THE APPLICATION OF ULTRA-ACOUSTIC METHODS IN THE PRACTICE OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00039R000200090002-9
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: R
• Document Page Count: 34
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 9, 2012
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: July 18, 1952
• Content Type: REPORT

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Pra~+t'.i ce Of
The ication of
ph~~s~ r~chemical Tnvesti~ation~
by
B. B. Kudryavtsev
lJspekhi Khimii ,Progress of Chemistry?
Vol XVZT, No z, pp 15$-173, Russian (article)
Vol
bi-mo per, Mar/Apr 194$
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APPLICATION O UL11TASQNIC rjk~QD TO THE PRACTI ~a OF PH'SICQ
cHi :[ CAL SEAR 4
B. B. Kudryavtsev (Moscow)
Until comparatively recently, acoustics was conside ed a coma
pletely investigated field of physics. It seemed that work in the
field of acoustics could develop only in the direction of making more
precise what is already known.
It was difficult to visualize the possibility of new :fundamental
discoveries in this seemingly well investigated field. And yet, acous-
tics underwent a renascence, literally before our eyes.
Discoveries, which expanded immensely the field of acoustical re-
search followed one after another. This brought about a situation where
papers on acoustics, which up to then had appeared only rarely in speci-
alized physical journals, began to appear extensively in physico-chemip
cal, chemical, biochemical, technological, biological, and medical
journals. The revival of interest in acoustics is due, first of all,
to the discovery of new sources of acoustic vibrations, which made it
possible to obtain vibrations of frequencies and strength entirely differ-
ent from. what was possible earlier. Strong acoustic vibrations of high
frequency are called ultrasonic, these possess characteristics which
are distinct from those of ordinary sound, It was established that
ultrasonics are capable of producing chemical transformations, possess
a strong dispersing and coagulating action, affect living substance;
and seeds of plants, produce specific soimd-lumineSceIlCe, etc. it
is precisely these characteristics of ultrasonics which attracted the
attention of investigators whose interest lay in the fields of
natural science contiguous to physics. The investigation of
ultrasonics brought about the development of experimenthl methods
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addition, the methods developed far making ultra"
for their study. In a terized by expe~^a.mant. simpl;tcity' and h~.gh
sonic measurements axe char c
accuracy of results. Quits naturally, an attempt was made to utilize
a moans of physico?~chemical inquiry into the
ultrasonic measurements as
different properties of materials. t the present time, ultrasonic
rooted in the practice of various research
measurements are firmly
laboratories.
It would be desirable to give a brief review of the possibilities
which are introduced by ultrasonic measurements into the practice of
research. The solution of this problem is the pur"
physico-chemical
pose of this paper.
At. the present time, piezoelectric and r ag netoconst'-coon trans-
~
ducers are used to produce ultrasonics.
Of the various piezoelectric materials (quartz, tourmaline,
acoustics, quartz is used almost exclusively
Rochelle salty used in
for the preparation of transducers.
stalline modification of 5i02; it crystallizes
Quartz is the cry
artz crystals possess piezoelectric character-
in hexagonal syngony. Qu
ca able of being charged by deformation and
istics, i.e., they are p
. n. The sign of the charge which occurs on the surr
def ormEd by charge g?
kind under compression and of the apposite
face of the quartz is of one
kind under tension.
In order to obtain ultrasonic vibrations from quartz, it is
cut into blanks of different shapes and dimensions, which have a
definite orientation with regard to the crystallographic axes (Figure
l)? The emissive surface is covered with a layer of metal (usually
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n a,rzvestigating he propganon of ultrasonics in uses, the
a
I.
charge to the rear surface of the blank.
F?gure 1. Quartz crystal and quartz blank cut out per'-
aendicular to the electrical axis
The ank is pasa.'t~~oned on a po~r~rshed metal base
sily~ r) ? fhe quartz bl
e time as the electrode for feeding the
which serves, at the sam ,
c
the propagation of ultrasonics in gases an
In a.nvestigatin
?;; laced directly in a vessel filled
dielectrics, the q~;~artz blank a. p
(2) In worltin with subst~:nces which can-
with the test substance ?
. , . ,.t is separated. from the substance under
duct electrlc:~ty, the quay z
rove s ti ga ti on wi th the aid, of a thin membrane. In the ].after case
e uartz need not be covered with metal;
the emissive surface of th q -
instead, a membrane can be used as the electrode for feeding an al
ernating potential to this sur:Eace of the quartz.
t
Contact ?tki metal covered surface of the quartz' blank is
w a.
aid of a compressian springy, although, in
accomplished with the
? and ver important problem is solved by
general, this practical ~
pending on the special f eaturE,s of the work.
different methods, d.e, ~~
r which feed the alternating potential to the
The electrode
e connected to the electramanetic ogillatar as
quartz blank ar
.,.M?BmiWNgq';wf"klRM/"M~`~~~ }MI',w P M1
r^ ,d
shown in Figare 2
~\ Tr
-7r
7777
re2 Diagram of piezoelectric transducer with an
- artz blank; 2 - reflector of the interferometer
interferometer. 1 qu
'
4 I
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"rl r i r ~
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'y
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I '?.
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~,r ~I,i,,~ y. u. La.. pfd. L~, '>j wi..,. 1 r,.., 1 .,,.r,la~4~.1b !`~.. 9~1 ;tY tl..~ '4 r. 1~4A4 rel'. ,., don, 'It ~~ ~,?4~. y"P~ m~k E~ 1r i ?:r f', f P ~?!-., it r ~ '.' ,4 ~
?.,r!. i n, ~ ~,l l~o,yr M1,ST, n rPy~ . q 1 N .} ~J ..V ~ n !N,,r'~ r.h,}! ) 'h:~d ,. aa, k'. r.a ., s ,;'frti !r rb ;1 ,ftP ~Y,,.ft ti~r~ . r d{
r ,
r,k ~ ~.~~, p ,~I>c d,~,~, "~~ ~d~,ryl,r,~!t.e+r,'b ,. ~,CI` v ~.ntl/~...~r.Ju? 1~P~'?.~: ~Nnlr ~ ,M1,....~,~~t L_. ~..... :~ ~ ~. I ~~.,, l ,.?.: _,.., ,,..
~Py~, , s~, l~w~ 41 rrj ~ ~ ~'~~s. A~~~.?!?,..h ~s? r.~ .>si~3..~~ t~ 1~,4 ~,~prrr?h ~. { '
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oscillator is adjusted to a frequency corresponding to the basic
frequency off' tha natural vibrations of. the quartz blank; in working with
liquids, the quartz can be excited also at the highest harmonic fr uen~
ties.
In order to obtain the very strong ultrasonic vibrations necessary
.for investigating the dispersing action of ultrasonics, the quartz is
mounted in a separate vessel filled with a liquid which has insulating
properties, while the substance under investigation is placed in a thin-
walled vessel, which is placed in the insulating liquid, above the
oscillating quartz.
In acoustic practice, magnetostriction transducers are used in
addition to piezoelectric transducers. The magnetostriction effcect
consists of varying the dimensions of ferromagnetic bodies during mag-
netization and demagnetization. By subjecting a ferromagnetic rod to
the action of an alternating electromagnetic field, we can compel it
to change its dimensions with a frequency which is equal to double the
frequency of the superimposed field. Besides, resilient vibrations
will occur in the substance adjacent to the rod. Pure iron is of
little use for making magnetostriction transducers because of its very
small magne tos tri cti on effect. Nickel and various alloys of nickel
with iron and chromium possess a large magnetostriction effect; these
are used for making transducers.
The diagram of a magnetostriction transducer is shown in Figure
3 The magnetostriction oscillator L is' placed in the coil M, which
is connected to the electromagnetic oscillator; the rod L protrudes
directly into a vessel filled with the substance which serves for the
study of the propagation of ultrasonics.
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re 3~ Magnetostriction transducers M ? coil; L ? oscillating rod
One of the advantages of magnetostriction transducers is that
it permits use of rods of any desired diameter, which is often of im-
portance from the point of view of design. A disadvantage of the mag?
netostriction transducer, is the rapid heating-up of the oscillating
rod, which causes a change in the dimensions of the rod and, consequent-
ly, a change in its natural frequency, resulting in non?coincidence of
the vibrations in the transducer.
In investigating the properties of a substance with the aid of
acoustic measurements, it is possible to determine either the speed or
the damping of the ultrasonics in the given substance under given
condi bons,
The experimental determination of the speed of propagation of
ultrasonics is considerably simpler than the detennination of damping
and can, as a rule, be accomplished with much greater accuracy.
In considering the possibility of applying acoustic measure
ments to the practice of physico-chemica1 research, we shall limit
ourselves to those problems in which the experimental phase consists
of the determination of the speed of ultrasonics.
The speed of ultrasonics in gases, liquids, and solids can be
determined by different methods.
The speeds of ultrasonics in gases are determined almost ex~
C lusively with the aid of an acoustic interferometer. In the acoustic
interferometer, a polished metal reflector, capable of being displaced
in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the quartz, is posi-
tioned parallel to the emissive surface of the quartz blank,
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The ultrasonic wave, which is emitted by the quartz, reaches
the reflector, is relocted from it, and agairx strikes the surface of
the quartz. Upon striking the surface of the quartz, the reflected
wave off e cts the ope ra ting cond. tions of the quartz. The magna. tude
of this influence can be evaluated in different ways . The
simplest method of registering the action of the reflected wave on the
quartz is to record the magnitude of the component constant of the
anode current in the oscillating circuit connected with the quartz..
Variations in strength of anode current are measured with a sensitive
galvanometer which is connected so as to gave a compensating circuit.
During the smooth displacement of the reflector, the magnitude
of the reaction changes periodically, reaching a maximum when a whole
number of half waves is fitted in the distance between the quartz and
the reflector, In Figure ~, the dis Prance between the quartz and
the reflector is plotted along the abscissa. and the strength of anode
current I in the circuit is plotted along the ordinate. Having de-
terniined the distance between two adjacent maxima or minima and know-
ing the frequency of the vibrations of the transducer, it is possible
to determine the speed of the sound in the substance under investigate
ti. on. Ordinarily,, de termination is made of the distance which con'
tains several tens of maxima, which increases considerably the accuracy
of the method. The error in determining the speed of sound by this
method is usually of the order of tenths of one percent.
Figure Li.. Variation of the strenh
as a function of the distance
current
,04
quartz blank and the reflector of the
0'
Declassified
11
n d"r ~
the anode'
'E uF
between the\..
6 b
Cp 4 ~ f
~ 1 I
I
interferometer?
, I \ J\
1
I L J
y1ypy~wwkJUetm~pw+114wawM ?/+?~rwh1;:Mwww~NP~1i0RwPtbW,vr1%1
'? 110
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Recently, optical methods have come into wide use for deter"
mining the speed of sound in liquids. The diffraction of light in an
ultrasonic grating is used mosey for this purpose.
During the propagation of an ultrasonic wave in a liquid, al-
ternating compressions and rarefactions take place. Due to the rela"
tionship between the coefficient of refraction off' he liquid and its
density, periodic changes in the density of the liquid are accompanied
by periodic changes in the coefficient of rarefaction. This holds
~' A
true for both standing and passing waves.
Thus, if an acoustic wave is produced in a liquid contained in
a transparent, plane-parallel cell, the cell will act as a quasi.diffrac-
-ion grating with respect to the light ray, Besides, the length of
the sound wave will act as the constant of this grating.
In determining the speed of sound by this method, a system, such
as that shown in Figure 5, is assembled. Light from the source L
(usually a mercury lamp) is focused by the condenser C on the narrow
slit S . r1he divergent beam coming from the slot is made parallel
by the objective Di. A cell Cq filled with the test liquid and contain-
ing a quartz blank, is placed in the path of the beam of parallel rays.
The long focal objective 02 focuses the rays on the screen Sc. if the
quartz is not excited, an ordinary image of the slit will be seen on
the screen. If the quartz oscillates, then, in addition to the basic
image of the slit, easily visible patterns of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and
sometimes higher order are also seen on the screen. When making actual
measurements, the diffraction pattern is usually photos 1phed.
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m for obserV'i the difxactbon of
Fi ace Jw Axrangemant o~ syste
avoS= L M Lamp; C condenser slit;
light in ultrasonic w
vee. 0 ? ce~.~. with quartz; Sc ? screen
p1 and 02 w object~. , q
distance between the diffraction images
Having; determined the
or c dimension) of the system, it is
'
the slit and knowing the ge ome try.
possible diffraction grating.
~sible to calculate the constant of the a w
' ffractian grating, in thi.s case, cartes
Since the canstar~t of the ~- uency
the sound X a then9 know~.ng the freq
ponds to the wavelength of the sound
quartz, we can determine the speed of
of oscil1at~ons of the ~ this
from v The error in determining the speed of sound
the order of tenths of one percent
method is usually of
In addition to the above described method, there are many other
ng the speed of sounds some of these are
optical methods for me asuri ~
5 of different methods can be found in mona
Very accurates Descriptian
graphs an ultrasonics ()).
sound in solids can be accomplished
Measurement of the speed of
(6)e test specimen is cemented, to a pro
by the f al.lowa.ng method f Th
his provided with electrodes. The re~
perly cut quartz cylinder whl. c
s connected to. the electric circuit
suiting.composite transducer ' ~
is connected in series with an ohmic
shown in :Figure 6? The quartz 1
r oscillator of constant ampliM
tome netic
esistance and ~~.th an elect g ,
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2 The current f ~.ow~.n through the quartz
tulle and variable rvariable frequency ~ ahrn~
am va~.taneter 3, connected. in parallel th an
is measured nth a lamp
~ ~ of the
is rsast,ance' The current strength aharactarizes the amplitude
the ~~artz. The frequency of vibrata.ans is
me ehani r,F~l vibra ti ans of ~.
b the method of beats; also, a second source
measured very accurately y
ansducer l~ having a quartz stabilized frequency
of vibrations is the tr
and h. By
series with the two multscil~lators
and connected In ' ssible to measure changes in, current and,
utilizing this system, it is po
brata.ons of the complete transducer with
consequent.y, ampln.tud:es of v' ~ ~
these measurements, it is possible to deter?
changes in frequency. GJith
mine the frequency of natural vibrations of the composite transducers
natural vibrations of the individual quartz,
of
Knowing the frequency o.C
alculate the frequency of natural vibrations
it is not difficult to c
of elasticity. Can the basis of
of the test specimen 9 and its modulus Of it is possible to calculate the speed of
the theox"y o.~ vibrations,
sound in a marteal if ' ' ' is modulus of elasticity is known By this
ra. ~.
ea.sure the speed of sound in solids with an
method it is possible tom ~
' ~ :' ~.
to 0.Q1 percent. ... "".~t ,.
acy o f p u --'? ,.
actor .{?,~ .,~?a
T
? ,
Figare of stem for dete:cm~.ning the speed of ultra
6~, ,,rran~ement ~
? ,~ uartz rod; 2 -variable frequency oscil~
sonic, waves in sola.ds, l q
r. a quax~tz~stabilized transducer of 100
~_ator; 3 ~ lamp voltxf~ete , ~
or of 10 kilohertz; 6 ? multioscillatar of
kilohertz; ~ - multioscillat
and arrtplif'ier; 8 ? laud speaker; 9 -test
l kilohertz; 1 ~ detector
spe cimen
In presenting an exposition of the possible ways of utilizing
or ur ores of physica_cherrlical research, it
ultrasonic, measurements f p p
a plicatian for the study of
is natural to start with their earliest p
f~
the cal.l~.s~ons
the elementary processes of the exchange of energy during pr
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6l. .
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f .?,} a r! I, I /, n f,~ Ey ~+E,.d, 1171. It. I 1 ' S
4yH k1 .J sl f I
f t
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I 1 Y 1 I: ~ 1
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~ua>?~~ l I.ll._." ! I ! 0002-9
IIItI ':
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or gaseous molecules, This becarae possible in connection with the
study of the dispersion of ultrasonics in gases. As is well known,
the speed of ultrasonics in polyatomia gases depends on its frequency.
At the present time, dispersion is usually explained on the basis of
the so''called relaxation theory. On the basis of the hydrodynamics
of compressible liquids, the speed of sound v is expressed by the
e qua ti on
(1)
where p is the pressure, is the density, and is the ratio of
the heat capacities c ~cv~ In its turn, cv is the partial derivative
P
of the internal enemy" with respect to the temperature. The internal
energy of a gas is distributed equally among the different degrees of
freedom which the molecules of a gas possess.
In a polyatomic gas, a portion of the internal ener}r goes into
translational and rotational movement of the molecules and another portion goes into vibrational degrees of freedom, Ordinarily, the
heat capacity cv of a gas is divided into the external heat capacity
c which depends on the external degrees of freedom, and into the in'
a'
ternal heat capacity ci, which depends on the internal degrees of free f
dom. During the alternation of compressions and rarefactions which
take place in a sound wave, the additional acoustic energ~r which is
supplied to the molecules is at first stored by the external degrees
of freedom and only after this does it partly change into vibrational
energy.
The fact that the establishment of an equilibrium distribution
of energy between the external and internal degrees of freedom requires
a finite time interval for compleon is of fundamental significance
for the theory of relaxation. By increasing the frequency of sound, a
.10
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Frequency rec.an is sooner or later reached, in which the proeess of
establishing an ener equilibrium is not in phase with the process
ure . A pha"e difference takes place between the
of varying the pr ss
phase and the e qua. a.ib rium dis'~
prssure phase and the intFrna:l enemy'
tribution of energy is disrupted.
At a sufficiently high frequency, all acoustic energy is in
sufficiently farm of kinetic enery of translational and rotational movement of the
molecules. This is equivalent to a decrease of the heat capacity of
the gas to a l value c. At a sufficiently low frequency, the
limiting a
as will have the second limiting value c ? Be~
heat capacity of the ~ v
values of frequency there is a region in which
tween the two extreme
the as depends on the frequency of sound. Ob-
the heat capacity of
viously, is, at the same time, also the dispersive region
~.ously, this region
of sound.
Actually, if we plot the experimentally determined values of the
speed of sound in a pofyatomic gas as a function of the frequency, we
obtain a characteristic dispersion curve.
Figure 7 shows a similar curve for C02; the logarithm o
d along the abscissa and the speed of sound
the frequency is plo~,te r1 ifi
l ,.._., ... ,
along the ordinate.
Figure 7. Dispersion of the speed of ultrasonics
-- .~ v
C
On the basis of theoretical considerations, the frequency o
which corresponds to the point of inflection and determines the disp
ersive region, can be expressed by the equation
p
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(2)
is the average 1i1'e of the excited quantum. By proper de"
where
ent of the theory, it is possible to take into account the
velopm
presence of two or more vibrational levels (7,8),
It is expected that the excitation of the vibrational state of
the molecule during collision OCCUrs only in case one of the colliding
molecules possesses an increased reserve of energy or, in other words,
a certain activation energy of the excitation process of the
there is
vibrational state. In this case, a detailed study of the relationship
between the speed of sound and the ?Lemperature makes it possible to
undertake the experimental determination of the activation energy of
the vibrational process (9).
Thus while investigating the dispersion of sound in pure gases
and in gas mixturess it is possible to determine the following characw
teristi-CS of the elementary processes in the gases
probability of excitation of the vibrational state during
1.
collisions of the gas molecules,
effectiveness (in the. sense of the excitation of the vibra-
2,
signs between different molecules (10,11).
tional state) of colli
Hence, it is possible to attempt to explain the observed considerable
difference in the effectiveness of the impacts of different molecules.
Ascertain the presence of one or several vibrational levels
of the molecule 7' 8) r
1..
Determine the activation energy of the excitation process
of the vibrational state of the molecule.
cv
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? Calculate the average life of the vibrational quanta ( 12),
~
As an example, the probabilities of energy transfer from the
impact of the internal energy of the CO2 molecule to molecules of other
uses, as determined the acoustic method, are listed in Table 1
by
Average probability
Mixture
Cot - CO2
CO2 - N2
CO2 -He
Cot H2
Cot - H2O
everran,er
TABLE1
Possible reaction
002 + CO2 ~ + 2C0 + 02
002 + N2 -??4 CO + N20
CO2 + H2 --* C0 + H2O
Cot + H2O -+ H2 CO3
On the basis of the data in Table 1, it can be concluded that
the probability of the loss of a vibrational quantum by the CO2 mole
cute depends greatly on the characteristics of the molecule with which
it collides.
It is clear, from what has been said, that the investigation
of the propagation of ultrasonics in different uses and gas mixtures
a valuable method of studying the elementary processes of the re?is distribution or energy during collisions of gas molecules.
However, another entirely different use of acoustic measurements
for studying elementary processes in gases is possible.
If it is assumed that gas represents an aggregate of molecules
moving independently of one another and that the reaction among them
of
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the co11i5ian time of the moleces, then the
is limited only by
speed of pxopara~an of the acoustic impulse in such a mechanical
~
ystem should, of necessity, coincide with the average speed of
s
movement of the molecules,
ally observed difference between the speed of
The experiment
and the speed of sound. can be explained by the
molecular movement
penetration of the molecules into one another for some time instead
of rebounding instantaneously during collision, i.e., the existence
of a finite collision time is considered probable. With such an in-
'
terpre totion of the propagation of sound in gases, it is possible to
utilize acoustic measurements for determining the collision time of
molecules of different gases it is quite natural to consider
which cause vibration of molecules, as partic-
effective collisions,
In this instance, the dispersion of sound is
ularly protracted.
associated with the non coincidence of effective collisions. The
measurement of collision time is of interest from the point of view
of chemical kinetics since it furnishes information for calculating
the number of triple collisions.
One of the first applications of acoustic measurements for the
i?nvestigation of the properties of liquids was in the study of the
contraction of different liquids and mixtures of liquids. Considering
sound and the contraction of the medium are related
that the speed of
by the e qua ti an
f3)
where is the density of the liquid and is the coefficient of the
adiabatic contraction, it is possible to determine the latter by de-
~.c contr
90002-9
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termining experimentally the speed of sound v, Measurements ob".
tamed with binary mixtures revealed anomalous contractions in a
number of cases, Thus, V, V, Tarasov and his coworkers who
investigated the contraction of mixtures of ethyl alcohol and water,
discovered the anomalous contraction of the xriixture containing approxiM
mately 25 percent alcohol, The results of these experiments are shown
in ~Tigure 8, in which the contraction of the mixture is plotted along
the ordinate and the percent alcohol in the mixture along the abscissa,
,tt (3 10~ crn2~~~_
f Q/L
~~.gure 8. Contraction of a mixture of water and ethyl alcohol
The study of similar anomalies makes it possible to conclude
that, in mixtures of liquids, compounds are formed between the comr
ponents of the mixture. In, this manner, I. G. Mikhaylov, who inves-
tigated the speed of sound in mixtures of formic acid and water l5}
came to the conclusion that there are two compounds of the acid with
the water.
In one compound, the water and formic acid are in equip
molecular amounts, but in the other compound, there are two molecules
of water for each molecule of acad. Similar investigations came into
considerable use t l6) because they supplement the stud of the me
~' Ming
and boiling curves of binary liquid mixtures.
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In the caso of solutions of electrolytes, the electrostatic
field of the ions changes considerably the contraction of the water
in the immediate vicinity of the ion. In practice, the variation of
contraction is limited to several layers of water near the ion. By
measuring the contraction of solutions of electrolytes, itis possible
to characterize quantitatively the layers of solvent near the ion,
which have strongly changed properties. Considering that the contras
tion of water in the immediate vicinity of the ion is extremely small
and that the inner pressure caused by the field of force of the ion is
great it may be assumed that the ion is surrounded by a certain "non'
contracting'" volume of solvent. If the '"non contracting" volume is
identified with the solvate sphere, then it becomes possible, on the
basis of acoustic measurements, to determine the solvation of different
ri
ions l
The solvation numbers of certain ions, as determined by the
acoustic method, are listed in Table 2.
Recently, this method was used to determine the solvation of
various high molecular compounds, e. g., gelatin in pure water and in
solutions of different pH, nitrocellulose, acetylcellulose, and ethyl'
cellulose in acetone, etc. X18) 'I'bis investigation emphasizes the
experimental atcantages of the acoustic method of determining solvation;
the only disadvantage noted is a certain arbitrariness of theoretical
assumptions which form the basis of the calculations,
-16..
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TABT1 2
ion ~al.vati.Qn Numb ~ ?
Na
Mg
Ba
Be
Al
Cl
In 19~.p Rao ~l'9) established the empirical rule, according to
,
which the product of the molecular volume and the cube of the speed of
sound is not dependent on the temperature
L.
V.3
M
l
6
a"1
V.
04)
In this exPressian, M is the molecular weight, is the density,
and V is a magnitude independent of temperature and is usually called
s
the speed of sound". This relationship was checked with a large
~s a
mol r
number of experiments and V remained a perfect constant in practically
cases under investigation. Sometimes, this rule does not
all the
strictly hold; in particular, deviations from this rule are observed
in the cases of water, metby1 alcohol, and acetone. There is a view-
point, according to which the failure of V to remain constant in these
11
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cases is explained by the molecular association of the corresponding
(20)
es in the liquid phase ; in this manner, the utilization
subs tano
measurements for investigating the formation of molecular
of acoustic
aggregates a. 'n liquids is made possible. By comparing the data of the
obtained with the aid of Raman spectra, with the
assoca.ata.an of liquids,
data obtained with the acoustic method at different frequencies of
sound, one may attempt to determine the life of molecular aggregates
which occur in liquids. It seems to us, however, that these conclusions
are based on an insufficiently firm foundation.
As it turned out, the magnitude V is an additive function of
the composition tion of the substance and, in individual homologous series,
function of the molecular weight ~ 21} ?
it can be represented by a linear
In Figure 9, the molecular weight M is plotted along the abscissa and
the corresponding magnitude V along the ordinate. As is obvious from
an examination of the curve, the linearity of the variation of the magN
n V with the molecular weight is perfect. The molar speed of
~.tude
sound V can also be represented as an additive function of the bonds
which are present in the given compound (22), By introducing the in?
crements of the bond (
C ? c1 ? 230; (C : C) N 129; and (C 0) ? 186, it
is possible to calculate V for different organic compounds, in perfect
agreement h experimental data. Thus, for example, in the case of
paraffins, the following formula was obtained:
V (n ? 1)(~C
+ (2n + 2)(C ? H)?
mdc ing use of the indicated property of the molar speed of
By
sound, it is possible to utilize acoustic measurements for verifying
proposed structures of organic compounds.
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(!)
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V
f
Relationship between "molar" speed of ,
re 9 ,.,,1,/
---- ~.
and molecular weight of subs antes:
9 Qund ~,
~
man Qhydroxy a1~
l paraffins; 2 - acetates, 3
I `
cQhals L ? .. aromatic hydrocarbons, p ketones
20
,
0
For different members of one and the same homoa,agaus series,
directly related to the parachor, molar
the molar speed of sound is
in the Van der Waal equation, molecular mag'
refraction, constant b
and critical volume 23)
netic rotation,
ar seed V is plotted along the abscissa
u.re 10 s the mot. p
In Fig
the ardina to . There is a pe rf e c tly dire c
and the parachor P along
he arachor and V for individual hornolo~;ous
relationship between t p
seleso It was established empirically that the boiling point of a
^i
' n of the logarithm of the molar speed:
substance is a linear :~unctlo .
T+Blogv
clue for different represdntatives of a
where A and B have the same v ,. ous series. In this case too, deviations are noted
definite homolag
This i s shown by Figure ll, in which the
for associated liqua.ds? different organic compounds is expressed as a func
boiling point tb of d'~
us series consisting; of non associated
Lion of log V. For
:Liquids, the linear dependence holds trued
1304
Relationship between parachor and
Fi re 10e
speed of sound: lp aromatic hydrocarbons; 2-
rdroxy alcohols; 3~ paraffins ~qa
a
.l9 .e.
(6)
"molar u
mono: ~
LfOO oa
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loo
(70
/1
-L r
,(o 'o log V
Figure 11, Relationship between boiling point and "molar" speed of
sound: 1 aromatic hydrocarbons; 2' acetates; 3 w paraffins; L.
monohydroxy alcohols
On the basis of the indicated relationships, a new method of
determining the molecular weights of high polymer compounds was pro-
posed; this method is based on the simultaneous determination of the
molar refraction and the molar speed of sound, ( 2).)
The experimental complexity, together with some uncertainty
of the theoretical bases of this method, gives little hope that it will
find wide use, although in individual special cases, its use is quite
possible.
As was mentioned above, the speed of sound is related to the
adiabatic contraction of a substance by a single value; in its
turn, is related to the inner energy of a substance U by the
following
a~ U
f - V? avz
raw
( 7)
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where v is the volume.
Tf we accept as a working hypothesis the determination of the
liquid first proposed by Hrilouin (2) and Born liquid state, which was arid in accordance with which the liquid differs from the corresponding
solid by the lack of a modu:lu,s of shear, then it is possible to obtain
an expression of the speed of sound as a function o;C the density of
the liquid and of magnitudes which determine the field of force of the
molecules (27), xf we assume that the inner energy of the liquid is
essentially potential energy resulting fx m the interactiol of the
molecules and, also, if in calculating the potential energ, we limit
the calculations to the reaction of the molecules with their nearest
neighbors only and ignore the reaction with more distant molecules,
then it is possible to obtain C 2 7) the following equat:i. on for the speed
~.
of sound
~PO-L S
r,f (8)
where r;is,the distance between the molecules,(r) is the potential
energy of the interaction of two molecules, expressed as a function
of the di stance between them, fD I s the density of the liquid, and
is the second derivative of (r) with respect to r.
Quantum mechanics makes it possible to determine the potential
energy of molecular interactions (28). However, the calculations are
so complex that it is preferable to use the approximate equation of
Lennard-Jones, which is a good approximation, if the distances between
the molecules are not too great (29), and yields results which are
practically not different from those obtained by a strict quantum me-
chanical solution,
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According to Lennardr'Jones, the potential energy of two
atoms or molecules ? (r) can be expressed by the following:
Q()
where r is the distance between the atoms and 7, , /.i' , n, and in are
constants. L'ennardMJones calculated the values of A and, using
n t 12 and m 8 for helium, argon, hydrogen, and nitrogen X34)
(9)
The possibility of calculating the speed of sound, in liquids,
on the basis of the name ri cal values of constants which determine the
potential field of the molecules and of intermolecular distances, is
of considerable interest. Therefore, it would be desirable to verify
the agreement between the results obtained by equation (8) and those
obtained by experiment. Such a comparison was first made for the
speed of sound in liquid nitrogen, hydrogen, and helirn9 in calculating
the intermolecular distances, it was assumed that the particles of
simple liquids form a cubic face-centered lattice.
The speeds of sound in nitrogen, as calculated from equation ( 8)
and observed experimentally, are listed in Table 3. The presence of
two numbers in the column of the calculated speed of sound is due to
differences between the densities of liquid nitrogen, as cited in the
literature,
[See next page for representation of Table 3]
Considering the characteristics of such a comparison, the agreement between theory and experiment can be considered as quite satis-
factory.
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TABL'~ 3
~x e~.menta~.~.y determa,n~d sped
urea in Calculated speed of pound' p
Temperature,
off' sound a,n meters~se~d ,.~
In meters aecond ,,,.
d~ree K
869
,
8i ? 826
~
889
678 ?. 861
?
909
72
910 M 8914
929
70
92 _ 929
de tees Kelvin, the calculated value
For liquid hydrogen at 24,3 g
which is in close agreement with the
of v is 1006 metes per second,
experimentally observed value of 1127 meters per second.
~?1 values of v for liquid helium at
'the calculated and e xpe rimen
d 2 meters per second, reSpeCt~.vely.
decrees Kelvin are 270 an
Recently, Jaffe calculated the values of the constants in the
' ous liquids; at the same time, he also
:Lennard-Jones equation for vary
~;?;e intermolecular distances in the corresponding
calculated the aver the speeds
liquids at their boiling points. With the aid of these data,
of sound listed in Table ) were calculated.
eorand experiment can be considered as
The agreement between th Y
- - it is conside~d that the calculated lower
satLsf:actory', especially, ' ~-~ ~
a' ned b the disregard of the kinetic energy
speed values can be eXpl 1 Y
in cal,cuating the inner energy' of the liquid.
~.
It seems to us that, in the future, acoustic measurements will
tud in the fields of force of molecules.
find use as a method of s y g
e in the solid state, acoustic. methods
In investigating a substanc
'A Arrr
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TABLE
Subs tan ce
Calculated speed
of sound, in
meters second
Experimentally deternl.ried
speed of sound, in meters
second.
1032
1009
Acetone
Carbon disulfide
9 61
10Th
711
' 860
Chlorof o~n
Carbon tetrachloride
61.6
7~a
069
93~
Ethyl ether
aL.2
1030
Benzene
Ethyl alcohol
1030
laoa
1L66
lS;a
Water
make i t pos sible to study the thermal. chary cte ris tic s of the solid, the
variation of magnetic properties with the temperature, the plasticitY,
the phase changes in solids, etc.
In the case of ferromagfletic substances, the elastic and magnetic
properties are interlocked because of the magnetostrictJ.on; for this
(32) was used for study
?
reason, the composite piezoelectric transducer
the elastic and absorbing characteristics of inp
ing the variation of
divn.dual crystals and polycrystalline crYstalline specimens of nickel as a function
of the intensity of magnetization and temperature.
The alloy o copper and gold, G`u3au, upon being cooled graduallyof forms cars tals with a cubic lattice,. Upon raising the temperature, the
re galalvity disappears and, above 390 degrees the alloy changes into a
solid solution. In ~ '"gare 12, the temperature is plotted along the
chief moduli of elastici of the crystal with
abscissa and the three
a cubic lattice are plotted along the ordinate.
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Figure 12. Variation of the modulus of elasticity of an
I
individual crystal of Audi as a function Hof temperature
2
From the variation of the elasticity of the alloy with "the 'degree
of regularity, it is possible to verify the th~o ataca1 conce t of the
nature of the forces which act in the crystalline lattice of the solid '1.
_
._..F_ _
~._.... _
too LAG
By observing the variation of the modulus of elasticity of the
solid near its critical point, it is possible to study the kinetics of
transformations in the solid phase ~3)m
An investigation was made of the variation of the modulus of shear
in solids with rising temperatures, up to the melting points ~3}. The
earlier investigations gave rise to the expectation that the modulus
of shear will approach zero value gradually, as the melting point is
approached. According to the theoretical concepts of Born and Fuert,
the modulus of shear has a limiting value just below the melting point.
In order to verify the correctness of these concepts, an investigation
was made of the variation of the modulus of elasticity of crystalline
NaCI in the immediate proximity of the melting point.
In this investigation, the specimen of rock salt was cemented
directly to a rod of fused quartz and the latter to a piezoelectric
transducer. Such an a rrangement made it possible to place the specimen
in the center of a tube furnace, in the region of uniform high tempera-
Lure, while the vibrating quartz rod was in the cold section of the fur-
nace. The latter condition was necessary since the quartz changes
at 57; degrees from the < -modification into the J3 -modification
which does not possess piezoelectric characteristics.
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 1 q7i/ r
Melting point temperature
Variation of the modulus of elasticity of crystalline NaC1
Figure 13 shows the variation of the modulus of elasticity
of torsional vibrations of the NaC1 specimen at a temperature close
to the melting point. As can be concluded from an examination of the
given curve, the modulus of elasticity has, in accord with the views
of Born, a limiting value just near the melting point. The general
nature of the curve is in qualitative agreement with the developed
theory,
as a function of the temperature, near the melting point,
The few above-mentioned examples indicate that acoustic methods
can be successfully utilized for expanding our knowledge of the nat;are
of the solid state of matter.
Recently, ultrasonic methods have come into use in the investi'-
gation of high polymer compounds which are acquiring greater indus
trial importanGe (36,37)
e
If a concentrated solution o:C gelatin in water is subjected to
of
the action of an ultrasonic fief/medium intensity, then, after a
short time, one can detect a considerable decrease in the viscosity
of the solution. However, this change is reversible and, a certain
time after the ultrasonic action has ceased, the original viscosity
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of the solution is restored. The exp1anati.on of this phenomenon
is that the anomalously large viscosity of the gelatin solution is
caused by the mobile skeleton which is formed by the fantastic inter
locking of the long, threadlike molecules of gelatin in which the soi-
vent is retained as in a sponge. The indicated skeleton is held to-
gether by relatively small Van der Waal forces, the energy equivalent
of which is between 2,000 and 8,000 calories per mol of the bonding
groups.
Upon subjecting a solutioh to the action o.r' ultrasonics, cavita-
tions take place; the Lormation o? these cavitations is facilitated by
the air dissolved in the water. The cavitations which take place in
the liquid under the action of the ultrasonic wave begin to pulsate
and these pulsations are equivalent to microscopic jarring. It is pre-
cisely this microscopic jarring which destroys the skeleton that was
formed by macromolecules. The effect of pressure on the dispersion of
ultrasonics can be regarded as direct proof of this viewpoint. The
formation of cavitations is considerably hindered under a pressure of
10 atmospheres and, at the same time, there is practically no effect
of the ultrasonics on the viscosity of the solutions. In this mariner,
the reversible change in the viscosity of solutiohs of high molecular
substances can be regarded as the result of temporary damage to the
skeleton of macromolecules by the pulsation of the cavitations resul-
ting from the action of ultrasonics. When the action of the ultrasonics
ceases, the macromolecules, under the action of the Brownian movement,
form a skeleton again and restore the original viscosity of the solution.
It is possible to observe also an irreversible change in the vis-
cosity of solutions of high molecular substances subjected to the acti. on
of ultrasonics such a change must naturally be related to the decrease
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in the molecular weight of these substances.
It was shown that, under the influence of an ultrasonic field
with a frequency of 300,000 hertz and a strength of approximately 10
watts per square centimeter, the viscosity of solutions of nitrocellu-
lose, polyvinyl acetate, and polystyrene decreases considerably and ir~
reversibly, thus indicating that a chemical depolymerization of these
substances takes place.
Figure 1L, shows the kinetics of depolymerization of three solu?
tions of polystyrene in toluene at 70 degrees under the action of
ultrasonics. At first, the molecular weight of the polymers, as de-
tezrnined from the viscosity of the solutions, was 100,000, 10,000,
and 300,000, respectively, After a two-hour treatment with ultrasonics
the original molecular weight decreased to 30,000, 70,000, and Lj.0,000
respectively. It should be pointed out that the depolymerization is
essentially completed in the first 20 minutes of ultrasonic action,
Also, the polystyrene specimen with an original molecular weight of
10,000 was' relatively more stable against the dispersing action of the
ultrasonics, This circumstance can be regarded as confirmation of the
existence of macromolecules of different configuration but of the same
chemical composition, In the given case, we are dealing with the action
of ultrasonics only, and not with the result of the pulsation of the
cavitations, because by increasing the pressure to 1 atmospheres in
this case, thereis' observed an increase of the depoiymerization action
under the influence of the ultrasonics. f ? f Q
I 21\
Figure Depolyrnerization of polystyrene dissolved in
toluene, under the action of ultrasonic',
""`w+.ounv+wn+w
!~s~uwM7!aw nwie
TY) f Y~
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In prd?r to de to rrna.' ne the causes of the chemical depoi eriZatian~
those forces which are required to rupture the
it is necassaty to know
chemical bonds in the given compounds.
forces necessary to rupture different chemi-
The mar;na.tudes of the
cal bonds are listed in Table 5 (38),
TABLE
.es er
1n d n .x.y-.~0,_.~.
Bond Farce bondL2. l~)
CC 1.~
x.77
co
c = o 9.77
C 12.06
C 16,6
C ' C 17,2
The problem of the shape of the macromolecules is also of con
siderable importance. According to recent investigations, the shape
is intermediate between that of a stretched chain and that of a chain
coiled into a ball.
In the case of polystyrene with a molecular weight of 100,000
has a length of 3,000 angstroms and a diameter
the stretched molecule
of 6 angstrorns The ratio of the axes is equal to 500. In the case
.
in existence in solutions, the length is approxi-
of molecules actually
mately 1,S00 angstroms and the diameter 1~ angstroms, which corres-
ponds to a.ratio of the axes equal to 100. Such macromoleces per
movements in the solution and, in addition,
Norm irregular internal
are also gradually ally displaced as a whole. The movement of such a mole
-29-
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culey as a whole, is gradual, with an average spa cd off' O. S to 1.0
per second. Under the anfluenc? of the sound wave, the molecules of
the solvent acquire speeds the maximum value of which, under the dLcated conditions, is approximately L0 7neteV$ per second.
If it is asswned that the macromolecules, under the influence
of the 1ari7e inertia, do not :follow at all the movement of the liquid
.,
caused by the action of the ultrasonic wave, then fraction will take
place between the macromolecule and the solvent. The magnitude of the
force of friction can be determined approximately. For the given case
assuming that the force of friction is 102 poises), the Force of
friction is of the order of 2 3 x 1O dynes. By comparing this
value with those listed in Table , we see that the force of friction
exceeds considerably the strength of the C - C and C - 0 bonds. If
the calculation of the rorcee of friction is correct, then the polymer
should depolymerize completely as soon as it is subjected to the action
of ultrasonics. Obviously, the assumption that the macromolecules can-
not follow completely the movement of the solvent is incorrect. It is
probable that in individual cases sufficient friction will occur to
rupture the chemical bonds. This circumstance explains the prolonged
time necessary for depolymerization and the small degree of depolymeri~
nation. Discontinuation of depolymerination with decreasing molecular
weight of the polymer can probably be explained also by this circum-
Stance.
In this manner, one can hope that the investigation of the action
of ultrasonics on solutions of high molecular substances will make
possible a better understanding of the nature and properties of this
very important class of substances in the future.
..SON
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~n thuds of ul?trasor~a.csa
?
conclud~a.ng the rev~.ew of the me wh~.ch
out the cor~t~.nuallY growin~ por~ance
it is necessary to poin c~p~;ration in the
ar
on i acquirinry as a second
u~.trasonic dispersion (3C) La)
r phYsico~cher.Cal research '
prac .
~..ce o
The In order not to exceed the
e
resent review is not exhaust~.v . ~ about
p to say notha,n.~
? Of the review, it was necessary
reasonable ti~ata.an of the ka,~leM
on of acoustic methods for the inve s
the app:La.cat~.o
tics ('-~1 the use of ultrasonics in research
~ o.~ chemical reactions
labor (1 .~2 7 the use of u~.trasanics in
atories of the cerarraa.c 1ndur ~ t
cs
,
the detection of defects in metals the use of ultrasoni in
ata.on with the
acoustic iniaturc scale oiler
colloid chemistry ~
aid of ultrasonics s etc.
the ment:i. oned examples of the
However, it seems to 'us that suz ficien'~
sin research practice is quite
successful use of ultrason~.c Qf physico-
ods
at im aortance of acoustic meth
to make clear the great ~
chemical research.
ear future, lxltrasonic methods
One should thing than ? ~n the n A C and will
in physical chemical laboiatoriea
will come into routine use different states
better undersndin? the propert~.es in
as us in .t.
and the ?ans:Coxmation of matter durr~.ng physical
laws which ~pVern the tx
and chemical processes.
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1. S. S. Urazovskiy, I, 0. Polotskiy,j,ek~ (Progress of Chem-
istry, 19)40, 9, 88g. 2. 11, Kudryavtsev, ZhETF (Journal of Experimen..
?tal and Theoretical Physics), 17~ 294. 3. Ostrovskiy, ZhTF (Journal
or Technical Physics), 1937, 7, 2O3, Li.. L. Myamikov L, i"re an
Sovrernenn e problezicheskoy akust,~.ki (Modern Problems of Physical
Acoustics), ONTI (United ScientificsTechnical Press), 1935. a~.
T3ergmann, Ultrasonics and Their Scientific and Technical Applications.
6. L, Balamuth, Phys, Rev., 1931.,>, 715; F. C. Rose, Phys. ltev.,
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