METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY, ISSUE NO 4 (DECEMBER 1950)

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• Collection: General CIA Records
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• Document Page Count: 143
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 20, 2012
• Sequence Number: 23
• Publication Date: May 29, 1952
• Content Type: REPORT

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1Ieteoroios i and }Iydro1O y, ISSUC NO Li. (SI~;Cember 1950)
1'4otcoroiog;iya i Gidro:Logiya, No Li,, pages i-y6a
Leningrad: December x.950.
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STAT
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'METEOROLOGY AND
GIDROMETLOIZDAT
190
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MAIN ADMINISTRATION OF THIHDROMETEOROLOGICAL SERVICE
ATTAC}IED TO THE COUNCIL OIL MINISTERS USSR
METEOROLOGY
AND
HYDROLOGY
Monthly
Scientific - `technical
Journal
No L
December
1950
HYDRONCETEOR0LOGICAL PUBLISHING HOUSE
LENINGRAD
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K.
EDITORIAL BOARD
Kashin (Chairman)
S. Yu. Pelinkov, N. A. Pelinskiy,
I. Gayvoronskiy, V. I. Yefremychev,
G. 1). lubyan, yu. V. Istoshin,
G. P. Kaiint-n, M. S. Kulik,
G. I. Morskoy, Kh. P. Pogosyan,
V. M. Sklyarov
Editorial Offices; Moscow, POl4 u1. Gor'kogo, d. 18a
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TABLII OF CONT NTS; (page no. here)
1.
ll\f ? ]'i. Karazin, 1lrnirient Ru&~siat~ Met~orologisttl iII I. 13udyka?
2.
tt~.~n the Subject and Airrts oi' Af;ricuitural Metooroiofylt M. S. Kulik.
:L6-23?
34
ttOceanofraphic Operations in the USSR Durgin ; to Last 30 Year slr
V. A. Lednev and L. F. i~udovits.
2i.33.
lI ,
ttT11e ;3ett i ng-up of Experimental Research in Flow C ~a :i.oz~srt
Ye. G. Popov-
31~4~6.
ttcha igo in the fix^ection of Air i4ass Trrins:fer in the Troposphere
With the Change oi' 1~atural S rnoptic Periodstt A. L. Kats.
1.I?~-65?
6.
t1The Relation J3etween Relative 1lurnidity and the Difference ]3et~Teen
Temperature anc3. Dew Point" Yc. I. God.;;oieva and Ye. N. Pobryst?&in. 66-72
7, n~rtificial Climate Laboratoriestt S. L. B stamov, 1;;, M. Topolmni.tsiciy
end i'a. P. Fomin? 73-81.
8. ttA Technique for Calculation of Advectional Changes of Temperature
Using Pilot-Balloon Observation Datatt S. S. Klyucharev. 82-Ba.
). "The iuestion of the Pole of I Shields t in the Determination of
Precipitation" I. T. ]3artishvili. 89.95.
10. t+ ;o aholog:ical Characteristics of_R_iverst+ Z. A. Gri.nberg. 96-IOZ~.
11. tiVertici 1+orbce Effects of an Ice i i.elcl on Hydraulic Engineering
Str !.cturestt Yu. N. iTeronov. 105-111..x.
12. ttFirst Conference on ;Marine Geologru A cony nous, ll~ l2O.
13. ttfiseussion of A. A. :Borisov' s 13001 'Climatology in the Main Geophysical
Observatory irneni A. I. Voyekovt a T. Pokrovskaya, 120-122.
1L. ttT'he Discussion of the Training Manual + The Forecasting of Marine
Hydrological Characteristics (A Manuscript by K. I. Kudryava) t at
the Council of The Central Forecasting Instututett I.V. Ivanov. 123-12S.
1 ~, ttCritic s]rt and Bibliography: N. A. Belinskiy+ s i nual t i11arine
Hycirometeorological Information and Forecasts1 a Ye. G. Popov. i26-?131.
16. ttInformati.on for. Authors" l32-131.
17. Ilr[able of Conten.tstt 135-137.
-END
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V? N , 'MTN;ENT* RUSSIAN METEOROLOGIST
M. I. Rudyko
he incompleteness of research in 'the history of our
native meteorology sometimes leads one to the incorrect conclusion
V. Lomonosov up to the establishment of
that from the death of M
th.e work of the Main physical Observatory there were no great
m?teorologists in Russia.
The complete inaccuracy of such a notion becomes apparent
.
upon acquaintance with the notable meteorological works of Vasiliy
Nazarova.ch Karaz 1773 - 18L2), who, one must believe, is not
~.n (
the only forgotten or inadequately appreciated Russian eeoz?ologist
of the end of the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth
century.
In contemporary works on our native meteorology only one
azin's meteorological works is mentioned.
(the :first) of. V. N. Kar
To .a.t a few lines are usually allotted, which do not reveal its
enormous significance for the history of Russian meteorology and
are not free from factual inaccuracies. No indication of Karazin~s
other extremely important meteorological investigations is found
in these works, nor is any mention made of Karazinrs years-long
struggle with the stagnancy of the government circles of that time
.
network of meteorological stations and central
for the creation of a
meteorological institutes in Russia.
V? N. Karazin was rather well known as a social worker in
the beginning of the nineteenth century.
T f ,~ i utp7,~ ., n itV
although his political
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opinions were in~onsiStent anc~ dial not in generai go beyond the
bounds of moderate aristocratic liberalism, Karazin came forth
more than once with what were for his time extremely courageous
criticisms of the many reactionary aspects of the serfdom system
and thus provoked a whole series of repressions on the part of
the government. During the whole latter half of his life he systematic-
ally exposed himself to arrest and exile. He spent several years
in banishment on his own estate and in 1820, being suspected of
inciting an insurrection of the Semenovskiy regiment, he spent
nearly six months imprisoned in Shlissel'burg fortress. For the
last twenty years and more of his life Karazin was forbidden entry
to Petersburg.
Karazin'S contributions toward enligh.ennent are deserving
of mention; on his initiative, in particular, the first university
in the -south of Russia was founded (in Kharkov, 1805)KaraZin's
services in the creation of the university were subsequently recog-
nized by the erection of a monument to him near the university
building.
It is also fitting to mention Karazin's organization of
instructive societies in the Ukraine, in particular a philotechnical
society established for the improvement of scientific methods of
agriculture and industry in the Ukraine. The activity of this
society had to some degree a democratic character; its meetings
were sometimes attended by peasants, which was very unusual for
that time.
Karazin's scientific activities developed for the most
part after 180L~, when he retired and moved to his estate in the
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Ukraine, where he established a meteorological station, laboratory
and experimental field, Karazi.n's scientific interests were extra-
ordinarily versatile. Not touching upon his works in the field of
the humanities, one may indicate Karazin's research into such diverse
subjects as meteorology, chem:lstry, geography, agronomy, processing
of agricultural products, forestry, and various fields of technics.
All these works of Karazin were characterized by a distinctly marked
applied direction and an immediate relation to the working out of one
or another practical probm -~ "pure" science little interested
Karazin. The great significance Karazin attached to the close
connection of theoretical research with the solution of practical
proJ1erns is evident in his iord.sr "Not so much theories, but rather
their successful application in practice, makes an epoch in the history
of people and of science,"
The first result of Karazin's scientific work in the field
of meteorology was a small but extraordinarily comprehensive paper,
delivered on l March. 1810, to a Moscow society of naturalists,
(First printed .n French in Khar' kov, 1812. First translated in
"Syn 0techestva", 1817, mo XLIX. For citations below of this and
subsequent works, see V. N. Karazin; Works, Letters and Papers.
Kharkov, 1910.)
In this paper a whole series of considerations which are of
enormous interest for the history of our native meteorology were
presentede
Let us note, first of. all, that in his speech Karazin indicated
the possibility of human knowledge of the causes of atmospheric
processes, declaring that "it cannot be that the causes of the changes
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in our atmosphere are hidden". This attitude is, at f'irs't glance,
at variance with the d'~'on set forth by Ka~~azin in another part
~.v~.~a,
of the paper of the causes of atmospheric processes into "first
causes", of divine origin, and "secondary causes", knowable by man.
seeming contradiction. Such a division, which
This is, however, only a
the works of the 18th century French materialists,
was in common usage in was often used as a guard aga.~ 'nst the charge, very dangerous at that
time, aatheism. That Karazin, although he resorted in this case to
of "first causes", in fact completely denied the
the stipulation
influence of unknowable "divine" factors in the
possibility of the
changes of the weather, is disti.n.ctly proven in the discussion of
his second meteorolog a.cal work, which will be mentioned below.
Karazin further expressed the conviction that, foreseeing
the development of atmospheric processes, man might "came to know
methods of directing them to his own use and. of averting the damage
they might doe" This attitude is directly related to the thoughts
erring g the enormous future practical significance
Karazin expressed cane
of meteorology
+'r'here is no need for me...," wrote Karazin, "to prove the
t
usefulness meteorology would have were it brought into regulation.
off
The science which, guiding the farmer in his labors, would ward guiding the failure of his crops, the Science which. so e\~ dently would his
of commerce, navigation and the art of war; the
mote the development
science which, finally, would have the power to indicate the time
when one -mustexpect meagre harvests of the earth's vegetation and
takemeasux e, a.fnotfor the prevention of their insufficiency, then
r
..,~
at least for the. aversion. of famine -?- such a science demands no wordy
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praise''. These considerations of Karazint $ had become essentially
forgotten by the time of M. V. Lomonosov's brilliant thoughts on
this question.
However, Karazirl clearly understood that the level of the
rfreteorology of his time was corpletcly inadequate for the solution
of the existing important practical problems. The general evaluation
of the state of meteorology in the beginning of the 19th century
which he gives in the introductory part of the paper reads; "In
spite of the rapid progress of the natural sciences in our century,
one of the divisions of physics r emairis to this day in almost the
same form as it hiad in the days of the aristotelians. This is
meteorology. True, many studies have been concerned with it...
But up to now there is not one work on this subject frora which
one might derive positive and direct benefit,"
In conn.ectIon with this, Karazin formulated the chief aim
of his paper as follows. In order that meteorology might rase
to the position of a science of practical value and "might attain...
to the degree of an exact science, certain procedures are necessary,
tr:ie designation of these constitutes the chief subject of my present
notes". After that Karazin indicated the only path possible
in that time toward the transformation of meteorology into a genuine
science __ the creation of a network of meteorological stations
making systematic observations over extensive territories, and the
study of the materials of these observations.
Karazin expressed these considerations in the following. manner;
is essential,..to unite our forces. All partial observations,
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even if they are made by the most sc.enta.and ta.reless pegpia,
will only, perhaps, ~.ncrea~e
will lead to no x~esul.ts wha~t~ever; they
a ew enlightened ideas, awaken our
the mass of our knawledge
by wit ~
na in.ations to construct. va,r~.o~ts w y
cuz1a.osa.ty and cause our ' ~.~g
h otheses but they w us data f oz^ the derivation of
will not give
Yp
exact rU I. es.
head beTlef:~'bting from constant
In astronomy we are a1 y
Ma one not wish that dust such
and timely observations ? Y
observations might be the lot of meteorol.agy as well.? And what
resources for that as our fatherland?
cau.n.try? ? ?presents so many yea
"Tie exparse of Russia, ; occupying nearly
with district colleges located at
inhabited surface of the globe,
.a to ~'flis and ...from Libava, to -
its various paints, from Kola
aLlthor~.ty
e
subordination of these coll.ege4 to on
Ni.zhneka~nrhatsk, the
d have physics]. in.strLUnents at
the yes onsibility that they should
and th p
tY1e~. sults for constantly and
'r disposal -- all this promises happy re
udiciausly produced. observations" .
that this last thought. of xar'aLin, s ....
It is interesting to ..note
r of Russia for extens~.ve rne~~~eoL^M
cancerrling the particular advantage
o rl.ral research -- was repeated many years later by A.:[. Voyeykav
of g
assa e of. "Climates of the Glcb e" ?
in a, well known p g
a series of deliberati0r1s concerning
Ylen Karaza.rl gave
~
l
o ;/.cal.
work of a network. of meteoro
rinca.pJ:es of organization of the
p
stations, pointing out that these observations _must eliminate "the
and ~.naccuracys' of the then. existing
disconnectedness, scantiness : considered it
servatior? For thie purpose Karazin cons:i
materials of ob
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ndaxda,~atioY~ of observational tables
essential to e~~'ec~ the sta
r bars una.foxm~.y' compiled") and to carry
~.onal tables eve y~ to
(I~obse7^vat
the networlcp Kara~a.n proposed ~
au.t a systematic i,Y~spect:i.or1 0 ial.s of
ic processa,nand study of the mater
centralise the sc~.entif
~ of
ob~;e~^vata.arl, creating for this purpose an appoa.nted t'Societ~
" w~~~ich took more ds{'ina to faa~~t after
SCiCTl'tistatt ? This prapa5~.t~.an,
Zn' s time, was a,pparerl'tl,y 'the first thaught of the creation of
Kara
entific~resear'ch institute in Russia.
a meteox^olo~;a.cal scx.
' also made several remarks concerning
In his paper Karazs.n
risible ways to develop scientific metearoloythrough the use of
p
a;l network observations. Some of these
the materials of rneteorolag.~c the
worthy of mention are the considerations of'
remarks which are the weights
for comparing the directions of the wino and
necessity fo
of the air (i.eA, pressures) at various Mimes of the year and various
pa:~il comparing the periodic with
' nts of the globe, of the necessity for cop
Cher of the possibility of calcula~t~.ng
the non-pe~riod~.c changes of wea ,
the ossibility of using; nlacal
the action of the sung s rays, of p
f.a1.k sign, in add.~.t~.ari to confarrnities
indi,cata.ans" based on .
in the forcGasting of weather.
to physical laws,
Karazin believed that on the basis of such research we shall
' not subject to doubt, which will offer
arrive at a theory which ~.s not us the possibility of predicting
the weather at a given time of
year and for the whole year in advance in. a given place".
Certain of the deliberations expressed by KaraLin in his 1~1Q
paper subsequently received further development in his later utterances.
is the elaborati.nfl of Karazin' s
of very great interest, in paxticul.ar,
human
directing atmospheric processes for
idea of tithe -possibility of
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benefit" in his letter of 9 April 181 to Count Arakcheyev, where
Kar a~ rote "will man someday attain to the possa.bil?ty of
~.n w ,
arranging, at least to some extent, the state of the atmosphere, of
bringing forth rain and fine weather at wall? You are so enlightened, bringing ~ oz
dear sir, that you will not begin to laugh at a suggestion so impudent
as this... The limits of the sciences, and especially of natural.
science, may y by no means be defined. Human reason moves continuously forward in, spite of all obstacles". (V, N. Karazin. Works, Letters
s
and Papers. Kharkov, 1910.)
Karazin's naive assumption of Count Arakcheyev'S "enlightenment'-
was not justified w- Arakcheyev dial subsequently deride Karazin's id.eas
about the possibility of artificial alteration o{' the weather.
(Biographies of Karazin mention Arakcbeyevt s mocking reply to the petition of the peasants of his Ukrainian estate for help in connection
with a. drought and crop failure. "It is strange that you are starving
when at your side lives a sorcerer who calls down rain, and thunder
from the heavens when he washes -- address yourselves to him".)
This letter of Karazin's remains, however, an extraordinarily
valuable document in the history of our native meteorology, as the
first statement of the possibility of active human influence upon
atrnospheri.c processes
Another important thought in Karazin' s paper -- concerning
creation of a central scientific meteorological institute in
the
N.uaCss -- took on a more distinct form in his notes of 1818 "On the
i
Pasibility of Applying the Electric Power of the Upper Layers of
s
the Atmosphere to Human Needs". In these notes (which will be dis-
cussed in more detail below) Karazin wrote of the necessity "to
provide scientific and educational 1n5titu.tions,,.~d ~h uniform
.
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ument$. ,ancl,in them teachers or supeXVisors.
meteoscapa.c a.ns tr
kixir observata.ons according to ru~.es
liven the respansaba.~.i.ty of ma ~,
handed dawn to then/ and acting in subordination in this capaca.tY to
~~ might be caa.~.~ad, The Mate Met,earalaga.ca~.
such a sciscientific group as
Committee".
' In the same nats the a.dea of the desirability of arganazir~g
c
hi g atmospheric el.ectrici.ty with
network observat~.ons of ha.g of .
y ns was expressed.. This was one of the f' ~rst
the aid of captive balloa
proposals that network aerological. observations should be made.
uatian of the real significance of Karazin' s
For a correct eval
a scientii'i.c meteorology it should
ideas concerning ways of creating
O, s in not a single country did a network
be mentioned that in the 181
' sexist and in the past there had been only
of mateorolo~;ical station ,
arativel.y transitory attempts at organization of
..separate and camp
network metearol?~;a.cal. observations, which, as it seemed to many
official science of the times gave na results
representatives of the
the academician Fuss on. Ka^aza.n's ].8i8
whatever (sae the opinion of
an not a single country were there any meteor-
notes). Similarly,
se ears and the very idea of creating su.c1~,.
olagical institutes in th.o y ~
an institute for the development of methods of weather forecasting
would have seemed extremely audacious.
Also consa.derabl.y ahead of his time were many of Karazin's
' al
deli.ber atians on the possible directions of meteorolag;ic research
and an the practical significance of "rrleteoralogy, brought into
xegulat10n".
and up to the end of his life, that is
Beginning in 1810
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through the couxse a,f more than th~.~
, ,^ ty years, Kara2a,n Persistently
Strove ;far the re~tla.~a't~.on of has me~ teQrolaga.cs.l prQjeGts, rEpeatedl
turning fox this purpose to y
Alexander T and various in.f].ue
ntiaj.
persons of that. time, but all his efforts
in this connectaan graved
to be futile, In this case the ,. ~.. ~
~ s ~agnGLat.an of the ~overnmenta,l
circles eVidently united with
the ~avs'rrnnent ~ s unfriendly attic
toward ifaraza.n, who systematically exposed himlf to repressions
for political reasons All this c
ertainly, made Karaz3.n rs missi.an
extraordinarily difficu].?t,
The uingle instance lcnown to us of s
cientifa.c discussion of
harazjnts meteorol.o~ical projects dates from 118 when the academician
Fuss was commissioner,/, by Alexander
x to examine their content,. In
relation to the scheme for the creation l of' a network of meteorolo i.cal'
stations and a 'r
State Meteorological Contrnatt
Fuss declared that
metsoroLogY, .very l~.keL~
t Y, never would attain to the status
science, in cansec~uE,nce of of a
which Karazj.n-s ,theme appeared to
useless, ~ be
~h~s canclusion, characteris.k,ic af the scornful and hostile
attitude of the "German pa.rtyt- in the Academy toward Russian scientists
was ap.p?.~aved b a ,
Y conference of the Academy of Sciences
um
on 27 July LoI~U Karazin wrote bitterly to Count .Senkendori'
that the idea he had expressed 30
years before concerning the
organization of meteorol.o~,ical stations in Russia ''...was considered
suspect, cancealing some evil ~f..n.
paln_~caL intent, They rejected it
know, and have me not even a word , You
in answero In return for that
urgent papEr,,,they made the acid '
emj.cjans write a, sort of mockery
unwarthY of me". In this same year ar '
K' az~.n learned from gupfer of
the preparations which were Underway for the arganization of a
w 10 ti
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toral.aga.' cal. service and was able 'to write to Benkendorf (23
mee ,
alluding to Kupfer t s communication; ttMy scheme
October 1.8I~.O),
was no follya for now it is being carried out...".
razin did not manage to live until the opening
However, Ka
of the Main Geophysical Observatory and the network of stations
in Russia -w he died in 182, seven years before the realization
of his ideas.
The second of Karazin's works, which is devoted to a
considerable degree to meteorological. questions w."On the
Importance of Forestry, Especially for Russia", printed in 1817
'ch. KCV, 1817.
resents very great interest. (Vestnik Evropy",
p
his article was printed simultaneously in "Dukli zhurnalov", in
1'
Syn Otechestva" and in "Kazanskiye izvestiya".)
t~
This work is one of the first attempts in world. literature
at scienta.fa.c. analysis of the influence of forests on climate, under-
taken in order to establish the possibility of melioration of the
climate through forestry measures.
;Side by side with certain thoughts which are erroneous from
a modern point of view, Karazi&s deliberations on the possible forms
o I', influence of forests on climate include a v o1e series of postulates
which have been completely confirmed by the subsequent evolution of
science To this s group of postulates belongs, first of all, the idea
.
direct effect of forests on the transformation of air masses
of the
( forests are directly blown away by shifts in the air, and in turn
produce them"). Karazin's beliefs that the forests "by their
ations moderate the temperature of the air", feed the sources
exhal
of rivers and store up moisture in the soil, lessening t he effect
11
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of the a ttarth-parching wands" are altogether correct? Similarly
e
correct are the ideas that the influence of forests retards the
melting of snow and allays flooding, and that the planting of
forests on riverbanks reduces erosion.
This article of Karazif'S concludes with a sharp protest
against Buffont hypothesis attributing climatic variation to the
a
cooling-off of the globe, followed by an appeal for conservation
' the remaining forests in the south of Russia and for the
oi.
cultivation of forest piantings~
In Karazin's later appearances in print he continued to
propagandize the idea of forest cultivation in the southern rayons of
Russia on his own estate he created a system of field-protective
it is altogether understandable that under
his forest belts. However,
in the Russia of the beginning of the 19th
the conditions rr eva:t.ling
century, initiative could have no great practical conse-
quences.
Soon after the publication of Karazints article, an anonymous
author printed a critique (it was called "A Letter from Saint
the Author of the Discourse on the Importance of
Petersburg to
Forestry, Especially for Russia"), in which he sharply polemized
against I4arazin and argued that, in the first place, it was impossible
to struggle against the annihilation of the forests, since their
destruction was an. inevitable consequence of the growth of population
and, second place, that the changes in climate which were
in the
being observed in that time were not connected with the effect of
the fell esi.s, but were of supernatural origin and presaged felling of fox
l2 l2-
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tnee to the correct1eSs
end. the wo~'1dW In W to
a. acCgrd~n
the approach o the
r .ta:c
the tatter ;idea, 'thA c cited rof the GoSP
q
N athew o
as undpubtsdlY character- '
, s ob je c?ta,on
itiC
mous cx The anany se m~~n't
s ?~ the rula..n~
.n. of a cans~.derable ~
schau ~ , onism of po~.itical
' t:l:c othe Weltan u
a
ca,rCles of thak, time, in which extreme reaCta.
vIe .rp1Y hasti~.e attitude
stiCis~l and a sl~a
ws was cgml7ined w~.th mY It may be ment~.oned
Ce
q meat o C the natural SCieT1 5.
~tgward the level p
that in appro gverY~mental policy in
the sphere of educat:~~?~ma,tely these same yeaz.s , ? a.n the
acti~~ ?o n mani~'estin~~ itsel:~ ~ which was '~ Ma~nitsk~.Y~ led
s obscu~'antists ~~un~-ch and
ities of the famou versifies. The
a ;series of hessian u:ni ,
which Karaz~.n
the actual crushing of
to ~
e with
herefog"e, IS the c ourag
more no~~eworthy, .t ob?ens.
answered this critic, re,Cuting his
Cra-tic,
- , nswer to his
r note ~~? Karaztin s A
In his rep~.,icata y ~ inion con.,.
azin disagreed with the op
vestnik, 1~1~) Kar
ion of the ~'or6sts, and
~kr a~ i~n~ Y
of tie annihila~'
ern7r.1~ the inevitability Sider anar~a].ous weather
c ct to people who con
phenOma then declared with respe entous entous ?~ the apprgsupernatural and port
as supernatural a
of the world, as ollows; ...A panic Lear, which they themselves
some not
e dace, a dry in anot~rs
. , , a wet sununer in ?n place
e or too early
spread:, some to? ~?'
tie>
phenomena on ate,
altogether usual
fro Dear srsb"
the most suf f~icient omens.
sts seem to ~~,hem C elVe~ a little way
? f1ther exCiauned, please remove Yo~urs ok rota history.
Karaz~.n
m the present time and that of our fathers. and o
fro
fro
Was it so?"
l3 -
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arazin enumerated. a series of unusual f'ioods, droughts,
The
frosts and earthquakes which had been mentioned in. chronicie$ and
and concluded "Read, dear sirs, read
other' historical ,sources,
history and compose yourse1veSt
to, apart from the interest which it presents as
~'ha.s debate,
are illumination ' 'ti.ons in which Karazin had to propagandize
of the ' ronda.
his eoro1aga.ca1 ideas, also has some significance as an additional
met
proof that, iarazin disclaimed the possibility af' explaining not only
r
,
the usual changes of weather, but also anomalous and extremely rare
u,~u
elemental phenomena, in terms of supernatural. causes
In the year following the publication of the work On the
Importance of 1orestrYT' 1cara in composed he notes "On the poss:i.bility
of Applying 'the Electric Power of the Upper Layers of the Atmaspheret'
`
( first printed in t,Russkaf a Starina"s 1873), already cited above.
In relation to this work it may be mentioned that, in spite
fact that some of its statements prove to be erroneous from
of the
the modern point of view, many of the ideas contained in it present
erable interest for th.e history of science. The idea, extraM
con.sid
ordinarily daring for the beginning of the 19th century, of the
..,
parsibility of practical utilizati.on o.' atmospheric electrical energy,
s
draw especial attention. Although, as we know, the invention of the
dynamo made it possible later on to find other convenielt ways of
obtaining quantities of electrical energy, it is nonetheless
large necessa at Karazin's idea proved to be correct and that
~~~y to ; note that
at thepresent time there are installations which utilize discharges
of atmospheric electricity for applied purposes.
11
y i,:~.2i ~i~ to )rq~S ,'~i'k lyy,,, ~ ii ~2 i rJ i)} ~ rtd-'i; ~P `C;~i lhS,~( ~,x~~.; . i~~V;ds ~1YtiF,~,':5~i~~iag.cif{~~ru:'>,if,f4'f:i~'S1(a[')J"y~1'q~i'~""ti~9 ~~4~) ~i ix yl~~Si it ;;i.. i.'~,i
~ ~saihis'~~,,~~!?Ili~j41w.~Li~plr,i;,~F.~~h.,~~Ut~q}F~.ki~:,.hJ,,..!?~4i ~11v~.~. ~11~51~i~,0~9rti~,!lN4t+{(:~7~1.',~d~lliY4r?'~iP~:+r'li'.1.Y'.~l~iisita".~~,,(11 L}?.n.: uP': Y: ~~,vZ.,i
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Consi,ler*ab1y less interest, in comparison with the three
artic],es of Karazi.nt s which have been enumerated, is presented
by three small article; on meteorology which he wrote in later
years r "3omething Pertaining to Meteorology" (Sn Otech~estva",
cho CXVIII, 1829), "On the Probable Cause of the General Change of
Temperature" (Zhurnal mina sterstva,narroclnovorvpnrosveshchena ach.
xVi, 1837), and t'Information Concerning Weather Presages" (KhYar t
vedomost ", No 12 1839).
kovskiye vubiernsk ye ,
rfhe establishment of the network of meteorological stations
and the central scientific meteorological institute in Russia in
the middle of the 19th century, which served. as an example for other
countries of the world, was considerably facilitated by Karazints
many-,yearst propaganda of his meteorological ideas. The rapid
development of scientific meteorology in, the second half of the
19th century, which is connected in the closest way with the
accumulation of the material of systematic network observations, is
therefore much indebted to the service of the eminent Russian meteor-
ologist, V. N. Karazin.
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oN THE SUBJECT AND AIN13 OF AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY
rr- _ .?w.++.ww'.ww+.rw...... n...w...r..,
M. S. Kulik
The dense network ometeorological and apronmeteoroiogical
stations and observatories organized in the Soviet Union were
strengthened yearly with properly qualified cadres and were equipped
with instruments and means of communication. This made it possible
to start as early as 1942 the first systematic operative agro-
meteorologica:L service to agriculture in history, Agrometeor-
ologists were presented with the opportunity of conducting series
of profound research projects, on which basis works which have
received high appreciation were createdm
The results of this research became a scientific basis for
the practical action of operative workers, and the results of the
regular mass agrometeorological observations became the rich source
of materials for scientific generalization which we have available
todaye
However, the achievements of agricultural meteorology represent
only a small part of than which a planned socialist agriculture
demands of itm
One of the causes of the failure of agricultural meteorology
to keep abreast of the growing demands of agriculture is the under-
estimation on the part of agrarneteorologists of the importance of
certain theoretical problems without whose solution the normal course
of development of agricultural meteorology is hampered.
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 LI!
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i- ? , thecax y becomes aimless if it is out of touch with
? as xaC t~,ce 1aecornes blind if ~.'b
revo:~u~.onary practice, p~^eca.se.ly p
does not illuminate a.'?ta path with z,evo1utionary theory", I. V.
Stalin teaches, (x?V? Stalin. Wog^k,s a vo;l. ? 6, pages 88 "' 89w)
' ? ~ however, as a result of the fact
~arig us, the agrometeoz olog~.s ta,
theoretical prob:leras is not always properly
that the wo:rk:~ng out of ?~
therto exists no generally accepted opinion
appreciated, there hi
e xee of independence of a~;ra.cultuz^a]. meteax-
concerriing either the d ~
of its research, or methods of researcrl. This
ology, or the oblec~; of a.
in turn hampers the Solution of its. practical problems. All this,
r bstacle to the practical activity of
naturally, serve) as an a
grometeorologists, especially in :the planning of scien~t,ific"research
a uaranteeing the improveraent of the agrometeor~
works and me asure s g
of educational pragraals, 'tex?tbooks,
ing o
ological service, in the design
? has been published either in the join^nal.s
e?tc. No~thinG~ regarding this
or in the scient~. ,~,.!.ic transactions of the institutions of the
vice if one does not count F. F. Bavitaya's
hydrometE0rolog~.ca1 scr ,
article, ~'The Direction and Methods of soviet Agrometeorology?
d no response in the published pages of he
But even it elicited
.
logical service, although it is generally accepted that
hydrometeo7 0
d succeed without a struggle of opinions,
no science can develop an
. ? (I. V. Stalin, u/Concern~..ng Marxism in
without free cr:r.t7.c~.sm ,
S s oli tizdat, 1950, page 28.)
La.ngu~. a t~.c s. Ca p,
uestianc of the degree of independence of
Regar. dinf the q
the objective of its research and. its
agricultural meteorology: of th ~
general practical aims, it seems to me approprlate to mention a
.
series of well-known postulates.
17
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science is knowledge of the canfarm1t1es
The a:a.m of every
~3eS related to the. sub j eCt being
to law of phenomena and prace~
ections and ha.stora,csl dependency.
studied, knowledge of their intercann
-, ,: the lsws which define the interconnection
Only the revel~a.G.~on of
~..
0 osaa,ba.~.a.ty of guiding their prace5se a
of phenomena o;f;~ers pract:~ca]. p
of change in the desired direction.
strated that the aim of science cafststs
It has been demon
;~ facts and tY~eir description as in the
ing o
not sa much in the fix
~mi~ries to law, and we agrameteorologists are
revelation of COfl
far from always taking this Into account.
of the Forms of motion of matter Engels.
On the :basis of study
'fication of the sciences, according
worked out prinC~.ple5 of c1asr~~.
tierces analyze a_ separate farm of. motion
to which each of the sc.
~. are interrelated among themselves
or a series of mot:~ona which s
e transformed into one another". F. Engel.se Thect~,cM.,
and ar
200. In nature transformations of the forms
of Nature~ 191~89 page )
.~ r take place, and there exist rela~tionsl~ips
at motion into one anoLhe
them. Fromthis proceed the relationsh~.ps
and distinctions among
ifCtions among the separate sciencesa
and dist
It follows that the criterion for the independence of a science
is the presence of its own research objective, qualitatively distinct
from the research objeCtives of other sciences4
the ual.itative peculiarity of its
Each science, accorda-ng to q
subject, works out distinct procedures and practices of resear.Ch9
'ch are accepted in the other sciences. All
different from those wha_
Investi anon of natural phenomena must
these procedures fo.r the g
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always originate in th~] fundamental postulates of Marxist dialectical
method.
In spite of these well-known postulates, the following
definition is given in textbooks of agricultural meteorology
Agricultural meteoro:togY is the science which studies the influence
of hyBrameteorological conditions on the growth, development and
production of agricultural plants and animals'. (A. V. Fedorov,
Agricultur. aiM HydrometeorologY, 1936.)
__,,.M.....~ l-_,-...,._ ~~--.....~......~....~.-_-
F. F. Davitaya, for all the comprehensiveness of his theoretical
treatment, as a matter of fact repeats this same definition. He
writes; "The foundation of agricultural biology should be the
study of the needs of cultivated plants in a determined climate".
a
(In the journal Agrobl g~Yd, No 3, 19L8.) The difference from
the foregoing definition Consists in the exclusion of animals.
All these definitions, which formulate one of the five
chief alms which P. I. Brounov advanced for agricultural meteorology,
are one-sided and therefore false. They are oriented to the study
of only one aspect of a phenomenon, disregarding its interconnection
with ocher phenomena and their influence upon it; they do not include
questions of evolution in research, etc. The soil, as we knows is
basic medium of agricultural production. Nowhere, however, is
the
there given the definition that soil science is the science which
studies the influence of the soil on the growth, development and
composition of agricultural crops,. etc.
Comrade Stalin, answering D. Delkin and S. Furer, emphasized
what Confusion comes into being if a man does not make clear to him-
self what subject is, in question, if he is substituting one subject
...
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for another.
The jndicated definition S leave unclear just what the
~.. ata.on in a~;ricu~.t~ur al meteorology is:
proper obJ~ct of a.nvest. ~;
ons lants, or both. Without a clear
meteoralagical cond~t~ ~ ~
search it is impossible clearly
definition of ~.ts subject of r? 9
to define its aims.
' raised: Just, what is the sub Ject of
Thus the quest~.on is
of agricultural meteorolo~Y? ,
the study
calogY, which studies the interrelatianshi.ps between
or.g represents only one of the dive-lions
axxisms and their environment, of biology, and agricul
tural meteorology, within the def1nita.0n
represents only one... of the divisions
which has been ascribed to it, r.epres unda-
of ecology. T. D? Lysenko points out that agrobialagy is the fa
h has to do with. living things.
tian of agronomy -- a science which
and with microarganisrns ? This is why
with plants, with animals
biological law enters the theoretical
knowledge of con:Eoxm~-t~.es to
The basic aim of agrabiology is the
foundation of agronomy.
to law in the interz~e~,ationsh~-ps of
revelata.on of conform1t~es
organisms with the conditions of their external envaronmente In
f aobiolagical science, knowle dg~
general, for all the divis~.ons o gr
of the requ.?rements of plant organisms and of their reactions to
ditions of the external enVironment is
the influences of the essential.
. of the chief aims of agrobi.ology
Hence it is clear. that one.
stud of the influence of the external
must be considered to be the y
environment upon plant organisms. The definition of agricultural
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is given in the textbooks inciuCeS problems
meteoro1ogY w>1a.ch
but ~.~ dads not male reference to
which are solved by agroba.ol.ogy,
the prablen'ts which oi all the sciences only agra.aul.tura1, mateor~
~' Ge which has research objectiVS which are
olagy solves, as a sca.en
ct from the research objectives of the other
qualitatively da.sta.n
sciences 's ~Wh studies7 in other words, something which other (which t is just these specific problems which
sciences do notstudy)? T ~
belong to it that have compelled .recognition of the necessity for
its independent existence, which has been approved in practice.
l.ral meteorology answers questions of important
~,gra.cultti
e in human activity which other sciences do not answer.
~.canc
sa.gn:~i
of favorability of the eorological conditions
To knave the degree
geographical re ions for agricultural cultivation, to
in discrete . geograpl ~
'bons under the influence of communal
study the changes in these cond:t.
toil -- this is the duty of agrometeoralogy. Therefore, a'? c_.: ltu... -
~?,ca, and climatic factors as conata.ans
meteorola,~~......~..-------~-~--`~.'....~....~.-,'....~.
meteoralo~.~Y-. must study
a ricultural objectives. Weather and climate
o f the existence e o,,..~..,,._._.,...~ ---..~....~.--
-,_
and are characterized by complex interrelationsh~-P,
represent a unity
pments. However, in weather and climate there
develop
motions
of com onents which are t'conditlons of existence''
exists a combination p
for one or ano objects of agricultural prod.uction, and another group of also others which prove to be inessential in this connection.
Agricultural meteorology therefore studies only the first of these.
The principal difference between the s'medium of habitation"
and the ncondzt which we call., in speaking of
istence"
~.ons of ex s
climatic factors, agrometeorological conditions,was first established
by Academician Lysenko,
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L senko's theory of the phasic dave1Qpment of plants made
r, ich the content of the concept o
it ossible to concrettZe and en
p
"conditions of existence".
that the a condi.ta.ons of
ademician Lysenko dernonstrated
Ac
existence" of a deve1apment process must be dis~inguished bath
1ln and, from the external "in:Cluence
from the -'med~.um of ~ab~.~at~.a ~ factor
a
in the "medium of habitation~t is
factors" . Not everything ~,
actively influenc1ng the organism's course of development. Not
n a"'condition Of existence" of the
every "1n~'~-uence factor is
organism's development.
--The condo-bons of existence of a plant's development cycle
are ,withaut which the stages of develop
. those essential conc~:>_ta.ans toward.
indications of the plant's progress
r )
ment' their organs and
A iology page 7 ~.
n do not exist". (D, T. LySCnka, g w pbob1oi0gY
rep:roductn.o ,
to be a necessary condition
For example, light does not prove
rat stage of development, As for
first
a plant's passage through the : _ ~'~-c .for.
s ecl
tale second (light) stage, an appropriate il:Luminata-an (p
is a condi.ti.on essential for its
variety and spec~.es of plant).
each
eaC~
existence.
' of weather phenomena which
The determination of comba.nat~.ans
. c~ ences demands knowledge of the
will carry known ba.alogical cons q~~
ements of plants and animals in the determined meteorological
requ:>rr
pact:i.ans to changes in these conditions1
condit~-ons and of their r~
is knowledge a grameteorolagists draw upon the
As a basis for this
grobialog 'ts subject, agricultural
ciences. However, in studying iJ
a~.c al s
obiolagy and meteorology, but
meteorol.ogY not only depends upon agr
.. 22
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enriches these sciences in its turn. This confirms the we11~known
postulate that neighboring sciences always supplement one another.
Thus, the basic aims of agricultural meteorology prove to be;
1. Knowledge .of the degrees of favorability of the agro~
meteorological conditions in discrete geographical regions for
agricultural crops.
2, Determination of the changes in agrometeorological
conditions which arise as an efi'ect of agrotechnical measures,
3, Calculation on an agrometeorological basis of differentiated
applications of agrotechnical measures directed toward more rational
utilization of the agroclimatic peculiarities o1' discrete geo-
graphical regions and toward effective struggle against weather
phenomena harmful to agriculture
11. Division of the territories of the USSR into districts
according to indications 'of agroclimabic peculiarities suitable for
specific agricultural crops.
Improvement of the methods of agrometeorological research,
In conformance with these aims it is necessary to work out
organizational measures which will guarantee their realization, but
this belongs to a separate consideration.
2
3.
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OCEANOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS IN TH1~a USSR DURING THE LAST THIW1Y YEARS
A. Lednev and L. F. Rudovit s
Oceanographic research by Russian seamen was initiated
at the beginning of the 19th century, at the time of the first
round-the.world voyages, and after that oceanographic and meteor-
ological observations were made on all more or leas considerable
ocean voyages. Outstanding results in the study of the hydrology
of the oceans of the world were achieved by Admiral S. 0. Makarov
at the time of his round-the-world voyage in the corvette 'tVityaz'"
in the years 1806-1889. Almost simultaneously with Makarov's works,
detailed studies of our native seas were begun, Thus, in 1890-1891
the Russian Geographical Society, in conjunction with the Navy
Department, under the direction. of I. B. Spindler, conducted deep-
sea studies of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. At the end of
the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries the Murmansk science-
commerce expedition under the direction of N. M. Knipovich initiated
studies of the northern seas. In addition, recognition for ocean-
ographic studies was given to work conducted by the Main Hydrographic
Administration of the VMf in European, northern and far-eastern
seas, s
However, the data obtained up to the time of the Great
October Socialist Revolution on the character of the seas and oceans
could not satisfy all the growing demands of the national economy.
Therefore, in the study of the seas which wash the shores of the
Soviet Union, an exceptional place is occupied by the period
beginning after the October revolution. Precisely in this period,
j y*~(~~~~'~~~T^~JVR"~{1 ~~'y j56}~4Ve,~a64 ~S4 evUYNkG fr "'IltpSln7S ~F7a 1i~ !'vim` y as ~je 'S ~, l~ ,y ?, l~~ !''.F
11 Pk~ 10.~~1 q~ y~ft. V11 { ~t~'~ h4{t fi'r' 14 IL V~4r f~ ~+ k ~~~'" D f~lil ~ !1' t~'I I 1 i' I Y ~
i~S
~I fisl IFSr~;'p~S~lt1 y{ N~ 1~~~~~
~i~~~~ q ~~ /~ R1, Ep ~~ gip!}?yia~l(I~hfi~~f{~~ ~b ~{ 1
f {~74y I4R tv V'1+~'.1 ~t, br Fv411'Sdt ,~~,~, ~Yw01, '4 S I V V 1 V t r i ldi x y4 1 i,
/~~7 ~qyt ~ Pt~ y' 11'~rs \I? GI 1 ~. N I b1:+1 1 ~!' ~j i f, 4 ,a ' ~!; 5 ~~~ (a14 ,JS i ` I S` ' f
~ ' 4 4 N' y
I ~~u ~i i~~'~m`~,~~,57~ ?, ~;1+~V~(a~~~Z~~~ijri ~. r~~~lS~r ~r,J y;~iy ~~ i wS44 i, S.r' S~r ! ~~~ 41 I ~ S1
~pl~tl~~~mti ?a
.~~~4~N., M~~ ~~tahYV ~~,o#~ v I:ukE d ~,W{~ uS'~a%Gn., ~ilGfm.d } Mi SS ~~d ~~I'~f, > ; illr.~?'l I
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.
l
reysearr,ch establishments were organized. on the seas (coasts] : marine
observatories of the VHF, marine institutes and observatories of
the hyd.rometearalog r?a.ca1 service (gidrametsluzhba), institutes and
stations of the fish industry, the hydro Physical station in K:atsivel',
inland] during the last decade new oceanographic
etc? In the center ~
a chic studies occurred. immediately
A radic~il change in ocearaor.,r
. ? v~,~, war. On ].6 arch 1g21. a decree was
upon the canclusa.on a,~ the ci
issued under the signature of V. I. LQna.n or the establishment of
ien.ce Institute whose task it was to enter upon
a rlaat~.ng Mara.nt, Sc
= stud of the northe:r'n seas, their. islands
a thorough and systeirrata.c y
' Lute was changed to the State Oceanographic
and shares. This a.nsta.
to the All.?Un.ion Sca.r~nce??I~esee.rch
' n 1933)
Institute anti then (a- Ins.
UtUte of the Fish Industry and Oceanography.
avroornina the Floating Marine Science
parallel wz.th Fl
Insti.tutej there developed new marine research establl.shm.cnts with
? tasks ( the Insta.t,ul,c for Study of.' the
various app:l.~.ed?-sc1enta-'~.c
North, Later the Arctic Institute, and the Marine Division of the
? ? nsti tute) a During thin S11 period local sca.ence?-
cal I
H drolosa
.~ hiah for the first ta?rnc3 gave a general,
;far the most part, the works w
ra h off' t lie seas . of a l~1^ Native sand
ch~,ra,ctari~at~.on of the aceanaeb p Y
first a.ch to study of the physiGa~l, and chem:~caa?
f
and a],~.awsd a appro
p ~ , '. thesE~ wate~^a were s,ccomp~,a.shed*
.
~^QC~S"a'a Wh1,ch take place an i
have arisen: the State Oceanograph1c Institute of
e,tabla.shmen.ts
the GNS, the Marine NydrophY: sisal Institute and the Oceanology
Institute of the Academy of Sciences USSR.
shments named have carried on oceanographic
All the establ.a.
of the USSR, the greatest attention being
studies of the seas s
t i
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directed toward the northern saas and the ()aspiari Sea. Large"
scale research works have been accomplished on the Barents Sea,
on which nearly 500 voyages were made, more than 100 of which fell
to the steamer tt ersiat'a the first ship constructed by the soviet
~'
authority for such work ? On the whole during these voyages over
2 OOO hydrological stations were created, which gives one an idea
of to scale of the expeditionary work of this period.
Within thirty years studies exceptional for their scientific
understanding; and innovation of thought were organized and carried
out in the central Arctic Ocean, on drifting ice floes and on the
iceboat "Sedovt'. As is known, the ice floe where the hydrometear~
to rical station "North pole" was organized. drifted in the course
o~,
of 27h days from the pole into the Greenland Sea to a latitude of
?0 degrees L.'7 minutes north, and the vessel "Sedav" drifted in the
course oil 812 days from the Novosibirsk Islands almost to the
outlet of the Greenland Seas, Both these expeditions conducted
uninterrupted meteorological, oceanographic and other geophysical
observations. In particular, reliable data were obtained on the
great depths of the Polar Basin (up to 5000 meters) and on the distri-
bution of hydrological elements within it. The accumulated material
allowed light to be thrown with great accuracy upon the hydrometeor-
olagical peculiarities of the ocean, including the life-span of
the ice masses. Extremely valuable data were collected by the high-n
[submarine? "Sadko"
latitude oceanographic expedition on the 1/p
and. on the vessels which were accomplishing through navigation of
the Northern waterway route9 and similarly, in. their time, by flights
over the arctic waters,.
26-
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It is interesting to note that in 1932 the GQIN's little
expeditionary motor'sailboat 'VN. Knipovich~' accomplished the first
rounding of Franz Josef Land, conducting a succession of oceano'
graphic works all the way. Beginning in 1923, oceanographic works
of considerable detail were carried on on the white Sea and,
somewhat later, on the Greenland Sea, All the ample material
collected gave valuable information for navigation and the fish
industry and for the solution of many problems of marine meteorology
and oceanography.
In. connection with the development of the fishing industry
in, the northern and central parts of the Caspian Sea, thorough
oceanographic research and detailed studies of the water balance
and fluctuation of the water level were carried on. The latter
studies made it possible to ascertain the causes which give rise
to the abrupt and considerable changes in this level0
Relatively less attention was paid to study of the oceano-
graphic conditions of the open Baltic Sea, the work, on this sea being
adapted on the whole to the Gulf of Finlando
on the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, beginning in 1923,
research was conducted by four organizations; the Hydrographic
Administration, the Sevastopol' Biological Station, the Azov-Black
Sea Institute of the Fishing Industry and the Hyd.rometeorol.ogical
Service (Gidromets].uzhba) These data completed and substantially
amplified the representations of the characteristics of these seas
which had been constructed on the basis of the wares of the 1890-1891
expeditions
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be on the seas of the Far East
O~e~anag~'aph~.c res eaxGh
~' of thQ ~a~~p~.usuz^p~xs from the
immediately after the e,cpu~,~~a.an
u ? the research in the first years were
Russian soil. '~al{~,ng part in th
rome~;eora~.ogiaa~. 5erva.ce, represente
H dragraphic 5exv7.cea the ~yd
the y
. o1?a ica~. in,t~.~~ute, and the p~,cif'ic
the Marine 'Biviaa,on of the ~Iy~'
by ax?
of the fishing industry. The aeacnographiC WQk
o f,nstitute o he materials an
eel the Japan, Okhotsk and Bering Seas. The ~ecially valuable, since up to
encompass
the Okhotsk and Ber'1.ng Seas were es~ 1
the t,jme of the Groat October SaGia].i5 rReva1ut1on jn~ormation
cerna.ng them had been unusually scarce.
con
oceanogr~Lpha.c researchr which has been
As a result ofi the r? ~.al.s
er
r gra1J~hex'S have at their disposal mat
condu,cted,, 5ova.et ocea.rlo
which allow them to answer a series of questions concerning the
e open regions _o:C the home seas.
characters.sta.cs of. th
For amore profound knowledge of the charactera.sta.cs of the..
home seas and of the. processes Which coo on wjthin and upon them,
ristics of the adjoining oceans.
study was begun. of the charade
was also dictated by the' demands of the
necessity for this study wa.
of navio7,t~-on and Of the weather
fishing and. whaling industries, al
recent times oceanographic and. meteoro_~o ic
service. In the most northern
s have been undertaken for this purpose in i the
invest~.ga~t~.on
J :I. al maritime passages from Europe to
Atlantic ocean, on the pr~.rlc p
Atlantic sector of the antarctic waters.
the Far Ease seas and in the Antarctic begun 12S years ago by the famous
~'hus th.e work in the Ani, been
continued.
the sloops 'Mirnyy'~ and tVostok'c has beer
Russian seamen on th
onar ~ oceanographic research,
Apart from episodic exped~.t? ~. y
- 28 a
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regular observations of speciI'ic sections have been carried on
from year to year on almost all. the seas. These observations have
had the purpose of determining the changes in oceanograpbic character-
tstics in the course of a year and through a succession of years.
However, the maintenance of the projected program of standard
sections did not everywhere succeed. The most continuous and
regular observations were made along the Kola L?a meridian, starting
at the very beginning of the 20th century, in accordance with
the resolution of the International Council for Study of the Northern
Seas.
Together W:Lth the development of expeditionary, principally
compp lexs oceanographic research, a network of marine hydrological
stations was vigorously developed. At the beginning of the first
imperialistic World] war (l9iLa-1918) there existed a few more
than 100 stations on our seacoasts. In the years of the civil
war and the foreign intervention their number shrank to a few
tens. After the organization of the Hyd.roneteorological Service
the network of marine stations quickly began to be reestablished,
the number of stations at the present time having reached I0 on
shore and over 300 on ships. The robust development of the network
of stations and posts in the Soviet sector of the Arctic should be
especially stressed. Stations are today located at such high
latitudes as could not have been dreamed of 30 years ago.
Simultaneously with the increase of the number of stations,
the volume of work was also expanded as a result of the conducting
of radio-sounding end pilot-balloon observations, detailed observa-
tions of ice and visibility conditions, etc., and also extension of
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abservat.on (night observations) 4
the pea, iads of
'
In the be,ginnin aceanagx research had as its object
~ ~~pha.c
the col.l.ectior~ of matera.al.s for kraowl.edge o? the system and coiv
stitution of the general chara.cterista.c of USSR seas ? later an it
was ' on of practical hydromete0rabpical,
directed toward the creata.
trend in marine research was d.emander~
manuals on these seas ? This
om and by national defense, which were in acute
by the national. scan y
the seas and handbooks of inforrnatian on
need of descrip~~ ions of ~'hG
~ feature of all the research which had been
them. A d~.stin~rua.~h~ ~.ng to promote the successful
conducted proved to be its tendency
various branches of the national economy.
development a
which. was small in the
The volume of oceanographa.c research, first period (1921-1929), increased extraordinarily after 1930 and by
ortione ? Parallels with this,
193L-3~ had. reached extremely large prop..
voluminous work was carried on in the
beginning in 19 ,-, ~1, extremely
adastral Survey. Thanks to the broad
campia.at~-on of the Marine C
ariographic research and cadastral works, a general.
development of oce ~ obtained
idea of the fundamental characteristics of the USSR's seas was
d thus creating a scientific basis for.
by the end of the prewar pera.o ,
v' atiorl and for variau.s other branches
satisfaction of the needs of na ~.g
of the national economy.
is research of the seas, braid
parallel with oceanagraph
~, theoretical. works. on general and
development was also given o
h and similarly on phenomena
particular problems of oceanagrap y, and processes within the sea.
A special direction in theoretical marine research was taken
3o
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t~.ontn Katsivgl, whjah
xa.ne
by the work o~ the .lydrophys1caa. Sta
Ma atmaap~e~'e
interactions between the
ec1. our kn.owledge o~ the
~s,r advanc ~ Ween ocean and continents,
the interacttanu bet d
and the hydrosphere?
ablems of the technical, an
a.anc6 of the sea, and pr
the t~ercnaa. ba
ola/cal phys1cs of the seas
bi~,
ucted in ..the eld
M'tefSl.Ve wa~9k was Cand
~;xcep~tionally ex of This research
methods of marine hydro and was later con?La.nued
was begun in the State eteor,4a.o;a.ca1 faref cas't~ .n;.
11 ydrological :Lne t~.tute a
arid expan~ lnstitutP and the Arctic
Y the Central ForeCase p~,edic~,ian
,, b
ed thods of long..zany
As a re~,ua.t of this work, me and bases for
xnstitute? ~~ as were created,
'Lions on a grau.p of UaS~~ Se
ay ice ~?rld.1. the flucttion
n
ti n a f the thermal canditl.o of a sea,
predzc o
?t5 waves were worked out.
of its level and of i
on the vertical hibernaa.
h was broadlY developed
Re5ed;C C er5, on the
intex?mediate cold lay
c1.rculation and formation a this
.
'des and wave factors of 5peci:~ic USSR seas. In this
currents, t~.
theoretical calculat~-any were checked against experim
work
rese8.r'Ch in nature.
the soils of the sea door
A col:l.ect~.an of materials an addition, methods
CCe55fully developed 1n .
and. their analysis was 5u
. Lion of the chem:i.sm oft he
for hydroChemic aa, determl.na
were worked out
so115a
' al approach to the solution of a series
A comple ~eJ.y ors~n
Tactical signi_f ~cance for
o icai problems which have p
of marine biol g
the field of marine-
naviga.tion was found. In
ntial
shipbuilding and
search, whose results are esse
h drometeorolag:~-cal re
engineering y _
-.?31
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for the design of technical measures, essential work was also carried
on the calculation of the water balance of the Caspian and Azov
Seas may serve as an example. Successes were achieved in the fieid
of construction of new marine instruments, the thermobathygraph,
current self-recorder, wavegraph, marigraph, wave gauge, etc.
During the past thirty years there has been an increase in
the publication of oceanographic works discussing separate problems
in terms of the materials of native observation, as well as monographs
devoted either to whole complexes of oceanographic problems or to
separate divisions. Among t he monographs the following works should
be noted: Academician V. V. Shuleykin's Physic the Sea, a work
which has been honored with the Stalin prize; professor N. N. Zubov's
Marine Waters and Ice and Dynamic Oceanology; Honorary Academi_ci.an
Yu. M. Shokal'skiy's Physical Oceanography; Professor V. A. Berezkin's
Dynamics of the Sea; Honorary Academici.an N. M. Knipovich's Hydrology
of Seas and Brackish Maters; Professor M. V. iclenova's Geolo,ry o.c
the Sea; Professor V. P. Zenkovich' S Dynamics and Molo f
Seacoasts; and professor O. V. Bruyevich.'s Hyd.rochhemiStry of the
Central and Southern Caspian.
Notwithstanding the achievements in research on the USSR's
home seas during the past thirty years, very, very much work is
nonetheless necessary in order that we may have a thorough knowledge
of the oceanographic conditions and phenomena in our seas and may
apply it for the welfare of the national economy. For this the
following steps are necessary (l) to guarantee the continuous study
at sea of the annual cycle of oceanographic characteristics and their
changes in the succession of years, (2) to study the processes and
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disclose the causes of these charageu, thus providing a reliable
basis for short' and long range forecasts of weather and changes
of hydrological characteristics, and (3) to expand research to the
oceans and to the seas which have been studied only slightly,
33
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,(( , ET TIN G ~UP OF XPERIMENTAL R SEAI IL N FLOW STATIONS
Ye, G` Popov
We shall confine ourselves here to the selection of one
problem whi c h is mast important :for hydrological. forecasting:
the problem of setting up field experiments directed toward the development of a theory of formation of the spring flow,
The problem of experimental research consists in its aiding
in the more rapid disclosure of the fundamental regularities which
direct the flow processes so that these maybe utilized in practical
hydrological calculations and forecasts.
The most rapid and succeSSful solution of this problem
.
is possible only with h observation of the following basic conditians,
( a) that experimental research should guarantee observation
the fundamentai, processes canditioning the studied phenomenon;
of all
b that the experiment itself should be purposeful;
c that the experimental results should give a clear
picture of the poss:>r'b.~ flity of utilization for practical calculations
of given regular network hydrometeor010gica;1 observatians, indicating
path's toward their mprovement and rationalizatian and, finally,
(d) that the setting-up of experimentation in natural con-
ditions should guarantee its own activity.
. The last two conditions are important in that only their
observation, can guarantee the most rapid possible solution of the
~ v ~' ~QI ;~~ Y Ca 6y v~ tp7 Fl F 1+fd'6f i
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set problem and the ossibility of generalizat1on and application
p ,
of the experimental reaG, "u,.Lts in practical hydrological calculations
and forecasts,
has not yet had suf'f'icient experience
contemporary hydrology
in the setting up of active experimentata.on in natural conditionsa
.
Its research is for the present based principally upon analyses of
the data of observations of several years
h drometearalogical
y
'ren'tal studies of discrete, particu:Lar 1'1ow processes
star~dirlgo Expe.~^^L.
and its yielding of water, the absorption and
(the thawing of snow
yiel.da.ng of thaw waters by a basin in the channel network, the
the channels, its storage and expenditure)
movement of water along
lead at present to cases for the most part isolated from one another
aril offer no possibility of ' suf f'icieatly profound analysis of the
whole process of flow formation.
ental studies of hydrological processes must be
Experim
r a wa that there may exist full possibility of
organized in such y
tracing their antescannections within the overall process of spring
r
determining all the basic characteristics of
flow formation and o
this process which are essential for its prer.eckoning, It is also
the possible accuracy of this prereckoning
necessary to ascertain p ,
by setting up vas. ~iouslY detailed observations and by utilizing the
renulaz network hydz^ornetear^olagieal observations.
^
The most important tasks along this path are;
the heat exchange, the physical properties
1. Study of
of snow, its capacity, the rate of vertical filtration
,. nr
water reta~.n~. ~,
thickness of snow, and a series of other phenomena,
of water through a
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knowiedge of which is ossentiai for calculation of snow~rrte1ting
and of the snow's water output0
2, Investigation of ,the character and rate of surface
runoff of thaw water under various conditions, and also Bete:rrnination
of the mean integral, characteristics of water discharge into
a ravine by way of determination of the total inflow and the time
it takes the thaw water to run from different parts of the water
accumulation to the closing a1ignrnenta
3'. Investigation of the process of water motion in ravines,
especially in the initial period of the flow, when most is told of
the regulating effect the ravines exert through temporary retardation
of the water due to the presence of considerable masses of snow in
them [the ravines]m
L. Study of the laws of motion of water along permanently
active channels, and specifically; the velocities, the part played by
the holding capacity of river' beds and valleys flooded by rivers,
the regularities in water absorption and discharge by flood valleys
and the interactions of fluvia:L and subterranean waters.
We have enumerated in brief outline the fundamental problems
without whose solution research on the formation of the spring flow {
cannot be complete, We consider it essential to emphasize the
particular importance of such key questions as those of calculation
of snow melting, of absorption and surface retention (losses) of
thaw water in a basin and, finally, of the process of the water 1 s
reaching the primary channel network. From a practical point of
view it is unusually important in this connection that the experimental
36
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-.., T
N ..,h
ts should ' n the greatcs't possibie degree take into account
results ~.
and reflect the mean charaetex^i.s ti cs of each of these procGsse a
in this case can they be representative
for a basin, s:t.rice only
and acquire general significance
? to this idea with a very simple example.
',et us a. l.l.ust~ a
'Even the most careful and accurately conducted observations of snow
are conducted on only one section of the
melting cannot, if they
bas picture of its distributiotl throughout the basin.
roves/ a p.L
onsequently we wi11 not obtain a true picture of the spring flow
in this basin for analysis of t ~ he overall formational process of this f
can lead to erroneous inferences for
phenomenot1, This Ga.rcuiastanc,e
the analysis of other processeS related to snow melting. Of immense
th.e correctness of basic inferences are the
significance for
of measurements of such physical quantities
reliability and accuracy
as the reserves of water in snows their diminution at the time of
snow melting, the discharge of water, etc. Low accuracy of measure-
ments may lead to incorrect and inconsistent inferences, decreasing
the value of the whole experiment
The great labor required by experimental works investigating
even under the conditions in altogether small natural
the flow,
basins, ,.ns, demands that in their setting-up special care must be
devoted to the development of methods for all observations, thus
guaranteeing . r more or less uniform reliability for all the
the,.
components of the studied process.
With the aim of observance of the principle of complexity,
which mount significance for the development of a theory which has pada
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01 hyclrol.og' cal. pro nosisy it is essential that experirnenta1
~
flow station; on one or several small
re,aee,rcll be conducted at
natural basins s (rivulets or ^ ravines) a where it will,. be guaranteed
that rel? iable and cont'ai.nuous measurements be made at a series
of alignments.
All a.nvesta.gat10r15 of basic processes of formation of the
spring flood bold be strictly related to the general direction
so that the comparability and possibility
of exper:i.mentatbon
of analyzing all the observed phenomena in. conjunction may be
,
the effect of various specifications of the
assured. Research on
cond:l.tion of the underlying surface upon the flow should be conducted
paral ar areas where these specifications may be
`.elly on elementy
artificially assigned (different degrees of wetting and freezing,
different types of cu1tivati01l, etc.).
~. f
MethadS of observation of snow cover, snow melting and water
discharge should result in the following
to production of sufficiently accurate measurements of
the initial ?tial water reserves in the snow in the basin by way of detailed
snout Surveys o
2. Careful accounting for the liquid precipitations
falling in the period of snow melting and. shedding of thaw waters,
3, Setting up of observations of the evaporation from
surface of the snow during the thaw period
the
of careful observation of all the elements
L. Setting up
of the heat balance of snow melting on one or several sections,
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depending upon the dimension. Of the studied basin.
Paral,lel with these observations, it is es4 entiai to assure
as far as possible broad. observations of the water discharge at various point he reservoir, which may be easily accomplished
by ~ of t
uremcan t of the flow from small water_i.mpenetrable
by wdy of med5
platform. 4.~ l square meter in dimensions. These platforms should
Gated on all the characteristic slopes of the studied reservoir,
be to
in both field and forest, The course of flow from these platforms
will characterize the water discharge from the thawing snow and
with parallel measurements of the snows moisture content may also
be used for calculations of the intensity of thawing. It is easy
data for the whole basin and consequently to check
to average these
to what extent the calculation of thawing by the method of thermal
measurements of its elements on the experimental
balance, according to
platforms, proves to be representa'ti've.
S. Setting up of observations of the rate of vertical
movement of thaw water in the snow mass.
6. Strict follow-up of the changes in degree of snow
cover in the studied reservoir in the process of thawing, by way
of ordinary land surveys or aerophotographic surveyso
All these observations will make it possible to take into
account both the total quantity of water which has entered the basin
and the course of this entry in time
Observations of the processes of absorption, surface
retention and discharge of water by the reservoir should include:
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it of 'th~,w water under snow
bsexvatians on the v~.lac Y
0
.s
1.. n , a rraphic Farms and vara.au
tions of vax'~.aus ma.c~ a top ~
under con ,
teaching the ravines
tames of
water constin surface
ulatian of the amaunt of
2. talc nitude of the
ta,inment of the change in mag
reten~tan and ricer of the reservoir.
inactive (in the water dischaI'ge sense) areas
3~a of thaw water into the
Observations of the Seed ge
.
ground by W& Y of determanata.on of the changes in the moisture
.
remc;nts at sections of the reservoir
. en't of the soil through, measu
coat the fla~from
plant cover; observata.ons of
differing in soil and ~ and. of the
le and water_balance platfarns r
the wate1~?im:Perraeab
system of subsurface waters.
the fatal -diurnal flaw
L4 , Calculation of the magnitude of t
of water rota the ravine, which ch should characterize the
..
of the total diurnal discharge of water by the basin
magnitude
ined by the volume of water
The latter quantity should be detet
the rava.ne, for wh~.c)1 purpose ~ gents ~
entering the
ld be carried. on at the final and at int er. med~.ate a g
shou the ravineso
of the volume of water in
also of the variation
and.
be canst~'ucted in such a
- these observations should ical way ~ si. s o f the phYs
All
on the one hand, the anal)
as to guarantee,
natur rocess itself (.for example, the process of infil~tratian ~
e of the. p
and} ' itf s of generalization of the
the other .. hand, the po,s~,b~.l an th of a real basin with
of this process for conditions
regula:r~.ts the complete
iverse forms Obviously
calculatx.on of all its d unction
solution of this p~"oblem is po asible only through the canj
y,Q'!ri' ,y~ udlWneldkJ m;aPF' nr',iS?NftiSjis C IU7~1i ~se i iui9Ai~fn~ .9m lii i~~al,.X}1fPle f,:YS~jlrrC 1. . I y. i ,.
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14
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of laboratory and field experimentati01*
Research on the :l'ozmata.on of the surface flow is unthinkable
the effect of the farm and cond~,tioz'i
of
withaut the most careful study o.
u on the flaw. This is one of the most
af' ~ he reservoir t s surface p
complex and labor-cansuming tasks
rfhe basic requi'.z,ement for experimental research an the part
played by the underlying surface in the formation of the spring flow
should make possible generalization of the
is that this research
es for the whole basin and their extension
discovered regulariti ed the characteristic peculiarities of the
to other basins, provided
proceeding from. this basic requirement,
latter are calculated.. directed
o: C setting up these observations should be
a practical method.
first of all;
( a) toward a topographical survey allowing the character of
~.
the micrarelief and all the details of the basins farm to be
ascertained with the maximum passible accuracy,
(b) toward a, study of the soil cover and determination of
of all the soils existing in the basins,
. the filtration properties
with their various degrees of moistening and freezing;
(c) toward a bydrogeological survey of the basin giving
de th of occurrence of the tap wa,ter~
an accurate picture of the p
impervious layers and of the extent of the subsurface watersr
Only ' there materials can make it possible
the presence of
haracteristics of surface retention
to,.obtain the bash's average c
of infiltration, and also the average
and of `water absorption by way
?
egee ~W7IFlj~~~
I tt 1~1),~iAUt db
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rake and time of runof i' off' thaw water in the basin.
We emphas1 the part ?a.cu,lar importance of constructing
~e
scha~.ge
.~ ~ ~ ~,ve (in 'the wa~~xwd~~-sense)
e ~
a distr?lbution curve a~. th , ct
?n in re~.ation to the depths of the sbsprpta.an
areas of ..'the ba,~ ~a, 'ority of
? tribution curve proves to be (for the rrta~
seats. J.ha.~ da.s
that there will be sufficient sail
basins, where it is certain that
and that this moisture will freeze in
moisture from autumn on
teristic of the surface water retention
winter) a fundamental charac
the same time a cha~~acteristic of the losses
in the basin and at th will not
t since the loses through infiltratian
in the spring flag,
be great in these conditions,
ater in the channel network
pbserwations of the motion of w ,
have great significance in research on the prQCeaSes of flow formata.ono
in addition to providing a careful
These observations,
it of water fla~~.ng through, should
calculation o f the quant y
character1.ze the rate of flow and the time the water takes to run
should make possible the de?ter~nination
through the channels and also
- water wk~i.ch has flowed into the channels
of the total. quantity of
and that which has been absorbed in them. Not dwelling at length
on the details of organization of these observations, let us only
this work not only at flow stations
indicate the necessity of conducting
n rather large rivers, with the aim of
on small basins, but also o nations
ordinatiozla The basic idea of these obser
their cooperative co
the relationsl~ip between. the rate
should be above all to ascez fain
to the primary channel
throw h time of the water both up
and .run g
network and throwgh the channels themselves.
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All he eriwnerated ash cts of the experimanta work must be
acc ,omPp anied by the most careful meteorolcagical observations, both
through the standard program at auxiliary meteorological stations
broad utilization of automatic recorders or, repeated
and by way o.~
observaLns at special posts established in characteristic parts
~.o
of the basin.
Not having the opportunity to dwell upon the details and
technique of conducting the observations themselves, we believe
that the State Hydrological i.nstiLute and the Central Forecasting
Institute should initiate in the very near Future the development
of, a program and methodology of observation, proceeding from the
concrete technical possibilities of the existing flow stations.
In conclusion, a concise summary of the basic tasks of
experimental research on the spring flow is given below a
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iii)
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}.: ~
p GI. FORMATIC
IN r~ A RESEARCH ~~GGF~:II
r,, BASIC -~ ~- TASKS ~ IN
SUMMfRI OF THE B
TO BE FULFILLED O.. SHE BASIS OF E
~
OF T H? -H? Sr "RIiJ FLOW
I'TAL ET ORK AT FLC STATIONS
r, - Purpose and End Result
.. Basic tasks
Igo
3i
2
l
?__[i. - :
? ? iGnS
~l
of Conducting Gbseri~.t
., lie ,,hods
f Research
~- o, and theoretical
to _
the Deve ~m!en
h Research on v
..
accuracy in Perf ormng
; accuracy of calculation basis For
I : : - . ; accu_
~
. Snow measurements
of watr reserves in
e
basin
_ snoW ln a
Resear -ch on the Pro-
G of obser
-
t of method..
1~evelopmen
- 1 'z.cn and calculation of evaPora
~~a~
f - evaporation
cesses o -
cical factors
the t''77on b met.
T Un J1
..
from the surface of - T ~ oro_ 1oJ
snoW cover
theory, of a and
on the process Development of sn -
Research
t,, nand of - methods of calcula-tlon,of snoi~
t .;l o
o~a-m.~
and iN
1.sc g.~ater scharge for
~ of water by melting
har e of
melting snow conditions of riea- i river ba S1nS,
et,~ologl
ord.ng to eor ~ `cal data
^ m
ac.,
?~ 1 ~ro-
;n relation to she physica 1
_ -i menta! research on the
L~er
j
of varlou ,cS methods of
r oI
accuracy
sno _rement survey and mea-
a sui '.tion
surement me
of solid p~~ecpi
surement
On the pr?_
erimen1-i research
mss of snow evaporation
c Ond1 t1.Ln8
~-
laborator.~ and field
e
er? mental research on the
1. FxP
energy of Snow-relting in
o oy
rg~ balanc..
.~he physical properties
t
relation
of to the
,. the nc~ itself in field and
s
forest
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Ferties of the snow and the charac- 2e Observations of the intensity
of the of water
ter o_ th topography of snow-melting and discharge
'
under various conditions of snow
deposit in the river basin by T means
of measurements of the flow from
water-impermeable mic_ ~ roFla'f_ orms 0.5-1
square meter in size9 and of the water-
retaining capacity of the snow by
._ 1 V by
calorimetric or other methods
Research on the distribu- Development of reliable methods Terrestrial and aeroph?tographic
1 1 `. _
of r
tlon o_ snow in the basin for calculating the changes in surveys of the la o..f the snoutw e Loves in
r " the ~
and the characteristics degree of snow cover of the basin the period of melting for formations
of its disappearance territory differing disappearance at in the process of melting, in r., within the te_r_Zn
Y dif_~"e_rz g an na+ ?ure
and the time of snow-melting l~.tlcn to its initial distribution and extent
and to the intensity of melting
.. Development of reliable methods 1. Laboratory studies of the fltra
Research on the pro 1 ~
cesses of seepage calculating d the intensity o properties of " 'r different
of for r ?aln ~ul of ti on _ ronerti sells i n their F
thaw ~ water into the infiltration on in relation i on to the states of mo~stur.,e and freezing
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round.
[31 l4J
properties and condition of the soil 2. Observations of snow-melting
and to the intensity T of snow-melting. ~. and flow on water-permeable slci
_
Ascertainment of the relative role ole and water-balance platforms.
of infiltration in the overall pro-
T of snow-
soils and the intensity
melting, and ascertainment of
of water absorption and re ten-
ces., _
[2]
tion in the basin
3. Observations of the changes
in moisture content in the soils
pro-
cess the onset anl.;. in the ~,
ss of snow melting in various
of the
characteristic sections
basin
1~. Observations of the system
of subsurface waters
Research or ' cal- 1. Detailed topographic soil
the pro- Development of methods f _
rch _ on - ~h 1 1
retention and hydrological surreys of tr
?esses of surface reten- calat ln g surface water the
tlon ~- the
and regulation of in a basin using data on basin
of flour in ' n the basin character o~. its surface structures
,.
2. Construction of a distribution
the filtration capacities of the
o
curve of the active areas in relation
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to the depths of the seats of surface
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1
retention
the relative role of surface re Cen-
of flow
she o~ er~ll process of of the
~zGn in calculation
3 . Experimental
" '
f formation
amount of water re air.e d in __ the sur-
f
f the basin.
face of the basin.
'~
CQmna_r1son of the total amount
4? 1
i'rie snOw T deter-
,
of water discharged by B
r d~s.,hared u accordance iith da1 ~,a on the
mine o. i n
?cro_la= ~1 forms, with the
~
flow from ;r~?
volume flow into the channels
of ?~
1 of methods for cal-
Research on the pro- Developmen
the runoff speed any the
cux.a ting
and
CeSSe s of runoff an._
?h the water
ge reed with which
of water in average _
the channels in a
ins u p ~
channels runs to Uh ,
' r t ;,o the
basin in relation tOp0graph-
ical character, plant cover and
degree of canalization
of the basin and ,a the intensity
of ?noTw-m~eltir_g
d.nu ~
rvat2on o~ the runoff speed
1. G~ Of ..sQ.~
the rivulet -
over the ~.opes and in
le different topographical
L..or~ _' under th
ne~~
conditions .,1Qri.. s in the basin
2. Deterrriinatiofl of the total flow of
water in t0 the e channel by means of care-
ful of the
ul measurements of the volume
' a
gel and discharges of water at
channel
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lame number of align-
sufficiently ~, ..
a
suz
distributed along the entire
r~
ts
mt
basic channel network; among them a
control closing alignments Comparison
at times of the progress of discharge
v
of f dater from the snow tri to the total
flow and the flow at a given align-
ment
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CHANGE IN THE DIRECTION OF AIR MASS TRANSFER IN 'T'HE TROPOSPHaRj
*_._..?_,___.._.??. ~.._.,_._______f__.
WITH THE CHANGE OF NATURAL SYNOPTIC PERIODS
A. L. Kats
In 196, Sd T. Pagavt s work, Principles of the Synoptic
Method of Long-Ran Sh -TVotice Weather Forecasting Li] was
published., enriching B. P. Mui-tanovskiy's ideas on the natural
synoptic periods
In this work maps of baric topography are employed for
purposes of long-range weather forecasting, and the natural synoptic
period is defined as the time interval during which a given high-
altitude deformational field of the troposphere lasts,
It is also demonstrated in this work that the isallohypses
of ATS00 [the O0 millibar absolute topographic surface] of the
tendency of a natural synoptic pe:ri.od. in general maintain their
signs during the whole period, since the coefficient of correlation
among the isallohypses of the tendency and of the whole period
proves to be equal to 0.676. The results obtained make it possible
for S. T. Pagav to employ analysis of mean. charts of ATS00 of the
tendency of natural synoptic periods in conjunction. with the
isallohypses of the tendency for prognosis of the synoptic processes
of the following period [1]. In relation to the conjunction of the
isallohypsic loci of the tendency of a period with the fields of
convergence and divergence of the isohypses of ATS00 of this same
tendency, prognostic rules are obtained concerning the development of
the synoptic processes in the following period, Utilization of
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e o f the tangency of a period is based upon the demon
isa:l.l.ohypse
aintenanc6 throughout the entire period and
strafed Fact of their m
the change of AT~Oa from one tendency to
upon the assumption that
another depends on the whale upon changes in temperature i.n the :layer
surface and the X00 miLLibar surfaces
between the earth'
The task of the present work is to ascertain: (1) whether
the loci of the isallohypses of AT~00 of the tendency of a period
like the corresponding loci of increase and
may be interpreted
m7erature(2) how the isallohypSCS of separate days
decreas of to~
e
course of one natural synoptic period and with the
change in the
onset of a new period; (3) what are the characteristics of the
variation of a deformational field within a period and with a change
in periods.
For this purpose the synoptic materials of the Central
Forecasting Institute from 28 December 19J48 to 1 December 19L9 and
a working breakdown of the continuOUs succession of synoptic
processes into natural synoptic periods have been usedo In the
course of eleven months of the year 19l~9 thesynoptic processes in the
European region were differentiated. into 60 natural. synoptic periods,
most of which lasted five or six days. For' all 60 natural synoptic
the isallohypses of the tendency of ATSOO were
periods charts of
constructed by means of subtraction of the average values of the
A~I:'y00 tendencies of the current and preceding periods. These isaliohyps
chants the changes in the 500 millibar surface which take
reflect th
place in the tendency of the current period i-n comparison with the
tendencies of the preceding perioh On these charts he loci of
-altitude boric
negative sallohypses,'regardless of what high
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a,c~,a~,e a ~.awexin~ at' the isobaric
fayata.an they are related to, Indicate
surface ~,ished in the new period, and the surface wl.ch is bGa,ng a,c~,omp rase of
' lah se> caa^re~~aanda.n~ly indicate a
1.oca. of posa.ta~ve ~ r ~al
the isobaric surfaced
of the a,sa:Llahypaes of
exactly the same method charts
By
+~Qt) millibar topography of the
p1000 ~ the relative COQ/1. ,s
OT ~0/
ted4 As a result of analyse.
~tcndenca.es of the periods were consi,ruc
0 negative
~ bh.at the :Loci of positive and ne(;a
of 'these charts it became eva.den i >00
olmost repeated the chart of changes in Al'
changes in OT 00/100U ~ of AT oa
ibutionh rr 1e loci of the isallahypses
in geograplla.cal da.str
~}osolute value always differed from one
and OT ~Q0/1000 according to ~,
a .~ the mar. e considerable was
pother, this difference being she greater
ps of the pressure
advectianl and dynamic. Chang
the _to~ta~. e f'~'ect of ~, Bch isallohyps
t c urface t Ho`aever, in all cases to e
at the ear th ~ s
o an isal~.ahyp~~ locus of like sign
d
1
cus of AT X00 there carresponcle ~ ... of the same pE~riodm For expo~ure of
of OT X00/1000 of the tendency ~ OQ and
~
~c;n the a.sa,.ohyPses of AT
the qualitative relatiansh~.p betwe r..~ al
a period we performed a st~tt,.>+stic
OT boo/lOaQ of the tend.encJ of ,e used.
the same formulas as wer.
raccssir,g of these two charts using
p
~~aav which has been mentianed.
in the wor. k : o C S. '~ b g
sin are cited in Table to
r1'he a:~esults of this procer,~
See next page for Table 1~
[
^ient of correlation between the
The rather h
of the isallohypses of AT O O and off, Sao/loan (0,776)
distr~.butian
c 11y evident correlation between the
orrobartes the geed and phys~.ca
~an,g and OT ~U0/1000 from one tendency
r es of the isohypses of AT X00
a
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OF
R~~ tP~TTl~ll\iShTC ~7L~sr.~+ DISTRIBUTION
_ pe of Supposition
_ - _~~ ~
`D-.iG{ F NATURAL L SYNGPTIC PERIODS
1 Ll~t!1J V J 1~
AT 500 AND Gt ~~ - ~ OGG OF m~,r
_ "LG~r pill 3
H s ~~.~5 OF ,a?
IS--
r4 ?ri
L
4-4 U
0?H
-t~
iL
U U ~
H
O - {e~)
cLt H
Maintenance o of negative ~b
33
3771 3769
of ZsalloY~~~pses
5111
t~.,, 1TlteflanCe of positive
_~lOhYPses ~ ~78b
~
sin of isal
g
3788 33
63
88.7
88.8 L-?.9
O
?T4
U
H
L
0
L
{4 ?i
O
o.7?b
-I--
U)
C.Cllit 68.2
0.776 c.o1]-13. 68.2
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period to another. The good correlation
of a natural synoptic
also reflects the we wry fact that variation othe COQ ma.:~lib~.well well , known
surface depends aha,i'li upon changes in the average temperature
c~
of the under^lya.ng This correlation also reveals that the loci
layer. y ,r.
of the jsall..ahypses of A r'0Q of a tendency of a period may in a
~
the l.aca. of decreases and izlcrc,ases in tahE~
certain sense be t~,ker~~ for ~
average temperature of the f0_kjiometer_h1gh layer.
If the zel nshi, between the mean isallohypses of AT X00
t,t~.o ~
Of a tendency and. of an entire natural synoptic period have, according
to S. T. Pag rav 1 the coefficient of correlation 0.676, then the
between the isallohypses of the tendency of contiguous
relationship
periods turns out to be equal to 0.336? This confirms that the
OO of the tendencies of contiguous periods
iaa1.labypSeM of Al. ~
di f fer sharply from one another d
E3ctiori with this we have set ourselves the task of
In canrt
the isaf.oh TE}es of separate days within the period
explaining how
and at the lantis of the period behave. For this purpose, in addition
~.
to the ses of a tendency of a period, the isallohypses of
~.s ~a 11ohYp
al.l_ the days of the period have been separately constructed. The
COnS'LrU.C t1.On of these isallohypses was accomplished in the following
manner For construction of the isallohypses of AT 500 of the tendency
.
of s, period, the average values of AT SOQ of the tendency of the
preceding period subtracted from th.e average values of AT period were 03 two days of the current period (for each of 126 points evenly
the field of a natural region). The algebraic
distributed over
difference 3 represent the corresponding isallohypses of the tendency o
theperiad. AnalogauslY, for the construction of the isallohypses
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of the third, fourth , etc , , days th sne average values of the
:L3ohypS6 os: A1r Oo of the tendencY preCedtfl period er
subtracted from th; VaiU Q AT OO of a deftflite day. These
charts were COfl5tXUCed for all the day5 o a period. In dd1tiO1
the isa).lObYP6es of each. ?jiai day o: a new period were ale;o
con.struct?d on the aswflpti0fl that this day is still the last day
of the preCedfl period. For this, the same average values o AT
oo of the tendency of the periOd as were used for the preced.fl days
were subtracted from the value of AT OO of the fjrst day of a new
periode
Since the loci of the isallohYPses of the OO millibar
surface ay be conside1ed as the 0respondirig changes in the average
temperatWe of the nder1yiflg layer, the construction of.' the isallo-
hypses of separate days in this manner also shows the changes in the
average ternperatTC of the layer from day to day, both within a nod
and with the tr an s It ion t o a nei' p en iod , I n or de r t o clar I fy the
character of these changeS, we have performed a statistical processing
of a.n the isa]1ohYPS charts with the purpose of 5ab1i5hirLg the
qua1itabi relation between the d.istribUba.0r15 of the isailohyPS loci
of separate days of a period. In the whole statisticalL processing, 278
isaJ1ohYi5 charts of separate days of periodS were treated. A
COntinUOUS series Of 60 natural soptiC periods during 11 months of
19L9, taken without any preliminarY selectiOfl, fully sufficeS for
statistical' inereflCeS The rsultS of this proceSSifl are brought
forth ifl Tables 2 and 3. I is essential to note that n addLtlOfl
to the five-and sx-da naUral sopt1C periods predom1flat
during U months o 19L9, there were also seven seven-daY and one
?0
4W
;
w.
. .
r t. . . ; ::
I : , ;! :
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A
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?ghtdaY periQd$. Since seven cases cannot serve as a hasis for
Q~.^stat yes, ,tatiatical processing; of these periods is
~.st~.cal a.nferelac,
not presented in our tablp5 m
[See next page for Table .
It is apparent from Table 2 that he qualitative coefficient of
isallohypsea of a trend and of the remaining
correlation between the
days of a period (Q-66L) almost exactly coincides with the coefficient
~.
of correlation (Q-h7b) obtained by S,T- i'agav for the relation between
and the isal.lollypses of an entire period ~lJ -
the i.sallohypses of a tendency
However, from the last rows of Table 2 it is apparent that
this average coefficient of correlation, o,66U, turns out to be
different for the third, fourth etCm, days. of a period. The isallow
hvpses of the third day, for which the coefficient of correlation is
equal to om738, have the greatest resemblance to the geographical distri-bution of the isali.ohfp
ses of a tendency of a peri_odm During the follow- ,
ar decrease of the correlation coeffi.ci.enu
ing days -there occurs a regal
by ~ - 6 percent, the coefficient being equals even on the last day, to
in the coefficient of correlation confirms the fact,
Q.~7~m Such a change
which is observed on the hyps charts of separate days of a period,
~.sallo
that a certain territorial displacement of the loci survives through-
eriode The meaning of such a change in the isallohypses
out the entire p
natural synoptic period is characters-red
is not difficult to explain A
high altitude deformational. field, which, at
by the stability of a given r.>
the same time, does not remain set nor invariable
The high-altitude deformational field of a period is in
continuous development and change. However, this change is evolution-
any and does not disrupt the general distributions of the basic loci of heat and cold nor, consequently, of the high-altitude deformation
field which is established in the tendency of the periods Each locus
~
of positive andnegatn.ve isallohYAses corresponds to a definite high'
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TABU i 2
_ h OF H ~ ~~ m 00 OF S~~r r ~..-! :~ DAIS OF A
TSl OF 'S~S C_
_ -- - ~T., ~ ~ ~i~TInr ~~1 0.? ISL.LLOHYI
rr~~ h. , ~~
~=T 't +T' ?~ I G~~ 1T -' .r' b~ f~. i?.'=s~I~ i jt?~ SIGN D~~l~~ ~L
r,:C j 0 ~ TEL S PERIOD
~v ?, ~,~ ~ ~_J L~
--~~T~~-r iPSLS
T[S 't I ~ v
!~{~-{I1L10/ i~I?ID 1VAJJ 7 ` ~u . vI - OO OF k TL
T sY~o~~~~_c FL
.T . ~ ~TUR!-:
p
Type of o n Supposition
`
i1s
U)
G
?H 'tj
-P
?r3
U) cU
0 ?rl
~z .4 0
, a C}
CIS ?r-1
r" 4.1 U)
0 O
O z Q;
H 40,
Q) iij 0 i
O ;i S} U)
r +D
U
z
113] 4,
l!
2
n
positive sign oI
of Maintenance G_
emaining
ses on all r
isallohyp
days of period.
Maintenance of negative s gan of
~ ses on all remaining
b
isallo:~~ t~
days of period
13,267 13,u7-6 11,107
O
ci
()
.r{ 0
CH U
Y. r, '
1 Q
c.)r.., n
U c 4.)
4:() U)
cal (Th.-4
L -
- -a
G J
?? ?r3 ~
1
U ~ 4- 4)i'U O cg Cv` OO
U ~
-1 ~
~ ? O va ;~
i~
L5j
bj
[7)
(gi 191
83.7 50.2 o.b& 0.0053 12~
13,L:42 133293 11,133 82.8 49.8
o. bbu.
0.0053
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t91
[2~ [31 [4] Si [[h~ L7i L8~
?
Maintenance ofposy ~ t1~Te Sl?n of
_ ~
c~.U~l.~ b~
87.1 0.1 0.738
,~
day . 3, 7Th ~ 3379. 3,289
ses on third
lsallohyp
Maintenance o
negative sign of
l?`sallohypses on third day
66
Main positive sl tenance of poste gn. of
_ ~ b2
,~ 3 7 81 3 200 ? 8 o , 682 O . OI~.>a.
~
on f ourth day 3 , ~
Zsalloh~pses
Malntenan=.,e of negative sign of
~ ~..b ~9e9
79 3,20 8
_ _ s 3,~8=~~b 3,,
1ohypses on fourth day -
lsal_
0.682
c.c11)4 62
Maintenance t~enance of n p o ~
_ ositive sign of n2.0 0, ~
~ 0?~2l OP~Jl2-:
li9b 2,787 c
. 3,39L
e s an fifth day ?
salloh~ps
sign of
of negative si~ .
Maintenance
49 ~
7,a9
tX33 2,826
j -353 3
v . ~ sallo-h -~Tpses on flft n da~
0.521
0.012C?
Maintenance
of positive sign of lsa-l ,
~ G.
8 4~q6 79?
v
i ~o~~ses on sixth dad . 1,883 1,912 1,9
~~aintenance of f negative sign of
Maintenance
lsal_ 1 ohypse s on sixth day
y
3,786 3,766 3,281 86.6 49.8 0.73 O?aU~
1}895 1}8e5 1,479 78?0 tt9?%~
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0,575 o.0lbl
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altitude basic formation. This correspondence, however, does not
e,.t~.
it complete coincidence. when positive isaliohyp$
always mea rn the ~'
loci coincide with high?altitude anticyclones and negative loci
coincide with hx 'ghwaltitude cyclones, as is noted in work Gl], the
h deformational field of the period turns out to be
,.
.~~;halt~.tude
most stable. Together with these coinciding isallohypseS, cases
are also encountered when the locus of negative isallohypses is
superposed, not upon a highwa1titude cyclone, but upon. its trough,
and correspondingly, the locus of positive isallohypses is super-
posed upon its ridge, and not upon an anticyclone, since the
a.sa1.1oh,gysps loci are generally displaced with relation to the high-
al.UtudE bara.c formation. In such cases advection of warm and cold
air masses in the troposphere, with.. which powerful seats of positive
and negative a.sallohypses are basically connected, proplotes a certain
of the high-altitude baric field. Such a deformation
deformation
turns out to be greater or less depending on other factors of change
of the isobaric surface which may be applied to the advection factor
with the same sign. or with opposite sign. In the course of a natural
synoptic period, as is evident from Table 2, a shift of the basic
loci of heat and cold in the troposphere is localized in definite
regions ,, and does not lead to essential reorga.nizati.on of the high-
altitude deformational field established in the tendency of the
period.
Analtogether different kind of development both of the
h~altitude deformational field and cf the isailohyps loci
hig
corresponding to it proceeds at the beginning of the next natural
synoptic periodro
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For establishment of the relation between the isailohypaes
of a tendency off' one period and t1:i isaliohypses of the first day
of the following period, assuming that this day still belongs to
the old period, there appears an abrupt break in the regular change
of this relationo
[,See following paws for Tables 3 and L~
From Tables 2 and 3 it is evident that instead of a regular
decrease in the coefficient of correlation by S - 6 percent, as
occurs within a natural synoptic period, with the transition to a
new period the relation drops by 20 - 2~ percent and the coefficient
of correlation.. turns out to be equal to only 0.339.
As we have already noted, a change of natural synoptic period
is determined by a reorganization of the high-altitude thertnobaric
field. This reorganization also corresponds to a sudden change
in distribution of isallohypses, even if they are computed in relation
to the same preceding tendency. This sudden change proves to be
still more apparent if the isallohypses of the 500 millibar surface
of the new tendency (or of the one first day) are constructed in
to the tencl.ency of the period just comple tecio In this case
relation
the coefficient of correlation turns out to be 0.336 r'i]. In order
satisfy ourselves that just such a change is also proceeding in
to ,
field of the lower half of the troposphere, we calculated
the thermal
the coefficient of correlation between the isallohypses of OT 500/'1000
of tendencies of contiguous natural synoptic periods. The results of
these calculations for the same 60 natural synoptic periods are
presented in Table L.
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TABLE 3
AND ISi~LLG-~~~PSES OF THE
R OF TIr ~ ,N, ; ,,, ~-- OF A CURRANT PERIOD ~
.-CN ~r~-:-, THE T~~~~~l~ ~.
r-,T~ TOn T;YPSES ~? 0~u
_ELt~.`T1v~1ym~ t T _SA~~ L
~ ~r ASSUMPTION THAT THIS 7hY I5 STILL
T~~~ ~ ~~~
FIRST DAY OF n* : PERIOD, Ilh
F ` T ~ ~>f^7F' L~' S~ ~ ~Ptl ~q4y{?F~~~ ~d ~ ,~ ` ;x-031{1~y~~ ,~'t!~ 1 fuJ~J ~ tl~~
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genesis of a new baric formation in the high.alta.tudp deformatiofal
field of the period in the sang geographic region where a bark
formation of the sarr~ sign was located in the preceding period. In
.
this cage it j ffjcuit to detect the reorganizatian by taking
is da.
only the signs of the daily isallahypses one by one, but it becomes
. new isaliohypses are constructed in relation
clearly apparent if the
to the tendency of the completed natural synoptic period. As has
already been noted above in the establishment of the relation between
such isallahfpses, the coefficient of corr. elation is 0.338 for the
absolute topographic surface and O.3U1 for the relative
BOO millibar
millibar topography. The latter indicates, for example,
SGU/lUUG
that a hirh_altitude cyclone wtLich had deepened in the old period
~
and lasted into the new period begins to be filled in, and vice into verso.. naJ.agausly,
an anticyclone which had been growing stronser
in the old period lasts, as a rule, into the following period.
In the present work the qualitatlve characteristics of
in the isallohyps fields of AT X00 and OT BOO/1000 have
changes
been examined. It should be noted that the loci of isallohypses
not only displacement, but also quantitative change. The
undergo,
ature of these changes in particular m. ay be estimated by using
n
charts of isallohyps variation.
Investigation of the possibilities of application of
isallohypu variation charts for long range, short-notice weather
.
forecasting has especial significance. We hope to turn to this
question in another article.
The research results cited above allow us to make the
following inferences;
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~ll?el
a i7L
fn+?~a
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0
1. A natural synoptic period is characterized by the
stability of the thermobaric .field of the lower half of the tropo-
sphere and of the loci of the positive and negative isallohypses
which correspond to it.
2. Within a period there proceeds a continuous evolutionary
development of the thermobaric field. During this, the deformational
field of the period and the isallohyps loci corresponding to it are
practically maintained in. the same geographica]. region as in the
tendency of the period, as a result of the maintenance of the
direction of transfer of the tropospheric air masses.
3. With a change in natural synoptic periods there occurs
an abrupt change in the direction. of transfer of air masses in the
troposphere which finds its reflection in a reorganization of the
deformational field and a redistribution of the isaliohyps loci
of separate days of the period.
14. Charts of the isallohypses of separate days of a period
may serve as one of the auxiliary means for objective determination
of the limits of the periodm
REFERENCES
Pagav, S. T., Principles of the Synoptic Method of Long-Range,
Short-Notice Weather Forecasting. 'Trudy NIU GTJGMS, series
II, number 20, Moscow-Leningrad, i9L.60
2. Pagav, S. T., r1'he High-Altitude Deformational Field of a Natural
Synoptic Period, Meteorologiya i gidrologiya, number , i9b.6.
6
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p, S . ~', , D~~,cazirna.r~ata.Qn p
~av, ~ a1a ga.ya, number 6, :i,98.
F ~~
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THE RELATION BETWEEN RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND THE DIFFERENCE BE' BEN
TEMPERATURE AND DEW POINT
Ye. I. Gogoleva and
'Ye. M. Dobryshrnan
Beginning with 1 January 1950 the dew point ('7) has been
transmitted in the daily telegrams of USSR synoptic and aerologic
stations instead of the relative humidity (r), and has been plotted
on the synoptic charts and various graphs ('ernagrams, etc.). In the
operational work of synopticians the relative humidity remains as
before a very important characteristic, essential for the solution
of many practical problems. The Central Forecasting Institute has
therefore issued special nornographs for the determination of the
relative humidity for various values of the dew point and for
temperatures (t) from +Lo to -2 degrees [?]
Ye. I. Gogoleva called attention to the simple, well-defined.
relation between r and the difference t W "t' , which caused us to
occupy ourselves with this question. I.t was established that this
difference (t -) is an extremely stable criterion for the moisture-
saturation characteristics of the air and is little dependent upon
its temperature, For states approaching saturation this dependency
is especially slight. Therefore, the quantity t - may be con-
sidered as an auxiliary characteristic of air moisture.
Thanks to this synoptician it has become possible to utilize
the comparable quantities r an.d t -it, Our purpose consists in
demonstrating that it is appropriate to utilize given values of the
actual temperature (t) and the dew point (') as characteristics of
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the moisture~saturatjon of the arir. As will become evident from
what follows, this may be easily accomplished by means of simple
multipiic:ation of t by a certain coefficient,, or with the help
of the t abler presented below
Let us consider two air moisture characteristics: the
relative humidity (r) and the difference t ~ . It is cloar that
tlle,re exists a close relation,3bip between them and. that the nature
of this rei.tionsh:ip is as follows: the smaller t - ? , the greater
the relative hurnidi'by. But it iS obvious that with the difference
t - '1; remaining constant, the magnitude of the relative humidity
will depend upon the temperature (t).
The degree of influence of the temperature on thr relation
between r and t - T may be ascertained by computing the values of
r, in accordance with psychrometric tables, for various values of
t ., 'r , taken for various temperatures (Table 1).
With a quick glance at this table we shall be sat:isf:ied that
in states approaching saturation (i.e., for small values of the
difference t -'C ) the temperature has almost no effect on the
relation between r and t - This means that the difference t _V
is a fairly stable (only slightly dependent upon temperature)
criterion for characterization of the moisture saturation of the airo
The empirical data obtained allow us to hope that a simple
analytical relationship between r and t w may be established,
67
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TABLE
VA HU1If1TY (IN PERCENT) FOB, V EI(UB t FOB
VALUES OF .~.,TaA.I~.U~'a
INTERVAL FROM + 30 DEGREES TO -20 DEGREES ('OR
THE TTMI ERAT1JRI:
TM1)ERARES BELOW 0 DEGREES THE VAPOR TENSION IS TAKEN
'~U
TE
ABOVE ICE)
Temperature (degrees)
t
( r
(degrees) +30 +20 +10 0 -10 -0
7L.6 7209 71?0 68.9 63.7 61.0
2 89i 8.3 87.3 86.2 83.6 8L9
r
1 9L. L 9L.0 93.5 92.9 91.6 90.5
For establishrnent of the form of this relationship we `shall
use the well-known Magrtus formula, which links the water-vapor
saturation tension Qmax with the temperature. This formula has
the form;
Fat
Qmax :: Qoexp ..~...
b~
(expLx) = ex)~
where Q is the saturation ten.sian at O degrees; a and b are con-
0
scants which have various values depending upon what surface the
moist air is located above. As V. Ay Belinskiy [l~ shows, the
values of these constants are as follows;
Over water, a = 75 in 10 = 17.2; b = 237.2 degrees.
Over ice, a = 9.5 In 10 = 21.8; b = 265.5 degrees.
Let us write the Magnus formula for the dew point (''t ) and
68
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for the actual ternperature (t) We obtain, respectively;
grrtax '~
exp
a T
Qmax " Qo exp r at
b+~
By def.tnition, the relative humidity (r) will be
Qmax
r ... a , 100% = exp
Qmax
t
t w b
., ~ C+b 100%
~
Let us investigate this expression. We temporarily designate
MH
t w /' = zj2
Then we may write;
t
The last two approximate equalities are f'ulf'illed with the
greatest accuracy, since for conditions approaching saturation
-
S degrees; t + b > 235 degrees, so that _ 0,02?
substituting ~... for 1 in (1), we obtain
+b ~~b
r ;. 100% exp M a.w . (t
t.~ b
Let us estimate the value of the power of the exponential. We put
t = 10 degrees, t M ' = degrees. Then
a
t+b
therefore for calculation of
-69
(1)
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1
3;
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a
exp " b
t - 4
e ourseive to the first two or three terms of the
we may confine
Taylor develoPrnent. Then
a
.........,... t
t+b
t)
average value of .- a 100% for. the interval from +30 degrees
The t ~ b
to 0 degrees will be 6.7, and for the interval from 0 to -20 degrees,
8 . ~3 , Therefore, the last formula will take the form;
r=100%6.7~(t.~ 0,228 (t -~ )~ i~ aver water; (2)
w ~~ ~
r = :LOOS - 5.53 (t - )% 0,32~. (t w )2 % over iced (2a)
J
+ For rough calculat?on,^ ~ we may ...use s,i.rn~aler. formulas in which.
. ~.
only the linear term r containing (t ~ ) are retained. The ca.
~ 8, should be somewhat decreased in order
eff.ca.ents (607S and .
z~3 )
to take into account the quadratic term of the development. It
to calcu:Late in accordance with the following formulas
is best of all
r = 100% - ~.5 (t -'t ) % over water;
r=100% 8.0(t-r[)%over iceo
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T ABLE 2
, V THE T VE HTTMIDITY (IN P1,RC NT) CALCULATLD ACCORDING
VALU)S
rro FORMULAS (2), (2a) AND (3), (3a)
a t ,- for t
,~T for t,r0
(degrees)
(degrees)
Formula
2 1 2
88.L 91.2 (3a) 60.0 814.0 92.0
r].o
(2a) 65.L 8L.2 91.5
I2.0 8~?6 93
Comparison o.f the data in Tables 1 and 2 yields a fully satisfactory correspondence.
written above allows us to affirm that
All that has been
the difference t -T characterizes with a great degree of accuracy
`~ c .
ndition of an air mass which is close to saturati_ono
the ca
In operational work we may use Table 3, calculated according
to formulas (2) and (2a), in which average values of the relative
hl~ni_dity are given in relation to the difference t for the
temperature interval from ~-3O to O degrees and from O to -20 degrees. In coneiUSian, let us call attention to the following
circumstances. The structure of formulae (2) and (3) is so simple
that they may be applied in the computational basis for construction
of an instrument consisting of a combination thermometer-hygrometer
r
for purposes of obtaining more reliable data for measurement of the
~' ab
relative humidity,
71-
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Formula
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TABLE 3
.,
A '~ E~]T) FOR VARIOUS t
~~AGE V,~1,:Gtfl,S OF RELATIVE 1~CIM:~T~I~(;~N pE~~c;;
'-e
(degrees)
Over
Water
Ove^
Ice
t .. `L
(degrees)
Over
Water
over
Ice
8.0
60
2
3.0
82
77
7.~
62
SL.
2.8
83
78
7.0
6L,
56
2.6
8L
80
81
6.
66
58
2.L,
85
6,0
68
60
2,2
86
83
7o
63
2.0
87
8L.
5.o
72
66
1,8
88
86
L.8
'73
67
1.6
90
87
L.6
7L
68
1.L
91
89
69
1.2
92
90
L,b
7
1
0
9L.7
93.L
L.2
76
70
.
lw.o
77
71
o.6
96,1
95.0
3.8
78
72
o.L
97.3
96.7
3,6
79
73
0.2
98.6
98.3
3, I4
80
r~ r7
0
1oo%
100%
3,2
81
76
p,EFERENCES
Belinskiy, V.A.
~ubentsav
V.R.
D~amic Meteorolo
~T, MOSCOW, 19 8?
Calculation of Geopotentia~- Elevations and
Thermo-yrometric Characteristics.
azani a TsIP, number 8, 1950?
Metodiche6kiye
30 psychrometric Tables, 6th edit~.on, `Leningrad-Mosco~a, 19ll.0e
~,-
12
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ARTIFICIAL CLIMATE LABORATORIES
S. L. 'F3astaTtOV
N. M. Topoi' nitskiy k
N. P. Fominti
the ha.lasophi.cai conception of I. V. Michurin
The Victory of p
of our native agrobiologiCal science,
and T. 1). Lysenko, founders
iali..stic theory of the role of the influence
the victory of the mater
world has recanstructed the scientificM
of external factors on the plant ,
research themes of all agricultural jnstitutes and experimental
stations in a new waym
For practical .realization of the, aims set before Michurinian
agronarnic science -- controlled raising of plants, study and altcaratiatl
of their nature, development of new frost-resistant varieties -- a
goverfl]nent resolution entrusted the Ministry of Agricua.tur. e USSR
with construction of two artificial climate stations.
One of' these stations was designed. for work on the develop-
merit of frost- and drought_resistant varieties of the fruit trees
cultures of the USSR's central zone and for the further
and berry
better varieties in the nor. there rayons of our country
advancement of
where fruit culture is little developed. The second artificial
was basically designed for the solution of government
climate station
problems ?- the advancement of subtropical crops (citrus, etc,) in
new rayons (by means of development of more frost resistant varieties) --
solution of other problems standing in the way of subtropical
and ..for the
agriculture.
The projected assignments of these two stations represent
-73w"
ii+ , st ,l_iJUvJ'.rd,. 'x5..14''?.ls,?Z i. it 1,Vihil ado'"4?n,rnk., walk?:,1 :r+r Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200040023-1
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I
? ~ em of equipmen't, and :i.nstallmez~ts which
a complicated teahn:~ca~. ~~'~? ~~ ~ of re roductian of changes an tempQ~rature
must assure the poss. ~.b~l~.ty o p
eratures of soil, wand, solar x^ada.ata.an,
and atmospheric humidity, temp
an the natural conda'taans of the various
etc., wh?ch are abserved
eographacal regaans.
? em, accumulated experience and a
For sa..u'ta.on of this problem,
trained workerst organization are essential.
The treat Rusfi '.an scientists vo I. Mendeleyev and N. Ye.
~~
s of laboratory eXper~-menu an ineteorolagye
Zhukovskay were the founders
MendeleyeV, in 'particular, described several years before Sprung the
presence of a
on the circulation of fluids in the p.
famous experiment
'.ch is undeservedly called the Sprung
temperature dlff,erence why
experiment".
In the winter of 1915..19, in accordance with the. ideas of
'nsk Geophysical Institutes aeradmic
Zhukovskay, in the Kuehi
first set up for the study of 1ycapadium
tunnel experiments were
' is on railroad snowguards. 'his is set as
spectra and snow depas1
laboratory works of soviet geophysicistsm
the beginning of the
Some of the works accampiished an, this sane institute con.-
while others had the purpose of studying
tanued Zhukovskiy's subject,
f
r h site/. apparatus. Of works of the ~irst
the influence of wand on ~e0p y
theoretical and experimental research on
type we should mention the
set in a positiofl slightly raised above the
i-over-?slope guardstt,
forming with them a nozzle-shaped. structure
slope s of the dugout an
the, snow from the rails the more strongly
into which he wind :blows..
t rho the second type of work belong
the greater is its ve'J.oca.y
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the studies of meteorological booths, rain-gauge shelters, etc.
It is impossible to show the subsequent rapid development
~
eteorolo ical labaratory work, the interest displayed
of themes of m
ists in the mastering of this method, new for them,
by metearolog
and their consciousness of its scientific value
This thematic development was called forth by agriculture's
need for the expansion of the growing areas of various crops and.
for auto- and railroad transport, by the solution of actual problems
construction on frozen and perpetually frozen grounds and by the
of
struggle with chasms `opening in frozen groundi.
It is obvious that the setting up of laboratory experimenta-
~
tion in the indicated directions demanded the reproduction of at
least rwo of' the most important characteristics of weather and
climate: temperature and atmospheric humidityo
These demands were realized in Tran(apor. t and Highway Institutes
,r.
1$L L x
in the form of arrangements which came to be called tartifical
s
~x
climate laboratories" (LIB), the essential part of which is a closed v
a,erod amid tunnel where the air is conditioned with respect to
yn
temperature, humidity and speed of flow according to the demands
of the experiment.
Within thirty years the propagation of citrus crops -- oranges
and lemons --?- in the damp, subtropical territories of the Soviet
Union caused the All-Union Institute of Tea and Subtropical Crops
to be faced with the problem of the freezing of citrus crops and of
uarding them from frost. These problems were directly related to
g h
7
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1JlK, since the experi1flenta1 work could only be successfully end
quickly conducted in laboratories where the plants could be subjected
at the necessary time to appropriate chilling tests,
The lnsta.. r laboratory, which was built in 193.1936,
' ~ ~u1~e s
has two working chambers; the first iL.2 square meters in area
and ~Q Cubic meters in volume and the second 16.5 square meters in
area and ~8 ciabic meters in volume, where the plants undergoing tests
are placed, and also a ckiaanber 14 square meters in area and 33 cubic
meters for storage of the plants after the tests (in the
in volume fo
period). The last chamber is essential for creation of the
thawing
necessary warming conditions, analogous to natural conditions, and
at the same time ' m ? for augmentation of the capacity of the chambers.
For creation of uniform experimental conditions the -glass
working circuit of the air-cooler is mounted 'in the chambers,
arranged on the diagonal.
The laboratory' s machine room, in which the central controls
of the ammonia system are located, has two VAIN-10 vertical compressors
with corresponding condensers and motors. The air-cooler room is
located between the machine room and the working chambers.
Variation of the air_moi.sture conditions is guaranteed by
an a ~'dification apparatus which works through a vapor-jet feed.
~.r hurr~
Automatic signaling of disruption of the assigned parameters
( at present only for temperature and air moisture) is provided in the
laboratory by an installation of self-recording instruments equipped
with stopping deviceso
76N
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Tha further development or artificial cl,i,nate 1 boratory
works round itreflection in the peat industry,
The technol,ogicai process of d,ryi,rrg lump peat on the enterw
prises' fields wholly depends on the natural conditions in the
seasonal period. The successr'u], conjunction of the dimensions
and shape of the blocks and the application of the optimal form
of drying makes for intensification of peat drying and at the saarle
time for an increase in final production yield.
In 19146, at the assignment of the pest industry, the
scientific-Research Department of the Moscow Technological Institute
imeni L. M. Kaganovi.ch, under the direction of Professor 5L. Dastamov
and Professor M. N. Mayzel', designed an artificial cJ.i.mate laboratory
for these purposes which was immediately made ready
Whereas for construction of a model of frost zones of the
humid subtropics a complex of three meteorological elements _-~
temperature, humidity and wind velocity -- sufficed, for the peat
industry's artificial climate laboratory a more complete complex
of meteorological conditions had to be designed. In this project
direct and diffused solar radiation, precipitations and variations
of the subsurface water level in the soil monolith were also provided.
The peat industry's artificial climate laboratory consists of
a closed hermetic aerodynamic tunnel with a sealed work area of cubic
form. The air circulating in the tunnel passes on its
way a cooling
system, a heating installation and. a humidifying unit. The velocity
of the air in the tunnel reaches 5 meters per second, the temperature
a
from 0 to plus 60 degrees and the humidity, from 20 to 100 percent.
.. 7
7
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Installed in the upper part of the operational chamber is
a light cxposure chamber with an ar'r1sngemcmt of daylight lamps f'or
imitation of direct solar radiation. Diffused radiation is repro-
duced with the help of frosted glass and milk glass.
The drying of pump peat by various operations and. in various
shapes must be conducted on a natural. underlying surface. For reali-
zation of this condition the operational chamber is supported at
the bottom by a monolith with a peat bed in which the subsurface
water' level is regulated by a special device. Thus the upper surface
of the peat monolith forms the bottom of the operations chamber.
In this chamber precipitations of various intensities are
provided. For this purpose water-spray jets working off of a
water-conducting network are arranged. around the periphery in the
upper part of the chamber.
A few remarks should be made on. special features of the
processing of materials in the various works conducted in artificial
climate laboratories. The majority of these works require the estab-
lishment of comparison criteri..a which will assure the transition
from the dimensions of a studied "model" to nature. One must, however,,
have the difficulty of this transition constantly in mindo
Let us give several examples.
The results obtained from experiments on snow precipitation
on model railroad shelters were completely satisfactory, qualitatively
and quantitatively, but their. quantitative interpretation did not fall
within the Reynolds comparison criterion Indeed, with a model L - 5
times smaller than nature, the windstream velocity would have to be
78,:
,
:Jr
'ii. ~~169sr m1't~ P IPIP ~iJlr[11 '?IV~ti~l. ~7PJ~dh~'~fr~hllA 4rt'1~}419a~41 ~'Pr5{l lf~,fa}i IU1tP l ~';(w+l1h{ i r `; f
4 r i I V ( t { 7P~r '`jP ~ ? L {il'J~ k4Y 4r i iiY j ~ {~ I i 1~ ~a ~ { ~ r ~ ~ ~~ 991 ' ~1y ~~1 q 6P I { 1 !I F ',
t I Ati { i it f 1.~YJU t~ ~d ~a4 llp~,+v y, T'~, { U ~i: if i 1 (F,'Uri'J t {4 1a 1,y~j,ICr ~y~.1~ 1 1 f i1~ ~y J ! '~ '7 i~ i! ~r i~,
t~~ltt~.~r~l~u~.~flh'l i~Ef~r~r&~aa,~1Vi~'r~!l~I.~Yrih.:;
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O - 0 meters per second, which was unrealizable
increased up to
for the g iation. imilariy, he coefficient of kinematigiven a,nstal,
viscosity was not dPt ',ed.. Thus, in spite of the. good coilform~.ty
~,rma,~.
betwc,en the measurements "~ of snow precipitation in the models and
in natural conch.l,a~ ..ans, the processing of the laboratory experiments
could not be fully conclusive.
thermal oofdi.tlons of soils an experimental
For work an the
prison criterion was established of the Fourier type Fo
carnpt
'-.t = const where CX is the thermal conductivity, t is the
xl.~
time, and x is the determining dimension. of the model. The cited
~ssion fully proved its worth in the most carefu]. works on
expr~,
models of conditions in perpetually frozen grounds
construction of
and of conditions in ~, lar 'e monoliths of freezing damp grounds. Let
,
us note that in the Faura.excra. ' ter~.on the :coefficient is considered
.
to be constant, whereas, as a result of the migration of moisture
during through tx e ~e2ing, the density of the ground, its thermal
capacity and. thermal conductivity change; moreover, the thermal
capacity of the soil air is not the same in different levels of the
soil. All these considerations, obviously, lead to the conclusion
that operation with models the sought-for temperatures will be
in observed at different depths (xL6) than one would expect according
to the Fourier theory (x2).
noted that the comparison criterion obtained
It should be
za.tian of experimental materials on the laboratory
for generaln.
stud, of car lubricants proved to be completely satisfactory in
the temperature range from plus LO to minus ~2 degrees.
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The comparison son criterion was obtained from the 1'u.rncmental r
r~ rathe~' than from the
hYdrod~namic equation of lubricant operatioa
Sonullerf eid U friction number" .
s of incompressibilitY of the lubri-
In fact, under c0nc1?tjon
cating fluid, Wf3 have;
x
where p ?5 5 the pressure on the axle expressed in absolute weight
units, u is the rate of motion, t is the coefficient of viscosi.tY9
and
2u ~2u .~
u=
2+
x
Y
Applying
the equation to the one direction perpend.icular to
the friction surface, we shall have
ax
After this the comparison criterion will be written in the following
px _ idem,
/LA u
determining linear dimension, as has been confirmed.
where. x is the
.the results of work on the dependence of evaporation upon
the dimensions and form of the evaporating vessel are well represented
by the criteria of Reynolds and peklE.
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There is no doubt that dth the Construction of two new
artifa.cial c~.jmate etatiofS the application of ineteoro1o ;ical
exparentataon will lead to 'the successful solution of a whole
series of problems Jrentec~ to various branches of the national
economy.
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SNORT REPORTS AND ARTICLE
LCULATION OF ADVECTIONAL CHANGES OF TEMPERATURE
A T~+aCk~~1I~,U; ~ FOR CA
USING FlLOT-RALIOON 0BSER,VATION DATA
S
K1 mcharev
In an earlier published work of the author Lla matbods for
determination of the advectional temperature variation by means of
charts of baric to,pograptay and using data of pilot-balloon observa-
tions at a fixed point were described. Insufficient accuracy in the
drawing of the isohypses on the basic topography charts often proves
an obstacle to the calculation of the advectional temperature change
by the first method. In marry cases more reliable results may be
obtained using the data of pilot-balloon observations, i.e., by the second method? N
of dwelling upon questions of the foundation of
this method in principle, we shall indicate here.practiral procedures which allow advectional temperature changes (or, to put it more
briefly, advection) to be quantitatively calculated in a very simple
way from data of pilot-balloan observations at a fixed point.
According to the author's work [1], the operational formula
for calculation of advect?ion in a layer of thickness hn - hl
i.s the expression
-1
vivi+l sin ___
where (t)a T is the advectional temperature change in degrees after
three hours, 036 is the coefficient for latitude 6 degrees, hn
82
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0.36
h
(1)
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a.n hundreds of meters, vis the
~.s fiche thickness of the layer
dc~ hin maters per seconds v~.+1 a.s th~
wind velaca.ty at all,' ~,tu a.
~s the angle between the Vectors
oca.t at altitude ha.+1, ' ~.
vol. y
vi and vi+i
are the more accurate the greatex'
The results of calculation
is n, that is, the greater the number of measuremen~as there are
er h .. h r The minal. thickness of a layer
witYrj.rL the given lay n 1
to advec;tion is lUUO M 1~UU meters. At
U K
for which one may calcula
, an~k,s must be distributed at each 2S
the same time, ~m.nd measurernc,
300 meters of altitude.
For elucidation of the calculation technique we present
Table l as an example
See next page for 'f'able la
,s that in the lU`~0 ~- 2590 meter
The given calculation ir~.dicate
de of 1830 meters, in i6 hours on June
layer, with a middle altitu
ed a considerable ad,vection of heat with an
19L8, there occurred
~ees a r 3 hours. .fit the same time in the
intensity of 2.9 degx ~
rater la er (w~.th middle altitude 289U) there..
overlying 2~9U ? ~lfi0 m Y
n of the same sign with an in,tensity
was an ex.tremel.y weak advec tio
hours. Thus the advection was extremely
o:f: U.3 degrees per 3
with rESpect to al.titudeb The synoptic
a,x?regu.larly distributed
r characterized by the appz'oach of a trough
si,tuatian on this day was
utheast. The given case is interesting in
toward Moscow from the so
on of warm air was proceeding in the lower
that here a strong invasi
stropg development of instability.
atmospheric layers, accompanied by a
me da there began in Moscow a strong thunder-
within l.8 hours of the sa Y
83'.
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TABLE Z
CALCIJLATION OF AD EvTIONAL TI'iF] R TTJ ';'
r q v
[l] [2] [3] C4
10.7 55 7
+30
~TiVi +1 E
Q,h h
li: T
MOSCOW 1i tJ1ThE 19L8
~1 s
(8T A
[6j [7] [8] [9] [10] [11~
+11 +0.19 56 +10.7'?
13.7 66 8
16.& 96 8
19.8 120 9
22.9 127 LO
25.9 156 8
29.0 1S7 10
33.5 1)4 9 10
CHANGE B PILOT-BALLOON DATA DURING 16 R0 IRS
sin LSi
L5J
+32.0
+0411 72 +29.5 ` +121 1.2
+0.12 90 +lo.B
+29 +0,L8 80 +38.L)
+0.02 80 + 1.6
-o.])t ioo
1U.3
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+2.9
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[l] (2] [3] [U1
9.6 158
+9
[5] [6] i7J [8I
-0.09 108
45.7.. 153 1?
1,8
+714 ;-0.2L
120 +28.8
[91 []-oJ [1]l
25.9
38.9
107 10
d
the n
direction of ~~n ..
the earth's surface ; _n hundreds of me+ ,,ers, is the .. a
?
de above tir~h
ltitude
the a
n
E _ sin, . ' ~ is the ,, 1+1
is. degrees,v is v ~h~ckne^~~ of
? the velocity in meters ~ per second, _
zn;
1h? ~a dle of the lauverQ
e laYer h is one altitude of the n11
~
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storm with downpours yielding 20 mi11imeter$ precipitation.
m?times it is more convenient to determine the aclvection
,ao
of temperature by another method, that is by a holograph, which
may be easily constructed on a Molchanov circle or on a special
blank ('Figure 1) , plotting the wind vectors from a single point
and joining their' extremities with a continuous line, as is shown
in the figure. It follows from formula (1) that the advectional
~.
change of temperature in the layer of atmosphere between altitudes
h and h is proportional to the area included between the vectors
l n
of the wind at the lower and upper boundaries of the layer and the
curve of the h.odograph. (An area formed by the rotation of the wind
vector with altitude to the right is considered positive, and with, a
contrarily directed rotation, negative.)
layer
'cc
1-2 kilometers - l. d reel per
2-3 kilometers
I'
t~,+xm~nimt~N~wnr!
a~~+roru^~MU~n"u~'J
Figure le Wind Hodograph. Moscow, 2 June 19L7, 00 hours 00 minutes.
6
3 spurs
1.8 degrees per'
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e ma detarm~.nQ tha~~ area by
at ,on of tl?~te advec?la~.c~n on y ~
~' or c ~,~. cul
better to use a nomogram (Figure 2). Thile,na.meter, but it is ce the a, so-
stems; the salad iines tr~~
namo~;r~ has two curve. Y dotted lines are .
temperature change, and the
sines of advectional
? rences centered at paint Oo
arcs ocarcurnfe
?,ion. Latitude 56
cram'or calculation of advec
~'iP;uTe 2. Namar, A h ~ l kilo..
in degrees per 3 how's with
degrees, advect~.on
meter.
1 _ area tion in Ups degrees per 3 hours
.~ corres~.C~oncJto advec
advect'~.on we place the noino~;rara
'For measurement of the... uch a position
arPnt paper. or celluloid, in s
wh~.ch is traced on tr. ansp ;int U on the draft.
the nomogram coincides wjth po
that point U of
halo raphs and line UL of the nomogram caincj.des, with the
the lower boundary of the layer.
of the g Vector of the w~.nd at
d_1?ine arc which form S a sector'
Then we select the do~Lte boundaries
? of the wind at the lower and upper boun
between the directa.on~~ ~ of hadogreph4
' ate/ equal to the area of the
of the layer, appra~Y,.im J
ntersection of the s elected axe
~'
After this we note the paint of ' The
at the upper baundax'y of the laYE 'r.
with the vector of the w~.nd a 'Tes fives
the system of ad,vection isol~. g
ositian of this point in .....h the thickness
p ~
the magnitude of advection in degrees ~ ~ per ' hour's, If t
of the layer in question . is one kilometer.
kilometers, the obtained numbed 111uat be divided by rn.
ion with data of pilot -
radical calculation of advect
observations at a fined point indicates that this method
balloon
87
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S satx.'sfactary results, if the original data (that is, the
g7.ve~
wand measurements) are sufficiently accurate. On the basis of
pa,latpball.oan observations, the probable error, in determining
riot exceed O, degrees per 3 hours for advection
advectian does
magnitude 2 degrees per three hours.
It ',ial to note that one may determine advection
is easen ,
by this method only in the free atmosphere. It is impossible to
use wind data at an altitude less than one kilometer, and also in
mountain regions where the local conditions of the terrestrial
surface influence the distribution of the windo
Formula (1) and the nomogram are calculated for latitude
aid one may compute the advection in accordance
~6 degrees e With their
with observations at another latitude ( 9)) also, but then it is
necessary to multiply the obtained. result by the ratio sin ''sin
~6 degrees
REF EREN CES
l.. K1Yu charev: S. Se, Toward a MetbocWiagy for Ana:l.ysiS of Temperature
Changes in the Atmosphere. Meteorala~i awn ~droloa~
number 9, 1910
88
44
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QUFE3TION OF Tl[E ROLE O]' II5HHI LDSI' IN D.ET RMINATION
THE
JIIr LL._ OF PRECIPITATION
T. E arti $hvili
Installations and instrument's designed far measurement of
-
preca.pitata.on make it possible to measure actually falling preci.pi.ta
nl Y in completely still, windless weathero
ta.ans OfllY in completely still, windless weather
In windy weather, in order to decrease 'the blowing-off of
the snow which has accumulated in the precipitation gauge, a so-
"shield" is attached. to the gauge. Means to prevent this
ca].lecl
ba.owl.ng..aff are applied chiefly in the USSR and Arrteri.ca, but in those
countries low falls in :mall quantities, as, for example, in
: where sr
1s ecipitatlon measurements are conducted Hrith rain
tern Europe, p.r
gauges without any shields. rfl e' famous Nifer shield, which was
widely employed in stations in Russia from 1890
'measurement
rain
an, gradually went out of use, its place being taken by the A1'ter
and Kodd baffle shield. But in a case where one apparatus is re-
placed by another this other apparatus must give better results
than the first, or else the si.ibstitution is meaningless. It is
ed. what is the function of the indicated, "shieldst", and do they
ask
make possible even an approximate determination of the actually
falling precipitation.
In order to answer this question, let us consider certain
materials from the fourteen-years' observations at the Kazbeg high-
mountain meteorological station. In the first two years precipita-
tion measurements were produced by a rain gauge with a Nifer' shield,
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their wit~ the rain gauge) a Tree yakQv
in the tn.i.rd year (toga
M lied and since 1 Janua~'y i99
preca.P~.tat~,on began to bapp ,
a a- ~' nation gauge, wha..ah I raconstructed,,
scallod t~cdmpos~.t~e prec~.p
t akov and composa~ta prac~.pi'cation
has baen installed. The tzaty
? h baffle sha.e':.ds and were installed in a
gauges were prov'~.ded with
completely open place in identical conditionso
. aasuremants in he course of
The results of praca.p:>.tata.ons m
ted recipita~tion gauges are presented
19L~9 with the three ~.rtda.c,a ~
in Table 1?
TABLE 1
Quar,t~.. ty of Precipitate on in 19L9 in Millimeters
During; the Cold
During the Year
precipitation Gauge
Rain gauge (Nifer shield)
13,1
Fret'yakov precipitation gauge 1~'
'a bja
1210.9 ~'
(baffle shield)
Composite precipitation gauge
(baffle shield)
822.E 1L9?
162)4.8
From the observational results it is clear that the rain
gauge with a Nifer shield.. does not catch precipitations at the time
Deice recipitation gauge coll.cct5 6 times
of a snowstorm. The romp p
90-
period (January furing
to April and Oct1o- February
ber to December) and March
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a much p e'~ lY~ akav gauge dura~x~strc~Y~~ wands
,
~.or>, as the Tr re,~.patat }s as much a~M the 1at'ter during
weak winds,
and 2 t a.rae
In .~ebruary 190 the shield was removed from the compnsata
p March abservatians were cand'ucted
rec ipa.tat~an gauge and until 19 ~ ~ Ma
. a sha.elr~,. The resuJ:ts of observation
with. this instrument w~.k,haut
during this time interval are as :f.'ollows.
17.1 mil.~ime'ters
~~ , Y . . .
Rain gauge (Ni.~e.r. s .~eld) .
~,3~?~ mil;l.ime~ters
T~auge (baffle shield) F ? . ? ?
9 ~al~av precip'--~tation gauge
,~ety 212
.0 millimeters
i'tation ;age (Wi'thout s}iield) . A e .
Compos~.te preclp
It should be noted that on L February and l~S March more
recip the Tr,e~t1yakav p~?ecipitation }gauge
than ~. by t~,t, the was measured by _ ,e tee ~ ci ita~
p ~ m:>.11.~.m s ~ e~
composite gauge. On L February 1. .
e. ~ hour. s
,~ alcov roCip7.tat:-on gauge at 1,
Lion were measured by the 'frety p i,ta_
the rain gauge and the composite preGii?
and l.O rnil~l'l:meters each by stered
March the three precipitation gauges regi
~tion gauge ? On l~ ~ ,~ and
ci~pa.tation at the times of the ~
the ~'oll.awing quant~.t_e s of pre
19.~hour observations,
19 hours
hours
~?1 millimeters 7.0 millimeters
Rain gauge (Nif'er shield)
T,Tet, yakov precipitation gauge
)1 millimeters f3.8 millimeters
(baf:~le shield)
'
Composite precipitation gauge
3,9 millimeters.. ~?5 millimeters
(~.thou'~ shield)
91 -
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uar Y and id March) during the snow all
on th se days s (L Febr~'
e
a observed at times to be ul:l.y sta.~.la
slight ~r.nd was b.YoYa~.ng, ob-a
qn 2'l February and 1~ March all o:C tY1s precipitation gauges mea,u'red
the same quantity oT, preci.pa.'l,a~, ion.
On 19 March 19~o the 1a.d was also ~emovcd from the compaea.te
that what was left of it was actually a
preca.pa,ta~k,~.on gauge, so
ci itatian gauge Without any shjelda Fram 19 March to
'hret~yalcov pre p
1 ay the fal.l.owa observational results were obtained
7 ~ :1 millimeters
Rain gauge ((fifer shield) * . a I ? .
Treky'akav precipitation gauge (baf,f'le shield). 120.6 millimeter. s
,
' thou~r, shield) 9Li?2 mil;l.imeters
rj~~,e.~ ~ yalco~r preca.pitatian gauge (wa.
xecipi.ta.taon according to the
As we see, the glLanta.ty o.L p
' ~.tatian gauge Without shield is greater..
data. of the 'Y'ret'yakav precip
than the quantity of p 'pital~i on according to the rain gauge;
~~ec~.
data approach those of the rain gauge more
in addition, the fanner
Cet' ak.av preca.pitati.on gauge with shield.
closely than thane of the lr. y
4 e rc;sence of weak winds, the data of the
In separate cages, in th p
~ akov rec:'>_pitation gauge without shield
rain gauge and the Tret y p
rain gauge data are... just a
the
approach one another. very closely ( trifle greater), and the data of the T'retlyakav precipitation gauge
than the data of bath ~ the other]
with shjeld are. considerably greater
precipitation gauges.
of measurement with the precipitation gauge
The results
the average higher than those with the rain
with.aut shield remain an
which are observed rather often at
gauge, because daring snowstorms,
..92-
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20: CIA-RDP82-00039R000200040023-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200040023-1
the Kazbeg station, the rain gauge is completely incapable of
accumulating :preci itat.ons
In the course of
..9)49 (when the Tret' yakov and co,lnpasite
precipitation gauges were located in identical conditions) the
cornposi,te precipitation gauge measured 6 times more precipitation
than the Tret' yakov gauge in the presence of winds with velocities
of 25 - LO meters per second. In 1950, when the shield was removed
from the composite gauge, it accumulated almost 3 times more precipita-
tion than the Tret'yakov gauge in the presence of winds of the same
velocity.
'rhe introduced materials show convincingly that precipitation
gauges of different constructions give different readings,, the difference
being so great that it may introduce changes in principle into
contemporary representations of the quantity of actually falling
precipitation. Certain peculiarities of the indicated instr. uments
are easily explained. Thus, for example, a slight increase of the
quantity of precipitation given by the precipitation gauge with baffle
shield as compared to that given by the instrument without sf.el.d
in quiet weather is essentially explained by the blowing off of snow
from the plates of the shield by light gusts of wind.
As we know, the baffle shield consis
of lh metallic plates
which are curved outward at their upper ends, the area of the curved
upper end of each plate being slightly different from the area of the
collecting part of the Trettyakov precipitation gauge. During a quiet
snowfall the surface of the curved part of each of these plates
collects approximately the sane quantity of snow as fails into the pre-
,93 *.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200040023-1
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/04/20 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000200040023-1
cipitatian gauge, and a rather insi.gni:fi,cant whiff of a breeze
eas of snow aecumu1ated' on the plates
will throw part of the h p
into the precipitat.an gauges
' rabiem is which piecipitata.on ~a;auga
However, the basic p
'.tote the best appraisal of the actu~~l~.y
gives readi.ns which cansta
' ema~.nLn~; expaed, sand the im~~~artance
fa~i.i.ng precipitation whale r
., ~ at we approach its soJ.utian ~rithout delay.
of the prabJ.er~~ demands th
The eacistiflg, data an the role of '+shi.elds?1 :Lead. Lis to the canclusi.an
' s enerally destructive The study oi' the aero-
that, ~tha~ tale a ~
au ~;s which Basmal,ov and ~~it~tev:l.ch, and
dynamic hi
of rain ? ~, ?;
' dicated that from the whirling motion
]..alder yalcob, conc:~ucted, an
-t six cap is formed at ~th? edges o f the
o:f the wind a so?-called 1
blowing the snow sway from the surface
auae and the wand,
rain a ~ ~ _
of the rain gauge which is turned toward it, blocks it up inside
the instrument,
If the comparatively small dimensions of a precipitation
gauge change the natural course of the air flow, then any kind of
ar er d uaensions, must change it more ? We assume
shield, having l g
lawn away From. the surface of the precipita-that; the quantity o f snow b.
t:ian gauge whack faces the wind and blocking up inside it must be so
not exceed the error which is generally
ins~.gnificant that it will not
surement whereas the quantity of snow
tolerated- in preca.p~.t.ataon mea s
which is collected by the action of the shield from its edges and
inside the precipitation gauge is cansider-
surfaces and isblacked up ~
.
e' . in our opinion, abser nations of pT.eC1.Pitation
ably Larger. Therefore,
reciP~.taton gauges without" any shields.
are better conducted wa; P I
9
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