometers it is possible not
only to measure the field strength but also to determine
the satellite's orientation at different time periods,
which is necessary for the processing of data from
other experiments.
3. A magnetometer of this type is much more readily
adaptable to the applicable telemetry system.
Without going into detail concerning the magnetometer's construc-
tion (a description will appear in another paper), we will point out
only that the instrument is of a double frequency harmonic-type
magnetometer.
In contrast to instruments of this type which are used for
aeromagnetic surveys, this magnetometer makes it possible to conduct
measurements at any magnetic latitude and during any orientation of
the satellite. This magnetometer is fully automatic, requires little
power, and is of comparatively low weight. There is also a special
attachment which permits one to obtain information on variations of
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the satellite's orientations in space and the character of its
rotation.
The instrument's range of measurement is 48,000 y. The servo-
system response rate is 40--45 deg sec. The sensitivity of tLe
magnetometer can be judged by the curve in Fig. 1. The graph in
Fig. 2 gives a conception'-of the stability of the magnetometer in
the course of time. These graphs indicate the readings of the
instrument at the observatory and the field variations AT during the
testing period of the instrument (Greenwich time), which were measured
by observatory variometers. The average zero drift is on the order of
2 y/hr. The magnetometer zero index was determined by comparison
with a proton magnetometer.
Initial processing of the observation material is being conducted
at the present time. A geophysical interpretation of the results will
be given after the completion of the processing. The graphs presented
illustrate the nature of the material being obtained.
Curves 1 and 2 in Fig. 3 represent the readings from two
potentiometer detectors, which characterize the angular displacement
of the satellite. Accordihg to the control graph of the satellite's
angular position, it is possible to obtain a numerical value of the
comparative change of the satellite's position in space at any given
moment. From these curves it follows that the satellite completes a
precession movement with a period of T = 136 sec. Furthermore, the
satellite rotates around its axis with a velocity of approximately
0.36 deg/sec. There is a basis for the assumption that it will also
be possible to determine the absolute orientation of the satellite in
space in relation to the determined system of coordinates.
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Curves 3 and 4 of Fig. 3 also represent the magnitudes of the
magnetic field which were measured directly by a magnetometer over a
period of 23 minutes, on a segment of a trajectory within an altitude
range of 250--750 km. It follows from curves 3 and 4 that the
magnetographs which are being obtained from the satellite loosely
represent variable curves modulated by magnetic interference, ,which
is sharply related to the shell of the satellite. The modulation
period equals a period of precession.
The magnetic influence of the instrumentation aboard a satellite
was experimentally determined under laboratory conditions. The
maximum value of the magnetic deviation is about 3,000 y. With such
values of magnetic disturbances we may consider that the magnetometer
of the satellite genuinely measures the intensity of the Earth's
magnetic field and the projection of the magnetic disturbance vector
on the direction of the Earth's field. Thanks to the precession of
the satellite, the magnitude of the projection changes periodically
in value and symbol, which permits one to exclude the basic element
or magnetic disturbances.
The comparison of the measured values of the magnetic field
intensity which pertain to the intersections of the ascending and
descending curves permits one to control the stability of the zero
point on the magnetometer during the entire operation of the
instrumentation. The magnetic recordings of satellite instrumentation
and the intensity curves which were constructed by the data of
leveled magnetic charts of the surface values for points which are
located at the intersections of the orbital plane and the Earth's
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oft
Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPLAI/Translation No. 2
surface coincide very well (by the character of curve variations).
A comparison of these curves is used as a standard during the initial
processing of the material.
An examination of initial data permits observation of particular
points which are distinguished by comparatively brief but rapid
variations of the magnetic field. An example of such variations is
shown in Fig. 4. They pertain to a moment of time and coincide with
a passage of the satellite through a region of the ionosphere. The
point in question pertains to the time interval of 10:46:11.5 to
10:46:16 on May 16, 1958.
Similar phenomena are being encountered on the photorecordings
of material which has not been processed yet. An interpretation of
these phenomena will be given after examination of all such cases.
It is proposed to carry on a study of experimental data obtained in
the following directions:
1. To make a comparison of the field values measured by
the magnetometer at different heights and computed
according to the theory of potential. There is also
one of the most recent harmonic analyses of ground data
that will be used as the basis for the computation.
2. To make a comparison of the isoline of a full force
magnetic field and the intensity of cosmic rays as
measured by the satellite.
3. To make an analysis of the field above the East Siberian
world magnetic anomaly, which has been well studied
during a ground aeromagnetic survey and passed over many
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times by the satellite. The objective of the analysis
will be to check the hypotheses on the depth at which
its source is located.
4. To analyze materials in order to clarify the reality of
the existence of such systems in the upper atmosp.aeric
layers.
REFERENCES
1. Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites, The University of Michigan
Press, Ann Arbor, 1956.
2. Pushkov, N. V., and Dolginov, S. Sh., UFN, 63, (4th ed):645, 1957.
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
7900 950
0 950 1900
Fig. 1. Sensitivity of Channels of the
Magnetometer SG-45
1
2
.77Migt,
20
0 ? 1
15 17 11
19
1
20 21 22 23 241 1 2
Fig. 2. Change of Intensity of Full Vector AT on March
11-12, 1958
(1- Readings of SG-45 29153; 2- readings of observatory
magnetograph)
hr
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Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPLAI/Translation No. 2
3-4
47,7
SJ000
51000
98000
Y7000
95000
93000
91000
3.900
170
ISOM
33000
31000
op woo 1100 IMO 1300
Fig. 3. Magnetometric Graphs
(1, 2- channels of orientation;
3,4- change in intensity of
magnetic force)
72 .73 79 75 78 sec
Fig. 4. Peculiar Point, Received on.
May 16, 1958 Between 10:46:11 a.m.
and 10:46:16 a.m.
Airaga+
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0771.
j
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??????
TI
4/???
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JPLAI/Translation No. 2
8. INVESTIGATION OF MICROMETEORITES
WITH ROCKETS AND SATELLITES
O. D. Komissarov, T. N. Nazarovai L. N. Neugodov,
S. M. Poloskov, L. Z. Rusakov
Up to the present time the basic information on hard components
of interplanetary matter was obtained by various methods such as
visual, photographic and radio-location tracking of meteors, observa-
tion of zodiac light, etc. Evaluations of space density of meteoric
bodies were made on the basis of these investigations.
Recently, the Soviet Union and the United States of America have
begun an investigation of meteoric particles by direct methods, i.e.,
with the help of instruments launched into the upper atmosphere in
rockets and satellites. In order to register meteoric particles with
rockets and satellites, we are utilizing an instrumentation which
registers the number of impacts and conducts measurements of some
mechanical parameters of meteoric particles.
The conception of measuring instrumentation consists of the
following: from the point of view we are interested in, each particle
may be characterized by its momentum and energy (or by mass and
velocity). It is not possible to detect the momentum of the meteoric
particle at the instant of impact because the particle explodes on
the surface of the detector, causing the momentum of the detector
material which is emitted during the explosion to exceed considerably
the momentum of the particle itself. When measuring this "reactive"
impulse which is recorded by the detector, we obtain not the impulse
of the meteoric particle but (with a certain scale factor), obviously,
its energy.
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Theoretical calculations conducted by K. P. Staniukovitch showed
that, for great velocities, the detector momentum is proportional to
the energy of the particle hitting the instrument. Presently,
theoretical research and laboratory experiments are being conducted
in order to determine this relationship. It is possible that the
exponent of the velocity-in the expression mv2/2 may turn out to be
not 2 but somewhat less.
The momentum measurement should naturally be carried out by means
of a ballistic detector. Though the time of collision is negligible
(about 10-8 sec), it appeared expedient to choose the natural fre-
quency of the detector as about 400 cps. The detector is constructed
as follows: a massive plate is suspended by means of a flat spring
to which four piezoelectric cells of ammonium phosphate are connected
(Fig. 1). We have utilized not one but four piezo elements in order
to decrease the dispersion which is transmitted by the detector due to
the output voltage dependance of the meteoric particle at the point of
impact. The deformation of the piezo elements due to impacts of
micrometeorites produces a voltage output in the form of short-term
damped oscillations which are separated according to amplitude into
four ranges by the amplifier converter; this converter counts the
number of pulses in each amplitude range. The block diagram of the
converter is shown in Fig. 2. This diagram shows clearly that the
signal of each detector is received by separate amplifiers; this
eliminates shunting of the detectors by each other because of their
own capacity.
The signals are separated according to amplitude by feeding the
output of the appropriate amplifier to the counter for each
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
amplitudinal range. The four amplifier outputs corresponding to the
four ranges are compounded, thus the counter performs a parallel
calculation and adds the number of signals in each amplitudinal range.
In order to eliminate repeated actuation of the first triggers
by the half waves of a signal originated by the damped oscillation,
a Kipp relay is located at the entrance of each circuit which closes
the entrance of the calculating circuit for a period of 0.06--0.08
sec. This sets the resolving power of an entire system to 12--17
impacts/sec.
The calculation circuit with the most sensitive range consists
of six triggers and conducts calculations up to 32. The signal on
the Kipp relay of this calculating circuit is taken from the last
stage of the amplifier and, without limitation, secures the registra-
tion of the detector signals with a magnitude of 0.001 volt and up.
Correspondingly, the calculation circuit of the higher ranges has
five triggers with a calculation ability to 16 and three triggers with
a calculation ability to 4, the signals are taken from the intermediate
stages of amplification.
The signal of the least sensitive range on the Kipp relay is
taken without amplification from the adding circuit, which consists
of resistors. The calculation circuit of this range has only one
trigger, that is, it registers each signal.
The voltage of the output flip-flop of the counter circuit is fed
to the output circuit, which produces fixed levels that maintain a
ratio of 1:2:4;8. Thus, any condition of the output triggers creates
a fixed intensity at the output, which easily permits one to determine
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Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPLAI/Translation No. 2
the condition of each output trigger at any moment of time and,
consequently, the number of signals passed to this moment in each range.
The indicated output circuit permits one to transmit, through a
single radio telemetric channel, the number of signals which pass
through all four ranges.
A record of registration by a radio telemetric' system is shown
in Fig. 3. The variation in the height of the level confirms the
registration of the number of impacts by the counting circuit which
pertains to the corresponding amplitude range. Thus, our detectors
measure the impulse which affects their surface. The calibration of
such detectors for impulse load is done as follows: the detector is
placed in a horizontal position and, from a certain height, we drop
a ball on it. After the impact, the ball bounces off the detector
plate and attains a certain height. Knowing the height from which
the ball was dropped and the height of rebounce, we simultaneously
receive the impulse which was fed to the detector.
This method fully imitates an explosion on the surface of a
detector. Actually, the period of collision of the ball is about
10-5 sec. Even though this is 3 orders larger than for any meteoric
particle, it is also much larger than the frequency of the detector
itself. Consequently, the detector works under the same regime as
in actual conditions, namely, measuring an impulse.
The calibration of detectors was conducted with balls with a
mass of 0.6 x 10-3 to 2 grams. By varying the balls and the height
of drop, it was determined that the detectors which we used work in
a linear range from 0.1-1,000 grams cm/sec. Figure 4 shows the
relationship between the corresponding sensitivity of the system
-
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and the impulse of the ball. Inasmuch as we would like to show in
this graph only that the detector registers an impulse in the above-
given range, the corresponding sensitivity S/S0 can be laid on the
axis of the ordinate, where S = Ub/mv, the sensitivity of the system,
and So is its nominal value, which may vary depending on the construc-
tion of the detector and cAverter because of the noise level on the
satellite, etc.
The temperature variation of the detector in an interval ?6000
changes its sensitivity by ?5%, whereby the increase and decrease of
temperature causes a respective increase and decrease in sensitivity.
If we proceed from the most elementary theoretical law of
dependence between the momentum received by the detector and the
energy of meteor particles, plus the momentum energy conversion
factors calculated by K. P. Stanukovich, and assume that the mean
velocity of meteor particles is 40 km/sec, the utilized detectors will
permit us to measure the energy of the meteoric particles with a mass
raP
of 10-9 and more until the detector breaks down.
As mentioned before, the sensitivity of the system may be
increased. Thus it is possible to measure one of two values which
characterize mechanical properties of meteoric particles, perhaps
the most important one, since the satellite's surface erosion is also
connected with particle energy.
The third Soviet artificial Earth satellite is a laboratory in
cosmos. It contains a considerable amount of research and auxiliary
instruments, some of which create during their functioning a vibration
of the satellite itself, which, if an incorrect choice of sensitivity
limits is made, may cause the registration of not only meteoric
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????????11.1.
EN
eit*
m.14.
?
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JPLAI/Translation No. 2
impacts but the vibration of the satellite as well. In order to
decrease the effect of such vibration, the detector was supplied with
rubber shock absorbers which considerably decreased the sensitivity of
the detector to this type of noise and vibration. However, we did not
succeed in eliminating this condition entirely. In order to eliminate
false signals, the sensitivity of the system was established above the
level of noise from the satellite.
After all of the steps were taken, the instrumentation proved to
be insensitive as far as vibration associated with the satellite is
concerned; however, it is not insensitive to the more vigorous vibra-
tions and noises which accompany the flight of the carrier rocket
along the powered part of its trajectory. This, however, is not
important since the measurements begin after the separation of the
satellite from the rocket carrier. It should be mentioned that the
detector possesses some sensitivity to impacts of meteoric particles
on the surface of the satellite. In this case, the sensitivity of
the detector drops by about 15 times and more. However, during an
impact between a particle and the body of the detector, its sensi-
tivity drops only by approximately 2. This condition was taken into
account during the processing of the experimental data.
For the purpose of registration of meteoric particles, four
detectors with an over-all area of 3410 cm, including the body of the
detectors, were installed on the bottom of the satellite. All
detectors are located in one plane. Since the location of the
satellite in space is known from the data of the magnetic instruments
and the solar orientation detectors, the location of our detectors is
naturally also determined in space.
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Almomb=.
1$
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JPLAI/Translation No. 2
According to preliminary data, the detectors have registered an
average impact frequency of about 1.7 x 10-3 impacts/m2/sec, or
4.4 x 10-12 g/m2/sec (for two astral magnitudes). Together with such
a density of meteoric matter, a short, sudden increase of the number
of impacts was registered.
During the satellite's flight in orbit the detectors have
registered various impact frequencies. This result cannot be
attributed to the variation of the number of meteoric particles in
relation to altitude, since during the satellite's flight in orbit
not only did its altitude change rapidly but at the same time its
location in space was altered. While rotating and precessing, the
satellite had different orientations relative to the Earth when
OP passing various portions of the orbit, and sometimes the detectors
were protected by the Earth from hits by meteoric particles. It is
possible that the change of the number of impacts during the satellite's
motion is also determined by the direction of the meteor flow.
At the moment of sharp count increase at an altitude of 1700--
1800 km, the detectors recorded an average impact frequency of about
22 impacts/m2/sec. At altitudes of 1300--1500 and 500--600 km,
averages of 10 and 9 impacts/sec were registered within an area of
1 m2.
t.
If we should proceed from the assumption that an impulse which
has been received by the detector during an impact with the particle
is proportional to its energy, then the registered meteoric particles
shall possess an energy of about 104 erg.
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
In conclusion, the authors would like to express their most
sincere appreciation to A. K. Bektabegov, M. A. Isakovich, G. M.
Kurtev, N. A. Rozin, N. A. Roy and A. A. Truchachev for their active
part in this work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cambridge, 1956.
2. Whipple, F. L., Physics and Medicine of the Upper Atmosphere,
The University of New Mexico Press, New Mexico, 1952.
3. Levin, B. U., The Physical Theory of Meteors and Meteoric Matter
in the Solar System, AN, USSR, 1956.
4. Fesenkov, V. G., Meteoric Matter in Interplanetary Space,
AN, USSR, 1947.
London, 1954.
6. Berg, O. E., and Meredith, L. H., "Meteorite Impacts to Altitude
of 103 Kilometers," Journal of Geophysical Research, 61 (4),
1956.
7. Manring, E., and Dubin, M., Satellite Micrometeorite Measurements.
"Some Preliminary Reports of Experiments in Satellites 1958 Alpha
and 1958 Gamma", National Academy of Sciences, National Research
Council, Washington, D. C.
8. Dubin, M., "Cosmic Debris of Interplanetary Space," presented at
the Second OSR Astronautics Conference, Denver, 1958.
9. La Gom, H. E., Schaefer, D. H., and Schaffert, I. C., Micro-
meteorite Impact Measurement on a 20-Inch-Diameter Sphere at 700
D. C., 1958.
10. Singer, S. F., "The Effects of Meteoric Particles on a Satellite,"
Jet Propulsion, 26 (12), 1956.
11. Baum, S. A., Kaplan, S. A., and Staniukevitch, K. P., Introduction
to Cosmic Gas Dynamics, Fizmatgiz, 1958.
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sat.
W
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JPLAI/Translation No. 2
4
car.r.e.e."
NUN
40# .14/4PlearAr...
Arz
A re;
2
Fig. 1. Ballistic Piezo Detector
(1- plate; 2- piezo element of
ammonium phosphate; 3- flat spring)
ii
AZ
11
HP
HP
HP
til
bi 1151 151
IT
BC -1-?-?- BbAr
UUUtiUUU
Fig. 2. Block Diagram of Transformer Amplifier
(D-detector; SS-composition diagram; U-amplifier;
KR-kipp relay; T-trigger; VS-output scheme; V-out-
put to telemetry)
}id* ydapa I', I &maw/
ydapm 4, if &mazy
11??????????
118 ydapg. Mull/waif 3
6141/ apa, A-1 gt/C117L7,70 411
Fig. 3. View of Recording on a Radio-Telemetry System
(1- five impacts, range I; 2- eight impacts, range II;
3- forty eight impacts, range III; 4- sixty four
impacts, range IV)
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airit
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
So
JPLAI/Translation No. 2
1???=, mm.? ? ?am ??? ??????
la????
a.m. ? am. enam?
0
mem am.
.m??? mom
0
saw de.,
1?0 eumm
4.. ?I?
0
oMm adom ?????? ???=? AM.
0
0
0
r,
t) ci
?10
\
?
10
100
/0 /4 g cm/sec
Fig. 4. Calibration Curve of System
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Uf?Pkni
Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPLAI/Translation No. 2
9. DISCOVERY OF CORPUSCLES WITH THE HELP OF SPUTNIK III
V. I. Krasovsky, Y. M. Kushnir,
G. A. Vordovsky, G. F. Zakharov,
E. M. Svetlitsky
We have made an attempt to discover corpuscular fluxes with
Sputnik III (Ref. 1). For this purpose two fluorescent screens of
ZnS (Ag) (2 x 10-3 g/cm2) covered with aluminum foil of 8 x 10-4 and
4 x 10-4 g/cm2 were used as indicators. In front of screens of
5-cm diameter three aluminum diaphragms of 5 mm thickness were located,
the input windows of which have secured the capture of corpuscles
from a solid angle of 1/4 sterad. The radiation of the fluorescent
screens was registered by photoelectronic amplifiers. The received
electrical signals were recorded in a memory instrument and subse-
quently transmitted telemetrically to Earth.
The characteristic of the amplifying system was constructed
nonlinearly in order to register electrons falling perpendicular on
the entire fluorescent screen with an energy of 104 ev at a current of
?10-11 to 10-3 a/cm2, this being in the case of an indiCator with
a thick foil.
The thin foil had small micropores which admitted solar light.
Therefore, during an orientation towards the Sun the indicator having
such a foil gave a reading on the middle scale. During the rotation
of the satellite the photocurrent should have been symmetrical in
relation to its maximum as a result of electromagnetic radiation of
the Sun. It is necessary to know these conditions in order to evaluate
the corpuscular reaction on the fluorescent screen having a thin foil.
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JPLAI/Translation No. 2
An indicator with a thick foil did not yield any current signals
during an orientation towards the Sun.
On May 15, 1958, intensive signals were registered by both
indicators. Sometimes scaling was observed and signals were seldom
absent near the threshold of sensitivity. Obviously, the amplitude
of signals increases from equatorial to higher latitudes and with
altitude. Many times, intensive signals appeared or disappeared
suddenly over a period of 1 sec. The intensity of these signals
? varied.
As yet, the processing of the obtained material is not completed
and it therefore cannot be compared with other observations. Conse-
quently, we have no final opinion about it.
In principal, the registered signals may be explained as an
irradiation of the fluorescent screens by ions,e.g., X-radiation, or
electrons, if all these agents possess an energy of several key to
several hundred key.
Since it is very difficult to contemplate a large proton force
or X-radiation, preference should be given to such an agent which is
connected with the lowest flux of energy. Therefore, the most
attractive ones are the electrons which are not especially hard.
In cases where the radiation intensity of the fluorescent screens
with a thin foil is somewhat larger than the one with screens haying
a thick foil, one may assume that the energy of the electrons does not
exceed 104 ev and is possibly even less than that.
At the moment of scaling, the electron current exceeded 4 x 103
erg/sec cm2 sterad; at the threshold of sensitivity it was about
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3 erg/sec cm2 sterad. Such an intensive irradiation undoubtedly 'will
complicate the investigation of the solar X-radiation and the cosmic
y-radiation. The X-radiation propagated by the electrons may prove
dangerous to living beings subjected to a lengthy travel through the
upper atmosphere. In addition to this, powerful electron currents may
heat up the upper atmosphere intensively, thereby increasing its
altitude scale. This, undoubtedly, is interesting in the light of new
information on the upper atmosphere.
At the present time it is too early to make any final hypothesis
on the origin of the observed corpuscles. We will limit ourselves to
some short remarks. The usual period of delay of geomagnetic disturb-
ances in relation to the passage through the solar center of some
characteristic formations of solar activity does not permit one to
assume that electrons with an energy of several key to several hundred
key might have been the original solar corpuscles. It is also difficult
to assume that such electrons were created near the earth as a result
of energy transformations of the initial corpuscles' protons, which
traveled with velocities of about 2 x 102 cm/sec, since in order to
explain the above-indicated energy fluxes (more than 4 x 103 erg/sec
cm2 sterad) a density of protons of about 4 x 103 would be required
in the original fluxes; thus far, this condition has not been dis-
covered during the study of hydrogen emissions of the polar light.
It is not without interest to point out the possibility of
explaining the observed phenomenon as an acceleration of electrons of
the outer atmosphere (in an electron conducting circuit formed along
the magnetic force lines during its contact with the Earth's
ionosphere) as a result of changing magnetic fields which are frozen
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3 erg/sec cm2 sterad. Such an intensive irradiation undoubtedly Will
complicate the investigation of the solar X-radiation and the cosmic
y-radiation. The X-radiation propagated by the electrons may prove
dangerous to living beings subjected to a lengthy travel through the
upper atmosphere. In addition to this, powerful electron currents may
heat up the upper atmosphere intensively, thereby increasing its
altitude scale. This, undoubtedly, is interesting in the light of new
information on the upper atmosphere.
At the present time it is too early to make any final hypothesis
on the origin of the observed corpuscles. We will limit ourselves to
some short remarks. The usual period of delay of geomagnetic disturb-
ances in relation to the passage through the solar center of some
characteristic formations of solar activity does not permit one to
assume that electrons with an energy of several key to several hundred
key might have been the original solar corpuscles. It is also difficult
to assume that such electrons were created near the earth as a result
of energy transformations of the initial corpuscles' protons, which
traveled with velocities of about 2 x 102 cm/sec, since in order to
explain the above-indicated energy fluxes (more than 4 x 103 erg/sec
cm2 sterad) a density of protons of about 4 x 103 would be required
in the original fluxes; thus far, this condition has not been dis-
covered during the study of hydrogen emissions of the polar light.
It is not without interest to point out the possibility of
explaining the observed phenomenon as an acceleration of electrons of
the outer atmosphere (in an electron conducting circuit formed along
the magnetic force lines during its contact with the Earth's
ionosphere) as a result of changing magnetic fields which are frozen
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into the solar corpuscular fluxes. We may expect in this case tith
harder electrons will fall in the polar regions, since a periphery
with a large area is associated with the polar regions. The load of
electron fluxes in the daytime can be explained by the increase of
ionization on the borders of the exosphere, as a result of which the
outer atmosphere is penetrated by great numbers of ionized particles,
or by the activity of the magnetic variation pc, which is more intensive
in the daytime. By acquiring a certain velocity, the electrons may
complete an oscillating movement along bent magnetic lines.
REFERENCES
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Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPLAI/Translation No. 2
10. THE STUDY OF SOFT COMPONENTS OF COSMIC RAYS
BEYOND THE LIMITS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
F. N. Vyernov, P. D. Vakulov,
E. V. Gorchakov, Y. I. Logachex,
A. E. Shudakov
A. The Apparatus
To obtain data on protons from high altitudes, Sputnik III
carried luminescent counters, which, as is known, are highly effective
for the registration of photons (approximately 2 orders more effective
than a Geiger counter).
The counter consisted of a 40 x 39-mm cylindrical crystal of
sodium iodide and a photoamplifier with a photocathode having a
40-mm diameter. The following measurements were conducted with this
device:
1. The counting rate of events, when the impulse corresponded
to energy emission in the crystal of more than 35 key.
2. The volume of anode current of the photoamplifier.
3. The current volume of the intermediate dynode.
The last two parameters characterize the full energy emission
in the crystals in a unit of time.
A simultaneous measurement of anode and dynode fluxes makes it
possible not only to determine the value of summaric ionization which
takes place in the crystal (dynode flux) but also to evaluate the
average portions that this ionization consists of. This appeared to
be possible by taking advantage of the nonlinear effects in the region
of the last electrodes of the photomultiplier, as a result of which
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Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPLAI/Translation No. 2
the correlation between such anode and intermediate dynode fluxes
depends on the value of separate explosions.
In order to measure correspondingly slow anode and dynode fluxes,
an economical scheme was developed which operated on the principle
of charge-accumulation on the condenser, which, after being charged
to a determined potential, discharges through a neon bulb. This
method enables one to measure fluxes up to 1010a. An impulse occurs
after the discharge of the condenser and trips a trigger operating a
relay; the contact position of the relay is transmitted by radio.
In order to measure the count rate, the impulses appearing on the
last dynode of the photoamplifier are amplified by a two-cascade
amplifier and proceed to the input of a dual cross scheme having
a calculation coefficient of 4096. The threshold of the counter
scheme corresponds to the energy emission in a crystal with 35 key.
The last trigger of the computation scheme controls the position of
the corresponding relay. All electron schemes were made of semi-
conductors. The overall power requirements of the device is 0.15
volts.
The radio transmitter "Mayak" used for the transmission of data
has a frequency of 20 mc and operates continuously throughout the
flight of the satellite. The transmitter "Mayak" relays information
by changing the length of telegraphic signals. We have used the
second and third signals (the second and third channels)..
Figure 1 shows a block diagram of the instrument and a repre-
sentation of telegraphic signals transmitted. The length of these
signals depends on the resistance, which is ascribed to the input of
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Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JPLAI/Translation No. 2
the corresponding channel: when R = 0, T = 50 msec; when R = 10
kilohms, T = 100 msec; when R =00, T = 150 msec.
The change of the relay positions takes place after the deter-
mined charge is accumulated (relay 1 and 2) or during the accumulation
of the determined number of impulses (relay 3). Thus, the intensity
may be calculated according to I = K/T, where T is the period in which
the relay remains in one position. For count rate measurement,
Kc = 2048; during the measurement of ionization along an anode flux,
KA = 2 x 109 ev; and during the measurement of ionization along the
dynode flux, KD = 18 x 99 ev.
During calibration of the instrument, the coefficients KA and KD
were measured by means of irradiation with y rays of the isotope of
mercury Hg203 (an energy of 279 key). In this case the linear
correlation between the energy of an explosion and the amplitude of
an impulse on the output of the photomultiplier was not disturbed.
The absorption along the amplitude of the output impulse takes place
by an energy of 1--2 Mev. This means that during an irradiation of
the instrument with initial cosmic rays only (in this case the
explosion energy exceeds 20 Mev), one should expect that the measure-
ments of the anode flux will yield an ionization value at least 10
times less than the measurements of the dynode flux, for which the
effect of non-linearity practically does not exist.
B. The Processing of Results
The basic part of the information received in the form of signals
from the radio transmitter "Mayak", was tape-recorded. The gathering
of information is not as yet completed, and only a small part of the
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Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPLAI/Translation No. 2
material has been processed. Most completely processed were the
time intervals, which correspond to the flight of the satellite over
the territory of the Soviet Union from May 15 to May 22 and from
June 13 to June 16, 1958. Satellite recordings from the southern
hemisphere were processed for June 7, 17, and 18. In addition,
numerous separate recordings were made on the territory of the Soviet
Union.
The processing of material has shown that for a period of more
than one month complete information was transmitted continuously from
the satellite's instrumentation in flight. Information on ionization
flpxes was received for more than three months, since the energy
requirements of these elements are insignificant and they had a large
reserve of electrical power.
The results of measurements of count intensity have shown that
the number of impulses in all cases exceeds the anticipated count
rate of the initial cosmic rays by 10 times or more. This indicates
that a basic contribution in the count intensity was given by the
registration of photons. (This conclusion follows from a comparison
of these results with data obtained by Geiger counters. We should
also bear in mind that the luminescent counter was located inside
the aluminum cover of this satellite, shielding the detector by a
layer having the minimum mass of one g/cm2.) At least a part of
these photons should have been affected by a reverse photon flux
which appears in the atmosphere under the influence of cosmic rays.
In Fig. 2 are represented typical examples of data processings
conducted at one receiving point (Fig. 2a) and at two points (Fig. 2b),
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which are located in the Soviet Union. The lower curve represents
the counting rate, the two upper curves the ionization (full energy
emission in a crystal during 1 sec). The ionization measurements'
exceed the ionization caused by cosmic rays by several times. The
fact that a large part of ionization is not connected with cosmic rays
is explained by the small difference between the readings of dynode
and anode fluxes. This proves that the "excess ionization" is given
out in every case in small quantities.
However, the correlation between the count rate and ionization
does not permit an explanation of this phenomenon, regardless of the
energy of the falling radiation. The point is that even if the energy
of the falling photons is lower than the threshold of registration
according to the counting channel, the rate of counting should, in
this case, also be 1 order higher than the observed one, since in
addition to the intensity which is necessary for the creation of the
observed anode fluxes, the imposition of impulses in time is of great
importance.
This fact was verified under laboratory conditions during the
irradiation of the instrument by X-rays. It appeared that the observed
relation between the count rate and the anode fluxes may be received
only by subjecting the photocathode to light from a fixed light
source. Thus the "excess ionization" can be explained only by lengthy
light exposure--phosphorescence of the NaJ (T1) crystal.
The investigations of the crystals which we have used have shown
that this phenomenon actually occurs. In Fig. 3 is shown one of the
measured curves of fluorescence. The irradiation of the crystal by
X-rays having an energy of 80 key lasted in this case for a period
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of 40 minutes, whereby the intensity of irradiation corresponded to
the energy emission in the crystal of 1.4 x 1012 ev/sec. Immediately
after switch off of the X-ray tube, the current in the photomultiplier
dropped by 140 times. The law of fluorescence may be more or less
approximated by the sum of three exponents with T = 15, 75, and 150
minutes. The full energy consumed by a lengthy fluorescence is about
1% of the energy of the short-lasting fluorescence.
Thus the "excess ionization" which was registered during the
satellite's flight above the territory of the Soviet Union can
basically be explained not by radiation in this region but by the
peculiar "memory" of the crystal which was irradiated in the region
of the equator, as will be shown below.
In Fig. 3a, synchronized oscillations of anode and dynode fluxes,
with a period of about 2.5 minutes and a modulation depth of about
10% are distinctly visible. The period of these oscillations coincides
with the periods of the satellite's rotation. The current oscillations
were apparently caused by the influence of the Earth's magnetic field
on the sensitivity of the photomultiplier. An effect of such a degree
was anticipated on the basis of laboratory measurements. The fact that
the counting rate does not experience such oscillations testifies that
in the photospectrum only a small part can possess energies which are
close to the threshold energy of 25 key.
C. Electron Components of Cosmic Rays in the Polar Region
As can be seen in Fig. 2a the counting grade sharply increases
at the determined moment. Such an effect is observed in all cases
in which the satellite enters the region of about 60 deg northern
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4.0.11.4110
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